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FACULTY

RESEARCH

EDITION

of

The Savannah State
College Bulletin

Volume 21, No. 2 December, 1967

Published by
SAVANNAH STATE COLLEGE

STATE COLLEGE BRANCH
SAVANNAH, GEORGIA

ii";^^'

(s

I

Editorial Policies Which Govern The
Savannah State College Research Bulletin

1. The Bulletin should contain pure research, as well as creative
writing, e.g., essays, poetry, drama, fiction, etc.

2. Manuscripts that have already been published or accepted for
publication in other journals will not be included in the Bulletin.

3. While it is recommended that the Chicago Manual of Style be
followed, contributors are given freedom to employ other accepted
documentation rules.

4. Although the Bulletin is primarily a medium for the faculty of
Savannah State College, scholarly papers from other faculties are
invited.

FACULTY RESEARCH EDITION

of
The Savannah State College Bulletin

Published by

The Savannah State College

Volume 21, No. 2 Savannah, Georgia December, 1967

Howard Jordan, Jr., President
Editorial Committee

Mildred W. Glover
Joan L. Gordon
Calvin L. Kiah

Andrew J. McLemore
Charles Pratt
Forrest O. Wiggins

John L. Wilson, Chairman

Articles are presented on the authority of their writers, and neither
the Editorial Committee nor Savannah State College assumes re-
sponsibility for the views expressed by contributors.

S11H

Contributors

Venkataraman Ananthanarayanan, Professor of Mathematics and

Physics

Charles A. Asbury, Instructor in Education and Psychology,

Fayetteville State College, North Carolina

Carroll Atkinson, Associate Professor of Education, Bethune-
Cookman College, Daytona Beach, Florida

Sarvan K. Bhatia, Professor of Economics, Armstrong State College,

Savannah, Georgia

Dennis A. Berthold, Instructor in EngUsh

Charles I. Brown, Associate Professor of Education, Fayetteville

State College, North Carolina

Lawrence C. Bryant, Professor of Education and Guidance, South
Carolina State College, Orangeburg, South Carolina

Richard M. Coger, Assistant Professor of Industrial Arts,
Central State University, Wilberforce, Ohio

Ollie Cox, Assistant Professor of EngUsh, Fayetteville
State College, North Carolina

Gershon B. Fiawoo, Assistant Professor of English and French,
Fayetteville State College, North Carolina

Mildred W. Glover, Instructor in Business Administration

William T. Graves, Instructor in English

Prince A. Jackson, Jr., Associate Professor of Mathematics

Elonnie J. Josey, Academic & Research Libraries Consultant,

New York State Library, New York State Department of

Education, Albany, New York

Joseph L. Knuckles, Professor of Biology, Fayetteville State College,

North Carolina

Shia-ling Liu, Professor of Politicial Science, Fayetteville
State College, North CaroUna

Luetta C. Milledge, Assistant Professor of English

William M. Perel, Professor of Mathematics, Wichita State

University, Wichita, Kansas

Kamalakar B. Raut, Professor of Chemistry

David S. Roberts, Assistant Professor of Social Science

Nathalene R. Smith, Head Librarian, Fayetteville State

College, North Carolina

Nazir A. Warsi, Professor of Mathematics (On Leave
Atlanta University, Atlanta Georgia)

Austin D. Washington, Instructor in Social Science
Samuel Williams, Dean of Men and College Minister

Frank R. Whittacre, Assistant Professor of Education, The
University of North Carolina at Charlotte

Sadye A. Young, Assistant Professor of Home Economics,
Spelman College, Atlanta, Georgia

2

Foreword

Once again, Savannah State College is happy to publish the
Faculty Research Bulletin. This Bulletin provides an organ through
which the faculty and staff of the College may share with each other
their academic and literary endeavors and accomplishments. This
Bulletin, published at Savannah State College annually, represents
the research and scholarly or creative work by members of the
academic community. It is felt that the presence of such a medium
serves to encourage and stimulate expression in all of the intellectu-
al and professional fields. Research is the most important and
characteristic manifestation of scholarship. Here at Savannah State
College, we believe that good teaching cannot proceed except in
partnership with research and that a good teacher is interested in
finding out new truths and in verifying and testing old ones. Re-
search is the essence of continued learning it alone increases the
store of rehable and verified knowledge that is available to mankind.

The ultimate objective of the administration, faculty, and staff
at Savannah State College is to upgrade the intellectual tone of the
College and the community. This 1967 issue of the Bulletin lends
itself to that objective.

Howard Jordan, Jr.
President

Library of Congress Catalog Number: 60-53452

Table of Contents

The Pedagogical Interrelationship Between
Mathematics and Science

Prince A. Jackson, Jr 7

Educating Parents and Teachers for Intelligent Use and
Support of Good Preschools

Sadye A. Young 17

On Strengths of Shock Waves with Respect to
Thermodynamic Parameters

Nazir A. Warsi 35

Efforts to Prevent Negro Revolts in Early Savannah

Austin D. Washington 39..

White Professors and their Students in Southern Negro Colleges

Carroll Atkinson 43

The Feasibility of Establishing a Library-College in
Predominantly Negro Colleges

Elonnie J. Josey 45

An Enrichment Program: Industrial Arts and
Elementary Education

Richard M. Coger 55

Far Infrared and Raman Studies on The O-H O Bond
Stretching Vibrations in Crystals

Venkataraman Ananthanarayanan 60

The Distribution of Income in a Highly Industrialized Society

Sarvan K. Bhatia 66

The Evolution of Free Enterprise and CapitaUsm in the
United States

Sarvan K." Bhatia .... 70

On Shock Strengths with Respect to Flow Parameters

Nazir A. Warsi 75

Keats' Endymion: A Critical History

Dennis A. Berthold 78

Paradise Lost and the Modern Reader: Five Approaches

Dennis A. Berthold 89

A Design for Campus Libraries Based on the Favorite Study
Habits and the Preferred Study Locations of Students at
Fayetteville State College

Charles I. Brown, Nathalene R. Smith,

and Charles A. Asbury 100

Apartheid and Morality

David S. Roberts . 106

A Study of Psycho-Social Behavior of College Freshmen
1966-67

Lawrence C. Bryant 109

5

Table of Contents (Cont'd.)

Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?: Some Factors that
Generate and Sustain Dramatic Conflict

Ollie Cox 114

Five Selected Poems

Gershon B. Fiawoo 119

The Modem Dramatic Hero As Seen in the Plays
of Brecht and Betti

William T. Graves 1 24

Noah Webster as a Lexicographer

Wilham T. Graves 129

Whitman on Whitman: The Poet Introduces His Own Poetry

Dennis A. Berthold 137

The Theory and Practice of Freedom

David S. Roberts 143

The Nature of the Dispute Between Moscow and Peiping

Liu Shia-ling 155

What Does it Matter to You?

Samuel Williams 1 65

Ong, McLuhan, and the Function of the Literary Message

Dennis A. Berthold 172

In Vitro Persistence of Salmonella Typhimurium in A Dually
Inoculated Medium. I. With Proteus Morgan II

Joseph L. Knuckles 177

In Vitro Persistence of Salmonella Typhimurium in A Dually
Inoculated Medium. II. With Aerobacter Cloacae

Joseph L. Knuckles 185

Experimental Transmission of Enteric Pathogens from Fly to
Fly by Aseptically Reared Phormia Regina (Meigen)

Joseph L. Knuckles 192

Mathematics in the Renaissance

Wilham M. Perel 193

Synthesis of Kaempferol-2-C^^

Kamalakar B . Raut 198

A Refutation to the Objections of Business and Vocational
Subjects in the Secondary School Curriculum

Mildred W. Glover 200

Teacher Personahty and Teacher Behavior

Shia-ling Liu 208

Poem : Epithalamia

Luetta C. Milledge 222

. 6

The Pedagogical Interrelationship Between
Mathematics and Science

by
Prince A. Jackson, Jr.

The purpose of this paper is to examine the pedagogical interre-
lationship between mathematics and science. As one delves deeper
into science, the existence of such a relationship becomes more ap-
parent. A very important question on the minds of all science teach-
ers is how to get students to understand and appreciate science as
it becomes more mathematical in nature. Before going into the dis-
cussion of the pedagogical interrelationship between mathematics and
science, it will help the reader to review a bit of the recent history
of the development of science and mathematics programs.

In 1957, public interest in science and mathematics education
reached its zenith when Sputnik blazed across the October sky. The
results of this interest are legion today. Since that time we have seen
special programs of science and mathematics developed at unbe-
lievable rates. These programs, developed by scientists, mathemati-
cians, and educators, all had one common antiseptic purpose. That
is, to correct certain factors lethal to the school science and mathe-
matics program. Paul Brandwein^ has identified seven of these factors
in the science program. They are as he sees them, first, the incredibly
naive notion that scientists have developed or discovered a method
that could solve all problems if properly apphed, this method could
be specified in steps collectively and called "problem solving" or the
"scientific method." The steps are: (1) Define a problem; (2) Gather
relevant data; (3) Form hypotheses; (4) Test the hypotheses; (5)
Reach a conclusion. While no one probably would take issue with
the five steps as a logical way of attacking a problem, it should be
unmistakably clear to all, that there is no one firm method of the
scientist. Second, technology, a product of science, was confused
with the purposes, and the processes of science. The scientist and
the technologist were equated. Few people realized that the scientist's
major purpose is to understand heat, not how to make a heater. Few
people realized that the scientist's search for truth is motivated by the
Cardinal Newman principle that "knowledge is its own reward."

Third, the content of science was confused with a verified and
certain body of facts. The real truth of the matter is that most of
the things considered facts in 1850 in all probability, are not facts
today. Very few people were aware of the failures of scientists.

Fourth, teaching science had become in effect, telling. Since science
had given us the absolute truth, why go to the laboratory to verify

^Paul F. Brandwein, The Revolution in Science Education: An Examination
of the New Secondary Science Curriculums (New York: Harcourt, Brace,
and World, 1962), 5-10.

what was already known? For this kind of teaching, the lecture with
an occasional demonstration sufficed. Problem-solving with its errors
never dawned on anyone as being a vehicle for catching the essence
of science.

Fifth, science was taught as history rather than discovery. Its
facts were covered rather than uncovered. What little laboratory work
that was in existence, was for problem-doing rather than problem-
solving.

Sixth, the aim of a literacy in science could not be attained.
Structure, in the "Jerome Bruner sense" was not taught or grasped. ^
The science courses did not provide the foundations in conceptual
schemes that remain stable over a period of time. According to
Bruner, "To learn structure, is to learn how things are related." To
achieve hteracy, the science teacher must teach basic and general
ideas of science and then deepen and broaden knowledge in terms
of these basic and general ideas.

Seventh, the creative and inquiring individual could not survive
or develop in a fixed curriculum with its fixed methods and succes-
sion of unchallenged facts. Wherever provisions were made for the
bright individuals, these too were fixed.

Eighth, I would like to add the confusion as to what science is.
Many people confuse scientific models as reality, theories as the
absolute truth. A fixed body of knowledge unchallenged and un-
replenished eventually becomes superstitution. Science is more than
knowledge; it is process working to keep itself dynamic and healthy.
It corrects itself and it adds to itself. It is a process that refuses to
let 1000 similar occurrences determine a law yet it will let one
deviation from a law declare that law invalid. True science teaches
to doubt, and in ignorance, to refrain.

The first step in developing a good science program was to cor-
rect the obvious defects described previously. Major curriculum re-
visions have been undertaken, largely with financial aid from the
National Science Foundation. Several new courses have been de-
veloped. The Physical Science Study Committee, the Biological
Sciences Curriculum Study, the Chemical Bond Approach Commit-
tee, and the Chemical Education Material Study were the first groups
to develop new programs.^

In the meantime, new programs in secondary and elementary
school mathematics were being developed. As a matter of historical
fact, the mathematics groups began their work several years before
the advent of Sputnik. The University of Illinois Committee on
School Mathematics put its first textbook in use at the University
of lUmois High School in September, 1952. Since then the UICSM
program has been revised several times.

-Jerome S. Bruner, The Process Of Education (Cambridge: Harvard Univer-
sity Press, 1963).

^Prince A. Jackson, Jr., Science In The Schools (Chestnut Hill: New Eng-
land Catholic Education Center, Boston College, 1966), 12-16. In this
monograph, all of the new science projects are described in great detail.

8

The School Mathematics Study Group (SMSG), representing the
largest of the mathematics improvement programs, was formed in
1958. Funded by the National Science Foundation from its incipi-
ency, this group has sought to improve mathematics from kinder-
garten through high school.

The University of Maryland Mathematics Project (UMMaP) took
as 'its principal objective, to improve mathematics at the seventh and
eighth grade level. The material developed by this group has been
used in at least ten states.

The Boston College Mathematics Institute was organized by Rev-
erend Stanley J. Bezuszka to develop materials for the last five
years prior to college. The emphasis of the material is on the struc-
ture of mathematics.

The Ball State Teachers College Experimental Program was
planned for grades seven through twelve. This program emphasizes
mathematics through an axiomatic approach.

The Greater Cleveland Mathematics Program has developed and
is now using improved mathematics materials in the lower grades of
Cleveland, Ohio. The ultimate goal of GCMP is to develop improved
materials for all grades in the Cleveland schools.

The University of Illinois Arithmetic Project was developed to
give children a different view of mathematics. That is, to help them
develop a fascination for work in mathematics. The project em-
phasizes "discovery" as its primary teaching tool.

The Stanford Project has as its prime objective the teaching of
mathematics through the notions of sets and operations on sets. A
second project, known as Mathematical Logic, also sponsored by
Stanford University, emphasizes logic for gifted students of the fifth
and sixth grades.

Although great attention, as evidenced by the developments of
the above projects, has been given to the separate development of
science and mathematics, there is virtually no evidence in the litera-
ture concerning the pedagogical interrelationship between mathe-
matics and science. Although almost everyone agrees that the two
areas are very closely related, no major project has been undertaken
to explore this acknowledge relationship. Through the examples pre-
sented, it is hoped that this paper will attract the attention of science
teachers and persuade them to improve science understandings
through greater uses of mathematical ideas.

Perhaps the greatest difficulty encountered by the student in the
science course is his inability to fully understand the use of models
by science teachers to explain natural phenomena. Adding to this
difficulty is the student's "way of thinking" about scientific theories.
Most beginning students regard theories as "indisputable truths"
rather than "approximations of the truth." Models are necessary be-
cause they allow us to represent reahty and it is very important that
students of science understand this realism. They must understand
too, that models can not explain fully, natural phenomena because

we do not know everything about the phenomena when we con-
struct the model. In other words, the model is limited even from
the outset because its creator has a limited knowledge of what the
model supposedly represents.

When the student fully understands this, he understands immedi-
ately why it is necessary to revise the model and theory as we learn
more about the phenomena supposedly explained by the model and
the theory. One of the best written expositions on the uses and re-
visions of models is The Restless Atom by Alfred Romer. This book
should be "must" reading for every beginning science student and
layman.

How can we, teachers of science, do a better job of helping our
students to understand the role of models in science? We can not
ignore this question any longer because a basic understanding of
models and their roles are absolutely necessary for the understanding
of science today. The Bohr model of the atom assists us in answering
many questions in the physical sciences as well as in the prediction of
the behavior of matter under specified conditions. The kinetic theory
of heat is another excellent example of how models greatly assist
in the explanation of natural phenomena. However, the limitations
of models in the explanation of natural phenomena must be under-
stood by science students. The wave and quantum theories of light
present us with an example of this limitation. Both models are ex-
cellent, but neither can explain light phenomena adequately.'^ The
use of models in explaining nuclear transmutations of elements is
another example of the limitation of models.

In mathematics, teachers have been able to overcome the "model"
problem to a much greater extent than teachers of science. In mathe-
matics, "approximation" is the equivalence of "model" in science.
How is this done in mathematics?

The mathematician deals with an abstraction that we call "num-
ber." He represents this abstraction with a symbol that we call
"numeral." We use under ordinary conditions a system of numeration
with a "base ten" where we understand that a system of numeration
is a method of writing the names of the members of an infinite
sequence of numbers. In the "base ten" system we use the symbols,
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. These symbols are adequate as long as
we are expressing rational numbers."* The use of "approximations"
becomes necessary when we have to express irrational numbers.*'
The numeral expressing the exact value of the square root of 2 is \/27
But students seemingly get a better idea of the place of the number

^The writer recalls vividly his classes in Physics at Harvard University where
the students would jokingly tell each other in the class to use the wave
model on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday; the quantum model on Tues-
day, Thursday, and Saturday; and pray for guidance on Sunday.

If a and b are any two integers with b^t O, then a/b is called a rational
number. Any real number that can be expressed in this form is called a
rational number.

"A real number is called an irrational number if it is not a rational number.
That is, a real number that can not be expressed as the ratio of two integers,
a/b where b 9^ O.

10

of the real number line if it can be expressed in decimal or fractional
form. So mathematics teachers write 1.41 as an approximation. So,
as in science, this "approximation" or "model" will suffice under
ordinary conditions. When a better "approximation" is needed, 1.414,
or 1.4142, 1.41421, 1.414214, . . . may be used depending upon
the degree of accuracy needed. The transcendental irrational number
"pi", the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter, is
another example through which the concept of "approximation" may
be strengthened. Some mathematics teachers use 22/7 as an "ap-
proximation".'^ Another popular "approximation" is 3.1416. A bet-
ter "approximation" is 3.14159.

Since it is possible for the student of mathematics to construct
these "approximations" himself, the concept of the use of "approxi-
mation" in mathematics is easier to comprehend than the concept
of the use of "model" in science. However, there is a pedagogical in-
terrelationship between "approximation" as it is used in mathematics
and "model" as it is used in science. Teachers of science could do
much to clarify the obscurities that surround the use of "model" in
science. Since models are approximations of what we consider to be
reality, why not use mathematical approximations to show the role
of models in science. This could, and probably would demonstrate
to science students why we do not consider a "model" as being wrong
whenever it is replaced by a better "model". Another very important
point that could be clarified is the distinction that scientists make
between what is wrong and what is highly inaccurate.

Most secondary schools today offer programs evolving from the
various new curricula in science and in mathematics referred to at
the beginning of this paper. Most college mathematics departments
teach freshman mathematics from a "set-theory" standpoint. Yet,
most secondary school science students and college science students
hardly, if ever, utilize the concept of "sets" in their science work.
The concept of "sets" can be of great value in the science laboratory.
There is a very strong pedagogical interrelationship between mathe-
matics and science in the area of "sets". An exploration of this re-
lationship implies that it can be used advantageously in the science
class. As we think about the concept of a set in a science setting, we
find that it is inherently a science concept. A set is thought of as a
collection of objects with each object having the distinguishing char-
acteristic of the set.^ The latter part of the above statement allows
us to decide whether a given object belongs or does not belong to a
particular set. The distinguishing characteristic of a set may take
shape in many forms. We may think of a set R of real numbers
defined by ( X | X c R and 0< X< 1 }. All members of this in-

''The writer considers this to be the worst of the approximations because
22/7 in addition to being a poor approximation is a ratio of two integers.
This sometimes conveys to the student that "pi" is a rational number even
more so than the highly used 3.14 which is also a rational number.

^Admittedly this definition is formulated to appeal to the intuition. For a
rigorous discussion on the notion of a set, see Susanne K. Langer, An Intro-
duction to Symbolic Logic (New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1953),
115-16.

11

finite set share the property or have the characteristic that they are
to the right of and to the left of 1 on the real number Ime. Sets of
this type are encountered frequently in mathematics. They are
especially important because they allow mathematicians to look at
many objects at the same time by putting objects with common
properties in the same class. ^ Thus, consideration of a class allows
consideration of infinitely many things simultaneously. A universe
U is considered to be the set of all objects under consideration. It
is from the universe U where we extract the sets being considered.

In science we might consider the set of all ratio-active elements, the
set of solid substances having specific heats greater than the specific
heat of water, and the set of all solid substances having densities
less than the density of water (at 760mm of pressure and 4C).^
The universes from which the above sets have been drawn are the
set of all chemical elements, the set of all sohd substances having
finite specific heats, and the set of all solid substances having finite
densities. In each of these universes, there are other sets. In the
universe of solid substances having finite specific heats, there is a
set of these substances with specific heats less than that of water
(the specific heat of water is 1 cal/gmC), there is the set of sub-
stances with specific heats equal to the specific heat of water, and
there is the set of substances having specific heats greater than
that of water. In the same manner, the universe of solid substances
having finite densities can be described. As is true of all sets, each
subset of the universes described above has a distinguishing charac-
teristic. The elements of each subset can be distinguished by the
distinguishing characteristic of the subset.

The algebra of sets can be applied to sets of science objects. The
intersection of the set of solids having densities greater than the
density of water and the set of solids having specific heats less than
the specific heat of water is not an empty set. Aluminum has a density
of 2.7 gm/cm^ and a specific heat of 0.22 cal/gmC. Thus at least
one substance is in both sets. There are also substances like iron,
lead, and copper that are in one of the sets (having specific heats
less than the specific heat of water) but not in the other (having
densities greater than the density of water ).^i

In mathematics, the idea of a set opens the door to relations and
functions. A relation is a set whose elements are ordered pairs. An
ordered pair is a pair of objects that occur in a specified order.^-
Since each element of a relation is an ordered pair, we may form a
new set consisting only of the first elements of the ordered pairs
making up the relation. This set is called the domain of the relation.

^Robert R. Stoll, Sets, Logic, and Axiomatic Theories (San Francisco: W. H.
Freeman and Company, 1961), 13.

This is the essential point of Georg Cantor (1845-1918), the German mathe-
matician, who is considered as the originator of set theory.

^It can be shown experimentally that water under 1 atmosphere of pressure
has its greatest density, 1 gram per cubic centimeter, at 4 Centigrade.

^^The specific heats of iron, lead, and copper are respectively 0.11, 0.031 and
0.093 cal/gmC. Their respective densities are 7.9, 11.3, and 8.9 gm/cm^.

-More precisely, the ordered pair (a,b)=-{ (a), (a,b) } .

12

We may form a second set consisting only of the second elements
of the ordered pairs making up the relation. This set is called the
range of the relation. A relation having the property that no two
distinct ordered pairs belonging to the set have the same first ele-
ment is called a function. Another way of looking at the function
is to consider it as a law of correspondence that associates with every
member of a set A, a unique element of a set B.

In science, the search for truth is essentially a search for order.
Scientists are constantly looking for relationships. When relation-
ships are found then the next step is to express them as functions.
When this is done, the correspondence may be called a law or
principle. The difficulty of finding exact relations can best be demon-
strated by counting the number of laws and principles known to
science today.

In the laboratory, data are collected and graphs^ ^ are constructed
to find if any relationships exist. However, it is easy to see that physical
conditions limit the domain of any existing relation. If one wanted
to show the relationship between heat and temperature it is obvious
that the amount of heat used is limited by the limitations of the labora-
tory.

An easy experiment may be devised by the student in the follow-
ing way. Obtain a container of water equipped with a Centigrade
thermometer and apparatus for measuring the amount of heat sup-
plied to the water. As calories of heat are suppHed to the water, it is
noticed that the temperature of the water rises. In this case the two
variables are the heat being suppHed and the resulting temperatures.
Taking the heat being supplied as the independent variable and the
resulting temperatures as the dependent variable, the student could
graph the relation from the set of ordered pairs consisting of heat
and temperature. In this case, the domain consists of calories of
heat and the range of the relation consists of the resulting tempera-
tures. The resulting graph of the relation is a straight Une as revealed
in Figure 1 .

Temperature
in Centigrade
degrees

Heat in calories
Figure 1. Relationship of Heat and Temperature

^^The set of points corresponding to the ordered pairs belonging to a relation
is called the graph of the relation.

13

Since the graph is a straight line, the student will conclude im-
mediately that the relation is a function.

To discover more about the inclination of the line, the student
can extend his experiment to include two other liquids in the same
quantity as was the water. Repeating the experiment two more times
using the same amount of heat and starting from the same tempera-
ture, he obtains the graphs of two different straight lines as can be
seen in Figure 2.

/ liquid Y

i

k

-

'

/

/ water ^^

Temperature '

/

/

/ ^^

in Centigrade

/

/

^^

degrees '

A

/

y^ liquid X

'

/

m

Heat in calories

Figure 2. Relationship of Heat and Temperature of Several Liquids

Upon investigation, the student may reach the conclusion that the
inclination of the line is related to the specific heat of the liquid.
He may also want to investigate the relationship with densities of the
hquids used. The mathematical concept of slope ^^ may be brought
into the experiment. In such an experiment, the student has many
possibilities to investigate and should be encouraged to do so.

As an example of a non-linear relation, the science student should
be encouraged to study Boyle's Law the relation between pressure
of a gas and volume of a gas when the temperature of the gas is
kept constant. In the school laboratory, the student can collect the
data based on several changes in volume. Using the volume record-
ings as the domain and the resulting temperatures as the range, the
graph can be constructed from the set of ordered pairs. These facts
are shown in Figure 3.

*The tangent of the angle of inclination.

14

16i
14,
12,
JO,

8,

Pressure
in pounds
per square
inch 4 J

10

12

14 16

18

Volume in cubic feet

Figure 3. Relationship of Volume to Pressure

From the graph, the student concludes immediately that this is
an inverse relation. If his observations in the laboratory are good,
he can derive Boyle's law by studying the graph carefully. That is,
he would discover, PV=K.

Upon further investigation of the graph, he finds that the graph
is a hyperbola and can easily prove that it is a function. ^^

The pedagogical interrelationships between mathematics and
science discussed in this paper are not designed to add to the vast
repertoire of mathematics and science. However, it is hoped that
greater exploration of them will assist the science students, especially
the secondary and beginning college students, to gain a keener in-
sight into the very close relationship existing between mathematics
and science. The science teacher can no longer legitimately complain
about meager mathematical backgrounds of science students as in
former years. The students entering the secondary school science
classes and beginning college science classes are in command of rich
mathematical experiences, both in techniques and in ideas. If science
teachers encourage these students to utilize these mathematical ideas
in doing science, the outcomes, in terms of student growth and de-
velopment in science, could reach undreamed of heights. In utilizing
these mathematical concepts in doing science, the students will enjoy

^^Some teachers have their students to check the graph to see whether any
hne drawn parallel to the ordinate will intersect the graph in more than
one point. If yes, then the relation is not a function. If no, then the relation
is a function.

15

science rather than look upon it as just another obstacle to overcome
before graduation.

Bibliography

1. Brandwein, Paul F. The Revolution in Science Education: An Examination
of the New Secondary Science Curriculums. New York: Harcourt, Brace,
and World, 1962.

2. Bronowski, Jacob. Tlie Common Sense of Science. New York: Random
House.

3. Bruner, Jerome S. Tlie Process of Education. Cambridge: Harvard Uni-
versity Press, 1963.

4. Conant, James B. Science and Common Sense. New Haven: Yale Univer-
sity Press, 1951.

5. Deans, Edwina. Elementary School Mathematics New Directions. Wash-
ington: U. S. Office of Education, 1963.

6. Heath, Robert W. (Ed.) New Curricula. New York: Harper and Row,
Publishers, 1964.

7. Jackson, Prince A. Jr. Science In the Schools. Chestnut Hill: New Eng-
land Catholic Education Center, Boston College, 1967.

8. "The Mathematical Processes and Some Ex-
amples of Elementary Analysis in High School Physics," Savannah State
College Research Bulletin, December, 1964.

9. Langer, Susanne K. An Introduction to Symbolic Logic. New York: Dover
Publications, Inc., 1953.

10. Miller, Fi-anklin, Jr. College Physics. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and
World, Inc., 1959.

11. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. The Revolution in School
Mathematics. Washington: The Council, 1961.

12. Physical Science Study Committee. Physics. Boston: D. C. Heath and
Company, 1960.

13. Schwab, J. J., and Brandwein, P. F. The Teaching of Science. Cambridge:
Harvard University Press, 1962.

14. Stoll, Robert R. Sets, Logic, and Axiomatic Theories. San Francisco:
W. H. Freeman and Company, 1961.

16

Educating Parents and Teachers for Intelligent
Use and Support of Good Preschools*

by
Sadye A. Young

There is obvious need for change in attitudes regarding services
of the preschool to parents and to children. This involves breaking
the established pattern of responding to preschool services primarily
from the standpoint of need for a place to put the child. This is
the mere "sitter-service concept." However, since attitudes often
persist because of the tendency in human nature for man to think
what he wants to think it is difficult to determine just how to bring
about change in thinking regarding nature of preschools.

Oftentimes, there is inconsistency in beUefs and actions. Parents
may have high regard for a program with excellent standards, and,
after enrolling their child, fail in support of school pohcies and prove
negligent so far as attendance at Parent-Teacher-Association or
Home-School Association meetings are concerned. There is the prob-
lem of bringing about change for consistency in belief and actions.

Attendance at and in other ways participating in and supporting
the Home-School Association are extremely important.

Few schools of the area involved in this project have PTA or
Home-School Associations that receive one hundred per cent at-
tendance and support. Parents appear to have the attitude that once
a child is accepted into a school he is the school's child to educate;
do what it can with him; or he is the teacher's problem; or he is
the school's responsibility from 8:00 a.m. to 12:00 noon or 9:00 a.m.
to 1:00 p.m. or 8:00 a.m. to 4:00 p.m. Some pay their fees and
drop their responsibilities at this point. Some fail to pay the nominal
fees, and their small children must be dropped, because without
finances the schools cannot operate. These failures are not seen at
meetings involving parents after enrolling children. A few dedicated
and intelMgently responsible adults, because of their interest in their
children and involvement in the educative process, never fail in
their duties to children and the education institutions which our
laboratory schools are.

Superior program patterns which are understood, approved and
accepted because they meet the satisfaction of parents of children
enrolled in these programs will do the most for strengthening our
communities' efforts toward preschool programs. Satisfaction and un-
derstanding must persist if parents are to become and remain sup-

*This study is from Chapters 4 and 5 of the author's article on "Parent-
Education Coupled With Teacher-Competence at the Preschool Level: The
keys to Readiness for the New Emphasis on Early Elementary Education."

17

porters of programs. Children and their parents gain. As a program
grows and becomes firmly established, it must continue to determine
ways of using the group influence on individual members who are in-
different and negligent of their attendance at and support of Home-
School Association.

Effects of Schools of Thought on Parents'

Childrearing Practices

Prior to the 1920's advice on child-rearing centered around close
affectionate ties to offspring. The serious student of child behavior
and development is aware that the 1920's were characterized as a
period in which mothers sought some escape from the close, de-
manding ties of child-rearing. Influenced by John B. Watson's con-
ditioning and Holt's Care and Feeding of Infants,^ the trend of the
day became directed toward the so-called objective handling of in-
fants: early toilet-training which most frequently was rigid and
severe, bottle-feeding rather than breast-feeding, less lap-holding and
leaving the baby alone in his crib most of his waking time. Some
mothers were glad and welcomed this escape. Kessen and Mandler
in The Child use John Watson's classical views in their Perspectives
in Psychology and from the following summary we now see how
absurd some of the reasoning is.

There is a sensible way of treating children. Treat them
as though they were young adults. Dress them, bathe them
with care and circumspection. Let your behavior always be
objective and kindly firm. Never hug and kiss them, never
let them sit on your lap. If you must, kiss them once on
the forehead when they say good night. Shake hands with
them in the morning. Give them a pat on the head if they
have made an extraordinarily good job of a difficult task.
Try it out. In a week's time you will find how easy it is to
be perfectly objective with your child and at the same time
kindly. You will be utterly ashamed of the mawkish, senti-
mental way you have been handling it. . . .-

Studies further point up the fact that the four-hour feeding schedule
which a great many young mothers follow religiously today was
started in 1900 when three tiny infants observed at a Chicago hos-
pital were given barium and the discovery was made that their
stomachs emptied only at the end of a 4-hour interval. Despite this
small sampling mothers have loyally followed these publicized re-
sults for feeding schedules.

Wise doctors have tried to correct rigid schedules for which
mothers are responsible due to unwittingly following ideas and sug-
gestions without equivocation. Dr. Anderson Aldrich of Mayo is

^The Merrill Palmer Quarterly of Behavior and Development, Vol. 8, No.

4, October. 1962.
-Kessen William and George Mandler, The Child (New York: John Wiley

and Sons, Inc., 1965), p. 244.

18

recognized for having rectified mothers' extreme views and reactions
to feeding, toilet-training, naps and cuddling by proposing more re-
spectful ways of fulfilling children's needs. The regimen became
known as "self-demand." Mothers were known to become more
relaxed in their job of child care, and babies and children them-
selves appeared less pressured.

But the effect of this period in terms of relaxed, smooth function-
ing was not long-lived.

Following Watson, as Kessen and Mandler trace development of
ideas about children, two other great thinkers Freud and Piaget
made great inroads in child study and advanced ideas. Freud studied
the effects of the first six to eight years of the child's life, and Piaget
considered the child's knowledge. Their provocative contributions
stand today to continually provide us with avenues of study of the
child.3

Permissiveness

With the ushering in of Dr. Benjamin Spock's "Bible" following
World War II, women generally, and mothers in particular, were
again thrown into a period of disequilibrium in childrearing practices.
This by no means was due to advice published by Dr. Spock, but
it was due to woman's own misrepresentation of Dr. Spock's concept
of "Permissiveness." Such misrepresentation continues to plague us
today.

Lay individuals found Dr. Spock's materials easy to read, under-
standable, and reassuring. But the great tendency was from the be-
ginning, and is now, for the average reader to distort the concept
of permissiveness to embrace indulgence, turning deaf ears and blind
eyes to harmful and destructive behavior even on the part of small
children.

Today, many parents refuse to scold, reprimand, or discipline
their children in the presence of others, no matter how justified this
action might be. The alert child, whose behavior is demeaning, learns
quite early that he will not be reprimanded publicly. Perhaps, he is
not reprimanded at all. Often it is this undisciplined youngster who
later faces difficulty in disciplining himself. He has not learned
necessary restraint.

Frequently, this is the alert child needing challenge and teaching
to prevent misdirected energies and abiUties. Children can be unkind
to each other and disrespectful of individual rights as well as au-
thority if not brought up to observe the amenities of social conduct
from the beginnings of their socialization within the family.

Frequently, situations exist in which the unusually bright child
shows tendencies to destroy property belonging to other children. The
potential leader engages his peers in rough and abusive activities.

I

Hbid., pp. 245-297.

19

Children occasionally playing host to a destructive visiting child are
sometimes quite unaware of designs of destruction upon their pos-
sessions. It is sometimes too late to prevent damage or complete
mutilation of a toy or piece of play equipment when children being
so exploited realized what has happened. Behavior of this nature
was observed both at school and in home environments.

Only in rare instances were five-year-olds (children of kindergarten
age) observed to have such intense destructive feelings. The children
in early grades of school, however, showed marked tendencies. Boys
showed a greater tendency to be jealous and destructive than girls.
Seriousness of offense increased with age.

It is interesting to note that children did not necessarily lack play
equipment to be envious and destructive of property belonging to
other children. Usually when they destroyed that which belonged
to another, their own possessions were guarded and kept in good
repair. In a few instances children destroyed their own belongings
first and proceeded to do the same to what some other child owned.

Case I

An eight-year-old (3rd grader) had boasted that his parents were
buying him a tent from Sears Roebuck "as large as the front porch
to their house," when he observed a five-year-old being helped by his
mother to build a small tent for play in the five-year-old's back yard.

Unfortunately for the eight-year-old the Sears Roebuck tent never
materialized. As the summer progressed the homemade puptent
weathered rain and wind. A game of "ghosts" leading to the five-
year-old's tent as a place of hide-out provided a good opportunity
for the child now turned nine years old to crash into the puptent and
smash it to the ground. This he did without remorse. He summed
up the "accident" by saying "when ghosts have blankets over them,
they can't see. I didn't know where I was." The nine-year-old knew
what he was doing. Perhaps not exactly why. The mother of the
five-year-old was aware of the need for destruction. The mother of
the nine-year-old offered no sympathy to the five-eyar-old or guid-
ance to her nine-year-old, nor any effort toward restitution.

Case n

A seven-year-old had been given a sixty-five dollar English blue
bike for Christmas. The mother, a young widow with three children,
had felt that the sacrifice to get the bike as a Christmas present
might be necessary at this specific time in the child's life, and she
pinched pennies to provide it.

She dissolved into tears when she came upon her young son
with red paint, hammer, screwdriver and pliers, and the new bike
completely disassembled and smeared with paint. Five older ele-
mentary grade school boys huddled and looking on scrambled to
their feet as she approached. They immediately chorused out "We
told him to change it and give it a paint job, but we didn't know
he was going to do it."

20

All of them had bicycles, and although not new this Christmas,
they were good bicycles. And they still had theirs. The seven-year-
old, in following their suggestion had so destroyed his own bicycle
with hammering parts that it was beyond repair. And there were
not sufficient funds for another, even if he should have had a replace-
ment. Hearts were sad. I can't say that there was much of a construc-
tive nature for this youngster to learn from such an experience. There
was agony in the experience for both the mother and the child.
Several months later, however, the mother's brother, while vacation-
ing with the youngster, made a gift of a new bicycle to him. This
one he guards tenaciously.

The following questions need to be resolved by both parents and
teachers regarding the trusting child. He intelligently enough protects
himself against open animosity, even if it means avoiding sources
of trouble when he is aware of this. But he seems blind to the motives
of those who, under the guise of helpers and advisors, cause him to
ruin or lose what he has. He is too easily exploited, yet he must
learn to observe, to recognize deceit, and to avoid being hurt and
having his property abused and his rights invaded.

What can he do to defend his rights and remove the need for
adult intervention?

What can be done for the exploiters? The alert and crafty?

Destructive grade school children were alert academically, con-
versed brilliantly, showed considerable imagination. But many were
under-achievers, from broken homes; had grown up with playmates
much older than themselves knowing little of a peer group; changed
frequently from school to school.

As is recalled, the most distorted views of permissiveness in at-
titude, and permissiveness in behavior toward youngsters dominated
the treatment during the formative years of those preschool children
(in the late 1940's and early 1950's) who are now our crop of teen-
agers and young adults. The implication might well be that the
vandalistic tendencies possessed by some could have their roots in
this early handling by adults.

The vandalism which persists in adolescence and young adulthood
in our time rearing up to show its ugly head in smashing, knifing,
and ripping costly home furnishings as aftermaths of unchaperoned
parties; the setting of fires, and otherwise destroying of private prop-
erty at our beaches and resort towns; the benign forms of destruction
within our college dormitories like careless cigarette-burned furniture
involve more than a normal adolescent revolt.

We are today caught in the difficult and painful task of getting
ourselves out of the childrearing mess into which our own interpreta-
tions of ideas and movements have got us.

21

CASES

Exploiting the Responsible Child

It is not uncommon today for adults to exploit the responsible,
good-mannered, easy-going child.

One family in their pretext of "not saddling their teenage daughter
with the responsibility of the three-and-a-half year-old preschool child
in the family," persists in telephoning for a neighbor's six-year-old son
to come and "play" with the three-and-a-half-year old. The "play"
puts restraints on the normal desires for activity of the six-year-old
whose interests lead him into a somewhat different world of activities.
Yet, his good manners, and obedience to adults generally, there-
fore, to those in the three-and-a-half-year old's family in particular,
make him "respectfully silent" as he "supervises" the younger child's
play. Meanwhile, the six-year-old wants to be with his peers.

In this household there are three adults and one teenage girl. The
mother of the six-year-old has four small children (including the
six-year-old) under eight years of age. This mother states that she
is very much aware of her own children's individual growth needs.
She does not restrict the play interests and activities of the two
older siblings at home by encumbering them with supervision of the
younger siblings. She feels that these adults must be aware of their
unfair requests.

Most adults are aware of the consequences of too early and too
much responsibility placed on children who have not had time to
live fully their own childhood. They have had to become so-called
"parent-substitutes" for siblings in the home. "Playing" with smaller
children for other families can be done at the expense of the older
child's freedom for play: freedom for simply being a child.

In the case cited the mother feels this intrusion upon her child's
rights and privacy quite keenly, and regards it as her responsibility to
explain the possible ill-effects on the child to the neighbor. She
states that the selfishness and inconsiderate attitude prevailing in this
case are encountered in similar situations by other parents. Problems
of this nature are created by adults, not the children. The child is
the victim. How does one handle such exploitation and maintain
good human relations in the community? This is one area where adult
communications often break down.

Adult leaders, both parents and teachers, might assume some re-
sponsibility in the treatment of this and similar community problems.
Through the Home-School Association meetings, objective discussion,
with illustrative cases to illuminate the problem, parents could be
made to stop and look at what is happening. Discussions of this
nature should make parents aware that this is a common problem.
It causes many mothers tremendous anxiety. This anxiety springs
up as a result of conflict between wanting to maintain good relations
with one's neighbors, and wanting "freedom from too early responsi-
bility" for our children. It is important that they live fully each
stage of development as children.

22

I

There will be periods in the child's life when services to others
should be encouraged. This, of course, is in interest of developing
a spirit of contribution to community. He learns certain lessons re-
garding acting voluntarily for others, sharing, creative cooperation,
and forgetting oneself in doing for others. The first steps will be
tedious ones and should begin in his home first, then spread out to
embrace other areas.

Lagging Peer Influence on Acceptable

Codes of Behavior

Once children were good arbiters for the standards of behavior
of each other. Families with several children offered, among other
advantages, the advantages of children of varied ages playing and
working together. Where families were small, this opportunity was
sought through association with kinfolk cousins, nephews, nieces.
Ultimately, such contacts were possible with other children from
surrounding areas.

There is great value to be derived from contacts with children of
one's own age, with children younger than oneself, and with children
older than oneself. For example, one gets to "boss" and lead children
younger than himself, to function on a basis of "equahty" with those
his own age, and to be "bossed" and follow the leadership of the
child older than he. This makes learning to lead, to be a good follower
and also to contribute in an equalitarian fashion, seem easy and
natural.

Today, this normal sequential pattern of learning to get along with
one's peers seldom exists.

Society sets great store by the aggressive, talkative individual.
His aggression may spread in other directions. Self-control and
modest behavior are frequently misinterpreted as cowardice. Too
many adults indulge youngsters in types of behavior which no longer
are simple forms of self-expression and means of becoming intelli-
gently self-asserative. The behavior is frequently calculated to destroy
toys or materials and to hurt other children or other people. Fre-
quently, it goes without correction.

The cases within this report reflect alert minds and active children.
But an evident need exists for more concern for the direction which
the behavior of children will take. Parents have obUgations to their
children. Many can be made more confident in abilities to teach,
chastise, even punish, without doing irreparable damage to the psyche
of their sensitive youngsters. Active participation in Home-School
Association should help tO' establish this security and confidence in
their ability to deal effectively with their children.

Where parents were most active in programs of the school it was
they who planned exclusively the content of the meeting. This was
not always entirely desirable. While active participation is the goal
sought, the average busy parent does not know a specific school's

23

program objectives well enough what is involved in the execution
of program plans in order to realize the objectives to assume com-
plete control at school. Parents must be apprised of these by cogni-
tive, involved, dedicated teachers. Scheduled parent-teacher meetings
and homeroom meetings, for example, cannot blindly be turned over
to officers of the Parent-Teacher Association or Home-School As-
sociation to conduit at will. These are adults who get into the school
situation perhaps once per month, and whose program ideas will
most commonly center around bringing in resource persons whether
or not this relates to tasks or problems at hand. Moving in the direc-
tion of achievement of objectives can become obscured by engaging
in unrelated activities, however interesting they may be.

While the contributions of consultants and other resource persons
have their place in the program, considerably more time needs to be
spent with teachers' holding discussions with individual parents, or
mother and father together, about their children. All too little of this
is now being done in our schools.

Homeroom meetings should be planned regularly in order to:

1. Let parents know where their children are.

2. Suggest help for individual children.

3. Permit parent-officers to help select resource persons (related
to needs of parent-education and enlightenment) and discuss
these services for future changes, recommendations, approval,
et cetera with administrative personnel of the school.

With the multiphcity of problems encountered in raising our chil-
dren today, general meetings should be planned more and more
to make attack on problem areas involved in childrearing and teach-
ing of our children. The initial meetings of a term might set directions
for the year: amplify objectives, set forth requirements of parents,
responsibilities of teachers, and responsibilities of students, aides,
volunteers and other persons who in any way participate in the pro-
gram. This general pattern apphes for preschool and for the early
grades.

Subsequent meetings about each child with his parents should
be planned to run throughout the year concurrently with general
meetings (or in some consistent pattern). "The best interests of
children are served when the home and the school are working
harmoniously toward common goals. "^

Sample Content of One Home-School Association

Meeting in a Local School on Love and

Qualities of a Good Teacher,

January, 1965

The theme of the major speech to teachers and parents was "Giv-
ing Teaching the Dimensions of Art."

^Donald L. Barnes and Jean Slaughter, "Wanted: Better Communication
Between Home and School," The National Elementary Principal (September,
1961), p. 51.

24

Assembled parents were told that the good teacher (parent or
teacher in the classroom) must strive to make joy of the task of
teaching and in so doing learn the enjoyments of life itself through
dedication. Teaching and loving are interv^oven. Children need love,
want it, and are ready to give much love. Loving children, expressing
it, and saying it, should come easy. The unforgettable teacher knows
this and demonstrates it. Some children are not easy to love. But a
teacher's grace makes him or her, if truly good as teacher and guide,
love each individual child. Knowledge which one possesses must be
balanced with virtue, and humility; refinement with faith and large-
ness of spirit; patience with justice of view, gentleness and compas-
sion; and one's good sense and conscience must guide the affairs of
each day. There is no such thing as being absolutely sure in the task
of teaching. We must be aware that there are new ways each day
of looking at old lessons. Regimentation is undesirable! Beware of
indoctrination! And above all look carefully and long at what the
term "well-adjusted" means. This begins to apply at preschool level
and extends into all the later years of teaching, but particularly to
the grades.

These things each of us must learn as parents the first teachers
of our children, and teachers in our schools ^we must learn how to
be still, to catch the sense of wonder, and the quality of deep con-
centration so commonly observable on the part of children. Through
this sense of wonder should come the abilities to perceive and to
accept.

Goodness is character building. The spirit of the good teacher
inspires children toward strengthened character formation. Poor
qualities on the part of some individuals in the role of teacher are:
a false set of values, emotional immaturity, lack of ability to accept
responsibility and the common tendency toward the isolationist syn-
drome that is, their tendency to believe that home and school can
be kept in separate niches. Home is home and school is "job" and
home and job must remain separate. This cannot be done.

The task of teaching at any level is demanding, sacrificial, and
often strikes with awe the person destined to be the truly great
teacher (the would-be good parent included). If you have this depth
of love and dedication or sense of involvement, you feel it and know
it. Don't be discouraged! Dare to do good! Then act! There can
never be another you!

As previously mentioned, not only were preschool homeroom
meetings observed, but also selected first, second, and third grade
homeroom meetings. This was done to determine types of activities
common at these levels, and to decide if evidence points out that
kindergarten experiences observed are preparing for these challenges.
The following are two recordings from my notes of meetings with
parents of six and seven-year-olds with teachers. Notes describe
objectives and activities.

On February 14, 1965, a teacher of First Grade talked to the
assembled parents about the need for self-control on the part of

25

children. She stated that she wanted "self-disciphne of a nature
which gives ample opportunity for all children, especially those less
talkative, to contribute. They have ideas but many need more time
for organizing their ideas, for thinking before they speak. They need
time for coming up with answers. And these of whom I speak are
quite able to do so, and commonly make significant contributions,"
she said.

Many children become withdrawn because they are "stampeded,"
so to speak, by those very vocal children in the group. Being ex-
tremely overt and talkative does not necessarily mean having done the
thinking, or being curious as we want our children to be in order
to express their thoughts. The teacher can go "yakety-yak" so much
and for so long a period of time that the children are "squelched."
The undesirability of this was stressed as it relates to child growth
in expressiveness and expansiveness of thought.

What can we say for kindergarten or pre-kindergarten situations
relating to this same idea? This is a type of protection needed by
some children.

In grade two of this school, the teacher gave parents folders con-
taining samples of the children's individual work for the first semester,
1964-1965. Distribution of these materials was followed by a private
talk to each parent about his child's strengths and weaknesses. Par-
ents were given the copies of the standardized tests reading and
arithmetic taken recently (for first semester) by the children. This
was for study of test results.

This teacher then discussed briefly activities now being engaged
in by children in second grade both in the new mathematics and
new emphases in reading. She gave illustrations of types of materials
which would be covered during the remainder of the second grade
period, and highlighted those which would be re-emphasized in the
early period of grade three as well as introducing new learning
materials to which the children would be exposed. A few suggested
methods were given which might be used by parents in helping their
children at home in specific learnings. The following are examples of
new mathematics activities being engaged in at the second grade level:

Sets and sub-sets

Additive Action or Joining Action

Separating Action

Ordinals

Multiplication symbols

Tallying

Number sequences Number systems

Arrangements with lines Segments and intersecting of lines

Finding patterns in numerals

26

Polygons

Closed curves, interior and exterior of curves and betweenness
for curves.

Illustrative materials by Scott, Foresman and Company were dis-
tributed so that parents through services of the Home-School As-
sociation might keep abreast of sources and kinds of new materials
available for use in our schools.

Children and Homework

While some parents are being told that they must observe a "hands-
off policy" where their children's lessons are concerned, particularly
"homework," other parents in different school situations are not only
being admonished to be aware of what the child's curriculum ex-
periences are at school, but to hear children go through their "home-
work." In so doing, the parent to whom the child recites can call his
errors to his attention, and encourage the child to check and make
corrections for himself, thus reinforcing learings through careful at-
tention to points and review of what has been done.

The preschool child can begin this sort of learning-sharing-social
relationship with his parents by checking his creative art work for
tidiness. Tidiness or sloppiness and habits of order or disorganization
once formed carry over into later life. Neat work, whatever its nature,
can be a source of pride, and can be expected early on the part of
children. Neatness can range from no erasures or a minimum of
erasures, to realistic, tidily executed coloring of cats, dogs, or other
familiar animals and familiar objects; coloring of clothes of boys
and girls; or coloring within the outlined areas of circles, squares,
triangles, and other geometric shapes. As they learn about colors and
management of some of their own movements, children learn also
about forms and shapes of objects.

As their interest indicates a readiness for lettering, it is desirable
to teach correct form in order to avoid the need for later unlearning
an acquired poor habit. This should not be regarded as rigid or harsh
training for the child of kindergarten age. This follows the same
principle of adults' avoiding "baby talk," poor grammar, corrupted
forms of speech, and profane language in order to prevent the child's
estabhshing such patterns through imitating his elders.

The Teacher in the Preschool Setting

How natural the nursery school teacher can be is important. Pre-
school children are alert enought to know things appear all right if
one is natural or strange if one is affected in his behavior. Many
respond with baffled expressions in their eyes when stories are
overdramatized. Speak naturally. Teach naturally. You do not need
a special voice to read or tell a story or in other ways amuse or help
children entertain themselves. Be yourself.

27

As far as other reading materials are concerned children are alert
enough at two years of age to "appreciate" the rhyme and beat of
poetry, and although most educators deplore some forms of rote
learning, poetry, naturally, must be remembered by individuals at
ages when they wish to recall and repeat verse. The young child
who has poetry read to him or spoken to him with the meaning
enveloped in good lines learns and recites it effortlessly. When he
is a preschool child he does it for the rhythm. When older, stories
and poetry, aside from their beauty, may be selected for the lessons
they teach: history, grammar, amusement and also the memory test-
ing which they provide.

Every teacher needs to prepare himself with the intuition of love,
and move with vigor, intensive interest, and enthusiasm into teaching
our young.

Men need more and more to become teachers in the preschools.
We might attain more in terms of the kind of peaceful, happy family
situation with the masculine strength and influence as both over-
ture and undertone making school seem right for the continued
nurturing of small children. Mother is only one parent. Father is
equally important in the family constellation. Women are teachers
but so are men. Men make excellent preschool teachers and ad-
ministrators and are a common sight in some universities. We wish
to encourage more of this because of the masculine model provided
and its positive effect upon children.

Teaching in the Kindergarten

Just as the teacher in the school grades and the college subscribes
to planning both daily lessons and long-range units to give her broad
perspective, so the kindergarten teacher needs to plan. This she does
so that experiences are not haphazard and learnings "hit-or-miss."

In order to have feelings of confidence that she is presenting ma-
terials along lines suitable for the kindergarten level, the teacher
wants some sort of guides.

Excellent resource materials for the teacher, and work materials
for the kindergarten children are available (as many teachers already
know) in My Weekly Reader Surprise (Zip Puzzle-Test Materials
for the children plus Teacher's Edition K).^

Generally, the teacher has basic information relative to what the
five-year-old is like developmentally the developmental tasks which
he has come through, and which he now faces as a five-year-old if
he is to continually master self and cope effectively with challenges
of his environment. She, perhaps, wants most to know how to protect
him against pressures both from parents and in the school situation.

'Carlton M. Singleton. Editorial Director, My Weekly Reader Surprise,
Wesleyan University, 55 High Street, Middletown Connecticut (Department
of School Services and Publications).

28

not being pushed, but being wisely permitted to set his own learning
pace and pattern of mastery.

Freedom from too much pressure is a vital element in a kinder-
garten environment. Freedom from pressure makes it possible for the
kindergartner to enjoy each new experience and to learn from it.
Severe disturbances could result if too much pressure to learn were
applied to the immature preschool children.

Many kindergarten teachers are concerned with current pressure
to push more academic achievement down through the school levels.
The teachers' concern is prompted by an acute awareness of the
dangers of pressures that interfere with developmental needs of
young children. (See: "Assault Upon the Young," Childhood Educa-
tion, January, 1965, p. 248.) Teachers know that too much of the
wrong kind of pressure can result in child reactions of fear, hos-
tility, fatigue, discouragement, or other emotional or behavioral
symptoms.

The current concern for school achievement may be a reflection
of the pressures for achievement felt today in our society. Adults
have an increasing responsibility to understand children and to pro-
tect them from too much pressure. The teachers of our kindergartens
must be ready to answer three important questions: (1) What are
the best learning experiences for kindergartners? (2) What con-
stitutes pressure at the kindergarten level? and (3) What is learning
and what is pressure for each individual child?

Kindergarten teachers are alert to the problem. To insure the best
education for kindergartners, teachers follow tested principles of
kindergarten education such as:

1. Knowledge of the needs and abilities of kindergartners.

2. Comprehensive data about each child.

3. Alertness to evidence of each child's readiness for learning.

4. Consistent standards of behavior for all children.

5. Rapport with and genuine concern for children.

6. Experiences that stimulate each child to learn in his own way.^

Each successive weekly edition of My Weekly Reader Surprise, ac-
cording to this writer's observation, offers carefully selected materials
for teachers to use in helping kindergartners learn without pressure.

The Idea Shops "A Teacher's Defense Against Pressure in Kinder-
garten" should become a part of the permanent file of every kinder-
garten teacher.

A teacher's defense against pressure in kindergarten is
her professional understanding of 5-year-olds and her per-
sonal concern for their welfare. A kindergarten teacher can

^Ibid., Vol. 7, Issue 20.

29

offset pressures many times by explaining to parents and
interested people how and why kindergarten experiences
are based on the children's development and maturity.

Needs of children Teachers know that children have
certain basic needs such as those for:

Belonging Understanding, Knowledge

Love, affection Achievement

Freedom from fear Sharing

Freedom from guilt Economic security

Abilities of kindergartners Teachers use the charac-
teristics of kindergartners as a basis for learning experi-
ences. The following lists a few of a kindergartner's charac-
teristics :

Is active, curious, eager; readily shows fatigue

Uses language for communication

Can see relationships between things

Wants to achieve, fears failure

Is aware of the world around him

Practices acquired skills

Shows increase in perceptual abilities

Tends to go to pieces under pressure

Personal data Before a kindergarten program can be
planned, teachers must discover each child's level of de-
velopment such as:

Emotional: behavior, stabihty, independence

Physical: growth, illnesses, disabilities

Social: family, use of amenities, other schools

Intellectual : language facility, thinking ability, knowledge,
experiences, travels, books in home

Evidence of readiness Children give clues to their read-
iness for learning such as:

Questions: "What time does the clock say?"

Protests: "No, I want to do it myself!"

Persistence: Jane tries nine times to tie her shoe.

Social
Interaction: "I want to be first." Or, "Jim, it's your turn
now."

Interests: Jerry who paints the same jet each day, and
Tom who chooses different activities each
day.

30

Standards of behavior Teachers set consistent standards
of behavior so that children will know how to act. The
same behavior is expected of all the children. Before each
new experience, the expected behavior is discussed with
th children.

Child-teacher relationships Teachers know that chil-
dren can relax and learn with teachers who are affectionate,
understanding, patient, even-tempered, receptive, outgoing
and happy.

Kindergarten experiences A kindergarten teacher must
be aware of the knowledge and abilities of each child if the
child's experiences in kindergarten are to help him learn
without pressure."

As a teacher notes the items listed under "Evidences of Readiness"
given by Singleton she, of course, will be cognizant of the fact that
some children of less than five years of age question, protest, persist,
show high level social interaction and interests which must be satis-
fied for that particular preschooler in order to meet his growth needs.
This, of course, means recognizing individual differences.

Setting and maintaining standards of behavior for the group also
carries with it the idea of firmness, flexibility, but insistence that
rules must be followed and established limits respected.

When children know what is expected, they relax, comply because
they understand outcomes, and learn because they are happy. Too
much freedom can create stress also.

Unless we strive for excellent organization and direction we can
have complete deterioration of program because of large sections
of time daily misused under the guise of "free play."

The Ideal Teacher

The ideal teacher for preschool children is there watching and
guarding. She is unobtrustive; she shows humility while being knowl-
edgeable; she knows that her duty is to serve helplessness the needs
of children. She is open-minded and shows great respect for human
beings. Her respect for children is demonstrated most of all through
the virtues of patience and love.

At the pre-kindergarten level perhaps more so than ever again
the young child needs and thrives on overt expressions of love. This
kind of love for the child has perhaps been best described as "mother-
ing." This particular quality, discovered some decades ago as es-
sential to the general physical well-being of babies, and to their
ability to thrive emotionally, is a quality which some adults do not
possess. It can spring genuinely uninhibited from that adult who has
empathy, and who is overtly expressive enough to utilize this quality
in the care and guidance of httle children.

Ubid., Vol. 7, Issue 20.

31

Some preschool teachers, aides, volunteer workers and an oc-
casional parent lack this quality. This is perhaps one of the most
significant qualities deserving to be sought in teaching staff and
volunteer aides for our deprived children and especially the very
young.

Observation of the httle gestures and the little helps given when
comfort, reassurance, and simply a little extra help or attention are
needed will reveal this quality of mothering at the preschool level.
Observations were made of the frequency with which tears of the
homestick were dried (or tears needing attention), noses wiped (or
a child gently directed to wipe his own), bumps and bruises brushed
when reassurance in this manner was needing, or shoe laces tied
(or a child guided in the process), all of which are the adult's ex-
pression of affection (not coddling children). Some need (perhaps,
being over-ired, sleepy, in a hurry too busy to notice) may make
a child who is ordinarily competent to do these things for himself
suffer some relapses.

Sometimes children indicate need for other physical contact with
the teacher which assures them of being loved. Observations were
made on occasions when a child moved closer to the teacher's side
or knee and the teacher responded to the child. Observations were
made of children nudging others in attempts to make their physical
contacts with the teacher. Checks were made for the teacher's almost
unconscious enveloping or gentle cuddling of some small child with
that "always available arm" as her eyes, voice and conscious atten-
tion remain on story-reading, or as she kept her attention directed
toward whatever function was being performed.

Observation was made of irritable children how often an irritable
child in a tantrum was held firmly, though lovingly, and respectfully
in a tight clasp until he could calm himself gradually and revert to
normal behavior how else a temper tantrum might have been
logically handled, with a child understood and accepted in spite of
undesirable behavior what conditions seemingly prompted out-
breaks of temper.

Observation was made also for evidence of reassurance that a
child would master some specific skill usually with few words spoken
to him, for smiles from the teacher over obvious achievements, and
for evidences of boosting morale by a pat on the back.

All too often there was lack of this kind of concern and involve-
ment. Teaching positions are held but devoted application of time
and ingenuity to growth needs is woefully lacking. There are yet too
few trusting, self-other-oriented (opposed to self-centered) individ-
uals, with desirable temperaments and specialized training employed
in most preschools studied.

Respect for Privacy

At the preschool level there will be children with patterns of be-
havior reflecting more complex sides of their nature. Since we know

32

this, teachers as well as all other staff members who work in any
capacity with the child should be mature, competent people. They
should be of unquestionable integrity. Responsibihties to the job and
especially responsibilities to the children should be clearly defined.
This is especially true where work aides, volunteer workers and stu-
dent observers are concerned. The confidences of parents and the
privacy of the children should not be violated.

Note the following case:

A young family, recently settled in the city, had placed their five-
year-old child in a preschool. Both mother and father were pro-
fessional people, although the mother had not yet gone into employ-
ment in the new city when this case was recorded.

The five-year-old did not talk at school. He made weird sounds,
grunting sometimes to indicate his needs. He was rebelHous, de-
structive in contacts with other children and with things. Few facts
about his home life or factual bases for his problem, were available
but considerable conjecturing was done. His "case" was discussed
freely.

The child's teachers turned out to be lay teachers none with
degrees of any kind except the directress. The aide, who spent con-
siderable time with the child, was a young mother now enrolled part-
time as a college student. None of the staff had specialized training
in nursery school education, or early childhood education or child
development and family relations. They talked freely about all af-
fairs of the school.

In short time the case was discussed outside the school, over back
fences and bridge tables, no doubt exaggerated because the parents
were professional people.

Then the whispers began outside "he talked for me today"
from the aide to whom, presumably, he had said his first word.

Our children's problems must not be exposed needlessly and care-
lessly. The privacy of families should never be violated. Children
are entrusted to our care. They deserve respect. Competent teachers
know this!

What we know about the child, we keep in the same manner as
the physician treats the private cases of his patients or as the priest
treats the confessions of his confessors. That one is dealing with
human personalities should be a constant reminder of this and
dictate desirable restraint.

Parents and other interested observers (other than observers meet-
ing course requirements through visiting preschools) are frequently
encouraged to make unannounced visits to school to observe. There
is considerable merit in this activity if it is done without one's
presence being known by the teacher or one's offspring. This of
course can only be accomplished through observation booths. The
object is to observe one's child under circumstances which provide

33

a more objective picture of his functioning in such an environment.
Good teacher functioning is worthy of observation also.

In one situation, when the director invited parents and all in-
terested adults to "observe" at specified hours during the week, the
teachers in the school literally "flew the coop" when they knew that
observers were around. Children were left totally unsupervised, some-
times with students on the scene whose assignments were obviously
to observe and record, not to participate. Children in this situation
took advantage of the teachers' long absences from their classrooms.
Chaos resulted, and college students appeared confused about whether
they should "interfere" in order to protect children and prevent
accidents. Usually they did forget their roles as detached observers
to restore order from chaos, but were obviously disturbed about over-
stepping even while finding it sensible to become involved.

These were not emergencies removing teachers from the scenes.
It became a pattern. Supervision appeared to be of no concern. It
was almost always lacking.

The Home-School Association meetings for an entire year in one
school were entirely social hours for the parents. The parent serving
as hostess for each meeting tried to outdo the former one in terms
of games and other forms of recreation and entertainment. Con-
siderable emphasis was placed on refreshments. No fathers ever
attended except those holding offices. Not a single meeting for the
entire year centered around discussion of the school as a significant
training center for children and adults involved in it. No opportunities
during the entire year were provided for regularly planned individual
conferences with parents. This phase was entirely unorganized. A
few parents sought opportunities to question and to talk about their
child or children without invitation or encouragement from the
teachers.

The general attitude appeared to be that there was no need for
the emphasis to be anything other than it was. Parents appeared
to enjoy each other in social interchange.

Teachers must recognize their varying areas of responsibility: (a)
to set realistic, well-planned and attainable program objectives; (b)
to care for and protect the children (always providing sufficient
supervision); (c) keep parents aware of the nature of experiences
children are having; (d) suggest specific ways in which efforts may
be supplemented at home; (e) seek to know specific ways in which
the school may build upon what parents are doing with and for the
child at home: (f) serve as professional spokesmen keeping parents
abreast of current concepts and information relating specifically to
the level of development of their children.

34

r

On Strengths of Shock Waves with Respect
to Thermodynamic Parameters

by
Nazir A. Warsi

1. INTRODUCTION

If F is thermodynamic parameter, then the F-strength of a shock
wave is given by

(1.1) S,, = [FJ/F,

Hence, we define enthalpy, sound velocity, internal energy, tempera-
ture, entropy, and obliquity strengths of the shock wave by

(1.2) S, =[I]/I,,,

(1.3) S^, =[c^]/c=,,

(1.4) Se^=[e]/e,,, .

(1.5) S,,,, = [T]/T,, ,

(1.6) 8,, = [v]/v.;.
and

(1.7) ^,/ =(1 + 8,/)^,/.
respectively.

2. SHOCK STRENGTHS WITH RESPECT TO
THERMODYNAMIC PARAMETERS

We have the following theorems in this connection.
Theorem 2.1 : 8^, and 8^ are related by

(2.1) S,

I

or

y 1.

(2.2) 8,^-= h^,/S,/(S^/+2)U,/.

2yp

Proof: The specific enthalpy behind a shock surface is given by
[3]

(2.3) [i] = ~\\K^Kf+^)yy.

35

which, with the help of (1.2) and the relation Ij, = r pi, y^,

I y \ ' I'

gives (2,1). The equation (2.2) is easily obtained from (2.1) and
the relation

Theorem 2.2: The value of S is given by

- 2 (y - 1 ) \^ (c,; - h,; y,-;) (c,; + y h; y,-;)

(2.4) S = ;

y(y+ ^rp.,Ky.:

Proof: We know that [1]

2(Cr;-h;yr/)

(2.5) ,/ = : .

(y+ l)h;y,^'

On substituting from (2.5) in (2.1), we get (2.4).

Theorem 2.3: The sound velocity strength is the same as the
specific enthalpy strength.

Proof: For a polytropic gas, we have

y

(2.6)

K =

y

which easily gives

(2.7)

[I]=;

y
/ -

pPi

Equations

; (1.2)

and

(1.3) reduce

(2.7)

to

(2.8)

S./Iv

r

_1 ^^^^v

Now, (2.6) and

(2.8) give

(2.9)

^v =

v.

Theorem 2.4: T/ze internal energy and specific enthalpy strengths
are the same.

Proof: For a polytropic gas, we have
(2.10) I,/ = |e,,.

This gives

36

(2.11) [I] = [e]

y

On substituting the values of [I] and [e] from (1.2) and (1.4)
respectively, (2.11) becomes

(2.12) 1.^8./ = 8,,!^'.

This, in virtue of (2.10), gives

(2.13) 8,/ = 8,/.

Theorem 2.5: The temperature and specific enthalpy shock strengths
are the same.

Proof: For a polytropic gas, we have

(2-14) I./ = 7^RT,,.
which gives

(2.15) [I]=_-I_-R[T]

y 1
This equation, in virtue of (1.2), (1.5), and (2.14) becomes

(2.16) K^ = K;

Theorem 2.6: The obliquity strength can be determined from

(2.17) 8,

T. , .

in/ " n/ /I/ "r/

or

U,-, h,y,,8.

(2.18) 8,^=:

-V./^/

Ui/ + V,,/8,/

Proof: The equation (1.5) gives

(2.19) ^,/=(8,/+ l)^,/.

Also, the components of obUquity in the region f^/ is given by [2]

(2.20) ^^,/ = u,/^x;/u,/,

which, for the region 2/, becomes

(2.21) '/',/ = U,/.X'/U,/.

37

Now. the normal velocity behind the shock surface is given [1]

(2.22) [UJ = S^./V,,/.

Hence, (2.17) can be easily deduced from (2.19), (2.20), (2.21),
and (2.22) by simple substitution. Equations (2.17) gives (2.18)

with the help of the relation h y = V^^

Theorem 2.7: The entropy strength of the shock wave is given by
(Sy+1)^-^
(2.23) S^,= 1 _,^. 2c^-(y-l)S,/(S., +2)h;y/ \

Proof: The entropy behind a shock surface can be determined
from [3]

(2.24 [y] = JQ^ log

(K^y

9

C,

I 2c;/-(y-l)S,,/(8,,,4-2)h;y,: I

V

This equation gives (2.23) on substitution from (1.6),

References

1. Warsi, N. A. (1965) Flow Parameters Behind Three Dimensional Shock

Wave, Savannah State College Faculty Research Bulletin. Vol. 19, No. 2.

2. Mishra, R. S. (1960) Deflection of Impinging Streams Through a Shock

Wave in a Perfect Gas, Tensor, (N.S.) Vol. 10, No. 3.

3. Warsi, N. A. (1965) Thermodynamic Parameters Behind Three Dimensional

Shock Wave, Savannah State College Faculty Research Bulletin. Vol. 19.
No. 2.

38

Efforts to Prevent Negro Revolts
In Early Savannah

by

Austin D. Washington

The inability of the American Negro to accept slavery completely
manifested itself in various ways, from committing crimes against
the master to revolting. ^ In general the slaveholding South learned
of crimes by individual Negroes with considerable equanimity.- It
was news or suspicion of concerted action by Negroes which caused
widespread alarm and uneasiness.^

Early Savannah had its share of alarm and uneasiness due to
slave revolts and the fear of slave revolts. For example, a number
of Negroes revolted against their master in 1728, but fled when
twice fired upon . . .' In 1768, some Negroes attempted to gain
freedom by revolting, but they failed.^ In September, 1795 a plot
for the uprising of the Negroes of Savannah was reported by Major-
General James Jackson and Colonel Tattnall." In April, 1804 owing
to alarming reports of a possible slave revolt the city marshal was
directed to call on all shopkeepers and warn them not to sell or
deliver to any Negro, powder, lead, shot, or balls without written
permission from his owner or guardian.'''

In order to reduce the possibility of future slave uprisings, the
city of Savannah and the state of Georgia passed several laws regulat-
ing the movement and activities of the Negro. The overall activities of
the Negro in Savannah were controlled by the surveillance of the
City Guard. Although methods of patrolling existed as early as 1759,
it was not until 1806 that a permanent and well-organized City Guard
was established. The purpose of the City Guard is stated in the
ordinance of 1759 passed by the Royal Legislature in Savannah:
'whereas the safety of the town of Savannah next to the divine

'Evidence for this statement may be found in the following works: John
Hope Franklin, The Militant South (Cambridge, 1956); Herbert Aptheker,
American Negro Slave Revolts (New York, 1943); Raymond A. Bauer and
Alice H. Bauer, "Day to Day Resistance to Slavery," Journal of Negro
History, XXVII (1942), 388-419; Harvey Wish, "American Slave Insur-
rections Before IS61 "Journal of Negro History, XXII (1932), 299-320;
Donald D. Wax, "Negro Resistance to Early American Slave Trade," Journal
of Negro History, LI (1966), 1-15; and Herbert Aptheker, "Maroons Within
Present Limits of United States," Journal of Negro History, XXIV (1939),
167-184.

-U. B. Phillips, American Negro Slavery (New York, 1918), p. 463.

^^Ibid.

*Asa H. Gordon, "Struggle for Physical Freedom," Journal of Negro History,
XIII (1928), 34.

Federal Writers Project in Georgia Work Progress Administration, Savannah
(Savannah, 1937), p. 50.

*^Thomas Gamble, A History of the City Government of Savannah From
1790 to 1901, (Savannah, 1900), p. 58.

'Ibid., p. 68.

39

protection chiefly depends on the care and vigilance of the inhabi-
tants . . . [the City Guard is now established].^

The City Guard regulated the activities of the Negro by use of the
curfew and by use of the pass. Fear of Negro unrest is openly
expressed in various provisions of the 1759 ordinance. One pro-
vision establishing the curfew stated: "it may prove of dangerous
consequence to the peace and the security of the said town to
suffer Negroes and other slaves to be lurking and caballing about
at night . . ."^ Under this ordinance the City Guard, at first, had
the authority to "whip any Negroes or other slaves found in any
streets, lanes, alleys, or other places in Savannah without a ticket
from his or their owner or overseer."^ *^

Later in 1839 this ordinance was amended. It became the duty
of the City Guard to arrest "all slaves and free persons of color
who may be found out of his or her house or enclosure after the
ringing of the Guard House bell without a pass."^^ This bell, at
first, was located near the center of Savannah, but in the late 1850's
it was located in a building at President and Whitaker Streets and it
rang every night at eight o'clock in the winter and nine o'clock in
the summer.^-

The City Guard was so common in the life of Negroes in Georgia
and Savannah that many Negroes would sing:

"Oh Mister Watchman don't ketch me
Ketch that Negro behind dat tree."^^

The purpose of the curfew was to regulate the night activities of
the Negro while the pass or ticket ordinance controlled the move-
ment of the Negro both day and night. For example, on planta-
tions near Savannah, no more than two Negroes at any time were
permitted to come to town with or without a pass.^^ These passes
were very specific, giving the hour when they were written and the
hour they were to expire. The City Council of Savannah passed an
ordinance August 2, 1839, stating: "No ticket shall pass after
midnight whether it be dated before or after that hour unless the
time when given and the object in view and the place to which the
bearer is distinctly specified."^^

The pass ordinance was rigidly enforced by some whites, and
violated by other persons in Savannah. Alexander Telfair, a local

^Allen D. Candler, Colonial Records of Georgia (1754-1768) (Atlanta,

1911), p. 212.
^Ibid., p. 213.
^oibid., p. 213.
^ ^Charles S. Henry, Ordinance of City of Savannah, (Savannah, 1854), p. 450;

Savannah Daily Morning News, December 29, 1853.
^^Martha Waring, "Charles S. H. Hardee's Recollection of Old Savannah,"

Georgia Historical Quarterly, XII (1928), p. 353.
^ ^Federal Writer's Project in Georgia Work Progress Administration, Op. cit.,

p. 48.
i-iCharies S. Henry, Op. cit., p. 344.
^^Revised City Ordinance (1789-1854); Savannah Daily Morning News,

December 29, 1853.

40

plantation owner, instructed his overseer: "You will give tickets
passes) to any Negro who applies for them; to go anywhere about
the neighborhood but not to allow them to go off it without them
passes, nor suffer any strange Negroes to come on it without a
pass."^'' In contrast to these stern instructions, an editorial in a
local paper stated: "There are individuals in our community who
give tickets to Negroes over whom they have no authority to pass."^'^
Such a ticket "caused the arrest and commitment to the Guard
House of a Negro; the owner of the Negro had to pay a fine of $1.00
to liberate him, while the person who violated the law goes un-
punished because he is unknown."^^

In addition to these laws regulating the Negro on the local level,
there were several state laws which also controlled activities of the
Negro. One such law stated: "Any person may inflict twenty lashes
on the bare back of a slave found without license (pass) on the
plantation or without the limits of the town to which he belongs. "^^
Another law stated that the killing of a slave in the act of revolt or
in the act of resisting arrest shall be ruled justifiable homicide.-*^

The establishment of the City Guard with its power to regulate
the Negro by enforcing the pass and curfew laws were efforts to
stop any attempts of Negro revolts. But in spite of these efforts
Savannah, at various times, rippled with rumors of Negro unrest
and revolt.^^ No wise white man, living during these times in
Savannah, could seriously believe that the Negro was a natural-bom
slave.

^U. B. Phillips, Plantations and Frontier, II (Cleveland, Ohio, 1910), 12.

'^'^ Savannah Daily Morning News, November 4, 1852.

^^Ibid.

^ ^William Goodell, The American Slave Code: In Theory and Practice

(London, n.d.), p. 21. Allen D. Candler, Op. cit., p. 213.
-^Augustus Clayton, Georgia Justice (Milledgeville, 1824), p. 269.
2 ^Thomas Gamble, Op. cit., p. 68.

41

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

Aptheker, Herbert. American Negro Slave Revolts. New York: International

Press, 1940.
Clayton, Augustine. Georgia Justice. Milledgeville, Georgia: S. Grantland

Company, 1824.
Federal Writer's Project in Georgia Work Progress Administration. Savannah:

Review Printing Company, 1937.
Franklin, John Hope. The Militant South. Cambridge: Harvard University

Press, 1956.
Gamble, Thomas. A History of the City Government of Savannah ( 1790-

1901). Savannah: Thomas Gamble Press, 1900.
Goodell, William. The American Slave Code: In Theory and Practice. London:

Clarke Beeton and Company, n.d.
Phillips, U. B. American Negro Slavery. New York: D. Appleton-Century

Company, 1940.
. Plantation and Frontier. Cleveland: A. H. Clark Com-
pany, 1910.

Public Documents

Candler, Allen. Colonial Records of Georgia (1754-1768). Atlanta: Charles

P. Byrd 1911, XVIII.
Henry, Charles S.. Ordinance of Citv of Savannah, Savannah: Purse's Print.

1854.
Revised City Ordinance. 1789-1854 (n.d. n.p.)

Newspapers

Savannah Daily Morning News, 1850-1852.

Periodicals

Aptheker, Herbert. "Maroons Within the Present Limits of United States."

Journal of Negro History, XXIV (1939), 167-184.
Ahce H. Bauer and Raymond A. Bauer "Day to Day Resistance to Slavery."

Journal of Negro History, XXVII (1942), 388-419.
Gordan, Asa. "Struggle for Physical Freedom," Journal of Negro History,

XIII (1928), 22-35.
Waring, Martha. "Charles S. H. Hardee's Recollection of Old Savannah."

Georgia Historical Quarterly, XII (1928), 353-389.
Wax, Donald. "Negro Resistance to Early American Slave Trade." Journal of

Negro Histoi-y, LI (1966), 1-15.
Wish, Harvey. "American Slave Insurrection Before 1861." Journal of Negro

History, XXII (1937), 299-320.

42

White Professors and Their Students in
Southern Negro Colleges

by
Carrol Atkinson*

Almost invariably basic to prejudice and discrimination are dif-
ferences in skin color, religious beliefs, economic status, or similarly
artificial distinctions. And certainly this is not a one-way street! For
different reasons, of course, the victims oftentimes are as guilty
of an unhealthy prejudice as are those v^ho victimize them. Never
to be overlooked or discounted is that the satisfaction derived from
feeling superior to one's fellowman is as old as the study of human
nature itself.

A solution to this problem is to set up a system of education for
our American youth that actively seeks to work toward the acquir-
ing of a better sense of values than those which are traditionally
based upon differences in skin pigmentation or how the individual
may prefer to worship. Such a premeditated approach is needed to
bring about a true integration where the individual is judged by what
he does or tries to do rather than by what an accident of birth
destined him to be.

The Black Power advocates currently are still more than balanced
and outnumbered by the longer-intrenched, dyed-in-the wool ultra-
segregationists. Hence much more friction than solution evolves from
their confrontation. History generally shows the extremists as start-
ing the revolutions, good or bad, but these fade away and are soon
forgotten after the needed reform has been achieved. These all-
or-nothing advocates usually are lacking in a Christian sense of charity
so essential in the building of a society educated to enjoy personal
liberties while, at the same lime, maintaining that healthy respect for
law and order so necessary to keep any society stabilized.

Regulating higher education of today are those standards set by
the accrediting agencies. These serve well in upgrading educational
institutions. Thus the doctorate is a symbol of scholarship, and each
college must have a representative number in order to secure and
maintain accreditation. But Ph.D.s are an expensive luxury for
many a Negro college that of necessity must operate on the pro-
verbial shoestring. Some such schools are so hard pressed financially
that they cannot order textbooks until assured of how many of
each title the students will buy. Thus those vitally important early
weeks of the instruction are seriously handicapped. That is one of
the several things which disillusions a capable white professor intent

^Atkinson is co-author with Eugene Maleska of The Story of Education,
in which the chapter on "Desegregation of Schools" is recommended as a
factual, unemotional statement of the facts which speak for themselves.

43

upon achieving certain definite objectives in the courses he is
assigned to teach.

One solution has been to bring from Northern universities their
retired white professors. They are in a position to work for a mere
pittance because of retirement pensions and other income such as
Social Security during the summer months. In such employment
good health is an important factor for without it even the most bril-
liant can be worse than useless.

Several men are scattered throughout the South who are so en-
thusiastic in meeting the challenge of bringing the stimulation of their
tremendous personalities to promising young people that they seem
to forget those aches and pains which come with old age. But there
are others who prove unwilling or incapable of making the transition
from ivy-covered walls and well-prepared students to the more
primitive conditions that have resulted from the traditions of the dual
educational system. One such incident occurred in a highly reputed
small Negro college. A newly arrived white professor with a reputa-
tion met his classes, outlined the work to be done, and told his bewil-
dered students to get busy and produce the results he had demanded.
Of course, only a few met the challenge while the others sank even
deeper into their inferiority complexes and that defeatist attitude of
young Negroes having no place worthwhile to go in a predominantly
White America.

But to the well-prepared, capable, broadminded white professor
who sees in Negro youth a great challenge to his teaching abilities
there can be no greater satisfaction. Here lies a great reservoir of
potential human abilities this growing nation of ours needs so badly.
Such a man can become so involved in his work that even the in-
evitable aging process seems to become delayed. And all this time
a truly great educational service is being performed!

44

The Feasibility of Establishing a Library-College
In Predominantly Negro Colleges

by
E. J. Josey

Negro Students' Reliance on Negro Colleges

Fifty percent of all Negro college students in the United States
are enrolled in predominantly Negro colleges and universities. In
spite of the desegregation of institutions of higher learning in the
South and the stepped-up recruitment of Negro students by major
colleges and universities throughout the country, the largest number
of Negro citizens will continue to receive their undergraduate educa-
tion in these institutions. Young Negroes will attend these institutions
primarily because they are relatively inexpensive, they offer remedial
course work (which is a necessity for many young people who are
enrolled in poor southern high schools), and because of the proximi-
ty of these institutions and/or their geographical accessibility.

The first and most striking reason for Negroes to continue to
gravitate to predominantly Negro institutions of higher learning is
the fact that a large number of Negro families in this country are
poverty-stricken and cannot afford to send their children to college.
Those families that struggle against overwhelming economic odds
and sacrifice to send their offsprings to college have only one choice
the Negro College. On the other hand, a small proportion of
young Negroes are being recruited from the ghetto by leading
American colleges and universities, but those that are being recruited
are young people with exceptional abilities and who need little or no
remedial education. It becomes crystal clear then that the Negro
college offers the only ray of hope for the vast majority of young
Negroes desiring a college education.

The financial plight of young Negroes attempting to acquire an
education was graphically portrayed by a leading Negro Sociologist,
Whitney M. Young, when he stated that "many of them are doing
so at great sacrifice to their families and their own efforts to help
others often keep them from continuing their own education. One
student said: T'd like so much to go to grad school, but I've got to
get my sister through college first.' "

Even though legal barriers have crumbled in the South, the Negro
poor must choose the Negro college, because it costs less. Most of
the predominantly Negro colleges in the South charge less tuition
than white colleges in the region. In some instances not only tuition,
but dormitory, board, and general fees are substantially cheaper
than the former all-white institutions. The low economic status of
the Negro, in general, illustrates with dramatic effect why the young
Negro in the South must select the Negro college.

45

The second reason why Negro colleges will continue to attract
hundreds of young Negroes is a disturbing one. By and large, only
a small percentage of Negro youngsters are enrolled in integrated
public schools in the South. Before intransigence and the backlash
triumphed, the U. S. Office of Education's Federal Guidelines were
making significant changes in the segregated educational pattern and
may have altered dualism in American education. It may very well
be that Negro youngsters in segregated schools in the South and in
ghetto schools of the North, because of de facto segregation^
segregation reflecting segregated housing patterns may now look
forward to a superior education in integrated schools with superior
facilities in view of Federal Judge J. Skelly Wright's monumental
decision in the case of Hobson vs. Hansen and the Board of Educa-
tion of the District of Columbia.

Judge Wright's decision underscores the fact that segregated
schools give young people little or no skills to use in competition with
the vast majority of American who desire a place in the over-crowded
colleges and universities in this country. It is his opinion that "racially
and homogeneous schools damage the minds and spirit of all chil-
dren who attend them the Negro, the white, the poor, and the
affluent and block the attainment of the broader goals of democratic
education, whether the segregation occurs by law or by fact. . .

Continuing, the distinguished jurist declared "the scholastic achieve-
ment of the disadvantaged child, Negro and white, is strongly
related to the racial and socioeconomic composition of the student
body of his school." From this observation alone, it becomes
clear that the bulk of America's Negro college students are in dire
need of remedial courses, when they begin their college education
journey.

Recent data on the performance of Negro students reveal the
following: "College Board scores in most Negro colleges seem to
average in the 300's, and some Negro colleges report medians in
the 200's. This means that the typical student at one of these colleges
ranks in the bottom 5 or 10 percent of those taking the CEEB tests.
Or to put it another way, perhaps no more than 10 or 15 percent of
the students at most Negro colleges rank above the national under-
graduate averages on verbal or mathematical tests. "^

So huge is the educational gap between what Negro students
should know when they enter college and what they actually know
in terms of test scores, most of the 123 predominantly Negro col-
leges and universities do not engage in selective admission practices
and are committed to an open door policy thus making it inevitable
and necessary that they offer remedial instruction in order to help
these young people to overcome their educational deficiencies. This
idea was succinctly stated by a leading Negro scholar, who viewed
the role of the Negro college as "taking students who have experi-
enced cultural deprivation and preparing them in the short span of

^Christopher Jencks and David Riesman, "The American Negro College,"
Harvard Educational Review, 37:24-25, Number 1, 1967.

46

i

the college experience to compete on a basis of equality with other
American college graduates."-

And now we come to the third reason why young Negroes will
seek admission to Negro colleges, i.e., proximity or geographical
location. This reason may be the most complex and puzzling to
whites, especially those who do not live in the South. The Negro
population has grown tremendously during the last twenty-five years.
Nevertheless, more than half of the nation's Negro citizens continue
to make their home in the South. Even with such grand designs as
the Mississippi plan to starve them to death thereby attempting to
force migration, the bulk of America's black citizenry like human
beings everywhere are reluctant to move away from familiar sur-
roundings and their homes. Hence, the South will continue to be
the home of the vast majority of Negro citizens for decades to come.

Of the 123 colleges and universities established primarily for
Negroes, all except five are in the South where half of the Negro
population live. The immediate consequence of proximity, coupled
with the other two factors enumerated above, is that these colleges
will attract the largest number of college bound Negro students.

A Panoramic View of Negro Colleges

The fundamental question raised by the necessity of Negro stu-
dents having to rely almost solely on Negro colleges for their higher
education is one that is enormous and one which must be explored:
what is the position of Negro colleges in America today? Indeed, it
is difficult to grapple with this question in a few sentences, but an
attempt will be made to offer a few generalizations.

Whitney M. Young Jr. in his recent newspaper column, "To Be
Equal," gave a vivid description of the plight of Negro colleges when
he wrote "they labor under great handicaps. Our big universities
have millions of dollars endowment income, but these schools have
to scrape along on a shoestring. While some support comes from the
United Negro College Fund and other institutions and individuals,
there is a crying need for help to enable them to do the job which
must be done.

"They are certainly being shortchanged not only by private
sources, but also by government. For example, only 2.7 percent of all
state aid to higher education went to predominantly Negro colleges,
and they got a shameful less than 1 percent of all federal aid. Some
non-monetary help is coming from programs like the Urban League's
Summer Fellowship program. This program enlists business firms
which provide summer employment for faculty members, giving
them the experience with the techniques of modern industry, which
they can then impart to their students.

^Martin D. Jenkins, The Morgan State College Program An Adventure in
Higher Education. Baltimore, Md: Morgan State College Press, 1964, p. 3.

47

The Negro college offers the only chance for most Negro high
school graduates in the South to continue their education. And in
addition to this task, many of the colleges are also enrolling poor
white students from their areas. "^

Supporting Young's thesis regarding the financial difficulty that
a sizeable number of Negro colleges find themselves, a recent study
reveals that "when we turn from the top dozen private Negro col-
leges to the sixty-odd obscure ones . . . .these colleges typically
have no endowment whatever, no alumni capable of supporting them
at more than a token level, little time or imagination to develop
programs which would get federal or foundation support, few con-
tacts with the men who distribute such funds, and no obvious appeal
to white philanthropy . . ,"^

Against this backdrop of a financial crisis in Negro colleges, a
picture emerges which shows that these institutions have difficulty
recruiting competent faculty, establishing innovative curricular pro-
grams, amassing a minimum collection of books and materials for
their libraries, and in general, fostering an intellectual tone, which will
nourish a climate of learning on their campuses.

The recent announcement that the Ford Foundation would provide
a $1.1 milUon program to aid 52 Southern Negro colleges in break-
ing out of their academic and cultural isolation is a step in the right
direction. Although the amount of the grant is woefully inadequate,
it is a positive beginning which will aid these institutions in such
areas as faculty development, curriculum improvement, Hbrary
development, compensatory education, and student personnel ser-
vices.^ If additional funding can be obtained from the Ford Founda-
tion and the other richly endowed foundations in the country along
with help from federal sources, Negro colleges will be in a position
to strengthen their programs as well as provide a first-rate collegiate
education.

For the record, I must hasten to add that some viable academic
programs do exist in the better Negro institutions. Programs at
Howard, Fisk, Morehouse, Hampton, Clark, Lincoln, Dillard, Morris
Brown, Morgan, and Tuskegee compare favorably and in a few
instances are superior to programs in some white institutions. Never-
theless, in the main, improvements must be initiated in the majority
of these institutions.

In spite of the dismal and bleak drawn portrait, the Negro college
has been in its own way an intellectual oasis in a desert of hatred,
fear, segregation and anti-intellectualism. Long before the southern
states provided state supported institutions of higher learning for
Negroes, these citadels of learning performed a yeoman task of bring-
ing light where there was darkness and giving hope to the hopeless.

^Whitney M. Young, Jr. "To be Equal," Norfolk Journal and Guide, June

10, 1967.
'^Jencks and Riesman, op. cit., p. 48.
^^New York Times, July 7, 1967.

48

The Potential of the Library-College in Negro Colleges

Up to this point in our consideration of the possibility of Negro
colleges adopting the library-college concept of learning, it was
necessary to review a few of the problems that have plagued Negro
colleges and their students. Now let us examine a few of the library-
college precepts and then try to determine if they are employable
in predominantly Negro colleges in America.

Active as the discussion on the library-college has been, it does
not appear to have given consideration to poverty-stricken Negro
colleges or colleges that have enjoyed only an economic marginal
subsistence. Viewing these coUeges from this economic stance, is it
economically feasible for these institutions to convert from their
traditional role to the revolutionary idea that their colleges would
become hbraries? Is it possible for these institutions that have pat-
terned their programs after the majority of American institutions of
higher learning now become a Library-College?

A random check of twenty administrators of predominantly Negro
colleges revealed that not one of them had ever heard of the term
library-college. When asked to define the concept, this writer sug-
gested that the library-college is a college in which the learning made
is predominantly individual in character, with emphasis on indepen-
dent study and located in a library building. Most of these educators
scoffed at the idea, and one asked if this idea was primarily a vision-
ary idea of librarians. Dan J. Sillers comments at the Drexel
Institute's Conference on the library-college were prophetic when he
admonished that if there is to be implementation of the library-
college, the idea has to be communicated to educators and not just
Hbrarians alone. This small sampling supports his point of view.

The father of the library-college idea, Louis Shores, Dean Emer-
itus, Florida State University, Library School, presented elements
of the library-college at the Drexel Institute's Conference on The
Library- College. "^ The elements include the following:

1. The learning mode There will be a shift from the classroom
to the carrel as the learning locus with emphasis on independent
study.

2. The library Materials used in the library will be the generic
book which includes information in various types of format;
books, film, film strips, closed circuit TV., dial access, etc.

3. Faculty The new college calls for a new kind of faculty; the
new breed will be a cross between librarians who hke to teach
and professors who like to use the library in their teaching.

4. Curriculum The curriculum would be a broad curriculum
which will be reflected in the library's holdings.

^From notes taken at the Conference.

49

5. Facility The learning resources center would reflect all media
placed in proximity of the student in his carrel; the entire
student body would be seated in the learning resources center.

6. Organization There should be a student enrollment of 500 or
less; when the enrollment increases, start a new college which
could emerge into a cluster of colleges.

I will not belabor the implications of Shore's elements of a library
college, for I believe that they speak for themselves. But let us ex-
amine these elements in light of some of the problems facing Negro
colleges.

As I examine the learning mode, there seems to be no special
difficulties that Negro colleges would encounter in shifting from the
classroom to the carrel except for the following: (1) There will be
an urgent need to orient faculty to give up their cherished right of
being the dispenser of knowledge in the classroom and leaving their
students alone to study individually in carrels. (2) There will be an
urgent need for a large capital outlay of funds for the procurement of
carrels for each student. (3) In view of the fact that Negro students'
high school education has not been independent study in character,
these students would have to be taught how to study individually
thus freeing them from complete dependence upon their professors.

With reference to their libraries and holdings, most Negro college
libraries continue to be book centered and do not possess materials
in various kinds of format. All of these libraries have a few news-
papers on micro-film, a few film strips but no facilities for closed
circuit TV and dial access is out of the question. Moreover, the
most recent survey of Negro college libraries reveals that they do
not meet minimum book collection standards." A further check of
Library Statistics of Colleges and Universities, 1965-66 indicates that
most of these institutions must undertake a crash acquisitions program
before minimum standards are achieved. Not only must these in-
stitutions acquire the generic books, but they must obtain books per
se before one can assume that a viable library situation exists in
these institutions. The foregoing facts should not militate against
Negro colleges acquiring the generic book, however, funds must be
forthcoming from foundations or federal sources which will under-
write the stocking of libraries with adequate materials to support this
kind of a learning resources center.

Perhaps the most interesting of Shore's innovation for the library-
college is his clarion call for a new breed of faculty. This writer
shares his belief that a library-minded faculty is essential to a good
learning situation.^ Is it possible for the faculty, who are more con-
servative and conventional in their teaching habits to make the transi-
tion to this new breed type? I dot not wish to intimate that faculty

'E. J. Josey, "Negro College Libraries and ACRL Standards," Library

Journal, 88:2989-2996, September 1, 1963.
^E. J. Josey, The Absent Professors," Library Journal, 87:173-175, 181,

January 15, 1962.

50

members at Negro colleges are any more conventional or conserva-
tive than faculty in other American institutions; yet, faculty at Negro
colleges emulate their professors in the graduate schools and would
not wish to innovate to an extent that they would be different.
Negro faculty especially emulate what they consider the best in white
society even if this best may be characterized as ". . . ill-staffed
caricature of white education which was, after all, easy enough
to caricature."^

Essential to the success of the library-college is the faculty, for
Shores believes that "prerequisite to a library-college is a new breed
of faculty a cross between today's Hbrary-conscious classroom
instructors and teaching-minded librarians." As I ponder over Shore's
words, I vividly recall my eleven years as the librarian of two pre-
dominantly Negro colleges. I remember only a small number of
library-conscious instructors. Most of the faculty like traditional-
acting faculty in many American colleges taught in the form of a
monologue with little opportunity for students to exchange view
points or for providing for the tapping of the resources of the library.
It was necessary in both institutions for the librarian and his staff
to employ all kinds of devious means of encouraging the faculty to
exploit the resources of the library. On the other side of the coin,
there are hbrarians in Negro college libraries who would not wish to
become teaching librarians, but there are many who would be intel-
lectually adventuresome enough to become teaching-minded li-
brarians.

The upshot of the foregoing discussion is that if a college decides
to become a library-college, it must be ready to assume the major
responsibility of reeducating its faculty, and in many instances, a
gigantic in-service program for faculty must be launched. An in-
service program for faculty should not be viewed as a monumental
task, for one predominantly Negro college, Morgan State College,
used this approach in acquainting the faculty with library reference
tools in order that the faculty could participate in the instruction of
freshman students in the use of the library.^*' In addition, the profes-
sionally educated librarians could offer in-service courses in the litera-
ture of various subject fields of their faculty colleagues; senior pro-
fessors in these subject areas who possess exhaustive bibliographic
knowledge would, in all probability, be anxious to assist the librarians,
thus, the faculty in Negro colleges would emerge in the words of
Shores as "a bibliographer extraordinary. "^^

How would Negro students react to the new breed faculty member?
From my observation of the Negro students of the sixties, who are
sensitive to the social currents of his day and who are anxious to be
released from the shakles of discrimination, inequality, and an in-
feriority complex because of the precarious position that the Negro

^Jencks and Riesman, op. cit., p. 21.
^Georgetta Merritt, "Library Orientation for College Freshman," Library

Journal, 81:1224-1225, May 15, 1956.
^^Louis Shores, "The Library-College Faculty," in The Library College.

Philadelphia: Drexel Press, 1066, p. 73.

51

finds himself will welcome the new breed faculty who embrace them
as partners in the teaching-learning process. The new teaching-learn-
ing locus places faculty and students on a footing of personal equality
that is rarely seen in the traditional Negro college. Advocating this
idea in animating language, Jordan states "where the faculty is the
dominating element on a campus, it is easy for them to assume the
role of superior beings, approachable only by formal and respectful
rituals. Where the library is the key and focal point in the campus
environment it is much more difficult for the faculty to maintain a
posture of superiority because the silent phalanxes of information on
hbrary shelves stand neutrally waiting for exploitation by faculty
and students. Just as we are equal before God so are we equals be-
fore the resources of a great library."^-

On a number of these campuses, faculty and students have little
or no dialogue outside of the classrooms, and it is my opinion that
the library-college would foster better faculty-student relations. Com-
menting on a visit to Savannah State College campus, a noted
American scholar disclosed that "I ate in the faculty dining room
on Monday and Tuesday and it seems to me that students and faculty
had almost no contact outside of class. "^-^ There must be a change
from this sorry state of affairs, for often times it is through informal
discussions among students and faculty members that will stimulate,
challenge, motivate and arouse the intellectual curiosity of students.
If Negro students are to overcome cultural deprivation, herculean
efforts must be made outside of class as well as in the classroom.
The library-college certainly offers hope in this area, and it will
not permit faculty in Negro colleges to be disdainfully uncommitted.

For fear that I may obviate the obvious, I am offering no com-
mentary on the need for a broad curriculum which is needed in many
American colleges including Negro colleges.

Turning to the facility for the library-college, most Negro colleges
would be in dire need of a large capital outlay of funds to provide
for a learning resources center which would reflect all media placed
in proximity of the student in his carrel. Before I think in terms of
estimated costs for an installation which will provide a carrel for an
entire student body, let me say a word or two about the current use
of the new technology in Negro colleges in general.

By and large, a large number of Negro colleges during the past
few years have established audiovisual centers where classes may
come to view films, filmstrips, and these centers serve as depositories
for projectors, tapes and other equipment. For foreign language
instruction, they also have installed language laboratories, which are
the extent of facilities for independent study, except for those in-
stitutions that have recently built new libraries and have acquired
traditional library carrels, which will seat only a small portion of
their students.

1 -Robert Jordan, "The Library-College A Merging of Library and Class-
room," in The Library-College. Philadelphia: Drexel Press, 1966, p. 5L
^^Letter from David Riesman, December 5, 1966.

52

The most sophisticated audio laboratories at a Negro college to be
reported in the literature recently is at Virginia State College
Norfolk Division.i^ Of course this installation is not library oriented
(the library has a catalog of all of the center's tapes), but it does
have great potential for individualized instruction and is purported
to serve "over 50 percent of the potential users and operating at over
70 percent of capacity . . ."^^

What has been done generally with the use of audiovisual materials
in instruction on Negro college campuses heretofore has been rather
limited and independent learning has been primarily one of supple-
menting the classroom and not utilizing class time as envisioned in
the library-college. However, it is this writer's opinion that if adequate
funds were available there are some librarians and a small number
of faculty at Negro colleges who are innovative enough to attempt
this brave new world of undergraduate education through the medium
of the library-college.

What would be the cost of building a new facility to support a
library-college? It is suggested by Donald K. Stewart of Texas A & M
University, that a dial access information retrieval system may be
estimated "by using cost figures from $250 to $600 for each receiver
location and from $100 to $400 for each program source (audio
only). Depending upon the instructional and technical specifications,
the cost of an installation could exceed or be under this estimated
price range. "^*^

McClendon of Oral Roberts University reports that at his institu-
tion "the computerized dial access audio-video system is located in
the six-story, $3 million Learning Resources Center consisting of
four and one-half acres of interior space distributed over six floors.
The initial system installation cost was $615,000."^^

From the information presented regarding the cost of the installa-
tion of a facility as a vehicle for the library-college, it becomes im-
mediately inevitable that the conclusion to be drawn is that it is two
costly for the many financially struggling Negro colleges to consider.
Unless outside financial resources can be tapped, the greatest im-
pediment to Negro colleges in providing the proper facility for a
library-college is money.

As regards to Shores student enrollment ceilmg of 500, I do not
think that this will create a problem for the very small church re-
lated colleges. The dangerous situation will arise when an attempt
is made to divide the student bodies of some of the predominatly
Negro state colleges into a cluster of colleges. It is my belief that
educators will be reluctant because of traditional attitudes, which

^*Jack B. Krail, "The Audio Laboratories at Virginia State College (Norfolk
Division)," Audiovisual Instruction, 12:460-463, May, 1967.

^^Ibid, p. 463.

^ ^Donald K. Stewart, "The Cost Analysis of Dial Access Information Retrieval
System," Audiovisual Instruction, 12:433, May, 1967.

^''Paul I. McClendon, "Oral Roberts University's Dial Access Audio-"^sual
System," Audiovisual Instruction, 12:466, May,1967.

53

will have to be changed for the purpose of keeping a student body
within the bounds of what is considered an optimum size for a
library-college.

Possibilities and Opportunities

I have sought to comment on the problems and the possibilities
of establishing a library-college in predominantly Negro colleges. 1
have dwelt less on possibilities because of the numerous problems
that these institutions would face in reorganization, reorienting facul-
ty and above all the acquisitioning of funds that must be procurred
to accomplish this task.

Of great advantage to the students in a library-college would, of
course, be the individualizing of their education which will create
innumerable possibilities for Negro students who come from cultur-
ally deprived and disadvantaged backgrounds. Those students who
are alert and academically talented would not be in an educational
lockstep, and they could proceed learning at a faster rate. As we
consider independent study as holding limitless opportunities for
students in Negro colleges, there will be a large number of faculty
who are tradition-bound and would fight to the death not to give
up their most noble part of teaching, the lecture. There is a persistent
notion that learning has not taken place unless one lectures.

I cannot overemphasize the great stimulus to learning that stu-
dents in these colleges would enjoy, because of the availability of
knowledge in a variety of formats. Having come from ill-starved
secondary school libraries, most of these young people have not been
avid readers. Thus, the audio and video materials will do much to
stimulate new intellectual excitement. On the other hand, as I pointed
out earlier, most of these students will have to be taught how to
study in order to reap the maximum benefits of the hbrary-coUege.

Finally, should Negro colleges become a library-college? It would
be intellectually dishonest or a little short of ludicrous for me to
answer this central question completely in the affirmative, for there
are too many unresolved questions and problems that must be
answered by the faculty and librarians in these institutions. A library-
college will not succeed unless the administration and the faculty of
these colleges are convinced of the merits of the program. In spite
of the fact that I have joined the library-college priesthood, firstly,
because of the infinite educational opportunities for students who
attend predominantly Negro colleges, and, secondly, because of the
more active role that librarians and libraries will play in the educa-
tional process, I would recommend that only those institutions that
possess experimental potential and that are able to acquire the re-
sources interested and committed administration and faculty, funds,
and facilities should establish a library-coUege.

The rapidly changing world in which we live today is testimony to
the obvious fact that education is a life long activity for all citizens
who do not wish to become obsolete in their profession. The library-
college offers hope by providing students with the skills, which will
enable them to live successfully in their personal as well as their
professional lives.

54

An Enrichment Program: Industrial Arts
and Elementary Education

By
Richard M. Coger

Technological advancements in our industrial society have con-
siderably changed the contents of and the teaching methods employed
in elementary education. As a result, each generation of teachers
must acquire more knowledge and more improved skills than the
preceding one. Likewise, each new generation of learners must ac-
quire more knowledge and more complex abilities than the preceding
one. If our society is to continue to prosper or even survive, the
teacher, next to parents, must be considered the most important per-
son in helping to mold the lives of students. Industrial arts for the
elementary schools purports to augment the teachability of each
child.

Industrial arts was introduced in the elementary school in this
country in 1902, at Eastern Michigan University in Ypsilanti.
Michigan. It was taught by Alice I. Boardman during the summer
of that year. She was a specialist and consultant in manual training
and kindergarten methods. In 1915, the words "manual training"
were changed to "industrial arts."

In spite of the fact that this type of program has been in educational
circles for more than half a century, it has never attained the full
order of educational statesmanship. In this writer's reasoning, the
stalemate is due mainly to the doctrine most educators have pro-
claimed in relation to manual dexterity.

During the 1920's, the doctrines of Pestalozzi and Froebel domin-
ated the thinking of educators concerned. Since then, new methods
of teaching and additional insights into the nature of learning have
been developed. The thoughts of Gestalt psychology and Dewey's
philosophy have been in the forefront. Bonser, Mossman, and New-
kirk's contributions to the total program within the frame of the
philosophical approach merit mention also. However, the area lacks
the leadership with which these thoughts may be intromitted into a
workable solution.

Carter Good's Dictionary Of Education defines elementary indus-
trials arts as "informative and manipulative work offered in the first
six grades, involving tools, materials, processes, and products of
industry as they relate to home and community life." Industrial arts
in the elementary schools exists mainly to enrich the total program of
learning activities. One does not have to "make room" for it to
accomphsh such an objective. Its activities can be correlated easily
with existing courses, for it is a vital and integral part of general
education and not an addition. In the social studies, for example.

97781

children may learn how man has used the natural resources of his
environment to meet his basic physical needs, and how he has
created and perpetuated institutions and cultures to make life more
secure, meaningful, and satisfying through modem technology.

Children learn many behavioral patterns. The most important
ones are: social, emotional, and personal adjustments; information,
concepts, and principles; and principles of problem-solving. These
patterns may be developed by using three-dimensional models. For
example: the students will better understand the Colonial Period by
carving on leather some designs applicable to that period. This plan
works well for concentrated individual work, group planning, sharing,
cooperation, discussion, problem-solving, or evaluation. With rare
exceptions, there should be daily contact with such basic areas of
human experiences.

Elementary industrial arts promotes better understanding in inter-
preting the industrial aspects of our society. It shows the interrelated-
ness of various subjects. It also promotes recreational values and
leisure-time interests. The intrinsic values and leisure-time interests.
The intrinsic value it offers can be taught in the kindergarten as
well as in the elementary school. This enrichment program has
poven its worth in the Child-Centered Curriculum, in the Separate-
Subjects Curriculum, in the Broad-Fields Curriculum, and in the
Society-Centered School. Manipulation of materials, expression, and
experimentation with form are basic in this program. The child
learns a concept or expresses an experience in three-dimensional
form.

On the lower level, students may learn to identify materials by
using them. On the intermediate level, students usually have enough
coordination to work with materials. It is generally wise to begin
with clay. With this material a student can express the dimensions
of a can, the bigness of a wolf, or the roundness of a snake. Some
other useful materials are paper and wire. The upper elementary
students are more or less capable of working and experimenting with
materials, tools, and, to an extent, a few machines. Many experi-
ments can be developed from the following areas: leather, electricity,
metals, textiles, woods, enameling, ceramics, graphic arts, transporta-
tion, jewelry, and plastics.

On the upper level students are in their "age of realism" This is
the period in which they become fully aware of themselves and
their industrial society. They like to belong to gangs of their own
sex and to think independently of adults. The content of a given
lesson can be centered around experiments in the foregone areas in
relation to various industrial processes, tools, materials, and a few
machines. Some of the machines, which any child on this level can
operate safely under supervision, are the jigsaw, drill press, and
forming machine. Any tool, if used properly, is safe.

As displayed in Table I, industry is divided, generally, into six
divisions: manufacturing, construction, communication, transporta-
tion, power, and servicing. Manufacturing is centered around the

56

processing of raw materials into useful objects through some form
of fabrication. Activities in construction are the erece:on of public
buildings, highways, homes, and the facilities therein. Communica-
tion deals with the graphic representation and the recording and
transferring of thoughts and ideas. The transportation area is the
movement of goods and people by air, land, sea and, more recently,
space. Transportation is closely related to manufacturing and ser-
vicing. The area of power deals with energy provided by harnessing
or containing natural resources. And the activities of services deal
with maintenance and repair of machines, tools, and appliances.

57

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It should be noted that the success of a program of this nature
depends mainly on the ability of the teacher to organize various
activities in the classroom. These activities should be designed to
enrich the teaching of a given subject, and to make learning more
meaningful and enjoyable. This requires expermentation on the
part of the teacher during the preplanning stages.

"Environmental Learning" on the lower, middle, and upper grade
levels can make a definite and rewarding contribution to the overall
program of elementary education. Through various experiences in
the laboratory a child has the opportunity to learn industrial proces-
ses, identify materials commonly found in his society, develop re-
creational interests, accept individual differences, "learn by doing,""
realize the need for planning in any endeavor, and learn the import-
ance of the rules of safety. This program will give the students an
opportunity to investigate, experiment, and acquire a basic under-
standing of our social industries. Working with three dimensions will
be a new experience for most students and a rewarding one.

Bibliography

1. Bennett, Charles A., History of Manual and Industrial Education: 1870-1917

Peoria, Illinois: Manual Arts Press, 1937.

2. Gilbert, H. G., Children Study American Industry. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C.

Brown Company Publishers, 1966.

3. ., "Introducing Elementary School Children to Industrial

Processes." Unpublished paper presented at the AIAA Convention, Tulsa.
Okla., 1965.

Olson, D. W., Industrial Arts and Technology. Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1963.

59

Far Infrared and Raman Studies

On the 0"H O Bond Stretching Vibrations

In Crystals

by
V. Ananthanarayanan

Summary

The bond stretching force constants and the frequencies of the
O-H O bonds in selected crystals where precise experimental deter-
minations of the hydrogen positions by diffraction methods are
available, were calculated theoretically by making use of the Lip-
pincott-Schroeder potential function to test its applicability for general
usage. Experiments in the medium and far infrared regions (100 -
700 cm -^) on these crystals were carried out to locate the hydrogen
bond stretching frequencies. These data along with the Raman
Spectral data, collected from the literature as well as from our ex-
periments, are discussed in relation to the calculated frequencies.
These frequencies and force constants were also calculated on this
model as a function of O-H O bond lengths between the limits
2.4 to 3.0A and in intervals of 0.1 A. These results are presented
in the form of a table which may be used to approximately determine
these quantities as a function of bonded distance. The experimental
results show that the potential function used seems to be satisfactory
in predicting the hydrogen bond stretching frequencies.

Introduction

A number of theoretical and experimental studies on the vibra-
tional spectra of hydrogen bonded O-H O systems in crystals have
been made [1-8]. The potential function associated with the move-
ment of the hydrogen atom within the hydrogen bond was developed
by LIPPINCOTT and SCHROEDER [1,2] and it is here applied to
explain the features in the low frequency region of a number of
crystals. Recently in the vibrational spectra studies of two dicarb-
oxylic acids, one of us [6] appUed this function with success to ex-
plain the hydrogen bond vibrational frequencies observed in the
Raman spectra of adipic and sebacic acids.

The application of the potential function of LIPPINCOTT and
SCHROEDER to calculate the stretching force constant, requires,
besides other easily available data, essentially the O-O and O-H bond
lengths of the hydrogen bond. The use of the neutron diffraction
method to locate the hydrogen atom positions in crystals, has enabled
the precise determination of the bond lengths in many crystals. The
availability of such data prompted us to make the theoretical
calculations of the frequencies with this potential function and to test

60

its applicability for general use. Experimental far infrared and Raman
studies on the vibrational spectra of these crystals were also made to
locate the frequencies.

Theoretical Calculations and Results

Details of the LIPPINCOTT and SCHROEDER potential model
are available in the literature [1, 2] and only the essential aspects
are outlined below.

In this model, an explicit form is assumed for the movement of
the hydrogen atom in the hydrogen bond based upon a Morse func-
tion. It is made up of four terms relating to the O-H bond, H O
bond and two other parts representing the Vander Walls repulsion
and electrostatic attraction between the oxygen atoms. The potential
function contains, in addition to the O O distance (R) and O-H
distance (r), a number of other parametric variables. The condi-
tions characteristic of stable equilibrium for the motions of the nuclei
along the hydrogen bond are used to relate many of these quantities
to the experimental data. This model is highly successful in cor-
relating such experimental behavior as the dependence of the O-H
stretching frequency shift, H-bond energy and O-H bond length
with the O-O distance. Although this force field lacks simplicity
in performing calculations, it is suited to the present work, in view
of its inherent advantages. The final expression for the force constant
of the O-H O hydrogen bond used in the present calculations is
the same as that given in reference 6. The numerical values of the
constants are also listed in the same reference and need not be re-
peated here.

In Table 1 is given a selected collection of the structure data for
the hydrogen bonded crystals (O-H bonds) where precise deter-
mination of the R and r values have been made by x-ray and/or
neutron diffraction studies. References to individual investigations
are summarized by PIMENTEL and McCLELLAN [9] and by
HAMILTON [10] therefore they are not repeated here. In the
first column of this Table are given the compounds followed by the
columns listing the r and R values, the calculated values of the
hydrogen bond stretching force constants (Kq-h o) and the fre-
quencies "O-H O. The structure data given in Table 1, relating

to R and r, have been utilized by PIMENTEL and McCLELLAN
[9] to graphically represent the dependence of r values on the O-O
distances in hydrogen bonded crystals. The availabihty of such data

prompted us to calculate the values of Kq-h o as a function

of R between 2.5 - 3.0 A at intervals of 0.1 A. The values of r
were read from the above mentioned curve and used in our calcu-
lations. These results are presented in Table 2. The data in Tables
1 and 2 should be useful in determining approximate values of
Ko-H in cases where the O O bond lengths are known.

The potential function used in our studies is very sensitive to
small changes in R and r values. The standard deviations in the
values of r and R, where reported, are included and could be used

61

to estimate the resulting uncertainties caused in the calculated values
of Ko-H and "O-H O values on this account. The usual un-
certainties in bond lengths are mostly 0.0 1-0. 02 A. From the data
given in Table 2, an estimate of the effect of this variation on

"O-H O values could be made. This amounts to about 5% in the

region R := 2.4 - 2. 5 A, to about 12% in the extreme end of
R = 2.9 - 3.0A. This estimate was made for an uncertainty of
0.0 15A in R values throughout. These estimates have been given
in terms of wave numbers for individual crystals in Table 1.

The frequencies "O-H O were calculated from the values of

Ko-H o using a diatomic molecule approximation with the ap-
propriate reduced mass of the hydrogen bonded complex. This was
done by a careful scrutiny of the bonding arrangements from struc-
ture details. For example, we have used the effective reduced mass
of the C-O H-O bond in the case of oxalic acid dihydrate (i.e., the
mass of 28 due to C-O bond against 17 due to H-O bond), S-O H-O
in gypsum, C-O H-O in sodium sesquicarbonate and B-O-H O-B
in boric acid. The immediate neighbor atoms that are bonded to
the oxygen in these cases, like carbon, boron and sulfur are of weight
comparable to that of oxygen, and may be expected to influence
the hydrogen bond vibrations. On this basis we have assumed that
in a - iodic acid the effective reduced mass involved is that of the
O-H O complex only, because the mass of the iodine is so great.

Experimental Details

The far infrared spectra for the compounds hsted in Table 1 were
obtained as mulls in Nujol using a Perkin-Elmer Model 301 Spec-
trophotometer. Suitably wedged polyethylene plates were used to
hold the mull. The infrared spectrum of oxalic acid dihydrate in the
region >300cm-'was also obtained using a Beckman IR-4 Spec-
trophotometer with CsBr optics. Raman data were available in the
literature for most cases [11]. The Raman spectrum of a single
crystal of a - resorcinol was recorded using the Cary Model 81
Raman Spectrophotometer. Water-clear single crystals of a - resor-
cinol were grown by the slow evaporation method.

Spectral Data and Discussion

We proceed to consider the spectral data in relation to the cal-
culated values in the case of individual crystals. Our discussion
will be limited to the region where hydrogen bond vibrations are
present.

(i) Oxalic acid dihydrate: The infrared spectra recorded by us
show among other features, broad bands centered at 105, 124 and
570 10 cm-^ Raman studies have reported frequencies at 116,
123 and 573 cm-^ These are reasonably close to the theoretical
values of frequencies due to three distinct hydrogen bonds of differ-
ing lengths. In the infrared spectrum there are bands close to 570
at 495 and 454 cm-^ with their Raman counterparts at 482 and 422

62

cm-^ We believe they are due to the frequencies of the twisting and
bonding of the molecular framework, which have also been observed
in many other dicarboxylic acids [12, 13].

(ii) Ice: This frequency for ice from Raman studies have been
reported in numerous investigations to be '--^ 205 cm"' [9, 14]

(iii) Gypsum: Our far infrared spectrum of gypsum shows a well
defined maximum at 170 2 cm-^ The Raman spectrum of gypsum
reported by KRISHNAN [15] shows besides others a band close
to this at 162 cm-^ In the case of gypsum, if we assume that the
vibration involves the reduced mass of the O-H O complex only,

then the calculated value of "O-H O turns out to be -; 235 cm'.)

It is worth mentioning that our far infrared studies show a band at
229 cm-i. A Raman band at 211 cm-^ has also been observed [15].

(iv) a - Iodic acid: The far infrared band at 285 3 cm"^ observed
by us and the Raman band at 295 cm-^ reported in the Iherature
may be assigned to the hydrogen bond vibration.

(v) Sodium sesquicarbonate: A broad band centered at 201 cm-^
was observed in the far infrared region.

(vi) -Rcsorcinol: The far infrared and Raman spectra of
resorcinol recorded by us show bands at 224 and 165 cm-^ in the
Raman and 253 and 163 cm-^ in the far infrared. The complete
vibrational spectrum of this crystal is being analysed.

(vii) Boric acid: The far infrared spectrum recorded by us shows
a band centered at 214 cm-^

(viii) Pentaerythritol: The far infrared spectrum recorded by us
exhibits, among other features, a broad band (several tens of wave-
numbers) centered at 225 cm-^ which may be tentatively assigned
to the hydrogen bond vibration.

A comparison of the data presented above with those entered in
Table 1 shows that there is good agreement with the calculated
values and our assignments. The slight deviations between these
two sets of values are well within the uncertainties [8] that may be
introduced due to the experimental errors in the bond lengths, as-
sumed parameters, approximations involved in the calculations, and
the empirical nature of the potential function used.

63

TABLE 1

List of Crystals, Hydrogen Bond Lengths and Theoretically Calcu-
lated Hydrogen Bond Force Constants and Frequencies

Compound

r R

(OH) (O-H O)

in A units

Ko-H in

10^ dynes /cm

units

wo-H in
cm' units

Theoretically calculated
values

Oxalic acid

Dihydrate

[(COOH)2.2HoO]

0.95

0.98^

1.060

2.85
2.88
2.52

0.065
0.058
1.962

10512

9712

56030

Ice (cubic
form)

0.97

2.76
0.01

0.174

19015

(H2O)
Gypsum

(CaS04.2H20)

0.99
0.027

2.82
0.014

0.135

16012

a - Iodic acid
(HIO3)

0.99
0.02

2.69
0.01

0.325

26020

Sodium Sesqui
Carbonate
(Nao CO3

Na HCO3.

2HoO)

1.01
0.02

2.77
0.02

0.207

19015

Boric Acid
(H3BO3)

1.035
0.015

2.715
0.015

0.399

22015

a - Resorcinol

0.98

2.754

0.230

22015

(CeH O2)

1.06

2.69i

0.390

16620

Pentaerythritol
C(CH2 0H),

0.94
0.03

2.74
0.02

0.260

205 15

64

TABLE 2

Theoretically Calculated Values of Hydrogen Bond Force Constants
and Frequencies* for Hydrogen Bond Lengths Varying

Between 2.4-3.0 A

R r

N

Kq-H in

fJo-i,---o in

O

in

A units

1 0' dynes/cm units

cnT'

1

2.40

I.IO4

3.88

890

2

2.50

1.06,s

1.94

630

3

2.60

1.033

0.84

410

4

2.70

l.Oi

0.34

270

5

2.80

0.988

0.14

170

6

2.90

0.972

0.04

90

7 3.00 0.96r O.OOj 35

* These frequencies have been calculated assuming the reduced
mass of the O-H O bond. In actual crystals, however, the effective
reduced mass of the system inclusive of the neighboring atoms or
groups intimately bonded to the oxygen atoms of the bridge should
be used.

References

(1) LIPPINCOTT, E. R., FINCH, J. N. and SCHROEDER, R.; Hydrogen

Bonding, New York, Pergamon Press, 1956.

(2) LIPPINCOTT, E. R. and SCHROEDER. J.: J. Chem. Phys. 23 ( 1955)

1099.

(3) REID, C: J. Chem. Phys. 30 (1959) 182.

(4) SPANGENBERG, H. J.: Z. Phys. Chem. (Leipzig) 220 (1962) 298.

(5) HADZI, D.: Hydrogen Bonding, New York, Pergamon Press, 1956.

(6) ANANTHANARAYANAN, V.: Spectrochim. Acta. 20 (1964) 197.

(7) STANEVICH, A. E.: Optics and Spectroscopy, 16 (1964) 243.

(8) ANANTHANARAYANAN, V. and DANTL A.: J. Mol. Spect. 20

(1966) 88.

(9) PIMENTEL, G. C. and McCLELLAN, A. L.: The Hydrogen Bond, San

Francisco, W. H. Freeman and Co. 1960.

(10) HAMILTON, C. W.: Ann. Rev. Phys. Chem. 13 (1962) 19.

(11) EUCKEN, A. and HELLWEGE, K. H.: Atom and Molekular Physik,

Vol. IV, Berlin, Springer Verlag, 1955.

(12) BELLAMY, L. J.: The Infrared Spectra of Complex Molecules, Lon-

don, Methuen, 1958.

(13) ANANTHANARAYANAN, V.: Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 51 (1960) 328.

(14) TAYLOR, M. J. and WHALLEY, E.: J. Chem. Phys. 40 (1964) 1660.

(15) KRISHNAN, R. S.: Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 22 (1945) 274.

65

The Distribution of Income in A

Highly Industrialized Society

by
Sarvan K. Bhatia

At the present time, the United States alone accounts for over
two-fifths of the total free world's industrial production. In a single
generation, the United States has been catapulted into a position of
leadership, economically as well as militarily, in the free world. All
this affluence, never dreamed of only two or three decades ago,
has been made possible by the acceleration of technology. The rapid
advances being made in technology and sciences offer even greater
hopes of still further abundance. As a result of the industrial revolu-
tion, supplemented largely by the scientific and technological revo-
lution in the twentieth century, human labor and skills are being
increasingly replaced by machinery. The industrial revolution of the
eighteenth century was based on the combination of the power
of the machine with the skill of the human being. The decades of
the 1940's and 1950's witnessed the industrially developed nations
of the world enter a new revolutionary era in which the power of
the machine was combined with the skill of the machine to form
a production system which has unlimited capacity to work and
produce.^ As Robert Theobald points out, the basis of this new
revolution is a greatly increased understanding of the processes of
communication between men and machines and between machines
themselves; this change can therefore justly be called the cybernetic
revolution of the twentieth century.

The cybernated systems perform with a precision and a rapidity
unmatched in human beings. These systems also perform in ways
that would be impractical or impossible for humans to duplicate.
Predictions about the startHng effects of cybernation- are now being
made frequently. The evidence is overwhelming that the United States
will shortly have the technological capability to install a productive
system based primarily on machine power and machine skills within
the next two decades.^

^For a detailed analysis, see Robert Theobald, Free Men and Free Markets
(New York, 1963), pp. 11-20.

-Cybernation includes both the use of computers and the use of automatic
machinery and tools. There are two important classes of devices. One class,
usually referred to when one speaks of "automation," is made up of devices
that automatically perform sensing and motor tasks, replacing or improving
on human capacities for performing these functions. The second class
usually referred to when one speaks of "computers," is composed of devices
that perform very rapidly routine or complex logical and decision-making
tasks, replacing or improving on human capacities for performing these
functions.

^Robert Theobald, op. cit., p. 19. Theobald goes on to point out that since
the beginning of the industrial revolution, we have witnessed a growing
replacement of manpower by machine power, but man's skills were still
essential to the utilization of machine power. The coming replacement
of man's skills by machine's skills will destroy many jobs and render
useless the work experience of vast numbers now employed.

66

The fundamental problem posed by the cybernation revolution in
the United States is that it invahdates the general mechanism so far
employed to undergird people's rights as consumers. Up to this time,
economic resources have been distributed on the basis of contribu-
tions to production with machines and men competing for employ-
ment on somewhat equal terms. In the developed as well as develop-
ing cybernated systems, potentially unlimited output can be achieved
by systems of machines which will require Httle cooperation from
human beings. As machines take over production from men who
are displaced, they become dependent on minimal unrelated govern-
mental measures such as unemployment insurance, social security
and welfare payments. These measures are less and less able to
disguise a historic paradox, namely that a growing proportion of
the population is subsisting on minimal incomes, often below the
poverty Une, at a time when sufficient productive potential is available
to supply the need of every one in the United States.^ This paper
therefore is intended to draw attention to the ironic fact of poverty
amidst growing abundance.

There are many indicators available to measure the economic
well-being of a given society. It is, however, agreed that the best
available indicator of an economy's health is its annual total output
of goods and services, or the economy's aggregate output. By looking
at the national income accounts for a period of time, it is possible
to plot the long-run course which the economy of a nation has been
following. Thus by looking at the level of production achieved by
the U. S. economy, we find that the gross national product has
increased year after year and that the rate of growth has consider-
ably accelerated during the post-Second World War period, and
even more so in the decade of the 1960's. To wit, the gross national
product for the year 1933 was $56 billion, six years later, it had
gone up to $91.1 billion, whereas in another six-year period, it had
more than doubled the 1939 figure, the figure for 1945 being
$213.6 billion. A decade later, in 1955, the gross national product
stood at $397.5 bilhon. In 1960, it had stiU further increased to
$502.5 billion, and last year's money gross national product was
close to $740 billion. So far, the year 1966 has been the most
prosperous year in U. S. economic history. The output of goods and
services, growing by well over one billion dollars a week, swelled
from $681 billion in 1965 to nearly $740 billion in 1966. Similarly,
the number of jobs rose by 2,200,000 and almost 75 million Ameri-
cans were at work; the average income for a family of four rose from
$9,772 to $10,304. Investment, which is the key to any nation's
economic growth and development, increased by 17 per cent during
1966 to an alltime high of $61 billion. Productivity per man-hour
during the decade of 1960's has increased, on an average, by 3.5
per cent. The rate of unemployment has remained at a relatively low

^President Johnson, in his State of the Union message in 1965, referred,
inter-alia, to the question of poverty and stated, "Most Americans tonight
enjoy a good hfe. But far too many are still trapped in poverty, idleness and
fear."

67

level as compared with the second half of 1940 and the decade of
1950's. at times having fallen to less than 4%; currently, it is 3.7%.

But while there is enough to go around for all, unfortunately not
all are sharing. There is enough in our ever-swollen granaries so that
no person need go to bed hungry and yet millions do so, while mil-
lions of others are vaguely uneasy and feel guilty about so absurd
a situation." The American farm perhaps is technology's most no-
torious victory. Productivity per man-hour in the farming industry
increased 70 per cent during the period 1947 to 1955, and 176 per
cent from 1947 through 1964. The respective figures for the non-
farm economy are 27 per cent and 56 per cent. Allowing for com-
pounding, the average annual increase in productivity in the farm
economy has been about twice as fast as elsewhere. The rapid ad-
vances in output per man-hour and increased crop yields have en-
abled total farm output to rise from 81 in 1947 (index 1957-59 =
100) to 111 in 1964. And yet, despite increased productivity, the
farmer has received a continuously dwindhng share of the national
income. For example, comparing 1964 with 1947, net farm opera-
tors' income dropped from $19.5 bilhon to $12.6 billion, or more
than one-third. Accordingly we find that in 1963, about one half
of all farm families, or 43.4 per cent, had incomes below $3000.

Agriculture is not the only industry where a large percentage of
the farm operators have a very low income. About one-fifth of the
nonfarm famiUes had an annual income of less than $3000 in the
year 1963.^ According to one of the studies made by the U. S.
Department of Labor, a family of six or more required in 1962
prices a modest but adequate budget of $5200 - $9600; the range for
a two-person family was $3900 - $4300, for a one-person family
$2300 - $3100. Not taking into account varying living costs in dif-
ferent regions of the United States, the government officials and
others concerned have been very conservative in determining that,
generally speaking, families with incomes under $3000 a year, and
unattached individuals with incomes under $1500 a year, live in
poverty. These ceilings, however, are very much below the average
modest but adequate budget, which is $6200 for six-person families
and almost one-half of this amount for unattached individuals.

The number of families living in poverty, that is, with an annual
income of less than $3000, was nearly nine million, or an esti-

'For details, see W. H. Ferry, "CAUGHT ON THE HORN OF PLENTY,"
Bulletin, January 1962, published by the Center for the Study of Democratic
Institutions. Ferry goes on to point out that the disaster of abundance on
our farms has so far resisted solution is a portent of greater dilemmas in
other areas. In his viewpoint, "the country may soon be in the same fix
with regard to consumer goods and services more than enough for all,
but without the political wit to know how to bring about a just distribution."
While introducing the Economic Opportunity Bill, President Johnson said
that we are citizens of the richest and most fortunate nation in the history
of the world. At the same time, he added, "There are millions of Americans-
one fifth of our people - who have not shared in the abundance which has
been granted to most of us, and on whom the gates of opportunity have
been closed."

68

mated 29 million people in the year 1963. The number of unattached
individuals living in poverty with incomes under $1500 was five
million. Thus, in 1963, the total number of persons living in poverty
was 34 million. Of these 34 million people, more than one-half
reflect deficient education, 44 per cent live in the South, 40 per
cent reflect excessive unemployment, 29 per cent are female family
heads, 27 per cent represent aged family heads, and one out of every
seven live on farms. Incidentally, it may be pointed out that many
of these people fall in two or more categories.

When we look at the distribution of income figures over the last
few years, we find that the gap between average income of the poor
and the average income of all Americans is widening.'^ Looking at
the distribution of income of American famihes and individuals for
the year 1962, we find that almost one-third of them received only
one-tenth of the total income; that is, under the $1000 income group
were 31 per cent of all families and individuals and they received
only 10 per cent of all income. When we go to the other extreme, we
find that there were only 7 per cent of all families and individuals
making over $15,000, but this small percentage earned 24 per cent
of all income during 1962. If we add up the number who earned
more than $10,000 during 1962, we notice that 19 per cent of all the
families and individuals who were in the $10,000 or above income-
bracket group received during 1962 a little less than one-half of
all the income, or 44 per cent.

My objective in writing this paper was to point to these two ex-
treme groups of people in the United States. We have noticed that
whereas on the one hand there are those few who do earn a sub-
stantial part of the total income, there are at the same time others,
in millions, who do not earn enough to make both ends meet. If
only something is done to raise the income level of the millions living
in poverty, it is bound to be reflected in the increased income flow
to those who are already better off not to speak of billions of more
dollars to be added to the national income and gross national pro-
duct. It has been estimated that if the annual earnings of only half
the millions living in poverty be increased somehow by $1000, about
$14 billion can be added to the gross national product. In addition,
this increase will allow for both large reductions in public assistance
payments which now amount to about five bilHon dollars a year, and
substantial reductions in expenditures on fighting crime and de-
linquency.

^Whereas the gap between average income of the poor and the average in-
come of all Americans has widened, the number of families living in
poverty has been on the decline since the Second World War; it had
dropped to 9 million in 1963 as compared with 12 million famihes in 1947
an annual reduction of about two per cent on an average. However, on this
basis, it will take nearly 50 years to eradicate poverty in the United States;
hence the urgency of the need to do something to ameliorate the economic
lot of the masses.

69

The Evolution of Free Enterprise and
Capitalism in the United States

by
Sarvan K. Bhatia

Less than two hundred years ago, a very short time in the span of
history, the United States consisted of thirteen states Hned up against
the eastern seaboard. In front of these states was nothing but a
hostile sea, and there was nothing behind them except the raw,
natural resources which required the greatest determination of any
human will to work with. And yet we find that during the course
of last two centuries, the United States has become one of the
greatest powers on earth. At present, the United States has only
six per cent of the total world population and almost an equal area.
Yet, the United States produces more than one-third of total world
production. A question may therefore be raised appropriately as to
how this growth has taken place.

The answer is not a simple one. A number of factors have ac-
counted for this tremendous growth. The capitalistic system and the
various basic tenets of it are part of the explanation. Some of the
other equally important factors which have contributed to this eco-
nomic development are the rich and varied economic resources with
which nature has endowed the United States, the abundance of
capital, training facilities and a highly skilled and efficient labor
force, free enterprise and the market economy. Although there is
no neat and universally accepted definition of capitalism, the frame-
work of capitalism embodies the following institutions and assump-
tions: private property, freedom of enterprise and choice, self-interest
as the dominant motive, competition, reliance upon the price system,
and a limited role for government.^

When we happen to look at the history of the last two hundred
years, we find that new and different forms of economic organizations
have presented themselves in a challenging and bewildering array.
The nineteenth and early twentieth centuries where the era of cap-
italist growth. Within a century of its first full bloom in the industrial
revolution, capitalism had reached out to become the commanding
economic structure of a large part of the world. Most of Europe
and North America in the early stages of industrial revolution be-
came market-oriented, profit-stimulated, and industrially-based
economies. These countries in turn exerted their influence over a
vast portion of the non-capitalist world, that is, over its unindustrial-
ized areas.

^Campbell R. McConnell, Economics, Principles, Problems, and Policies
(New York, 1966), p. 43.

70

However, there has taken place a basic change in the economic
orientation of the world. It can be described as the collectivization
of the twentieth-century economic life. Over a large part of the last
two centuries, capitalism was the triumphant and dominant form
of economic and social organization in the world; this is no longer
true. Today and over the foreseeable future, traditional capitalism
throughout most of the world has been thrown on a defensive from
which it is doubtful that it can ever recover.-

Along with the change in traditional capitalism has come a change
in the free enterprise and free markets. Basically speaking, the United
States is still a capitalistic country but with certain important modi-
fications. What is a free market? It is a way of putting together
money, manpower and merchandise to cater to the needs of the
customer. Has there taken place any change in the free market?
The answer is no. Is the customer under obhgation to purchase a
specific good? The answer once again is no. It is the sweet will and
willingness on the part of the consumer to buy anything he wants,
of course at the going market rate. Every business is being tested
every day by the free choice of the consumer. And yet there has taken
place some profound change. The consumer, through advertisement
and promotional sales, is being persuaded to buy a given product
rather than what he had been accustomed to buy. New products
coming on the market attract the consumer.

The same is true in regard to free enterprise. Webster says that
free enterprise is the freedom of private business to organize and
operate for profit, in competition with each, without interference
by government beyond regulations necessary for keeping the na-
tional economy in balance. And yet we know that in a number of
more important industries, free enterprise, as defined, does not exist.
For example, the first four industrial units in the aluminum industry
produce 100 per cent of total output; the same is equally true in
respect of the auto industry. With a very slight modification, we
observe the same situation prevailing in such industries as linoleum,
locomotives and parts, electric lamps, telephone and telegraph equip-
ment, gypsum products, steam engines and turbines. Undoubtedly,
therefore, there are a number of operational faults in the free en-
terprise and capitalistic economy of the United States and much
unfinished business still remains to be taken up. Actually, in the
free enterprise American society, the only unchanging fact is the
fact of change. The economy is flexible and sensitive. It adapts,
adjusts, and rolls with the punches. Just as the society has been
undergoing an evolutionary change, the same is true with the trend

^For details, see Robert L. Heilbroner, The Future as History (New York,
1960), pp. 93-114.

71

of increasing governmental authority.'^ The United States cannot, and
would not if it could, turn the clock back to the conditions repre-
sented by Henry Ford's Greenfield village.

Correlated with free enterprise is the institution of profits. As
a matter of fact, free enterprise without profits cannot be considered;
both of them are intricately related to one another. And yet we find
that in spite of the fact that free enterprise has been in existence for
uncounted centuries, and the same has been true in respect of the
profit motive, the word "profit," like sociahsm, is one of the most
maligned and misused words in the English language. However, the
chance to make a profit, or the undertaking of risk for making a
profit, is the very essence, the very foundation of a free enterprise
economy. Through the desire to make a profit, the buyer and seller
both gain. If there were no expectation of mutual advantages, mu-
tual profit, there would be no transaction. Then no one has to buy
and no one has to sell. No deal can be consummated unless it bene-
fits all parties concerned that is the creed of free enterprise. The
hope for profit also stimulates action. As a result of numerous in-
novations and inventions, not only do the inventors profit, but the
society as a whole also benefits. Instead of the enterprises being
owned by sole proprietorships^ and partnerships, which was true
not too many decades ago, at present there is no enterprise, sufficien-
tly large in size, being owned by one, two, or a few persons.^ Most
of the enterprises nowadays are owned by a large number of stock-
holders, there being as many as 20 million stockholders of various
corporations in the United States. ^^ In addition to these 20 million
stockholders, almost every family has a stake in the success of
American free enterprise. Banks, trust and pension funds, and life

'^According to J. Irwin Miller, one of the trustees of the Ford Foundation,
"Business has brought on itself most of the intervention of government. The
income tax started out as a very simple tax. Now it is bewildering, because
businessmen discovered a lot of loopholes and these had to be plugged. We
did not have a pure food and drug agency in this country until somebody
started putting out bad food .... A great deal of the so-called govern-
ment encroachment has been asked for by people misusing their freedom."
Quoted bv Robert Theobald, Free Men and Free Markets (New York,
1963), pp.' 48-49.

^Agriculture and retail trade are the only sections of US economy where
more than half of the business done is undertaken by single proprietors and
partnerships. Because of the huge capital requirements, both of these forms
of business enterprises are losing ground to the corporation. Undoubtedly,
unlimited liability and the red tape needed to ensure continuity are the main
drawbacks to the partnership form.

^In 1964. more than 2.2 million persons had shares in AT&T. The Stock
Exchange has a goal of people's capitalism" in which the masses have ap-
preciable ownership of corporate capital.

'The wide diversification of stockholding has resulted in a separation of
ownership and control. Recent studies show that in the typical giant
corporation, all management together - officers and directors - hold only
about 3 per cent of the outstanding common stock. The largest single min-
ority ownership groups typically hold only about a fifth of all voting stock.
Such a small fraction has been deemed more than enough to maintain
working control." For details, see A. A. Berle and Gardner C. Means,
Tlie Modern Corporation and Private Property (New York, 1932), and
R. A. Gordon. Business Leadership in the Large Corporation (Washington,
1945).

72

insurance companies, in which all of us have an interest, reinvest our
saved money in business as a way to earn a profit and not only
for themselves to continue in business, because a part of these profits
is distributed by way of dividends to those who have taken a risk
in their enterprises.

But while an investor is free to organize and to operate for profit,
the whole process has undergone a profound change. At almost
every step, the private investor is being regulated by numerous gov-
ernmental controls and the very concepts of the proper functions
of government have been profoundly changed during the last few
decades. Older shibboleths, which hailed the best government as
the one which governed least, are now of little use in evaluating
the propriety of new functions.''' They reflect the rear-guard defenses
of dogmatists opposed to the government's assuming any new func-
tions no matter what the national need for such action. The laissez-
faire capitalism which continued till the decade of the 1920's has of
late been supplanted by various government controls, as stated above. ^
The pure price economy is now a mixed economy in which elements
of government control are intermingled with market elements in orga-
nizing production and consumption. For example, no democratic
society could afford to sit idle while certain people starve from lack
of income and others receive inadequate or excessive incomes. There-
fore, the government has to step in with expenditures to supplement
the real or money incomes of some individuals. Moreover, govern-
ment has to provide certain indispensable public services, such as
the national defense, internal law and order, administration of justice,
etc., without which community life would be unthinkable and which
by their nature cannot appropriately be left to private enterprises.

In considering the current status of governmental operations and
expenditures, the striking fact is that we have completed what many
have characterized as the historic process of divestitute following a
sharp upsurge in new governmental functions.^ The changes in ex-
penditure and revenue at all levels of government confirm this con-
clusion. For example, in the year 1902, the total expenditure in re-
spect of all local, state and federal governments amounted to $1.7

"Adam Smith in his Wealth of Nations published in 18th century, defined
the duties of government as being defense, internal justice, and the erection
and maintenance of public institutions and public works, including roads
and education. They long served as guides for the students of government.
However, since then there has taken place a profound change in the
economic functions of government. Perhaps the single most important
change is the responsibility of government to regulate the economy with
a view to provide conditions for full employment, maintain price stability,
and to strive for accelerated economic growth and development besides
redistribution of income on a compatible basis.

^Laissez-faire capitalism stands for a system of free, competitive markets
with virtually no governmental control. In a liberal or democratic socialism,
there is a mixture of loose governmental planning and controls and regula-
tion of basic industries with reliance on markets and price mechanism as
we find in U.S.

'Solomon Barkin, in "Federal expenditure policy for economic growth and
stability," a paper submitted before the Subcommittee on Fiscal Policy,
Joint Economic Committee, 85th Cong., (Washington, 1957), p. 88.

73

billion (actual) whereas in the year 1963, it had gone up to $182
billion. The first and largest increase came about during the First
World War period, then the expenditure declined. The upsurge in
expenditure started with the decade of the 1930's and the Great
Depression, was intensified during the Second World War period,
did decline during the second half of the 1940's, but the upward
trend was resumed in the 1950's and there does not seem to be any
end in sight, whether we like it or not. The end of the second World
War witnessed the federal government's being given the responsibil-
ity by the Congress under the Employment Act of 1946 "to use
all practicable means ... to coordinate and utihze all of its plans,
functions, and resources, for the purpose of creating and maintaining,
in a manner calculated to foster and promote free competitive enter-
prise and the general welfare, conditions under v/hich there will be
useful employment opportunities, including self -employment, for those
able, willing and seeking to work, and to promote maximum employ-
ment, production, and the purchasing power." The federal govern-
ment has sought to implement these broad directives. To wit, fiscal
and monetary policies have been developed and put into operation
so that the people and government do not suffer from the sharp
swings of the cyclical fluctuations. Economic growth has been ac-
cepted as an essential objective. And the same is equally true in
regard to the amelioration of the lot of the poor masses. Helping
the poor, the aged, the unemployment and other categories of the
unfortunate has come to be accepted as the legitimate responsibility
of federal government and the expenditure for this purpose is now
by far the largest item of federal non-military spending. The spend-
ing for the year 1964 amounted to nearly $25 billion. Agriculture
is still another big single industry where the farmers are the major
beneficiaries of the farm aid amounting to almost $50 billion during
the period 1954-64.

In the light of the above remarks we can conclude that whereas a
few decades ago, the private sector of the U. S. economy played a
predominant role in the production and distribution of goods in the
way it wanted to, this freedom has now been circumscribed by
various governmental controls. Moreover, the U. S. government at
present accounts for more than one-fifth of the gross national pro-
duct. The government today has to play a positive role in the eco-
nomic affairs and certain positive functions have to be performed by
it. They are a far cry from the modest list of governmental responsi-
bilities recognized before 1929. Whenever there are any gaps or
shortcomings in the functioning of the economy, the government has
actively intervened during the last three decades to help the nation
realize the goals. The private, free enterprise economy has thus
been modified by governmental intervention.

74

K

I

On Shock Strengths with Respect
To Flow Parameters

by
Nazir A. Warsi

1. INTRODUCTION

The shock strength with respect to the specifiic volume y is given
by

(1.1) S^/ = [y]/y,/

Similarly, the velocity and pressure shock strengths can be given
by

(1.2) Su/ = [u^]/u,/

and

(1.3) 8,/ = [p]/p.

In what follows, an attempt has been made to find the relations
between different parametric shock strengths.

2. DIFFERENT SHOCK STRENGTHS

We have the following theorems in this regard.

Theorem 2.1: For a given 8^ , the velocity shock strength is given by

(2.1) Su/ = S^/h^y,/,
or

(2.2) 8u/ = 8^/U,yu,/,

which, for a stationary shock, reduces to

(2.3) Su,/ = S^/

Proof: The normal velocity behind the shock surface is given by [1]

(2.4) K,] = -K,Ky^,,

or

(2.5) [u/]=S,/V,,/

Equations (2.4) and (2.5) together with (1.2) give (2.1) and (2.2)
respectively. For a stationary shock surface, Vj^ = u^^ Thus, (2.2)
reduces to (2.3).

75

Theorem 2.2: The velocity strength of the shock is given by

2 c,^; h;y,/

(2.6) 8,,^/ = , : .

or

(2.7) S,.,^

V

y + 1 h^u^^
or

2 c - V ^

(2.8) 8./ =

y + 1 v,^u,/

or

2 yP,. + h,/V,,,/

(2.9) S.

y + 1 K/ u,,/

Proof: For the value of 8^^ we have [2]

2 (c,;_h;y,p,

(2.10) S. =

(y + 1) K-y^

or

2(yp./-hjy.,)
(2.11) S^^=

y.^h/

1/ "n/

Substituting from these equations in (2.1) and (2.2), we get (2.6)

and (2.7). Now, the relation \^ y^^ = \^^^ reduces (2.6) and
(2.7) to (2.8) and (2.9) respectively.
Theorem 2.3: The pressure strength h^ is related to 8^ by

(2.12) S^/ = _V/y,/8,,/p,/
or

(2.13) 8^/ = h/U,,/8,/.

which, for a stationary shock reduces to

(2.14) 8^/=:h/U,,/S^,/p,/.

76

Proof: The pressure behind the shock surface is given by [1]

(2.15) [p]=:h/8^/y,/,

or

(2.16) [p] = -h/8^/V,/.

On substitution for [p] from (1.3), the equations (2.15) and (2.16)
give (2.12) and (2.13) respectively. For a stationary shock,
ViV = UiV- Hence, (2.13) gives (2.14) on application of this con-
dition.

References

1. Warsi, N. A. (1965) Flow Parameters Behind Three Dimensional Shock

Wave, Savannah State College Faculty Research Bulletin. Vol. 19, No. 2.

2. Warsi, N. A. (1966) On Variation of Velocity and Pressure Behind and

Along a Shock Surface in Lagrangian Coordinate System, Savannah
State College Faculty Research Bulletin. Vol. 20, No. 2.

3. Warsi, N. A. (1966) On Vorticity Behind the Shock Surface in Lagrangian

Coordinate System, Savannah State College Faculty Research Bulletin.
Vol. 20, No. 2.

77

Keats' Endymion: A Critical History

by
Dennis A. Berthold

Endymion is a poem with a long and argumentative critical history.
Like many controversial works, the criticism forms a body of know-
ledge unto itself in that critics are acutely aware of previous work
done on the poem and so address their statements to other critics,
either in refutation or agreement. The poem itself very often be-
comes obscured under the burden impose upon it by the numerous,
conflicting interpretations it has been given. Only one indication
of this is the frequent practice of Endymion scholars to summarize
briefly previous efforts made to explain the poem. Thus, the names
Colvin, Finney, de Selincourt, Murry, Ford and Thorpe, among
others, occur in the opening paragraphs of nearly all essays on the
work (including this one).

The basic conflict is whether or not the poem is an allegory: did
Keats intend to portray some kind of ideal, perhaps even neo-Pla-
tonic philosophy in his version of the Endymion-Phoebe myth, or did
he simply use the legend as a vehicle for a Romantic paean to the
power of sensual love? Naturally, there is a vast spectrum of critical
opinion running between these two poles of interpretation, including
some interpretations that deal only obliquely with the basic contro-
versy, and those that appear in this paper are by no means the only
opinions. Also, some of the major works on the subject have been
omitted due to the limitations of space, time, and research facilities.^
Nevertheless, I believe we can get a representative view of the
critical history of Endymion from the works selected. The develop-
ment will be approximately chronological in order to preserve some
of the flavor of the action and reaction of a literary debate, and
the emphasis will be on each critic's opinion on the allegorical inter-
pretations of the poem rather than some of the other problems the
work has engendered.

Sidney Colvin saw in Endymion a rambling, highly imaginative
work that brought together EUzabethan luxuriance and an "Arabian
Nights jugglery with space and time" into a richly inventive, if
uneven, "chain of adventures which seem certainly to have a moral
and allegorical meaning or none at all."- As much as we might
disagree with this statement, Colvin's desire to find a meaning for
the poem marks the beginning of serious Endymion scholarship.
He wants to view the poem as a purposefully created work and so
uses "the thread of allegoric thought and purpose that seems to

^Three books of primary importance that have not been consulted are:
Newell F. Ford, The Prefigurative Imagination of John Keats (Stanford,
1951); H. C. Notcutt, An Interpretation of Keafs Endymion (Capetown,
1919); Clarence DeWitt Thorpe, The Mind of John Keats (Oxford, 1926).

-Keats (London, 1909 [1st ed. 1887]), pp. 97 and 103.

78

run loosely through the whole" only as it yields a better view of the
poem's "organic plan."^ As a biographer should, Colvin justifies
this approach by the context of Keats's life and his concern for
the "pursuit of beauty as an aim in life [which] is only justified when
it is accompanied by the idea of devotion to human service."^ Unfort-
unately, Colvin does not apply this "context" to specific passages of
the poem and leaves us with a very vague idea of how this "moral
and allegorical meaning" actually manifests itself within the work.
It is difficult to even call this literary criticism, for the literature is
submerged in the casual, generalized discussion of Keats's life. Colvin
stands at the threshold of an interpretation of the poem but does
not enter.

Robert Bridges has some of the same difficulty as Colvin for
he also tries to unify the poem by appealing to an external schemata.
He outlines the structure of the poem on a plot level, and divides it
into a four-stage movement toward Keats's philosophy of "the Ideah-
ty of desired objects, the principle of beauty in all things."^ Occurring
as this does in an introduction to a new edition of Keats's poetry, one
feels as though Bridges is attempting to outline a reading plan for
Endymion. Each book, for instance, represents a classical element
(earth, water, air, fire, in that order) as well as a gradation in
Endymion's search for truth. When a section doesn't fit into this
pattern, it is a digression, and as such, a weakness in the poem. He
reUes on the structure of the poem to reveal the meaning and so, like
Colvin, remains outside of the symbolism, imagery, and thematic
development of the work.

C. H. Herford, in the Cambridge History of English Literature,
takes this kind of safe, vague approach to the poem as might be ex-
pected in a historically-oriented, general reference work. He feels
that Keats's "brief, manly preface" is Endymion's "sufficing com-
ment" and that the poem's weakness lies precisely in the lack of
thought present.^' He doesn't attempt to unify it and criticizes the
digressions while praising certain sections of it (the "Hymn to Pan"
and "Ode to Sorrow"). In presenting such a brief summation of
Keats, Herford makes one important comparison: He sees the "Eve
of St. Agnes" evolving out of Endymion's "riot of luxurious fancy"
and "Autumn" as the end point of its "ordered opulence."''' While
he fails, like most nineteenth-century critics, to give concrete ex-
amples, he can be excused on grounds of intention, for a drawn-out
argument would be out of place in a literary history.

Up to 1925 Endymion scholarship remained fairly placid and un-
ruffled in the general opinion that the poem was a diffuse, flowery
allegory about some kind of ideal beauty or love. With the noisy
advent of Amy Lowell onto the critical scene, however, opinions
polarized and jelled, and the controversy noted at the outset began
to take form. The most significant new opinion was an essay pub-

^op. cit., p. 97.
*op. cit., p. 103.

^"Critical Introduction," Poems of John Keats, ed G. Thorn Drury (New
York, 1896), p. XXI.
*^V. XII (Cambridge, 1915), 79-95.
Ubid.

79

lished in 1926 as a refutation of Miss Lowell's frank sexual inter-
pretation of the poem. Coupled with his later book on the subject,
Claude Finney provided the definitive defense of Endymion as an
allegorical, specifically neo-Platonic work.^

Finney's critical method is to exhaustively list publicly verifiable
information (sources, relevant poems and letters, critical background)
and use it as a tool with which to unearth a poem's meaning. What
we have, in effect, is an elaborate attempt to reconstruct the mind
of Keats at the time of Endymion' s composition. The obvious dif-
ficulty is that, try as we might, we cannot get beyond our own person-
al, twentieth-century interpretations of those sources, interpretations
of which, validity aside, may or may not have been shared by Keats.
Besides, if we are to grant Keats any powers of original thought, we
must go to the poetry and see how he uses these sources (if indeed
they are truly sources) rather than observe them and see how they
molded his creative processes.

Finney's method is, certainly, a valuable approach to the study
of any poet, and his work may very well be a classic in the school of
source criticism. At the same time, however, his book is a good
example of over-stating a case and drawing too-grandiose conclusions.
In his argument, Keats becomes a modern derivative of Spenser, the
paeans to love in Endymion are utilizations of Renaissance conven-
tions, the theme of the poem is the "neo-Platonic quest of immortality"
and finally, he states that "by nature Keats was a platonist."^ Such
subtleties as tone, imagery, and Keats's particular view of love are
obscured underneath the flood of erudition. Thus the romantic
digressions of Venus and Adonis and Cynthia and Endymion in Book
11 are no more than a "lovely tale" and a vulgar "nympholeptic
dream" respectively. ^ When the allegory does not quite fit, as with
Keats's exaltation of male-female love over male-male love, reversing
the neo-Platonic Renaissance order, Finney glosses over the glaring
difference by merely stating that Keats was an "unorthodox" neo-
Platonist in this respect. ^^

The overpowering weight of Finney's evidence, external and ques-
tionable as it may have been, was apparently enough to forestall any
general movement toward a sexual interpretation of Endymion. Some
new, ingenious approaches began to appear, and among the most
notable was an essay by Leonard Brown in which the immediate
literary and intellectual milieu of Keats is brought to bear on the
poem. While he never definitely commits himself to the allegorist
or sensualist camp. Brown presents a history-of-ideas approach that
has some similarities to Finney's methods.

Brown posits the theory that Endymion was written as a "rebuttal
of Shelleyean thought" using Alastor "as a kind of anti-model."^-

s"Keats's Philosophy of Beauty," PQ, V (January, 1926), 1-19; The Evolution

of Keats's Poetry (New York, 1963[lst ed. 1936]).
^"Keats's Philosophy of Beauty," p. 19.
^The Evolution of Keats's Poetry, pp. 308-309.
]^op. cit., p. 299.
-"The Genesis, Growth, and Meaning of Endvmion." SP, XXX (October.

1933), 620.

80

The point of dispute between the two authors concerned their view
of the poet: Shelley's hero cannot get outside of his own self and can
only die in this "vale of tears," whereas Keats's hero progresses
through Wordsworthian humanitarianism to spiritualized love in this
"vale of soul-making."^^ Brown, like Finney, is limited by his own
interpretation. While there are many interesting and fruitful parallels
between the two poems, he never manages to satisfactorily explain
what goes on in either of them, especially Keats's. He simply says
that at the end Endymion's "renunciation has culminated in redemp-
tion" and "accordingly he is now spiritualized."^"* That very im-
portant word, "spiritualized," is forgotten in the wealth of parallels
Brown has drawn. Furthermore, external evidence for the connection
is rather thinly developed, with not more than a passing reference of
Keats's to Alastor in a letter. He has neglected his main subject,
Endymion, in order to develop a comparison that is really no more
than a sidelight on the whole work, and a comparison that explodes
one historical fact out of proportion while neglecting more important
background information.

Another example of a critic who finds a clever hobby-horse to
ride roughshod over Endymion is Edward B. Hungerford. He feels
that an understanding of Greek myth is necessary to make sense
out of the narrative of Endymion and so details the myths Keats
used in developing his story.^^ The ironic part is that Hungerford
does not make sense out of the poem, and while realizing that Keats
was using a number of complex myths, he has to admit that the poet
"did not plan ahead with sufficient exactness. "^*^ As with Brown
and Finney, the poet for Hungerford is the slave of his sources and
the poem is successful only as it follows the preconceived pattern
these sources present. For instance, when Keats used the geographical
locale of the Corycian Cave for Endymion's journey in Book II he
became hopelessly confused, contends Hungerford. In following the
description of the cave given by Strabo, Pomponius Mela and Solinus,
Keats was forced to let Endymion out under the sea, resulting in an
irreparable loss of the mythic thread. He could find no adequate
myths to solve the problem and give his poem a satisfactory ending
and in desperation added the Indian Maid episode. ^^ The poem's
failure is thus Keats's inability to use research materials, although the
reader suspects Hungerford rather than the poet of this inability.

The sensual interpretation of Endymion was beginning to win
some adherents, althought no one was able to properly refute the neo-
Platonists. B. Ifor Evans's biography criticizes the allegorical inter-
pretation for imposing "an intellectual conciseness on the most
baroque of English romantic poems^^ but offers no evidence for this
comparable to Finney's massive compilation. Evans is satisfied to
disagree without addressing himself to the specific arguments of his
literary opponents and thus produces an anachronistic, unaware

^^op. cit., p. 653.

^^ Shores of Darkness (New York, 1941), p. 106.

^''op. cit., p. 136.

i^op. cit.,p. 129.

^^Keats (London, 1934), p. 72.

81

piece of writing. In 1947, the real reaction to Finney's school came
from Newell Ford in a highly cogent and seminal essay in which the
poem as Keats wrote it is the prime object of scrutiny. ^^

Ford's method is to isolate and attack a fundamental pillar of
allegorical criticism with a logical, deductive argument. After sum-
marizing the neo-Platonist position, he points to the single phrase
"fellowship with essence" (Bk. 1, 1. 779) as the most important
source in the poem for an allegorical interpretation.-*^ By a close con-
textual analysis of Keats's use of the word "essence" in all of his
poetry and letters Ford finds that it is synonomous with "things,"
specifically the "things of beauty" in lines 1-33 of Book 1.-^ He
also notes the change Keats made in line 778 from "blending pleas-
urable" to "fellowship divine" and uses the original as a commentary
upon the final version. Thus the ideality Endymion seeks is non-
transcendental. It is "an earthly blending," an imaginative "em-
pathetic fusion of a percipient with an aesthetic object."-- The point
Ford has made is restricted, and in this essay at least he does not
elaborate upon it, but it is a significant new approach to the poem
and the whole question of allegorical meaning. His fine sense for
determining how Keats himself used words, and his respect for the
right and ability of a poet and poem to provide their own definitions
puts the work rather than the sources before our eyes. It remains to
be seen what can be done with this insight.

The first attempt at a balanced point of view between the alle-
gorists and sensualists comes with Jacob D. Wigod's essay. He regards
Ford's point as "firmly proved" but disagrees that Endymion's theme
is "the quest of everlasting erotism."-^ He utilizes insights and com-
parisons made by nearly all of the previous major commentators
and tries to blend them by identifying Keats with Endymion and
making the poem a "personal. Romantic allegory."-^ The first signs
of a psychological approach to the poem are manifest in this essay
as the role of the poem as a document of Keats's thought assumes
more importance than any specific meaning of the poem itself. The
allegory thus comes not from any formalized external scheme of
things but a "personal Platonism, complemented by a definite theory
of poetic ascent."-^ It is the natural outgrowth of Keats's first phase
of poetic development, a phase from which he emerges as a "poet
of thought."-'' Wigod's respect for the earlier critics tempers his
praise of Ford's approach and gives us the first comprehensive and
eclectic approach to the work.

^^"The Meaning of 'Fellowship with Essence' in Endymion," PMLA, LXIl

U947), 1061-1076.
2 0op. cit., p. 1076.
"^op. cit., p. 1071.
--op. cit., p. 1073.
23"The Meaning of Endymion," PMLA, LXVIII (September, 1953), 781

and 784.
2*op. cit., p. 785.
2 5op. cit., p. 790.
^^op. cit., p. 783.

82

The note struck by Wigod is taken up in greater detail by Glen
O. Allen a few years later. He states flatly that Keats's "principal
concern in treating the Endymion myth was with the nature of poetic
creation" and "the expression of that theory is the theme of Endym-
ion."-"' The difficulties in the poem arise from Keats's own changing
ideas during the months of composition, so that while he began with
a vague neo-Platonic outline derived mainly from Spenser, by the end
he had come to distrust the world of the imagination. In this light
the hues "Ensky'd ere this, but truly that I deem / Truth the best
music in a first-born song" (Bk. IV, 11. 772-773) form a direct
contradiction of Endymion's "Wherein lies happiness?" speech in
Book 1. -^ The end of Endymion shows that "Keats bowed to the
authority of tradition [Lyly and Drayton] and by special fiat im-
mortalized his hero." Thus, "the poem is not inconsistent; it is merely
a different poem from that which Keats had originally projected."-^

Allen points to the Odes as examples of Keats's disillusionment
with neo-Platonism even as the early poems demonstrated a belief
in it. He uses the letters to back up his assertions wherever necessary
and shows a good acquaintance with earlier Endymion scholarship.
His main difficulty is that he attempts too much in a twenty-page
essay; his general theory of Keats's poetic growth seems right, but
the specific examples he uses need amplification, especially when he
speaks of the Odes as rational, analytical products of Keats's "philoso-
phical inquiry."^^ It is full of ideas but short on substantiation, and
one feels that he may be more reliant upon other critics than he
would admit, for the balanced eclecticism of his approach is not
satisfactorily synthesized by any new insights.

E. C. Pettet's two chapters on Endymion in his book On the
Poetry of Keats represent the most complete refutation of the alle-
gorical viewpoint. Following Ford, Pettet feels that if a metaphysical
interpretation were intended by Keats, he would have mentioned it
in the preface or in the letters. ^^ As an allegory, Endymion presents
us with an "oddity in what would otherwise be a pattern of consistent
and organic poetic growth.""^- This psychological bias becomes clear
in the second chapter when he examines the poem per se in one of
the longest (fifty pages) explications there is of it. Pettet feels that
"it is a straightforward love poem that, we suspect strongly, owes a
good deal to the young poet's own secret desires and unsatisfied
erotic impulses.""'^ With this viewpoint in mind, it is easy to under-
stand why Pettet would say "what we chiefly need in order to under-
stand those thoughts and feelings [Endymion's confused strugglings
between Cynthia and the Indian Maid] is not a knowledge of neo-

2 7 "The Fall of Endymion: A Study in Keats's Intellectual Growth," KSJ, VI

(Winter, 1957), 38.
^^op. cit., p. 47.

^op. cit., p. 54.
3iCambridge, 1957, p. 131.
32op. cit., p. 130.
33op. cit., p. 153.

83

platonic ideas (with which Keats may or may not have been ac-
quainted) but a steady recollection of our own attitudes and emotion-
al experiences at twenty. "'^^ Thus Cynthia represents every young
man's ideal of sensual love, however confused and absurd and
extravagant the depiction of that ideal may be.

Pettet's strongest point is his familiarity with previous scholarship
and his ability to see through it and clear the way for his own
opinions. Unusual as it may be, he makes it seem a plausible approach
both by his incisive critiques of the source critics and his sensitive,
thorough reading of the poem. The subjectivity of his critical method
allows him great freedom. He is not working from any external
schemata at all, and by getting within the mind of Keats he may
have the best (or only) approach to such an ambitious yet admittedly
confused and immature work.

Clarice Godfrey takes up Pettet's insistence on a sensual inter-
pretation but feels that "the poem is not a sustained record of
personal experience."'^'' While Keats's moods are reflected in it quite
often, she sees too much uncertainty at the end complicated by an
impatience to finish the poem which "muddled important concep-
tions" in Book IV.'^" Godfrey is definitely a student of the Ford-
Pettet school, but she is not a graduate. She feels we should read the
poem as Keats desired, that is, as "a httle Region to wander in where
[The lovers of Poetryl may pick and choose" (letter to Bailey,
10/8/17), thus there is no need to try to unify the work.^''' She
praises the individual episodes but can give no reason for their
existence beyond the requirements of length Keats had set for him-
self. ^^ She uses the pioneering work of Ford to criticize the allego-
rists but never moves beyond an appreciation of the poem. The title
of the anthology is ironic, for her opinion smacks more of regression
than reassessment, and it is far fitter for a nineteenth century "mem-
orial volume" than a modern critical study.

An interesting offshoot or psychological criticism is the Jung-derived
school of archetypal criticism. Robert Harrison applies the techniques
of this school to Endymion, and while it is fascinating stuff to read,
it hardly gets off the ground as literary criticism. As with Finney and
his well-oiled hobby-horse of neo-Platonism, Harrison manages to
submerge the poem beneath a welter of Jungian jargon and general-
ization. Because he assumes a pattern for the poem, any deviation
from it becomes "a puzzling diversion" that "almost incongruously
disturbs the normal flow of the narrative, "^^ such as the Indian Maid
episode. Somewhat like Leonard Brown, Harrison feels that "it is
only when the thread of universal myth is lost, only when Keats
begins to write poetry from the top of the head, that the significance

3 4op. cit., p. 192.

^^" 'Endymion,' " John Keats: A Reassessment, ed. Kenneth Muir, 2nd ed.

(Liverpool, 1959), pp. 20-38.
''^op. cit., p. 37.
^'^op. cit., p. 38.
^^op. cit., p. 30.
3 ^"Symbolism of the Cyclical Myth in Endymion," Texas Studies in Literature

and Language, No. 4, 1 (Winter, 1960), p. 552.

84

vanishes and the symbols become unintelligible and contradictory to
all but the psychoanalyst."*" Obviously, the man is insensitive to the
merits of the poem as the work of a creative, gifted individual. He
cannot see beyond his own methodology, nor can he fruitfully relate
his conclusions to the vast body of standard critical opinion on the
poem, thus severely limiting the value of his statements.

The current of allegorical interpretation continued to run strong
despite the inroads of the Ford-Pettet axis. In 1949, only a year after
Ford's initial essay on "essence", Samuel C. Chew contended that
"Keats's central idea is the Platonic theme of the quest of a unity
transcending the flux of the phenomenal world. "*^ Brief as a literary
history must be, Chew's one paragraph on Endymion does seem a bit
hasty, as does his parting remark that "it might have been wiser,
and certainly would have served his prospects better, had he left the
poem unpublished."*- Chew shirks his duty as a literary historian,
for he does not present any kind of a balanced view of the poem.
His arguments are stale (completely Finney ean) and he is obviously
prejudiced against the poem; the simple fact of its long and contro-
versial critical history would indicate that it deserves fuller treatment
than he gives it.

Dorothy Hewlett displays the same kind of uncritical acceptance
of the allegorical interpretation in her biography of Keats. Though
she devotes one chapter to Endymion, she is more concerned with
summarizing the reviews it received than supporting her statement
that "Keats himself intended the poem to be an allegory."*^ Her
praise for the poem is similar to Clarice Godfrey's rather vapid "ap-
preciation" of its imaginative qualities. The book reads like the
easy armchair criticism we usually associate with the nineteenth
century.

A new tack in allegorical criticism is taken by Paul de Man in an
interesting "history-of-ideas" approach. Rather than insist on some
kind of Platonic or neo-Platonic allegory, he feels the poem is about
the "ideal of unity," not love, and that love is only a metaphor stem-
ming from Keats's peculiar obsession with eroticism at the time.**
He is ready to look upon Keats as a philosophical poet, but he
sees that the poem must first be unified and the theme rendered com-
patible with its seriousness. He is working backwards from the
"philosophical conclusions" he finds in Holderhn's treatment of the
Hyperion myth and wants to elucidate Keats's ambiguous themes
with the "blinding clarity" of Holderlin's insights.*^ He admits that
there is most probably no historical connection between the poets
but he does feel that both are products of the same intellectual miUeu
and are connected by similar usages of thematic conventions, parti-

"op. cit., p. 554.

^Vol. IV, A Literary History of England, ed. Albert C. Baugh (New York,

1948), 1244-1245.
^op. cit., p. 1245.

^A Life of John Keats, 2nd ed. (New York, 1950), p. 164.
*"Keats and Holderlin," CL, VIII (Winter 1956), 35-36.
^op. cit., pp. 34-35.

85

cularly those of the Bildungsroman. They both deal with the
"specific relationship between the poetic, the historical, and the
divine" and as such form a background to the "spiritual crisis" of
twentieth-century literature. ^"^ De Man realizes the tricky nature
of such comparisons and the difficulty of forcing thematic unity on
Endymion, and we must remember that his intention is not to come
to terms with Keats's poem specifically. This is an ambitious at-
tempt to analyze one aspect of a 150-year old literary tradition and
it is bound to get away from the close analyses of a Pettet or a Ford.
Unhke Finney, de Man makes no pretensions as to having discovered
the meaning of the poem. He does not insist on a particular inter-
pretation and uses Endymion as an example of larger themes only
as he commits no violence to the work.

The most recent inheritor of the allegorist mantle is Stuart M.
Sperry, Jr. The fifteen-year influence of the sensualist school has
made its mark, however, and, following Wigod, Sperry sees the
allegory as having "matured and developed as [Keats] progressed"
and "worked itself out within the poem."^^ He justifies his approach
by citing "images [that] seem to possess a more than physical signifi-
cance" and other Keats poems that use the love-theme as an "extended
metaphor."^^ He has moved a long way from Finney and the neo-
Platonists, but by his insistence on allegorization still runs into the
old problem of the Indian Maid episode. He can only say that it's
a failure, an example of Keats's having "outrun the limits of his ex-
perience."^^ One wonders why Sperry even uses the term "allegory,"
for it becomes almost a synonym for "metaphor" in this essay. It
does not serve to unite the poem nor to point out any new insights
into the episodes. The qualifications he places upon the allegorical
interpretation ah but emasculate it (it "changed" and "developed"
as Keats wrote) ^*^ and the explanations he offers are decidedly in-
ferior to those derived by other critical methods.

The present state of Endymion scholarship is exemplified by three
works, all published in 1963. The first is Walter Jackson Bate's
biography which takes up the psychological argument of Pettet with
renewed gusto. While he is openly biased toward this approach, he
sees the need for eclecticism and a contextual consideration of the
poem. He deals with all of the previous major critical methods and
rejects the allegorical interpretation after examining it at length.
He comes out with the view of the poem as disunified and transi-
tional: "The use of the poem was confessional: it was used partly
for self-expression in the hope of making a step in self-understand-
ing."^^ It is to Bate's credit that he can feel as strongly as he does
about this particular view of the poem and yet relate the work to
sources, letters, literary conventions, biography, and other Keats
poems. He also manages to make some observations about the poem's

*''op. cit., p. 45.

^^'"The Allegory of Endymion," Studies in Romanticism, II (Autumn 1962),

43.
'^^op. cit., p. 53.
^^John Keats (Cambridge, Mass., 1963), p. 191.

86

internal problems, such as the natural development of the narrative^^
the "deus ex machina" necessary to keep the poem from over-spiri-
tualization,""'^ and the "fatigue of the marathon" that overtook Keats
in the fourth Book, causing him to rush to completion. ^^ The main
shortcoming of Bate's argument is a failure to consider the effect
of Keats's immediate intellectual milieu upon his psychological
development, especially the philosophical views of Wordsworth and
Shelley. This fault is probably a result of Bate's using the poem as one
of the best examples of the validity of his larger psychological ap-
proach to Keats. Endymion offers itself to the psychological critic
more readily than any other Keats poem, and it is only to be expected
that Bate would, like Pettet, find it tempting and congenial to work
on.

The next essay is Ian Jack's contribution in the Oxford History of
English Literature. Fully aware of the long controversy and all its
complexities. Jack argues for a balanced view, saying that "to refuse
to see more in it than the erotic fancies of a young man is to carry
scepticism too far. We cannot brush aside all symbolic interpreta-
tion."^'' An essentially practical critic, he allows for a variety of
viewpoints and approaches, especially noting the value of the poem
in Keats's poetic development: "Whatever the philosophical validity
of this elusive belief [in a "highest reality"! it is what supported
Keats as he approached the task of writing his greatest poetry."^*^
It seems to me that this stance is what should be expected in a
history of literature, for it is thought-provoking without being extreme
and informative even while admitting the limitations of that informa-
tion.

Aileen Ward is also essentially pragmatic in her approach. She
posits two levels of meaning as inherent in the poem: mythological
and psychological-symbolic.^''' Endymion' s importance cannot be
under-estimated, for it represents one-fourth of Keats's career and
one-half of the canon, she notes. ^^ True to this observation, she
includes a lengthy chapter on the poem in her book and manages to
mention nearly every major approach to it. As a biographer, she
especially emphasizes the fact that "Endymion made Keats a poet,
whatever Keats made of Endymion."-'^ She refutes the allegorists by
contending that Keats's particular intellectual and social milieu would
have made allegory quite alien to him. Ward's position reflects the
acceptance of and even emphasis on ambiguity that marks the modern
literary scene. Althought she leans toward the sensual interpretation
of the poem, she is probably the most balanced and unbiased writer
on Endymion yet to appear. Her eclecticism seems to extend to her
choice of critical methods as well as to the actual considerations of

5 2op. cit., p. 174.
^^op. cit., p. 183.
^^op. cit., p. 189.
s^Vol. X (Oxford, 1963), 108.

5 6/6/^.

"7o/2n Keats:The Making of A Poet (New York, 1963), p. 143.

^^op. cit., p. 146.

^^Ibid.

87

a work. Thus she appears to be more trustworthy if not always
more exciting than a critic hke Bate or Pettet, for we do not feel
the pressure of a methodological bias in her writings.

Like the problem of the poem itself, it is nearly impossible to
make a meaningful summary statement about Endymion scholarship.
We can say little more than that it is diffuse, diverse, long, controver-
sial and unresolved. The lesson learned should be one generally
applicable to all literary criticism, and that is, be skeptical. Look
beyond the immediate essayist or biographer and judge him in light
of what you know about his biases, his methods, and his scholarly
reliabihty. Try to get a number of opposing viewpoints on any one
work in order to see the range of critical opinion on it. And the
unmistakable moral of this paper don't attempt to write on the
meaning of Endymion.

List of Works Consulted

Allen. Glen O. "The Fall of Endymion: A Study in Keats's Intellectual
Growth," KSJ, VI (Winter 1957), 37-57.

Bate, Walter Jackson. John Keats. Cambridge, Mass., 1963.

Bridges, Robert. "Critical Introduction," Poems of John Keats, ed. G. Thorn
Drury, vol. I (New York and London, 1896), XVI-XXVIII.

Brown, Leonard. "The Genesis, Growth, and Meaning of Endymion," SP,
XXX (October 1933), 618-653.

Chew, Samuel C. A Literary History of England, ed. Albert C. Baugh. IV.
New York, 1948, pp. 1244-1245.

Colvin, Sir Sidney. Keats. London, 1909.

de Man, Paul. "Keats and Holderlin," CL, VIII (Winter 1956), 28-45.

Evans, B. Ifor. Keats. London, 1934.

Finney, Claude Lee. The Evolution of Keats's Poetry. New York, 1963.
. "Keats's Philosophy of Beauty: An Interpretation of the

Allegory of Endymion in the light of the Neo-Platonism of Spenser,"

PQ, V (January, 1926), 1-19.

Ford, Newell F. "The Meaning of Tellowship with Essence' in Endymion,"
PMLA, LXII (1947), 1061-1076.

Godfrey, Clarice. "Endymion," John Keats: A Reassessment, ed. Kenneth
Muir, 2nd ed. (Liverpool, 1959), pp. 20-38.

Harrison, Robert. "Symbolism of the Cyclical Myth in Endymion," Texas
Studies in Literature and Language, I, IV (Winter 1960), 538-554.

Herford, C. H. CHEL, XII. Cambridge, 1915, pp. 79-95.

Hewlett, Dorothy. A Life of John Keats. 2nd ed. (New York, 1950).

Hungerford, Edward B. Shores of Darkness. New York, 1941.

Jack. Ian. OHEL, X. Oxford, 1963, pp. 107-109.

Pettet, E. C. On the Poetry of Keats. Cambridge, 1957.

Sperry. Stuart M., Jr. "The Allegory of Endymion," Studies in Romanticism,
II (Autumn 1962), 38-53.

Ward, Aileen. John Keats: The Making of a Poet. New York, 1963.

Wigod, Jacob D. "The Meaning of Endymion," PMLA, LXVIII (September
1953), 779-790.

88

Paradise Lost and the Modern Reader:
Five Approaches

by
Dennis A. Berthold

The history of Milton criticism practically revolves around the
attacks and defenses of Paradise Lost. From John Dryden to John
Peter v^e find critics sniping at the poem's "Babylonish Dialect"
(Johnson), "dead ideas" (Raleigh), or overburdened narrative
structure (Waldock). On the other side, there has always been an
Addison, Coleridge, or C. S. Lewis eagerly jumping to Milton's
rescue. During the twentieth century, as Bernard Bergonzi points
out in his valuable analysis, "Criticism and the Milton Controversy,"
the attacks have become much more assiduous and systematic.^
Munitions experts F. R. Leavis and A. J. A. Waldock have sought
a "whole-scale demolition" of Milton, and the nagging question
voiced by so many students, "Why study such-and-such?", echoes
with uncommon frequency and volume whenever the such-and-such
is Paradise Lost. This noisy salient has provoked equally "whole-
scale" defenses, and a main concern of Miltonists has been to make
their chosen subject both relevant and meaningful to modern readers.
Five such attempts are examined in this paper. While they vary in
critical emphasis and point of view, all five authors considered labor
under an intense feeling of the contemporary reader's blindness to
the true merits of Paradise Lost and the need to restore his eyesight
with the powerful lenses of literary crhicism. This does not mean
that the critic-oculist will always restore 20-20 vision; often his very
desire to give the poem significance distorts it, and we are still left
with a myopic view of the work. But we at least ought to be aware
of the efforts being made in this behalf and be able to assess their
worth as viable critical approaches to Paradise Lost.

Davis P. Harding, in his preface to The Club of Hercules, demon-
strates his concern for one facet of this problem: "There are few
responsible teachers who have not been frustrated by the experience
of trying to communicate something of the power and glory of
Paradise Lost to a generation of students who have had at best small
Latin and at worst no Greek at all. It is primarily for these students,
a blameless majority, that this book has been written."- With this
noble aim in mind, Harding embarks on a source-and-influence study
of Paradise Lost in which its meaning becomes "inextricably bound
up with the meanings of the Aeneid and the Homeric poems, and
cannot be entirely understood unless they are taken into account."^

^Bernard Bergonzi "Criticism and the Milton Controversy," The Living
Milton, ed. Frank Kermode (London, 1960), p. 170.
^Davis P. Harding, The Club of Hercules (Urbana, 1962), p. 3 .
^op. cit., p. 23.

89

Unlike many source hunters, Harding is aware of the duty in-
cumbent upon him to demonstrate the plausibility of these influences
with external as well as internal evidence. He begins his study with
analysis of Renaissance attitudes towards the classics. By observing
textbooks that Milton might very well have used at St. Paul's gram-
mar school, he explains how the seventeenth century pupil ap-
proached Greek and Latin literature. Liberal quotations from the
pedagogues Brinsley and Hoole, as well as a brief outline of Renais-
sance reading and listening habits, provide Harding with a solid
base of historical evidence upon which he can build his argument.
Furthermore, he cites such recognized authorities as Puttenham,
Macrobius, Ascham and Milton himself to show the period's attitude
toward borrowing from and imitating the classics. Thus he provides
the necessary cultural milieu in which we are to watch Milton's
poetic processes.

The most important insight this preliminary information gives us
is that Milton was not simply a slavish imitator. In fact, Harding
cites an early Latin poem which illustrates Milton's utilization of and
"mastery over schoolboy techniques of imitation, ""* an ability that
prepared him for his later complex and imaginative uses of classical
sources. This latter emphasis runs through all of Harding's analyses;
that is, he always focuses on what Milton contributed to the old con-
vention or how he revitalized an allusion "and built it validly and
impressively into the structure of his poem."^ This is Harding's main
recommendation as a Milton critic: he has a high regard for the
way Milton actually used a source. It is one thing for a source hunter
to point out a parallel; it is quite another to show the value of it in
the work being studied. It is easy for this kind of approach to
degenerate into a mere alignment of passages concluding with the
joyful cry, "Look! I've found a source for every word in the poem!"
Such a job of literary detection (like Claude L. Finney's The Evolu-
tion of Keats' Poetry) reduces the poetic process to the mechanical
gathering of remembered and half-remembered phrases and "echoes"
of phrases, and pays little or no attention to the meaning and artistic
value of the work at hand. Harding is not entirely exempt from this
occupational hazard of source hunters, but there is less of it in his
book than in most other such works.

Since this writer does not read Latin, it was felt that his views of
Harding's book might be rather parochial, and so a standard student's
edition of Milton" and a number of reviews were used in checking
upon Harding's ingenuity in tracing allusions and as a corrective to
this author's academic shortcomings. The first corrective supported
many of Harding's tracings as reasonable, standard explanations of
Milton's allusions. Harding's contribution was to elaborate and ex-
plore the implications of these allusions rather than to merely point
to possible new ones. The second check revealed the fact that at

^op. cit., p. 11.
^op. cit., p. 84.

^Complete Poetry and Major Prose, ed. Merritt Y. Hughes, (New York,
1957).

90

least one classical scholar, Federic Will, feels that Harding is an
unqualified failure as a source hunter.* Will criticizes his method as
shabby and old-fashioned, and both he and the TLS reviewer indicate
that Harding's knowledge of Greek is also somewhat suspect.^ Ap-
parently, then, the book is limited; but perhaps it is no more so than
Harding intended. After all, The Club of Hercules yields many new
insights into Paradise Lost and the functions of Milton's similes and
allusions, and as an innocent member of that Greekless majority, this
writer's eyes have been opened considerably. Nor does he feel, as
does the TLS reviewer, that Harding has let preconceived notions
about Paradise Lost lead him to interpret the function of sources
in a certain way. Rather, it is felt that Harding has given a reason-
ably coherent, if somewhat limited, raison d'etre for the multitude of
footnotes editors append to Milton's allusions. He has explained what
these allusions do for the poem and he has made them integral and
necessary parts of the whole.

Harding does have a difficulty in his organization of the material.
The book lacks a theme that sufficiently unifies its contents. The
chapters seem to exist independently of one another, as if they were
a collection of essays rather than sections of a single work. He ends,
for instance, with an astute discussion of Dryden's and Milton's at-
titudes toward Virgilian style that provides basic information about
Milton's poetic intentions. Had he placed this chapter earlier in the
book, perhaps second, it would have added greatly to the solidity of
his argument's foundation and widened the scope and strength of
his assertions. Similarly, the chapters in the middle could be re-
shuffled in almost any order without affecting the argument. It is
always clear, however, just what Harding's argument is. His presen-
tation is forthright and balanced and his language is lucid and free
of jargon. He is careful to distinguish between the "ghost influences"
and "surreptitious allusions" and the significant sources that can
be traced. He avoids many pitfalls by providing extended contexts
from the classical works, in both the original and translation, and
minutely comparing them with similarly extensive passages from
Paradise Lost. Language, syntax, and rhythm all figure in his dis-
cussions as the exact verbal nature of Milton's relationship to the
classics is explored.

Harding has sought to enlighten the modern reader of Paradise
Lost by reconstructing some of the formal literary patterns and
analogies that Milton used in the poem. Roland Mushat Frye, in
God, Man, and Satan,^ also addresses the modern reader. He seeks
to understand Paradise Lost by examining its ideas in relation to
the intellectual and spiritual patterns of a traditional body of Christian
thought. Unlike Harding, he begins by assuming that both the poem
and the religious tradition in which he places it "are much alive."
The great "Neo-Reformation" of the twentieth century has regen-
erated theology and so cleared the way for a contemporary under-

^Frederic Will, Arion, II (Winter, 1963), p. 133.

^TLS, February 15, 1963, p. 101.

''Roland Mushat Frye, God Man, and Satan (Princeton, 1960), p. 6.

91

standing of Milton's religious ideas. He seeks to establish '"vital in-
teraction" between the two and so prepare modem readers "to turn
to the documents with a broader understanding of their issues, and
with the intellectual enthusiasm necessary for a continuing and sig-
nificant concern with them and with their major problem: human
existence." Clearly, such a purpose will involve Frye's whole view
of man, nature, and history.

The critical method that develops from these assumptions is inter-
esting for its free-wheeling use of divergent materials and authors
to make the same point. Such disparate figures as Augustine and
Albert Schweitzer, Kierkegaard and Karl Barth, and John Calvin
and Martin Luther are massed into a "mainstream" of Christian
thought that contains, floating merrily in the middle, John Milton.
Frye's dialectic is disarmingly simple; he takes a passage from Para-
dise Lost, discusses it, and concludes with a quotation from a modern
theologian that ostensibly shows that he and Milton mean the same
thing. Thus we get many pseudo-logical transitions such as "according
to Albert Schweitzer," or "John Calvin also says," or "in much the
same fashion, George S. Hendry . . . ." These are called pseudo-
logical because Frye takes for granted the similarities of these men's
ideas and never addresses himself to the possibilities of their dif-
ferences, despite the vast historical and philosophical disparities be-
tween people like St. Paul and Paul Tillich. This unquestioning ac-
ceptance of a long historical "mainstream" of ideas necessitates a
correspondingly generalized vocabulary, and so such phrases such
as "existential awareness," "the Christian vision," "ethical heroism,"
and "the reorientation of life" are continually used without any at-
tempt to define them.

There is no argument here with the intent of Frye's book or with
his theological position. Frye does not actually take a position. If he
indulges in too much eclecticism (or is it a grand sort of ecumeni-
cism?), his intent, for all practical purposes, will not be realized.
He will broaden our understanding of the "issues" so much that,
while they may thus be made accessible to every human being, we
will lose a sense of the original understanding that produced those
"issues." Ernest Sirluck has commented that Frye's approach to
Milton yields a " 'process' Paradise Lost, emulsified, blended, and
reconstituted to an unexceptionable blandness."^*^ Certainly the poem
is anything but that. However, if we come to Frye's book for an
understanding of Paradise Lost, it is just such a pasteurized version
that we will get.

Frye has simply taken off from the "Christian Humanism" of
Douglas Bush's study of Paradise Lost in Our Time (1945) with a
boost from C. S. Lewis' Preface to Paradise Lost (1942). Recoiling
from what he would consider the dogmatism of these men, he widens
the theological implications and religious relevance of the poem to
include a rather vapid concatenation of ideas. Most of his critical
observations are either obvious or commonplace, so when he points

i^Ernest Sirluck, MP, LIX (August 1961), p. 68.

92

out that Adam's fall parallels Lucifer's fall, or that the main conflict
of the poem is between Christ's love and Satan's hate, or that Adam
falls because of a "quest for deity" and not just the eating of an
apple, we feel that we are wasting our time. The figural, symbolic
approach which he takes to the poem, as the last example shows,
is laudable and necessary. He emphasizes the wider (what he calls
"existential") meaning of such figures to the detriment of the sym-
bol itself, however, and so misses the tension between the figural
and the literal presentation of Christian ideas that runs through the
poem. He simply rejects the notion of pre-lapsarian sexuality, for
instance, rather than come to terms with the difficult theological
problem it presents.

If the evidence Frye addresses to support his observations were
less gratuitously offered, perhaps God, Man, and Satan could take
a place alongside Lewis' and Bush's works as a significant religious
reading of Paradise Lost. Such a reading has an important place in
making us aware of the profound religious nature of the poem. Frye's
basic assumptions, however, require that we share, with him and
Milton, at least some sense of the poem's religious nature before
we read his book. It is my opinion that his study would be much
more valuable had he, like Harding, assumed that Milton's "fit
audience" was no longer around. The burden of proving Milton's
"aliveness" then would have fallen on him and he would have been
performing the function of a literary critic as well as a Christian
Apologist.

In a sense, Roland Mushat Frye is a victim of Raleigh's observa-
tion that Paradise Lost is "a monument to dead ideas." He takes
his place in a long line of scholars who have felt and admired the
powerful didactic strain in Milton's verse but have failed to con-
vince the modem sophisticated reader of its value. Frank Kermode,
in his essay "Adam Unparadised," directly addresses himself to
Raleigh's statement by taking a position radically opposed to Frye's:
"the proper answer to the charge is not that the ideas are, on the
contrary, alive; but that the poem is not a monument to any ideas. "^^
This is, of course a rhetorical over-statement, for Kermode goes on
to discuss a number of important ideas in Paradise Lost. The dif-
ference is that he divorces the poem from any specific, external,
dogmatic set of ideas that would limit its meaning for humanity.
It is an epic embodiment of "hfe in a great symbolic attitude"^^ and
as such deals with the universal concerns of mankind: "The poem
is primarily about the pleasures of Adam and their destruction by
death; about the contrast between a world we can imagine, in which
the senses are constantly and innocently enchanted, and a world of
which this is not true."^^ This, for Kermode, is tragedy on the grand
scale, the tragedy of Everyman of every century, the tragedy in which

^^Frank Kermode, "Adam Unparadised," The Living Milton, ed. Frank

Kermode, (London, 1960), p. 16.
^^op. cit., p. 84.
^^op. cit., pp. 93-94.

93

"we deplore the accidental loss of native immortality more than we
can applaud its gracious restoration. "^^

This is quite a change from Frye's (or Lewis', or Bush's) idea of
the poem as an epic celebration of felix culpa and God's benevolent
eternal Providence. God, in fact, plays almost no role at all in the
Kermodean tragedy. We are warned that "Milton's theology is in the
De Doctrina, not in Paradise Lost."^^ The focus is on Adam and his
physical fall into mortality, the universal and inescapable plague of
all mankind. To estabHsh this focus, Kermode realizes he will have to
get away from the theological trappings of the poem, and, essentially,
place it in the context of a value system considerably different from
the "Authorized Version." His attempt to do this is a brilliant example
of critical skullduggery at its finest, for he almost succeeds in making
his position look Uke the "Authorized Version."

Kermode's critical apparatus is impressive: more than any other
critic dealt with, he appears to have considered all major aspects
of the poem. He cites the Italian influences in Paradise Lost, examines
Milton's use of the Garden topos, explores the implications of the
Asmodeus simile in Book IV, and pays extensive attention to the
prosodic effects of the poem. It is a glossy, swift-moving essay that
whisks smoothly over problems that have bothered Miltonists for
years. Thematics and styhstics are his main concerns, and he at-
tacks them with a thoroughness reminiscent of Rosemond Tuve.
As we move on to the conclusion one ugly fact quickly becomes clear:
no matter what the critical context or emphasis may be at a par-
ticular point, Kermode will somehow be able to draw from it a con-
clusion that, strangely enough, supports his initial view of the poem
on every score. An odd excursus into something called "pseudo-
rhyme" functions in this way. Any pair of words which occurs in
several contexts may be one of these pseudo-rhymes: puns, anti-
theses, and "phonetic repititions" are the three major categories. The
"central pseudo-rhyme" to Paradise Lost is "delight- woe "^*^ which
is a fortunate happenstance for Kermode, because his thesis is that
the poem is about the loss of delight and the woe that it brings
mankind. Similarly, he uses De Doctrina Christiana when it supports
his ideas^" but rejects it when it conflicts with his position. ^^ In fact,
his use of the prose is quite inconsistent. He virtually bases his whole
argument on Milton's celebrated and controversial observations on
aesthetics in the early tract Of Education, but dismisses the clearly-
stated theological observations of De Doctrina Christiana as second-
ary "niceties," in spite of the fact that this was Milton's longest work
and written at the same time as Paradise Lost.

Kermode's whole approach is conditioned by his own aesthetic
predilections for sensuous communication as the only province of
poetry. In a preliminary discussion of a passage from the poem

^*op. cit., p. 103.
^^op. cit., p. 116.
i^opt. cit., p. 99.
I'^op. cit., p. 105.
'^op. cit., p. 116.

94

Kermode concludes "This is Milton's way of exploiting the sensuous
illogic by which poetry makes its unparaphraseable points."^ ^ Further-
more, he tells us that poetry's primary purpose is to appeal to the
senses rather than intelhgence.-" Thus, it is easy to understand why
he would leap upon Milton's "simple, sensuous, and passionate"
comment in Of Education as the key to the aesthetic theory of Para-
dise Lost. In retrospect, then, it is only obvious that the poem can-
not be about a spiritual regeneration that promises "A paradise within
thee, happier far," for "poetry cannot say much more [than this]
about it because the senses do not know it."-^ Kermode has used
Paradise Lost to illustrate his own aesthetic principles, choosing to
disregard the theological principles of its author. Perhaps the modern
reader is much more comfortable with such an interpretation, for
with all its critical sleight-of-hand it keeps us from the unnerving
"conviction that there is at all times a design upon us."^^ If we want
to keep that conviction secure, however, we had better learn to skip
the first twenty-five lines of the poem in future readings.

In his essay, Kermode frequently invokes the term "myth" to
describe the subject-matter of Milton's poem. This application of
that often maligned hyper-word may have been suggested to him by
a book he favorably reviewed in the Modern Language Review,
Isabel Gamble MacCaffrey's Paradise Lost as "Myth." This is a
highly suggestive work, not so much for its actual critical insights
into Paradise Lost as for its admittedly experimental attempt to
establish a new, flexible, and workable context with which to ap-
proach the problems of structure in a work of epic proportions.

MacCaffrey's purpose is to use the concept of myth as a formalistic,
structuring framework which, when properly apprehended in a
work of art, will make it accessible to the readers of every age.
Thus, somewhat in the manner of Harding and Frye, her goal is to
reconstruct a frame of mind in the contemporary reader that will give
him an "in" to the meaning of Paradise Lost. Drawing largely from
the writings of Ernst Cassirer, with help from Campbell, Jung, and
a host of other historians, critics, and mythographers, she carefully
outlines in the opening chapters of her book her definition and ap-
phcation of myth. Basically, "myth" is a concept analogous to the
Platonic Idea: both have "real" existences apart from temporal
reality and both are patterns for lesser entities.-^ While she realizes
the importance of the atemporal reality of the Christian myth for the
seventeenth-century reader, she looks to the structural, formal de-
mands the conscious use of a myth makes on a "lesser entity" which
is patterned on it. Thus, in Paradise Lost, both the content and the
form depend upon certain mythic necessities.

i^op. cit., p. 90.
-op. cit., p. 89.
2 lop. cit., p. 121.
^^op. cit., p. 99.

"^Isabel Gamble MacCaffrey, Paradise Lost as "Myth", (Cambridge, Mass.,
1959), p. 16.

95

She invokes the rather tired concept of the all-purpose "mono-
myth" as the basic pattern with which we can apprehend the poem's
structure. To the archetypal triptych "separation initiation return"
she adds the "mountain" metaphor, so that the pattern plays itself
out on a grand spatial scale, with a moral (up and down) dimension.
The most important thing is that this pattern represents atemporal
reality, the Platonic Idea, in a single gigantic glance. Time therefore
has no meaning in the mythic context, nor do such literary conven-
tions as plot development and metaphor. Plot development is ir-
relevant because we all know how the story will end even before we
begin it. Metaphor is virtually impossible in a myth because and this
is her main point "a mythic event does not stand for anything else;
it is what everything else stands for."-^ If we were living in a world
where everything was apprehended in its Platonic essence, comparison
and analogy, the process of metaphor, would be impossible. Mac-
Caffrey maintains that this is the world of Paradise Lost, a world in
which certain mythic rules and conventions must be observed as
surely as any generical or theological conventions.

After its careful, highly conservative and self-conscious introduc-
tion, the book is a disappointment. Given the opening two chapters,
it is amazing to see how MacCaffrey actually approaches the poem.
Some of her chapter titles give a clue: "Structural Patterns in
Paradise LostT "The Language of Paradise Lost;" " 'Into Our First
V/orld': Milton's Imagery." The role of myth becomes submerged
in an extended, almost new critical reading of the poem. From her
performances in some places, she appears to owe more to Cleanth
Brooks than to Ernst Cassirer, She has page after unfootnoted page
of explication, and in places it seems that she drags in "myth" al-
most as an afterthought. In a way MacCaffrey ought to be praised for
her careful attention to the text; she never strays into the jungles of
Jungian phraseology, for instance. She makes a number of good
points about the "largeness" of Milton's images often being miscon-
strued as vague and about the absorption of the time scheme into
the spatial scheme of the poem. The exactitude with which she de-
fined her use of the word "myth," however, forsakes her by chapter
three. She has a particularly difficult time with literary terms,
especially "imagery," "allegory," and "metaphor." She seems to use
them interchangeably even as she insists on their different applications
and limitations. By the time she gets to the end of her book she has
completely forgotten the integrity of the poem and states that the
only reason Satan is not immediately transferred to Paradise from
Hell is due to "Milton's intention of including the great archetype
of the journey in the poem."^^

MacCaffrey faces the same problem in critical methodology as
Roland Mushat Frye. Both authors have their feet planted in two
separate worlds, that of the poem and that of a traditional pattern
of thought. The best parts of both of their books occur when they
are standing on one leg. When they try to relate the poem to the
tradition we usually wind up with a gratuitous card-shuffling and

*op. cit., p. 38.
^op. cit., p. 197.

96

random aligning of quotations. With MacCaffrey especially this lack
of methodology is unfortunate, for she has many bright insights
about the poem and takes an interesting approach to the problem
of mythic structure. She never estabhshes a balanced equation be-
tween the two critical abilities of close textual analysis and literary
theorizing, and so produces an erratic, often incomprehensible book.
Both she and Frye try to make the poem relevant to modem readers
by placing it in patterns of thought that are less profound, less co-
herent, and, at least for this writer, less meaningful and relevant to the
average reader of Paradise Lost than Milton's own presentation of
his "patterns of thought." Despite all of their critical finagling, the
poem bears its own weight better than the arguments used to support
it. There are enough studies that seek, by complex and lengthy
arguments, to point out what the poem itself already says so much
better, if one would only pay it heed. One needs to get as close
to Milton's epic poetry as he gets to Shakespeare's dramatic poetry
if Milton is ever to be made relevant to any century but the seven-
teenth. There is need for knowing what Milton says and how he
says it before one can ever hope to approach him with anything
more than a clinical interest. This is the position taken by the last
critic discussed in this paper, Irene Samuel.

In her essay "The Dialogue in Heaven: A Reconsideration of
Paradise Lost, III, 1-417," Samuel bases her reading on the assump-
tion "That we have incautiously misconstrued as dogma what Milton
intended as drama. "^^ She does not ignore the theological back-
ground of the scene, but rather sees it as a part of Milton's total
"poetic economy" (or "strategy"). She is concerned, in fact, with
seeing how Milton demonstrates "that the persons involved are
recognizably God, the creator of the universe, and the Son, his
'word, wisdom, and effectual might'. "^^ Rather than simply tossing
out the importance of the theology as does Frank Kermode, she
prefers to trace its dramatic embodiment in the poem. In this hght,
the tonelessness of God's speech is eminently suitable to him. "Here
is no orator using rhetoric to persuade, but the nature of things
expounding itself in order to present fact and principle unadorned. "^^
This first speech immediately takes on dramatic irony as we recall
Satan's carefuhy modulated and calculated speech to the Stygian
Council. The language of the characters in the poem, more than
just their mythical or theological relationships, is hard at work
defining them and their mutual positions. Samuel goes on in this
way to show how the Son's speech is a compassionate reaction to
God's stem logic and how these two attitudes interact to portray
dramatically the Son's dynamic role in changing "the whole applica-
tion of the moral law."-^ She connects this with Milton's doctrine
of free will as a divine example of the fruits of obedience, humihty,

^ ''Irene Samuel, "The Dialogue in Heaven: A Reconsideration of Paradise
Lost, III, 1-417," Milton: Modern Essays in Criticism, ed. Arthur E. Barker
(New York, 1965), pp. 233-234.

-''op. cit., p. 234.

2 8op. cit., p. 235.

2 9op. cit., p. 243.

97

and trust in the benevolence of the Father, an example that Adam
would have done well to follow.

Instead of fretting about the awesome weight of Milton's ideas,
Samuel simply gets to work on his expression of those ideas in the
poem. In this respect, her method and aims are much like Kermode's:
both get close to the language and have a keen sense for noting
irony, tone, and point of view. The difference is that Kermode, like
so many readers, is not willing to let Milton speak from his own
ideological pedestal. If we are to listen to him seriously, these
people say, he must be placed on a pillar of humanism, or a pillar
of mythic thought, or a pillar of "mainstream Christianity." What
they do not realize is that we have already removed Milton far
enough from his poetry by such sophisticated critical ploys. Enough
creeds, ideas, and biases have already been foisted on one of our
greatest poets without burdening him with more. C. S. Lewis would
ask such people, with a sly and slightly pompous grin on his face,
"Are you afraid of Milton's ideas?" Effective as this might be, the
real question which ought to be asked is, "Are you afraid of Milton's
language? of his style? of his allusions?" and so on.

As long as we address ourselves to Milton's "ideas" or, in the
case of Kermode, to his lack of ideas without first considering the
complex and subtle poetic expression he gives them in Paradise Lost,
we will never get a full sense of what his ideas were at all. Until we
read Milton as we read Shakespeare, as Irene Samuel does, we will
be reading a Milton stripped of his greatest asset his powerful,
unique poetic voice.

List of Works Consulted

Bergonzi, Bernard. "Criticism and the Milton Controversy," The Living
Milton, ed. Frank Kermode. London, 1960, pp. 162-180.

Frye, Roland Mushat. God, Man, and Satan: Patterns of Christian Thought
and Life in Paradise Lost, Pilgrim's Progress, and the Great Theologians.
Princeton, 1960.

Rev. J. A. Bryant Jr., SAQ, LX (Summer 1961),
347-348; DMS, XIII (Summer 1961), 202; Barbara
Everett. MLR, LVII (July 1962), 415- 417; Mer-
ri Y. Hughes, MLN, LXXVI( November 1961),
650-651; Howard Schulta, RN, XIII (Winter 1960),
334-336; Ernest Sirluck, MP, LIX (August, 1961),
68-69.

Harding, Davis P. The Club of Hercules: Studies in the Classical Background
of Paradise Lost. Urbana, 1962.

Rev. John Buxton, RES. LXXV (August 1964), 319-
321; J. M. Raines, ELN, I (September 1963), 68;
C. H. Salter, Classical Rev., XIII (December
1963), 357; TLS, February 15, 1963, pp. 101-
103; Frederic Will, Arion, II (Winter 1963),
131-142.

Kermode, Frank. "Adam Unparadised," The Living Milton, ed. Frank Ker-
mode. London, 1960, pp. 85-123.

MacCaffrey, Isabel Gamble. Paradise Lost as "Myth." Cambridge, Mass., 1959.
Rev. Geoffrey Johnson, Poetry Rev., LI (April-

98

June 1960), 107; Frank Kermode, MLR, LV (Octo-
ber 1959), 591-592; Laurence Lerner, Essays in
Crit., XI (January 1961), 104-110; John Peter,
QQ, LXVII (Autumn 1960), 491-492; Allan Pritchard,
Dalhoiisie Rev., XL (Spring 1960), 2; TLS, May
Century News, LVIII (Spring 1960), 2; TLS, May
20, 1960, p. 326; B. A. Wright, RES, XI (November
1960), 453.

Milton, John. Complete Poems and Major Prose, ed. Merritt Y. Hughes. New
York, 1957.

Samuel, Irene. "The Dialogue in Heaven: A Reconsideration of Paradise
Lost, III, 1-417," Milton: Modern Essays in Criticism, ed. Arthur E.
Barker. New York, 1965. [Orig. Pub. PMLA, LXXII (1957), 601-611.]

99

A Design for Campus Libraries Based on the

Favorite Studv Habits and the Preferred

Study Locations of Students at

Fayetteville State College

By

Charles I. Brown, Nathalene R. Smith, and Charles A. Asbury

The Problem. The purpose of this study was two-fold (1) to study
the favorite study habits and principal study locations of Fayetteville
State College students who in most ways are like the average
disadvantaged young people found on today's traditionally Negro
campuses and (2) to lend some assistance to the designers of the
new college library at the institution. Answers to these questions
can be of general educational value for campuses serving similarly
situated students and they should be relevant for the tradionally
Negro institution of higher learning which are concerned with provid-
ing learning environments that their clientale will accept and use.

Need for the Study

That a need for strengthening and upgrading the learning process
of students at Fayetteville State College and at the traditionally Negro
higher learning institutions is obvious. Year after year test results
of many students graduating from these types of colleges have lagged
behind the results of the students graduating from traditionally white
colleges. Further, the climate of campus can be such that it fails
to meet the needs of those young men and women who study there.
In addition, ways of getting interest on the part of students so that
faculties' teaching can prosper should be a concern of educators
since interest is an index of where the organism is ready to grow.
Unfortunately, many disadvantaged students seem to lack readiness
which is basically a feeling of need to participate in the reading
and study resources available in a college library. The writers desire
a student who is thirsty and hungry for learning-one that would seem
to say, "I am interested, I am ready and willing to see, hear, and
take action."

If adequate answers could be found regarding the reasons for
such actions, sounder programs of study, more adequate guidelines,
and such facilities that meet the needs of students could be provided
by the institutions they attend.

Most young people who come to Fayetteville State College are dis-
advantaged. They are not unhke students enrolled at the other 130
traditionally Negro Colleges of this country. A look at median Col-

100

lege Board scores or at the Graduate Record Examination scores
and numerous other evaluative criteria reflects the gap not only
between that which youngsters from predominately Negro schools
know on the average when they enter college but also when they
graduate. They are the victims of long standing cultural, political,
social, enconomic, and educational deprivation.

Because Negro college students have needs which should serve
as determinants of colleges' teaching purposes, the writers feel that
Fayette ville State College and its 130 counterparts need to know
more about the characteristics of the groups they attempt to serve
and let it serve as a basis of each facility it provides for them.

Literature Examined

Before undertaking the study the researchers surveyed A Study
on Studying (1) published by the Community College Planning
Center and "New Views of Schools" which appeared in a recent
Saturday Review. It was hoped that the survey would provide these
insights :

1. Favorite study habits and principal study locations on the
Fayette ville State College campus.

2. Effective design specifications for planners of the new college
library.

Limitations of the Study

The investigation was limited to Fayetteville State College students
who for the most part are Negroes. The sample comprised a total
of 414 (38%) students from the College's 1095 student body parti-
cipated and a score of its teachers allowed class time for students
to respond to the 16-item questionnaire. Fayetteville State College
is a state-supported 4-year degree-granting institution. It is one
of the oldest of Teachers Colleges in the South and in this Country.
It confers the B. S. degree and for the 1965-1966 school year its
enrollment was 1095. It is located in Fayetteville, North Carolina
and the majority of its faculty and students are Negroes.

Methods and Procedure

The methodology employed by the researchers was the use of a
16-item questionnaire as the general instrument for the study. As
has been said, there were 16 items drawn up, and designed to reveal
study habits and study locations of the participants.

Of the 414 participants, 160 were freshmen, 115 sophomores, 62
juniors, 66 seniors, and 11 were special students. Some of the 414
students were male, some female, some married, some single, some
resident, some non-resident, some white and some Negro.

101

Findings

This study shows that the most predominate study habit factor
for students is that one calHng for privacy which is reflected in this
study as 'study alone.' Only 1.67 per cent of the subjects chose to
study with others. However, 41 per cent of the students chose
complete privacy while 42 per cent preferred the physical presence
of other students but the "aloneness" of paralleled study. It can not
be taken for granted that these disadvantaged subjects responded in
keeping with their understanding since several instructors reported
that the word "carrel" was not in some students' experience.

While students expressed preferencies for studying alone 68 per
cent requested small sound-proof rooms.

Table 1. reveals the study preferences of the subjects by classifi-
cation and Table 2. reflects their privacy preferences.

TABLE 1. STUDY PREFERENCES

Alone

With 2 or 3 j With 4-7

With 20

With 100

Special

5

2

Freshmen

109

49 1

1

Sophomores

70

45 ! 2.

1

2

Juniors

41

26

Seniors

48

18

Total

273

140

3.0

2

2

Per Cent

65.0

33.3 0.7

0.5

0.5

Several interesting facts appear from an examination of Table 1.
Most impressive are the tremendous variations in relative choice
between freshmen and senior students. There is no consistent pattern
for the students, unless it is one of preferred "aloneness" and it is
noteworthy that although 109 out of 160 freshmen (68%) preferred
study alone, 48 out of 56 seniors preferred studying alone. It would
seem, therefore, that the preference for studying alone tends to in-
crease with an increase in student classification.

102

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103

TABLE 3. PRIMARY STUDY LOCATIONS

Location

Number*

Per Cent of Choices

Automobile

7

1.3

Canteen

3

.5

Classroom

9

1.6

Curriculum

Laboratory

1

.2

Day Room

6

1.1

Dormitory

258

46.4

Home

104

18.7

Library

154

27.6

Reading Clinic

5

.9

Others

10

1.7

Total Number of Choices 557 100

*Data in this table are based upon the number of choices made and not upon
the number of individuals. Some individuals made more than one choice.

From table 2 it can be seen that the students chose in the descend-
ing order reference works, card catolog, and books in the closed
stacks and/or on reserve as the educational aids that they most
preferred to study near.

Table 3 points up primary study locations present in these sub-
jects. These responses were obtained from the researchers' efforts
at finding primary study locations of deprived students after it had
been found that only 17 per cent of the students showed luxurious
taste as compared with 45 per cent who preferred only a plain desk.
It can be seen from this table that 87 per cent of the subjects studied
in the dormitory while only 37 per cent of them studied in the college
library.

Reasons given for study locations were quiet access to educational
aids, alone, convenient, best available, peace, study atmosphere, good
lighting, more comfortable, able to smoke while studying, low back-
ground, noise level, and small room gained the highest of responses.
But there seems to be no significance between these reasons and
the places where they now study other than pointing up a necessity
in designing campus libraries. It may also give some leads on the
question of open or closed stacks and the arrangement of library
serial literature.

Responses did seem to indicate, however, that when studying in a
large group or room, students prefer to study near reference works,

104

card catalogs and books on reserve shelves since 31 per cent of the
subjects gave this indication through their responses to the first of
these three items, 21 per cent responded affirmatively to the second
and 17 per cent to the third. Further, these responses could have
implications for greater faculty stress on the use of instructional aids.

Other information filtering from the study revolves around the
fact that 45 per cent of the respondents appeared to be more inter-
ested in a comfortable, plain facility rather than a luxurious facility.
No matter what amount of luxury was wanted the students seemed
to indicate that the place must be quiet, convenient, near educational
aids where they might study alone were requisites.

Summary

In summary, judging from the 414 student participants in this
study, underprivileged college students prefer a variety of small size
study spaces such as carrels and small sound-proof rooms for small
groups. They do not clamor for luxurious places for study but they
want only plain decor that houses all of the accoutrements necessary
to comfortable study. There are thousands of disadvantaged Negro
youngsters enrolled in traditionally Negro colleges today. The urgent
task in our country now is to look more carefully at the characteristics
of this group, assess their readiness and try to plan programs and
facilities to meet their needs.

Works Consulted

A Study on Studying: A Report from the Community College Planning Center
on Student Study Facilities. School of Education, Stanford University,
1965, 56 pages.

Legget, Stanton. "New Views of Schools," Saturday Review, October 16, 1965
pp. 93-94.

105

Apartheid and Morality

By

David S. Roberts

Apartheid is that policy of segregation practiced by tliose living
under the social, political, economic, and cultural systems of the
Republic of South Africa. Because it encompasses all of these sys-
tems, apartheid is total segregation. Morality might be defined as
virtuous behavior leading to the development of human dignity and
freedom and the writer feels that it is justifiable to relate apartheid
and morality, since the defenders of apartheid insist on using morality
to justify the policy. In 1964, Charles A. W. Manning,^ set forth
the three major points for a pro-apartheid position but the writer is
taking an opposite position.

First, the "irresponsible" foreigner insists that apartheid is "mor-
ally wrong," while the "responsible" South African asks whether
there is any less immoral approach, as stated by the apartheid de-
fender.- The defender feels that the "irresponsibility" of the foreigner
is communist-inspired, and he tends to link integration with com-
munism as does the American Radical Right, like the John Birch
Society. Manning claims that it is academic whether the so-called
democratic states have joined the communist states, in demanding
an end to apartheid, or vice versa. Further he sets up a government-
al system that holds that anyone who advocates or practices inte-
gration is subject to prosecution under South Africa's Suppression
of Communism Act. In linking integration and communism, we find
a perfect example of an illogical syllogism. The syllogism might be as
follows: the major premise argues that communists advocate in-
tegration of the races; the minor premise states that Individual A
or Group X advocate integration; and the conclusion finds that In-
dividual A or Group X are communists.

The defender of apartheid then moves from a linking of integra-
tion and communism to a defense of the complexities of the South
African situation. He feels that the complexities are more than multi-
racial in nature, such as in the United States, they are also multi-
cultural in nature. He might conclude his argument by quoting from
the Tomlinson Commission of the South African government that
finds :

... a continuation of the pohcy of integration would in-
tensify racial friction and animosity and the only
alternative is to promote the establishment of separate
communities in their own separate territories where

^Charles A. W.Manning, "In Defense of Apartheid," Foreign Affairs (Octo-
ber, 1964), pp. 135-149.

-The words irresponsible, responsible, and morally wrong are Manning's;
the words set off by quotation marks are the author's.

106

each will have the fullest opportunity for self-expres-
sion and development.^

On the other hand, some defenders of apartheid refuse to defend
the morality of the system, but they feel that it has at least brought
order, and that is better than the chaos in Black Africa, such as
that found in the Republic of the Congo formerly known as Belgian
Congo. Such an argument overlooks the sordid details of white rule
in Africa. The chaos that does exist in Black Africa is most certainly
the result, for the most part, of white rule or misrule, and not the
result of any natural inferiority of the black Africans, as the defen-
ders seem to imply.

The South Africans seem to fear cultural contacts that bring about
cultural change, which may lead to assimilation and acculturation,
and which may make a stronger society. They appear to avoid studies
of culture contact change, in favor of the abnormality of pulling
into themselves, as though contact with the native culture would
somehow subvert their (superior?) European culture.

Second, the defender of apartheid steps aside of the morality
question, and he argues that separate development does not mean a
policy based on "unfriendliness toward the nonenfranchised majority
of the population, for whose welfare the white minority has borne
responsibility since 1910"^ He presents the standard argument that
the natives have much good will towards the whites, if "outside
agitators" would only leave them alone, and that they look to the
whites for leadership, employment, enterprise, and initiative. And it
is claimed that the whites are sincere in giving paternalism.

While it is claimed that apartheid is not based on any negative
force, such as "unfriendUness," it is declared that it is based on
the positive force of nationalism. Thus, apartheid becomes an ex-
pression of nationalism, as found in the collective self-love of the
cultural heritage of the European forefather. And because it is mani-
festation of nationahsm, or rather because it is nationalism, apartheid
is not an attitude toward the black man in Manning's thinking. To hnk
racial supremacy arguments with the positive force of nationalism
does not give succor to those who suffer repression by the system.
The author is certain that the Second World War victims of Nazism
would not be given comfort, as they were herded into the gas
chambers, to learn that they were being killed in the cause of the
positive force of German nationalism, rather than in the cause of
the negative force of anti-Semitism. Certainly, the same would be
true of the black African in South Africa. Horrible excesses have
been made, throughout recent history, in the cause of nationalism,
and to link such excesses with nationahsm does not make them just
or moral.

Apartheid is morally weak because it is based on segregation and
discrimination, and the whole system of white rule is based absolutely

Hbid.
*Ibid.

107

on keeping the non-white majority in an inferior status. Apartheid,
Hke slavery, "de-humanizes" the individual, makes him less than a
human, strips him of human dignity and freedom and uses race or
skin color to identify exploiter from exploited. The South African
exploiters are years behind in accepting the nonwhite as a human.
The real evil of apartheid, as stated by South African Roman
CathoHc Archbishop Denis Hurley,

... is that it refuses to recognize human dignity and by
every cruel refinement of law, custom, and convention pours
scorn on the humanity of men and women created with an in-
born hunger for recognition, for acceptance by their fellow
man.^

Third, the defender of apartheid states that the liquidation of white
South Africa would require collective submission, of sacrificial love,
the essence of Christianity:

But, if it is only by such collective self immolation that a
people can reveal itself as Christian, never since the coming
of Christianity has there existed a Christian people. . .^

Under such standards, the defender claims, democracy would not
be a Christian system for it is based on collective selfishness, and
not on sacrificial love. Only an extremist could argue that culture
contact culture change means "self immolation" or "sacrificial col-
lective submission." Extremists see change as all evil or all good,
and the defender of apartheid sees change coming from culture con-
tact as total evil leading to "self immolation." According to one
Anglican bishop, Edward Crowther, the established churches in South
Africa, with minor exceptions, are not building the theological
foundations which will permit culture change, and the theologians
do not appear to be wrestling with the fundamental questions of who
Christ is and who man is. In addition, no other organized institution
or group in South Africa is building such foundations for culture
change.

Thus, apartheid is an extremist doctrine or dogma, which pictures
all change as total evil, and its defenders link the advocates of culture
change or integration with the communists as being communist-
inspired. It could be considered to be immoral, lacking in the develop-
ment of human dignity and freedom, because it is based on dis-
crimination and segregation against the nonwhite majority, in the
name of nationalism.

^Hurley, Dennis,'T/ze Christian Century", (March 18, 1964), pp. 378-380.
^Manning, op. cit.

108

A Study of Psycho-social Behavior
of College Freshmen 1966-67

by

Lawrence C, Bryant

To determine psychological and social aspects of the behavior
of 375 freshman students enrolled at South Carolina State College in
the fall of 1966, the researcher designed a questionnaire and requested
the freshman students of both sexes to react to it. The students' re-
sponses are reported in numbers and in percentages in the four
tables which follow. All of the students did not react to every item
in the questionnaire; however, data are presented for those items
which they checked.

Behavior Toward Integration

In Table 1, data are presented on student responses for thirteen
items relating to integration. A casual observation of these state-
ments, numbers of response, and percentages will reveal wide dif-
ferences. It can be seen that, 249 freshmen (66%) believe in

TABLE 1

Behavior Toward Integration

Yes

No. %

No

No. %

Believe in integration

Attended integrated school

Desire white students attend State College

Father interested in integrated schools

Mother interested in integrated schools

Teachers urged you to attend a Negro school

Father attended an integrated school

You attended an integrated camp

You attend an integrated church

Integrated schools are better than
segregated schools

Attended an integrated theater

Attended an integrated zoo

South Carolina State College should
be integrated

249

66

4

2

40

10

136

36

260

69

21

5

296

78

58

15

192

51

43

11

15

4

241

64

5

1

251

66

58

15

214

57

89

23

160

42

158

35

74

19

224

59

19

5

176

46

70

18

201

53

17

109

integration, while only four students (2%) do not. Thirty-two per
cent of the respondents left the item unchecked. The highest number
of students, that is, 296 (78% ) stated that their fathers are interested
in integration of schools. Only slightly more than half of the parti-
cipating students, 192 (51%) reported that their mothers are
interested in mixed schools. However, 260 freshmen (69%) desire
that white students attend South Carolina State College. Several
items which were responded to by a very low number of college
freshmen, fifteen students (4%), indicated that their teachers urged
them to attend Negro schools, but 241 students (64% ) indicated that
their teachers opposed their attending segregated Negro educational
institutions. As one may anticipate, only five fathers of 375 students
( 1 % ) had attended integrated schools, but 25 1 of these fathers
(66%) had frequented segregated schools. Approximately one-half
of the freshman students have attended integrated theaters (59%),
and zoos (46%), but only a few have attended integrated camps
(15%) and churches (23%). Fifty-three per cent of the students
think South Carolina State College should be integrated, but four
per cent do not think so.

Reactions to White People

As shown in Table 2, the responses of the students pertinent to
their reactions to white people vary widely for the fifteen items on
the questionnaire.

The highest positive response was made by 294 students (78%)
in regard to white friends. Two hundred and thrity-seven students
(63%) indicated that they did not feel inferior to white people. It
is interesting to note that 227 freshmen (60%) thought that they
would like to teach white children. While sixteen students (4%)
reported that they hate white people, 235 other freshmen (62%)
indicated that they do not hate members of the Caucasian race. More
than half of the respondents, 210 students (56%), are comfortable
with white people; however, forty-four other students (11%) are
not comfortable with these people. Although the following responses
are low in number, they are significant because they indicate how
some freshmen feel and think: Forty-nine beginning college students
(13%) prefer white teachers; seventeen students (4%) feel inferior
to whites; forty-eight students (12%) feel superior to whites; two
students (1%) prefer to be white; and twenty-eight students (7%)
feel that it is better to be bom white.

Reactions Toward Self

As presented in Table 3, the data pertinent to the students' reac-
tions toward themselves reveal some fairly high positive and nega-
tive responses. Only two items received positive responses at
approximately the 60% level. Two hundred and twenty-nine students
(61%) think well of themselves, and 261 students (69%) chose
to attend South Carolina State College. Two-hundred and seventy-
two students (72%) feel adequate. Only twenty-one students (5%)

110

TABLE 2
Reactions to White People

Yes No

No. % No. %

Hate white people

Comfortable with white people

Worked with white people

Prefer white teachers

Feel inferior to white people

Negroes equal white people in intelligence

Feel superior to white people

Have white ancestors

Prefer to be white

Negro homes kept as clean as white homes

Believe in white supremacy

Better to be born white

Enjoy white people

Have white friends

Like to teach white children

16

4

235

62

210

56

44

11

222

59

32

8

49

13

163

43

17

4

237

63

170

45

74

19

48

12

198

52

67

17

130

34

2

1

236

62

161

42

48

12

6

1

221

58

28

7

212

56

198

52

191

50

294

78

76

20

227

60

72

19

are color-conscious, and only thirty-three freshmen (8%) regret
that they are as dark in color as they are. It might be interesting
to some readers to note that out of 375 students, sixty-nine (18%)
stated that they believe in black power.

It is common knowledge that many college students do not like
their subjects. Eighty-eight freshmen (23%) like their subjects, but
246, (65%) do not like the subjects in which they are registered.

Arthur Combs stated that students are at war with their teachers.
In this study, forty-one respondents (10%) indicated that they hate
some teachers who have taught them; however, 188 respondents
(50% ) stated that they do not hate any teachers. Out of a total of
214 students who responded, ten hate their color (2%), but 204
freshmen enrollees (54% ) do not hate their color.

Finally, 104 respondents (27%) believe that prayer aids them in
making adjustments, but 206 others (54% ) do not have such belief.

Reaction to Others

The highest response to any item in the study is reported in Table
4. Three hundred and forty students (90% ) feel a warm relationship

111

TABLE 3
Reactions Toward Self

Yes

No

No.

%

No.

%

Are you color conscious?

21

5

229

61

Regret you are as dark as you are

33

8

187

49

Think well of yourself

229

61

6

1

Believe in black power

69

18

140

37

Believe in militancy to achieve rights

62

16

162

43

Chose this college

261

69

19

5

Drink alcoholic beverages

70

18

155

41

Hate your color

10

2

204

54

Control your feelings

187

49

34

9

Hate a teacher

41

10

188

50

Kind of person you like to be

161

42

87

23

Feel adequate

272

72

52

13

Like all your subjects

88

23

246

65

Prayer aids adjustment

104

27

206

54

with others, and only six students ( 1 % ) do not feel a warm rela-
tionship with anyone.

It is significant that three Negro freshman students ( 1 % ) hate
Negro people. Sixty per cent of the students of the study were
reared in homes with their fathers, and 58% were reared in homes
with their mothers.

Twenty-one freshmen (5%) said that they would steal money
from their roommates. One hundred and sixty-six respondents
(44% ) reported that they would return a found wallet with money
in it. One hundred and sixty-four respondents (43%) had a signi-
ficant person, but sixty-three other students (16%) did not have
such a person.

It is interesting that 232 freshmen (61%) desire to prepare to
teach poor children.

Every freshman student at South Carolina State College has been
assigned a counselor; however, only 217 of them (57%) feel free
to talk over their problems with their college counselors.

112

TABLE 4
Reaction to Others

Yes

No.

%

No
No. %

Hate Negroes 3 1 237 63

Reared in the home with father 227 60 39 10

Reared in the home with mother 219 58 15 4

Steal money from roommate 21 5 211 56

Return wallet with money 166 44 64 17

Significant person 164 43 63 16

Feel a warm relationship 340 90 6 1

Interested in teaching poor children 232 61 45 12

Talk over problems with college counselor 217 57 90 24

Conclusions

1. Generally, the freshmen varied widely in their reactions to the forty-two
items presented to them.

2. Some students responded positively and while others reacted negatively
to every item.

3. With only one item was there a 90% response. It was that the students
had a warm relationship with some other person.

4. Experiences make it necessary for wide responses on the items dealing
with integration.

5. There is significance in a majority opinion.

113

Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?:

Some Factors that Generate and
Sustain Dramatic Conflict

by
Ollie Cox

Theatre goers seeking escape from their anxious existence are likely
to view the seemingly endless round of partying by George and
Martha in Edward Albee's Who's Afaid of Virginia Woolf? as no
escape at all. The correctness of this assumption that the marital
conflict of George and Martha is no existence to be envied is sup-
ported by two tragic factors that generate and sustain the action
throughout this realistic and dramatic slice-of-life.

There is but one major conventional social pattern^ in the drama:
the "husband-married-to-the-boss's-daughter" pattern. The "wife
domination" pattern and the "son-in-law-other-employees" pattern
are so integral to the "husband-married-to-the-boss's-daughter" pat-
tern that they cannot escape being considered as parts of it.

The two tragic factors which dominate the action are George's
accidental killing of his parents and Martha's inability to have chil-
dren. This analysis of Virginia Woolf will attempt to show how these
two factors generate and sustain the conflict in the major pattern
and how they merge to heighten the lancinating anguish of the play.

To understand the analysis better, the reader should have at least
a reminding summary of the circumstances surrounding the action:

George had nourished a guilt complex for the accidental
killing of his parents, and had never come to terms with him-
self. He had married Martha, the daughter of the president
of a small New England college where he was a professor in the
History Department. Martha was unable to have children. The
problems of each become a problem for both. They have worried
needlessly and faded further and further from the reality of
things. Both have sought to escape their collective problem in the
consumption of quantities of liquor and insulting verbal spats
with each other. As a consequence, George has not made strides
in the History Department but Martha has made strides in the
direction of other men, not because of any real desire for them,
but because of disgust with herself. Because Martha is unable
to have children, she and George have invented an imaginary
child to fill the void; that is, they created an imaginary son,
perhaps first as a playful game, but they have so nourished

^The term "pattern" is used here in the sense of a specific life situation that
prompts actions and responses by the people involved.

114

their invention that now they, Martha in particular, view him
as a real child. The invention must have occured in their second
year of marriage, since they have been married for twenty-three
years, and seem now to expect the son on his twenty-first birth-
day. The androidson is very important because it is the core
around which the action rises, falls, and is finally resolved.

The major or "husband-married-to-the-boss's-daughter" pattern is
revealed in both expressed and implied terms in the opening scenes
of the play. After they are home from her father's Saturday night
party, Martha tells George, "You didn't do anything; you never do
anything; you never mix. You just sit around and talk." Now, one
might hear this kind of remark from any wife to any husband, but
Martha's domination of the major pattern is a bit clearer in George's
own admission: "I wish you'd tell me something sometime ... I
wish you'd stop springing things on me." One of the clearest ex-
amples of the major pattern is seen in Martha's reply to George's
accusation that she is a monster: 'T'm loud and Tm vulgar and
I wear the pants in this house because somebody's got to . . ." There
are numerous other examples of the major pattern in the first two
acts, but the point is that they are evident and that the major pattern
is established.

Very early in the play theatregoers are apt to see through the mist
of "bourbon and water" that George is the boy who accidentally
killed his parents and that Martha can have no children. George's
writing of a novel that tells the story of the accident, his preoccupation
with the tragedy, and the constant always-the-same description that
George gives of the fatal accident indicate his guilt:

On a country road, with his learner's permit in his pocket,
he swerved to avoid a porcupine, and drove straight into . . .

Later in the play while reminiscing, George mentions his parents'
attendance at his graduation and Nick asks him if that was the time
that he had killed them. George replies, "maybe." The evidence in
the play of Martha's inability to give birth is obvious. When Nick
talks of Honey's hysterical pregnancies George tells him, "Martha
doesn't have pregnancies at all," and in answer to Nick, who later
figures out the truth of George and Martha's situation, George simply
says, "We couldn't," meaning that he and Martha could have no
children.

With the definitions given and the major pattern and two tragedies
established, one can show with less difficulty how the "wife domina-
tion" and "son-in-law-and-other-employees" patterns generate and
sustain the domestic conflict in the "husband-married-to-the-boss's-
daughter" pattern.

George and Martha try to avoid reality through excessive drinking,
extended verbal bouts with each other and their guests, the domina-
tion of George by Martha and George's submission to it, and by
George's intentionally failing to advance in the History Department.
The excessive drinking seems to lead into the other escapes in the
order listed, so that together they form a series.

115

One need not stretch his imagination to sense that the mood, set in
the first act, is in fact the mood of George and Martha's lives. The
drama, operating within the unity of time, shows us this. It takes
only three and a half to four hours, from two o'clock in the morning
until about dawn, to give us the whole pattern of their hves through
what is said and done. Viewed then as their life mood and tempo,
the drinking pattern becomes a starting point of escape from the
reahty of the "wife domination" and "son-in-law-and-other-em-
ployees" patterns. The verbal sparring that follows is, in its early
phases, really fun and games ("Get the Guest," "Hump the Hostess,"
and "Humiliate the Host") to George and Martha.

Nick and Honey are representative of the guests who have come to
George and Martha's parties over the years. But Nick and Honey
are different from the other guests in that the host's problems come
to their most crucial point while Nick and Honey are with them, and
some decision to sink or swim has to be made. So Nick and Honey
must have something in their makeup that corresponds or something
that is in direct contrast to the make-up of George and Martha. To
this reviewer, Nick and Honey have similarities to George and Martha,
but the most important aspect is their direct contrast. Honey can
have babies, but does not want them because she is afraid. But
strangely enough, this contrast, if perpetuated, can lead Nick and
her into the same type of existence that George and Martha share
a wasted, meaningless one. To prevent this downturn in Nick and
Honey's marriage, Albee has chosen to place them as "morning
guests" in George and Martha's home. Nick and Honey also give the
play unity of time and closure because they have to leave soon; also,
they unify the action because they are a part of its singleness and
completeness. Once George is motivated to do what he must do to
attempt a reversal of situation, the presence of Nick and Honey at
the early morning "after party" is vital to the drama.

George and Martha's escape from the realities of the two tragic
factors is short-lived. In fact, they don't really escape; they only
intensify the agony of their lives. They are far more miserable at or
near the end of their drinking-sparring bouts than they were without
a drop of liquor. George puts it this way:

I'm numbed enough . . . and I don't mean by liquor,
though maybe that's been a part of the process, a gradual over-
the-years going to sleep of the brain cells I'm numbed enough
now to be able to take you when we are alone. I don't listen
to you, I sift everything down to reflex response, so I don't
really hear you, which is the only way to manage it.

Martha's words relate her inner chaos and resignation:

I cry all the time to Daddy. I cry all the time. And Georgie
cries all the time too. We both cry all the time, and then, what
we do, we cry, and we take our tears, and we put 'em in the
ice box, in the goddam ice trays (begins to laugh) until they
are all frozen (laughs even more) and then ... we put them
... in our . . . drinks . . .

116

The agony, the remorse, the numbness, the loneliness felt by these
two is clearly communicated in these lines. They seem to say that
the nothingness is too much to bear, that the half-life, half-death
state will have to end. It is George who sees a way to change things.
The invented chUd was a secret between George and Martha. When
Martha makes a slip and tells Honey about the son, George seems
to feel he has the right to destroy the invention. There is an implied,
unspoken agreement between George and Martha when he reminds
her that she has broken the rules. The method of destroying the son
comes to George when Honey thinks that she hears the door bell
chime. George, his mind whirling with the plan in the making (an-
other "invention"), answers Honey, while half talking to Martha,
to whom he has promised drastic action for revealing their secret :

. . . somebody rang ... it was somebody . . . with . . .
I'VE GOT IT! I'VE GOT IT MARTHA . . . Somebody
with a message ... It was a message, and it was about . . .
our . . . and the message . . . was . . . our son ... is
. . . dead!

Noting Honey ahnost senselessly drunk, George seizes this chance
to attempt a reversal of the fortunes of all the characters. He had,
moments earlier, told Honey in commenting on Nick and Martha
in the kitchen:

It's very simple . . . when people can't abide things as they
are, when they can't abide the present, they do one of two
things . . . either they . . . either turn to a contemplation
of the past, as I have done, or they set about to . . . alter the
future. And when you want to change something . , . you go
BANG! BANG! BANG!

George has contemplated the past for too long; he has achieved
nothing, merely multiplying the nothingness. Now he must set about
altering the future; he must destroy the created child to bring Martha
back to reality; he must, in the process, shock Honey and Nick into
a realization of their plight, or else they will wind up just as he
and Martha, In the same process, there's a chance that he will
free himself of the past and his guilt complex. His language and
manner are all-important now, for he must distill truth from illusion
through the proper application of words and expressions. His sarcastic
banter, so pronounced earlier, now disappears and a sober, naked
reality replaces it. George is equal to the task; he is at once cal-
culating, commanding, and insulting because he has to be, for he
must really shock. Nothing could have been further from the man-
ner of a real father telhng a real wife about the death of a real son
than the way George, surging onward, tells Martha:

All right. Well Martha ... I'm agraid our boy isn't coming
home for his birthday . . . No Martha . . . He . . . can't
. . . He was killed late in the afternoon ... on a country
road, with his learner's permit in his pocket, he swerved to
avoid a porcupine, and drove straight into a ... I thought
you should know.

117

This is the way George chooses to alter the pattern of life for
himself, Martha, and in the process, Nick and Honey. The resulting
effect on the others point toward a positive awakening and easement
of their common problem. Nick's reaction is heard in an exclama-
tion. "'Jesus Christ, I think I understand this." Nick repeats this
statement and later says to George, "You couldn't have any?" Honey
agrees with George about the telegram that she really did not see.
She does this because she realizes that George's plan is best for
Martha. Honey at the same time is aware that she, herself, should
begin to think about having children while she can, especially after
seeing how much a child means to Martha and George who cannot
have one. Honey is at last aware that she and Nick could wind up in
George and Martha's predicament if she retains her fear of having
children. With all these things in mind, she agrees with George
about the telegram that she did not see, saying, "Yes, yes you ate
it. I watched ... I watched you . . . you ate it all down." Honey's
he reveals her own awakening.

Martha is hardest to bring around; the child was almost real to
her; she has suffered most. She even suggests the possibility of an-
other creation, not fully believing the first was destroyed or whether
George really had to destroy the son: "It was . . . ? You had to?
I don't suppose, maybe, we could?" But Martha gradually gives in
to the reality of it all:" . . . Yes. No." George's very positive reply
is. "it was . . . time ... it will be better.'"

The author would like to acknowledge the debt owed to Charles I. Brown
and Andrew E. Reiff in the preparation of this article.

118

FIVE SELECTED POEMS

Nations of the World

by
Gershon B. Fiawoo

Ur r r r r r, ur r r r r r, Zoooooom.
Ur r r r r r, ur r r r r r, Zoooooom.
Tsooko, tsooko, tsooko, tsooko.
Tsooko, tsaka, tsaka, tsooko.
Voom, voom, voom, voom, voom.
Gling, gling, gling-gling gling.
Pam pam, pam, papam, papam, pam,
Nations of the world, will you wage war?
I weep for Hiroshima, I cry for Nagasaki;
Dunkerque, Verdun, fields of slaughter,
Blood-shed carnage and great massacre.
Nations of the world, will you wage war?
Man's oppression and man's inhumanity,
And we are twenty centuries old.
Away from stones, away from spears.
To a new age and to man's distress.
We have come and ready we must to hold.
Tense is the air and we are frightened.
War is here, war is there and cold.
Masters, on our knees we today pray.
Nations of the world, will you wage war?
The space age has come and to a new world,
We must for joy, love and comfort.
The moon and stars blew a new trumpet
Heralding and praising our great mind.
The moon received us, exposing her new face.
Nations of the world, will you wage war?
Too strong we are and too weak we are.
Attila, Alexander, Caesar, Napoleon, Hitler
Will you not put down your swords
At the altar of human race and shiver,
Shrink, yielding pace to the new man?
Nations of the world, will you wage war?

119

Singing America

by
Gershon B. Fiawoo

I hear Negro boys and girls

Singing America;

Some were mute like statues,

And others just hummed sadly,

Not singing America,

And I do not blame them.

The Cross

by
Gershon B. Fiawoo

The cross was a sign of shame;
Jesus carried it to Golgotha
And made it a sign of pride.
And if need be, in course of time,
Let me carry a cross of shame.
If this wish should come true
Do not cry nor wail for me
For it is my own desire.

120

In Days Like This, Cfdl it Democracy

by
Gershon B. Fiawoo

In days like this,

Bathe hke a sadist in human blood;

Call it democracy

And the carnage would clean you up.

In days like this,

Feast on human flesh and human blood;

Call it democracy

And it shall be the "field of cloth of gold."

In days hke this.

Ride on an ass through streets of Jerusalem;

Call it democracy

And no protest would come from Pilate.

In days like this.

You can take thirty pieces of silver;

Call it democracy

And the land bought shall be called Paradise.

In days like this,

Go to Worms and declare "I shall not recant;"

Call it democracy

And Saint Peter would make you a prince.

In days hke this,

Share a leg of ham without owner's consent.

Call it democracy

And you are a God-fearing man, a humanitarian.

In days like this,

You can freely paint swastikas on temples;

Call it democracy

And the Jews shall be slaughtered.

In days like this,

You can be debased, oppressed and misruled;

Call it democracy

And your rewards are in heavens.

In days like this,

Go into space and pass the moon

Call it democracy

And you are the most powerful.

121

On The Slaughter

by

Gershon B. Fiawoo

In days of old,
Our grand father's fathers
Slaughtered cows and fowls
To appease the angry gods,
And to give thanks to goddesses.
We are this time away
From stock sacrifice and altars,
For it is Christ's day
Yet for freedom and justice
We now offer blood, blood,
Blood, human blood, blood.
Must I not turn pagan
To slaughter stocks to idols.
To the seen, harmless gods?

Oh! Setting sun in the west!
Set for ever on the savage waste
And give no more light and sight.
Reduce us from these heights
And make us savage again.
Praying to stones and trees,
Fighting with stones and spears.

Our veins are dry.

Our breaths are short

Our body is skin and bones.

We cannot move at will,

But build a way in dreams

And remain without a move.

We have voice

But we cannot speak

We have legs

But we cannot walk

We have hands

But we cannot hold.

Yet, even in fetters,

Our mind is free and bondless.

We still see visions far away

We still hear voices this day.

122

Instead of crying,

We are laughing, we must not cry.

It hurts others.

Instead of fighting,

We are laughing, we must not fight,

It hurts others,

And we must laugh to F-O-R-G-E-T.

Thanks be to God

For laughter, dance and song.

A clown must laugh, and laugh,
Not because he is happy nor sad.
He must laugh, dance and sing
To P-L-E-A-S-E.
Children and old men cry.
They cry and cry sometimes.
God said "Let there be Light:"
And there was darkness . . .
Darkness falls, falls again
And we are lost, lost, lost.
Oh! Lord, have mercy.
Have mercy on us.
We too are your children
In your own image.
Have mercy on us.

This is "The Waste Land" and God
Ashamed, turned away from it.

7

Black man! Hush! Hush! Hush!

You must forever be voiceless.

Dumb, mute, docile and speechless.

Your presence hurts others

And your wild and fiendish voice,

Is too crude and too vulgar for prayers,

Oh! Lord our God what a silence!

God . . . God . . . God . . .

123

The Modern Dramatic Hero

As Seen in the

Plays of Brecht and Betti

By

William T. Graves

Both Bertolt Brecht and Ugo Betti are concerned with the pos-
sibilities of heroic characters in modern drama. With the breakdown
of strict codes of morality and the growing acceptance of a relativistic
ethic, the conventional conflict of the hero with his society and with
other heroes no longer provide dramatic situations where vital, rele-
vant, contemporary comment is possible. A new kind of hero must be
developed. In Brecht's and Betti's works we see two different, even
opposed reponses to this difficulty. Because of this difference, how-
ever, a critical juxtaposition of the Brechtian and Bettian hero will
shed mutual light on each author's particular development of the
heroic character as well as on modern drama's attempt to cope with
and explain the human situation in the mid-twentieth century.

The essential quality of Brecht's hero is the ability to survive. Galy
Gay "makes it" when he abandons the notion of maintaining his old
individuality. He sells an absurdly fake elephant as real. He denies
his wife. He is, indeed, the giant of the army. And just as easily he
can reverse any of his roles. If necessary, it seems he can take back
his wife. He can return to his porter's job. He can desert the whole
army. Why can he make these changes? He is adaptable. He has the
courage and interests not to be a Bloody Five.

Bloody Five, the old line soldier, is so set on being the famous war-
rior, with all the regalia, that he loses the game. He wants so much
to be a definite someone that he ends up being a nobody.

These two characters, Galy Gay and Bloody Five from A Man's
A Man, are useful as extreme prototypes of Brecht's concept of the
modern and the old fashioned heroes respectively. Times have
changed and so must men. An earlier play. In The Swamp, contains
many of the seeds for the development in A Man's A Man. The
later works, those following this second play, are mainly variations on
the Galy Gay - Bloody Five theme. We can thus use A Man's A Man
as a focal point.

The later characters are often not so purely typed. Mother
Courage is a heroine but her play ends on a note of pessimism as
far as her future goes. She has lost her possessions, one after another.
Very early Eilif goes off with the recruiting officer, ultimately to be
shot. Swiss Cheese, her other son, is also eventually killed. Mother
Courage places too much trust in the future of the war, and finds her-
self over-bought. Financially she is in a very bad state when the final

124

outrage comes: her daughter is murdered. The combined result of
these losses is that Mother Courage is left with insufficient funds,
and no one but herself to pull the wagon. She is surviving, but at
the rate she is going one is inclined to see her own destruction as
not far off.

Using the ability to survive as the criterion for judging who is
the heroic type, Mother Courage is seen as partly the modern hero,
but also to a fatal degree the possessor of old-fashioned weaknesses.
She is at times sentimental, and moreover lacks sufficient foresight.
She cannot adapt to the changes brought about by either a real or
threatened peace. She does not appreciate what the sergeant says
at the conclusion of the first scene: "When a war gives you all you
earn/One day it may claim something in return!"

Mother Courage is still basically, however, in the Galy Gay tradi-
tion, whereas her two sons and daughter act primarily, but again not
solely, in the manner of Bloody Five. Eilif is bold. He gets the
peasants' cows during the hostilities. Unfortunately, he does not know
when he should stop, and so is shot. Swiss Cheese is too honest, and
Kattrin is too noble. They are also both shot. When the children are
under the influence of their mother, however, they absorb some of
her wits. If Mother Courage had managed to accompany her children
constantly, perhaps events would have occurred differently. Mother
Courage is busy selling to the sergeant when the recruiting officer
signs up Eilif. Again Mother Courage is absent, this time with the
chaplain, when Swiss Cheese absconds with the cash box, and finally
she is in town buying stocks when Kattrin does her noble and self-
destructive act.

In The Good Woman of Setzuan Brecht most distinctly develops
the contrast between the old modem heroes. Here there is an actual
schizoid, Shen Te, the benevolent lady at one time, and Shui Ta, the
shrewd cousin at others. When business wisdom predominates, the
character prospers. Otherwise there is a degeneration into an old-
fashioned do-gooder.

In addition to being interesting as an emphatic statement of the
Galy Gay - Bloody Five relationship. The Good Woman of Setzuan
is significant for the important conclusions to which it leads. Brecht's
new heroism is not necessarily immoral any more than it is moral.
These value terms are decidedly outdated. Shui Ta may be ruthless,
but he is just, according to the letter of the law. His outstanding
characteristic is the lack of the sentimentality that motivates Shen Te.

That the path of evil is not necessarily the one leading to success
should be evident from the brutal death of the tyrannical Governor
Abashwilli in The Caucasion Chalk Circle. He was a far from ad-
mirable character and was given his just reward. Consider also Bloody
Five, a boaster of murderous deeds, and Eilif, the merciless robber
of peasants. AU these traditionally immoral men perish.

The good, however, also can suffer. Grushna's problems would
have been much alleviated if she had held in mind the story teller's

125

"Terrible is the seductive power of goodness." St. Joan would not have
died so young if she had known when to terminate her gospel message.

To become a Brechtian hero one must forget about good and evil,
and direct one's efforts to overcoming what we have come to accept
as the distinctly human qualities of pity, love, pride and hate. The
man who keeps alive is the one who learns to stop feeling. A certain
combination of intelligence and visceral instinct is necessary as a
replacement. Brecht's hero is the one who reahzes that personal sur-
vival depends on knowing which parts of the human makeup are
useful, and which ones are likely to become excess baggage. The
swamp swallows up those men who insist on remaining too heavy
with humaneness.

Ugo Betti's hero is in many ways the antithesis of Brecht's. In play
after play Betti's characters make the traditionally grand gestures so
much scorned by their Brechtian counterparts. Betti's people are
plagued by the age-old problems of evil and guilt, the very concerns
that are so obviously ignored in the Brechtian amoral development.
They find their salvation in compassion toward each other, certain-
ly not in the shrewd alienation promulgated by Brecht's characters.

Betti's hero suffers from an often times vague and purposely ill-
defined malaise. Danielle in The Fugitive has, according to a line in
Act I, been born "under an unlucky star."^ He is generally dis-
satisfied with life, and unsuccessfully seeks an explanation from the
Doctor. He is unable to act on a logical basis. He knows, for example,
that Nina is unfairly troublesome, yet he is driven by various forces
to maintain his relationship with her.

Giorgio, the penitent in Struggle Till Dawn, is likewise perplexed.
He has injured his friend TuUio and wants to make amends. He acts
out of this desire, yet his confusion while doing so is all too obvious.

The discomfort of Betti's heroes is most clearly brought out in the
inquiry play Landslide where a microcosm of human existence is
developed. No one is altogether guilty for the deaths in the accident.
Each person has an excuse of sorts. Yet finally the reason they are
all disturbed is that they are all guilty. At the same time, they are in
one way all innocent. Can the workers who are forced to do double
shifts be held responsible? And yet must they not do their jobs no
matter how difficult in view of the dangerous consequences of care-
lessness? And does not Gaucker have to make a living to keep himself
and his wife alive? But again what right does he have to be instru-
mental in bringing about such a great tragedy?

The guilt borne by the inhabitants of Betti's world is not only
general, it is also inevitable and lasting. The causes of the landslide
are present as much at the end of the trial as at its beginning. It is
significant that Giorgio comes to make amends to his old friend Tul-
lio but, as the scene develops, finds himself once more nearly going
off with Delia. Moreover, Giorgio finally murders TuUio. Giorgio

^Ugo Betti, The Fugitive in Three Plays On Justice, trans. G. H. McWilliam
(San Francisco, 1964), p. 124.

126

may be sorry for his past misdeeds, but until lie himself is poisoned
he is incapable of not sinning once more.

Man's determined fate is perhaps most explicitly brought out in
The Burnt Flower-Bed. There everything clearly must happen.
Giovanni has to be murdered just as does Nicola. Tomaso, himself
an executor, reahzes that he will likely be destroyed. Near the play's
end, he remarks, "And everything obeys. And children fall and die.
But that's the fate of everything else too. There is nothing else. And
why should man be the only exception? No. We roll docilely down
the same slope. There was a push, at the beginning."-

Tomaso speaks as if man can do absolutely nothing, but yet the
play concludes on a clearly hopeful note. Rosa does the traditional,
grand heroic act, allowing herself to be shot to save the community.
Giovanni is given the strength to join once more with his fellows. He
too now assumes a responsibility. He announces as he goes out the
door, "We will go up there and say what has to be said, and they will
listen to us."^

The Bettian character has a potentially traditional heroic role to
play. To be successful in this position he must first of all come to an
understanding about evil. He must accept its existence and his role
in perpetrating it.

In those Betti plays where the hero functions, what is seen is a
reversal of the Brecht process. The Bettian hero is the man who
learns to feel for his brothers. Parse exclaims in Landslide that men
need, "from the hands of the judges . . . something else [than the
mere sentence], something higher, compassion, compassion."^ Argia
in The Queen And The Rebels and the Inspector in The Fugitive also
see the need for feeling. Giorgio has an imperfect understanding of
this need, and so finally has to find refuge in his death brought on
by his wife. Argia, on the other hand, sees herself as capable of being
the queen. She takes on the symbolic nobility of office and dies. Her
death is not in vain. True, she does not accomplish any specific good,
except perhaps the saving of the child, but she somehow ennobles
man in general. Man can rise to virtuous levels.

If one tries to find characters such as Rosa and Argia in the
Brechtian theatre, he is forced to see that Brecht's counterparts for
the Betti heroes are some of the very people he depicts as failures.
Kattrin, the daughter, is Uke Rosa and not Mother Courage. The
same can be observed of St. Joan. If the process is revered in an
attempt to find the equivalent of Brecht's Galy Gay, one comes to
such negators as the doctor in The Fugitive and to a lesser extent
Raim from The Queen And The Rebels. Although Galy Gay is like-
able and the two Betti characters are not, all three individuals reveal
a complete lack of personal commitment.

-Betti, The Burnt Flower-Bed in Three Plays, trans. Henry Reed (N. Y.,

1956), p. 178.
^Betti, The Burnt Flower-Bed, p. 186.
*Betti, Landslide in Three Plays On Justice, p. 58.

127

The two authors thus share a common concern with the response
man can make to the modern environment. Also, the same character
types appear in both Brecht and Betti. There is merely a reversal of
roles. Each writer, quite naturally, devotes most of his efforts to
the development of his particular hero. This observation is basic and
unsurprising but it is very important. There are not very many
Brechtian characters in Betti, and the development of the Bettian
old-fashioned hero is very often superficially done in Brecht. There
is, however, in Betti's Crime On Goat Island, a very good descrip-
tion of both his hero and Brecht's. Angelo, a very Brechtian indivi-
dual, wants nothing more than to live a sensual trouble free existence.
Agata, playing a Bettian hero, is a deeply tortured, guilt-ridden
woman, who finds herself doomed to a harsh life in a nearly deserted
house. Angelo is not overburdened by feehngs of responsibiUty. He
urges Agata to live like the goats. He suggests that she should de-
humanize herself. She is unwilling to do so, and to save her humanity,
with all its areas of responsibility and troubles, she symbolically leaves
Angelo to die in the well.

It seems clear that the two writers need not be seen as competing,
but rather as complementing authors, depicting various segments of
the present human situation. Brecht has the panoramic outlook. He
creates the modem Everyman, the one who shrewdly moves and
profits from the times. Betti's hero, on the other hand, now and then
does something to thwart the seemingly inevitable. If history both
makes and is made by men, then there is a place for both Brecht's
and Betti's heroes in the modern theatre.

Bibliography

1. Betti, Ugo. Crime On Goat Island, trans. Henry Reed. San Francisco, 1961.

2. Three Plays, trans. Henry Reed. N. Y., 1956.

3. Three Plays On Justice, trans. G. H. McWilliam, San Francisco,

1964.

4. Brecht, Bertolt. Seven Plays, ed. Eric Bentley, trans. Bentley et al. N. Y.,
1961.

128

Noah Webster as a Lexicographer

By

William T. Graves

Any analysis of Webster as a lexicographer must rely heavily for its
completeness on a consideration of the complexities and compHca-
tions that were part of, and resulted from, Webster's own personahty
and the times and circumstances of which he was so integrally a part.
The dictionaries compiled by Webster reflected a dehcate balance of
literary, pohtical, and social concerns. This paper will trace the
development of Webster's works of lexicographical interest, con-
sidering his aims and achievements.

Allen Read in his article "Projected EngHsh Dictionaries, 1755-
1828," observed that as early as 1789 Webster was very seriously
interested in compiling an "American" dictionary. Webster's non-
literary sentiments intruded immediately. He concluded his comments
on the proposal with the observation: "Whether this project, so deep-
ly interesting to this country, will ever be effected; or whether it
wiU be defeated by indolence and prejudice, remains for my country-
men to determine."^

It was not until 1828, almost forty years after these lines were
written, that the first edition of An American Dictionary of the
English Language was published. Although Webster did not work
continuously on the dictionary, much of his timj during the forty-
year period was spent on aUied projects and a good deal of them can
be referred to as preparation for the grand undertaking.^

The bibhographies of his writings reveal extensive activity in varied
fields. Many of the works are of a strictly political nature. Webster
fought in the Revolution and subsequently became a staunch, al-
though a stiU very independently minded Federahst. There are.
however, a sizeable number of letters, addresses, and books concerned
with educational matters. Some of these have a direct bearing on
Webster as a lexicographer. Other, at least, serve the important pur-
pose of indicating the basic assumptions and ideas with which Webster
approached his work.

From the beginning of his career as a scholar, Webster felt the
need for a definite American oriented scholarly program. At times,
his interest seems almost provincial. In a letter dated January, 1783.
addressed to John Canfield, a member of the Connecticut legislature
and the father of one of Webster's pupils, Webster exclaimed that.

^Noah Webster, Dissertations On The English Language (Boston, 1789), p.

407. Quoted by Allen Walker Read, "Projected English Dictionaries, 1755-

1828," The Journal Of English And Germanic Philology, XXXVI (1937).

pp. 188-205.
-F. Sturges Allen, Noah Webster's Place Among English Lexicographers

(Springfield, 1909), passim.

129

"An attention to literature must be the principal bulwark against
the encroachment of civil and ecclesiastical tyrants , . . America must
be as independent in literature as she is in politics, as famous for
art as for arms . . . ."^

Words of this sort have led Ervin Shoemaker in his biography,
Noah Webster, to observe of Webster that, "The growing conscious-
ness of Americanism was more rampant in him than in any other
of his contemporaries"^ It is important, however, to bear in mind
the role Webster saw for himself. He concluded his exclamatory com-
ments in the letter to Canfield with the hope and prediction: ". . . it
is not impossible but a person of my youth may have some influence
in exciting a spirit of literary industry."^

It seems possible thus, that at least part of the spirit of patriotism
that motivated Webster was related to a feeling of youthful desire to
profit from the opportunities afforded by a new and expanding nation.
Nevertheless, there were very real and pressing needs for a learning
directed towards America. With regard to the spoken and written
tongue, Webster expressed his awareness as follows: ". . . although
the body of the language is the same as in England, and it is desirable
to perpetuate that sameness, yet some differences must exist."'' Here
and elsewhere he pointed out some obvious problems. He perceived
that there were many general refinements that might be added to the
language. But he was more concerned with the immediate American
situation. The English dictionaries were not paying heed to American
place names. As a former schoolmaster, Webster perceived the need
for a pronunciation and spelling guide. Moreover the English books,
in disdainful fashion, did not record "americanisms," words and
phrases of United States origin and usage.

The difficulties Webster encountered in rectifying these errors
were directly related to a prevailing subservience to the British in the
field of letters. In August, 1809, he wrote to his good friend, Thomas
Dawes of Boston, in reply to general charges that he, Noah Webster,
was adding "Americanisms and vulgarisms"^ to the language. He
called the accusation, "one of the most extraordinary charges which
my opponents have ventured to suggest."*'^ He did not, however, deny
these imputations. Rather, in a characteristic fashion, he resigned
himself to the fact that prejudices were so strong that his best hope of
success lay not in engaging in general arguments, where appeals to
authority and old notions could be made against him, but in consider-
ing the particular problem. He continued in the letter to say:

I have indeed introduced into our vocabulary a few words, not
used perhaps in Great Britain or not in a like sense, such as
'customable' . . . 'doomage' . . . 'four-fold' . . . and a few others,

^Webster, Letters, ed. Harry Warfel (N. Y., 1953), p. 4.

^Ervin C. Shoemaker, Noah Webster (N. Y., 1936), p. 247.

^Webster, Letters, p. 4.

"Webster, An American Dictionary Of The English Language, Vol. 1 (N. Y.

1828), "Preface," p. i.
'Webster, Letters, p. 329.
sibid.

130

probably not twenty, noting them as local terms .... Such local
terms exist, and will exist, in spite of lexico-graphers or critics.
Is this my fault? And if local terms exist why not explain them?
Must they be left unexplained, because they are local? This very
circumstance renders their insertion in a dictionary more neces-
sary . . .^

The tone of the preceding passage is one of exasperation. Webster's
common sense told him one thing and yet he was confronted by a
New England populace that maintained a most amazing academic
slavery to the status quo. By the time of the 1828 Dictionary, Webster
had already given in on a good many points. His shrewdness led him
to realize that if he was to be at all successful he would have to allow
the undisturbed continuation of what to him appeared as absurdities.
Perhaps years of harrassment by the "authorities" and their pro-
ponents forced his adjustment to this harsh reality.

In his earlier years, however, Webster had been firmly convinced
that in the same way America had set an example in government, it
could show the way in language studies. He even thought in terms
of a "federal language. "^ Americans would speak American. He
was not clear exactly how far he would like to have altered the
English language, but it is certain that he did not desire to make
Americans and Englishmen mutually unintelligible, but rather to
take advantage of the times so as to create a higher level of language
for his countrymen, one that eventually might be taken up by the
Mother Country.

In order to aid the development of the "national tongue," Webster
authored a school book series he called The Grammatical Institute.
This series, which was to lay only the most basic framework for the
change, consisted of a speller, a grammar, and a reader. These
volumes along with works of a similar nature gave Webster an op-
portunity to explain and place into effect some of the theories that
were to be important in the final dictionary. The prefaces of these
works are particularly illuminating. In a passage that suggested the
approach of many modern scholars, Webster clearly limited the role
of the grammarian: "It is the business of grammar, to inform the
student, not how a language might have been originally constructed,
but how it is constructed. Grammarians are apt to condemn particular
phrases in a language, because they happen not to coincide strictly
with certain principles. But we should reflect that languages are not
framed by philosopers. . . "^^ Here Webster was trying to defend
something he saw instinctively as correct. He was also still showing
his patriotism. His concern with "particular phrases" at least partly
was related to the American origin of the idioms.

At the same time that he recognized the natural mutability of
language, Webster was concerned with rooting out what he considered
to be artificial restrictions. The effect of these restrictions had been

^Ibid.
1 'Webster, op. cit. p. 80.
^^Webster, Grammar, 6th ed. (Boston, 1800), "Preface," p. v.

131

to create a body of contradiction within the tongue. The problem
here was how to allow the acceptance of the modem changes and
not the anomalies. Ultimately, Webster was to solve this problem by
going over the heads of the authorities and calling on the greater
testimony of the natural state of the language. He seems to have
precluded this approach in the preface quoted. Thus, during his work
on the great dictionary he came up with the idea that is partly in
the preface and partly not. He continued to accept the modern varia-
tions and developments he found in America. He also continued to
reject the authoritative positions on language, but he did so now for
a new reason. He suggested that the problem was that the scholars,
contrary to promulgating the original state of the language, were
actually obscuring it. His studies in etymology and comparative
linguistics filled him with a self-confidence that may not have been
justified, but which did result in a working approach of great prag-
matic value. He had a rational guideline to keep what he always
instinctively felt belonged in the language and to reject what he
sensed was burdensome.

The preliminary books also reveal Webster's penchant for clever
propaganda. The title page of his A Philosophical And Practical
Grammar Of The English Language, a variation of his standard work,
contained Lockes's admonition to those who refuse to learn by
reasoning rather than by mere acceptance of what is taught: " 'Au-
thority keeps in ignorance and error more people than all other causes.
No opinion is too absurd to be received on this ground.' "^- Note
that despite Webster's desire to innovate and reform, he wished to
avoid the suggestion that he was the radical. He quoted a very es-
tablished and respected man of English thought. With more than a
little irony, he used a passage from Dr. Johnson himself for the in-
scription of the 1828 American Dictionary.

In addition to the grammar and related type books, Webster was
responsible for several smaller dictionaries before he released his
American Dictionary. A Compendious Dictionary was published in
1806. In a letter written in the summer of the previous year he ex-
plained to the printer, Matthew Carey, that in the preparation of the
work he had studied Anglo-Saxon and consequently became aware
of the numerous errors in ". . . more or less all the spelling books,
grammars, and dictionaries . . ."^^ then prevalent. The preface to the
1806 work paid due respect to Johnson, but finally pointed out
"... the danger of taking his [Johnson's] opinions upon trust. "^"^
The problem, according to Webster, was that Johnson and others did
not bother with the sources of information and insight readily avail-
able to any one who read Anglo-Saxon.

There was a time when Webster believed that English could pos-
sibly reach a stage in its development at which it could be fixed. In
1783, he quoted in agreement with Henry Home's History of Man:

^-Webster, A Philosophical And Practical Grammar Of The English Language,

2nd ed. (New Haven, 1822), title page.
^'^Noah Webster, op. cit. p. 262.
^ 'Webster, A Compendious Dictionary Of The English Language (N. Y. or

New Haven, 1806), "Preface," p. v.

132

" 'In its progress towards perfection, a language is continually im-
proving and, therefore, continually changing. But supposing a language
to have attained its utmost perfection, I see nothing that should
necessarily occasion any change. On the contrary, the classical books
in that language become a standard for writing and speaking . . . .' "^"'
Fifteen years later, in his general address to the heads of American
schools, Webster changed at least his emphasis, and likely his whole
concept as to what could be imposed upon language. He spoke in
terms of a living language and inevitable changes. ^^

In the preface to the 1806 dictionary, Webster expressed the view
on linguistic change, that was to remain within the final 1828 work.
By the turn of the century, he was increasingly concerned with the
problems in spelling resulting from his organic view of language. In
words that were probably stronger than necessary, he claimed that,
"The unavoidable consequences ... of fixing the orthography of a
living language, is to destroy the use of the alphabet. . . the present
doctrine that no change must be made in writing words, is destroying
the benefits of an alphabet, and reducing our language to the bar-
barism of Chinese characters instead of letters."^'^

It was in the field of orthography, more than anywhere else that
Webster encountered the most hostile criticisms upon the publication
of the 1828 American Dictionary. ^^ There were various factors in-
volved here. Despite the immense amount of time and effort Webster
devoted to studying the history of words, relatively few people were
either equipped or inclined to question his conclusions. The interest,
to a large extent, was just not present.

With regard to the field of general word selection, it has been
observed that Webster had trouble because of his inclusion of
"Americanisms." By 1828, however, people generally realized the
necessity for a dictionary to contain at least the "legitimate" terms
of recent or local use. Moreover, Webster followed a fairly conserva-
tive approach, and was as desirous as anyone to avoid giving standing
to actual "vulgarisms." Webster, it must be remembered, was the
man who "purified" the standard King James Version of the Bible,
removing such "unpleasant" terms as "womb," "teat," and "stones. "^'^

The problems of pronunciation loomed large for Webster in his
earlier period when he was most eager to bring about radical changes.
But generally for the 1828 dictionary, he was content with observing
how a particular word was pronounced by the cultured and then
recording some standard form with possible variations. He travelled

i^Webster, op. cit., p. 13

i*5Webster, op. cit., p. 175

^^Noah Webster, A Compendious Dictionary . . ., "Preface," p. vi.

^* Various attitudes toward Webster's orthography may be found in; Israel
W. Andrews, Webster's Dictionaries (Springfield, Mass., 1856); Lyman Cobb,
A Critical Review Of The Orthography Of Dr. Webster's Series Of Books
(N. Y., 1831); Edward S. Gould, A Review Of Webster's System Of Or-
thography (Boston, 1856); William D. Swan, The Critic Criticised And
Worcester Vindicated (Boston, 1860).

^ Allen Walker Read, "Noah Webster as A Euphemist," Dialect Notes, vol. 6
(July, 1934), pp. 385-391.

133

to England to hear the actual state of the language there. Eventually,
in some of the later editions of his dictionary he even included the
archly traditional "Walker's Key to the Classical Pronunciation of
Greek Latin, and Scriptural Proper Names. "-'^

Webster's basic concern in improving the English language thus
finally found its development in orthography. Although affairs were
in a state of flux, with writers on both sides of the Atlantic using
a variety of spelling forms. Dr. Johnson was at the time the authority
whose past decisions earned the most respect. He had incorporated
his beliefs into his Dictionary, a book which was still very influential,
both in itself and in lesser works closely derived from it. In 1827, one
year before Webster released his work, Joseph E. Worcester, later
to be Webster's foe in the "War of the Dictionaries," issued his own
dictionary, one whose orthography was almost completely based on
Johnson's.

Webster respected Johnson primarily for the Doctor's non-lexico-
graphical achievements, but he did recognize the immense debt that
all compilers of English language dictionaries owed him. Webster
felt, however, that Johnson's Dictionary had been praised all out of
proportion to its merits, and that the continuing non-critical accept-
ance of it by many authorities was hampering rather than helping
lexicography.

Webster was convinced that the only sane approach to orthography
was one that took into account two factors: first, the nature of the
changes that occur in pronunciation and the subsequent need for
spelling correspondences; and second, that the "real" spelling could
be traced out of the radical words and primitive spellings.-^ Johnson
and others, as he understood things, were guilty of imposing
illogical and artificial rules. A prime example was the spelling of a
large group of words with a "c" followed by an unnecessary terminal
"k". Thus Johnson wrote "publick."-- With the same lack of reason
Johnson used the unnecessary "u" in many of the "or" words such as
in "labour."-^ At the turn of the century in America, some authors
were following Johnson in these cases, but others were not. Webster
himself reflected the confusion. In his 1790 Collection Of Essays And
Fugitive Writings, he used the modem American spellings of the
words at point,-"* but writing six years later in The Prompter,
he preserved the dated British forms. --^ His dictionaries of the later
years generally held to our modern forms, but inconsistencies were
still present, with some variations not finally settled until well after
his death.

"''Webster, An American Dictionary Of The English Language (N. Y., 1844).
-^Noah Webster, A Dictionary Of The English Language Compiled For The

Use Of Common ScJiools In The United States (Hartford, 1817), "Preface,"

pp. iv-v.
--Samuel Johnson, Dictionary Of The English Language, 2nd ed., Vol 2

(London, 1755-56).
23Ibid.
-^Webster, Collection Of Essays And Fugitive Writings (Hartford, 1790), p.

222.
2^Noah Webster, The Prompter (Philadelphia, 1796), p. 32

134

On the whole, Webster's American Dictionary was more restrained
and practical a work than Johnson's. In the matter of illustrations the
difference was most evident. Johnson was intent on creating a def-
initely literary work, and so his Dictionary contained pages upon
pages of unnecessary passages in which the word under definition
had been used. Webster noted that often times Johnson's illustration
did not even explain the word to which it was supposedly directed,
and that, moreover, most words did not require illustrations in their
definitions.-''

In the actual matter of definitions Webster was motivated by a
desire to create a useful work. He had previously objected to the lack
of discrimination and distinction in the definitions of Johnson and
his followers.-" Webster also tried to be more objective here. Johnson
was at times extremely flippant. Two of his most famous definitions
serve as examples. "Whig," he defined as "The name of a faction,"
and "Pension" as an allowance made to anyone without an equivalent.
In England it is generally understood to mean pay given to a state
hireling for times. However, Webster did allow his own prejudices,
especially in the case of religion, to enter into his work. His definition
of "Abdal" rivalled some of Johnson's for distortion and value judg-
ments. "Abdal" according to Webster, may be defined as "The name
of certain fanatics in Persia, who, in excess of zeal, sometimes run
into the streets, and attempt to kill all they meet who are of a different
religion; and if they are slain for their madness, they think it meritori-
ous to die, and by the vulgar are deemed martyrs."-'-^ His political
opposition to the extremes of the French Revolution was found in
his characterization of "Jacobitism" as "unreasonable or violent op-
position to legitimate government. "^'^

Three years after the American Dictionary was published, Webster
made a comment which was directed to the particular concern of
orthography, but on consideration really applied to the varied range of
problems he encountered as a lexicographer. "The truth is," he
began, "there are many errors or blunders in English . . . which must
have originated in heedlessness, ignorance, or want of system among
writers; and which I should exert my influence to correct were it not
for the difficulty of overcoming long-established usages."^ ^ Webster
realized his sizable debt to the writers and lexicographers of the
past ages. But he, unlike the literary authorities of his time, under-
stood the need to think critically in the field of lexicography that he
witnessed in political philosophy. Even if many of his plans remained
unrealized, there is a lasting testimony to his insight and perseverance
in the fact that his American Dictionary in its various revised and
newly edited forms became the most influential work of its type in
this country.

-<^ Webster, Letters, p. 287.

-^Samuel Johnson, Dictionary of The English Language, vol 2.

-^Johnson, op. cit.. Vol. 2 of The English Language.

^^Noah Webster, An American Dictionary . . ., Vol. 1 (N. Y., 1828).

sowebster, op. cit.. Vol. 2 (N. Y., 1828).

2 ^Webster, Letters, pp. 427-28.

135

Works Cited

Allen. F. Sturges. Noah Webster's Place Among English Lexicographers.
Springfield, Mass., 1909.

Andrews, Israel W. Webster's Dictionaries. Springfield, Mass., 1856.

Cobb. Lyman. A Critical Review Of The Orthography Of Dr. Webster's
Series Of Books. N. Y., 1831.

Gould, Edward S. A Review Of Webster's System Of Orthography. Boston,
1856.

Johnson, Samuel. Dictionary of the English Language. 2nd ed., 2 vols.,
London, 1755-56.

Read, Allen Walker. "Noah Webster As A Euphemist," Dialect Notes, Vol. 6
(July, 1934), 385-391.

"Projected English Dictionaries," The Journal of English And

Germanic Philology, Vol. 26 (April, 1937), 188-205.

Shoemaker, Ervin C. Noah Webster, Pioneer of Learning. N. Y., 1936.

Swan, William D. The Critic Criticised And Worcester Vindicated. Boston,
1860.

Webster, Noah. A Compendious Dictionary Of The English Language. N. Y.
or New Haven, 1806.

A Dictionary Of The English Language Compiled For The Use

Of Common Schools In The United States. Hartford, 1817.

An American Dictionary Of The English Language. 2 vols, listed.

N. Y., 1828 (unabridged), 1844 (abridged), / New Haven, 1841 (un-
abridged), / Springfield, Mass. 1845 (unabridged).

An American Spelling Book (Grammatical Institute, Prt. I), 24th

ed. Boston, n. d.

A Philosophical And Practical Grammar Of The English Language.

2nd ed. New Haven, 1822.

Collection of Essays And Fugitive Writings. Hartford, 1790.

..._ Grammar Grounded On The True Principles And Idioms Of The

Language. 6th ed. Boston, 1800.

Letters, ed. H. R. Warfel. N. Y., 1953.

The Prompter. Philadelphia, 1796.

136

Whitman on Whitman:
The Poet Introduces His Own Poetry

By

Dennis A. Berthold

Walt Whitman's poetry frequently gives the reader an embarrass-
ingly intimate picture of the man who is writing. He reveals to us
such profound feelings and experiences that, unless we are prepared
to hear them, they sound ridiculous or shallow. A salient example of
this might be the rhapsodic chant enumerating parts of the body in
stanza nine of "I Sing the Body Electric : "

Nose, nostrils of the nose, and the partition.

Cheeks, temples, forehead, chin, throat, back of the neck,
neck-slue.

Strong shoulders, manly beard, scapula, hind-shoulders,
and the ample side-round of the chest.

Upper-arm, arm-pit, elbow-socket, lower-arm, arm sinews,
arm-bones,

Wrist and wrist-joints, hand, palm, knuckles, thumb,
forefingers, finger-balls, finger-joints, finger-nails,

and so he goes, building up a thorough catalog of all he feels to be
beautiful about the human body. The rhythm drives, the language
pounds, and we may very well become caught up in the fervor of his
statement. Yet, there is the imminent danger that we may also be-
come amused with and even rather condescendingly critical of the
candor of these utterances - -"after all, any man who writes about
armpits and fingernails. . . ."

Whitman realized that people would have difficulty understanding
his poetry. In his brief poem "To a Certain Civilian," he tells us
that we will not find "dulcet rhymes" nor peaceful, languishing
"piano-tunes" in his poetry; rather, we will find "the drum-corps'
harsh rattle," "the martial dirge," the "convulsive throb" of life as
it is lived and experienced. To those who will not understand. Whit-
man throws out this arrogant command:

What to such as you, anyhow, such a poet as I?~therefore
leave my works.

And go lull yourself with what you can understandand
with piano-tunes;

For I lull nobody and you will never understand me.
Will we never understand him? Although the haughty and disdainful
tone of this passage may provoke us to some anger, I think we must
admit that there is a good deal of truth in it. We (or certainly the

]37

nineteenth century readers, brought up on Tennyson and Longfellow)
must prepare ourselves for a different kind of message in a different
kind of style in order to understand him. If we cannot quite accept his
more rhapsodic passages, such as that quoted from "I Sing the Body
Electric," or if we still seek to find in poetry "dulcet rhymes" instead
of the "convulsive throbs" of life, we will miss his main point. We
must re-educate ourselves and approach his poetry in his terms, not
in ours, and so let him speak to us naturally, freely, and without
the restraints and fetters of prejudiced tastes and narrow aesthetic
predispositions.

The valid question then is, to whom do we turn for instruction? It
would seem as though Whitman, in a fit of pique, has contemptuously
put us off as hopeless "you will never understand me." I believe that,
in spite of his vaunted ego (or perhaps because of it), we can turn to
his own writing to find an introduction to his poetry. In fact, a close
examination of his work shows that he was anxious, in many places,
to assume the role of teacher, both overtly (as in section 47 of "Song
of Myself") and indirectly (as in the didactic tone of many passages
throughout his poetry).

Whitman details a learning experience that he went through prior
to his maturation as a poet, as the extended metaphor of a student-
teacher relationship in "Out of the Cradle Endlessly Rocking" demon-
strates. The bird. Whitman's teacher, shows the young poet-to-be
what "to keep, to sing," and eventually guides him to be a "mes-
senger" of "the thousand responsive songs" of which he has been
made aware. Whitman then takes the next step and becomes a teacher
himself, patterning himself, like the bird, after the Socratic midwife.
This role is adopted quite specifically in "Poets to Come" when he
says that he writes but

one or two indicative words for the future,

Leaving it to you to prove and define it,
Expecting the main things from you.

We must be willing, then, to work with Whitman's poetry in order
to "define it." We must realize that the poet-teacher confides in us
as a means of drawing our ideas and sympathies toward a higher
plane. Furthermore, he is trying to engage us in a student-teacher
dialogue, a reciprocal seminar in which he "expects" something from
us even as we expect to learn from him. He desires to stimulate and
nurture us and then to share in and be stimulated himself by the
pupil's amplification of the poet's original ideas. The poem "Who
Learns My Lesson Complete?" displays this side of Whitman and in
many ways epitomizes his methodology. It was present in the 1855
edition of Leaves of Grass and would serve equally well as either
the final word or the introductory poem in any volume of his
poetry. Besides capsulizing much of his thought, the poem presents a
valuable approach to his work, partly because it demands little pre-
paredness on our part. Considering this poem in detail reveals it as

138

Whitman's own statement of how we can best approach and under-
stand his particular style of poetry. Following is the full text of the
poem:

Who learns my lesson complete?

Boss, journeyman, apprenticechurchman and atheist.

The stupid and the wise thinkerparents and offspring-
merchant, clerk, porter and customer,

Editor, author, artist, and schoolboy Draw nigh and commence;

It is no lesson it lets down the bars to a good lesson,

And that to another, and every one to another still.

The great laws take and effuse without argument;

I am of the same style, for I am their friend,

I love them quits and quits I do not halt, and make salaams.

I lie abstracted, and hear beautiful tales of things, and
the reasons of things;

They are so beautiful, I nudge myself to listen.

I cannot say to any person what I hear I cannot say it to
myself it is very wonderful.

It is no small matter, this round and delicious globe, moving
so exactly in its orbit forever and ever, without one
jolt, or the untruth of a single second.

I do not think it was made in six days, nor in ten thousand
years, nor ten bilhons of years.

Nor plann'd and built one thing after another, as an architect
plans and builds a house.

I do not think seventy years is the time of a man or woman,

Nor that seventy millions of years is the time of a man or
woman.

Nor that years will ever stop the existence of me, or any one
else.

Is it wonderful that I should be immortal? as every one
is immortal;

I know it is wonderful, but my eyesight is equally wonderful,
and how I was conceived in my mother's womb is equally
wonderful;

And pass'd from a babe, in the creeping trance of a couple
of summers and winters, to articulate and walk All
this is equally wonderful.

139

And that my Soul embraces you this hour, and we affect each
other without ever seeing each other, and never perhaps
to see each other, is ever}" bit as wonderful.

And that I can think such thoughts as these, is just as wonderful;

And that I can remind you, and you think them, and know
them to be true, is just as wonderful.

And that the moon spins round the earth, and on with the
earth, is equally wonderful.

And that they balance themselves with the sun and stars, is
equally wonderful.

The poet assumes the role of teacher in the first line of the poem,
when he asks a rhetorical question as a means of moving into the
"lesson." WTiitman's tremendously diverse interests also present
themsehes early as he addresses people of various and even conflict-
ing occupations, beUefs, abilities, ages, and functions. We realize that
the class in which we are sitting is composed of the general group
humanity. Confronted by such a class the status of the teacher must
rise considerably, for what he says wiU apparently be of interest and
apphcabihty to all people. Perhaps we should caU him Professor Whit-
man. The schoolroom atmosphere continues as he asks us to "Draw
nigh and commence," uttering the magic word that upraises ears and
pencils. Now the first of many abrupt, paradoxical shifts in the poem
occurs, and the teacher, after aU the pedantic preparation, informs us
that his lesson "is no lesson." Rather, it is the initial impetus to an
endless number of "good lessons," each one unfolding the next. This is
similar to Whitman's idea in "Poets to Come" of himself as an in-
novator whose followers will produce "the main things." The process
described also echoes human experience in the way in which lesson
leads to lesson, almost as if it were aU happening in a great natural
order of occurrence.

The poet-teacher moves from the suggestion of an idea of natural
order to an overt statement of it in the second stanza. In the high-
sounding language of philosophy he speaks of "the great laws" and
their unquestioned operation. Just as the students prepare for a long
ideological discourse another abrupt shift is made and the next hne
telescopes to "I," to a personal apphcation of the actions of "the
great laws." Whitman prods our minds into profound speculation with
a stock devicethe mention of irmnutable forces and then rapidly
changes the subject so that our speculative powers become focused
upon Whitman himself, the aU-important ego. He is "of the same
style" as the laws and can be as free in giving and taking and acting
and deciding as they. His freedom is unparalleled in history, in-
comparably better than the courts of Europe where kings and the
sycophancy around them block the way of the free man. He swaggers
through life unbridled, bold and effusive in aU things.

This free, lusty person is also highly sensitive and contemplative.
Though he is captain of his life, he still settles back to hsten to and
absorb "beautiful tales of things, and the reasons of things." The

140

sheer beauty of what he hears is enough to quiet this great, effusive
soul until he "cannot say to any person what I hear I cannot say it
to myself it is very wonderful." The teacher has been caught up in a
reverie over his own experiences with the "lesson." The kinesis which
had dominated the first two stanzas has now slowed to a crawl, and
the teacher is prepared to move into a consideration of the "wonder-
fulness" about him. He has identified his position and prepared the
class for the vast, ethereal musings emblematic of his lesson.

These musings begin with another abrupt shift, this time from the
ego out to the "round and dehcious globe."' We are accustomed to
this technique by now, and it can be more clearly seen as a symbolic
gesture pointing out the all-encompassing powers of Whitman's soul.
The beauty of the earth is seen in its precise movement "without one
jolt"--a cataclysmic event, "or the untruth of a single second" a
miniscule event. The poet's sensibilities are moving up and do\Mi,
expanding and contracting, taking in all aspects of a thing, great and
small.

Whitman asserts his intellectual and spiritual freedom as he denies
orthodox religious and scientific conceptions of creation. Neither an
earth created in time nor created by a systematic process can exist for
Whitman. The spiral continues, ever more expansive, as he declares
the wonder of man's immortaht>' and time's death. Then, he shifts
back to concrete detail and the "equally wonderful" powers of vision
and conception and growth. The final expansive gesture of the poet
then begins, and the kinesis evident throughout the poem builds to
a climax.

The poet moves out from the growing child to the all-embracing,
all-affecting Soul. He rejoices in his Soul, then in his thoughts, then in
the similar thoughts that others, "reminded by him," have. He radiates
out to the moon spinning around the earth, then out to the two orbs'
motion through the solar system, and then reaches the climax and
limit of expansion with his praise of the wonderful balance in the
universe. Notice that each of these thingseyesight, birth, thinking,
creation is "equally wonderful." He sees all nature and humanity in
the same scale, and he revels in and praises all equally. One thing is
not better than another or "more wonderful" than another, but every-
thing is "equally wonderful." It is somewhat akin to Blake's abihty
to "see a World in a Grain of Sand / And a Heaven in a Wild Flower."
The mystical awe of the universe is really no more wonderful than
the mystical awe we can experience in daily, deeply personal human
relationships. Man, as well as the universe, deserves breathless adora-
tion and pensive contemplation.

We can see, then, how Whitman uses his role of poet-teacher. He
draws us into the classroom, explains himself to us, and then proceeds
to spin out his lesson, the ver}' vastness of which is awe-inspiring. He
succeeds in making us reaUze that we will not learn his lesson com-
plete but, good Socratic midwife that he is, provokes our minds, possi-
bly even our souls, to "lie abstracted" and hear and absorb the beauti-
ful things of existence. We become caught up in the sustained mood of
expansiveness in the poem, and thus when Whitman assumes a less

141

scholarly and more confidential tone, we follow him with the same
sincerity for knowledge that we would feel if he were presenting an
actual lesson to us. Just as Whitman fuses the poet and teacher, he
fuses the poem and lecture, subtly interweaving each with each to
powerfully use the best techniques of both in stating his lesson loudly
and clearly.

The imphcation "Who Learns My Lesson Complete?" holds for
us should be apparent by now. We are not merely readers of Whit-
man's poetry; we are also partakers of the experience which that
poetry represents. We are student-confidants who must listen to and
accept what is said before we evaluate it, always trying to fit each
particular revelation into the whole of the confider's disclosures. We
are lifelong learners in the schoolroom of experience, and our guide
is Walt Whitman. He is prophet and priest, teacher and teller, en-
gaging our sensibilities in the most thorough manner possible. There-
fore, when we come upon the fervidly intimate outpourings of a poem
such as 'T Sing the Body Electric," we must remember the poet's
technique and enter with him, as fully as possible, into the continuing
dialogue between student and teacher, disciple and prophet, and con-
fidant and confider that makes successful learning successful living
possible.

142

I

The Theory and Practice of Freedom

by

David S. Roberts

Freedom is a concept which has fascinated western man, begin-
ning with the ancient Greeks, for centuries. In every society, freedom
is relative and not absolute. Scholars have pondered the relativity
of freedom to another concept called "authority." The purpose of
this paper is to discuss a concept of freedom, in general terms, and
to attempt to reveal the relationship of freedom and authority. An
effort will be made to set up an ideal balance between the two
concepts. Since authority tends to be exercised by government, in
modern society, a major section of the paper is devoted to the
relationship of freedom and government. The latter half of the
paper is more specific, as the author strives to describe the concept
of freedom, and threats to freedom, in America, Russia, and the
so-called emerging nations of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. A
concluding section relates a possible American program to effect
freedom in the emerging nations.

Definitions and Concepts of Freedom

In its broadest sense, as defined in the encyclopedia,^ freedom
is divided into at least three concepts, national freedom, individual
freedom (a Western as opposed to a Communist concept), and
Marxian freedom. National freedom is the struggle of a nation,
state or an emerging nation state to achieve freedom from rule by
domination of another nation state. Individual freedom is the right
of an individual, living in a social community and under a govern-
ment, to act as he chooses but subject to restraint by law. Marxian
freedom is a hope of the future that through present economic
freedom, which is the elimination of the exploitation of the masses
by the ruling capitalist classes through revolution, greater freedoms
may be reahzed in an Utopian society; the revolution is to be violent,
the dictatorship of the proletariat follows until capitalism is over-
thrown everywhere, and then finally the creation of a classless society
where everyone is equal and freedom is complete.

Samuel Eliot Morison, in his book Freedom in Contemporary
Society, said that the term freedom is used for national independence,
democratic or representative government within a country, freedom

^"Liberty or Freedom," The New Funk & WagnaUs Encyclopedia, Vol. 21
(New York: Unicorn Publishers, Inc., 1950, 1951), pp. 7837-7839.

143

of the individual against any government, and civil rights.^ This
definition, like the one from the encyclopedia, remains broad.^

Max Ascoli, in his little book The Power of Freedom, gave a
more specific indentification, definition, and function of freedom
(than Morison) when he stated:

Freedom is power, man-made power that men release
as a by-product of their labor and that gives them in
turn a chance to exert some control over the conditions
of their lives. It is man-making power, transmitted to
men through their rights, a power that sustains their
efforts, makes persons of them, puts them in condi-
tion to do their work well and to give back to society,
sharpened and refurbished, the power they have
absorbed."^
The producer-consumer of this power is the individual though the
distribution is social.

The third and last definition and concept of freedom is by Chris-
tian Bay in The Structure of Freedom.^ Here the author spoke of
freedom as self-expression or the individual's incentive, capacity and
opportunity "to express whatever he is or can be motivated to
express."*' Bay then lists three component concepts of freedom.
First, psychological freedom is the degree of harmony between overt
behavior and basic motives. ''^ This includes positive freedom which
is spontaneous activity of the total, integrated personality.^ Second,
social freedom is the relative disappearance of perceived external
restraints of an individual's behavior, which includes governmental
or oven restraints.*' And third, potential freedom is the relative non-
presence of unperceived external restraints on individual behavior,
which includes covert acts or restraints.^"

The Theory of Freedom

The Relationship of Freedom to Authority

Authority, as represented mainly by government, and freedom,
as represented by the people's right to act as they choose, are two
entirely separate but interdependent concepts. When authority is
weighted decidedly, the state moves into a totalitarian stage, and
freedom is above reality for men to dream about but not to experi-

-Civil rights has three principal rights: first, the right of personal liberty or
the freedom of action subject to restraint under law; second, the right of
personal security or the protection against violence by private persons and
freedom from arbitrary arrest, and invasion of the home; and third, the
right of private ownership of property. "Rights, Civil or Civil Liberty,"
The New Funk & Wagnalls Encyclopedia, vol. 28, pp. 10, 395-10, 397.

^Samuel Eliot Morison, Freedom in Contemporary Society (Boston, Mass.:
Little, Brown and Co., 1956), pp. 6-7.

*Max Ascoli, The Power of Freedom (New York: Farrar, Straus and Co.,
1949), p. 116.

^Christian Bay, The Structure of Freedom (Palo Alto, Calif.: Stanford Uni-
versity Press, 1958).

""Ibid., p. 83.

Ubid.

^Ibid., p. 84.

"Hbid., p. 88.
10/6/W., p. 95.

144

ence. When freedom is weighted decidedly, the state tends toward
anarchy. A perfect balance between the two concepts is never
reached but is the ideal. Practical examples taken from the modem
scene move toward or away from the ideal. A state may be judged
by its balance of authority to freedom to determine where in the
political scale it belongs, whether a stable or unstable dictatorship
or a stable or unstable democracy.

Some social scientists decry the use of an ideal, or at least the
misuse of it, as a goal toward which reality moves. ^^ They claim,
with much justification, that we use, or rather misuse, the ideal to
excuse our shortcomings and failures in securing and applying our
rights by justifying them, that the ideal is not easy, and even im-
possible, to reach. They charge that we place the ideal so high in
the sky that we divorce it from reality, so high that we forget it or
ignore it, and so high that it becomes unattainable. Thus, we pave
the way for compromises and half-hearted and half-cynical adjust-
ments, with the result that we pay only "lip service" to freedom.

At this point the writer offers an "ideal" ideal? The ideal has
value in and of itself. This value is to use the ideal as a goal toward
which society moves, and to use it as a standard to gauge the
degree of deviation toward or away from the ideal course. The ideal
must be given realism, dynamism, shape, motion, and attainability .
There must be a re-dedication of the people on the importance of
reaching hungrily toward the ideal. Every sincere effort of the in-
dividual, or society of which he is a part, to reach the ideal must
be praised for it is better to have tried and failed than to have
sat motionless or to have floundered in confusion and indecision.
Sincere dedication to the ideal and its attainment must be judged by
acts (actual moves toward the ideal) and not by words. To have
no ideal is to ensure the possibility of some self-dedicated dema-
gogue setting up one's own conception of the ideal and mobilizing
society to move toward its attainment.

The "ideal" ideal is a relative balance of authority to freedom,
with a mutual give-and-take between the two which is a healthy
thing. As has been said, perfect balance can never be reached but at
times the weight will sUghtly favor authority and at other times it will
slightly favor freedom. If this seems to be precarious balance, it
must be stated that democracy is a precarious forni of government,
and democracy is best seen as a relative balance of authority to free-
dom.i- Various checks on both sides of the scale must be preserved
to ensure that it is not thrown too strongly in favor of either authority
or freedom. A later selection of this paper is devoted more fully
to this matter. ^^

To gain a relative balance between authority and freedom, the
following three elements must be present to form the "ideal" ideal:

i^Ascoli, op. cit., pp. 98-100.

^^A more precise definition of democracy will be given later.
^'See a later section of the paper, "The Relationship of Freedom to the Gov-
ernment and to the People."

145

The political community must be strong enough to enforce its au-
thority the enforcement must be done through the use of sanc-
tions not through the use of coercion or manipulation. Sanctions are
any type of restraint on individual behavior in the form of an induce-
ment toward or away from certain kinds of behavior. ^^ The induce-
ment can be in the form of a reward or punishment and it can be
either personal or impersonal. Coercion is the use of actual physical
violence or the apphcation of sanctions in such extreme forms that
the individual is subject to a great punishment or loss of a greatly
desired reward, unless he abandons the course of action or inaction
dictated by his own enduring and strong wishes and motives. ^^
Manipulation is the control of information to encourage or discourage
certain behavior. ^'' The people's resistance to manipulation can be
increased through controversial not impartial approaches in the
educational system.

Restrictions on individual freedom must be reasonable as judged
by the courts, with standards and limitations on the government
officials to deny unreasonable and arbitrary authority.

There must be restrictions on the use of majority rule. A human
right is a freedom given to all men and it cannot be taken away
by majority rule. If an individual's freedom does not restrict another's
freedom, it should not be taken away no matter how small a minority
to which the individual belongs. A society is as free as its weakest
underdog. Questions of equal justice under the law and equity for
suffering minorities must not be decided by majorities but by the
judicial process. ^^ There must be internal organizations that allow
citizens to draw up alternative programs for the course of govern-
ment these organizations, like political parties and interest groups,
serve as counter-balances to prevent a decided weight in favor of
authority as opposed to freedom. Political parties strive for authority
when in power, and for freedom when out of power. Minority
parties, as well as the people, have a responsibility to prevent ma-
jority parties from identifying themselves as the government. This
will happen once they are no longer afraid of the opposition and the
inactive mass of citizens. Interest groups, as well as private in-
dividuals, strive for freedom for themselves and authority to be
applied to some other interest. The government must have final
authority over these groups by informing the citizens and govern-
mental officials of their structure, purpose, and movements, and to
educate both so that they may withstand the manipulative powers
wielded by these groups. The citizens must be left alone enough
to have a life of their own, so that they may realize fully their
potentialities, with the ability to actively and spontaneously live life
this includes the right of each individual to develop his talents
and potentialities toward maturity and achievement; to gain adequate

i^Bay, op. cit., p. 89.

^ ^Harold D. Lasswell and Abraham Kaplan, Power and Society: A Framework

for Political Inquiry, (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1950),

p. 97. See also Bay, op. cit., p. 93.
^'Lasswell and Kaplan, op. cit., p. 98.
^Ubid., p. 386.

146

access toward other values than the ones expressed by his society
according to freely expressed preferences; to have security that cir-
cumstances will continue to favor his freedom, growth, and value
position; and to achieve maximum physical and mental health. ^^

The Relationship of Freedom to Authority,
To the Government and to the People

Once national freedom has been attained, political freedom be-
comes the bulwark and prerequisite for all other freedoms. Without
it no other freedoms are secure. Political freedom guarantees the
most active and productive interrelation between the government and
its citizens.

Political freedom contains three elements which are freedom of
government, in government, and from government. Freedom of
government from outside oppression and the whims of its citizens,
and freedom in government and freedom from government pertain
to individuals and groups within and without the government. These
elements are interrelated and are endangered or destroyed by the
disappearance or overextension of the others. Two extremes can be
cited: a government so dependent on outside forces, whether wielded
by a foreign government or its own citizens, that its governmental
and political organs have no room for choice and decision; and a
runaway state where the government is so dominant that the citizens
are unable to exert any control over the course of public affairs.
These two extremes can be related to the observations of authority
as opposed to freedom.

The citizens are of the state but are not the state. Both have their
separate functions and are on a different plain. During election time
and during a period of war, the citizens become identified and equal
with their state, both working for a common end which is either the
selection of elective governmental officials or the gaining of a victory
through a war effort. To say that the citizens are the state assures
the day that some individual or group steps forward to say "I am
the state!" To identify the citizens as the state is to burden them with
an impossible task for modem governments are too large, complex,
and unpredictable for the citizens to feel comfortable and confident
in their role as the state. As stated, during a war the citizens and the
state drift together, and to say the citizens are the state is to foist a
war-time situation into peace-time. Max Ascoli, in his definition of
democracy, sums up the necessary separation between the citizens
and the state.

Democracy is the mature and humane discipline of men
who know how to run themselves well, how to respect their
own rights and the requirements of their institutions, how
to obey those institutions, to run them and to be indepen-
dent of them.i^

The final control of the government is with the citizens in their
ability to change the government at reasonably spaced elections.

^^Ibid., p. 97.

^''Ascoli, op. cit., pp. 134-135.

147

There must be certain requirements to ensure that this important
process remains completely in the control of the electorate. First,
there must be a choice of men not of programs. If only one candi-
date runs and he offers the voters a choice of programs there is no
guarantee he will change the program to suit their wishes. But even
if the voters have a choice of candidates there is still no guarantee
that the victor will carry out the program he supported during the
election. The electorate has the final control though for they may
vote out the incumbent at the next election and vote his opponent
in, which is not possible in a pohtical system that runs but one
candidate. Second, the power of the people must be transferred to
known, designated trustees for a stated or reasonable certain amount
of time. Third,, the power must be given in measurable, controlled
amounts and not in unhmited amounts. Fourth, the trustees must be
responsible for the power and know that they must be held account-
able for its use at some future time.

The government has final control over any restrictions, violations
or destructions of individual personality. The government must see
to it that persons who wish to decrease human rights of others do
not succeed. The government itself may restrict, violate, or destroy
individual personality in some form or forms, and it is to this extent
not to be obeyed.

A Note on Freedom

Freedom is one-half of our scale; remove it and there is no
guarantee how far authority will carry the people. One thing is cer-
tain, without freedom, authority will pervade all facts of life and there
will be no protection for the people against it. Freedom is man-made
and to deny it or to restrict it severely is to deny the full expression
and development of the individual. Freedom is a valuable substance,
one may almost say the basis of all other values, and it allows the
full growth and development of these values. Man may consider the
right to work as a value, but how much fuller and richer freedom
makes it!

Freedom in America
Basis for Political Freedoms

State and federal constitutions are the' legalistic basis for our
political freedoms constitutions are primarily instruments for the
increasing of human freedom through the gradual expansion of hu-
man rights. The power of the constitution must be backed up by an
alert court to stop the majority from destroying the rights of an un-
popular minority.-"

-*^The United States is indeed fortunate to have a politically and socially alert
court. On June 12, 1961, the United States Supreme Court finished its
last case of the 1960-1961 term, in which it handed down 120 written
decisions of which 54 or 45% were involved with civil liberties and ex-
tension and protection of them. During the 1935-36 term, 160 written deci-
sions were handed down but only two dealt with civil liberties. Constitu-
tional freedoms comprise the greatest proportion of the Court's work over
the last 25 years. The Court has become the nation's guardian of the
liberties of the people.

See Leo Pfeffer, "Supreme Court's Changing Interest," The Nation
(September 23, 1961), pp. 180-181.

As state courts are failing to protect and extend civil liberties, people
are turning more and more to the federal courts.

148

The separation of powers is the structural basis for our political
freedoms it prevents the executive or legislative branch from getting
the upper-hand with the judiciary as the arbiter in the disputes be-
tween the branches of government, between the government and its
citizens, and between the citizens.

Threats to Political Freedom

There are specific threats to political freedom in contemporary-
America. Such threats include (1) undemocratic, super-patriotic
behavior of right wing groups; (2) the increased power over in-
dividuals of administrative organizations; (3) the growth of the
miUtary-industrial complex; (4) and Congressional investigation into
subversive activities.

( 1 ) The efforts to meet the internal Communist threat are gener-
ally done outside of the democratic system through the use of
hysteria, flag-waving and super-patriotism and not through the use
of rationality. It is time for us to question these practices. What
concrete insights into the Communist threat have the flag-wavers
and super-patriots brought to us? what concrete contributions to our
political freedoms and the betterment of our lives do they offer us?
They bring us no valid insights or contributions, and any they do
bring are vastly outweighed and made inconsequential by the mutual
distrust and hatred they create and spread. Any attempts by groups
or individuals who use these practices to restrict, violate, or destroy
individual personality should be rigidly stopped by the government.
In addition, any attempts made against human rights should be
stopped since human rights are vital for the growth and development
of freedom and individual personahty. The educational system-^
can decrease the effect on individuals of manipulation and propaganda
by such groups of individuals, and it has an important responsibility
to do so.

(2) The vast increase of administrative power administrative
agencies, boards, commissions, and committees have increasing
powers over individuals which are concomitant with the general in-
crease of the powers and functions of government. One example of
an administrative agency joining with anti-communist forces to re-
strict individual freedom is the Attorney General's List of Subversive
Organizations. The list was first drawn up in 1948 to aid in deter-
mining the loyalty of federal employees. It was to be kept secret,
and to be used only to question employees found to be members of
organizations on the list. The list was not kept secret, and if an
individual was an actual or former member of an organization on
the hst, it was used to determine his fitness to serve in various func-
tions and services, such as tenancy in federal housing projects, em-
ployment in manufacturing plants having defense contracts, and
employment by international organizations like the United Nations.
Most flagrant violations have diminished since the 1955 Supreme

^The writer refers to the educational system in its broadest terms, not only
the formal system per se, but it is inclusive of all facets of our political,
economic, and social systems which have educational functions.

149

Court decision, which declared unconstitutional the use of that list
to determine the fitness or unfitness of an individual in a situation
that did not involve actual government employment.-- This case
served as a precedent for overruling other misuses of the list. This
is one more example of a politically and socially alert court.-^ It must
be admitted that administrative agencies in many cases help to create
freedom as well as to take it away, and thus help to maintain the
relative balance between authority and freedom.

(3) The military-industrial complex attempts to move the relative
balance in favor of authority and to restrict freedom in favor of
ultraconservative, even fascist, movements. Both sectors of the com-
plex do not breed freedom, and they attempt to restrict the growth
and development of individual freedom so as to favor the develop-
ment of the organization. They present a substitute for individual
freedom which is the broader corporate and military freedom, the
freedom to be free from domination of other sectors of society. The
military-industrial complex argues that individual freedom is no
longer feasible but must be subjugated to the greater freedom of the
organization, and that the individual gains value by experiencing
freedom on the organizational not the individual level. The complex
supports reactionary movements for they fear that any type of change
will threaten their position in our society,- ^ and they gain support in
these movements by the masses who also have great fear of change
in the form of automotion and industrial technological increases
which lead to unemployment and the hke.-^ The government must
keep the military-industrial complex from restricting, violating, and
destroying individual personality. The educational system must in-
crease the educational and mechanical skills of the masses so that
they may meet the future fearlessly with renewed confidence.

(4) Congressional investigation into subversive activities is a way
in which Congress can get at its political enemies, and it opens the
door to many violations of the witnesses' constitutional rights.-*'
Samuel Eliot Morison said:

. . . the practice of Congress's sending one or two members
of an inquisitorial team trotting about the country, alleged-
ly to gain information on subversive activities, has become
a series of 'star chamber' proceedings, in which all legal
safeguards to a defendant are ignored. He is called upon
to affirm or deny charges made by anonymous accusers;
he is bullied and blackguarded in the best style of old Judge

--National Lawyers Guild v. Herbert Brownell Jr., Attorney General, 1955.
-^It is small wonder that right wing forces, who wish to decrease our freedoms,

are out to "get" the Court.
-^These movements also guarantee greater power and influence for the

military-industrial complex, and even allow them to identify themselves as

the government.
-^Eugene V. Schneider, "The Radical Right," The Nation (September 30,

1961), pp. 199-203.
-*'Frank J. Donner, "The Congressional Pillory," The Nation (February 18,

1961), pp. 143-146.

150

Jeffries; his livelihood is threatened; and his good name . . .
is impaired or destroyed.-^

What business is it of a law-making body to investigate into sub-
versive activities unless such activities directly affect its law-making
function? What contributions have such investigations made toward
a better and deeper understanding of the internal Communist threat?-^
What is un-American? Who is to judge what is un-American? No
one defines the term but everyone is supposed to know it, and
no one is supposed to be so naive as to question it or to ask for a
definition. We tend to use the term to define anything we do not like,
and thus we feel justified in restricting it. Accordingly, it seems that
we have lost the battle without firing a shot because this practice
is one of purely communist tactics. The Communists define anything
they do not like as "capitalistic" and then restrict it as such.-*^ The
government must police its own activities in order to ensure that
it does not restrict, violate or destroy individual personality in this
regard.

Tending Toward a Solution

We need to support the status quo at home to the extent of deny-
ing the right of overthrowing our government through violent means.
The democratic system has worked harder and is closer to the ideal
balance between authority and freedom than any other political sys-
tem yet devised. Change of government must come through peaceful
elections. Any overt attempts to overthrow our democratic system
must be judged on their own merits only with judicial safeguards to
protect the defendant. America must work to perfect the balance
of authority and freedom and strive to move closer to the ideal.

America must be revisionary abroad and support economic and
social reforms in emerging nations so as to foster democracy.^^

A Note on Freedom in Russia

Freedom in Russia finds the government playing "lip service" to
it as something to be had in the future. But the Russian people are
experiencing freedom as never before, and it promises to increase
as they obtain greater amounts of education and increasing contacts
with the West. Russia is going through a period of intolerance of other
ideologies fostered possibly by under-confidence. During the Middle
Ages and after, the western democracies went through a similar

-^Morison, op. cit., pp. Al-A'i.

2^Such investigations are more interested in who you are and whom you know
rather than in what you know.

^^We have adopted another Communist tactic of denying the right of speech
to unpopular minorities such as the Communists. We will best destroy the
ideas of communism by overcoming them in public debate, not by denying
Communists a right to speak. Any restriction of free speech, must be
reasonable and there must be limitations and standards to limit and guide
governmental officials in its use.

^"See the last section of this paper, "Freedom in Emerging Nations."

151

period of intolerance. Later, it mellowed, and the writer feels sure
that it will in Russia, as confidence, experience, and a moral system
are gained. Russia's moral development is centuries behind its in-
dustrial and technological development. It must be given a chance to
mature, and when it does, freedom as we know it will have a real
chance. As has been the case in Russia, for centuries, individual
freedom has no chance in an atmosphere where the person is not
held to be sacred. Many signs reveal indications that the idea of the
sacredness of individuals has a better chance to survive than ever
before, if one can only point to the fact that Soviet officials are not
liquidating their political opponents. A moral system allows for the
sacredness of human beings.

Freedom in Emerging Nations

National Freedom in Emerging Nations

National freedom or nationalism, which is the combination of the
power of the emerging nations and the emotions and drives of the
people, is the most important force sweeping Africa and Asia. That
there is little concern for individual freedom is not surprising because
national freedom is the base upon which all other freedoms including
political freedom, are placed. Evidence reveals the fact that the
average African and Asian regard temporary economic deprivation
as the price to pay for national freedom. ^^ The nationalist argument
claims that well-being and economic development, considered unat-
tainable under imperialism, are possible only when the country is in
national hands, and at which time that it will move forward to
modernity, wealth, and strength.^- The move for national freedom is
only the asseration that the community is arrayed against the rest of
the world, but separate identity gives one no clue as to how a partic-
ular community will choose to run its internal affairs. As a result,
national freedom can move toward dictatorship or democracy.

Emerging Nations are not Ready for Democracy

The African and Asian nations are not ready for democracy and
they have no actual conception of individual freedom as we in the
Western democracies know it.

First, such concepts as democracy and individual freedom are alien
to the Asians' conception. ^^ The Western belief that individualism
is the fundamental concept underlying democracy and freedom is
not appreciated in a part of the world where the individual is rarely
of primary importance, and the joint family or clan is the social unit.
The individual in Asia for so long a time has been subordinated to
the group and hierarchical order of society, and he has been sub-
jected to inequahties in power, status, and wealth so he must learn
to question the system before he can accept the values of individual

"^Rupert Emerson, "Nationalism and Political Development," in Roy C.

Macridis and Bernard E. Brown (editors). Comparative Politics Notes and

Readings (Homewood, Illinois: Dorsey Press), p. 563.
3-/6/J., p. 564.
^ ^Werner Levi, "Democracy in Asia," in Macridis and Brown, Comparative

Politics, pp. 556-557.

152

dignity and rights. Another Western democratic principle that the
Asians are unable to grasp is that sovereignty rests with the people.
All major Asian creeds have developed their own special type of
authoritarianism confirming the conception that the ruler is the
embodiment of supreme political authority.

Second, historically and traditionally the people of Asia and Africa
have been subjected to authoritarianism whether foreign or national.
Proverty-ridden people have little chance, in a climate of rising ex-
pectations, to rally around individual freedom as the embodiment
of democracy if other forms of government promise to give them
quicker results to overcome their need for basic economic necessities,
such as land, food and medicine. These people lack the democratic
tradition, the courage to assert their rights, and the more basic
tradition of standing up against leaders who have shoved them
around for centuries."^ They are completely unfamiliar with the
political give-and-take of authority and freedom, which is needed for
successful democracy.

Third, today weak nations never become strong democracies. The
birth of democracy in America had the advantage of two oceans,
underdeveloped communication and transportation systems, no great
conflicting ideologies as are present today, a Europe embroiled in
its own affairs, and no country capable of aiding its internal enemies,
the American Indian. America had 150 years to become strong.
Western democratic institutions were preceded by general mercantilist
monarchies with planning and control in the hands of a few. These
countries would not have become strong without such undemocratic
practices, and they would not become democracies until after they
were strong. Asian and African countries can adopt Western indus-
trial and technological discoveries and developments given the capital
and technical aid without years, even centuries, of trial and error.
But they cannot adopt democracy in like manner. These countries
are weak politically, economically, and militarily, and they lack
democratic tradition. They have neither strength nor power to with-
stand extreme pressures brought upon them by internal and external
forces. A stable democracy cannot survive in such an atmosphere.

A United States' Program in the Emerging Nations

The United States must support national freedom movements,
especially in Africa where imperialistic forces still dominate in many
parts of that continent. As Seymour Lipset said, the longer we keep
these people out of access to political institutions, the greater chance
that they will turn to violent and extremist ideologies. ^^ Many coun-
tries will not follow the example of India in using non-violent means
at a time when the United States did not support the nationalistic
movement.

Next the United States must foster economic reforms in emerging
nations to appease the people's cry for worldly necessities needed

^^Emerson, op. cit., p. 573.

^^Seymour M. Lipset, "'Some Social Requisites of Democracy," in Macridis
and Brown, Comparative Politics, p. 463.

153

for pure existence. People cannot be concerned with what is to come
when they and their children are sick and starving. Economic re-
forms, after the great need for basic necessities are soothed, can
turn to the broader problems of some type of land and mineral re-
distribution so the profits from them can be shared by the entire
population and not just a small sector.

The United States must then turn to the industrial development
and educational reforms after basic economic problems have been
improved. Besides the obvious economic advantages coming from
industrialization, it will also help to develop a middle class, which
will be a step in the direction of bridging the enormous gap between
the upper and lower classes. "^*^ Educational reforms, including the
teaching of technical skills, are necessary to prepare the people
of emerging nations for successful lives in a modem world. Little
can be done to support the growth and development of democratic
ideals in a country like Ghana that as late as 1958 was nine-tenths
iUiterate.-^" Illiteracy does not foster understanding of political, social,
economic, and legal implications of modern government.

The support of national freedom movements, and economic and
educational reforms may ease the atmosphere in the emerging na-
tions and allow the development of "benevolent dictators" of the
Nehru type. These leaders must be men who are able to lead their
countries through a period of top-heavy authoritarianism, ^^ but yet
develop and prepare the people's abilities to accept their responsibili-
ties on the freedom side of the scale.

Where national freedom movements are obstructed, and reforms
are either ignored or fail, Communists and other forms of radicals
are willing to accept responsibility for the development of emerging
nations.

^''Lipset's comments on the "entry into politics problem" as cited above, the
longer people are kept from access to political institutions the greater chance
they will turn to radical ideologies, pertains to moves for individual and
political freedom within a sovereign nation state, as well as for people
striving for national freedom. If the upper classes keep the lower classes
from access to political institutions, the latter will tend to turn to extreme
ideology and become even less acceptable to the upper classes as political
equals. The emergence of a middle class when none existed before will aid
the lower classes in entering the political processes because the middle class
is traditionally the great supporters of individual and political freedoms and
is less committed to the past and the status quo than the upper class.

^^Henry L. Bretton, "Democracy in Ghana," in Macridis and Brown, Com-
parative Politics, p. 548.

^^After independence authoritarianism must continue to dominate in emerging
nations. It is certain that the only hope for development into modernity lies
with the government where profit is not of prime concern and programs
can be cultivated that will benefit the whole country. Development through
private interest (capitalism) has been tried in these areas and has failed
to help the masses, and has lined the pockets of a few. Such a situation
existed in Europe at the time Marx wrote, but has been overcome mainly
through the efforts of trade unionism and the growth and support of it by
"big government." Authority was represented mainly by the capitalists in
the nineteenth century Western world, until the laissez faire system was
upset by the emergence of government as the main and final source of
authority. Authority in the emerging world must be taken from foreign
and domestic private interests and placed on the native government.

154

The Nature of the Dispute Between
Moscow and Peiping

by

Shia-ling Liu

The Sino-Soviet dispute has been one of the most important and
complex issues of the day. The eruption of this dispute between the
two Communist countries has exposed to the world some of the
internal intrigues of World Communism and some of the inner in-
consistencies and contradictions in the Marxist-Leninist ideology.^
In tackling such an issue, different approaches and different emphasis
would be highly commendable. In the search for a true understand-
ing of the nature of Sino-Soviet dispute, this issue would be explored
as follows: 1. the historical development of the dispute; 2. the area
of the dispute; 3. the cause of the dispute; 4. the nature of the dispute;
and 5. the impact of the dispute.

(1) The historcial development of the dispute: A number of
scholars chose to examine the recent dispute starting from the time
when it erupted into the open in late 1959 and early 1960. This was
indeed the historical turning point in the recent Sino-Soviet dispute.
This goes without saying, however, that the dispute existed prior
to this period especially since 1956-57 after Mao's successful effort
in helping Moscow to settle its troubled relations with some of its
East European satellite countries and the dispute has continued and
even been intensified after Khruschev's downfall last year.

(2) The area of the dispute: In the west, the discussion has been
centered around the field of ideology. Some asserted that the Sino-
Soviet discord has developed over the following major issues: on
nuclear warfare, revolutionary movement, peaceful coexistence, prop-
er paths to communism and revisionism.

The arguments advanced by Moscow and Peiping in supporting
their respective view points have been summarized as follows. -

1. Nuclear Warfare

(Russia's case) 'The international communist movement
is well aware of the fact that imperialism is in decline . . .
but it also knows that is is armed with atomic teeth which
it can put to use. Nuclear war would lead to the death of

^One of the inconsistencies and contradictions of Marxism can very well be
illustrated by the ideological difference of "one into two" versus "two into
one" between Mao-Tse-Tung and Yang Hsien-chen which has significant
implications in the Sino-Soviet dispute. Cf. Chen Yuts' and: Issues and
Studies, "Ideological Differences Within the Peiping Regime," Institutes of
International Relations, Taipei, pp. 3-34, April, 1964.

-The Times (London,) June 19, 1963, p. 6.

155

hundreds of millions of people, to a gigantic destruction
of productive forces. This would make incomparably more
difficult the building of a lew society on the rabble left
after a nuclear war. Communists should not keep silent
about this, but should openly tell the masses about the
existing threat. This encourages the people in their strug-
gle for peace and against imperialism . . . World war, if
it cannot be avoided, will immediately become a thermo-
nuclear war ... In their cynical game with human lives,
some people allow themselves to jeer at those who defend
the lives of hundreds of millions of people, accusing them
of cowardice and softness. But Communists, particularly
state and political leaders, cannot follow such irresponsible
scribblers." (Pravda, 1-7-63.)

(China's case) 'For many years United States imperialism
and its partners have been using nuclear blackmail against
the people of the world . . . The Chinese Communists con-
sistently and resolutely oppose the imperiahst policy of
nuclear war ... At the same time they maintain that
the socialist countries should rely on the just strength of
the people, and their own just policies and should not
engage m nuclear gambles in the international arena. The
modern revisionists . . . deliberately lie to deceive the
masses, aUeging that the "dogmatists" hope to "push man-
kind to the brink of nuclear war." The modern revisionists
often talk about "morahty." But where is their "morality,"
when they tell such hes?" (Red Flag, 1-1-63)

'Should imperiahsm dare to take the risk of imposing a
new world war on the peoples of the world, such a war
would inevitably end in the destruction of imperiahsm and
the victory of sociahsm.' (People's Daily, 12-31-62)

2. Revolutionary Movements

(Russia's case) 'The Soviet Union encourages by all means
the development of national liberation revolutions . . .
It has consistently offered and offers a helping hand to all
j5eople rising up against imperialism and colonialism . . .
The dogmatists try to direct the fraternal parties only in an
armed struggle for power under all conditions and in any
circumstances . . . such a theory would be a complete
rejection of Marxism which has always denied the "pushing
on" of revolutions ... it is the task of the proletariat of
every country and particularly of its communist avant-
garde - to decide what forms or methods of struggle the
proletariate of this or that country should use in concrete
historical conditions.' (Pravda, 1-7-63)

(China's case) 'The more the national liberation move-
ment and the revolutionary struggles of the people's de-
velop, the better for defense of world peace. The sociahst

156

countries . . . must resolutely support the national libera-
tion movements and all the revolutionary struggles of the
peoples . . . and must resolutely support wars of national
liberation and people's revolutionary wars. In branding this
correct view of ours as "warlike," those who attack the
Chinese Communist Party are in fact placing the struggle
in defence of world peace in opposition to the movements
of national liberations!" (People's Daily, 12-21-62)

3. Peaceful Coexistence

(Russia's case) 'The balance of power in the world today
is such that the forces of peace and sociahsm are capable
of restraining the aggressive force of imperialism . . . We
have certainty in the eventual victory of our ideas. We do
not search for this triumph along the road of war, but along
the paths of peaceful coexistence and competition with
capitalism. We reject not only global thermonuclear war
but also all wars between states, with the exception of just
wars of liberation and defensive war of a people subjected
to aggression. Apparently the Albanian leaders and those
who encourage them (i.e., the Chinese Communists) have
lost faith in the possibility of a victory of socialism without
wars between states . . . such madness cannot attract peo-
ples of other countries to the communist parties. More -
it threatens to repel millions and millions of people from
the communist cause.' (Khruschev, 12-12-62)

(China's case) 'It is absolutely impermissible and impos-
sible for countries practicing peaceful coexistence to touch
even a hair of each other's social system. The class strug-
gle, for national liberation and the transition from capitalism
to socialism in various countries is quite another thing.
They are all bitter, life-and-death revolutionary struggles
which aim at changing the social system. Peaceful coexis-
tence cannot replace the revolutionary struggles of the
people. The transition from capitalism to socialism in any
country can be brought about only through the proletairan
revolution and the dictatorship of the proletariat in that
country , . . Can peaceful transition be made into a new
world wide strategic principle of the international com-
munist movement? Absolutely not . . . The old government
never topples even in a period of crisis unless it is pushed.
This is a universal law of class struggle . . . The proletairan
party must never base its entire work on the assumption
that the imperiahsts and reactionaries will accept peaceful
transformation. (People's Daily, 6-17-63)

4. Different Paths to Communism

(Russia's case) 'Opposing different forms of transition
to socialism, the dogmatists usually argue as follows:
Hitherto history has not witnessed a single example of

157

peaceful transition from capitalism to socialism." But if
Marx and Engels had based themselves on this "argu-
mentation," they would have been unable to reach the con-
clusion about the inevitable victory of sociaUsm, the dicta-
torship of the proletariat, since at the time it did not exist
anywhere in the world. The strength of Marxist-Leninist
theory lies in the ability to analyse the main current of an
epoch, to draw conclusions from this analysis which
illuminate the path of revolutionary forces for decades to
come.' (Pravda, 1-7-63)

(China's case) 'It would naturally be in the interest of the
proletariat ... if peaceful transition could be realized . . .
Hitherto, history has not witnessed a single example of
peaceful transition from capitalism to sociahsm. Communist
should not pin all their hopes for the victory of the revolu-
tion from capitalism to socialism. Communist should not
pin all their hopes for the the victory of the revolution on
peaceful transition. The bourgeoisie will not step down
from the state of history of its own accord. This is a uni-
versal law of class struggle. Communists must be prepared
to repel the assaults of counterrevolution and to overthrow
the bourgeoisie by armed force . . . Communists should
not lay one-sided stress on peaceful transition.' (People's
Daily, 12-31-63)

5. Revisionism

(Russia's case) 'One cannot mechanically repeat now on
this question (the inevitability of war) what Vladimir
Ilyich Lenin said many decades ago on imperialism . . .
we live in a time when we have neither Marx nor Engels
nor Lenin with us. If we act like children who, studying
the alphabet, compile words from letters, we shall not
get very far.' (Khruschev, 6-21-60)

(China's case) 'The present world situation has obviously
undergone tremendous changes since Lenin's lifetime, but
these changes have not proved the obsoleteness of Lenin-
ism; on the contrary, they have more and more clearly
confirmed the truths revealed by Lenin . . . Does the
whole, integrated teaching of Lenin on imperialism, on
proletarian revolution and proletarian dictatorship, on war
and peace, and on the building of socialism and communism
still retain its vigorous vitality? . . . These questions now
confront us and must be answered. Marxist-Leninists must
thoroughly expose the absuridities of the imperialists and
modern revisionists on these questions, eradicate their in-
fluence among the masses, awaken those they have tempo-
rarily hoodwinked and further arouse the revolutionary
will of the masses. (Red Flag, April, 1960)

158

In a close examination of formal exchange between Moscow and
Peiping, both sides, indeed, differed on these statements and others,
on the meaning of our epoch, on the inevitability of war, on the
relationship of local wars to total one, on the meaning of coexistence,
on relations with the national bourgeoisie, on the national hberation
struggle, on the stages of building socialism-communism, on the war
in Viet Nam, etc. However, the dispute is not limited only to the
field of ideology, although it remains the focal point of the open
agrument. On the practical side, issues such as border dispute and

The focus of the Sino-Soviet dispute has been sharpened by Lin
Piao's article of September 2, 1965,^ in which be explained that:

1. "The Marxist-Leninist theory of revolution is the theory of
the seizure of state power by revolutionary violence."

2. The proletairan revolution is "the inevitable sequel to the
national-democratic revolution,"

3. The proletarian revolution "can only be, nay must be, lead
by the proletariat and the genuinely revolutionary party armed
with Marxism-Leninism, and by no other class or party."

4. The more thorough the national-democratic revolution the bet-
ter the conditions for the proletarian revolution; and

5. Finally, "This Marxist-Leninist principle of revolution holds
good universally, for China and for all other countries."

even occasional border clashes, personal accusations, leadership for
World Communism, spheres of interest in and relationship with
underdeveloped and neutralist countries also provided grounds for
mutual denounciation and constant antagonism.^ During the course
of the so called "proletarian cultural revolution" in the Chinese
Mainland in 1966-67, the controversy between the two Red Giants
has erupted into such a proportion which led some of the keen
Western observers to speculate that a "hot war" between Russia
and Red China is a distinctive possibility sometime in the future.

(3) The cause of the dispute: Western Commentators explained
the cause of the dispute in terms of the following factors: different
degrees of industrialization, economic development, and modern
armament resulted in different outlook on war and world revolution;
Soviet economic pressure and trade policies forced Peiping to resort
to economic measures of self-effort and self-support; Moscow over-
estimation of the superiority of the Russia system generated the
inferiority complex of the Peiping regime and it resulted in the
personality clash between Mao and Khruschev. These factors certain-
ly contributed very greatly to the eruption of the dispute. However,
some other factors might be equally responsible. Professor Brzezin-
ski, for instance, has asserted that "the Sino-Soviet divergence can
be said to have been rooted in the interaction within the Soviet and
Chinese contexts of three elements: domestic development; their

'Cf. New York Times, November 9, 1965, p. 42.

^Zbigniew K. Brzezinski, The Soviet Bloc: Unity and Conflict, pp. 424-425.

159

relationship to bloc affairs; the interaction of the two with world
affairs all as perceived within the jointly shared Marxist-Leninist
outlook of the two parties."^

Others have also suggested that the inner inconsistencies and
contradictions of the dialectic Marxism-Leninism are an inherent
factor in the present dispute and all other disputes in the history
of World Communism.*^ According to them, struggle, disintegration,
crisis are always present in Communist structure. For the Com-
munists, struggle is in fact a way of life. A brief review of some
of the inner contradictions of the Marxist dogmatic doctrine may
suffice to substantiate this point of view.

" The essence of Marxism may include dialectic materiahsm or
material dialectism, class struggle, proletariat dictatorship, commun-
ism, etc. His theory is actually more maneuverable than a systematic
doctrine, the purpose of which is to agitate subversive or revolutionary
activities against existing social order. Marx's theory of class-
struggle is based on a patheological doctrine of social hatred by
playing the proletariat against the bourgeoisie with the immediate
end to establish a system of proletariat dictatorship which in turn
will be eventually transformed into a system of a classless society.
Here lies one of the most irrevocable contradictions of Marx's theory.
If his theory of class struggle is to be taken at face value, how in
the world could a classless society ever be possible? If a classless
society is ever possible, then history of mankind could be explained
on a theory other than that of class struggle. Furthermore, if a system
of proletariat dictatorship is being established with complete elimina-
tion of the bourgeoisie and other classes, the meaning of proletariat
dictatorship would be at best obscure. How can there be a dictator-
ship of the proletariat over the proletariat? In this eventuaUty, or
either there would be no dictatorship at all, or only a dictatorship
of some one else over the proletariat.

It is in this light that the history of international communism
should be examined. To use Marx's own argument, a proletariat
dictatorship will not therefore result in a classless society, but a
kind of dictatorship of a group of people over the other. This group
of people might well be the "vanguard of the Communist Party" as
asserted by Lenin. Thus the Communist Party would be by itself
of a distinctive class in the meaning of traditional Marxism-Leninism,
To carry the argument one step further, there should be "classes"
even within the Communist Party because according to Marx's theory
any society must have some classes and the Communist Party is also
a society. If Marx's theory of class-struggle is indeed vaHd, struggle
among leaders or cHques of a Communist Party and between coun-
tries controlled by the Communist parties is indeed inevitable. Thus
the Sino-Soviet dispute and other disputes in history are not surpris-
ing at all.

^Ibid. p. 414.

'''C. K. Lee: An Analysis of Khruschev-Mao Conflict, Central Daily News,
Taipei, January 16, 1964.

160

In philosophical terms, the Communists regard internal struggle
as a sign of healthy progress which should be, by all means, en-
couraged. If there is no struggle there is no progress. The progress
of so-called self criticism is a sign of progress within one's self.
However, the theories advanced by Marx himself at his early age
is directly contradictory to those advanced by him at his old age. He
mutilated Hegel's dialectic idealism into a transformed dialectic
materialism. Despite his insistence on the materialistic interpretation
of history, his glorification of "revolution", "violence," "dictatorship"
as the motivating forces in social changes would only be interpreted
as idealistic.

Still others would insist that the direct factor in causing the present
Sino-Soviet dispute is simply a struggle for power between Mao and
Khruschev and, now, Khruschev's successors.'^ The ideological dis-
cord, the border clashes, and the economic and trade irritations are
only incidental because of the relativilization of Soviet power and
the emerging economic strength of Peiping and its increasing influ-
ence in bloc and world affairs.

In ascertaining the cause of the dispute, the factor of national
interests has also been suggested. However, Mao is not and never
will be a nationalist. Nevertheless, one would certainly concede that
Mao and his associates are far too clever not to utilize the national
sentiment of the Chinese people in a contest for power with the
Russians, especially in a time when the Chinese people might have
turned their economic and national frustrations against the Red
rulers themselves in the late 1950's and early 1960's.

(4) The nature of the dispute: From these brief observations,
it would seem clear that the Sino-Soviet dispute is something more
than or other than an ideological dispute. It might be a power
struggle pure and simple in the tradition of the dialectic Marxist-
Leninism with some nationahst overtones.

In fact in the history of international communism, the purges of
leaders are always geared or disguised on a higher level usually on
ideological grounds. The relationship between ideology and power
is evident in an authoritarian country. Ideology is inherent in power
as when it serves to raise morale or stimulate fanatical convictions.
Ideology also shapes the purposes for which power may be used,
helping to determine the direction in which power is applied; it
often serves to rationalize power, to justify it, thereby in effect be-
coming part of it while implicitly transforming power into authority.^

However, in a Communist country, the holding of power is even
more important than "correctness" of ideology. Those who are
in power will be in a position to dictate what official ideology will
be. Based on a dialectic doctrine, ideology should be necessarily
relative, yet the ideological position favored or cherished by those

''Yao Meng-sien: New Developments in the Peiping-Moscow Conflict, In-
stitutes of International Relations, May, 1964.
^Brzezinski, p. 386.

161

who are in power at a given time should be the "official" and
"absolute truth" at that given time.

Consequently, the direct cause in upholding one person in power
in a given time is not necessarily because of the superiority of "the"
ideology held by that person. It is rather because of the relative
power position of that person with respect to that of others within
that power structure. Within this frame of reference the dispute
between Moscow and Peiping developed recently could be well ex-
plained to our satisfaction. At a time when Red China needed Russian
assistance the most, Moa would not hesitate to declare a "lean-to-
one-side" policy in the early 1950's. As a result of relativilization of
Soviet power in the late 1950's, however, Peiping was almost ready
to challenge the leadership of Russia in 1957. Nevertheless, Red
China would still "emphasize" that the sociahst camp could have
the Soviet Union at its "head." In 1964, however, when Red China
was in a position to challenge, yet not strong enough to wrestle
away the leadership from Moscow, Peiping shifted its argument and
insisted upon the "independence and complete equality" of the "frat-
ernal parties" protesting the flagrant violation of the guiding principles
of 1957 "for the leaders of the C. P. S. U. to consider themselves
the leaders of the international communist movement and to treat all
fraternal parties as their subordinates."^

In the same statement, it also paved the way for outright break
between Moscow and Peiping in the years ahead by charging that
the leaders of the C. P. S. U. automatically forfeited the position of
"head in the International Communist Movement" by embarking "on
the path of revisionism and splitism."^'^

Historically, other outstanding struggles in Russia and Red China
followed the same pattern. The conclusive power struggle between
the Bolshevist and Mensheviks (1917-1919), between Stalin and
Trotsky (1929), between Khruschev and Malenkov (1953-1955),
between Breznev and Khruschev (1964) in Russia and those waged
by Mao against Chen Tou-Sheu, Chang Kuo-Tao, Li Li-san, Liu
Shao-Chi, and most recently other "powerholders" in the current
"Great Cultural Revolution" successively did not provide any con-
clusive proof that the ideological doctrines adopted by the victors in
those struggles were definitely superior than those adopted by the
defeated. On the other hand the ideological position by the defeated
were usually adopted by or at least incorporated in part by the
victor after a power struggle.

(5) The impact of the dispute: In analyzing the present Sino-
Soviet dispute, one of the observers suggested that, "one should avoid
the prevaihng tendency toward extremist conclusions. Talk of a
Sino-Soviet conflict leading even to a Soviet- American alliance against
the 'Chinese peril' merely illustrates a profound misconception of
the essence of the historical phenomenon of Communism, which
while affected by traditional national considerations, have from its

'JNew York Times, February 7, 1964. p. 7.
oibid., February 7, 1964. p. 7.

162

very beginning reflected a conscious emphasis on supranational per-
spectives. Similarly, change within the Sino-Soviet bloc should not
be viewed as a presaging either its imminent disintegration, or con-
versly, its eventual consolidation in a single Communist state." In-
deed the "conflict and competition between the partners to the alli-
ance will continue and may even lead to a radical deterioration of
relations." But this will proceed within a self-limiting framework
of basic struggle against the West.^^ However in the recent years,

the split between the Russians and the Chinese Communists seems
to have reached a point of no return. Nevertheless, the outcome is
still not in sight since the current "Great Cultural Revolution" is still
wedged inconclusively in the Chinese Mainland. By and large, its
impact should be examined from three angles: the impact within the
Communist bloc; the impact upon the developing countries and
finally the impact upon the West.

Within the Communist bloc, the dispute has transformed a formerly
solid Soviet bloc into a divergent unity of Communist camp which
included the solid Soviet bloc, the Chinese-Albanian alignment, and
possibly other "Communist neutrahsts." A tendency toward duo-
centricism or polycentricism has thus emerged in the international
communist movement.

With respect to the underdeveloping countries, both Russia and
Red China are contending for leadership in the national liberation
movement. Moscow is now advocating a softer line, yet it can not
afford not to encourage revolutionary movement. Peiping is more
outspoken in the hope that it will wrestle the leadership away from
Moscow. In general, the hard-core Communists in the underdevelop-
ing countries would certainly lean more to Peiping, but the true
leaders of the nationalist movement in these areas would certainly
favor Moscow's line. At present, the hard line taken by Peiping, in
fact, does not meet the approval of the leaders of national liberation
movement in the recently emerging, neutral, non-communistic coun-
tries in Africa and Asia, yet in time if the Communist infiltration in
the national liberation movement has been completed, Peiping's
position would be further strengthened over that of Moscow.

With respect to the free world, the dispute brings danger as well
as opportunity to the West. One may agree with the assertion that
the Sino-Soviet dispute "is strictly an internal affair and there will be
no change at all in their fundamental policies toward the free world."
The dispute is indeed not a dispute over the question of whether
their design for world domination should be abandoned, but it is a
discord over how and when to do it. Neither Russia nor Red China
would hesitate to resort to whatever means, peaceful or otherwise,
in their long pronounced quest for world domination. Evidently, both
have and will continue to use whatever means seem likely to be to
their advantage. The possible conditioning factor is the course of
action which the free world might take in a confrontation of power

"cf. Donald S. Zagoria, The Sino Soviet Conflict, 1956-1961, p. 4 and
Brzezinski; p. 435.

163

between the East and West. In fact, the West is now in a better posi-
tion than ever before to bring some bearing upon the Sino-Soviet dis-
pute and its outcome. In dealing with the Communists, Russians or
Chinese, however, one should be cautious. A recently published
U. S. Senate Committee Report warned, "We are not dealing, as
sometimes suggested in the western world with another Hitler . . .
The Communist Chinese and Russia alike are professional revolution-
aries, capable of bluster and bluff, but also of extreme caution and
circumspection, depending on their assessment of objective reality . . .
They were and are capable of retreat in the face of a superior enemy,
or even a seemingly determined one."^^

'Khruschev's Strategy and Its Meaning for America, Committee on The
Judiciary, United States Senate, 1960. pp. 18-19.

164

What Does it Matter to You?

A Sermon to New Students

By

Samuel Williams

Vance Packard states in a little booklet called Do your Dreams
Match Your Talents that "first you need a sense of purpose. It wiU
inspire you to dedicate yourself to a search for excellence. It wiU
fire you with aspiration. It will provide the meaning you search for
when you sit down in moments of quiet and ask yourself what the
day-to-day tasks, disappointments, and joys add up to. If your life
isn't dedicated to something of value something that has lasting
meaning then it is likely to be a little more than a shell." Emerson
said on one occasion that "the revelation of thought takes men out
of servitude into freedom." It is my belief that these two statements,
individually or when taken together, are not only suggestive for our
theme, but emphasize those things that really matter.

What does it matter to you as to who you are, as to what you do,
as to what your goal is, as to how you act, as to what you say, and
as to how you think?

There is a real thrill in thinking for yourself or making up your
own mind. I wonder how many Freshmen were free to think for
themselves as to whether Savannah State College was the college
of their choice. Did their parents make the decision for them? Did
their brother, sister, friend, neighbor, another student, recruiter,
alumnus, or none of these decide for them? Or, did it just happen
to them?

Yes, thinking for oneself is a real thrill. It is something like going
swimming in the ocean for the first time, or diving from the highest
diving board into the deepest part of a swimming pool. It takes
courage, fortitude, and determination, especially if one's swimming
is no better than mine. One will have to focus all of his forces for
the plunge. But it is worth it. When that first, rather awful impasse
is over, there is a wonderful joyous response to the cool water pump-
ing energy and bliss through his body. In a few minutes, he wonders
why on earth he lived so long without that delight.

There is an equal thrilling delight similar to swimming in a pool
of cool water when one makes up his own mind. Of what a joy one
experiences from being his own decision maker.

Why, then, should one do without the superb thrill of making up
his own mind, or thinking for himself? It is surprising how few of us
ever know that exquisite sensation. Probably most of us think that
we do make up our own minds, when the truth of the matter is we
are only parrots. Most of our opinions are canned, packaged, pre-
baked, pre-digested, and highly advertised.

165

What do you suppose would happen if, when next you hear one
of your friends make a very positive statement, you say, "Is that your
own opinion or is it merely an acceptance of what you have read,
heard and been told, with no weighing of the facts on your part?"
Your friend may be a little insulted. On the other hand, he might be
that rarest of persons, a completely honest individual, and might
surprise you by saying, "I do very little independent thinking. I'm
not a real person. 1 am just a carbon copy of all the positive asser-
tions I've heard. I am a bundle of prejudices and pre-conceived no-
tions mixed with suggestions from propaganda and a warped sense of
values." It would be refreshing to meet such an honest person, for
at least he would be aware of his complete dependence upon others
for his opinions.

When I urge you to taste the joy of making up your own mind,
it is not merely for the sensuous experience and the wholesome
strengthening that will result from each considered decision, but
chiefly it is a warning. // you do not think for yourself, somebody
else will.

There will be many occasions other than the academic ones here
at Savannah State College that will require you to think for yourself,
and, if you fail to think for yourself, there will be much shame and
sorrow, for you, your parents, and your friends.

Of course, you have opinions about Savannah State College, about
some faculty members you have heard of, you have allegiance to
your home and community and we hope eventually to the College,
and you have conclusions about persons you have met and some ex-
periences you have had; but are they truly your own or were they
crammed into your mind when you were not looking?

This very minute, the one you are living now, this very instant,
impressions gathered at various times are sinking deeper and deeper
into convictions. Are you doing anything to be sure that they are
what you want? Are they your own choice?

Or are you hke a hypnotized person doing whatever he is told?
Did you ever see a hypnotist having his way with a mind he had
subjugated? It is possible for the suggestions given a prostrate mind
to be good, but usually, they are quite ridiculous. You, too, may
have heard audiences roar with laughter when the poor victim obeys
tJie order to "bark like a dog, run around on all fours, ask for a bone."
It is not funny to have deliberately given over one's power of personal
decision.

We know that in every suggestion of the ordinary and extraordinary
influences that we meet every day, every night, sound and color
partially shape our opinions. You must decide whether you are to
be simply a sum total of your environment or a person who pre-
serves his natural right to independent thought.

If a man uses his individual power of thought he is almost a god.
But many people are no more than sheep following the paths of
least resistance. Sheep and some men have something else in common.

166

Sometimes a sheep becomes caught in brambles or a barbed-wire
fence. He will stand there and starve instead of pulling away with
a decisive wrench. Men who do not exercise individual decision, but
merely drift with the tide, may spare themselves a little exertion, but
they throw away the thrill of meeting the challenge of life, of breast-
ing its clean winds as adequate persons. They are old who seek too
much comfort and inaction. They are young, no matter what their
years, who want to know for themselves the first hand thrill of com-
ing to grips with life as individuals capable of making decisions for
themselves.

Mental drifting is about the worst menace that can creep upon
you insidiously. If you do not exercise your mind, it will get creaky
and rusty. And one day you may call upon it, and it will have for-
gotten how to respond.

One way to break a man is to reduce him to indecision, to flabby,
undirected thinking, to bring him to confusion and diffused force.
And the way to destroy a man is to reduce him to the status of a
thing. We have seen examples of this in our society and our own
experience, for these are the evils of segregation and discrimination.
Certainly, none of us should drift willingly into this State.

If at times you should let other people make up your mind for
you, in self defense you should decide to let them do it! Do not let
too many things "just happen" to you here at Savannah State College.
Even deciding not to decide for yourself has a cleansing effect on
the corroding impediments of indecision and flabby thinking or no
thinking.

Mental action that is independent brightens our faces, lifts our
shoulders and gives us direction, but drifting stagnates the mind; it
gives us characterless bodies and faces and makes shallow oppor-
tunists out of even potentially strong young persons Uke yourselves.

What does it matter then to you as to how you think? I have
warned you that if you do not think for yourself someone else will.
But I must also warn you that as you think for yourselves, put a
little gadget on your mind that will permit you to give your thought
a turn. I say this to you because many of you have come with pre-
conceived thoughts as to what college life is like, how free you ought
to be and how free you ought not be. Some of you are going to be
disappointed, surprised, pleased, and perhaps neutral, so be sure
that there is a gadget on your mind so you can turn it when need be.
When what you have thought in the part becomes overshadowed with
the truth of the present, you will need to think for yourself so you
can accept the truth for what it is. When what you have believed
about God, and man, and thought, and you study philosophy and
religion and come to reafize that there is a brighter light than that
which you hold, though it shakes the very foundation of your life,
let not your mind be so set, that you cannot turn the gadget to accept
the brighter light.

No matter what group you may join here at Savannah State Col-
lege, social, academic, political, religious or other organizations you

167

may become affiliated with, you will not be much good to them
unless your opinions are your own. You will be just a weak, easily
influenced person, really rather dangerous to have around.

What does it matter to you as to what your values are? It seems
incredible to us today that Manhattan Island was bought from the
Indians for a few strings of bright-colored beads and a few coins,
total cost twenty-four dollars; It is easy now to see that the Indians
were so excited about the pretty colors of the beads, so delighted with
the vision of themselves impressing other members of the tribe with
their new ornaments, that the small price paid was scarcely noticed
by them. Today, college life offers attractive details for which you
are supposed to pay great and deep values. You should watch for
the cost to you not only in dollars, but in integrity, character, re-
spect, citizenship and personal respect.

Sometimes the price you must pay is stated so vaguely that it seems
to be nothing worth mentioning. Even when it is mentioned it is
spoken of contemptuously. One can imagine the traders saying to the
Indians, "and in exchange for these magnificent beads, all we ask
for is just that old island over there, which you ought to be glad to
get rid of."

When the people who are offering you something start talking so
worthlessly of the price you must pay, just think the matter over
quietly for yourself. There would be no point in running down some-
thing that had no value. Much of what is offered at Savannah State
College has genuine worth. There are values that should be salvaged.
But on the other hand, there will be some personal matters over
which the College has no control and it will be childish for you to
gobble the whole matter and then condemn the entire community.

It is difficult to judge immediate values. They are so deeply per-
sonal, so close to the moment's desires, that we cannot weigh them
properly. Think through to the ultimate value, look ahead to the
long-range result. The ultimate effect can be envisioned much more
clearly. And do not forget that the immediate view may be purposely
colored by exaggerations or mis-statements in order to confuse you.

However, there is confusion enough without anyone's trying de-
liberatly to confuse. If you listen to many discussions of world affairs
you find that you must ask those involved to define their terms.
To clarify the meanings of words is important and, even Black Power,
Freedom Now, justice and equality. Sometimes people will argue an
entire evening only to discover later that they were in agreement, but
had merely tripped over terminology.

A very naughty, stubborn httle girl was being reported to her
father. His face grew grave when he heard of her misdeeds. The little
girl was bold until she heard him say quietly, "Well, I guess we'll
just have to tolerate her." The child's eyes grew large with terror. She
threw herself in her father's arms sobbing religiously, "I'U be good,
father, I'll be good! Please don't tolerate me! Please don't tolerate
me!

168

In his "Dimension" on radio, Harry Reasoner made the following
splendid commentary on democracy. A Hstener at a gasoline station
said, "seems like he talks more for the Democrats than he does
for the Republicans. What's he talking so much about democracy
for?"

Yes, there is enough confusion in the world, international, na-
tional, and local. But what does it matter to you as to what your
values are? What does it matter to you as far as your concern for
public property? Is it all right to destroy it because you did not
purchase it directly, you did not ask for it directly, it is not yours
directly? On the other hand, do you see property private, public or
otherwise as a means of enhancing noble and high purposes for the
good of all mankind? Your respect for property somewhat reflects
your sense of value as well as what you want.

You should be careful as to what you want, for you are very
likely to get it. There is an old Scotch saying, "just give a woman
what she wants, and it will be punishment enough when she gets it."
What most of us do not seem to realize is that we really have what
we want that is if we have the choice to choose, and if we want
what we have chosen from day to day. If you choose not to study
then you automatically choose to flunk; if you choose not to read
then you automatically choose to stay uninformed; if you choose to
violate the law, moral, civil, or otherwise, then you automatically
choose the consequences of breaking the law.

A recent issue of The Christian Century contains the story of a
dean of students at one of our nation's large universities, concerning
a young man who spent much of his time studying female anatomy
by Braille method. Every time the dean looked out of his window
he looked into the young man's library. It was his hope that the
young man would change his place of study as well as become more
discreet in his behavior. However, there was no change. So the dean
decided to give the young man a semester break in the middle of
the semester. He contended that he was not interested in destroying
the young man's love life, but he got tired of stumbling over the
young man every time he left his office to go home.

What do you want in this desegregated age? It would be enlighten-
ing for you to make an appointment with yourself in the mirror and
have a hear-to-heart talk about it. What is your idea of your chances?
What is the material from which you will fashion your wants? Do
you feel equal to the challenge of the uncertainty that lies ahead?
Do you feel calmly confident that there is a basic element within
you that is elastic, resihent, adaptable and resourceful?

In this age in which we live, it is not enough for you to want to be
principals, teachers, and maids in inferior schools! You should be
getting ready to be heads of superior boards of education as well
as superior schools. Do you want a mouthful of civil rights and a
hungry stomach? It is not enough! It is not enough to be able to go
to some of the splendid hotels and motels in your country. Some
of you should be getting ready to be managers and co-managers, and

169

owners of some of the great and splendid hotels and motels in our
country. No, it is not enough to be able to fly from Washington to
New York in 29 minutes, or from Chicago to Savannah in an hour
and a half; some of you ought to be getting ready to fly that jet. No,
it is not enough for you to play baseball with the Atlanta Braves, the
Dodgers, and the Giants. Some of you should be getting ready to be
managers and owners of teams in every area of professional sports.

So we see that what a man wants and his response to these wants
has a bearing upon his values. The same is true with what or how
a man believes. Does it matter what you believe? A whole genera-
tion of Protestant Christians have begun to wonder whether their
Christian beliefs are really important. Since God is dead, the church
is dead, the city is dead, and now there are some who contend that
sex is dead. No wonder why there is a tendency to say: living the
Christian life is obviously important, but beheving the Christian
faith? . . . well, we're not so sure. Yes, what a man is counts
definitely; what man does is crucial; but who cares what a man
believes?

Belief is essential to life. Therefore, you should organize your
life around the dynamic center of your being and believe in that
which brings meaning to your life. The old Anglo-Saxon word "be-
lief" hterally means "what men live by." Out of the head are the
issues of life. As a man thinketh in his head, so is he. Belief, by
definition, is that conviction which conditions decision. It motivates
action. It makes me what I am; it impels me to do what I end up
doing. You have heard and perhaps have been guilty of making the
following statement in an unguarded moment: "It doesn't make any
difference what a man believes so long as he is sincere." If he be-
lieves the wrong thing, the more sincere he is, the more dangrous
he is. Yes, it makes all the difference in the world what a man be-
lieves.

Here is a prosecuting attorney. He is examining potential jurors.
It is a murder case and he intends to ask for the death penalty. The
first question he addresses to every prospective juror is, "do you be-
lieve in capital punishment?" The decision that the prospective juror
eventually will be called upon to make will be absolutely conditioned
by what he believes, and the prosecuting attorney knows it. He knows
that if he has a person on the jury who does not believe in capital
punishment, he might as well knock his head against a stone wall
as to ask that juror to vote for the death penalty, no matter how
guilty the man may be proved to be. It is only a matter of beHef,
but it hterally settles the case for the juror, the attorneys, and the
prisoner at the bar.

Jesus Christ came into the world with a special, unique revelation
of the will and love of God and the first thing he said in public was :
"The time is fulfilled, and the Kingdom of God is at hand God has
entered into human life, his grace and power are yours for the taking;
repent, and believe." Of many communities in Jesus' lifetime minis-
try, it had ultimately and tragically to be said. He did not do many
mighty works there. Do you remember why? Because of their un-
belief?

170

What we believe about God makes a lot of difference to us, to the
world of men lost and afraid, and to God himself. Our souls' sense
of security in time and in eternity and the future of God's Kingdom
upon earth depend upon what you and I believe. Yes, our thoughts,
our values, and our beliefs are things that really matter. The truth
of the whole matter will become meaningful to your life when you
can answer the question for yourself, "What do my thoughts, my
values, and my beliefs matter to me?"

171

Ong, McLuhan, and the Function
of the Literary Message

By

Dennis A. Berthold

The twentieth century has witnessed a revolution in communica-
tions that has profoundly reshaped our culture and society. Motion
pictures, radio, and television have already exercised a great in-
fluence on modern hfe, and the potential of these media to further
influence culture seems unlimited. It is a fact to ponder that today's
average high school student has clocked 10,800 hours of school time
compared with 15,000 hours of television time when he receives his
diploma. 1 While the total impact of these developments cannot yet
be fully assessed, their already pervasive presence has given rise to
what is, basically, an epistemological question: To what extent do
media (the forms and modes of communication) impose their as-
sumptions on what is communicated? More specifically, do we
"know" things differently if we hear them instead of see them and,
if so, how great is the significance of this difference for the knowledge
obtained? These, I take it, are the primary questions to which both
Marshall McLuhan and Walter J. Ong, S. J., address themselves.
They base their considerations on, in McLuhan's words, "the human
sensorium," particularly the two major senses of sight and sound.
The question thus resolves itself into a discussion of the relative
merits of oral-audile-tactile culture, or the spoken and heard word,
versus visual culture, or the printed and seen word.

In his book, The Gutenberg Galaxy, McLuhan traces the develop-
ment of "typographic culture," where one perceives primarily through
the mode of printed letters and words on a page. From the Eden of
oral-aural culture we move through hieroglyphics and ideographs to
the phonetic alphabet and the medieval manuscript, rapidly culmi-
nating our journey with the invention of moveable type and the
printed book. The next era (the "Gutenberg Galaxy" of the title)
lasts until 1907, when oral-aural media reassert themselves on a glob-
al, pulsatingly electronic scale with Marconi's invention of the tele-
graph. The implication running throughout this scattergun survey is
that the written word is inferior in signification to the spoken word,
and that alphabetic, typographic, visual media have destroyed any
unity western civilization might once have had. Printing is thus seen
as a violation of the natural order of perception or, as McLuhan
states, "Writing is a visual enclosure of non-visual spaces and senses.
It is, therefore, an abstraction of the visual from the ordinary sense
interplay."- This fragmentation of modes of perception has led to a

^John M. Culkin, S. J., "A Schoolman's Guide to Marshall McLuhan,"

Saturday Review, vol. XI (March 18, 1967), p. 71.
^Marshall McLuhan, The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic

Man (Toronto), 1962, p. 43.

172

schizophrenic fragmentation of knowledge, so that modem man has
been conditioned by the assumptions of typography and the phonetic
alphabet. He no longer apprehends ideas in their totality, but rather
in discrete, individually meaningless units we call letters or, in
McLuhan's pithy phraseology, meaningless signs conjoined to mean-
ingless sounds. At one point McLuhan terms this development "absurd
and ignoble," for it means man has capitulated to the rigidified,
spiritless, inhuman mode of typographic culture instead of reaping
the benefits of the "over-all awareness" oral culture supplies.

While McLuhan chastises the written word. Father Ong eulogizes
the spoken word. Clearly paralleling McLuhan's bias, only from a
positive perspective, Ong believes that oral culture provides mankind
with the bases vital to establishing unified, personal, existentially
aware "I-thou" relationships. "Space separates, whereas voice unites"
Ong tells us in an essay significantly titled "Voice as Summons for
Behef,"^ and he compares the power of oral media to unify with the
intimacy and profound meaning achieved in the celebration of the
Eucharist. While Ong does not stress the role of the "Gutenberg
Galaxy" in shaping the modern mind, he does feel that typography
effected "a subtle re-orientation of attitudes toward communication
and what was to be communicatedknowledge itself."^ In his
book on the Renaissance pedagogue Petrus Ramus, Father Ong puts
this "subtle re-orientation of attitudes" into the larger framework of
western culture's increasing concern for understanding concepts by
means of spatial models, a concern which ultimately led to consider-
ing these models as autonomous entities in themselves. Quoting Otto
Jespersen, Ong points out that formerly "words and forms were often
treated as if they were things or natural objects with an existence of
their own~a conception which may have been to a great extent
fostered through a too exclusive preoccupation with written or printed
words, but which is fundamentally false. " It is Ong's main concern
to get us back to a realization of "the primacy in communication
of the living world of sound" which is "ultimately rooted not in
things but in persons."''

It should not be difficult to see the relevance of these theories
to the study of literature. If oral-aural communication is somehow
superior to visual communication, it would seem to follow that works
of literature, insofar as they are conveyed visually, are an inferior
way of getting at knowledge and truth. Both men, I think, would
assent to this conclusion; they would add, however, that there are
certain authors who realize the problem and manage to transcend
it in their works. McLuhan instances Shakespeare, Pope, Cervantes,
and Rabelais as four men who saw print to be a "transforming and
metamorphosing drug that has the power of imposing its assumptions

^Walter J. Ong, S. J., The Barbarian Within and Other Fugitive Essays and

Studies (New York, 1962), p. 61.
^Walter J. Ong, S. J., Ramus, Method, and the Decay of Dialogue: From the

Art of Discourse to the Art of Reason (Cambridge, Mass., 1958), p. 310.
^Ong, The Barbarian Within, p. 175.
Hbid.

173

upon every level of consciousness."^ This awareness necessitated,
with men like Blake and Yeats, the move to symbolism and myth,
as they attempted to achieve the simultaneous, unified mode of com-
munication that originated in primitive, myth-filled, oral-aural cul-
tures. James Joyce's further development of stream-of-consciousness
narration, particularly in Finnegan's Wake, finally gave us a literary
mode comparable to oral-aural culture. This style, McLuhan believes,
is actually the most realistic and natural mode of artistic communica-
tion, whereas so-called "realism" and "naturalism" are, in effect,
"abstract art," for they are "based on a separation of the visual
faculty from the interplay of the other senses."^

Ong agrees with McLuhan that visual communication a conven-
tion of hteracy keeps us from understanding the whole and prevents
us from becoming involved with the particular. Father Ong, however,
addresses himself much more fully to the problem of what kind of
knowledge it is that a work like Finnegan's Wake conveys. His
thoughts on this subject revolve around two types of knowledge which
I can best express by using his metaphor. He visualizes the mind
as containing "islands of conceptualized knowledge" surrounded by
"dark seas of knowing." Writers like Pound, Proust, and Joyce have
opened up the "dark seas" for exploration, inviting us to share, in
an almost oral-aural way, in "depth experience" (a term he acknow-
ledges to be Philip Wheelwright's). Ong believes in the "islands,"
however, as much as (if not more than) he believes in the "seas,"
and he warns us against being entertained by "false hopes" of finding
all the answers in the mythos of the "inner consciousness.'"''

This balance of Ong's between the "islands" of fact and the
"seas" of myth allows him to account for the function of artifice in
art and to assess its role in the total communicative effort of the
author. Each kind of knowledge defines and clarifies the other when
two persons communicate, as speaker and hearer, writer and reader,
subject and object mutually engage in an "1-thou" dialogue.

If we can conceive a thought within ourselves, it is the sort
of thing our fellows the more perceptive ones, anyhow can
enter into. If we can think it, others can, too. Depth
analysis has made it more evident than ever that there is no
private language, even of inarticulate symbols. In so far as
we speak to ourselves in any way, others are capable of
sharing our thoughts. To conceive something interiorly
is to process it for extemalization.^'^^'

The last sentence contains a word that gives Ong's ideas a peculiar
relevance to literary study that I find lacking in McLuhan. The word

~'The Gutenberg Galaxy, p. 260.

*op. cit., p. 65.

^The Barbarian Within, p. 144. Ong is fully aware of the impact and import
of Jungian thought, but as the title of the essay from which this phrase is
taken indicates, "The Myth of Myth," he has serious reservations about the
ultimate value of either psychoanalysis or anthropology in furthering man-
kind's "pursuit of truth" (p. 144).

'"op. cit., p. 50.

174

is "process," and it implies a whole host of devices and techniques
of communication whose study forms the basis of much literary
endeavor. Any techniques such as symbolism, stream-of-conscious-
ness, or the mask of personae that establish deeper relationships
between author and reader and so "tease" us into "depth experience,"
much as Keats' Grecian Urn "dost tease us out of thought / As
doth eternity," are heartily welcomed by Ong. McLuhan seems to
feel that words should exist as no more than Gestalten, relegating
language and literature to the role of an impressionistic medium of
ideas. Unlike Ong, he does not appreciate the utilization of various
techniques which evoke the subtlest of meaning from a word or
group of words, a trait I believe to be a hallmark of great literature.
Rather, McLuhan seems convinced that we must move beyond typo-
graphic media to electronic media if we are to come to terms with
the reality of the complex world in which we live.

It would be unfair to both men if I presented their theories as
applicable only to the study of literature. In fact their works contain
comments and ideas on a vast number of subjectsMcLuhan makes
a special point of bringing in some quite remote areas of thought if
they seem to have any bearing at all on his discussion, an approach
he characterizes as "mosaic" and "multilinear." If we get behind
some of their surface observations, however (a task that is particularly
difficult with McLuhan), we can see in their assumptions some very
questionable and often quite fuzzy thinking. Their basic tenet is
that somehow knowledge becomes more profound and meaningful
when it is conveyed and apprehended by the entire "human sen-
sorium." The ideal mode of communication, then, would be some-
thing like television, where the senses are subjected to a continual
bombardment of ever-shifting multiple images and sounds. I do not
see why we cannot take the opposite point of view and contend that
the best medium is one that forces us to be selective in our choice
of images we wish to convey, one in which all meaningless or
irrelevant material would be removed from our perceptions and we
could focus on what was most important. This amounts to surrendering
ourselves, as readers, to the ordering imagination of a sensibihty we
consider finer and more acute than ours, a sensibility that will reveal
knowledge and elucidate facts with a clarity and depth of which we
are incapable. Such a relationship between author and reader would
hold true for all forms of written communication. The ratio between
reader's and author's sensibilities and insights would fluctuate with
individual abilities to perceive and communicate in each new en-
counter, of course, but the same kind of teacher-learner relationship
would exist whether we were reading James Joyce or the daily news-
paper. The printed page thus is a medium through which essential
ideas can be filtered and the extraneous events that constantly sur-
round us can be left behind where they belong. "Depth experience"
is possible at least as much in the quiet dialogue between author and
reader as it is in the atmosphere of the lecture hall or the motion
picture theater.

There are many over-generalized statements and even contradic-
tions, bordering on the absurd, in the theories of both Ong and

175

McLuhan, but it would be pointless to pick either one of them apart
on that score. They have consciously cast themselves in the prophetic
mold, and the messianic voice, replete with its conundrums and
paradoxes, cannot be stilled in either man. With McLuhan, particu-
larly, the Savior-of-Western-Culture pose frequently obscures content
that we feel must surely lurk behind the brash rhetorical facade. Ong's
speculations, albeit highly metaphysical and vague, have a philoso-
phical depth and weight to them that McLuhan's shrill preachments
often lack. Both men, perhaps, would prefer the epithet "seminal
thinker" to those suggested, and it could possibly apply. Certainly
we cannot deny the power of modern communications media to con-
vey knowledge, nor can we comfortably ignore the impact they have
on our perceptions of that knowledge. Attempts to evaluate these
new forces, however, should not strip us of the ability to find within
the printed word worlds of meaning and depths of insight uniquely
available in that medium. We must not concern ourselves with pro-
cess to the detriment of understanding content. The effort must be
to see form and content as contributmg to one total meaning and
to understand the interplay between the two. A monistic concern
for form will only lead us back into the sterile philological wasteland
Leo Spitzer observed in the work of Meyer-Lubke,^^ decorate it
as we will with the glitter and glare of the electronic age.

^^Leo Spitzer, Linguistics and Literary History: Essays in Sty list ics (Princeton,
1948), especially pp. 1-29.

176

In Vitro Persistence of Salmonella
Typhimurium in a Dually Inoculated^
Medium. I. with Proteus Morganii

By

Joseph L. Knuckles

The real potential of non-biting flies as biological vectors of certain
enteric pathogens is incomprehensible due to an insufficiency of
knowledge of environmental factors which may be related to the
availability of these bacteria to flies both qualitatively and quantita-
tively, and those which may prevent the survival of pathogens within
them.

That pH and temperature may influence bacterial growth, and
a number of additional factors influence the persistence and/or
multiplication of enteric pathogens have been reported. An isolated
bacteriophage from Musca domestica found active against salmonella
typhosa (cited as Bacillus paratyphi Type I) (8) and an unidentified
agent thought to have been a bacteriophage, and found bacteriocidal
for Salmonella typhimurium but not for Salmonella schottmuelleri
in the digestive tract of Phormia regina (4) have been reported. The
acidity in the digestive tract of Blaberus craniijer inhibited or des-
troyed S. typhosa but not Salmonella enteridits, (5) nor were several
species of Salmonella destroyed by an acid pH in the developmental
stages of P. regina (4). The survival of enteric pathogens in axenically
and nonaxenically reared larvae and pupae ( 1 ) and in adult Musca
(2) has been demonstrated experimentally. Yet, no correlation in
fly activity with the prevalence of salmonellosis was observed (6,9)
in field studies. This suggests the destruction of Salmonella by a
bacteriophage or antagonistic action by bacteria normally present in
the fly's gut or elsewhere in nature. Threshold numbers of several
enteric pathogens required for their subsequent establishment and
multiplication within Musca and Phormia are cited in (2) and (4),
respectively,

This paper describes in vitro studies on the persistence of S.
typhimurium in the presence of Proteus morganii

Methods and Materials

Modified S-F broth (MSFB) in a series of flasks (8-69) was in-
oculated with varied ratios of S. typhimurium and P. morganii / cc
medium. Controls were established by inoculating S-F broth in flasks
(1-7) with the pathogen only. The inoculated number of pathogen
or nonpathogen employed / cc medium and the length of incubation
prior to examination are shown in Table 1. Selenite-F broth and
MSFB were prepared essentially as (7) except that acid selenite was
omitted from the latter.

^Supported by a grant from the North Carolina Academy of Science.

177

Standardized bacterial suspensions were prepared by washing the
growth from separate 18-24 hour-old agar slant cultures with dis-
tilled water, and then diluting it to photometrically match a Nephlo-
meter standard no. 0.5 at a wave length of 600 mmr. Each of these
suspensions was equivalent to 150 x 10*' bacteria / cc, but was diluted
further for inoculating purposes.

The number of bacteria in an inoculum was calculated by multi-
plying the fractional cc used x the concn of bacteria / cc suspension.

The number of S. typhimurium detected in a flask culture post-
incubation was based on the highest serial dilution found positive for
the species. One tenth cubic centimeter of a flask culture was trans-
ferred to the first of 10 dilution tubes, each of which contained 1.9 cc
of distilled water, and serially diluted out. Then 1 cc from each
dilution tube was transferred to a separate tube which contained 4
cc of MSFB, and incubated at 37 C for 24 hours. An inocuhn of
0.05 cc was transferred from each tube culture and streaked on
separate Brilliant Green agar and SS agar plates.

Salmonella typhimurium no. 63 and P. morganii no. 121 used in
this work were initially obtained from the Department of Bac-
teriology, University of Connecticut. The pathogen was isolated from
human excrement and had been attenuated in the laboratory for
about seven years prior to this work. Specific antiserum was obtained
from Case Laboratories, Chicago. The identification of S. typhi-
murium in randomly selected colonies from SS agar or Brilliant Green
agar plates was based on (a) positive triple-sugar iron agar tests (an
alkaline slant, an acid butt and the production of H2S), (b) positive
phenol red tartrate agar tests (an acid reaction with a distinct color
change in the lower 80-95% portion of the medium), (c) colony
appearance and (d) positive macroscopic slide agglutination tests.
No special effort was made to identify P. morganii,. but periodic
checks were run on the tube cultures from serial dilutions with Urea
broth for the hydrolysis of urea.

The tubed and plated media used were sterilized as prescribed on
their original containers except that S-F broth and MSFB were
sterilized in flowing steam for 20-30 minutes. Empty flasks, pipettes,
Petri dishes, etc. were sterilized according to standard bacteriological
methodology.

Results

The results of this study are presented in Table 1. Salmonella
typhimurium based on the differences in the number inoculated and
the numbers detected in MSFB post-incubation multiplied extensively
in the presence of P. morganii during the first day of incubation. A
high-level count of viable S. typhimurium persisted throughout the
19 day experimental period. The growth and persistence of this
species was evident irrespective of the pathogennonpathogen inoculum
ratios of 1:1, 1:4, 1:7, 1:90, and 1:300 / cc medium. No difference
was reflected by the 10 serial dilutions employed in the growth cited

178

and persistence of S. typhimurium in MSFB irrespective of the
pathogen-nonpathogen ratio employed. Spot checks with urea broth
on MSFB cultures indicated the presence of P. morganii throughout
the experiment in each of the 10 serial dilutions.

Discussion

A study of the multiplication of S. typhimurium in the presence
of P. morganii was not of prime interest in this work. However, a
difference of approximately 51.2 x lO'^ in the number of the former
inoculated and the number detected / cc MSFB irrespective of the
inoculum pathogen-nonpathogen ratio used and following a 24 hour
incubation does indicate that a decided multiplication of S. typhi-
murium occured during this period. The multiplication indicated
represents a minimum for the species since the number of viable
cells in the highest serial dilution used was sufficient to give higher
counts had the dilution range been extended. A generation time of
54.7 minutes for S. typhimurium as computed by g= / is thought
to be high. Its number of generations (n=35) during the first day of
incubation as determined by n=^log p^ log- p^ is considered to be low.
Certain closely related bacterial species (e.g., Eschericheria coli, g =
20 minutes) are known to show a greater number of generations and
shorter generation periods than those obtained in this work
for S. typhimurium. hi vitro studies on the microbial com-
petition relative to enteric pathogens and nonpathogens bacteria are
generally lacking, but S. typhimurium did not multiply or survive in
Phormia pupae and adults though their prepupae and adults had
fed on this pathogen and P. morganii (4). The multiplication of S.
typhimurium in this study and its inability to multiply or survive in
P. regina fed P. morganii suggest that P. morganii does not significant-
ly impair the multiplication of S. typhimurium in the external environ-
ment but when coupled with unknown ecological factors in the gut
of certain flies may cause the extinction of typhimurium.

Proteus morganii demonstrated no significant inhibitory action
on the survival of S. typhimurium as was evident by the persistence
of a high-level count of at least 51.2 x 10^ typhimurium / cc medium
throughout a 19 day period. An extension of the serial dilution range
in two cases indicated the presence of a greater population of the
pathogen / cc medium than cited above. This persistence indicates
that P. morganii would unlikely cause the extinction of typhimurium
in nature even though the former tends toward the production of an
acid pH in a confined medium. Results of work in progress show
that typhimurium can tolerate a pH of less than 4.8. The survival
of Typhimurium in this study, its persistence in pupae and multiplica-
tion in adult Phormia whose aseptically reared larvae and adults had
fed on typhimurium only, and its complete absence in blowfly pupae
and adults whose larvae and adults had fed on typhimurium and P.
morganii and/or Aerobacter sp. (4) reemphasize the existence of
some ecological f actor (s) which act in conjunction with P. morganii
in vivo, resulting in the destruction of typhimurium in the pupae and
adults of P. regina.

179

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Conclusions

1. Salmonella typhimurium persisted at a high level in MSFB
for 19 days when this medium was inoculated with this species and
P. morganii in ratios of 1:1-1:300 / cc.

2. The presence of P. morganii in a mixed culture with S. typ-
himurium had no significant inhibitory action on the persistence of
the latter.

3 Salmonella typhimurium underwent a 35-plus fold multiphcation
during the first experimental day in MSFB inoculated with this
species and P. morganii in ratios of 1:1-1:300 / cc. Neither of the
bacterial species appeared to have had a significant inhibitory effect
on the growth of the other. The persistence and/or multiplication of
S. typhimurium in the presence of P. morganii appear to be limited
primarily by the availability of nutrients for the total bacterial pop-
ulation or by products formed during their metaboHsm.

Literature Cited

1. Greenberg, B., 1959. Persistence of bacteria in the developmental stages
of the housefly. I. Survival of enteric pathogens in normal and aseptically
reared host. Am. J. Trop. Med. and Hyg., 8: 405-411.

2. Hawley, J. E., Penner, L. R., Wedberg, S. E., and Kulp, W. L., 1951.
The role of the housefly Musca domestica, in the multiplication of certain
enteric bacteria. Am. J. Trop. Med., 31: 572-582.

3. Jung, R. C, and Shaffer, M. F., 1952. Survival of ingested Salmonella
in the cockroach Periplaneta americana. Am. J. Trop. Med. and Hyg.,
1: 990-998.

4. Knuckles, J. L., 1959. Studies on the role of Phormia regina (Meigen)
as a vector of certain enteric bacteria. Doctoral dissertation University of
Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut.

5. Krieg, N. R., Wedberg, S. E., and Penner, L. R., 1959. The cockroaches
Blabenis craniifer and Blaberus discoidalis as vectors of Salmonella typhosa.
Am. J. Trop. Med. and Hyg., 8: 119-123.

6. Lindsay, D. R., Stewart, W. H., and Watt, J., 1953. Effect of fly control
on diarrheal disease in an area of moderate morbidity. Pub. Health Rep.,
U. S. Health Serv., 68: 361-367.

7. North, W. R., and Bartram, M. T., 1953. The efficiency of selenite broth
of different composition in the isolation of Salmonella. Applied Micro-
biology, 1: 130-134.

8. Shope, R. E., 1927. Bacteriophage isolated from the common house fly.
J. Exper. Med. 1037.

9. Watt, J., and Lindsay, D. R., 1948. Effect of fly control in high morbidity
area. Pub. Health Rep., U. S. Health Serv., 63: 1319-1334.

184

In Vitro Persistence of Salmonella
Typhimurium in a Dually Inoculated
Medium. II. with Aerobacter Cloacae

By
Joseph L. Knuckles

In a previous paper, results of in vitro studies on the persistence
of Salmonella typhimurium in the presence of varied numbers of
Proteus morganii were described (4). The present paper deals with
an extension of these studies to Aerobacter cloacae.

Materials and Methods

Modified S-F broth (MSFB) in a series of flasks was innoculated
with varied ratios of S. typhimurium and A. cloacae / cc medium.
Most of the materials and methods used throughout this study are
presented in a previous paper (4) and will not be repeated in detail
here. In addition, EMB agar streak plates were employed in the is-
olation and inumeration of Aerobacter. A. cloaca\e was obtained from
the Carohna Biological Supply Company, Burlington, North Carolina.
Its identity was based on: (a) positive triple-sugar iron agar tests
(an acid slant, an acid butt, and the production of gas exclusive of
HoS); (b) positive phenol red tartrate agar tests (no color change
in medium); (c) negative urea broth tests (lack of the hydrolysis of
urea as indicated by no color change in the broth); (d) negative
macroscopic slide aggultination tests with a polyvalent Salmonella
antiserum. Again a serial dilution range of from 1:20 to 1:1024 x
10^*^ was used in the inumeration of bacteria found in MSFB post-
incubation.

Results

The results of this study are presented in Table 1. Salmonella typ-
himurium based on differences in the numbers inoculated and the
numbers detected in MSFB post-incubation multiplied extensively
in the presence of A. cloacae during the first day of incubation. A.
cloacae also underwent multiplication during this period. A high-
level count of viable typhimurium and cloacae persisted throughout
the 38 day study. The growth and persistence of typhimurium was
evident irrespective of the pathogennonpathogen inoculum ratios of
1:8,1:50,1:200,1:800,1:1.8 x 10, and 1:7.2 x 10 V cc medium.
No difference was reflected by the 10 serial dilutions used in the
growth and persistence of typhimurium in MSFB irrespective of the
pathogen-nonpathogen ratio employed.

185

Discussion

Aerobacter cloacae, as was true of Proteus morganii (4), demon-
strated no significant inhibitory action on the survival of S. typhimur-
ium as was evident by the persistence of a high-level count of at least
51.2 X 10" typhimurium / cc medium throughout a 38 day period.
The same applies with respect to the influence of typhimurium on the
survival of A. cloacae. These findings do not agree with the observa-
tion by Bowling and Wynne ( 1 ) that several strains of Aerobacter
produced complete inhibition of Salmonella paratyphi on staled agar.
The probable inability of S. paratyphi to feel on the dehydrated agar,
the presence of a bacteriophage or an x-factor would have been a
more feasible explanation for the inhibition observed by them rather
than the presence of Aerobacter.

Identical findings in the number of typhimurium and cloacae in
MSFB inoculated with these species in varied ratios (Table 1)
suggest minimum populations and that more viable cells were present
in each flask than detected by the highest serial dilution used. The
results of this study indicate that cloacae alone would not likely
prevent the survival of typhimurium in the insect's external environ-
ment. Jung and Shaffer (2) showed that typhimurium and Salmonella
montevido could survive in human feces for at least 14 days and that
the initial concentration of these organisms appeared to have no in-
fluence on the duration of their survival. Aerobacter sp. are normally
associated with plants and may well have been a part of the microflora
of the feces observed by Jung and Shaffer.

An approximate difference of 52.2 x 10'^ in the number of S.
typhimurium inoculated and the number detected / cc MSFB which
contained inoculum pathogen ratios up to 1:7.2 x 10^, and following
a 24-hour incubation period indicates that extensive multiplication
of the pathogen occurred during this period. This was not unexpected
since typhimurium underwent a decided multiplication in the presence
of Proteus morganii (4). The survival and multiplication of typ-
himurium in this study, its inability to multiply or survive in poly-
contaminated P. regina and its ability to persist and multiply in mon-
ocontaminated blowflies (3) point to the importance of one or more
in vivo ecological factors in the regulation of a fly's microflora.

186

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190

Conclusions

1. Salmonella typhimurium persisted at a high level in MSFB for
38 days when this medium was inoculated with this species and A.
cloacae in ratios of 1:8 - 1:72 x 10^ / cc.

2. Salmonella typhimurium underwent a 36-plus fold multiplica-
tion during the first experimental day in MSFB inoculated with this
species and A. cloacae in ratios of 1:8 - 1:72 x 10-^ / cc. Neither of
the species appeared to have had a significant inhibitory effect on
the growth of the other. The persistence and/or multiplication of
S. typhimurium in mixed cultures with cloacae appear to be limited
primarily by the availability of nutrients for the total bacterial popula-
tion or by products formed during their metabolism.

Literature Cited

1. Bowling, R. E. and Wynne, E. S., 1951. Studies on the mechanism of
antagonism by Aerobacter strains. J. Infect. Diseases, 88-89: 277-281.

2. Jung, R. C. and Shaffer, M. F., 1952. Survival of ingested Salmonella in
the cockroach Periplaneta americana. Am. J. Trop. Med. and Hyg., 1 :
990-998.

3. Knuckles, J. L., 1959. Studies on the role of Phormia regina (Meigen)
as a vector of certain enteric bacteria. Doctoral dissertation, University of
Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut.

4. Knuckles, J. L. In vitro persistence of Salmonella typhimurium in dually
inoculated medium. I. With Proteus morganii. (In Press).

191

Experimental Transmission of Enteric

Pathogens from Fly to Fly by Aseptically

Reared Phormia Regina (Meigen)

By

Joseph L. Knuckles

Eighty-two adult, aseptically reared Phormia regina were forced
indirectly to feed on feces deposited by Salmonella schottmuelleri
and/ or Salmonella typhimurium fed mounted flies. Several test flies
were examined internally and control flies examined externally at
intervals during a 21 day period. Bacteriological and serological tests
indicated that: (a) all flies which had ingested feces deposited by
flies previously fed S. schottmuelleri or typhimurium were positive
for the test microorganism; (b) all flies which had fed on excreta
deposited by flies which had not been fed bacteria but which had
previously ingested feces from mounted flies fed both bacterial
species were positive for both test microbes; (c) male and female
black blowflies did not differ in their abilities to house S. schottmuel-
leri and typhimurium, and to pass them in feces; (d) all control fhes
were negative for the microbes employed. An apparatus for rearing
bacteriafree fly larvae and pupae, and one for studying the passage
of microorganisms from fly to fly via feces are reported.

^An abstract of a portion of dissertation studies in the Departments of
Bacteriology, Zoology and Entomology, University of Connecticut.

192

Mathematics in the Renaissance

By

W. M. Perel

The first observation about mathematics during this period is
likely to be that there was not very much done in mathematics. In-
deed, mathematics did not flourish during the Roman Empire and
probably fared v^^orse in the early Christian period which followed.
In books on the history of mathematics, very little attention is de-
voted to the period from 212 B.C. (the death of Archimedes) to the
seventeenth cenutry (the century which produced analytic geometry
and the calculus). In Men of Mathematics by E. T. Bell, the lives
and works of more than forty mathematicians are discussed, but no
name is mentioned between Archimedes and Descartes, a span of
about seventeen hundred years^.

While it is true that some advances, particularly in algebra, were
made by the Arabs and the Hindus during this period, the greatest
contribution of the Arab world was the preservation of the knowl-
edge and contributions of the Greeks. Thus, with the dawn of the
Renaissance, men of learning were able to discover anew the vast
mathematical contribtuions of the Greek culture.

Mathematics and mathematicians felt the strong disapproval of
early Christians. In 415 A.D., an enraged Christian mob's tearing
apart Hypathia- in the streets of Alexandria for teaching "paganism"
proves this fact. She was the greatest female mathematician of the
ancient world. Further, Saint Augustine's opinion that all mathe-
maticians had made a pact with the devil is well-known.

In the begirming of the Renaissance, it was natural for those inter-
ested in mathematics to turn to the Greeks and particularly to those
thirteen books which comprise Euclid's Elements. Unfortunately,
the early reliance on the methods, ideas, and results of the Greeks
had some disadvantages as well as advantages. This reliance tended
to stifle initiative and to lead to a kind of pedantry which still re-
mains in many universities of the world.

The Greeks had always emphasized geometry at the expense of
other branches of mathematics. Books are written to explain why
geometry was preferred by the Greeks, so that their number system
and algebra were wretched by comparison with those of the Baby-
lonians which preceded them historically. Here, it is important only
to mention that Renaissance mathematicians suffered for a time the
handicap of the Greek pro-geometry prejudice.

^Bell, E. T., Men of Mathematics, Simon and Schuster: New York, 1937.
^Eves, Howard, An Introduction to the History of Mathematics, p. 162.
''Kline, Morris, Mathematics in Western Culture, Oxford University Press,
1953, p. 3.

193

In their efforts in geometry, the Greeks had always reverenced the
circle. The Ptolemaic system of the Universe had to use circles. In
the preservation of this system, to include ever newer and better
observations, more and more circles had to be used. Roughly the
system involved planetary motions in circles about imaginary points
which were themselves going in circles about still other imaginary
points which at last were travehng about the earth in circular orbits^.

When at last Copernicus^ (1473-1543) decided to look afresh at
the Universe and put the sun, rather than the earth at the center of
things, he was so influenced by his study of Greek geometry that he
had to insist on the preservation of circular orbits. The Copernican
Theory had the purely abstract and academic advantage over the
older Ptolemaic Theory that it required a fewer number of circles
and was thus simpler. Such a result is near and dear to the heart of
any mathematician, ancient or modern.

But by the scientific standard of agreement with observation, the
Copernican Theory was much less satisfactory than the Ptolemaic
Theory had been. As a result, the Danish astronomer, Tycho Brahe
(1546-1601), who had made by far the most and the best observa-
tions of his day, totally rejected the Copernican Theory. It was only
after Kepler (1571-1630) finally rejected circular orbits in favor
of elliptical ones that a heliocentric theory of the Universe became
compatible with observations. Of course, the Greeks had also inven-
ted the ellipse centuries before.

Galileo (1564-1642) and others during this period ran into
trouble by insisting on experimentation, i.e. observation, as opposed
to abstract theorizing which was often unrelated to actual physical
results. Again the respect for the abstract thinking of the Greeks,
particularly Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), led men to refuse to beheve
what their eyes told them, if it contradicted an Aristotle opinion.
Aristotle had postulated that the speed of a falling object was pro-
portional to its weight. It was more than 1800 years before Galileo
demonstrated, by actually dropping weights, that the speed of the
fall was unrelated to the weight of the object.

The Greek influence also had an unfortunate effect upon the
study of equations. What we think of today as a real number was
unknown to the Greeks. Instead, the Greeks thought of a line seg-
ment. For example, let us consider the quadratic equation. In modern
notation such an equation takes the form:

X- + ax + b = 0.

The modem interpretation is that a and b are given numbers and
that the letter 'x' represents an "unknown number, which is to be
determined. Since Euclid beUeved only in line segments and not in
real numbers, his results had to be confined to what today we would

*See Dreyer, J. L. E., History of the Planetary System from Thales to Kepler,

Cambridge University Press: London, 1906.
^Ibid and also Armitage, Angus, Copernicus, W. W. Norton & Co.: New York,

1938.

194

call "positive real numbers." Therefore, Euclid had to distinguish
the following special cases, again written in modern notation:

x^ = ax + b; X- -)- ax = b; X- -f b == ax.

Of course, Euclid did not write them that way, but even if he had,
his interpretation would have been geometric. In other words, 'a' and
'b' represent given hne segments and a line segment called T must
also be given, 'x' then is regarded as an unknown line segment. Thus,
for example, the first equation above is to be regarded as an equality
of areas. The Greeks always regarded a product or a "square" as
an area and so did many early Renaissance mathematicians. The
first equation simply asks that a line segment be found, so that a
square having that line segment as a side will equal the sum of the
area of a rectangle having that line segment as one side and 'a' as
the other side with the area of a rectangle having T as one side and
'b' as the other side. Euclid gives constructions for the answer in
each of the three cases illustrated above, in Propositions 5, 6, and 7
in Book II of the Elements.^ Of course, EucUd could only allow posi-
tive real solutions, so his methods sometimes produced two, some-
times one, and sometimes no solution.

In the Renaissance, mathematicians began to use algebraic methods
acquired from the Arabs, who probably produced something like
the famous quadratic formula now taught in the ninth grade. The
mathematicians of the day also had knowledge of negative numbers,
which were considered interesting because they sometimes increased
the number of solutions of an equation, but negative numbers were
not accepted as being "real" numbers, because no one could conceive
of a line as having "negative length."

All mathematicians follow the ancient slogan, "Be Wise, General-
ize!" Therefore, having obtained both algebraic and geometric solu-
tions of the quadratic equation, it was natural to turn to the cubic
equation, that is the equation which we would today write:

x^ + ax^ + bx -}- c = 0.

Written in the many different forms possible, a cubic equation
could be regarded as an equation involving an equality of volumes.
Thus, such an equation was again a geometric problem. Whether
or not EucHd attacked cubic equations from a geometric point of
view is not known, but, if he did, he could not have given a con-
struction for a solution. We now know that the construction of a
cube root is impossible by Euclidean tools, i.e. by straight edge
and compass.

In any case, a host of mathematicians in the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries attacked various special cases of cubic equations by some
various ingenious algebraic manipulations. It is generally conceded
that TartagUa (ca. 1506-1557) obtained the first general method,
which reduced the problem to the solution of two simultaneous

''Euclid's Elements, Vol. I, Second Edition, Dover Press: New York, 1956.
pp. 383-385.

195

quadratic equations. In contrast with present policy, Tartaglia did
not rush to pubUsh his results, but rather sought to keep them secret.
He did, however, explain his method to Cardan (or Cardano, 1501-
1576) after receiving Cardan's promise to keep his method secret.
However, Cardan published the method almost immediately after
receiving it. Although Cardan gave Tartaglia credit for the discovery,
fate is such that the method is today known as '"Cardan's Method"
and may be found under that name in any book on the theory of
equations.

With our modem terminology and thinking, it would seem very
logical to take the next step to the quartic or fourth degree equation.
However, a fourth degree equation could not be solved nor even be
conceived as a problem because there was no geometric interpretation
available for a fourth power.

Not until the seventeenth century, when Descartes (1596-1650)
published his book on geometry, was a geometric interpretation given
to powers higher than the third. Descartes was able to consider all
products and powers as lengths. It is very interesting to point out
that the construction of a length equal to the product of two given
lengths (if a length equal to 1 is also given) can easily be constructed
by Eucliedean means, although Euclid seems not to have been
aware of this fact and made no use of it.

But Ferrari (1522-1565), a pupil of Cardan, solved the quartic
equation before Descartes was born. What happened was that a
mathematician named Da Coi in 1540 proposed a problem to Cardan
which led to a quartic equation. Problems and puzzles about numbers
were more and more frequently being proposed, many being of the
same type to be found occasionally in the newspapers of our day.
It was finally discovered that once a certain algebraic skill had been
mastered, most of these "puzzles" could be reduced to solving an
equation.

These puzzles, many of them very similar to the "word problems"
or "story problems" of high school algebra, played a very important
part in giving non-geometric interpretations to equations. Of course,
the geometric interpretation was still available as a crutch until the
quartic equation was encountered.

Not so much the solution of the fourth degree equations (which
has little practical value), but Ferrari's ability to conceive of an
equation which could have no geometric interpretation or application,
must be counted as one of the great achievements of the sixteenth
century. It led to a new freedom. Greek mathematics was still to be
studied and respected, even as it is today, but no longer would the
Greek preference for geometry be allowed to stifle the efforts of
mathematicians and scientists. Thus the end of the Renaissance meant
leaving behind not only the so-called "Dark Ages," but also leaving
behind forever the former reliance on the ancient world.

With the dawn of the seventeenth century, mathematical activity
moved from Italy into France, into England, and finally into Ger-
many, which became and probably remains pre-eminent.

196

As a final word on the mathematics of the Renaissance, it might
be well to mention some things which Renaissance mathematicians
did not accomplish. They never achieved a satisfactory notation, so
their algebra was always more cumbersome than necessary. For ex-
ample, exponents, as we know them today, were not known until the
middle of the seventeenth century. Although Renaissance mathema-
ticians were acquainted with the Hindu-Arabic numeral system and
used it for computations, they seemed to disapprove of the system
and reported answers in Roman Numerals. Although they discovered
complex numbers as solutions of cubic equations, they dubbed them
"imaginary" and had the biassed attiude toward them implied by the
name which they gave them. Certainly they made no use of complex
numbers and developed no theory of them.

But Renaissance mathematicians in first going back to Greek
culture and learning and then finally breaking from it followed the
pattern of advance which helped to lead the world into the age of
science and discovery.

197

Synthesis of Kaenipferol-2-C^

By
Kamalakar B. Raut

This paper describes a synthesis of chromatographically pure
kaempferol-2-C^^ on a semi-micro scale, using the readily available
potassium cyanide-C^^ as starting radioactive compound. The various
steps in the synthesis are adapted to suit requirements of the radio-
active compounds formed at the various stages. All the steps of the
labelled synthesis were first worked out in trial runs, using non-
labeled materials.

Experimental

4-Iodanisole. (I). A solution of 28 ml (0.2 mol) of redistilled
anisole in 75 ml. of 95% ethanol was heated to 60 and while stir-
ring, was treated with 50 g. of iodine and 30 g. of mercuric oxide.
The iodine in 5 gram portions, and the mercuric oxide in 3 gram
portions was added alternately over a period of one hour. After the
addition was completed, the solution was filtered, and the alcohol
was distilled from the filtrate. The residue, a dark red oil was dis-
solved in ethyl ether and washed with solutions of sodium thiosulfate
and sodium hydroxide, and finally with water. After drying over
anhydrous magnesium sulfate, the ether was evaported and the
residue distilled under reduced pressure.

Cuprous Cyanide-C^"^. This was obtained by heating cuprous iodide
and potassium cyanide (C^'*).

Anisonitrile (Nitrile-C^^). Cuprous cyanide-C^^(2.4 g. specific
activity 0.033 mc/mM) and / (7.02 grams, 0.03 mole) were heated
on an oil bath at 230 C with stirring for two hours. The cooled pro-
duct was purified by crystallization from ethanol.

Anisic acid (carbonyl-C^^) (III). II was dissolved in 120 ml. of a
15% potassium hydroxide solution and 40 ml. of methanol. After
boiling under reflux for a total of 30 hours the methanol was distilled
and the resulting aqueous solution was extracted twice with 15 ml.
portions of ethyl ether to remove I and //. To the aqueous solution,
concentrated hydrochloric acid was added at 70 C. The resulting
precipitate was crystallized from ethanol m. p. 184-5 C.

Anisoyl Chloride (Carbonyl-C^^) (IV). Thionyl chloride (25
grams) and III (3.04 grams) were refluxed on a water bath for 2
hours. After removing thionyl chloride by vacuum distillation, a
low melting sohd (IV) was obtained.

Anisaldehyde (Carbonyl^-C^^) (V). The anisoyl chloride was re-
duced to the corresponding aldehyde by Rosenmund reaction. Anisal-
dehyde obtained was a pale yellow oil.

198

The above compound was condensed with 2-hydroxy, 4, 6-dime-
thoxy acetophenone and the chalcone obtained was converted to
Kaempferol-2C^ ^ by the usual procedure. The final product obtained
was about 0.29 grams. The overall conversion of labeled potassium
cyanide into Kaempferol was 3.4%. Products at all stages were
purified chromatographically using Magnesol.

199

A Refutation to the Objections of Business

and Vocational Subjects in the

Secondary School Curriculum

By

Mildred W. Glover

Business educators have been under pressure to validate the need
for business education in our schools for some time. The launching
of Sputnik I in 1957 has given impetus to the critics and all evidence
points to the fact that today, more than ever before, the business
teacher must be prepared to defend his point of view. At the present
time the majority of secondary schools accept shorthand and vo-
cational subjects as part of their curriculum. The question is to v^hat
degree they will continue to be part of the curriculum. This will
depend largely upon the business educators' awareness of the ob-
jections raised against vocational subjects and their ability to re-
fute them.

S. J. Wanous, in an article, "Let's Break the 'Egghead' Strangle-
hold on Business Education," outlines many of the criticisms of
business education and reminds the reader of the basic issues. He
indicates that one of the more commonly raised criticisms against
vocational courses is that they "rob students of the chance to take
academic courses.."^ Business courses are labeled as easy and are
criticized for training students for specific jobs rather than providing
a wealth of experiences that result in a general education. Wanous
also mentioned Vice-Admiral Rickover's charge that "European edu-
cation is superior to ours." Rickover implies that our inferiority re-
sults primarily because American secondary schools provide voca-
tional education while European schools do not.-

The charges that Wanous mentions are few when viewed in terms
of the total number of criticisms which have been directed towards
the business curriculum. The question is also issued why continue
to teach shorthand when dictating machines are taking the place of
stenographers? Business students are labeled as incompetent in their
subject matter fields. Business education teachers are criticized be-
cause they often lack business experience. The business education
programs has even been questioned as to whether or not it lives
up to the seven cardinal principles.^

There are many reasons why business education is being criticized.
One reason is, undoubtedly, fear. Louis A. Leslie commented re-

^S. J. Wanous, "Let's Break the 'Egghead' Stranglehold on Business Educa-
tion," The Balance Sheet, November, 1960. p. 286.

^Arthelia V. Alexander, "Business Education and the Seven Cardinal Princi-
ples," The Balance Sheet, January, 1961, p. 335.

200

cently that "People in the academic studies are afraid of business
education's current popularity and therefore make charges against
it.'' In any event, regardless of what the motives may be, the critics
are not only doing a fine job of forcing business educators to defend
their position but they are rapidly spreading the news that the best
preparation for college entrance or for a career is an academic educa-
tion. Articles in newspapers and the more popular periodicals have
given many parents the impression that if their children speciahze
in business courses they will not gain admission into college. As a
result, many students taking college entrance courses are doing so as
an insurance policy in the event they wish to attend a college.

Lloyd V. Douglas has remarked:

Pressures of today's college entrance exams are causing
parents to insist that their sons and daughters load up with
the academic subjects in hopes they may thereby be enabled
to gain admission to college at a later date.'*

It is important to note that many guidance directors and adminis-
trators in the high schools are unaware of the importance of voca-
tional education and consequently channel students into the academic
courses. Douglas further reports:

Many business teachers have reported that their classes
were officially closed after one section was filled. Why?
In order to force students to fill up newly added science,
math, and foreign language classes.^

Not to be overlooked is the increase in the selectivity of the ad-
missions policies and procedures of the colleges as a result of the
increase in population. Many colleges are leaning in favor of such
academic requirements an English 4 units, social studies 4 units,
science 3 units, mathematics 3 units, foreign language 3 units.
Tonne points out that:

With the increase in enrollment in colleges in the 1960's
it is hkely that most, if not almost all, colleges will increase
the number of academic units required for entrance to such
an extent that at best 3 or 4 units, and in many cases not
more than 1 or 2 units of business subjects and other
courses labeled as nonacademic can be offered.^

It is evident that the criticisms, claims, opinions and objections of
the critics as well as the upgrading of college admission requirements
can not be ignored. Business educators must recognize the objections
to business and vocational education and analyze them in an attempt
to sell their program if they are to maintain their place in the cur-
riculum.

It is with the spirit of supporting the program of business educa-
tion that this report is compiled which attempts to analyze and to

^ Lloyd V. Douglas, "Today's Educational Tragedy," The Balance Sheet, May,

1962, p. 463.
Hbid.
^Herbert A. Tonne, Principles of Business Education, 3rd Edition, p. 43.

201

answer the objections to business and vocational education subjects
in the curriculum of the secondary school.

Objections and Refutations

European Education is Superior to Ours. This Difference can be Laid

to the Fact that We Provide Opportunities in Vocational Education

for Our Youth, European Schools Do Not.

Wanous visited schools in seven European countries and found
that meager programs were offered. Textbooks were out of date and
poorly written. Arthur W. Foshay of Teachers College, Columbia
University reported that he found that French schools have de-
generated into institutions of memory and that facts are not related
to French national life.'^

According to Douglas, approximately one-fifth of all men graduat-
ing from college have a major emphasis in some phase of business.
Should colleges be forced to lower their standards in business courses
since more students come with less background in their major field
of business? If the high schools do not provide apportunities in vo-
cational education, they will deprive college bound students of needed
background in American business and doom large numbers of stu-
dents to certain educational death in a narrowtrack academic bias
gorge a gorge based on an out-moded concept of mental discipline
and a disproven assumption that there is only one kind of intelligence.

Since Krushchev and his minons fired their first Sputnik into the
wide open spaces, American educators and the general public have
been agog to find out what is wrong with the American educational
system. With the increased emphasis on science, mathematics and
engineering, more and more high school students have been guided
into those fields, and the high school business educators are complain-
ing of poor quality of students who are left to take business courses.

Scientists, mathematicians, and engineers could not function if
they did not have skilled technicians to assist them including the
stenographer, the secretary, and the typist. It is certain, too, that
the scientist must have his work recorded and duplicated, therefore,
without an efficient person to perform these duties for him, he could
not complete his work quickly and efficiently.

Forkner points out that the attack in deficiency is made on the
United States secondary schools, but no one took the trouble to
point out that graduate education in the European countries is very
different from graduate education in the United States. Nor did
anyone take the trouble to point out that whenever the European
countries get into difficulties, whether it be economic, need of war
materials, need of manpower, they usually call on men who have
been educated in American schools.^

'Wanous, op. cit., p. 298.

^Hamden L. Forkner, "Sanity and Balance in Business Education," The
Balance Sheet, December, 1959, p. 171.

202

Forkner further states that anyone who has made a study of busi-
ness operations and procedures in Western Europe or in Latin
America knows that the rate of production in these offices and in-
dustrial plants is far below that of the United States. The European
or Latin American young person does not have an opportunity to
explore his interests or abilities in the field of business because he
is forced to follow the curriculum our critics would have us adopt. ^

Every thinking person knows that the discoveries of the scientist
and the mathematician are of little use unless such discoveries are
backed up by able business and industry, and know-how.

If the struggle in the world today were only a military one, busi-
ness educators might have more sympathy for the kind of program
of education that would be devoted entirely to scientific and mathe-
matical skills. It is concerned also with economic factors.

Best Preparation for a Career is Liberal Education

The Basic Intellectual Discipline.

Wanous refers to C. Easton Rothwell, President of Mills College,
who states that liberal education, as opposed to technical and busi-
ness degrees, lays the basis for sound judgments about the affairs
of industry and that business prefers the liberal arts graduate. Wanous
emphasizes that a businessman will not employ as a secretary some-
one who has had a course in Ancient Aramaic in preference to some-
one who has had a course in typewriting or shorthand. A liberal
arts course does not prepare a student for a career in business. ^

Refuting the statement that the best preparation for a career is a
liberal education, reference may be made to Alexander's article to
show that the Seven Cardinal Principles of Education are involved
in the business education program. The Seven Cardinal Principles
are: 1) health; 2) command of fundamental processes; 3) worthy
home membership; 4) vocation; 5) civic education; 6) worthy use
of leisure; and 7) ethical character.

Physical and mental health are both necessary in business educa-
tion because a person cannot maintain his emphases upon depend-
ability, punctuality, and alertness if he is ill. A major contribution
of business education to the physical health of its devotees is its
emphasis upon good posture, good grooming and personal ap-
pearance. Since these characteristics give one a feeling of security
and of personal worth, they also contribute to mental health.

The second greatest service rendered by business education is in
the home. By creating an appreciation of the bases of our economy
in the minds of citizens, it is possible for them to enjoy a better
standard of living through budgeting, bargain spending, and profit-
able investments.

^Ibid., p. 173.
^Wanous, op. cit., p. 300.

203

Reading, speaking and writing, and arithmetic have long been
recognized as the basic tools of learning. Reading, for example, may
be defined as the consumption and correct interpretation of the
material at hand. Business educators say that the individual must be
able to read, and think intelligently, to follow directions, and to
express ideas accurately in written or oral English. Through writing
and speaking, we communicate to sell our products and maintain
goodwill. Business education emphasizes diction, spelling, and power
of expression in such courses as business English and expository
writing.

Because figures are an integral part of our economy, business
education has contributed by offering basic courses in mathematics,
accounting, and statistics.

Business education helps a student find himself. It enables a
worker to recognize opportunities, thus aiding his advancement. If
one can recognize his abilities and establish goal on the basis of these
abilities, he is likely to succeed. Because business education offers
a wide variety of careers, it can reach and serve more students de-
spite varied backgrounds.

Through such courses as business law, economics, and business
organizations, business education contributes to civic education.
Business education attempts to help the citizen understand the social
and economic structure of his society.

A method of utilizing leisure time presents itself in the opportunity
to attend business meetings and conferences. Leisure time may be
spent in self-improvement which may consist of formal study, in-
specting new equipment or visiting institutions for observation.

Business education advocates development of the whole individual.
Within the business organization ethical character promotes pleasant
and productive work relations among the employees. Thoughtfulness
and consideration for the interests and likes of others are very funda-
mental in business as well as in social Ufe.^^

After reviewing these Seven Cardinal Principles, no thinking critic
could challenge or deny the fact that vocational or business education
is a thorough preparation for a career.

Business and Vocational Courses are too Easy;

They Lack Challenge.

Do business courses lack intellectual challenge? Are they easy?
Do students take them primarily to avoid the tougher basic intellectual
disciplines? Wanous feels that the liberal arts courses are the softest.
He states that in many liberal arts courses, learning standards are low.
Students listen to dull lectures on topics that have little or no pert-
inence. They memorize specific information which they are eager to
forget upon completion of the course. Vocational subjects require

^ ^Alexander, op. cit., p. 336.

204

day-to-day learning and mastery. Students must learn, retain, and
use.^2

It is often said that business courses attract inferior students. The
deciding factor many times is an economic one. The student, regard-
less of his intellectual ability, enrolls in the business course for
"bread-and-butter reasons." Where only an academic and a com-
mercial program are offered, the former usually attracts the superior
students. In some cases, students faced with academic and com-
merical programs choose the commerical program, not so much for
its job training value as for its close relationship to contemporary
life. But, where academic, business, industrial arts, and general cur-
ricula are offered, the business students are, as a rule, superior to the
general students. A specialized program usually has specific require-
ments; hence, its attractiveness to the better students. The poorer
students choose the general courses which thus become a catchall. ^^

Office Automation May Eventually Take the Place of Stenographers

and Other Office Workers.

Widdoes states that automation will not replace office workers.
From studies on organizations using automation, machines do not
put people out of work, on the contrary, they put more people to
work by creating more jobs.

For example, 60 years ago, few offices were equipped with the
typewriter, a new invention at that time. Today, the smallest office
has at least one typewriter, usually electric. Other machines such
as the adding machine, desk calculator, and accounting machine
were not invented 60 years ago. Now, this equipment is considered
basic in offices. Invention of these machines made jobs for more
office workers.^^

Office workers today comprise about one out of every seven
workers of the total labor force of this nation. This is a marked
change from 1940 when the proprotion was one out of every ten
workers. Although this rate of increase is slowing down, clerical
employment is still increasing faster than the work force as a whole.

In a study of 545 stenographers in 397 offices in Decatur, Illinois,
Robinson found that 80.9 per cent of them took dictation in short-
hand and that dictating machines were used in 6.9 per cent of the
offices. The larger organizations using the dictating machines em-
ployed 18.5 per cent of the stenographers included in the study. ^^

Automation has been slowly appearing in business offices ever
since 1931, but it was not realized until the production boom of
World War II. Shortage of clerical workers, the need for increased

^-Wanous, op. cit., p. 301.

^^Tonne, op. cit., p. 280.

^''H. V. Widdoes, "The Significance of Automation," Business Education

World, September, 1965, Vol. 36, No. 1.
^^Tonne, op. cit., p. 196.

205

office efficiency, and the demand for up-to-the minute financial in-
formation caused businessmen to explore the possibilities offered
by automation. 1*^

The amount of labor displacement in office work is lessened by
the high rate of turnover among clerical workers, many of whom
drop out of their jobs after a short spell of employment to get mar-
ried or to concentrate on their domestic obhgations.

Vocational Courses Rob Students of the Chance

to Take Academic Courses.

Business subjects are not required in secondary schools; students
take them because they want to learn something useful. Even those
who major in business do not take more than 25 to 30 per cent
of their course work in this field. The rest is taken in basic intellectual
disciplines. All students must take four years of English and at least
one course in United States history. Most students take two years
of mathematics.

Business education need not, and must not interfere with basic
education, nor does it need to act as a deterrent to those desiring
advanced education. With a slight modification of present offerings,
it is possible for enrollees in business education to secure academic
requirements without greatly hampering the development of oc-
cupational proficiencies in either stenographic, bookkeeping, or
clerical areas. ^^

The false emphasis placed on continued formal schoohng have
two unfortunate consequences. It exerts pressure on the student to
continue his schoohng whether or not he has any taste or aptitude for
it. It is harmful to him; it is always costly to society; and it leads
to make-believe education.

The right of America's academically talented youth to choose
vocational interests is inherent in a democracy. There is a tendency
for the over zealous to use grave indiscretion in directing students
regardless of interest, financial status or vocational goals. A bright girl
may not want to go to college, but rather into a business office. Should
she be denied this privilege? An able young man may not have the
money to go to college. Should he be denied the chance to prepare
for a business career? Just as the professions need bright and am-
bitious people, so does the business office. ^^

Vocational Education Trains Students for Specific Jobs.

It Does Not Educate Them to Use Their Minds.

Competencies developed in business courses are basic to dozens of
occupations and career goals. These courses do not prepare students

i'7Z7/W., p. 199.
^^Wanous, op. cit., p. 302.

206

for Job A in Company B and that if they do not get Job A in
Company B, the schooling they received would be lost. Business
eductors cannot afford to send students into business employment
with the meager backgrounds in their subject fields that they often
get in liberal arts subjects. Along with skills and understandings,
students of business must develop strong work habits. Students must
be able to comprehend the nature of a wide variety and complexity
of business problems. They must also be educated to apply skills and
understandings to the solutions of these problems. ^^

Conclusion

Students today are practical about their future. The desire for
family life and adjustment to it is even more predominant than it
was years ago. A liberal education is only liberal if it includes pro-
vision for earning a living. At the present time and for the last two
decades, it has been rather easy for graduates to get some kind of
job without preparation of any kind. However, those who have supple-
mented liberal education with job training usually have secured better
jobs, and as a consequence, have been able to make better use of
their liberal education.

Competent job skill learning is the other side of the coin of liberal
arts education. Both sides are needed to make the currency of educa-
tion useful.-*'

To the business educator, there is more to business education than
the teaching of shorthand, typewriting, and bookkeeping. This field
of study is concerned first with the over-all improvement of men
and women and then with preparing them for jobs in the business
world. The following statement places even more emphasis on this
responsibility.

The challenge facing every teacher of business is to impart
specialized knowledge, and to train students in particular
skills. This should be done while developing mature in-
telligence, directing judgment, exercising the memory, and
training the student in the arts of observation, reflection,
and reasoning. As business teachers, we undertake a re-
sponsibility to teach many students how to make a living,
but we must teach all students how to live. -^

^''Herbert A. Tonne, "How Liberal is "Liberal" If You Can't Earn a Living,"

The Balance Sheet, December, 1960. p. 173.
-^Leo V. Ryan, "Business Teachers Must Be Dedicated," The Balance Sheet,

May, 1961. pp. 383, 388.

207

Teacher Personality and
Teacher Behavior

By

Shia-Ling Liu

In recent years, numerous studies have been made to ascertain
the impact of teacher personahty upon learning^ and some tentative
conclusions could be made to support the proposition that besides
the transmission of knowledge and information, the teachers, es-
pecially the social studies teachers, hold positions which presume
to be directly related to the youth's citizenship. If it can be accepted
that the teacher himself has primary influence upon the actual nature
of the learnings of pupils in social studies, then it becomes impor-
tant to understand what specific effect the social studies teachers
have with respect to critical dimensions of personality would have
upon his teaching.

In general, teachers differ in the possession of personal qualities
such as emotional behavior, mental abihty, academic and profes-
sional competence. Presumably, each of these would provide a
different setting for the teacher's influence upon the social learning
of his pupils. In recent studies, one of the focal points of speculation
has been concerned with the different effects of "authoritarian," as
contrasted with "democratic," teacher personality upon the learning
of democratic citizenship by secondary school teachers. While dis-
agreement existed as to the extent of impact of the teacher's per-
sonality upon his pupils, since the day of Confucius and Socrates,
no one doubted the importance of the teacher himself. Indeed, as
asserted by Hilgard, "Reports of great teachers commonly stress
their personalities rather than scholarship or teaching skills."- One
of the recent publications put the focus on the personality of the
teacher in this way.

Individuals achieve as educators because of the persons they
are quite as much as because of the technical knowledge and
skills they possess. What the professional teacher is and does
as a person is a dynamic factor in every educational function
that he carries out. His effect upon others is contingent upon
his behavior as a person. This applies not only to the direct
teaching function but to the esteem in which the teaching pro-
fession is held and the educator's role as a citizen contributing
to the education and improvement of society. Being an educated
person, then, for the professional educator means:

^Shia-Ling Liu, "Impact of Teacher Personality Upon Learning", Quarterly

Review of Higher Education, January, 1967, pp. 38-44.
-Earnest R. Hilgard, 'The Human Dimension in Teaching," College and

Universitv Bulletin, Association for Higher Education. March 15, 1965. pp.

1-3, 5-6.

208

Focus on a personality and what the professional
educator is and does as a person his attitudes,
ethical standards and value commitments, hfe-shaping
attitudes, mental health, and self-understanding. ^

In emphasizing the importance of the teacher, Hook said:

The function of the teacher is among the most important in
our culture. He not only transmits essential knowledge and skiUs
but when he takes his calling seriously, strongly influences the
formation of habits and the development of a philosophy of life.*

Bernard went further to say:

"As the teacher, so is the school." The oft repeated statement
is coming to have increasing significance, as study after study
confirms and reconfirms it. Despite the beautiful school build-
ings, up-to-date textbooks, liberal laboratory facilities, abundant
instructional aids, and huge libraries, Mark Hopkin's definition
of a school is still noteworthy: a school is a log with a teacher
at one end and a pupil on the other. The best facilities count
for little if the teachers are inadequate in personahty or prep-
aration but particularly are inadequate in personality factors.-'

Based on the hypothesis that "manner of teaching is an expression
of the teacher's basic personality reactions and that these reactions
constitute the core of teaching behavior in the classroom situation,"
Symonds made an exploratory intensive study based on obser\^ations,
interviews and tests of nineteen teachers to determine the relations
between the manner of teaching and personahty and came to the
conclusions :

. . . Teaching is essentially an expression of personahty. The
teacher adapts himself to teaching in a manner that is harmon-
ious with his expressions toward life situations in general.
Methods and procedures learned during college preparations
may influence teaching superficially but they do not determine
the nature of the relation of a teacher to his pupils or the teach-
er's basic attitude toward teaching.^

Bricker expressed very much the same idea, when he said:

Whatever the personahty of the teacher he can not teach with-
out expressing it. What he expresses will emphasize some
traits in his pupils and reduce others. Identification between
teacher and pupils and between pupils will vary in their form

^Margaret Lindsey (Editor), New Horizons for the Teaching Profession,
National Education Association of the U. S. Washington, D. C. 1961, p. 27.

^Sidney Hook, Education for Modern Man, A New Perspective, New York,
Alfred A. Knoff, 1963.

^H. W. Bernard, Mental Hygiene for Classroom Teachers, New York, Mc-
Graw-Hill, 1952, p. 127.

''M. Percival Symonds, "Teaching As a Function of the Teacher's Personal-
ity," "Journal of Teacher Education, V. (March, 1954), pp. 28.

209

and degree largely in terms of what preferences the teacher,
perhaps unconsciously indicates.'^

A critical and comparative study made by Klaissen and Martin of
factors related to teacher success in 1937-43 also confirmed the
emphasis on teacher personality:

A comparative study of the factors related to teacher now
(1940-43) and three years ago (1937-39) show more emphasis
on traits, and there is also a noticeable shift to personality as
the most significant factor in determining teacher success.^

In a study to determine the relationship between personality char-
acteristics and teacher attitudes, LaBue said:

. . . All institutions educating teachers must continue to give
attention to the assessment of the personality of prospective
teachers. Those with maladjusted personalities irrespective of
the amount of professional information they possess have no
place in the classroom.^

After an examination of significant factors in teachers' classroom
attitudes, Cook suggested:

A teacher who has an excellent knowledge of the principles
related to educational psychology, child development and child
behavior may obtain a high score on the MTAI, but the pos-
session of undesirable personality characteristics may preclude
his working effectively with students in the classroom situation. ^"^
As one of the pioneers in the study of teacher-pupil relationships,
Baxter dramatized the importance of the teacher's personality when
she said:

Every classroom has an atmosphere created by the interaction
of personalities which is either conducive or detrimental to the
best all-around development of children. Since behavior is
learned, the manner in which the child learns to conduct him-
self in the classroom contributes directly to his total behavior
as a person. In school pupils acquire not only habits of work
and study but also ways of reacting to others. They form at-
titudes about themselves and about others which are basic to
subsequent living.^ ^

Other writings and studies might be cited to stress the same point.
Hillway, for instance, listed personality as the first among seven
characteristics which "many educators believe make for success"

^Quoted in Joseph A. Del Popolo, Authoritarian Trends In Personality As
Related To Attitudinal and Behavioral Traits of Student Teachers, un-
published doctoral dissertation, School of Education, Pennsylvania State
University, 1959, p. 42.
^R. H. Klaissen, and R. L. Martin, "Pretraining Selection of Teachers Dur-
ing 1940-43," Journal of Educational Research, XXXIX (May, 1945), pp.
618-677.
^A. C. LaBue, "Teachers' Classroom Attitudes," Journal of Educational Re-
search, X (December, 1959), 433-434.
^"Walter W. Cook, "Significant Factors in Teachers' Classroom Attitudes,"

Journal of Teacher Education, VII (September, 1956), 274-279.
^^Bernice Baxter, Teacher-Pupil Relationship, New York, McMillan, 1948,
p. 75.

210

for teachers in the junior colleges,^- Michener listed "good teaching
personahty" as one of the five elements for "unusual success in
teaching."^^ As summarized by Knapp, the studies by R. J. Clinton,
Bousfield, Trabue considered "personality" as one of the important
characteristics of "superior teachers"; the studies by Kell, Knapp
and Goodrich, Guthrie, Bogardus, Maslow and Zimmerman also
stressed "personal factors" as "attributes of teachers of known or
acknowledged distinction."^^ Amatora stated clearly and simply:
"What the teacher is and what he does carries for more weight in
the child's mind than what he says."^^ Bernard also remarked that
"one teaches what he is perhaps even more than he teaches what
he says."^**

This limited number of studies may suffice to support the con-
tention that there is much agreement on the importance of the
teacher's personality. But there is less agreement as to what is a
"good teaching personality" or whether one type of personality is
better that any other. Peck, for instance, in a part of a long study,
found that "there is no one pattern of the 'good teacher'." In his
study involving sixty-nine (69) women elementary education majors,
althought he found that some girls "should not enter teaching",
because "they are too confused and hostile to do other than disturb
children and actively interfere with their learning", he yet found
various behavioral patterns among good teachers:

. . . Some are warmly friendly, a few are firmly impersonal,
some are outgoing, some are calmly reserved, some put their
major emphasis on intellectual clarity and skill; some put it on
building friendly, encouraging personal relationships with col-
leagues and pupils (none choose one of these goals to the ex-
clusion of the other. )^'^

In general, however, some traits have been more frequently men-
tioned or stressed as more desirable than others. Bagley and Alex-
ander listed ten individual characteristics as the ingredients which
make up a "good teaching personahty":

1 . Reverence for truth

2. Intelligent optimism

3. Social altruism

4. Sympathy

^^Tyrus Hillway, The American Two-Year College, New York, Harper, 1958,

p. 189.
^^ James I. Quillian, and Lavone A. Hanna, Education for Social Competence,

Chicago: Scott-Foresman and Company, 1961, p. 6.
^''Nevitt Sanford, (Editor), The American College, A Psychological and

Social Interpretation of the Higher Learning, Stanford University Press,

1962.
^^Mary Amatora, "Similarity in Teacher and Pupil Personality," The Journal

of Psychology, XXXVII (January, 1954), pp. 45-50.
^^H. W. Bernard, op. cit., p. 129.
^''Robert F. Peck, "Personality Pattern of Prospective Teachers," Journal of

Experimental Education XXIX (December 1960), pp. 169-175.

211

5. Impartiality

6. Interpretive mind

7. Progressiveness

8. Curiosity

9. Culture

10. Imagination^ 8

Bining and Bining grouped personality elements of a good teacher
into three major divisions:

( 1 ) physical aspect - personal appearance, recognition of
amenities of life and so on. (2) passive virtues friendliness,
sympathy and understanding, sincerity, tact, fairness, self-con-
trol, optimism, patience. (3) executive abilities self-confi-
dence and self-reliance, initiative, adaptability and resourceful-
ness, organizing ability, directive ability, industry,^^

(1) cooperative, democratic attitude, (2) wide interest, (3)
patient, kindly, sympathetic, (4) consideration for the indi-
vidual, (5) pleasing personal appearance, (6) fairness, (7)
sense of humor, (8) adaptability and flexibility, (9) good dis-
cipline and constant behavior and (10) friendly.-*^

Keam listed eleven elements of "an integrating personality of a
teacher" :

(1) basic democratic values, (2) good health, (3) communi-
cative ability, (4) socially accepted ethical and moral code,
(5) desirable person to person relationship, (6) participating
group membership, (7) good intergroup relations, (8) intel-
lectual power, (9) aesthetic expression and appreciation, (10)
problem solving techniques, and (11) social sensibility.^^

Barr and others in a tabular summary based on a comprehensive
compilation listed personahty qualities which are essential to teaching
success as resourcefulness, emotional stability, considerateness, bouy-
ancy, reliability. They also found that out of 36 personality traits in
nineteen (19) studies all but two traits were positively related to
teaching success.^" Almost all of these studies were concerned pri-
marily with the desirable traits for aU teachers in general. However,

^ ^William C. Bagley and Thomas Alexander, The Teacher of Social Studies,
New York, Scriver, 1937, p. 272.

^''Arthur C. Bining and David H. Bining, Teaching the Social Studies in
Secondary Schools, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1952, p. 192.
Zachery hsted "ten frequently mentioned teacher traits: as follows:

-Bill Zachery, The Frequently Mentioned Teacher Traits, unpublished mas-
ter's thesis. North Texas State College, Denton, Texas, 1958, p. 10.

-^ James Kearn, A Pattern of Teacher Education, unpublished doctoral dis-
sertation. North Texas State College, Denton, Texas, 1956.

^'A. S. Barry, "Teaching Competence," in Encyclopedia of Educational Re-
search, edited by Walter Monroe, New York: McMillan, 1950, pp. 1449-
1451.

212

in the field of social studies, some unique qualities of the teacher
have specifically been mentioned. Quillen and Hanna asserted that:

Probably no other teacher must be so well qualified in so
many areas as the social studies teacher. To be effective he must
have a broad background of knowledge in many fields and he
must be able to understand new situations and problems as they
arise. He must have depth as well as breadth of knowledge.
He must understand and be able to promote good human rela-
tions, and he must know how to stimulate critical thought in
young people. Finally, he must possess personal integrity in
the highest degree.

. . . Young people want teachers who are friendly, who like
and understand them, who have a sense of humor, and who are
happy and cheerful. They appreciate teachers who are well
groomed, poised, cultured, and mature in their emotional re-
sponses. Because young people learn good citizenship partly
from copying good models, the social studies teacher must be the
kind of citizen he hopes to develop.^^

Wesley and Wrongski suggested that "the social studies teacher
is or should be well informed, fair-minded, and communicative per-
son" and that "in a democracy the teacher must labor diligently to
see that objectivity, honesty, impartiality, and co-operative spirit
prevails.^"*

At this point, a critical question must be raised as to what type
of teacher personality possesses such desirable qualities. The answer,
as pointed out by Kvaraceus, is a "democratic personality" as op-
posed to an "authoritarian personality."-^ On the other hand, in a
classroom situation there is always a tendency toward being authori-
tarian. This tendency has been very well described by Stagner:

. . . This is true not only because the teacher presumably
knows more than the students and is in a better position to
decide what they need to know; it also follows because author-
itarianism maintains the pattern, provides some substitute balm
for the teacher's ego, and is less difficult than handling the class
democratically.^^

In consideration of such tendencies, personality structure would
seem to be of primary importance in the preparation of teachers,
especially the social studies teacher. With this in mind, Grambs
projected a social education blueprint for the future.

-^ James Quillen and Lavone Hanna, Education for Social Competence, Chi-
cago: Scott-Foresman and Company, 1961, pp. 26-27.

-^Edgar Wesley and Stanley Wrongski, Teaching Social Studies in High School,
Boston, Heath, 1958, p. 5.

^ ^William Kvaraceus, "Tomorrow's Youth and Tomorrow's Citizens," In
Citizenship and a Free Society, Education for the Future, The Thirtieth
Yearbook of the National Council for the Social Studies, Washington, D. C,
The Council, 1960.

^''Ross Stagner, Psychology of Personality, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1961,
p. 452.

213

. . . Only the liberated person can attempt to lead others to-
ward the free like. Careful assessment will be made of the future
social studies teacher to make sure that this person is a con-
tinuing learner, that he has a secure and guiding ethical system,
that he has enough of the rebel to question and enough of the
conservative to provide security and support. This future teach-
er will have been exposed to children and adolescents in enough
different situations ... so that he and his instructors will know
whether he can stand young people in continual daily associa-
tion. ^^

Aside from the impact of the teacher's personality upon the learn-
ing and attitudes of the student, some studies have found evidence
to show that the authoritarian teachers are less liked by their peers
and that they are less favored by college students. In an experi-
mental study, Frymier found that "authoritarians tend to be rejected
by their peers. Authoritarians apparently are perceived as being less
desirable . . . than non-authoritarians."-^ Maney conducted a study
to ascertain the "popularity" of the authoritarian and democratic
teachers by means of student evaluation, her major conclusion being
that:

. . . Regardless of their own beliefs, students in this popula-
tion tend to reject teachers whose personality make-up is such
that they are disposed to express or act on the basic of autocratic
ideas, as well as to uncritically support the ingroup authorities
and to relate in status rather than in personal terms. -^

Since the "democratic personality" of the teacher appears to be
important in his interpersonal relationships, the difference between
the "democratic" and authoritarian" or "autocratic" personality has
been subject to some extensive study. The Authoritarian Personality
has provided a very comprehensive description of the authoritarian
in terms of his ideology, ethnocentricism, political and economic
philosophy, and some other psychological manifestations.^*^ Rekeach
has provided some insight on some aspect of the authoritarian in
terms of open and closed belief-disbeUef systems. ^^ Webster, Sanford,
and Freedman have amplified some specifics in constructing the New
Instrument in Studying Authoritarianism in Personality. Scodel and
Mussen have described authoritarian personality as "rigid extra-
ceptive, repressed, conforming, stereotypical in thinking and intoler-
ant of ambiquity" and their study found specifically that "non-au-

-^Jean Grambs, "The Challenge to Social Studies," in Citizenship and a Free
Society, Thirtieth Yearbook of National Council for the Social Studies,
Washington, D. C, The Council, 1960, pp. 276-277.

-^Jack R. Frymier: "The Relationship of Authoritarianism to Rejection,"
Journal of Educational Research, LIII, September, 1959, pp. 33-34.

-^A. C. Maney, "Authoritarianism Dimension in Student Evaluation of Facul-
ty," Journal of Educational Sociology, XXXII (January, 1959), p. 231.

^"T. W. Adornot et. al. The Authoritarian Personality, Harper, 1950.

^^ Milton Rokeach, The Open and Closed Mind, New York, Basic Books, 1960.

32Sanford, Webster and M. Freedman, "A New Instrument for Studying Au-
thoritarianism in Personality," Journal of Psychology, XL (July, 1955)
pp. 73-84.

214

thoritarian individuals do, in fact, make more accurate judgment
about non-authoritarian than authoritarians do about non-authori-
tarians." In general, they found that authoritarians are more re-
stricted than non-authoritarians in their social perception.''^ Jones'
study seems to confirm that of Scodel and Mussen:

1. In the perception and judgment of others, authoritarians
seem to be more insensitive than non-authoritarians to the psy-
chological or personality characteristics of others. Authoritar-
ians may be more sensitive to such external variables as social
status or position.

2. Authoritarians show a greater tendency than non-authori-
tarians to differentiate the social environment in terms of power-
related concepts, in spite of their reduced sensitivity to variations
in personal power per se.

3. . . . Authoritarians tend to be more positively evaluative
of the leader than non-authoritarians, regardless of the leaders's
specific characteristics.

4. Authoritarians prefer autocratic leadership whereas non-
authoritarians prefer democratic leadership in a military set-
ting. . .34

From a "world view" (Wltuaschauung), Maslow described the
authoritarian character structure as an interaction of psychological
and sociological concepts. According to him, the basic philosophy
of the authoritarian person conceives the world as a sort of "jungle,"
in which man's hand is necessarily against other man's. Authori-
tarians tend to regard as important the existence of a hierarchy,
generalized in "superiority-inferiority" terms; tend to have strong
drive for power; tend to have relatively pronounced hostility, hatred,
prejudice "against some group or another"; tend to formulate judge-
ments by externals rather than by internals; tend to have a single
scale of values; tend to identify kindness with weakness; tend to use
people; tend to have a sadisticmasochistic inclination; and to have
guilty feelings and conflicts. ^^

In a doctoral study of decisional behavior of teachers, Stahly was
able to find some contrasting differences between the highly authori-
tarian teachers and less authoritarian ones:

1. Teachers who more frequently say they would punish the
pupil in a disciphnary situation tend to be more authoritarian
(as measured by the F scale), to have more negative attitudes
toward school-related objects (as measured by the MTAI), to

^^Alvin Scodel and Paul Mussen, "Social Perception of Authoritarians and

Non- Authoritarians," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, (April,

1953).
^''E. E. Jones, "Authoritarian Personality in Relation to Teacher's Attitude

Toward Child Behavior," Dissertation Abstracts, VIII, 1953, p. 1089.
^^A. H. Maslow, "The Authoritarian Character Structure", Journal of Social

Psychology, XVIII (August, 1943), pp. 401-411.

215

perceive other persons less frequently in negative terms (as
measured by Rep Test), and tend to be younger.

2. Teachers who more frequently say they would use verbal
appeal to pupils to conform ia a disciplinary situation tend to
be more authoritarian, to perceive others less frequently in
negative terms.

3. Teachers who more frequently say they would seek addi-
tional information in seeking a solution to disciplinary situations
tend to be less authoritarian, to have more positive attitudes to-
ward school-related objects, and to be older.

4. There is a rather marked positive relationship between
authoritarianism and negative attitudes toward school-related
objects.

5. The more highly authoritarian teachers tend to perceive
other persons less frequently in negative terms and more fre-
quently in superficial, impersonal terms. ^^

In an attempt to identify some observable teacher behavior, some
interesting studies have been undertaken, however, the behaviors
were classified in more than two dimensions. Ryans and Wandt
did a factor analysis of observed teacher behaviors in secondary
schools and got evidence of the existence of five independent quali-
ties:

1. Sociable and imderstanding in dealing with students.

2. Business-like, organized, responsible.

3. Encouraging to student participation, challenging, interest-
ing.

4. Enthusiastic, reactive, buoyant, and excitable.

5. Open-minded, original, tolerant, democratic. ^'^

In a similar study of college teachers, Gibb identified four factors
as follows:

1. Friendly, democratic behavior

2. Communicative behavior

3. Systematic, organized behavior

4. Academic emphasis behavior-^ ^

Similarly, the Teacher Characteristics Study identified three major
clusters of observable teacher behavior which were accorded primary

^^Leroy Stahlev, "A Theoretical and Empirical Study of Decisional Behavior
of Teachers," Dissertation Abstract, XXII, 1962, pp. 1090-1091.

2 'David Ryans and E. Wandt, "Factor Analysis of Observed Teacher Be-
haviors in Secondary Schools: A Study of Criterion Data," Educational
and Psychological Measurement, XII (Winter, 1952), pp. 574-586.

^^G. A. Gibb, "Classroom Behavior of the College Teacher," Educational
and Psychological Measurement, XV (Autumn, 1955), pp. 245-263.

216

attention throughout the research and served as criteria in the effort
of the Study to determine correlates of teacher behaviors in the class-
room. These three principal dimensions, or criteria, of teacher class-
room were:

TCS Pattern Xo: understanding, friendly vs. aloof, ego-
centric, restricted teacher behavior

TCS Pattern Yo: responsible, businesshke, systematic v.s.
evading, unplanned, slipshod teacher be-
havior

TCS Pattern Zo: stimulating, imaginative, surgent or en-
thusiastic vs. dull, routine teacher be-
havior^ ^

The specific teacher behaviors which were observed were divided
into eighteen (18) dunensions clustered around these three patterns.
These dimensions are: partial-fair, autocratic; aloof-responsive; re-
stricted-understanding; harsh kindly; dull-stimulating; stereotyped-
original; apthetic-alert; unimpressive-attractive; evading-responsible;
erratic-steady; excitable - poised; uncertain - confident; disorganized-
systematic; inflexible-adaptable; pessimistic-optimistic; immature-in-
tegrated, and narrow-broad.'*'^'

In a more simplified approach. Beck, Cook, and Kearney used the
adjectives, autocratic (authoritarian) and democratic, to distinguish
general tendencies of a teacher on the theory that a teacher who is
"generally democratic" will display attitudes and behavior patterns
clearly different from those of the authoritarian-autocratic teacher."*^
At the same time they insisted that few teachers would be described
as thorough-going autocratic or democratic teachers. 'Tt is a ques-
tion of which set of traits show up most frequently in our attitudes
and behavior."^- They described the behavior of the autocratic
and democratic teachers in some detail:

I. The autocratic (authoritarian) teacher

The autocratic (authoritarian) teacher attempts to dominate
whenever possible. When he succeeds, the probable result is a
classroom atmosphere marked by tenseness, fear, submission.
If he fails and, as a result, allows himself to grow nervous, fear-
ful, and distraught, students will be quick to recognize this
confusion and will become restless, inattentive, and disrespect-
ful. . . The teacher tends to think in terms of his status, his
judgment, and the subject matter to be covered, rather than in
terms of what the pupil feels, knows, and can do. and what is
essential to his development.

^^David Ryans, Characteristics of Teachers, Their Description, Comparison,
and Appraisals: A Research Study, Washington. D. C. American Council
on Education, 1960, p. 77.

'''Ibid, pp. 86-92.

*^R. Beck, W. Cook, and W. Kearney, Curriculum in the Modern Elementary
School, New York, Prentice-Hall, 1953.

*-Ibid, p. 81.

217

The extremely autocratic teacher is insecure in his social
relations. He has never developed attitudes and graces that in-
sure his success in normal social intercourse. . . He is not com-
fortable in an equalitarian atmosphere. . . He has developed
an aggressive attitude that takes the form of general hostility
toward people. . . He beheves that most children are disobe-
dient (they are, with him), but do not appreciate what is done
for them, cannot be trusted, and, in class are continuously
conspiring against him. . . It is difficult for him to find security
in his relations with other people, so he seeks refuge in asserting
his power and authority.

Security through virtue. . . The authoritarian teacher holds
rigidly to the obvious conventional standards and values. . .
He regards all misbehavior as a serious threat to his security
so he is compelled to seek out, condemn, and punish severely
anyone who violates a rule. There is little sense of humor in
this teacher, but there is a strong sense of duty combined with
a perverted sense of justice. . .

The authoritarian teacher is disposed to think in rigid, "all
or none", "black or white" categories . . . and that he is al-
ways and unquestionably in the right. . .

Security through position and power. Power and position are
needed by the authoritarian personality. . . Regarding authority
as he does, he is often submissive and uncritical toward au-
thority from above and domineering and overbearing toward
subordinates and pupils.

Security through knowledge of subject matter. The authori-
tarian teacher often seeks security through developing his knowl-
edge of subject matter. He is likely to assert that if one knows
his subject, little else matters in teaching, and he is proned to
believe that a teacher should never acknowledge his ignorance
of a topic in the presence of his pupils. . .

II. The democratic personality

The single most important factor in creating a democratic
social atmosphere in a classroom is the personality of the teach-
er. (This was true of the autocratic teacher and classroom as
well.) The democratic teacher has a deep affection for people
and confidence in them. He is sensitive to the feelings of others,
and his greatest satisfaction comes from working to further
their welfare. Being neither a reformer nor a perfectionist, he
accepts himself and his limitations and is willing to accept others
on the same basis. He is slow to condemn and quick to forgive
and accept criticism objectively without becoming emotionally
upset. Because he feels secure in his social relations, he is not
greatly concerned with his status as such. The virtues he deems
most important are those that contribute to harmonious and
satisfying social relations. He recognizes that any form of be-
havior carried to excess may be harmful. Being secure, he seeks

218

adventure and welcomes the imaginative, the creative, and the
innovation. The democratic teacher (unhke his opposite, the
authoritarian) is less inclined to be impressed by titles, de-
grees, or position. Also, he seeks ideas from the humble, tries
to establish what is true, and expects people to listen to him
not because of his position but because of what he says. He
remembers that subject matter is only a part, though a valuable
part, of the learning process and of educational development
of the child.-*3

A similar categorization of teacher behavior into a dichotomy was
attempted in a series of studies by Anderson and Brewer. Teacher
behavior was classified as dominative vs. integrative. Dominative
behavior was defined as:

The use of force, commands, threats, shame, blame, attacks
against the personal status of an individual. . . It is character-
ized by a rigidity or inflexibility of purpose, by an inabihty or
an unwillingness to admit the contribution of another's exper-
ience, desires, purposes of judgment in the determining of the
goals which concern others. Domination is thus behavior that
is based partly on a failure to admit the psychological inevita-
bility of individual differences. Domination may therefore be
regarded also as a frustration of the behavior of someone else.
As such it tends to obstruct the spontaneous behavior of an-
other, domination is the resistance against change; it is con-
sistent with bigotry and with autocracy. It is the technique of a
dictatorship. *'^

In integrating behavior, on the other hand, "one asks for responses
accompanied by explanation which makes the request meaningful
to the other so that the other can voluntarily co-operate." Such
behavior is to a certain extent a matter of seeking and

discovering common purposes. For such expenditure of energy
in common purposes, for an attempt to reduce instead of aug-
ment of incline conflict, the term socially integrative behavior
is used. A person changing his mind when confronted with new
evidence which has grown out of the experience of another is
said to be integrating differences. Integrating behavior is . . .
consistent with concepts of growth and learning. It makes
allowance in one's own behavior for differences in the others.
Whereas domination stifles or frustrates individual differences,
socially integrative behavior promotes the interplay of differ-
ences, advances the psychological processes of differentiation,
facilitates the emergence of originals. Integrative behavior is

^^Ibid, pp. 83-85.

^^Harold Anderson and Helen Brewer. "Studies of Teachers' Classroom Per-
sonalities, I. Dominative and Socially Integrative Behavior of Kindergarten
Teachers", Applied Psychology Monograph no. 6, Stanford University Press
(For American Association for Applied Psychology), Stanford University,
California, 1945, p. 153.

219

flexible, adaptive, objective, scientific, co-operative. It is an
expression of the operation of democratic personal processes."*^

It was also pointed out in many studies that the question of
dominative vs. integrative tendencies is not limited to teachers and
pupils. "They are current issues between school teachers and school
administrators, between university professors and university admin-
istrators, between employers and employees. They are present in all
social relationships.^'' The basic conclusion, however, is that the

Stanford University Press (For American Psychological Association),
authoritarian personality tends to manifest more socially integrative
behavior. In an attempt to investigate the relationship between an
individual's personality structure and his opinions and attitudes to-
ward pupil-teacher relationships and his observable behavioral traits
in a classroom setting, Del Popolo found some evidence which in
general tends to support this position:

The investigation lent support to the main hypothesis that a
significantly relationship exists between an individual's person-
ality structure and his opinions and attitudes toward pupil-
teacher relationships and his observable traits in a classroom
setting.

Authoritarian student teachers tend to get significantly lower
scores than equalitarian student teachers on an inventory of at-
titudes and opinions about pupil-teacher relationships. . .

Authoritarian students tend to display behavioral traits dur-
ing student teaching which imply an inability to estabhsh har-
monious pupil-teacher relationships. On the other hand, equalit-
arian students tend to display behavioral traits which are felt to
be conducive toward the establishment of harmonious pupil-
teacher relationships.^'^

The findings by Kingston and Newsome also lent strong support
to the same position. A comparison of the Webster, Sanford, and
Freedman's A Scale with two other scales which presumed to meas-
ure classroom administrative philosophy and pupil-teacher relation-
ship yielded significant correlations, all at the one percent level of
confidence. The data of this study indicated that highly authoritarian
teachers possess less democratic classroom administrative philosophy
and manifest less equalitarian attitudes and opinions toward pupil-
teacher relationships."*^

^ ^Harold Anderson and Joseph Brewer, Studies of Teachers' Classroom Per-
sonaHties, II: Effect of Teachers Dominative and Integrative Contacts on
Children's Classroom Behavior, Applied Psychology Monographs, no. 8,
Standford University Press (For American Psychological Association),
Stanford University, California, 1946, p. 128.

^ ^Douglas E. Scates, "Teaching as a Contribution to Personal Integration,"
Journal of Teacher Education, II (March, 1951), pp. 223-226.

^ ^Joseph A. Del Popolo, "Authoritarian Trends in Personality as Related to
Attitudinal and Behavioral Traits of Student Teachers," Journal of Educa-
tional Research, LIII (March, 1960), pp. 252-247.

^Albert Kingston and George L. Newsome, "The Relationship of Two
Measures of Authoritarianism to the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory,"
The Journal of Psychology, XLIX (April, 1960), pp. 333-338.

220

Commenting on the importance of the human relations factor in
teaching, Boodish asserted that it is "dependent on both the per-
sonahty of the teacher and the varied and collective personalities
of the pupils." Since "the internal forces within himself (the teacher)
. . . influence his philosophy of Mfe, his attitudes, and his basic feel-
ings toward people," the more the teacher is aware of the dynamics
of his own personality and those of the pupils, the better can he
regulate and manage his own actions. It seems to be that only the
opened-minded, democratic teacher would be able to conduct him-
self in such a manner."*^

In a study involving 60 social studies student teachers, this author
was able to conclude that with some expectations student teachers
with different personal characteristics did differ consistently in meas-
ure of their teaching behavior. The fact that the less rigid, dominat-
ing, dogmatic, and/or autocratic a student teacher was, the more
alert, responsible, confident, and/or self-initiating his pupils were;
and the fact that the more friendly, flexible, sympathetic, and/ or
understanding a student teacher's behavioral traits were, the more
positively his pupils reacted lent support to the general proposition
that "in cultivating more desirable social attitudes in the nation's
youth, it would appear, therefore, to be better to select those students
in social education who are found to possess less authoritarian and
more democratic characteristics on valid pre-service inventories."^*^

*^H. M. Boodish, "Human Relations Factor in Teaching," Social Studies,

XLVIII, (April, 1957), pp. 135-139.
^Shia-ling Liu, "Personal Characteristics in Secondary School Social Studies

Student Teachers as Related to Certain Measures of Potential Teaching

Behavior," Faculty Research Edition: Savannah State College Bulletin XX,

(December, 1966), pp. 159-164.

221

/^

Epithalamia

by
Luetta C. Milledge

She brought again the time of fire and singing,
Singeing the grey beards of Troy.
Rusty throats cackled of Aphrodite's jeu.
Helena and Hades merged in whirly stasis.
Homer sightless sees Eastern flames
Over Ilium gently rain.

Odysseus and opprobrium to Ithaca returned.
Pallas plunged to Pluto in icy fire.
Ashes now Athene. Telemachus from Siren's song.
But Charybdis chums and chaos reigns.

Othello shuddered at broken shadow.
Great general, gentle groom,

Not enough. Mired in mud he heeds the silky song.
Courage shakily moored crumbles.
And frailty straps the reins.

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