Faculty Research Edition of The Savannah State College Bulletin

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FACULTY

RESEARCH

EDITION

of

The Savannah State
College Bulletin

Volume 14, No. 2 December, 1960

Published by

SAVANNAH STATE COLLEGE

State College Branch
SAVANNAH, GEORGIA

EDITORIAL POLICIES WHICH GOVERN THE
SAVANNAH STATE COLLEGE RESEARCH BULLETIN

1. The bulletin should contain pure research, as well as
creative writing, e.g., essays, poetry, drama, fiction, etc.

2. Manuscripts that have already been published or ac-
cepted for publication in other journals will not be
included in the Bulletin.

3. While the documentation rules of the Chicago Manual
of Style is preferable, contributors are given freedom to
employ other accepted documentation rules.

4. Although the bulletin is primarily a medium for the
faculty of Savannah State College, scholarly papers
from other faculties are invited.

5. All contributors to this issue are members of the Savan-
nah State College faculty.

1

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FACULTY RESEARCH EDITION

of
THE SAVANNAH STATE COLLEGE BULLETIN

Published by

THE SAVANNAH STATE COLLEGE

Volume 14, No. 2 Savannah, Georgia December, I960

William K. Payne, President

EDITORIAL COMMITTEE

Blanton E. Black W. H. M. Bowens

Alflorence Cheatham J. Randolph Fisher

Joan L. Gordon Ganiyu A. Jawando

E. J. Josey Calvin L. Kiah

Paul L. Taylor
John L. Wilson, Chairman

Articles are presented on the authority of their writers, and
neither the Editorial Committee nor Savannah State College
assumes responsibility for the views expressed by contributors.

Contributors

Coleridge A. Braithwaite, Professor of Fine Arts

Blanton E. Black, Assistant Professor of Social Science

Madeline G. Harrison, Catalogue Librarian and
Assistant Professor

Elonnie J. Josey, Librarian and Associate Professor

Zelia E. Owens, Nursery School Director and
Instructor in Home Economics

Margaret C. Robinson, Instructor in Biology

W. H. M. Bowens, Assistant Professor of Business
Administration

Luetta B. Colvin Upshur, Assistant Professor of English
Velma V. Watters, Assistant Professor of Education

The Savannah State College Bulletin is published in October, De-
cember, February, March, April, and May by Savannah State College.
Entered as second-class matter, December 16, 1947, at the Post Office
at Savannah, Georgia under the Act of August 24, 1912.

SAVANNAH STATE COLLEGE LIBRARY

STATE COLLEGE BRANCH

Library of Congress Catalog Number: 60-53452

PREFACE

This bulletin is developed under the spon-
sorship of the Committee on Faculty Research.
The Committee seeks to encourage studies relat-
ing to the institution and the fields of special
interest of faculty and staff. It makes no at-
tempt to cover all studies or research that may
be made and published in other journals or pe-
riodicals. It is more interested in stimulating
and encouraging the development of studies
than in bringing together into one volume every
study made.

The present issue contains a number of
studies made by faculty members of Savannah
State College. It is encouraging to see new con-
tributors and the variety of interests repre-
sented. The use of research methods to solve
institutional problems as well as individual
problems is a desirable characteristic of college
faculties. The College is glad that the Board of
Regents has continued to make such studies pos-
sible. It is hoped that these studies will encour-
age and stimulate the present contributors and
other members of the staff to initiate and con-
tinue studies which provide for better educa-
tional opportunities here at the College and in
the field of higher education.

The men and women who conduct learn-
ing activities in the college determine to a large
extent the nature of the product. Much of what
students learn can be traced directly to factors
other than lectures, reading, recitations, discus-
sions, and examinations. The learning of stu-
dents includes the methods, the processes, and
the approaches which they observe teachers
using to solve problems and improve situations.
An active growing faculty helps students to de-
velop habits that lead to continuous growth.

W. K. Payne
President

39594

TABLE OF CONTENTS ^

Page

Status of Card Catalog Use at Savannah State

College Library 5

Madeline G. Harrison

Some Accounting Problems Involved in Matching

Costs and Revenues 10

William H. M. Bowens

The Life and Creative Activities of James Allen

Bland (1854-1911) 15

Coleridge Alexander Braithwaite

Two Poems : Song of Woman Eternal

Christ of All Compassion: A Litany 19

Luetta Colvin Upshur

A Teacher Education Point of View 21

Velma V. Watters

Ecological and Economical Aspects of Spanish Moss 28

Margaret C. Robinson

A Survey of Negro Preschool Centers in Savannah 33

Zelia E. Owens

The Savannah State College Library :

In Retrospect and Prospect 40

E. J. Josey

Sherman, Savannah, and the Negro 52

Blanton E. Black

Status of Card Catalog Use at Savannah
State College Library

by
Madeline G. Harrison

In a recent library study, an attempt was made to de-
termine how well the students of Savannah State College
are able to use the card catalog. A brief questionnaire was
given the seniors of the June 1960 graduating class. This
study was merely an exploratory one to ascertain if the
meager instruction a student receives during his freshman
year gives him sufficient information to adequately use the
card catalog.

The questionnaires were distributed to the students at
one of the senior rehearsals. Thirty one (31) forms were
returned and these replies serve as the basis for the findings
of this paper.

Questions covered the following items : age, sex, major
and minor fields, the function of the catalog, arrangement
of the cards in the catalog, the location and definition of
the call number, the three main types of catalog cards
(i.e., author, title, subject), the information found on a
catalog card, examples of cross references which were to
be explained and the value of a card catalog in a library
which has open stacks.

The ages of the students responding ranged from 19 to
34, with most of them falling in the 20 - 25 age bracket.
Two students failed to give their age. Thirteen (13) males
and eighteen (18) females responded. Nine (9) major
fields were listed with Elementary Education (9), Business
Administration (4) and Biology, Industrial Education, So-
cial Science and Mathematics (3 each) having the largest
number of majors. Nine (9) minors were listed with only
one or two persons each except Accounting and General
Science which had three each.

Most of the students indicated that the function of the
card catalog is to serve as an aid in locating books on the
shelves, a "library directory." Two answers indicated its
function is to give quicker service. One person replied that
it would enable one to know what books are in the library.
One questionnaire had no answer.

The most consistent replies were to the question. How
are the cards in the catalog arranged? Twenty-seven (27)
responses said alphabetically, one by author's name or by

title of book, one answered "Good." On two (2) returns
there were no answers.

The third question was What is the call number and
where does it appear on the catalog card? The answers
were varied: twelve (12) replies said upper left hand cor-
ner, five (5) said left hand corner, seven (7) replies indi-
cated upper right or right hand corner, one stated "upper,"
three indicated left side, one, the top of the card and on
two (2) returns there were no answers. In regard to the
definition of the call number, the replies again varied : the
number of the book, the identifying number, the number
under which specific books are placed, "where books are
found," "to classify books according to information and
location," "tells where book is located."

Question four was concerned with the three main types
of cards found in a card catalog. Only one person gave all
three types. In various combinations thirteen (13) replies
stated author card, twelve (12) title, five (5) subject, two
(2) cross references, two (2) course title and one (1) each
index, added entry, heading, book title, author's name,
classification of information. Sixteen (16) questionnaires
were blank on this item.

Relative to the items of information which may be se-
cured from any catalog card, the replies were indeed varied
and imaginative. The publishing company was indicated
seven (7) times, copyright date twelve (12) times, pages
twice, information contained in the book three (3) times,
book content five (5) times. Other items listed included:
"time and area of the article which the author wrote or
worked on," "a bit of information concerning the context,"
"a statement of the book," "general information," "succinct
description of the book," "account number," "subtitle or
outline." Eight (8) returns had no answer for this question.

The use of cross references seems to be very confusing
to the respondents. There was only one person who really
seemed to understand their use. This reply was "Informa-
tion on American history can be found under U. S. History.
More information on guidance can be found in the section
listed." There was a vague indication that the reader is to
look elsewhere for something, but just what or how is not
very clearly stated. Some of the replies ran in this manner
"Information can be found in each of references" ; "Books
may also be found under another heading;" "To read the
article or notes on the subject in another book or by another
author;" "Mere repetition of references;" "These books also
contain information that you need but are listed elsewhere
in the catalog;" "Use a reference book."

The last question (Do you think a card catalog is really
needed in a library which has open shelves as we have ?
Explain.) would probably require an opinion based on one's
general knowledge of libraries and how they operate. Twen-

ty eight replies thought the catalog was necessary with the
open shelves. Three (3) persons failed to answer the ques-
tion. The reasons given for the need of the catalog were:
as an aid in locating materials quickly (11) ; as an aid to
exact location of materials (5) ; all books on certain head-
ings are not on the same shelf; "many students are unable
to locate books on the shelves;" "for convenience;" "with-
out a card catalog one cannot find his book ;" "to assist in
finding additional information." Eight (8) of the yes replies
gave no explanation.

A breakdown of responses by majors is shown in the
following chart. All responses indicated that the function
of the catalog is to aid in locating books. The one Languages
and Literature major failed to answer this question. With
the exception of the one Elementary Education major who
gave no answer, and the one Industrial Education major who
answered "good," all responses stated that the catalog
cards are arranged alphabetically.

The first evidence of confusion begins with the replies
to the question asking the location of the call number on
the catalog card. Two Biology majors, two Chemistry ma-
jors and one each of the Business, Elementary Education,
Home Economics and Social Science majors indicated the
upper right corner. The only persons who failed to reply at
all were two Industrial Education majors.

For the types of cards, the anticipated answer, if com-
plete, would have stated "author, title and subject cards."
No answers were given by any of the Home Economics,
Languages and Literature, Mathematics and Social Science
majors. One Business major, three Elementary Education
majors and two Industrial Education majors gave no an-
swers. The one complete answer was given by a Biology
major.

The matter of additional information which can be
found on a card (place of publication, publisher, copyright
date, pages, etc.) seemed to have been vaguest to all re-
spondents. This is evident from some of the replies "con-
text of books" (Biology major), "account number" (Busi-
ness major), "succinct description of book (Chemistry ma-
jor), "time and area of article author worked on" (Elemen-
tary Education major), "brief sketch of book" (Home Eco-
nomics major), "subtitle or outline statement of the book"
(Industrial Education major), "code number" (Mathemat-
ics major), "type of book" (Social Science major).

Many of the replies to the entire questionnaire were
uncertain and generally not the information given in the
library instruction. It seems safe to assume that our instruc-
tion has been faulty. This failure to communicate the infor-
mation effectively to the freshman student, and to have

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him retain it for the four year period, may be due to these
possibilities :

1. The period of instruction is ill-timed. During Orien-
tation Week the new student is adjusting to an
entirely different situation and he is perhaps too
confused by his new surroundings to retain much
detailed information for which he sees no immediate
need.

2. The instruction given in the English classes also
seems to be inadequate for carry-over into the stu-
dent's more advanced courses. Perhaps if all in-
structors required the use of more varied library
materials, such constant need of the catalog would
aid the student in learning to use it more effec-
tively.

Some Accounting Problems Involved in
Matching Costs and Revenues

by
William H. M. Bowens

One of the chief goals of all accounting activity is the
determination of periodic income for a business enterprise.
With the sharp increase in price levels in the United States
since World War II, emphasis has shifted sharply from the
balance sheet to the income statement. Although this trend
toward income statement emphasis started in the 1930's, it
has increased sharply since World War 11. Thus, the focus
in Accounting is no longer centered on the accounting equa-
tion but on well defined concepts of cost and revenue and
the methods of matching costs against revenue periodically.
Out of the periodic matching process, the periodic income
statement emerges.

The chief objective of this report is to present and
discuss some of the problems involved in matching periodic
costs against periodic revenues. It is hoped that this report
will show that there is no all-purpose method of income de-
termination ; moreover, there is no need for one since Ac-
counting is a dynamic, ever-changing art which must serve
the needs of many diverse groups.

The basic items involved in the matching process are
cost, expense, revenue, and income. Cost is the actual outlay
or expenditure for materials, labor, overhead, finished prod-
ucts, and general selling and administrative costs, as related
to wholesale, mercantile, and service enterprises. Although
there are many types of cost, historical cost, generally, is
considered the starting point for the matching process. This
is referred to as the cost concept approach. Other costs
such as reproduction costs; cost or market, whichever is
lower; average costs; and numerous others, referred to as
valuation costs, are used in the matching process in many
accounting situations, but are considered more subjective
than historical cost. In fact, the special significance of his-
torical cost is that it preserves objectivity in the accounting
records.

Although used interchangeably in Accounting litera-
ture, cost and expense are identical in meaning. An expense
is an expired cost or a cost which has been applied against
revenue. It results in a decrease in proprietorship.

Revenue is the total income received in exchange for
goods and services. It is the total income from the total busi-

10

iiess operation before any expenses are deducted. True
revenue stems only from transactions with outsiders.

Conversely, income, sometimes mistakenly referred to
as revenue, is the excess of revenue over cost incurred in
earning that revenue. It is the net increase in firm capital
from operations. Income, then, is synonymous with net in-
come or net profit.

With the shift in emphasis from the balance sheet to
the income statement in the 1930's the matching process
assumed added significance.

The process of measuring periodic income encompasses
the division of the stress of costs incurred between the pres-
ent and some period in the future. In deducting periodic
costs from revenues, each deductible cost must be carefully
considered and deducted in compliance with certain gen-
erally accepted accounting principles, doctrines, and con-
ventions. This involves careful analysis of various account-
ing transactions in order to properly match periodic costs
against periodic revenues.

In developing techniques for matching, two approaches
have evolved. One is the cost accounting approach. Under
this approach cost accountants endeavor to set up a specific
relation between all manufacturing costs and individual
classification or items of products in order to establish the
manufactured cost of each unit of product sold. The other
is the general accounting approach. Under this approach,
the general accountant matches costs against revenues in
the same period. Unlike the cost accountant, he does not
attempt to match specific items of cost with specific items
of income. Thus, his problem is totally different from that
of the cost accountant.

Matching costs and revenues is basically a problem of
establishing satisfactory bases of association. The real test
is the reasonableness of the association, all other pertinent
factors considered, rather than physical measurement, since
periodic allocations of cost to revenues must be estimated
and estimations involve reasoning and judgment.

When businessmen, investors and others invest capital
in any business enterprise, this is only a means to an end.
The earning of income is that end. Perhaps no other ac-
counting and economic concept has been the object of so
much controversy, since income has so many diverse mean-
ings in Accounting, Law, Economics and tax regulations. In
a period of steadily rising prices such as has been the case
since World War II, the controversy over reporting periodic
income more fairly has been greatly magnified. Increases
in federal income tax expenses also have contributed to the
accentuation of the controversy.

Among the proposals advanced for more fairly report-
ing periodic income are use of the accounting readjustment

11

or quasi-reorganization ; making additional charges to in-
come, based roughly on current replacement costs of certain
capital assets; accelerated depreciation; conversion of in-
ventories held for a substantial period to current price lev-
els; setting up profit equalization reserves, and use of cur-
rent operating performance income statements in which ex-
traordinary, non-recurring, and unpredictable charges or
credits to income are not included. None of these measures
are currently practiced on a w^idespread basis.

When specific identification procedures are deemed in-
efficient, alternate methods of assigning cost to periodic
revenues may be utilized with reference to inventories and
fixed assets, the choice of method depending upon the as-
sumption made with reference to cost properly chargeable
to current revenues.

The importance upon net profit by the employment of
various inventory methods and various methods of depreci-
ation are even more significant. In inventory costing, the
methods that have achieved widest application are first-in,
first-out; last-in, first-out; and average. In a period of rising
prices, FIFO matches rising sales revenue with oldest, low-
cost, inventory, thus expanding the gross margin on sales.
In a period of declining prices, the reverse is true. LIFO, on
the other hand, matches current high costs with increasing
sales revenues in a period of price increases, and low costs
of acquiring goods with declining sales prices in a period of
falling prices. The average method recognizes both past and
present costs in the inventory.

Fixed plant and equipment items represent a single
classification in a larger group of non-current assets, all of
which constitute deferred charges to future income.

This larger group includes intangible assets such as
patents, copyrights, organization expense, franchises, good-
will, and various items of prepaid expenses. The cost alloca-
tion of these items is referred to as depreciation, amortiza-
tion, depletion and exhaustion.

Amortization generally applies to intangible assets ;
depletion and exhaustion to natural assets such as mines,
oil well, and over-cropped lands, and depreciation to tan-
gible fixed assets.

Amortization, depletion and depreciation are forecast
with a considerable difference in accuracy. Amortization
(Bond Premiums, for example) can be determined with
considerable accuracy. Depreciation provisions are gener-
ally less accurate, while the determination of a proper pro-
vision for depletion is more difficult than the provision for
depreciation, because the physical facts are more uncertain.

The periodic balance sheet bears a direct relation to
the matching process in that a majority of items contained
therein represent amounts waiting to be charged or credited
to future income and revenue. Among these items are de-

12

ferred credits and charges, inventories, fixed assets and pre-
paid expenses.

What conclusions may be reached with reference to
the problem of matching costs with revenues? In the first
place, there are many controversial matters in Accounting
which are far from being settled. Despite this, however,
such factors as the federal income tax laws, and federal
agencies such as the Securities and Exchange Commission,
as well as the growth in the number of small corporate in-
vestors, are making for more uniformity in accounting prac-
tices with reference to periodic income determination.

In the second place. Accounting information serves
many diverse groups, each of them interested in Accounting
information for different reasons. Since this is true. Account-
ing information should be adapted to meet the various needs
of these groups. In short, uniformity in Accounting reports
and hence application of principles involved in the match-
ing process, is of necessity relative to the purpose involved.

In the third place, the present controversy centering
around price-level changes being reflected in accounting
records, deserves careful consideration, particularly with
reference to inventories and depreciable assets. Failure to
recognize price-level changes in the matching process and
in income determination is misleading to would-be investors
and, in terms of present dollar values, falsely portrays in-
come and financial position. However, the argument that
historical cost should be dispensed with as a basis for deter-
mining income and financial position is unsound. Historical
cost, since it is objective, should be the basis of both periodic
income determination and financial position. These state-
ments, however, should be supplemented by statements
which reveal income and financial position in terms of the
current price level.

Finally, it should be emphasized that Accounting prin-
ciples and conventions, like principles and conventions un-
derlying other branches of knowledge, are not and cannot
be fixed and rigid. Accounting is an ever-changing, dynamic
art which must necessarily change to meet the changes in a
rapidly changing economic and social order. This is so if
Accounting is to remain a vital, useful, and indispensable
tool of the interests it serves.

To those who berate Accounting because of its limita-
tions, whether they apply to the matching process or other
aspects of the discipline, it is well to remember that every
branch of knowledge has certain limitations. This, neverthe-
less, is not a sufficient basis for eliminating the discipline so
long as it serves a vital and basic need, as Accounting in-
deed does. Limitations simply must be realized, coped with,
and improved upon, where possible or whenever the occasion

13

warrants. Why should Accounting be perfect in an imper-
fect world ?

Bibliography

Books

Aschei', Leonard, Survey of Accounting. New York, Harper and Brothers,
1952.

Backer, Morton (Ed.), Handbook of Modem Accounting Theory. Engle-
wood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1955.

Dean, Joel, Managerial Economics. New York, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1951.

Devine, Carl T., Inventory Valuation and Periodic Income. New York,
The Ronald Press Company, 1942.

Finney, H. A., and Herbert E. Miller, Principles of Accounting: Inter-
mediate. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1958,
5th Edition.

Finney, H. A., and Herbert E. Miller, Principles of Accounting: Inter-
mediate. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1951,
4th Edition.

Gilman, Stephen, Accounting Concepts of Profit. New York, The Ronald
Press Company, 1939.

Husband, William H., and James C. Dockeray, Modern Corporation
Finance. Homewood, Illinois, Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1957, 4th Edi-
tion.

Johnson, Arnold W., Principles of Auditing. New York, Rinehart and
Company, Inc., 1955.

Karrenbrock, W. E., and Harry Simons, Intermediate Accounting: Com-
prehensive Volume. Cincinnati, Ohio, South-western Publishing Com-
pany, 1953, 2d Edition.

Kohler, Eric L., A Dictionary for Accountants. Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1957, 2d Edition.

McFarland, George A., and Robert D. Ayars, Accounting Fundamentals.
New York, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1936.

Neuner, John J. W., Cost Accounting : Principles and Practices. Home-
wood, Illinois, Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1957, 5th Edition.

Paton, W. A., and W. A. Paton, Jr., Asset Accounting. New York, The
Macmillan Company, 1952.

Sloan, Harold S., and Arnold J. Zurcher, A Dictionary of Economics.
New York, Barnes and Noble, Inc., 1953, 3rd Edition.

Sweeney, H. W., Stabilized Accotinting. New York, Harper and Brothers,
1936.

Terry, George R., Principles of Management. Homewood, Illinois, Richard
D. Irwin, Inc., 1956, Revised Edition.

14

The Life and Creative Activities of
James Allen Bland (1854-1911)

by
Coleridge Alexander Braithwaite

I. Biography

James Allen Bland was born in Flushing, Long Island,
New York, on October 22, 1854. His father, Allen M. Bland,
attended the public schools of Charleston, South Carolina,
studied at Oberlin, Ohio, from 1845 to 1848, and later grad-
uated from Wilberforce University in Ohio. While teaching
in Salem, New Jersey, he married Lydia Conwell, formerly
of Delaware. They moved to Trenton, New Jersey, to Flush-
ing, to Troy, New York, and then to Philadelphia.^

After the Civil War the family settled in Washington,
D. C. where the father became the first Negro Examiner in
the United States Patent Office. James received his early
education in Washington, eventually graduating from How-
ard University while his father was a student at the Howard
University Law School.

The lad heard much music in his youth, and an early
manifestation for the art was fostered. During his college
days he became a popular singer and entertained for social
and political organizations. While employed as a page in
the House of Representatives, he organized a glee club and
performed many of his own compositions.

Although he joined several minstrel companies after
graduating from college, his success as an entertainer was
not assured until he had gained fame as a song writer. The
whole idea of minstrelsy was distasteful to him because of
the distortions that had to be assumed by Negro entertainers
in order to gain popularity on the stage. ^ Bland, however,
developed as a composer rather than as an actor, and the
universal popularity of his songs brought him recognition
during this period of his life.

Bland first belonged to Callender's Original Georgia
Minstrels, but after their purchase by Jack Haverly in 1878
(three years after their formation), they were advertised
as the Minstrel Carnival of Genuine Colored Minstrels. Upon
completion of a tour of the country between 1879 and 1882,

^Details of the early migrations of the Bland family were obtained in
interviews with Mrs. Irene Bland Jurix, the only living sister of James
Bland, and her daughter, Mrs. Clayton French, at their New York resi-
dence on February 19 and 22, 1952.

-The Negro, as portrayed in the Minstrel shows, was forced to appear as
an exaggerated caricature of himself to please audiences who, in turn,
used these characterizations as stereotyped representations of the race.

15

the name was changed to Callender's All-Coloured Mm-
strels. Under this banner the troupe of one hundred mem-
bers went to Europe.

For twenty years Bland remained in England and Scot-
land as a popular entertainer, composer, and recipient of
many royal honors, but despite reports that he enjoyed re-
ceiving a salary of ten thousand dollars a year, he returned
penniless to Washington, D. C. in 1901. Minstrelsy was dis-
appearing, and it was impossible for him to recapture his
former position. Although scattered friends came to his
financial assistance, the composer was a discouraged man as
he wandered back to Philadelphia where he died on May 5,
1911 at the age of fifty-seven unknown and forgotten.

Not until 1939 was his grave discovered in Merion
Cemetery, Bela-Cynwyd, Pennsylvania, when his sister, Mrs.
Jurix, recalled the location of his burial. The discovery of
the grave by Charles F. Cooke, former editor of the ETUDE,
led to a crusade for proper recognition of the composer.^
Consequently, in 1940 the State of Virginia adopted his most
famous composition, "Carry Me Back to Old Virginny," as
the official song of the Commonwealth, and six years later,
on July 15, 1946, Governor William M. Tuck was invited by
the Lions Club to speak at the dedicatory services held at
the composer's grave for the purposes of establishing a
monument and providing a limited number of musical schol-
arships for Negro students of Virginia.

Most of Bland's seven hundred songs, written hurriedly
for specific minstrel characters, contained the simple, warm,
rhythmic qualities of the Negro idiom, but because minstrel
songs became the property of the singers and other enter-
tainers, only about forty pieces are extant.^ According to
historical evidence, popular versions have altered Bland's
songs almost beyond recognition because the extemporiza-
tional method of the composer was not preserved by the
editings of the publishers and because many of the peculiari-
ties of interpretation could not be accurately notated. With-
out them, the music lost its original spontaneity.

It is hoped that a detailed study of James Allen Bland
can be made in the near future. Especially important to
musical research should be the twenty-year period he spent
in Europe. A thorough, accurate investigation of this unfa-
miliar portion of his activities should reveal much of value
to the field of music.

^The scholarly article on Bland in ETUDE in July, 1939, by Kelly Miller,
historian and professor at Howard University, was the motivating fac-
tor in arousing Cooke's curiosity.

'According to Mrs. Jurix, Will Marion Cook, famous Negro singer and
entertainer, was the first one to revive Bland's songs (in 1932), and
later the Southernaires, a popular Negro quartet, annually honored the
composer's birthday by singing his music on their radio and concert
programs.

16

II. His Songs

CARRY ME BACK TO OLD VIRGINNY. Perry, 1878; Dit-
son, 1903.

CLOSE DEM WINDOWS. White-Smith, 1879.

COME ALONG, SISTER MARY. Lieder, 1881.

DANCING ON THE KITCHEN FLOOR. White-Smith, 1880.

DANDY BLACK BRIGADE, THE. Gordon, 1881.

DARKIES MOONLIGHT PICNIC. Gordon, 1881.

DE ANGELS AM A-COMING. Hitchcock, 1880.

DE COLORED HOP. Pepper, 1881.

DE GOLDEN WEDDING. Perry, 1880.

DE SLAVERY CHAINS AM BROKE AT LAST. Perry, 1880.

FASCINATING COOK. Hitchcock, 1892.

FATHER'S GROWING OLD. White-Smith, 1879.

GABRIEL'S BAND. Gordon, 1881.

HAPPY DARKIES. Hitchcock, 1892.

IN THE EVENING BY THE MOONLIGHT. Hitchcock, 1880.

IN THE MORNING BY THE BRIGHT LIGHT. Perry, 1879.

James A. Bland Album of Outstanding Songs, The. Com-
piled, edited, and arranged by Charles Haywood.
Marks, 1946. 72 pp.

James A. Bland's De Golden Wedding Songster. Popular,
1880. 64 pp. (words only.)

KEEP DEM GOLDEN GATES WIDE OPEN. Hitchcock,
1880.

LISTEN TO THE SILVER TRUMPETS. White-Smith, 1880.

MIDST PRETTY VIOLETS. White-Smith, 1881.

MY OWN SWEET WIFE TO BE. Lieder, 1881.

OH, DEM GOLDEN SLIPPERS. Perry, 1879.

OH, LUCINDA. Pepper, 1881.

OH, MY BROTHER. Perry, 1880.

OH, WHY WAS I SO SOON FORGOTTEN? Lieder, 1881.

OLD HOMESTEAD, THE. Perry, 1879.

OLD-FASHION COTTAGE, THE. Lieder, 1881.

OLD-FASHION HOMESTEAD. Ditson, 1883.

ONLY TO HEAR HER VOICE. Lieder, 1881.

PRETTY LITTLE SOUTH CAROLINA ROSE. White-Smith,
1879.

RAMBLING THROUGH THE CLOVER. Perry, 1879.

ROSE PACHOULA. Lieder, 1881.

SONS OF HAM. Hitchcock, 1881.

TAPIOCA. Stults, 1891.

TELL ALL DE CHILDREN GOODBYE. Pepper, 1881.

TELL 'EM I'LL BE THERE. Gordon, 1881.

TO THE FARMER'S DAUGHTER. Perry, 1878.

TRAVELLING BACK TO ALABAM'. Lieder, 1881.

WAY UP YONDER. Perry, 1880.

WON'T WE HAVE A JOLLY TIME? Hitchcock, 1880.

YOU COULD HAVE BEEN TRUE. Hitchcock, 1881.

17

III. Bibliography

A. Books

Daly, John Jay. A Song in His Heart: The Life and Times of James A.
Bland. Philadelphia: The John 0. Winston Company, 1951. 102 pp.

Ellinwood, Leonard W. Historical Records Survey, District of Columbia.
Bio-Bihlio graphical Index of Musicians in the United States of
America from Colonial Times, Washington, D. C: Music Division,
Pan-American Union, 1941. p. 40.

Fuller, Thomas 0. PictoHal History of the Atnerican Negro. Memphis,
Tennessee: Pictorial History, Incorporated, 1933. p. 204.

Geller, James J. Famous Songs and Their Stories. New York: The Ma-
cauley Company, 1931. pp. 22-26.

Goldberg, Isaac. Tin Pan Alley. New York: The John Dav Company,
1930. pp. 48, 139.

Handy, William C. Negro Authors and Composers of the United States.
New York: Handy Brothers Music Company, Incorporated, 1938.
p. 21.

Hare, Maud Cuney. Negro Musicians and Their Mttsic. Washington, D.
C. : The Associated Publishers, Incorporated, 1936. pp. 50, 92.

Haywood, Charles. James A. Bland, "Prince of the Colored Songiv-riters."
Flushing, New York: Flushing Historical Society, 1944. pp. 1-8.

Locke, Alain L, The Negro and His Music. Washington, D. C. : The Asso-
ciates in Negro Folk Education, 1936. pp. 30, 45, 46, 48-50.

Marks, Edward B. They All Sang, from, Tony Pastor to Riidy Vallee.
New York: The Viking Press, 1934. pp. 44, 87.

Negro Musicians; the Official Theatrical World of Colored Artists, Na-
tional DirectoT^ and Guide. New York: The Theatrical World Pub-
lishing Company, 1928. pp. 3, 40.

Wier, Albert E. The MacMillan Encyclopedia of Music and Musicians.
New York: The MacMillan Company, 1938. p. 188.

B. Articles

"Black Stephen Foster." Time (August 21, 1939), 44.
Clarke, Thomas H. R. "James Bland." The Negro History Bulletin (Feb-
ruary, 1939), 48.

Miller, Kelly. "The Negro 'Stephen Foster.'" The Etude (July, 1939),
431-432, 472.

Reynolds, Horace. "Oh, Dem Golden Slippers." Christian Science Monitor
(September 6, 1947), 5.

"Songs with Tears." Pic (September 28, 1943), 44.

"Unknown Music Maker." Newsveek (September 17, 1951), 88.

C. Recordings

CARRY ME BACK TO OLD VIRGINNY:

C-50120 D Paul Robeson, Bass.

V-18314 Marian Anderson, Contralto; Victor Symphony Orches-
tra, Charles O'Connell, Conductor.

C-A5959 Louis Graveure, Baritone; orchestral accompaniment.

C-72104 D Helen Traubel, Soprano; Male Chorus and Victor
Symphony Orchestra, Charles O'Connell, Conductor.

G-EG 6228 Wilhelm Strienz, Baritone (in German) ; Chorus and
Orchestra.

18

SONG OF WOMAN ETERNAL

by
Luetta Colvin Upshur

THE BABE : Lullaby

Sleep, ma petite, Papa's joy, Mama's glory.
With fists curled and smile of angels,
Little girl from anger so swaddled,
Dream there in your ruffles of pink
And dazzle the world with your wonder.

THE GIRL: Chanson du Pringtemps

Dance, cherie! Ah, cherie, dance!

For this is the Maytime, glad season

Of florescent joy and eager-breaking morn.

Too soon November's sad touch hardens the land

And stills the song of the swallows.

So, cherie, rip the daisies trembling from their beds;

Weave them into a coronal to circle your proud head

This glorious, throbbing, nigh-unbearable morning.

With arms upstretched yearning to the sky,

Stand there, bearer of the chalice of life and the promise

Ceres, Diana, Aphrodite, Juno, Lucia

Dance, cherie; twirl, wild girl, round

And round and round while swallows sing.

THE WIFE AND MOTHER : Dearly Beloved

This is the one of honorable bent.

This is the dream toward which you have been whirling.

Chalice-bearer, Aphrodite, Juno.

Ah, ma femme, your heart trembles

While they wait without in the white chapel.

"This may be madness spawned by the sorcery of a misty

Maynight's moon." The organ shudders in ecstasy.

Set the veil straight, ma femme; blot the pale tears.

This is love this will doom the diapers and the dishes

And send hopes of heaii; flying toward Heaven.

OLD WOMAN'S LAMENT: Too Soon November

Sleep, ma petite, sleep.

Soon is the May and the birds' white winging.

Too soon November's harsh wind, ma vieille.

Too soon, bereft of lover, you stand at life's shadow.

Praying, "Good Christ, dear Christ, he whom I love

Has fled to Thy fold of Joy. Keep him, guide him,

For he is unused to the Light."

Too soon the mushroom cloud and war's grey wool

Will enshroud the son who once at your bosom lay.

So rest, petite; you will need strength.

19

HER SONG OF AFFIRMATION : Juvenescense

But this is not the end, child of my heart.

You, cherie, can make a world.

Strong sons, loving daughters

You must offer to the Christ of all compassion

And then death shall die a terrible death.

And you, chalice-bearer, you shall have joy

In the never-ending cycle of life.

In the aweful, eternal juvenescense of life.

CHRIST OF ALL COMPASSION: A Litany

by
Luetta Colvin Upshur

Filled with gracious message
From Heaven's mysterious lore,
You told of hallowed haven
Prepared for faithful souls.

O, Christ of many Blessings,
Teach us how to pray.

Transfigured by the holy promise
Of God's pure, redeeming love,
You stayed the hands that would
Cast stones at the scarlet maid.

O, Christ of tender Mercies,
Teach us how to love.

Burdened by the wooden, wooden weight

Of cross so heavy to bear,

You trudged with Cyrenian Simon

To Golgotha's sad, sad place.

O, Christ of all the Sorrows,
Teach us how to die.

Wrapped in sad forgiveness
For him whose kiss was death,
You watched alone in the garden,
Forsaken by the beloved twelve.

O, Christ of all Compassion,
Teach us how^ to live.

Illumined by the radiant glory
Of Heaven's celestial light,
You made the triumphant ascension
To Paradise's promised place.

O, Christ of rising Spirit,
Teach us to believe.

20

A Teacher Education Point of View

by
Velma V. Walters

What kind of growth does one want to promote in the
student? This is a philosophic question and also one of
values, according to the literature.^ Fortunately, in our cul-
ture, there is a fair degree of concensus among those who
have given this question thought as to what some of these
basic values are. Few thoughtful persons, however, would
deny the desirability of helping children and youth to
achieve- maximum growth physically, mentally, emotion-
ally, and socially.

One should be primarily concerned about the kind of
product to be released, the kinds of experiences for each
student and the group, the nature of the problems involved
in selecting and preparing the able youngster, the time ele-
ment, and the adequacy of facilities and personnel. These
are only a few of the basic factors to be considered.

In an effort to arrive at some pertinent conclusions, one
must have some general beliefs about teaching and learn-
ing and the purposes of the school. This attitude may lead
the individual to formulate a working point of view or
philosophy which is acceptable in terms of basic principles
of education and which he can and will be willing to abide
by, in the meantime, revising as often as necessary. It is
the belief that:

Those responsible for selecting and preparing the stu-
dent must first be convinced that intelligent applica-
tion and responsibility in the creation of a philosophy
. . . implies an informed professional body . . ., sec-
ondly, teacher education institutions with a philosophy
based upon the tenet that only the best students avail-
able should be considered as candidates will have
admission policies reflecting that attitude.^

All education is a unit. It should contribute to the
needs of the students in the society to be served and to the
development of the character of the individuals to be edu-
cated.

"How safe then is it for all concerned with preparing
the learners to motivate and guide them to the extent that
they will grow and develop into the kinds of individuals
who have the ability to think accurately, objectively, and

^Carleton Washburn, "Design for Long-range Research in Teacher Edu-
cation." Journal of Educational Research, XLVI (September, 1952-May,
1953), p. 712.

-Ibid, p. 712.

simmel, Ada, "A Philosophy." The Nation's Schools, LXIV, No. 3 (Sep-
tember, 1959), p. 78.

21

in terms of ascertainable facts; . . . acquire understand-
ingly and functionally those skills . . . that are essential
to effective living in our present society; . . . have a basic
framework of knowledge of the world around them and
how it came to be what it is, and to know how to fill in that
framework wherever and whenever it is necessary for them
to do so ; have an appreciation of the esthetic side of life
and to be able to find expression of their creative urge
toward beauty; . . . grow in appreciation of their fellow-
men, in ever wider circles, and to feel a sense of responsi-
bility toward the well being of ever more inclusive socie-
ties, ... be able to work cooperatively with their fellow
human beings toward the achievement of socially desired
goals ; exercise self-control ; respect the rights of others ;
keep strong and healthy bodies."^ We must gradually real-
ize that quality in teaching is to be desired and striven for
in our pursuit of excellence in education. According to
Hechinger^, a teacher's incompetence is just as unpardon-
able and damaging as that of an incompetent surgeon's
knife or an airplane pilot's flying.

If this is the consensus of opinion or the general belief
to produce this type of learner, then every individual re-
sponsible for his growth and development must:

Put forth effort to understand each learner.
Have a knowledge of how learning takes place.
Decide upon sound and basic objectives, and strive to-
ward fulfillment of them in every learning situation.
Realize that providing wholesome experiences for and
with the learner is a joint responsibility and a continu-
ous process.

. . . value teaching enough to make it attractive to
creative minds.

. . . help those who are preparing for teaching to ac-
quire a depth of scholarship that will enable them to
guide the explorations of the immature into the riches
of the cultural heritage.

. . . relieve teachers of the burden of clerical, cus-
todial, and police functions so that they may be free
to teach.

. . . use and reward the unique talents of gifted teach-
ers. Focus on the needs of youth and on the kinds of
experiences that the school wants to provide for them.^

. . . urge that instruction be oriented to problems and
concerns of youth. ''^

^Op. cit. pp. 711-715.

^'Hechinger, Fred, "Good Teachers for 20,000,000 Children." Parents'

Magazine, XXXIV, No. 9 (September, 1959), p. 98.
^Francis S. Chase and Harold A. Anderson, The High School In a Neiu

Era. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958, p. 225.
"'Ibid, p. 229.

22

In addition, opportunity must be provided for consid-
eration of a set of criteria for the selection of superior
candidates to the teacher education program. Wash-
burn contends that it is imperative to select a reason-
able sampling of the kinds of growth to which teachers
should contribute.

Use existing instruments or prepare new ones that will
measure the kinds of growth we hope to foster. We
must apply these at the beginning and end of a period
of time for example, an academic year ^to know
which growths are measurable.

. . . measure the growth that takes place under the
most effective teachers in contrast with that which
takes place, or fails to take place under the least effec-
tive teachers, in a variety of ways and in children of
widely varying backgrounds.

See whether there are certain clusters or categories of
children whose growth along different lines is largely
conditioned by the past experience since they come
from many kinds of homes, and have a wide range of
experiences both in school and out of school.

. . . discover what characteristics and kinds of be-
havior on the part of teachers are most closely asso-
ciated with the growth of various clusters of children.
A different but essential part of our job will be to
segregate as far as possible, the direct influences of
the teacher from the out-of-school factors and such
school influences as are not directly attributable to the
teacher. An absolute segregation is probably impos-
sible, but with wide samplings and techniques known
to all of us, predominant teacher-influence should be
discoverable.

Under some teachers we may expect to find decidedly
more growth in certain characteristics than under some
others ... it should be possible to identify distinguish-
ing characteristics as between the most effective and
the least effective teachers. These characteristics will
be found by close observation, by a study of the teach-
er's past training and experience, and by whatever
other forms of evaluation prove to be most effective.

We should not expect to find one best pattern . . .
there are a number of different patterns of high effec-
tiveness and a number of different groupings of char-
acteristics that make for relative ineffectiveness.
Having identified, tentatively some of these charac-
teristics that seem to result in effective growth . . .
along a number of desired lines . . . Which of these
desirable characteristics of teachers can be produced
or augmented in college, or afterwards while actually
teaching? What kind of pre-service and in-sei'vice ex-

23

periences and learnings aid measurably in their de-
velopment?

In the process of continuous evaluation there will be,
as further stated by Washburn, the need to :

. . . discover what patterns of teacher behavior and
understanding distinguish the more effective teachers
from the less effective ones.

. . . know what types of persons entering our colleges
are likely to achieve these characteristics if given the
most effective learning experiences we can devise.

. . . discover what these most effective learning ex-
periences are so that we can evaluate and improve our
programs of teacher education.

Test our products before they actually take responsi-
bility for educating children and youth.

Submit the whole program to the ultimate test of
whether or not teachers who have been through it
actually help the boys and girls entrusted to them to
grow effectively in the achievement of the values which
we agree are necessary for the fulfillment of their
potentialities as persons and as contributing and re-
sponsible members of society.^

Since teacher education is concerned with the basic
skills, understandings, and attitudes to be acquired by all
teachers, then according to the aims and purposes of the
teacher education program of the Division of Education at
Savannah State College, "The goals of this program are
seen as qualities that should mark the superior teacher.
(1) He should have a wide general academic and cultural
background, with that specific command of subject matter
which will enable him to adapt content and experiences to
the needs, problems, and interest of pupils. (2) He should
be proficient in the communication skills and able to assist
pupils in developing these skills. (3) He should have effec-
tive knowledge of human behavior, of the processes in-
volved in growth and learning ; and he should be skilled
in the adaptation of materials and experiences to the needs
and interests of pupils. (4) He should be able to further
good human relationships. (5) He should be able to think
and plan effectively."^

At this point it seems that there should be full realiza-
tion that, as Francis S. Chase has put it, "The quality of
education cannot rise above the character and competence
of those who teach. We shall be able to attract large num-
bers of highly qualified men and women to teaching when

^Washburn, op. cit.

'^"Aims and Purposes of the Teacher Training Program," Savannah

State College Bulletin, Savannah, Georgia, XI, No. 5 (April, 1958), p.

49.

24

we provide for the teacher and his learners essentially the
same kind of professional responsibility that the physician
has for the care of his patients. This view calls for changes
in the administration of our schools and for better under-
standing on the part of citizens of the importance of the
teacher's role in our society."

Chase continues by indicating that "criticism of the
schools may help to demolish false notions and bad prac-
tices; redefinition of the aims of education may help to
give the schools a set of priorities that will make their task
more manageable ; but, if any nation desires a quality edu-
cation instead of a shoddy, mass-produced product, it must
allocate to its schools and higher institutions of learning the
resources necessary for the task."^"

We ourselves must be assured of the type of quality
product we want to release. Why should we be as extremely
concerned about our new teachers for the decade ahead?
The challenges of the 60's demand an ongoing dynamic
school system staffed by superior teachers who are emi-
nently qualified to provide our country with more linguists,
more scientists, more experts in human relations, more per-
sons in fine arts who are able to help the populace to see
the beauties of life and more highly skilled workers for an
automation era. If we are to compete with our greatest
adversary, Russia, it is imperative that our new teachers
for the public schools possess skills, insights, basic under-
standings and a keen intellect. In order to procure this new
teacher for the years ahead, those who are responsible for
teacher education in our colleges must have an excellent
program of selection, admission, placement and follow-up
of those whom they prepare as teachers.

Swain and Loree are of the opinion that "When parents
send their children to school, they may ask themselves: Is
the school causing him to suppress his initiative? Is the
school contributing to the development of a distorted self-
concept or bringing about other consequences detrimental
to sound mental health? The answer to the question "Is
the school achieving its objectives?" can, of course, be ob-
tained from the answer to the question "What are we doing
to our students?"

When we evaluate according to the more traditional
concept, objectives provide the criteria. What is to take
place of objectives when we evaluate unplanned effects of
an educational program?

To answer the question, it is necessary to refer first to
a broader set of values that is, the core of values of those
in control of the school and the concepts that derive from
them, such as the general purposes of the school. We be-

^Francis S. Chase, "The Response of the Schools to the Challenges of
the Twentieth Century," The School Revieiv, LXVII, No. 1 (Spring,
1959), pp. 22-23.

25

lieve that the school program as a whole, as well as student
achievement and other changes that occur in students,
should be evaluated, not merely in terms of stated objec-
tives, but also in terms of these core values, general pur-
poses, and other concepts derived from them.''^^

"The overworked teacher presents a picture of his pro-
fession to the world that often makes truck driving seem
preferable . . . Nor does the teacher who has to combine
all the chores of recordkeeping, clerking, money collecting
and so on, build a public image of professional dignity. . . .
The original experiment in the use of "teacher aides," spon-
sored by the Fund for the Advancement of Education in
Bay City, Michigan, has spread to many communities over
the United States, thus enabling teachers to devote their
full time and effort to teaching. Similarly, the more recent
experimental program of "contract readers" has relieved
teachers of impossible work loads of correcting English
compositions qualified part-time "workers" do much of
the reading, grading, and reviewing.^-

The services rendered a teacher by an instructional
secretary seem to be an excellent means of restoring some
of the teacher's time, energy, and skill to the pupils in his
class.

The Experiment in the Use of Instructional Secretaries,
now in its second year of operation in the schools of David-
son County, Tennessee, rests on this assumption. Here is a
form of help to busy teachers that makes no additional de-
mands upon them.^^

This writer too, is firmly convinced that we shall not
get the desired results in education unless we are willing to
find ways of channeling a large number of the most gifted
and highly trained young people into teaching. ^^ Hechinger
bolsters this opinion by stating that: "we need to marshall
facts instead of sentiments." Here are some basic ones :

1. It's silly to pretend that all teachers are admirable.
According to the Rockefeller Report on Education,
"as of 1956, 33 percent of the elementary teachers
did not hold bachelor's degrees and more than 21
percent of all public school teachers had less than
four years of college." What's more, requirements
of teaching vary so drastically from state to state
that the national range of training and competence
is both wide enough and deep enough to form an
abyss.

2. ... A good teacher, it's now acknowledged, needs

^^E. I. Swain and M. R. Loree, "Broadening the Base in Evaluation,"
The School Review, LXVII, No. 1 (Spring, 1959), pp. 82.

^-Hechinger, op. cit., pp. 98-100.

^^Turney, David, "The Instructional Secretary," The Tennessee Teacher,
XXVI, No. 7 (February, 1959), p. 16.

^*Chase, op. cit., p. 23.

26

to be thoroughly grounded both in content (what
to teach) and in method (how to teach it) .... ^^

The liberally educated teacher, says Paul Woodring
in New Directions in Teacher Education, published by the
Fund for the Advancement of Education, "will see his sub-
ject in broader perspective. His aim will be not knowledge
of a subject, but wisdom which follows knowledge. He will
teach his subject better because of his ability to see beyond
it." This is the kind of teacher the current teacher-training
trend is pointing to. In contrast to the narrowly erudite
pedant or the windily ignorant methodologist, this kind of
teacher should inspire confidence in his students.

Services which are badly paid aren't worth very much.
Figures released by the National Education Association in
June, 1959 show that teachers' pay ranks with that of
skilled and semi-skilled industrial workers. "The root prob-
lem of the teaching profession remains financial," says the
Rockefeller Report.

The real breakthrough on the salary front, too, is be-
ing effected by way of the new experiments : The television
teacher, for example, demonstrates that teaching can pay.
The "master teacher," in the latest experiment of "team
teaching," along with two or three other teachers in a single
classroom of up to 95 pupils, demonstrates there are many
different grades of teaching talent. The "master's" excel-
lence shows unquestionably that such superior services must
be rewarded with superior pay.^^

It is the belief of this writer that strengthening teacher
education through better selection and admission of candi-
dates for the teaching profession will certainly drive medi-
ocrity out of the teaching ranks. Superior teachers will turn
out a superior product. Superior products from our nation's
schools will strengthen America in many areas where the
country is weak. Only through excellent schools staffed by
competent teachers can America face the challenge of these
perilous times.

^^Hechinger, loc. cit.

27

Ecological and Economical Aspects of
Spanish Moss

by
Margaret C. Robinson

The Spanish Moss, Dendropogon usneoides (L.), is a
widely distributed epiphyte (air-plant) that extends from
Southern Virginia to Eastern Texas. It is this species which
lends romantic charm to the picturesque landscape of the
Savannah State College campus and the coastal strip of the
southeastern United States.

It has received some attention from investigators who
have discussed its distribution and described its gross struc-
ture and embroyogeny, and economic importance in con-
siderable detail. This paper is intended to present some of
these interesting aspects of this air-plant.

Swinging in graceful festoons from Southern trees,
Spanish Moss was originally known to Botany as Tillandsia
usneoides (L.). Its accepted scientific name is now Dendro-
pogon usneoides (L.). The species name comes from the
fact that this growth resembles the lichen Usnea.

The Spanish moss usually prefers a well-lighted but
moist habitat. It occurs not only on living and dead trees
but also on wires and other exposed supports if the atmos-
phere is sufficiently humid. It thrives best along bayous,
rivers, ponds and lakes. In some cases the epiphyte is con-
fined largely to the side of the tree facing the water. There
is often considerable discussion as to what trees are suitable
for the ecesis of Spanish moss. This epiphyte has been ob-
served on all species of trees on the Savannah State College
campus, the oaks, needle-leaved evergreens and shrubs.
More of this epiphyte occurs on Quercus Virginiana, the
American live oak, possibly due to the more nearly hori-
zontal disposition of their branches.

Belying its name, it is not a moss at all, but a flowering
plant belonging to the pineapple family, Bromeliaceac. If
one examines the festoons of moss, he finds a tangled mass
of stringy, spiraling stems, jointed every inch or so, covered
with minute scales. The leaves are owl-shaped and in their
axils are borne inconspicuous, fragrant green flowers,
blooming in May and June. It produces feather-barbed
seeds and the time of seed distribution is given as late
December to late January, but may continue until early
March. Billings, ('04), ^ suggests that the time of seed dis-
persal for all southern states is March.

In regard to the seeds Billings ('04)- says that "the
embryos appear perfectly normal with the exception of the

28

dead cortical cells in the root and hypocotyl." He made
efforts to germinate them in a germinator, but without suc-
cess. The sequence of events requisite to germination is
still unknown. It is believed that the Spanish moss seedling
is fixed to the substratum by weak roots which soon dry
up. In discussing seed development Billings ('04)^ says
that "there occurs a degradation of certain cortical cells of
either the root or the end of the hypocotyl nearest the root-
tip." Penfound ('45)*^ observed seedlings over a period of
years and noted that they were always firmly attached to
the supporting object. Observations of seedlings made on
the Savannah State College campus support Penfound's
('45) observations. Most seedlings were observed to be
firmly attached to the smooth bark of young live oak trees.
As soon as the young plants reach a few centimeters in
length they may be carried away and suspend themselves
on any support to which they fall or are blown.

The host tree or support to which Dendropogon an-
chors or suspends itself does not furnish any nourishment for
the plant though one may think so, thereby harming the
tree. The only way in which Spanish Moss can harm a host
tree is for it to become so dense that it smothers the leaves.
This xeric epiphyte obtains all its nutrients from the atmos-
phere. The minute scales with which it is covered are
thought to aid in filtering particulate matter from the air
and probably serve to hold water by capillarity while the
plant is absorbing therefrom the mineral constituents it
requires.

The mineral nutriment of the Spanish moss is evidently
obtained then from what salts happen to be present in the
rain which falls upon it, in water which drops from nearby
trees, or in dust which is blown in by the wind.

Wherry and Buchann^ collected samples of Spanish
moss from the sea-coast in South Carolina and from far in-
land in Georgia. The compositions of their ash were deter-
mined, both, with and without washing loosely adherent
dust. The analyses of the ash proved to be unusually high
in soda, ferric oxide, sulfur, chlorine and silica. The chlorine
was somewhat higher in the sea-coast plant, and although
the sodium was lower, this was connected with a much
higher content of ferric oxide, diminishing all the other
bases proportionally. Sodium and chlorine are of course
the most abundant mineral constituents present in rain
water, being derived from ocean spray carried to high
levels of the atmosphere and accordingly diminishing in
amount on receding from the sea coast; and chlorine was
found to be actually higher in the sample from the coast
than in the inland one. Table (1) shows the result of
analyses of two samples which were performed by official
methods. In comparison to the composition of rain water,
this table indicates that this plant exhibits selective absorp-
tion and accumulation of individual constituents in propor-

29

tion to the constituents present in the water. Nothing is
known about the absorption process.

TABLE

V

Percent
of ash No.

Na20

K2O

MgO

CaO

Fe203

Si O2

P2O5

CI

SO3

6.6

1

2.9

7.1

6.79

9.27

19.82

39.00

1.97

5.31

Coast S.C.

3.4

2

4.5

11.7

7.73

11.49

8.26

36.08

3.75

3.96

10.23 Inland Georgia

The water content of Spanish Moss has been found
to fluctuate rapidly to changing conditions of atmospheric
moisture from day to day. Experiments were devised by
Penfound^ to study or test the effects of desiccation and
humidification on the water relations of this plant which
revealed the following:

a. The water content of the Spanish moss always re-
mains relatively high.

b. Spanish moss may either absorb or lose water vapor
to the air depending on the relative humidity of the
air.

c. This xeric epiphyte has a very high water-retaining
capacity. Penfound suggests that absorption of
water is primarily an imhibitional phenomenon.
This is supported by the fact that absorption by
desiccated plants is very rapid at first and becomes
progressively slower as the cells become hydrated.

Spanish moss is not only one of the unique and decora-
tive features of the Southern landscape, but a commer-
cially important asset as well. Its inner fibrous portion
resembles horsehair, and like the latter it is tough, durable,
resilient and unlikely to lump. Because of these properties
it has long been used as a filling or padding in a variety of
manufactured goods, and herein lies its greatest commercial
importance. The bayous of Florida and Louisiana are well-
known for their Spanish Moss Industries.

The Louisiana Department of Conservation^ published
the following figures relative to their Annual Commercial
Moss Crop which shows the highest yield and price received
by the industry:

1925 8,120 tons were ginned and sold for a total of
$2,273,000

1926 8,400 tons were ginned and sold for $1,934,000

These figures of production and price are above aver-
age for the past ten years. ^

The productive technology is simple : Moss gathered
from trees must be cured and retted. It is piled in long
rows about 4 ft. wide to about shoulder height of an aver-
age man. Here it is wetted thoroughly and left to go

30

through a heating by sun radiation. Two months later the
row of moss is turned up-side-down, again wetted and left
to heat. The action of heat and moisture causes the pulpy-
cortex to sluff away from the strong, black fiber, which
resembles the hair of a horsetail.

The black fiber is then scattered out to dry. The roof
of a building, a fence, the top of a levee or anything that
will suspend it in the air and expose it to the sun is used.
After drying, the moss is ready for ginning, which opera-
tion disentangles the fiber and relieves it of foreign matter
such as bark, twigs and leaves. After ginning, it is pressed
into uniform 300 pound bales.

The moss-picker sells to the ginner who in turn sells
to the manufacturer of upholstery. The fiber is used in
many articles of services, such as automobile seats, cush-
ioned chairs, pillows, and mattresses.

Economically, it is believed that the waste material
from the processing of fibers of Spanish Moss for the up-
holstery industry may be utilized as a fodder supplement
for beef cattle. Haligan^ gives the analysis of green moss
as:

Protein 3.68% Iron and Aluminum Oxide 0.28 %

Carbohydrate 15.9 % Phosphate 0.032%

Fiber 8.24% Calcium Oxide 0.058%

H2O 69.2 % Sodium Oxide 0.58 %

Ash 1.57% Potassium Oxide 0.31 %

Feurt and Fox*, studied the estrogenic substance in
Spanish Moss and its oral administration which revealed
estrogenic administration begun before 4-6 weeks of age
inhibits growth and development, but if begun after full
growth is attained it does not cause loss of weight in rats.

The Spanish Moss, Dendropogon usneoides (L.), may
be considered one of the most interesting and economical
plants of the southeastern United States. It only requires
various plants to support or suspend it in the air, from
which it selects certain minerals to be used as nourishment.
It may harm the host only if the plant grows very dense
and shuts out the sunlight. Spanish Moss contributes great-
ly to the beauty of the Southern landscape and to the econo-
my of the southeastern coastal states.

Harmful as it may appear, this plant is used for fillings
or padding in upholstery, a fodder supplement for cattle,
insulation for birdnests, and the estrogenic substances
which it contains may eventually be used to improve the
growth of livestock and other field crops.

Is it true, therefore, "that money grows on trees?"
There is an abundance of wealth hanging above the heads
of our Savannah State College family.

31

Bibliography

1. Aldrich, C. C. Spanish Moss Industry of Louisiana, Economic Geog-

raphy. 19: 347-57. October, 1943.

2. Billings, F. H. A Study of Tillandsia Usneoides L. Botany Gazettee.

38:99-121. 1904.

3. Corfield, George S. Spanish Moss: forest by-products of the South.

Journal of Geography. 42:308-317. 1943.

4. Feurt, S. D. and Fox, L. E. Effects of Oral Administration of Span-

ish Moss, Tillandsia usneoides L. Science, 118:626. November
20, 1953.

5. Minis, S. Spanish Moss (Crop of the Bayou People). Farm Quar-

terly. 4:40-1, Autumn, 1949.

6. Penfound, W. T. and Deiler, F. G. On the Ecology of Spanish Moss.

Ecology 28:455-8. October, 1947.

7. Schimper, A. F. W. Plant Geography Upon a Physiological Basis.

Clarendon Press, Oxford.

8. Schroder, H. H. Spanish Moss, Beautiful and Useful. Nature Maga-

zine. 43:533-6. December, 1950.

9. Wherry, E. T. and Buchanan, R, Composition of the Ash of Spanish

Moss. Ecology. 7:303-6. July, 1926.

10. Wherry, E. T. and Capen, R. G. Mineral Constituents of Spanish-
Moss and Ball-Moss. Ecology, 9:501-4. October, 1928.

32

A Survey of Negro Preschool Centers
In Savannah

by
Zelia E. Owens

This survey presents the status of Negro Day Care
Centers in Savannah. An attempt has been made to present
the information on what prevailing conditions should be in
light of standards recommended and recognized by authori-
ties in the field of early childhood education. During the
winter quarter of 1959-60, questionnaires were personally
delivered or mailed to seventeen centers. Ninety-four per
cent of the centers returned the questionnaires and an ap-
preciable amount of information was obtained through
interviews.

Although in many instances the information was in-
complete, the respondents provided information concerned
with the following areas :

1. Buildings and sites

2. Indoor facilities

3. Fees

4. Equipment, toys and supplies

5. Health measures

6. Status of the teachers and desired qualifications

Before basic improvements can be made to day care
centers, weaknesses must first be discovered and analyzed.
With the foregoing statement in mind, this survey is in-
tended to be a stepping stone towards the improvement
of Negro Day Care Centers in Savannah and surrounding-
areas.

During the summer of 1957, the aldermen of Savannah
adopted an ordinance under which the centers are to be
operated. The text of the ordinance is as follows:

An ordinance to define a child day care agency;
to require persons operating such an agency to obtain
an annual license ; to provide for inspection of same ;
to repeal ordinances in conflict herewith and for other
purposes.^

Since the adoption of the above ordinance, instructions
from the City of Savannah setting forth the requirements
under which a center may be operated have been given to
each director of a day care center. In spite of improvements
made, some of the centers are still below Savannah's re-

^Aldermen of the City of Savannah, License Requirements for Child Day
Care Agencies, August 2, 1957, p. 2.

33

quirements and those of representative authorities in the
field of nursery school education.

The sixteen schools represented in this survey have a
total enrollment of 370 children whose ages range from
six months to five years. Ten of the schools dismiss by one
o'clock, three by four, and the remaining three by six
o'clock. The following information focuses more light on the
findings.

Of the 16 centers studied, 5 or 31.3% are in school build-
ings; 5 or 31.3% are in homes occupied by families; 3 or
18.8% are in churches; 2 or 12.5% are in homes renovated
for child care centers; and 1 or 6.3% is housed in other
facilities. One of the centers is using the second floor for
a group of children, a practice which should be discour-
aged. Four of the school buildings or 25% of the centers
are in brick buildings. It may also be noted that 10 or
62.5% of the centers have fenced play areas. Three centers
or 18.8% have closed since 1957; 10 or 62.5% are pri-
vately operated; and 9 or 56.3% have permits. (See
Table I)

TABLE I
GENERAL FINDINGS

No. of Centers
Surveyed

No. in Sch.
Buildings

No. in Private
Homes

No. in
Churches

No. in

Renovated

Homes

16

5

5

3

2

No. Using
Other Facilities

No. Using
2nd Floor

No. in Brick
Bldgs.

No. with
Fenced Areas

No. Closed
1957

1

1

4

10

3

No. Privately
Operated

No. with
Permits

10

14

BUILDINGS AND SITES

This survey did not include the amount of indoor and
outdoor play space for each child. However, in addition
to recommending fireproof buildings, authorities advocate
a minimum of 25 square feet of floor space per child.
Rooms should be properly lighted, heated and ventilated.
Katherine Read states: 'The nursery school building itself
is an important factor in determining the learning possi-
bilities within a school. A good deal of thought should be
given to its planning, for it may extend or limit the experi-
ences the children have."^ As a means of safety, the out-
lets should be well out of the reach of the children, and the
covering on the floor should not be slippery.

Katherine Read, The Nursery School, Second Edition, W. B. Saunders
Company, Philadelphia, 1955. p. 40.

34

The site should be well drained with at least three dif-
ferent plots, namely: sandy, a hard surfaced and grassy
area. The outdoor play space is expected to be well ex-
posed to the sunshine and shade. Standard rules and regu-
lations require 75 square feet of fenced useable play space
per child and a storage room in the area for outdoor toys
and equipment.

INSIDE FACILITIES

Centers with mixed age groups should have facilities
of various sizes or heights for the prevention of handicap-
ping children. Three lavatories and three toilets are needed
for each 20 or 25 children. Four of each could be well used ;
however, the minimum requirement is two of each for the
number of children forestated. Individual lockers and
sturdy cots or other resting facilities are required. Table II
may be compared with the standard requirements.

TABLE II
CENTERS WITH MINIMUM INDOOR FACILITIES

No. Per Cent

1. Two lavatories for 20 or 25 children 16 100

2. Two toilets for each 20 or 25 children 16 100

3. Sufficient number of tables and chairs of correct

proportion and size 6 38

4. Individual lockers 12 75

Totals 50 313

PLAY MATERIALS, SUPPLIES, and PLAY EQUIPMENT

Froebel (1782-1855), known as the father of the kinder-
garten, spear-headed the idea that play is necessaiy for
the development of the whole child. This supposition has
steadily grown stronger throughout the years. A quote by
Fagre and his co-authors contend "Through wholesome
active play a child develops his body and builds up vitality
that is in itself a basis for a socially useful personality. He
learns much through the experimentation that goes on in
play, manipulation of materials, trial and error handling of
objects and natural resources. Play not only builds in him
a happy attitude toward work but stimulates him to mental
activity.^ Having accepted Froebel's idea that play is a nec-
essity, one must also accept his theory that play materials
are also necessary for complete growth and development.

When selecting toys, it should be remembered that the
most expensive toys are not as satisfying as those that do
not have to be handled restrictively. This does not mean
that toys should not be durable and able to take rugged
treatment. The selection of simple toys is the most siutable
choice for group play. They should be suitable for the age
and mental development of the group. Toys should be

'Fagre, Anderson, Harris, Child Care and Training, Eighth Edition. Uni-
versity of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1959. pp. 203-204.

35

washable, when possible and safe. By selecting toys care-
fully, it is possible to obtain items that may be used in a
variety of activities. When selecting toys, the following
stages of growth should be considered : physical, emotional,
social, and mental development.

Table III shows a group of toys listed according to
types of play and activities. This table indicates a serious
shortage of toys in the majority of the areas. It is interest-
ing to note that the areas of music and books are much bet-
ter supplied than other play materials.

TABLE III

PLAY MATERIALS, SUPPLIES, AND EQUIPMENT
IN THE SAVANNAH DAY CARE CENTERS

No. with
Toys for Indoor Sufficient

Physical Development Per Cent Quantities

Toys on wheels, balls, constructive sets 44 7

Punch bags, boxing gloves 6.3 1

Carpenter's bench, hammers, saws, wood, nails, screws,
vise

Toys for Dramatic and Imaginative Play

Washable dolls (unbreakable) 38 6

Doll clothes and doll beds 38 6

Dress-up clothes and shoes, telephones, irons and iron-
ing boards, kitchen equipment 12.5 2

Play store supplies, airplanes, cars, wooden people and

animals 19 3

Supplies for Creative and Constructive Play
Large crayon. No. 38, construction paper, newsprint
paper, blunt scissors, clay or plasticine, easels and

easel paint, finger paint and age level puzzles 75 12

Large wooden beads for stringing

simple weaving supplies^ 38 6

Musical Instruments and Books

Piano, record player, or radio 81 13

Rhythm instruments 50 8

Variety of books suitable for age levels 81 13

No. with
Toys and Equipment for Sufficient

Outdoor Development Per Cent Quantities

Wagons 31.3 5

Tricycles 25 4

Swings 50 8

Ass't Blocks (hollow) 25 4

Sliding Boards 38 6

Jungle Gymns 44 7

Cleated Boards 6.3 1

(6' or 8'x7", %" thick)

Various sizes of Utility Balls 63 11

Portable Ladders 18.9 3

Climbing Ropes, Rope Ladders or Cargo Nets 6.3 1

Bouncing Boards (10' 7" to lO'xYs")

Playground Packing Boxes, Crates or Barrels 6.3 1

Saw Horses, Var. Hts 6.3 1

Wheel barrows

Playboards ( % "x5 Vz "x44" ) 6.3 1

Sandpiles, Shovels, Pails 6.3 1

36

Because it was not feasible to list all of the toys, sup-
plies and materials which aid in the development of the
child, Table III does not represent a true picture on play
materials, equipment, and supplies.

Good health may well be considered our greatest asset.
It is such an important factor that it should never be neg-
lected at any age. Giving a child proper medical care and
attention and instilling in him the fundamental health habits
assures him of a chance for becoming a noteworthy citizen.
Just as the foundation for social traits is laid during the
formative years, so it is with the building of the foundation
for proper health habits. Preschool children should form
the habit of eating a variety of foods. In addition to form-
ing a good habit, they are getting the elements necessary
for proper growth and development. The meals should be
well-balanced and given at a regular time, and in between
eating should be omitted except fruits and juices. Chil-
dren need proper rest and sleep according to their ages and
individual differences. Fortunately several of the health
measures are enforced in the centers according to the facts
in Table IV.

TABLE IV

HEALTH MEASURES SUPPORTED BY THE DIRECTORS
OF THE DAY CARE CENTERS

Number of staff members having yearly X-rays and occasional

check ups 16

Schools keeping Immunization Records 16

Schools Conducting Daily Health Inspections 16

Schools serving hot, well-balanced lunch and morning and afternoon

snacks 5

Schools Providing Rest Periods 16

Schools using Cots, Rugs or Mats during rest periods 7

Schools having First Aid Kits 16

Schools Permitting Children to bring lunch or snacks 16

The data in Table IV shows that only five centers sei've
hot, well balanced meals. This is probably due to the fact
that so many schools dismiss by one o'clock. One more re-
minder, children must be protected from undue social and
mental ills ; otherwise, they will not be able to cope with the
challenges of life.

FEES

Table V indicates a very low fee per month paid by
parents. From personal interviews, it seems as if this trend
stems from the problem of low income. Money received
from those who pay according to their ability is meager, and
some of the teachers acknowledge that they keep some

37

children from time to time whose parents are not able to
pay any thing. The rescue solution has not reached teach-
ers maintaining private centers.

TABLE V
FEES PER MONTH

Fee $10.00

$9.00

$8.00

$7.00

$6.00 $5.00

No. of

Nursery Schs. 2

1

4

1 3

Fee $4.00

$3.00

$2.00

$1.00

Depending on Ability
to pay*

No. of

Nursery Schs. 1

1

3

5

''Five Nursery Schools in addition to their established fee also charge
according to the ability to pay.

TEACHERS

The child who is making his initial departure from
home and loved ones needs someone who is understanding,
sympathetic, and friendly. Gardner sums up the desired
personal qualities of the preschool teacher by saying "Mod-
ern methods . . . demand that the teacher should have a
sensitive insight into the minds of children, that she shall
be swift to appreciate and sympathize with their purposes,
to understand their anxieties and those of their parents, and
intelligent enough to perceive and take up in the right way
the many opportunities which are there to be used for the
child's happiness, welfare, and intellectual progress."'*

The same personal qualities required of the director
or head teacher are necessary for the assistant teacher also.
However, the head teacher has a much greater responsi-
bility. She is the guiding light for the parents, children,
and those who assist in the school. Savannah's requirements
for formal education and experience, generally, are in ac-
cord with those recommended by specialists in the field of
early childhood education. The director and teacher are
expected to be graduates from an accredited college with
a major in early childhood education, and the assistant
should be a graduate of an accredited high school. Regard-
less of training or lack of it, those who work with children
must be alert and interested in their growth and develop-
ment.^

Table VI shows the educational status of the teachers.
Their personal qualifications observed during personal in-
terviews seemed quite fitting for preschool teachers.

*D. E. M. Gardner, The Education of the Young Child, Philosophical Li-
brary, New York, 1957. pp. 82-83.

'Friendly and understanding pediatricians, nurses, and dentists are in-
cluded as invaluable people in the life of the child.

.38

TABLE VI

TRAINING OF THE PRESCHOOL TEACHERS

Number Percentage

Teachers 28

Less than High School Diploma 6 21.4

High School Diploma 3 10.7

High School Diploma Plus 10 35.7

College Degree 3 10.7

College Degree Plus 3 10.7

M. A. Degree Plus 3 10.7

CONCLUSION

The Negro preschool centers fail to measure up to the
minimum standards in the following areas: buildings, in-
door facilities, play materials, supplies, equipments, and
formal teacher training. In spite of substandards in most
categories, it is encouraging to note the progress made in
the field of health, even though its program needs to be
improved.

FUTURE OUTLOOK FOR NEGRO NURSERY
SCHOOLS IN SAVANNAH

1. Preschool standards will be raised so as to meet
national standards in the areas of staff training,
physical facilities, equipment, toys, supplies, and
health and safety measures.

2. Preschool training will become a part of the formal
educational system in all of the states.

3. Child care agencies will see to it that private
schools get more financial help than they are now
getting.

39

The Savannah State College Library:
In Retrospect and Prospect

by
E. J. Josey

The founding of any library is usually the result of the
thoughts and actions of a few people in a community. But
before these library-minded citizens can act, there must be
an environment which nurtures or encourages the growth
of a libraiy. In our institutions of learning, the need for
books and related materials to support the instructional
program is the one single factor which nurtures the birth
of the academic library. Such institutions of higher learn-
ing as Harvard University and the University of California
can boast that their libraries preceded the growth and de-
velopment of their institutions.

Most American university and college libraries are not
as fortunate as Harvard or California. There is overwhelm-
ing evidence that, in most instances, the library has lagged
behind her sister departments in the college. One scholar
asserts, "In many institutions it is very low on the totem
pole below the student union, athletic field, gymnasium,
and other accepted facilities. Colleges and universities will
invest great sums in expensive scientific and technological
development, all of which may be necessary, but will not
meet satisfactorily the needs of that branch of the institu-
tion which is extremely close to its reason for existence,
and which is perhaps the best single means of guaranteeing
the continuity between classroom and post collegiate cul-
ture."i

Returning to the assertion that the need for books and
related materials to support the instructional program
which nurtures the development of an academic library, we
find that other factors and influences, in too many instances,
have operated against or restrained and retarded the de-
velopment of many of the nation's college libraries in gen-
eral, and Negro college libraries in particular. If Carlyle's
dictum "The true university of these days is a collection of
books" is taken seriously, America's universities and col-
leges are rather poor. In spite of the plight of many Ameri-
can academic libraries, in the building of institutions of
higher learning, libraries have played a significant role.

THE PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The opening of the new college library concurrently with
the commencing of the 1959-60 academic year marked a

^William W. Brickman. "The Library and Higher Education," School and
Society, 87:348, September 12, 1959.

40

new phase in the history of Savannah State College. For
the first time in the history of this venerable institution,
library service is available to students and faculty in a
library building erected exclusively for library purposes.
Such a historic occasion merits a little reflection and crys-
tal-gazing. The specific purposes of this paper are twofold :
Firstly, to take a historical glance at the Savannah State
College Library, and secondly, to do a little crystal-gazing
by attempting to chart a new course for the development
of the Savannah State College Library in the light of new
standards of college library service and the development
of new programs for library service.

Limitations and Strengths

There are many weaknesses inherent in a study of this
kind. In retrospect, one has hindsight and the lessons of the
past which enable him to generalize and reach a plausible
conclusion if sources of information are available. In pros-
pect, one is charting a new course for the ship with foresight
that may not be as safe as hindsight in view of unforeseen
developments and circumstances which may cause him to
alter his course. Specific limitations also include conflicting
reports in the college catalog with respect to book stock
figures and figures on inventory records. The lack of library
reports from 1891 to 1942, the gaps in the college catalog
collection, the absence of the accession record up to 1941,
and the paucity of information in general on the library
during the early years of the institution are a few of the
impediments for producing an exhaustive historical study
on the library.

The strengths of the study stem from the fact that three
former librarians. Miss Joan McAllister (now Dr. Joan
Gordon of the faculty). Miss Ursuline Belcher (now Mrs.
Ben Ingersoll) and Miss Luella Hawkins (presently Asso-
ciate and Reference Librarian) were gracious enough to
submit to the writer's probing in order to ferret out bits of
unrecorded history. The preparation for the future would
not have been possible if the new college standards were
not available. 2 The serious consideration of the challenge of
the sixties and the effect of the challenge on educational
institutions, generally, and academic libraries, specifically,
by a vanguard of educators and librarians have aided the
writer in his attempt to shape a course for the future.

THE LIBRARY'S HISTORICAL PAST

It is virtually impossible to consider the history of an
academic library without some consideration of the history
of the institution of which it is an integral part.

The Savannah State College is the oldest Negro, state-
supported higher educational institution in Georgia. The

-Association of College and Research Libraries. "Standards for College
Libraries," College and Research Libraries, 20:274-280, July 1959.

41

fii"st step for its founding was taken by the legislature in
1890, when it accepted the provisions of the second Morrill
Act of 1890.2 It was not until November 26, 1890, however,
that the Legislature enacted legislation establishing the
Georgia State Industrial College as a branch of the Univer-
sity of Georgia. The newly appointed board, under the lead-
ership of P. W. Meldrim of Savannah invited towns to bid
for the college. After giving consideration to other sites,
the board accepted the old Warren Estate near Thunderbolt,
six miles from Savannah. On October 7, 1891, approximately
1200 persons assembled on the campus to witness the for-
mal opening of the college.^

Range reveals that "the Morrill Act had provided spe-
cifically that emphasis must be placed on industries, on the
teaching of Agriculture, the Mechanic Arts, the Physical,
Natural and Economic Sciences, Mathematics, and English
all with reference to their practical application to everyday
life." For many years, the college curriculum emphasized
the courses of study listed above. However, in the fall of
1951, Agriculture was discontinued. In subsequent years
the curricular offerings have expanded to ran the gamut
from business to music, therefore, going beyond the original
aims and purposes of the institution.

There was not much in the early history of the college to
foretell or reveal in a prophetic view the rich fulfillment
which was to come in later years. In addition to the college
offerings, Georgia State Industrial College had to provide
college preparatoiy studies, because there were only one
or two high schools for Negroes in the state. Nevertheless,
the groundwork was laid for its contribution to Negro higher
education. The name of the college was changed to Savan-
nah State College on Januaiy 18, 1950. Despite the exciting
development of the college to its present position of the
largest Negro undergraduate college in Georgia, the his-
torical development of the library was not impressive be-
cause emphasis, at the outset, was on the practical ; there-
fore, there was little need for books. Certainly, emphasis
on college preparatoiy studies and the lack of emphasis on
the library as a teaching instrument impeded the progress
of the Savannah State College Library.

Beginnings of the Library Collection

Turning from the history of the college to the historj^
of the library, it is quite evident that while the college was
expanding and growing rapidly in many directions, it was
unfortunately neglecting the development of library re-
sources. This is quite evident from the present status of the
library collection and the history of its growth and develop-

^Willard Range, The Rise and Pi-ogress of Negro Colleges In Georgia
1865-1949 (Athens: The University of Georgia Press, 1951), p. 62.
*Ibid. p. 63.
^Ibid. p. 64.

42

ment. The first college catalogue reveals that there was a
library collection of 250 volumes.^ Twenty years later, the
official catalogue of the college reveals that only 350 addi-
tional volumes had been added ; thus, giving a total collec-
tion of 600 volumes.'

The slow growth of the book collection gives evidence
which supports the belief that the library played a minor
role in the early history of the institution. However, the
statement, "We are anxious to increase this number as rap-
idly as possible, and therefore solicit donations of good
books from our friends"^ is a profound testimony which
demonstrates that the college authorities were cognizant of
the importance of the library but were unable to build a
first-rate library collection because of lack of funds. Six
years later, the college catalogue reports that the collection
had decreased to 400 volumes.^ Since there are no inventory
records available, it is impossible to reach a conclusion re-
garding the decrease ; in all probability, the volumes were
discarded because they were obsolete or lost duiing the in-
ter\^ening years.

Thirty years after the establishment of the institution,
a library collection of 400 volumes is substantial proof of
the little use of books in the instructional program. Hulbert
suggests that "books were instruments of formal instruction
and study; the pleasure and recreation elements in reading
had no place in the strict academic discipline then main-
tained"^ in the early development of Negro collegiate edu-
cation. Closely allied with Hulbert's explanation is the fact
that there was no real need for a large variety of books
necessary for a college library as there is in the 1960's, be-
cause so many Negro college students were unable to read
anything except the basic elementarj^ textbooks. Therefore,
the majority of Negro college library collections, at the turn
of the century, were woefully inadequate.

Continuing the historical survey of the book collection,
it is impossible to trace the growth of the collection in the
1920's as reflected in the college catalog, for the college
catalog does not mention the number of volumes in the
library collection. Nevertheless, the United States Office of
Education's sui'\^ey of Negro institutions in 1928 reveals that
very few additions had been made to the library collection
in the 20's. Klein writes, "The library of the Georgia State
Industrial College has only a few books, the majority of
which are old and out of date. Because no card catalogue

^Announcement and Catalogue of the Georgia State Industrial College,

Savannah, Georgia, 1891-92, p. 26.
''Yearbook of the Georgia State Industrial College, Savannah, Georgia,

1909-1910, p. 41.
Hhid.
^Catalog of the Georgia State Industrial College, Savannah, Georgia,

1920-21, p. 9.
"James A. Hulbert, "The Negro College Librarv," Journal of Negro

Education 12:623, 1943.

43

has been made, the institution was unable to furnish infor-
mation regarding the number of volumes on hand.

"The committee found, however, that a large, well-
lighted room had been provided with reading tables and
chairs and that the shelves and other equipment were of
first-rate type. Expenditures for library purposes in 1926-27
amounted to $400, of which $300 was expended for books
and $100 for magazines.

"Plans for the expansion of the library have recently
been made ; some science books of a collegiate quality have
already been added . . ."^^

The Klein report not only reveals the deficiencies of
the Georgia State Industrial College Library, but also points
out the inadequacies of Negro college libraries in general,
for it revealed that only fifteen Negro colleges of the sev-
enty-nine surveyed had 10,000 or more volumes and seven
had no libraries at all.^- The foregoing statement is not
given as an apology for the snail-pace growth of the Savan-
nah State College Library, but given to portray the weakness
of library service in Negro institutions during this period.
The following commentary by Holmes, "While the report
generously praises the Negro Colleges for their great ad-
vancement under serious handicaps, yet it reveals, in gen-
eral, a serious deficiency in support, in library facili-
ties . . ."^3 supports this writer's premise in a foregoing
section of this paper that in most colleges, the library has
lagged behind the other departments within the framework
of growth and development of the entire institution. The
integration of the library and the instructional program has
only been emphasized during the last thirty years ; this
emphasis has resulted in the improvement and upgrading of
academic libraries in our nation's colleges.

The period 1931 to 1940-41 is significant. The library
has grown to approximately 6,000 volumes during the school
year 1931-32.1* By 1940-41, a collection of 8,000 volumes
was housed in the college library.^^

The college library's accession record dates from 1941.
The greatest growth in the library collection has come dur-
ing the last two decades. The accession record reveals that
as of June 30, 1942, which marked the end of the first year
in which the accession record was maintained, the library

^ ^Arthur J. Klein. Survey of Negro Colleges and Universities, United
States Office of Education, Department of the Interior, Bulletin, 1928,
No. 7 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1929), p. 329.

^-Ibid. p. 624.

^^Dwight Oliver Wendell Holmes, The Evolution of the Negro College
(New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia Uni-
versity, 1934), p. 184.

^'^Catalogue of the Georgia State Industrial College, Savannah, Georgia,
1931-32, p. 13.

^'Catalogue of the Georgia State Industrial College, Savannah, Georgia,
1940-41, p. 15.

44

added 1,753 volumes. By June 30, 1960, the library had offi-
cially accessioned 37,375 volumes which represent a 467
per cent increase over the holdings of the library in 1940-41.
This total does not represent a true picture of the library's
holdings, for many volumes have been worn out, superseded,
discarded and withdrawn, so as of June 30, 1960, the total
holdings of the library collection was 28,750. The tremen-
dous growth of the book collection during the last two
decades gives first hand evidence of the increasing impor-
tance of the role of the library in the institution.

The Library Staff

Although the library was established in 1891, and 600
books were added by the school year 1900-1901, the first
time a librarian is mentioned in available records is in the
catalog for 1930-31. Miss Ursuline Belcher's (now Mrs. Ben
Ingersoll) name appeared in the catalog as the librarian.
However, Miss Joan McAllister (now Dr. Joan Gordon, of
the Social Science faculty) served part-time for two years
prior to Mrs. Ingersoll's appointment. Mrs. Ingersoll also
divided her time between the operation of the library and
the teaching of English classes, but spent considerably more
time in the library.

Before the establishment of the Hampton Library
School, there was no satisfactory agency in the South which
had the responsibility of setting standards for admission to
the profession of librarianship. Therefore, as a result of this
sorry state of affairs, there was a wide range in formal edu-
cational achievements among Negro college librarians than
in any of the older professions. Dr. Gordon assumed the posi-
tion with no training in Library Science, while Mrs. Inger-
soll had a few courses at the University of Minnesota. In
spite of their lack of training, Dr. Gordon and Mrs. Inger-
soll performed admirably, for much of the equipment or-
dered by Dr. Gordon remained in use until the opening of
the new library building in 1959, and many of the titles
catalogued by Mrs. Ingersoll are still a part of our collection
today.

One of the most cogent statements which show the im-
portance of trained librarians for Negro educational insti-
tutions is "probably the greatest impetus to general library
development and, doubtless, the most important single fac-
tor in the improvement of libraries within Negro institu-
tions of higher learning, was the work of the Hampton Insti-
tute Library School. The activities of its director. Miss Flor-
ence R. Curtis, were greatly responsible for the arousing of
Negro educators from their indifference regarding libraries.
The fourteen years of the school's existence show a remark-
able record. "1^

The Savannah State College library owes a great debt

i^Hulbert, op. cit., p. 624.

45

to the Hampton Institute Library School, for the first pro-
fessionally trained librarian employed by the college was a
graduate of this school. Miss Luella Hawkins assumed the
position of Librarian in the fall of 1934 and remained at the
helm until she became Associate and Reference Librarian
in the fall of 1959. In the fall of 1946, Miss Madeline Harri-
son joined the staff as Assistant Librarian ; and in 1948, Miss
Althea Williams augmented the professional staff. The as-
sumption of the position of Librarian by the writer in 1959
increased the professional staff to four. It can be said with
great authority that it is with Luella Hawkins' librarianship,
forty-four years after the founding of the college, that a
new beginning for the establishment of a real college library
seems modestly to have been made. All would agree that an
excellent book collection is the sine qua non of a college
library ; nevertheless, unless there is a highly qualified pro-
fessional staff of librarians to organize the book collection
and to assist readers in the use of the book collection, ade-
quate library service is an impossibility.

Library Quarters

Efficient library service is not possible without adequate
library quarters. All available information indicates that
the first organized and catalogued library was housed in
Meldrim. A picture of the modest and well appointed li-
brary appears in the 1930-31 college catalog. The 1936-37
catalog announces the opening of the library in new quar-
ters located on the first floor of the Walter B. Hill Hall and
the library remained in this location until the summer of
1959.

It is universally true that library quarters are overtaxed
when either its readers space or its book capacity is more
than 75 per cent in use. For many years the Hill-Hall quar-
ters were inadequate, for students would spread out their
work and lay coats or books on adjacent chairs; conse-
quently, students were unanimous in their dissatisfaction
with the library as a place to study. During the middle of
each quarter when the highest attendance was counted, the
library was always overcrowded and congested. By and
large, the library was not at all inviting.

The physical aspects of the library were far from being
ideal. Working space for staff was at a premium. There
were congested areas behind the Circulation and Reserve
Desks and a small area for technical processing. The total
inadequacy of the library seriously hampered efficiency of
service to readers and technical operations.

For years, the college administration, the library staff,
the faculty and the student body yearned for and dreamed
about a new library building. This dream became a reality
when students and faculty entered the new library on Oc-
tober 7, 1959 for library service. There is no need to describe

46

the new building here, because a description appears else-
where in print. 1' Designed to be the focal point of the entire
educational experience at Savannah State College, the new
library building is destined to become the intellectual center
of the campus.

PROSPECTUS FOR THE FUTURE

A historical portrait of the library has been drawn
which depicts the growth of the library in three areas : book
collection, professional staff, and quarters. This section of
the paper represents a blueprint for the future. To chart a
course for the future is one of the most difficult tasks facing
man in any field of endeavor, for the rapid changes are so
fast until the architect of the future must, in some cases,
alter his plans before he removes the blueprint from the
drawing board. However, academic librarians would agree
that college administrators and librarians must look into the
future with sound plans for a number of reasons.

Firstly, it is virtually impossible for a college to provide
a good general education for its students unless it has a good
library. Secondly, library services and facilities are of such
importance until the absence of first-rate facilities and serv-
ices along with a superb book collection seriously handicap
students and faculty. And thirdly, costs in relation to serv-
ices are high, e.g., a growing student enrollment demands
a rapidly growing collection and services; acquisition and
cataloguing become more expensive as these operations be-
come more complicated. The three factors listed above rep-
resent only general factors that plague library planners for
the future. More specific factors will be dealt with as these
become germane to the discussion.

A Book Collection For the Future

Most college librarians contend that a well chosen col-
lection of 100,000 volumes will provide for the reading pro-
gram of an undergraduate institution. Our present collection
of 28,750 is woefully inadequate. According to the new
standards, an institution of our size should have a minimum
collection of 70,000 volumes. ^^ The need for library ma-
terials is determined in part by the extent and variety of
course offerings as well as the extra-curricular reading in-
terests of the students. "Also it should contain a generous
selection of works to keep the members of the faculty
abreast of the latest advances in scholarship. "^'^

Although the library has a responsibility to faculty
needs and interests, the collection should be a live working
collection and not primarily a research collection. Esoteric
and little used material should not be part and parcel of an

^"^E. J. Josey, "Savannah State," Library Journal, 84:3721-3722, Decem-
ber 1, 1959.
^^Association of College and Research Libraries. Op. cit., 278.
i976fff. 276.

47

undergraduate collection ; these materials may be borrowed
from one of the university or research libraries on inter-
library loan. To ensure the assembling of a useful collection
for the support of the instructional program, it is necessary
for the faculty to participate in the book selection process.

What are the essentials of a good library collection?
It is essential that the library amass a good reference col-
lection which will provide bibliographical keys to the world
of scholarship. Secondly, current books should be reflected
in the library's holdings. These current titles should not
necessarily be those appearing on the best-seller list, but
books that will become a part of our heritage, e.g., Vance
Packard's The Status Seekers, Joseph Wood Krutch's Hu-
man Nature and the Human Condition or C. Wright Mills'
The Power Elite. Thirdly, "in addition to the materials re-
lated directly or indirectly to the curriculum, the collection
should contain the standard works which represent the heri-
tage of civilization. These works should be continuously sup-
plemented by a wide variety of books which combine time-
liness with enduring values chosen to arouse the intellectual
curiosity of students and to satisfy their recreational read-
ing needs."-" And fourthly, the collection must contain a
periodical collection which will supplement the book collec-
tion on subjects which the library does not have, as well as
provide the most recent information available. In the years
ahead, the periodical collection must be augmented by at
least 200 titles.

To provide for the kind of collection suggested above,
it is imperative that the library should have a continuing
budget for books and related materials of not less than
$30,000 for the next ten years. This budget would aid in
filling in the gaps of the collection of older landmark books
which should have been procured during the library's lean
years, as well as provide for the generous acquisition of
significant current books. The sum $30,000 per year may
sound exhorbitant; however, one college librarian suggests
"the college should be prepared to spend enough money for
library services. As a rule of thumb, an average expenditure
of $100.00 per student per year is desirable; anything less
than $50.00 per student, per year is inadequate."-^

Library Staff

No library is better than the professional staff which
provides its services to readers. The addition of the Serials
and Curriculum Materials Librarian in the fall of 1960 will
increase the professional staff to five. The new positions
that will be needed for the future will be largely determined
by an increasing enrollment, an increase in book funds, and

-^Ihid. 276-277.

-^Wen Chao Chen, "A Sound Library Service for the Small College,"
Liberal Education, 46:239, May 1960.

48

the addition of new library services. In the immediate fu-
ture, it is our desire to add an assistant cataloguer to handle
special materials, e.g., records, curriculum materials center
items, and foreign monographs, etc. The provision for an
Assistant Cataloger, along with competent clerical assist-
ance will provide the library with adequate personnel for
the decade ahead. A highly trained professional staff is
essential to the efficient operation of a college library.

Library Use

The use of the library by college students is the direct
result of faculty teaching methods. The assembling of the
best book collection and the procurement of the most able
librarians in the world will not alter this fact. A faculty that
employs the use of the textbook does not demand the use
of the library. The Savannah State faculty is greatly con-
cerned about the use of the college library.

During the year 1959-60, the dean of faculty stressed
the use of the library at one of the Curriculum Committee
Meetings and at a special faculty-instructional meeting. The
electrifying discussion which followed generated more li-
brary assignments than ever before. Another healthy sign
during the 1959-60 school year was this fact: there was a
71.48 per cent decrease in the use of reserve books, for our
students now have access to the entire book collection be-
cause of open stacks in the new building.

In the years ahead, our students will depend less and
less upon reserve books. They will do more independent
study as recommended by Mr. Guy Lyle, Librarian of Emory
University who opened the 1959-60 Savannah State Faculty
Workshop with a brilliant address on "The Use of The Col-
lege Library." Two scholars hold this view : One of Amer-
ica's most library-minded college presidents writes, "I dis-
covered at the early stage of my career that the reserve
shelf, instead of facilitating use of books, was often, in
actual practice, a barrier to their effective employment.
Many students never touched any other books; the cata-
logue, the reference works, bibliographical aids of everj^
kind were all neglected."-- Knapp writes, "Perhaps the
heyday of the reserve collection is over. . . . Perhaps college
instructors, in general, are returning to textbooks, source-
books and books of readings, and are also taking advantage
of the newly-available paper-bound reprints. "^^ The trend
away from the assignment of specific readings to a sampling
of a wider range of materials will certainly give our stu-
dents more knowledge of and appreciation for books, which
in turn, will be a variation from being spoon-fed to learning.

--Henry M. Wriston, Academic Procession; Reflections of a College Presi-
dent (New York: Columbia University Press, 1959), p. 133.

-^Patricia B. Knapp, College Teaching and The College Library (Chi-
cag-o: American Library Association, 1959), p. 19.

49

With regard to the role of the library staff in stimulat-
ing library use, the professional library staff has a sacred
duty insofar as encouraging greater use of the library. The
staff should keep the faculty abreast of the new materials
in their teaching fields. In addition to the faculty's responsi-
bility to encourage more student reading, the library staff
must promote cultural and recreational reading by provid-
ing and making accessible stimulating materials and pro-
viding displays, book lists, publicity, lecture series, and
stimulating a readers advisor service.

The prospectus for the future is great. Our problems
are complex but not insolvable. Assembling a book collec-
tion for the future, maintaining a highly skilled staff and
stimulating library use are by no means all the problems
we face. A myriad of additional vexed questions, e.g., effi-
cient utilization of space, a more extensive use of microtext
materials with the accompanying problems of procurement
of machines for our readers' use, the use of time and motion
studies for the effective use of staff personnel and the inau-
guration of plans for bibliographical training for upper level
students, are being studied but could not be taken into con-
sideration in a paper of this length.

SUMMARY

A thumb nail sketch of the development of the college
and a history of the library have been discussed as essential
to an understanding of the complex library situation of the
past and the presentation of a program for the future. The
whole history reveals that during the early years of the
college there was a terrifying complacency about the li-
brary. This complacency and neglect stemmed from a lack
of funds available, the absence of trained personnel, unsuit-
able library quarters and to a large extent, the emphasis
of the curriculum on the practical. As the college began to
grow curriculum-wise, there was not a corresponding
growth in library resources. In its comparative neglect of
the library during the early years, Savannah State College
has followed a pattern which was prevalent in all Negro
institutions of higher learning.

As we project into the future, our number one task will
be to strengthen the library collection. Strengthening the
book collection demands a large capital outlay of funds
during the next decade in order to catch up in the assem-
bling of a basic book collection, filling in the gaps of the
collection, and at the same time, acquiring significant cur-
rent titles. As the library collection grows, as library serv-
ices increase, along with an increased college enrollment,
correspondingly, the staff must be augmented. During the
next decade, there will be less use of reserves and more use
of a wider variety of materials from the stacks. The library
staff must be unrelenting in its encouragement of the love
for and appreciation of books by our students.

50

All in all, the Savannah State College Library must
foster and nurture scholarship. Its proper future should be
to become the richest, the most varied, and the most acces-
sible college library in Georgia. As the library grows to
achievement, the library will be measured by its service and
its usefulness to the institution. Sympathetic support it will
always need. It must never slip into inconspicuousness and
mediocrity. So long as the library fosters and nurtures
scholarship, it will be the intellectual center of the campus.

51

Sherman, Savannah, and the Negro

by
Blanton E. Black

This monograph relates to an intriguing and little pub-
licized facet of the history of the Civil War, namely, the
proposed experiment of General W. T. Sherman in 1865 of
establishing the freed Negroes in self-sufficient reserva-
tions in the coastal area of South Carolina, Georgia, and
northern Florida.

Issued as Special Field Orders, No. 15, Headquarters
Military Division of the Mississippi, In the Field, Savannah,
Georgia, January 16, 1865, excerpts follow:

1. The islands from Charleston south, the abandoned
rice fields along the rivers for thirty miles back from the
sea, and the country bordering the St. John's, Florida, are
reserved and set apart for the settlement of the negroes
now made free by the acts of war and the proclamation of
the President of the United States.

2. At Beaufort, Hilton Head, Savannah, Fernandina,
St. Augustine, and Jacksonville, the blacks may remain in
their chosen or accustomed vocations; but on the islands,
and in the settlements hereafter to be established, no white
person whatever, unless military officers and soldiers de-
tailed for duty, will be permitted to reside ; and the sole and
exclusive management of affairs will be left to the freed peo-
ple themselves, subject only to the United States military
authority, and the acts of Congress . . .

3. Whenever three respectable negroes, heads of fam-
ilies, shall desire to settle on land, and shall have selected
for that purpose an island or a locality clearly defined with-
in the limits above designated, the Inspector of Settlements
and Plantations will himself, of by such subordinate officer
as he may appoint, give them a license to settle such island
or district, and afford them such assistance as he can enable
them to establish a peaceful agricultural settlement . . .
each family shall have a plot of not more than forty acres
of tillable ground, and, when it borders on some water-
channel, with not more than eight hundred feet water-front,
in the possession of which land the military authorities will
afford them protection until such time as they can protect
themselves, or until Congress shall regulate their title.

4. Whenever a negro has enlisted in the military serv-
ice of the United States, he may locate his family in any one
of the settlements at pleasure, and acquire a homestead, and
all other rights and privileges of a settler, as though present
in person.

52

5. In order to carry out this system of settlement, a
general officer will be detailed as Inspector of Settlements
and Plantations. The same general officer will be charged
with the enlistment and organization of the negro recruits,
and protecting their interests while absent from their settle-
ments . . .

6. Brigadier-General R. Saxton is hereby appointed
Inspector of Settlements and Plantations, and will at once
enter on the performance of his duties.

By order of Major-General W. T. Sherman
L. M. Dayton, Assistant Adjutant-General

This remarkable document is quoted in the 1885 edi-
tion of Memoirs of General William T. Sherman. By Himself

Vol II (pp 250-252). Herein is an extraordinary compilation
of descriptions of military engagements, official correspond-
ence, and personal reflections published by D, Appleton and
Company. Long since out of print, these Memoirs exemplify
an elegance of diction and clarity of expression that dis-
tinguish the General as of uncommon literary talent.

To say the least. General Sherman is a controversial
figure ; for, by some he is described as cruel and vindictive,
cold-blooded and merciless ; by others he is extolled as hu-
manitarian and liberator of those who were in bondage.
Without a doubt, with reference to tactics resorted to in his
march through Georgia from Atlanta to Savannah, he looms
as the nineteenth century precursor of this century's philos-
ophy of total war and scorched-earth policy.

And yet, was Sherman in his all-consuming desire to
save the Union dedicated to the task of freeing the Negro?
For an answer, the objective historian is impelled to search
for hidden clues amidst the skillful wordage of his free-
flowing prose.

An inkling as to General Sherman's attitude toward
the Negro is suggested in his account of demolition proce-
dure in the vicinity of Atlanta (Memoirs, p. 105) :

The track was heaved up in sections the length of a
regiment, then separated rail by rail ; bonfires were
made of the tires and the fence-rails on which the rails
were heated, carried to trees or telegraph-poles,
wrapped around and left to cool. Such rails could not
be used again; and, to be still more certain, we filled
up many cuts with trees, brush, and earth, and com-
mingled with them loaded shells, so arranged that they
would explode on an attempt to haul out the brushes.
The explosion of one such shell would have demoral-
ized a gang of negroes, and thus would have prevented
even the attempt to clear the road.

General J. B. Hood, commanding the Confederate forc-
es in Atlanta on September 12, 1864, wrote a letter to Gen-
eral Sherman protesting the conditions of surrender the

53

forced removal of the civilian populations. Further protest
also included denunciation of General Sherman for using
Negro troops (Memoirs p. 123) :

You came into our country with your army, avowedly
for the purpose of subjugating free white men, women,
and children, and not only intended to rule over them,
but you make negroes your allies, and desire to place
over us an inferior race . . .

Better die a thousand deaths than submit to live under
your Government and your negro allies.

Upon receiving this letter, Sherman, evidently filled
with indignation, replied to General Wood in the following
manner (Memoirs, September 14, 1864. p. 127) :

We have no "negro allies" in this army; not a single

negro soldier left Chattanooga with this army, or is

with it now.

Here is clear evidence of the General's negative, if not
derogatory, estimate of Negro Militia. In a letter to the
Mayor and City Council of Atlanta (Memoirs, pp. 125-126) ,
the General asserts:

We don't want your negroes, or your horses, or your
houses, or your lands, or anything you have, but we do
want and we will have a just obedience to the laws of
the United States,

Sherman expressed pity for the slaves v/ho felt that the
war was being fought for their freedom. This, to the Gen-
eral, was a misapprehension attributable to the Negro's
child-like lack of understanding. Clarifying this point of
view, he relates the following incident which occurred No-
vember 17, 1864, during his march from Atlanta to Savan-
nah, On a plantation near Covington, Georgia, the General
questioned an elderly Negro of visible and superior intelli-
gence :

"I asked him if he understood about the war and its

progress. He said he did ; that he had been looking for

the 'angel of the Lord' ever since he was knee-high,

and, though we professed to be fighting for the Union,

he supposed that slavery w^as the cause, and that our

success was to be his freedom. I asked him if all the

negro slaves comprehended this fact, and he said they

surely did." (Memoirs, pp, 180-181).

General Sherman then proceeded to explain that he

wanted the slaves to remain where they were so that his

army would not be overloaded with useless mouths to be

fed. Two Special Field Orders issued at the command of

General Sherman on November 8 and 9 of 1864 emphasized

his consideration of the slaves as so much troublesome en-

combridge. Special Field Orders No. 119:

. . . All surplus servants, noncombatants, and refugees,
should now go to the rear, and none should be encour-
aged to encomber us on the march. At some future time

54

we will be able to provide for the poor whites and
blacks who seek to escape the bondage under which
they are now suffering (Memoirs, p. 174),
In spite of the efforts made to discourage the slaves
from following in the wake of Sherman's army, a great num-
ber followed just the same. On December 13, 1864, in a
letter to Hon. E. M. Stanton, Secretary of War, Washing-
ton, D. C, General Sherman wrote :

We reached Savannah three days ago . . . we can go
ahead . . . We have not lost a wagon on the trip, but
have gathered a large supply of negroes, mules, horses,
etc. and our teams are in far better condition than
when we started.

My first duty will be to clear the army of surplus
negroes, mules and horses (Memoirs, p. 201).
Even in the moment of General Sherman's triumphant
acclaim for his successful raid through Georgia, powerful
political forces having great influence with President Lin-
coln were making serious charges against the General :
namely, (1) he manifested almost a criminal dislike for the
Negro, and (2) he was not willing to carry out Mr. Lincoln's
program of extending the blanket of emancipation immedi-
ately to all Negroes.

In a letter appraising him of dissatisfaction in Wash-
ington, Major General Halleck wrote December 30, 1864 :
They say you might have brought with you to Savannah
more than fifty thousand, thus stripping Georgia of
that number of laborers, and opening a road by which
as many more could have escaped from their masters
(Memoirs, p. 248).

The seriousness of the alleged defection of the General
was pointed up by the arrival in Savannah of E. M. Stanton,
Secretary of War, on January 11, 1864. Five days later.
Special Field Orders, No. 15, representing the combined
planning of General Sherman and Secretary Stanton was
issued.

One does not hesitate to surmise that the guiding hand
behind the overall plan was that of President Abraham
Lincoln to whom both General Sherman and Secretary Stan-
ton were accountable. Alas, on that dire 14th of April, Lin-
coln was assassinated ; and five days earlier at Appomattox
the war ended with Lee surrendering to Grant; this alone
arrested Sherman's northward march of devastation.

Within the same year. President Andrew Johnson be-
gan a futile though heroic effort to heal the breach and to
resolidify that which must inexorably remain fluid amidst
the heat of progress.

Hidden within the pages of James D. Richardson's com-
pilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, Vol
VI (pp. 350-351) are Special Orders, No. 503 and General
Orders, No. 145 attributable to the administration of Andrew

55

39594

Johnson. These irrevocably rescinded the idea and plan of
reservations for the f reedmen.

Special Orders, No. 503

War Department
Adjutant-General's Office
Washington, September 19, 1865

It has been represented to the Department that com-
manders of military posts and districts in Georgia . . . have
assumed to decide questions of contracts and conflicting
claims of property between individuals, and to order the
delivery, surrender, or transfer of property and documents
of title as between private persons, in which the Govern-
ment is not concerned.

All such acts and proceedings on the part of military
authorities in said State are declared by the President to be
without authority and null and void . . .

By order of the President of the United States.

E. D. Townsend,

Assistant Adjutant-General.

General Orders, No. 145

War Department
Adjutant-General's Office
Washington, October 9, 1865

Whereas certain tracts of land, situated on the coast of
South Carolina, Georgia and Florida, at the time for the
most part vacant, were set apart by Major-General W. T.
Sherman's special field order No. 15 for the benefit of
refugees and freedmen that have congregated by the opera-
tions of war or had been left to take care of themselves by
their former owners ; and

Whereas an expectation was thereby created that they
would be able to retain possession of said lands ; and

Whereas a large number of the former owners are
earnestly soliciting the restoration of the same and promis-
ing to absorb the labor and care for the freedmen:

It is ordered that Major-General Howard, Commis-
sioner of the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Aban-
doned Lands, proceed to the several above-named States
and endeavor to effect an arrangement mutually satisfac-
tory to the freedmen and the landowners, and make report.
And in case a mutually satisfactory arrangement can be
effected, he is duly empowered and directed to issue such
orders as may become necessary after a full and careful
investigation of the interests of the parties concerned.

By order of the President of the United States :

E. D. Townsend,

Assistant Adjutant-General.

56

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Georgia. State College, Savannah

Faculty research edition of the
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