Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive in 2011 witii funding from LYRASIS IVIembers and Sloan Foundation http://www.archive.org/details/facultyresear1421960sava FACULTY RESEARCH EDITION of The Savannah State College Bulletin Volume 14, No. 2 December, 1960 Published by SAVANNAH STATE COLLEGE State College Branch SAVANNAH, GEORGIA EDITORIAL POLICIES WHICH GOVERN THE SAVANNAH STATE COLLEGE RESEARCH BULLETIN 1. The bulletin should contain pure research, as well as creative writing, e.g., essays, poetry, drama, fiction, etc. 2. Manuscripts that have already been published or ac- cepted for publication in other journals will not be included in the Bulletin. 3. While the documentation rules of the Chicago Manual of Style is preferable, contributors are given freedom to employ other accepted documentation rules. 4. Although the bulletin is primarily a medium for the faculty of Savannah State College, scholarly papers from other faculties are invited. 5. All contributors to this issue are members of the Savan- nah State College faculty. 1 THE NATIONAL LIBRARY BINDERY CO. 2395 PEACHTREE ROAD. N. E. ATLANTA 5. GA. BUCKRAM (Specify Color by number) 'Please Check' Covers Index Ads In D Out n Front D Back n In D Out D Bind Regular Way G Bind Intact Bind Imperfect Sample Sent ''Rub on File (ot Bindery) *Keep A Rub (at Bindery) 1st Time Bound By Nat'l D D D D D D Do Not Trim Edges Lettering : Follow Old Spine Q Cross Spine On Front Q Lengthwise n Gold D Block D White D Insert Stubs For Missing Pages *Pattern D ARRANGE LETTERING AS DESIRED ON SPINE 35V <^-<---SljU.(^W2.w ii> c ; E " c g >.~ .S p,,! OfH O 3 J=S bo O 3 ca eS c S ft 3 o -I S cu m c o-^-e so f4 OM o ' O 3r 12; iz;^ ft c >.o o 03 13 V <: ft TO So Qj ^ ^ frg ^ I O 3 3:3 3.-S ft ft ft ft h^lK ft ft ft ft IDK ft d) ft OJ I ft.Sf ft J^ fti; ft o ?] CS O ^^iss S3 WW CD O o o WW < 03 3 ,2^|s him retain it for the four year period, may be due to these possibilities : 1. The period of instruction is ill-timed. During Orien- tation Week the new student is adjusting to an entirely different situation and he is perhaps too confused by his new surroundings to retain much detailed information for which he sees no immediate need. 2. The instruction given in the English classes also seems to be inadequate for carry-over into the stu- dent's more advanced courses. Perhaps if all in- structors required the use of more varied library materials, such constant need of the catalog would aid the student in learning to use it more effec- tively. Some Accounting Problems Involved in Matching Costs and Revenues by William H. M. Bowens One of the chief goals of all accounting activity is the determination of periodic income for a business enterprise. With the sharp increase in price levels in the United States since World War II, emphasis has shifted sharply from the balance sheet to the income statement. Although this trend toward income statement emphasis started in the 1930's, it has increased sharply since World War 11. Thus, the focus in Accounting is no longer centered on the accounting equa- tion but on well defined concepts of cost and revenue and the methods of matching costs against revenue periodically. Out of the periodic matching process, the periodic income statement emerges. The chief objective of this report is to present and discuss some of the problems involved in matching periodic costs against periodic revenues. It is hoped that this report will show that there is no all-purpose method of income de- termination ; moreover, there is no need for one since Ac- counting is a dynamic, ever-changing art which must serve the needs of many diverse groups. The basic items involved in the matching process are cost, expense, revenue, and income. Cost is the actual outlay or expenditure for materials, labor, overhead, finished prod- ucts, and general selling and administrative costs, as related to wholesale, mercantile, and service enterprises. Although there are many types of cost, historical cost, generally, is considered the starting point for the matching process. This is referred to as the cost concept approach. Other costs such as reproduction costs; cost or market, whichever is lower; average costs; and numerous others, referred to as valuation costs, are used in the matching process in many accounting situations, but are considered more subjective than historical cost. In fact, the special significance of his- torical cost is that it preserves objectivity in the accounting records. Although used interchangeably in Accounting litera- ture, cost and expense are identical in meaning. An expense is an expired cost or a cost which has been applied against revenue. It results in a decrease in proprietorship. Revenue is the total income received in exchange for goods and services. It is the total income from the total busi- 10 iiess operation before any expenses are deducted. True revenue stems only from transactions with outsiders. Conversely, income, sometimes mistakenly referred to as revenue, is the excess of revenue over cost incurred in earning that revenue. It is the net increase in firm capital from operations. Income, then, is synonymous with net in- come or net profit. With the shift in emphasis from the balance sheet to the income statement in the 1930's the matching process assumed added significance. The process of measuring periodic income encompasses the division of the stress of costs incurred between the pres- ent and some period in the future. In deducting periodic costs from revenues, each deductible cost must be carefully considered and deducted in compliance with certain gen- erally accepted accounting principles, doctrines, and con- ventions. This involves careful analysis of various account- ing transactions in order to properly match periodic costs against periodic revenues. In developing techniques for matching, two approaches have evolved. One is the cost accounting approach. Under this approach cost accountants endeavor to set up a specific relation between all manufacturing costs and individual classification or items of products in order to establish the manufactured cost of each unit of product sold. The other is the general accounting approach. Under this approach, the general accountant matches costs against revenues in the same period. Unlike the cost accountant, he does not attempt to match specific items of cost with specific items of income. Thus, his problem is totally different from that of the cost accountant. Matching costs and revenues is basically a problem of establishing satisfactory bases of association. The real test is the reasonableness of the association, all other pertinent factors considered, rather than physical measurement, since periodic allocations of cost to revenues must be estimated and estimations involve reasoning and judgment. When businessmen, investors and others invest capital in any business enterprise, this is only a means to an end. The earning of income is that end. Perhaps no other ac- counting and economic concept has been the object of so much controversy, since income has so many diverse mean- ings in Accounting, Law, Economics and tax regulations. In a period of steadily rising prices such as has been the case since World War II, the controversy over reporting periodic income more fairly has been greatly magnified. Increases in federal income tax expenses also have contributed to the accentuation of the controversy. Among the proposals advanced for more fairly report- ing periodic income are use of the accounting readjustment 11 or quasi-reorganization ; making additional charges to in- come, based roughly on current replacement costs of certain capital assets; accelerated depreciation; conversion of in- ventories held for a substantial period to current price lev- els; setting up profit equalization reserves, and use of cur- rent operating performance income statements in which ex- traordinary, non-recurring, and unpredictable charges or credits to income are not included. None of these measures are currently practiced on a w^idespread basis. When specific identification procedures are deemed in- efficient, alternate methods of assigning cost to periodic revenues may be utilized with reference to inventories and fixed assets, the choice of method depending upon the as- sumption made with reference to cost properly chargeable to current revenues. The importance upon net profit by the employment of various inventory methods and various methods of depreci- ation are even more significant. In inventory costing, the methods that have achieved widest application are first-in, first-out; last-in, first-out; and average. In a period of rising prices, FIFO matches rising sales revenue with oldest, low- cost, inventory, thus expanding the gross margin on sales. In a period of declining prices, the reverse is true. LIFO, on the other hand, matches current high costs with increasing sales revenues in a period of price increases, and low costs of acquiring goods with declining sales prices in a period of falling prices. The average method recognizes both past and present costs in the inventory. Fixed plant and equipment items represent a single classification in a larger group of non-current assets, all of which constitute deferred charges to future income. This larger group includes intangible assets such as patents, copyrights, organization expense, franchises, good- will, and various items of prepaid expenses. The cost alloca- tion of these items is referred to as depreciation, amortiza- tion, depletion and exhaustion. Amortization generally applies to intangible assets ; depletion and exhaustion to natural assets such as mines, oil well, and over-cropped lands, and depreciation to tan- gible fixed assets. Amortization, depletion and depreciation are forecast with a considerable difference in accuracy. Amortization (Bond Premiums, for example) can be determined with considerable accuracy. Depreciation provisions are gener- ally less accurate, while the determination of a proper pro- vision for depletion is more difficult than the provision for depreciation, because the physical facts are more uncertain. The periodic balance sheet bears a direct relation to the matching process in that a majority of items contained therein represent amounts waiting to be charged or credited to future income and revenue. Among these items are de- 12 ferred credits and charges, inventories, fixed assets and pre- paid expenses. What conclusions may be reached with reference to the problem of matching costs with revenues? In the first place, there are many controversial matters in Accounting which are far from being settled. Despite this, however, such factors as the federal income tax laws, and federal agencies such as the Securities and Exchange Commission, as well as the growth in the number of small corporate in- vestors, are making for more uniformity in accounting prac- tices with reference to periodic income determination. In the second place. Accounting information serves many diverse groups, each of them interested in Accounting information for different reasons. Since this is true. Account- ing information should be adapted to meet the various needs of these groups. In short, uniformity in Accounting reports and hence application of principles involved in the match- ing process, is of necessity relative to the purpose involved. In the third place, the present controversy centering around price-level changes being reflected in accounting records, deserves careful consideration, particularly with reference to inventories and depreciable assets. Failure to recognize price-level changes in the matching process and in income determination is misleading to would-be investors and, in terms of present dollar values, falsely portrays in- come and financial position. However, the argument that historical cost should be dispensed with as a basis for deter- mining income and financial position is unsound. Historical cost, since it is objective, should be the basis of both periodic income determination and financial position. These state- ments, however, should be supplemented by statements which reveal income and financial position in terms of the current price level. Finally, it should be emphasized that Accounting prin- ciples and conventions, like principles and conventions un- derlying other branches of knowledge, are not and cannot be fixed and rigid. Accounting is an ever-changing, dynamic art which must necessarily change to meet the changes in a rapidly changing economic and social order. This is so if Accounting is to remain a vital, useful, and indispensable tool of the interests it serves. To those who berate Accounting because of its limita- tions, whether they apply to the matching process or other aspects of the discipline, it is well to remember that every branch of knowledge has certain limitations. This, neverthe- less, is not a sufficient basis for eliminating the discipline so long as it serves a vital and basic need, as Accounting in- deed does. Limitations simply must be realized, coped with, and improved upon, where possible or whenever the occasion 13 warrants. Why should Accounting be perfect in an imper- fect world ? Bibliography Books Aschei', Leonard, Survey of Accounting. New York, Harper and Brothers, 1952. Backer, Morton (Ed.), Handbook of Modem Accounting Theory. Engle- wood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1955. Dean, Joel, Managerial Economics. New York, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1951. Devine, Carl T., Inventory Valuation and Periodic Income. New York, The Ronald Press Company, 1942. Finney, H. A., and Herbert E. Miller, Principles of Accounting: Inter- mediate. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1958, 5th Edition. Finney, H. A., and Herbert E. Miller, Principles of Accounting: Inter- mediate. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1951, 4th Edition. Gilman, Stephen, Accounting Concepts of Profit. New York, The Ronald Press Company, 1939. Husband, William H., and James C. Dockeray, Modern Corporation Finance. Homewood, Illinois, Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1957, 4th Edi- tion. Johnson, Arnold W., Principles of Auditing. New York, Rinehart and Company, Inc., 1955. Karrenbrock, W. E., and Harry Simons, Intermediate Accounting: Com- prehensive Volume. Cincinnati, Ohio, South-western Publishing Com- pany, 1953, 2d Edition. Kohler, Eric L., A Dictionary for Accountants. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1957, 2d Edition. McFarland, George A., and Robert D. Ayars, Accounting Fundamentals. New York, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1936. Neuner, John J. W., Cost Accounting : Principles and Practices. Home- wood, Illinois, Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1957, 5th Edition. Paton, W. A., and W. A. Paton, Jr., Asset Accounting. New York, The Macmillan Company, 1952. Sloan, Harold S., and Arnold J. Zurcher, A Dictionary of Economics. New York, Barnes and Noble, Inc., 1953, 3rd Edition. Sweeney, H. W., Stabilized Accotinting. New York, Harper and Brothers, 1936. Terry, George R., Principles of Management. Homewood, Illinois, Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1956, Revised Edition. 14 The Life and Creative Activities of James Allen Bland (1854-1911) by Coleridge Alexander Braithwaite I. Biography James Allen Bland was born in Flushing, Long Island, New York, on October 22, 1854. His father, Allen M. Bland, attended the public schools of Charleston, South Carolina, studied at Oberlin, Ohio, from 1845 to 1848, and later grad- uated from Wilberforce University in Ohio. While teaching in Salem, New Jersey, he married Lydia Conwell, formerly of Delaware. They moved to Trenton, New Jersey, to Flush- ing, to Troy, New York, and then to Philadelphia.^ After the Civil War the family settled in Washington, D. C. where the father became the first Negro Examiner in the United States Patent Office. James received his early education in Washington, eventually graduating from How- ard University while his father was a student at the Howard University Law School. The lad heard much music in his youth, and an early manifestation for the art was fostered. During his college days he became a popular singer and entertained for social and political organizations. While employed as a page in the House of Representatives, he organized a glee club and performed many of his own compositions. Although he joined several minstrel companies after graduating from college, his success as an entertainer was not assured until he had gained fame as a song writer. The whole idea of minstrelsy was distasteful to him because of the distortions that had to be assumed by Negro entertainers in order to gain popularity on the stage. ^ Bland, however, developed as a composer rather than as an actor, and the universal popularity of his songs brought him recognition during this period of his life. Bland first belonged to Callender's Original Georgia Minstrels, but after their purchase by Jack Haverly in 1878 (three years after their formation), they were advertised as the Minstrel Carnival of Genuine Colored Minstrels. Upon completion of a tour of the country between 1879 and 1882, ^Details of the early migrations of the Bland family were obtained in interviews with Mrs. Irene Bland Jurix, the only living sister of James Bland, and her daughter, Mrs. Clayton French, at their New York resi- dence on February 19 and 22, 1952. -The Negro, as portrayed in the Minstrel shows, was forced to appear as an exaggerated caricature of himself to please audiences who, in turn, used these characterizations as stereotyped representations of the race. 15 the name was changed to Callender's All-Coloured Mm- strels. Under this banner the troupe of one hundred mem- bers went to Europe. For twenty years Bland remained in England and Scot- land as a popular entertainer, composer, and recipient of many royal honors, but despite reports that he enjoyed re- ceiving a salary of ten thousand dollars a year, he returned penniless to Washington, D. C. in 1901. Minstrelsy was dis- appearing, and it was impossible for him to recapture his former position. Although scattered friends came to his financial assistance, the composer was a discouraged man as he wandered back to Philadelphia where he died on May 5, 1911 at the age of fifty-seven unknown and forgotten. Not until 1939 was his grave discovered in Merion Cemetery, Bela-Cynwyd, Pennsylvania, when his sister, Mrs. Jurix, recalled the location of his burial. The discovery of the grave by Charles F. Cooke, former editor of the ETUDE, led to a crusade for proper recognition of the composer.^ Consequently, in 1940 the State of Virginia adopted his most famous composition, "Carry Me Back to Old Virginny," as the official song of the Commonwealth, and six years later, on July 15, 1946, Governor William M. Tuck was invited by the Lions Club to speak at the dedicatory services held at the composer's grave for the purposes of establishing a monument and providing a limited number of musical schol- arships for Negro students of Virginia. Most of Bland's seven hundred songs, written hurriedly for specific minstrel characters, contained the simple, warm, rhythmic qualities of the Negro idiom, but because minstrel songs became the property of the singers and other enter- tainers, only about forty pieces are extant.^ According to historical evidence, popular versions have altered Bland's songs almost beyond recognition because the extemporiza- tional method of the composer was not preserved by the editings of the publishers and because many of the peculiari- ties of interpretation could not be accurately notated. With- out them, the music lost its original spontaneity. It is hoped that a detailed study of James Allen Bland can be made in the near future. Especially important to musical research should be the twenty-year period he spent in Europe. A thorough, accurate investigation of this unfa- miliar portion of his activities should reveal much of value to the field of music. ^The scholarly article on Bland in ETUDE in July, 1939, by Kelly Miller, historian and professor at Howard University, was the motivating fac- tor in arousing Cooke's curiosity. 'According to Mrs. Jurix, Will Marion Cook, famous Negro singer and entertainer, was the first one to revive Bland's songs (in 1932), and later the Southernaires, a popular Negro quartet, annually honored the composer's birthday by singing his music on their radio and concert programs. 16 II. His Songs CARRY ME BACK TO OLD VIRGINNY. Perry, 1878; Dit- son, 1903. CLOSE DEM WINDOWS. White-Smith, 1879. COME ALONG, SISTER MARY. Lieder, 1881. DANCING ON THE KITCHEN FLOOR. White-Smith, 1880. DANDY BLACK BRIGADE, THE. Gordon, 1881. DARKIES MOONLIGHT PICNIC. Gordon, 1881. DE ANGELS AM A-COMING. Hitchcock, 1880. DE COLORED HOP. Pepper, 1881. DE GOLDEN WEDDING. Perry, 1880. DE SLAVERY CHAINS AM BROKE AT LAST. Perry, 1880. FASCINATING COOK. Hitchcock, 1892. FATHER'S GROWING OLD. White-Smith, 1879. GABRIEL'S BAND. Gordon, 1881. HAPPY DARKIES. Hitchcock, 1892. IN THE EVENING BY THE MOONLIGHT. Hitchcock, 1880. IN THE MORNING BY THE BRIGHT LIGHT. Perry, 1879. James A. Bland Album of Outstanding Songs, The. Com- piled, edited, and arranged by Charles Haywood. Marks, 1946. 72 pp. James A. Bland's De Golden Wedding Songster. Popular, 1880. 64 pp. (words only.) KEEP DEM GOLDEN GATES WIDE OPEN. Hitchcock, 1880. LISTEN TO THE SILVER TRUMPETS. White-Smith, 1880. MIDST PRETTY VIOLETS. White-Smith, 1881. MY OWN SWEET WIFE TO BE. Lieder, 1881. OH, DEM GOLDEN SLIPPERS. Perry, 1879. OH, LUCINDA. Pepper, 1881. OH, MY BROTHER. Perry, 1880. OH, WHY WAS I SO SOON FORGOTTEN? Lieder, 1881. OLD HOMESTEAD, THE. Perry, 1879. OLD-FASHION COTTAGE, THE. Lieder, 1881. OLD-FASHION HOMESTEAD. Ditson, 1883. ONLY TO HEAR HER VOICE. Lieder, 1881. PRETTY LITTLE SOUTH CAROLINA ROSE. White-Smith, 1879. RAMBLING THROUGH THE CLOVER. Perry, 1879. ROSE PACHOULA. Lieder, 1881. SONS OF HAM. Hitchcock, 1881. TAPIOCA. Stults, 1891. TELL ALL DE CHILDREN GOODBYE. Pepper, 1881. TELL 'EM I'LL BE THERE. Gordon, 1881. TO THE FARMER'S DAUGHTER. Perry, 1878. TRAVELLING BACK TO ALABAM'. Lieder, 1881. WAY UP YONDER. Perry, 1880. WON'T WE HAVE A JOLLY TIME? Hitchcock, 1880. YOU COULD HAVE BEEN TRUE. Hitchcock, 1881. 17 III. Bibliography A. Books Daly, John Jay. A Song in His Heart: The Life and Times of James A. Bland. Philadelphia: The John 0. Winston Company, 1951. 102 pp. Ellinwood, Leonard W. Historical Records Survey, District of Columbia. Bio-Bihlio graphical Index of Musicians in the United States of America from Colonial Times, Washington, D. C: Music Division, Pan-American Union, 1941. p. 40. Fuller, Thomas 0. PictoHal History of the Atnerican Negro. Memphis, Tennessee: Pictorial History, Incorporated, 1933. p. 204. Geller, James J. Famous Songs and Their Stories. New York: The Ma- cauley Company, 1931. pp. 22-26. Goldberg, Isaac. Tin Pan Alley. New York: The John Dav Company, 1930. pp. 48, 139. Handy, William C. Negro Authors and Composers of the United States. New York: Handy Brothers Music Company, Incorporated, 1938. p. 21. Hare, Maud Cuney. Negro Musicians and Their Mttsic. Washington, D. C. : The Associated Publishers, Incorporated, 1936. pp. 50, 92. Haywood, Charles. James A. Bland, "Prince of the Colored Songiv-riters." Flushing, New York: Flushing Historical Society, 1944. pp. 1-8. Locke, Alain L, The Negro and His Music. Washington, D. C. : The Asso- ciates in Negro Folk Education, 1936. pp. 30, 45, 46, 48-50. Marks, Edward B. They All Sang, from, Tony Pastor to Riidy Vallee. New York: The Viking Press, 1934. pp. 44, 87. Negro Musicians; the Official Theatrical World of Colored Artists, Na- tional DirectoT^ and Guide. New York: The Theatrical World Pub- lishing Company, 1928. pp. 3, 40. Wier, Albert E. The MacMillan Encyclopedia of Music and Musicians. New York: The MacMillan Company, 1938. p. 188. B. Articles "Black Stephen Foster." Time (August 21, 1939), 44. Clarke, Thomas H. R. "James Bland." The Negro History Bulletin (Feb- ruary, 1939), 48. Miller, Kelly. "The Negro 'Stephen Foster.'" The Etude (July, 1939), 431-432, 472. Reynolds, Horace. "Oh, Dem Golden Slippers." Christian Science Monitor (September 6, 1947), 5. "Songs with Tears." Pic (September 28, 1943), 44. "Unknown Music Maker." Newsveek (September 17, 1951), 88. C. Recordings CARRY ME BACK TO OLD VIRGINNY: C-50120 D Paul Robeson, Bass. V-18314 Marian Anderson, Contralto; Victor Symphony Orches- tra, Charles O'Connell, Conductor. C-A5959 Louis Graveure, Baritone; orchestral accompaniment. C-72104 D Helen Traubel, Soprano; Male Chorus and Victor Symphony Orchestra, Charles O'Connell, Conductor. G-EG 6228 Wilhelm Strienz, Baritone (in German) ; Chorus and Orchestra. 18 SONG OF WOMAN ETERNAL by Luetta Colvin Upshur THE BABE : Lullaby Sleep, ma petite, Papa's joy, Mama's glory. With fists curled and smile of angels, Little girl from anger so swaddled, Dream there in your ruffles of pink And dazzle the world with your wonder. THE GIRL: Chanson du Pringtemps Dance, cherie! Ah, cherie, dance! For this is the Maytime, glad season Of florescent joy and eager-breaking morn. Too soon November's sad touch hardens the land And stills the song of the swallows. So, cherie, rip the daisies trembling from their beds; Weave them into a coronal to circle your proud head This glorious, throbbing, nigh-unbearable morning. With arms upstretched yearning to the sky, Stand there, bearer of the chalice of life and the promise Ceres, Diana, Aphrodite, Juno, Lucia Dance, cherie; twirl, wild girl, round And round and round while swallows sing. THE WIFE AND MOTHER : Dearly Beloved This is the one of honorable bent. This is the dream toward which you have been whirling. Chalice-bearer, Aphrodite, Juno. Ah, ma femme, your heart trembles While they wait without in the white chapel. "This may be madness spawned by the sorcery of a misty Maynight's moon." The organ shudders in ecstasy. Set the veil straight, ma femme; blot the pale tears. This is love this will doom the diapers and the dishes And send hopes of heaii; flying toward Heaven. OLD WOMAN'S LAMENT: Too Soon November Sleep, ma petite, sleep. Soon is the May and the birds' white winging. Too soon November's harsh wind, ma vieille. Too soon, bereft of lover, you stand at life's shadow. Praying, "Good Christ, dear Christ, he whom I love Has fled to Thy fold of Joy. Keep him, guide him, For he is unused to the Light." Too soon the mushroom cloud and war's grey wool Will enshroud the son who once at your bosom lay. So rest, petite; you will need strength. 19 HER SONG OF AFFIRMATION : Juvenescense But this is not the end, child of my heart. You, cherie, can make a world. Strong sons, loving daughters You must offer to the Christ of all compassion And then death shall die a terrible death. And you, chalice-bearer, you shall have joy In the never-ending cycle of life. In the aweful, eternal juvenescense of life. CHRIST OF ALL COMPASSION: A Litany by Luetta Colvin Upshur Filled with gracious message From Heaven's mysterious lore, You told of hallowed haven Prepared for faithful souls. O, Christ of many Blessings, Teach us how to pray. Transfigured by the holy promise Of God's pure, redeeming love, You stayed the hands that would Cast stones at the scarlet maid. O, Christ of tender Mercies, Teach us how to love. Burdened by the wooden, wooden weight Of cross so heavy to bear, You trudged with Cyrenian Simon To Golgotha's sad, sad place. O, Christ of all the Sorrows, Teach us how to die. Wrapped in sad forgiveness For him whose kiss was death, You watched alone in the garden, Forsaken by the beloved twelve. O, Christ of all Compassion, Teach us how^ to live. Illumined by the radiant glory Of Heaven's celestial light, You made the triumphant ascension To Paradise's promised place. O, Christ of rising Spirit, Teach us to believe. 20 A Teacher Education Point of View by Velma V. Walters What kind of growth does one want to promote in the student? This is a philosophic question and also one of values, according to the literature.^ Fortunately, in our cul- ture, there is a fair degree of concensus among those who have given this question thought as to what some of these basic values are. Few thoughtful persons, however, would deny the desirability of helping children and youth to achieve- maximum growth physically, mentally, emotion- ally, and socially. One should be primarily concerned about the kind of product to be released, the kinds of experiences for each student and the group, the nature of the problems involved in selecting and preparing the able youngster, the time ele- ment, and the adequacy of facilities and personnel. These are only a few of the basic factors to be considered. In an effort to arrive at some pertinent conclusions, one must have some general beliefs about teaching and learn- ing and the purposes of the school. This attitude may lead the individual to formulate a working point of view or philosophy which is acceptable in terms of basic principles of education and which he can and will be willing to abide by, in the meantime, revising as often as necessary. It is the belief that: Those responsible for selecting and preparing the stu- dent must first be convinced that intelligent applica- tion and responsibility in the creation of a philosophy . . . implies an informed professional body . . ., sec- ondly, teacher education institutions with a philosophy based upon the tenet that only the best students avail- able should be considered as candidates will have admission policies reflecting that attitude.^ All education is a unit. It should contribute to the needs of the students in the society to be served and to the development of the character of the individuals to be edu- cated. "How safe then is it for all concerned with preparing the learners to motivate and guide them to the extent that they will grow and develop into the kinds of individuals who have the ability to think accurately, objectively, and ^Carleton Washburn, "Design for Long-range Research in Teacher Edu- cation." Journal of Educational Research, XLVI (September, 1952-May, 1953), p. 712. -Ibid, p. 712. simmel, Ada, "A Philosophy." The Nation's Schools, LXIV, No. 3 (Sep- tember, 1959), p. 78. 21 in terms of ascertainable facts; . . . acquire understand- ingly and functionally those skills . . . that are essential to effective living in our present society; . . . have a basic framework of knowledge of the world around them and how it came to be what it is, and to know how to fill in that framework wherever and whenever it is necessary for them to do so ; have an appreciation of the esthetic side of life and to be able to find expression of their creative urge toward beauty; . . . grow in appreciation of their fellow- men, in ever wider circles, and to feel a sense of responsi- bility toward the well being of ever more inclusive socie- ties, ... be able to work cooperatively with their fellow human beings toward the achievement of socially desired goals ; exercise self-control ; respect the rights of others ; keep strong and healthy bodies."^ We must gradually real- ize that quality in teaching is to be desired and striven for in our pursuit of excellence in education. According to Hechinger^, a teacher's incompetence is just as unpardon- able and damaging as that of an incompetent surgeon's knife or an airplane pilot's flying. If this is the consensus of opinion or the general belief to produce this type of learner, then every individual re- sponsible for his growth and development must: Put forth effort to understand each learner. Have a knowledge of how learning takes place. Decide upon sound and basic objectives, and strive to- ward fulfillment of them in every learning situation. Realize that providing wholesome experiences for and with the learner is a joint responsibility and a continu- ous process. . . . value teaching enough to make it attractive to creative minds. . . . help those who are preparing for teaching to ac- quire a depth of scholarship that will enable them to guide the explorations of the immature into the riches of the cultural heritage. . . . relieve teachers of the burden of clerical, cus- todial, and police functions so that they may be free to teach. . . . use and reward the unique talents of gifted teach- ers. Focus on the needs of youth and on the kinds of experiences that the school wants to provide for them.^ . . . urge that instruction be oriented to problems and concerns of youth. ''^ ^Op. cit. pp. 711-715. ^'Hechinger, Fred, "Good Teachers for 20,000,000 Children." Parents' Magazine, XXXIV, No. 9 (September, 1959), p. 98. ^Francis S. Chase and Harold A. Anderson, The High School In a Neiu Era. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958, p. 225. "'Ibid, p. 229. 22 In addition, opportunity must be provided for consid- eration of a set of criteria for the selection of superior candidates to the teacher education program. Wash- burn contends that it is imperative to select a reason- able sampling of the kinds of growth to which teachers should contribute. Use existing instruments or prepare new ones that will measure the kinds of growth we hope to foster. We must apply these at the beginning and end of a period of time for example, an academic year ^to know which growths are measurable. . . . measure the growth that takes place under the most effective teachers in contrast with that which takes place, or fails to take place under the least effec- tive teachers, in a variety of ways and in children of widely varying backgrounds. See whether there are certain clusters or categories of children whose growth along different lines is largely conditioned by the past experience since they come from many kinds of homes, and have a wide range of experiences both in school and out of school. . . . discover what characteristics and kinds of be- havior on the part of teachers are most closely asso- ciated with the growth of various clusters of children. A different but essential part of our job will be to segregate as far as possible, the direct influences of the teacher from the out-of-school factors and such school influences as are not directly attributable to the teacher. An absolute segregation is probably impos- sible, but with wide samplings and techniques known to all of us, predominant teacher-influence should be discoverable. Under some teachers we may expect to find decidedly more growth in certain characteristics than under some others ... it should be possible to identify distinguish- ing characteristics as between the most effective and the least effective teachers. These characteristics will be found by close observation, by a study of the teach- er's past training and experience, and by whatever other forms of evaluation prove to be most effective. We should not expect to find one best pattern . . . there are a number of different patterns of high effec- tiveness and a number of different groupings of char- acteristics that make for relative ineffectiveness. Having identified, tentatively some of these charac- teristics that seem to result in effective growth . . . along a number of desired lines . . . Which of these desirable characteristics of teachers can be produced or augmented in college, or afterwards while actually teaching? What kind of pre-service and in-sei'vice ex- 23 periences and learnings aid measurably in their de- velopment? In the process of continuous evaluation there will be, as further stated by Washburn, the need to : . . . discover what patterns of teacher behavior and understanding distinguish the more effective teachers from the less effective ones. . . . know what types of persons entering our colleges are likely to achieve these characteristics if given the most effective learning experiences we can devise. . . . discover what these most effective learning ex- periences are so that we can evaluate and improve our programs of teacher education. Test our products before they actually take responsi- bility for educating children and youth. Submit the whole program to the ultimate test of whether or not teachers who have been through it actually help the boys and girls entrusted to them to grow effectively in the achievement of the values which we agree are necessary for the fulfillment of their potentialities as persons and as contributing and re- sponsible members of society.^ Since teacher education is concerned with the basic skills, understandings, and attitudes to be acquired by all teachers, then according to the aims and purposes of the teacher education program of the Division of Education at Savannah State College, "The goals of this program are seen as qualities that should mark the superior teacher. (1) He should have a wide general academic and cultural background, with that specific command of subject matter which will enable him to adapt content and experiences to the needs, problems, and interest of pupils. (2) He should be proficient in the communication skills and able to assist pupils in developing these skills. (3) He should have effec- tive knowledge of human behavior, of the processes in- volved in growth and learning ; and he should be skilled in the adaptation of materials and experiences to the needs and interests of pupils. (4) He should be able to further good human relationships. (5) He should be able to think and plan effectively."^ At this point it seems that there should be full realiza- tion that, as Francis S. Chase has put it, "The quality of education cannot rise above the character and competence of those who teach. We shall be able to attract large num- bers of highly qualified men and women to teaching when ^Washburn, op. cit. '^"Aims and Purposes of the Teacher Training Program," Savannah State College Bulletin, Savannah, Georgia, XI, No. 5 (April, 1958), p. 49. 24 we provide for the teacher and his learners essentially the same kind of professional responsibility that the physician has for the care of his patients. This view calls for changes in the administration of our schools and for better under- standing on the part of citizens of the importance of the teacher's role in our society." Chase continues by indicating that "criticism of the schools may help to demolish false notions and bad prac- tices; redefinition of the aims of education may help to give the schools a set of priorities that will make their task more manageable ; but, if any nation desires a quality edu- cation instead of a shoddy, mass-produced product, it must allocate to its schools and higher institutions of learning the resources necessary for the task."^" We ourselves must be assured of the type of quality product we want to release. Why should we be as extremely concerned about our new teachers for the decade ahead? The challenges of the 60's demand an ongoing dynamic school system staffed by superior teachers who are emi- nently qualified to provide our country with more linguists, more scientists, more experts in human relations, more per- sons in fine arts who are able to help the populace to see the beauties of life and more highly skilled workers for an automation era. If we are to compete with our greatest adversary, Russia, it is imperative that our new teachers for the public schools possess skills, insights, basic under- standings and a keen intellect. In order to procure this new teacher for the years ahead, those who are responsible for teacher education in our colleges must have an excellent program of selection, admission, placement and follow-up of those whom they prepare as teachers. Swain and Loree are of the opinion that "When parents send their children to school, they may ask themselves: Is the school causing him to suppress his initiative? Is the school contributing to the development of a distorted self- concept or bringing about other consequences detrimental to sound mental health? The answer to the question "Is the school achieving its objectives?" can, of course, be ob- tained from the answer to the question "What are we doing to our students?" When we evaluate according to the more traditional concept, objectives provide the criteria. What is to take place of objectives when we evaluate unplanned effects of an educational program? To answer the question, it is necessary to refer first to a broader set of values that is, the core of values of those in control of the school and the concepts that derive from them, such as the general purposes of the school. We be- ^Francis S. Chase, "The Response of the Schools to the Challenges of the Twentieth Century," The School Revieiv, LXVII, No. 1 (Spring, 1959), pp. 22-23. 25 lieve that the school program as a whole, as well as student achievement and other changes that occur in students, should be evaluated, not merely in terms of stated objec- tives, but also in terms of these core values, general pur- poses, and other concepts derived from them.''^^ "The overworked teacher presents a picture of his pro- fession to the world that often makes truck driving seem preferable . . . Nor does the teacher who has to combine all the chores of recordkeeping, clerking, money collecting and so on, build a public image of professional dignity. . . . The original experiment in the use of "teacher aides," spon- sored by the Fund for the Advancement of Education in Bay City, Michigan, has spread to many communities over the United States, thus enabling teachers to devote their full time and effort to teaching. Similarly, the more recent experimental program of "contract readers" has relieved teachers of impossible work loads of correcting English compositions qualified part-time "workers" do much of the reading, grading, and reviewing.^- The services rendered a teacher by an instructional secretary seem to be an excellent means of restoring some of the teacher's time, energy, and skill to the pupils in his class. The Experiment in the Use of Instructional Secretaries, now in its second year of operation in the schools of David- son County, Tennessee, rests on this assumption. Here is a form of help to busy teachers that makes no additional de- mands upon them.^^ This writer too, is firmly convinced that we shall not get the desired results in education unless we are willing to find ways of channeling a large number of the most gifted and highly trained young people into teaching. ^^ Hechinger bolsters this opinion by stating that: "we need to marshall facts instead of sentiments." Here are some basic ones : 1. It's silly to pretend that all teachers are admirable. According to the Rockefeller Report on Education, "as of 1956, 33 percent of the elementary teachers did not hold bachelor's degrees and more than 21 percent of all public school teachers had less than four years of college." What's more, requirements of teaching vary so drastically from state to state that the national range of training and competence is both wide enough and deep enough to form an abyss. 2. ... A good teacher, it's now acknowledged, needs ^^E. I. Swain and M. R. Loree, "Broadening the Base in Evaluation," The School Review, LXVII, No. 1 (Spring, 1959), pp. 82. ^-Hechinger, op. cit., pp. 98-100. ^^Turney, David, "The Instructional Secretary," The Tennessee Teacher, XXVI, No. 7 (February, 1959), p. 16. ^*Chase, op. cit., p. 23. 26 to be thoroughly grounded both in content (what to teach) and in method (how to teach it) .... ^^ The liberally educated teacher, says Paul Woodring in New Directions in Teacher Education, published by the Fund for the Advancement of Education, "will see his sub- ject in broader perspective. His aim will be not knowledge of a subject, but wisdom which follows knowledge. He will teach his subject better because of his ability to see beyond it." This is the kind of teacher the current teacher-training trend is pointing to. In contrast to the narrowly erudite pedant or the windily ignorant methodologist, this kind of teacher should inspire confidence in his students. Services which are badly paid aren't worth very much. Figures released by the National Education Association in June, 1959 show that teachers' pay ranks with that of skilled and semi-skilled industrial workers. "The root prob- lem of the teaching profession remains financial," says the Rockefeller Report. The real breakthrough on the salary front, too, is be- ing effected by way of the new experiments : The television teacher, for example, demonstrates that teaching can pay. The "master teacher," in the latest experiment of "team teaching," along with two or three other teachers in a single classroom of up to 95 pupils, demonstrates there are many different grades of teaching talent. The "master's" excel- lence shows unquestionably that such superior services must be rewarded with superior pay.^^ It is the belief of this writer that strengthening teacher education through better selection and admission of candi- dates for the teaching profession will certainly drive medi- ocrity out of the teaching ranks. Superior teachers will turn out a superior product. Superior products from our nation's schools will strengthen America in many areas where the country is weak. Only through excellent schools staffed by competent teachers can America face the challenge of these perilous times. ^^Hechinger, loc. cit. 27 Ecological and Economical Aspects of Spanish Moss by Margaret C. Robinson The Spanish Moss, Dendropogon usneoides (L.), is a widely distributed epiphyte (air-plant) that extends from Southern Virginia to Eastern Texas. It is this species which lends romantic charm to the picturesque landscape of the Savannah State College campus and the coastal strip of the southeastern United States. It has received some attention from investigators who have discussed its distribution and described its gross struc- ture and embroyogeny, and economic importance in con- siderable detail. This paper is intended to present some of these interesting aspects of this air-plant. Swinging in graceful festoons from Southern trees, Spanish Moss was originally known to Botany as Tillandsia usneoides (L.). Its accepted scientific name is now Dendro- pogon usneoides (L.). The species name comes from the fact that this growth resembles the lichen Usnea. The Spanish moss usually prefers a well-lighted but moist habitat. It occurs not only on living and dead trees but also on wires and other exposed supports if the atmos- phere is sufficiently humid. It thrives best along bayous, rivers, ponds and lakes. In some cases the epiphyte is con- fined largely to the side of the tree facing the water. There is often considerable discussion as to what trees are suitable for the ecesis of Spanish moss. This epiphyte has been ob- served on all species of trees on the Savannah State College campus, the oaks, needle-leaved evergreens and shrubs. More of this epiphyte occurs on Quercus Virginiana, the American live oak, possibly due to the more nearly hori- zontal disposition of their branches. Belying its name, it is not a moss at all, but a flowering plant belonging to the pineapple family, Bromeliaceac. If one examines the festoons of moss, he finds a tangled mass of stringy, spiraling stems, jointed every inch or so, covered with minute scales. The leaves are owl-shaped and in their axils are borne inconspicuous, fragrant green flowers, blooming in May and June. It produces feather-barbed seeds and the time of seed distribution is given as late December to late January, but may continue until early March. Billings, ('04), ^ suggests that the time of seed dis- persal for all southern states is March. In regard to the seeds Billings ('04)- says that "the embryos appear perfectly normal with the exception of the 28 dead cortical cells in the root and hypocotyl." He made efforts to germinate them in a germinator, but without suc- cess. The sequence of events requisite to germination is still unknown. It is believed that the Spanish moss seedling is fixed to the substratum by weak roots which soon dry up. In discussing seed development Billings ('04)^ says that "there occurs a degradation of certain cortical cells of either the root or the end of the hypocotyl nearest the root- tip." Penfound ('45)*^ observed seedlings over a period of years and noted that they were always firmly attached to the supporting object. Observations of seedlings made on the Savannah State College campus support Penfound's ('45) observations. Most seedlings were observed to be firmly attached to the smooth bark of young live oak trees. As soon as the young plants reach a few centimeters in length they may be carried away and suspend themselves on any support to which they fall or are blown. The host tree or support to which Dendropogon an- chors or suspends itself does not furnish any nourishment for the plant though one may think so, thereby harming the tree. The only way in which Spanish Moss can harm a host tree is for it to become so dense that it smothers the leaves. This xeric epiphyte obtains all its nutrients from the atmos- phere. The minute scales with which it is covered are thought to aid in filtering particulate matter from the air and probably serve to hold water by capillarity while the plant is absorbing therefrom the mineral constituents it requires. The mineral nutriment of the Spanish moss is evidently obtained then from what salts happen to be present in the rain which falls upon it, in water which drops from nearby trees, or in dust which is blown in by the wind. Wherry and Buchann^ collected samples of Spanish moss from the sea-coast in South Carolina and from far in- land in Georgia. The compositions of their ash were deter- mined, both, with and without washing loosely adherent dust. The analyses of the ash proved to be unusually high in soda, ferric oxide, sulfur, chlorine and silica. The chlorine was somewhat higher in the sea-coast plant, and although the sodium was lower, this was connected with a much higher content of ferric oxide, diminishing all the other bases proportionally. Sodium and chlorine are of course the most abundant mineral constituents present in rain water, being derived from ocean spray carried to high levels of the atmosphere and accordingly diminishing in amount on receding from the sea coast; and chlorine was found to be actually higher in the sample from the coast than in the inland one. Table (1) shows the result of analyses of two samples which were performed by official methods. In comparison to the composition of rain water, this table indicates that this plant exhibits selective absorp- tion and accumulation of individual constituents in propor- 29 tion to the constituents present in the water. Nothing is known about the absorption process. TABLE V Percent of ash No. Na20 K2O MgO CaO Fe203 Si O2 P2O5 CI SO3 6.6 1 2.9 7.1 6.79 9.27 19.82 39.00 1.97 5.31 Coast S.C. 3.4 2 4.5 11.7 7.73 11.49 8.26 36.08 3.75 3.96 10.23 Inland Georgia The water content of Spanish Moss has been found to fluctuate rapidly to changing conditions of atmospheric moisture from day to day. Experiments were devised by Penfound^ to study or test the effects of desiccation and humidification on the water relations of this plant which revealed the following: a. The water content of the Spanish moss always re- mains relatively high. b. Spanish moss may either absorb or lose water vapor to the air depending on the relative humidity of the air. c. This xeric epiphyte has a very high water-retaining capacity. Penfound suggests that absorption of water is primarily an imhibitional phenomenon. This is supported by the fact that absorption by desiccated plants is very rapid at first and becomes progressively slower as the cells become hydrated. Spanish moss is not only one of the unique and decora- tive features of the Southern landscape, but a commer- cially important asset as well. Its inner fibrous portion resembles horsehair, and like the latter it is tough, durable, resilient and unlikely to lump. Because of these properties it has long been used as a filling or padding in a variety of manufactured goods, and herein lies its greatest commercial importance. The bayous of Florida and Louisiana are well- known for their Spanish Moss Industries. The Louisiana Department of Conservation^ published the following figures relative to their Annual Commercial Moss Crop which shows the highest yield and price received by the industry: 1925 8,120 tons were ginned and sold for a total of $2,273,000 1926 8,400 tons were ginned and sold for $1,934,000 These figures of production and price are above aver- age for the past ten years. ^ The productive technology is simple : Moss gathered from trees must be cured and retted. It is piled in long rows about 4 ft. wide to about shoulder height of an aver- age man. Here it is wetted thoroughly and left to go 30 through a heating by sun radiation. Two months later the row of moss is turned up-side-down, again wetted and left to heat. The action of heat and moisture causes the pulpy- cortex to sluff away from the strong, black fiber, which resembles the hair of a horsetail. The black fiber is then scattered out to dry. The roof of a building, a fence, the top of a levee or anything that will suspend it in the air and expose it to the sun is used. After drying, the moss is ready for ginning, which opera- tion disentangles the fiber and relieves it of foreign matter such as bark, twigs and leaves. After ginning, it is pressed into uniform 300 pound bales. The moss-picker sells to the ginner who in turn sells to the manufacturer of upholstery. The fiber is used in many articles of services, such as automobile seats, cush- ioned chairs, pillows, and mattresses. Economically, it is believed that the waste material from the processing of fibers of Spanish Moss for the up- holstery industry may be utilized as a fodder supplement for beef cattle. Haligan^ gives the analysis of green moss as: Protein 3.68% Iron and Aluminum Oxide 0.28 % Carbohydrate 15.9 % Phosphate 0.032% Fiber 8.24% Calcium Oxide 0.058% H2O 69.2 % Sodium Oxide 0.58 % Ash 1.57% Potassium Oxide 0.31 % Feurt and Fox*, studied the estrogenic substance in Spanish Moss and its oral administration which revealed estrogenic administration begun before 4-6 weeks of age inhibits growth and development, but if begun after full growth is attained it does not cause loss of weight in rats. The Spanish Moss, Dendropogon usneoides (L.), may be considered one of the most interesting and economical plants of the southeastern United States. It only requires various plants to support or suspend it in the air, from which it selects certain minerals to be used as nourishment. It may harm the host only if the plant grows very dense and shuts out the sunlight. Spanish Moss contributes great- ly to the beauty of the Southern landscape and to the econo- my of the southeastern coastal states. Harmful as it may appear, this plant is used for fillings or padding in upholstery, a fodder supplement for cattle, insulation for birdnests, and the estrogenic substances which it contains may eventually be used to improve the growth of livestock and other field crops. Is it true, therefore, "that money grows on trees?" There is an abundance of wealth hanging above the heads of our Savannah State College family. 31 Bibliography 1. Aldrich, C. C. Spanish Moss Industry of Louisiana, Economic Geog- raphy. 19: 347-57. October, 1943. 2. Billings, F. H. A Study of Tillandsia Usneoides L. Botany Gazettee. 38:99-121. 1904. 3. Corfield, George S. Spanish Moss: forest by-products of the South. Journal of Geography. 42:308-317. 1943. 4. Feurt, S. D. and Fox, L. E. Effects of Oral Administration of Span- ish Moss, Tillandsia usneoides L. Science, 118:626. November 20, 1953. 5. Minis, S. Spanish Moss (Crop of the Bayou People). Farm Quar- terly. 4:40-1, Autumn, 1949. 6. Penfound, W. T. and Deiler, F. G. On the Ecology of Spanish Moss. Ecology 28:455-8. October, 1947. 7. Schimper, A. F. W. Plant Geography Upon a Physiological Basis. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 8. Schroder, H. H. Spanish Moss, Beautiful and Useful. Nature Maga- zine. 43:533-6. December, 1950. 9. Wherry, E. T. and Buchanan, R, Composition of the Ash of Spanish Moss. Ecology. 7:303-6. July, 1926. 10. Wherry, E. T. and Capen, R. G. Mineral Constituents of Spanish- Moss and Ball-Moss. Ecology, 9:501-4. October, 1928. 32 A Survey of Negro Preschool Centers In Savannah by Zelia E. Owens This survey presents the status of Negro Day Care Centers in Savannah. An attempt has been made to present the information on what prevailing conditions should be in light of standards recommended and recognized by authori- ties in the field of early childhood education. During the winter quarter of 1959-60, questionnaires were personally delivered or mailed to seventeen centers. Ninety-four per cent of the centers returned the questionnaires and an ap- preciable amount of information was obtained through interviews. Although in many instances the information was in- complete, the respondents provided information concerned with the following areas : 1. Buildings and sites 2. Indoor facilities 3. Fees 4. Equipment, toys and supplies 5. Health measures 6. Status of the teachers and desired qualifications Before basic improvements can be made to day care centers, weaknesses must first be discovered and analyzed. With the foregoing statement in mind, this survey is in- tended to be a stepping stone towards the improvement of Negro Day Care Centers in Savannah and surrounding- areas. During the summer of 1957, the aldermen of Savannah adopted an ordinance under which the centers are to be operated. The text of the ordinance is as follows: An ordinance to define a child day care agency; to require persons operating such an agency to obtain an annual license ; to provide for inspection of same ; to repeal ordinances in conflict herewith and for other purposes.^ Since the adoption of the above ordinance, instructions from the City of Savannah setting forth the requirements under which a center may be operated have been given to each director of a day care center. In spite of improvements made, some of the centers are still below Savannah's re- ^Aldermen of the City of Savannah, License Requirements for Child Day Care Agencies, August 2, 1957, p. 2. 33 quirements and those of representative authorities in the field of nursery school education. The sixteen schools represented in this survey have a total enrollment of 370 children whose ages range from six months to five years. Ten of the schools dismiss by one o'clock, three by four, and the remaining three by six o'clock. The following information focuses more light on the findings. Of the 16 centers studied, 5 or 31.3% are in school build- ings; 5 or 31.3% are in homes occupied by families; 3 or 18.8% are in churches; 2 or 12.5% are in homes renovated for child care centers; and 1 or 6.3% is housed in other facilities. One of the centers is using the second floor for a group of children, a practice which should be discour- aged. Four of the school buildings or 25% of the centers are in brick buildings. It may also be noted that 10 or 62.5% of the centers have fenced play areas. Three centers or 18.8% have closed since 1957; 10 or 62.5% are pri- vately operated; and 9 or 56.3% have permits. (See Table I) TABLE I GENERAL FINDINGS No. of Centers Surveyed No. in Sch. Buildings No. in Private Homes No. in Churches No. in Renovated Homes 16 5 5 3 2 No. Using Other Facilities No. Using 2nd Floor No. in Brick Bldgs. No. with Fenced Areas No. Closed 1957 1 1 4 10 3 No. Privately Operated No. with Permits 10 14 BUILDINGS AND SITES This survey did not include the amount of indoor and outdoor play space for each child. However, in addition to recommending fireproof buildings, authorities advocate a minimum of 25 square feet of floor space per child. Rooms should be properly lighted, heated and ventilated. Katherine Read states: 'The nursery school building itself is an important factor in determining the learning possi- bilities within a school. A good deal of thought should be given to its planning, for it may extend or limit the experi- ences the children have."^ As a means of safety, the out- lets should be well out of the reach of the children, and the covering on the floor should not be slippery. Katherine Read, The Nursery School, Second Edition, W. B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, 1955. p. 40. 34 The site should be well drained with at least three dif- ferent plots, namely: sandy, a hard surfaced and grassy area. The outdoor play space is expected to be well ex- posed to the sunshine and shade. Standard rules and regu- lations require 75 square feet of fenced useable play space per child and a storage room in the area for outdoor toys and equipment. INSIDE FACILITIES Centers with mixed age groups should have facilities of various sizes or heights for the prevention of handicap- ping children. Three lavatories and three toilets are needed for each 20 or 25 children. Four of each could be well used ; however, the minimum requirement is two of each for the number of children forestated. Individual lockers and sturdy cots or other resting facilities are required. Table II may be compared with the standard requirements. TABLE II CENTERS WITH MINIMUM INDOOR FACILITIES No. Per Cent 1. Two lavatories for 20 or 25 children 16 100 2. Two toilets for each 20 or 25 children 16 100 3. Sufficient number of tables and chairs of correct proportion and size 6 38 4. Individual lockers 12 75 Totals 50 313 PLAY MATERIALS, SUPPLIES, and PLAY EQUIPMENT Froebel (1782-1855), known as the father of the kinder- garten, spear-headed the idea that play is necessaiy for the development of the whole child. This supposition has steadily grown stronger throughout the years. A quote by Fagre and his co-authors contend "Through wholesome active play a child develops his body and builds up vitality that is in itself a basis for a socially useful personality. He learns much through the experimentation that goes on in play, manipulation of materials, trial and error handling of objects and natural resources. Play not only builds in him a happy attitude toward work but stimulates him to mental activity.^ Having accepted Froebel's idea that play is a nec- essity, one must also accept his theory that play materials are also necessary for complete growth and development. When selecting toys, it should be remembered that the most expensive toys are not as satisfying as those that do not have to be handled restrictively. This does not mean that toys should not be durable and able to take rugged treatment. The selection of simple toys is the most siutable choice for group play. They should be suitable for the age and mental development of the group. Toys should be 'Fagre, Anderson, Harris, Child Care and Training, Eighth Edition. Uni- versity of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1959. pp. 203-204. 35 washable, when possible and safe. By selecting toys care- fully, it is possible to obtain items that may be used in a variety of activities. When selecting toys, the following stages of growth should be considered : physical, emotional, social, and mental development. Table III shows a group of toys listed according to types of play and activities. This table indicates a serious shortage of toys in the majority of the areas. It is interest- ing to note that the areas of music and books are much bet- ter supplied than other play materials. TABLE III PLAY MATERIALS, SUPPLIES, AND EQUIPMENT IN THE SAVANNAH DAY CARE CENTERS No. with Toys for Indoor Sufficient Physical Development Per Cent Quantities Toys on wheels, balls, constructive sets 44 7 Punch bags, boxing gloves 6.3 1 Carpenter's bench, hammers, saws, wood, nails, screws, vise Toys for Dramatic and Imaginative Play Washable dolls (unbreakable) 38 6 Doll clothes and doll beds 38 6 Dress-up clothes and shoes, telephones, irons and iron- ing boards, kitchen equipment 12.5 2 Play store supplies, airplanes, cars, wooden people and animals 19 3 Supplies for Creative and Constructive Play Large crayon. No. 38, construction paper, newsprint paper, blunt scissors, clay or plasticine, easels and easel paint, finger paint and age level puzzles 75 12 Large wooden beads for stringing simple weaving supplies^ 38 6 Musical Instruments and Books Piano, record player, or radio 81 13 Rhythm instruments 50 8 Variety of books suitable for age levels 81 13 No. with Toys and Equipment for Sufficient Outdoor Development Per Cent Quantities Wagons 31.3 5 Tricycles 25 4 Swings 50 8 Ass't Blocks (hollow) 25 4 Sliding Boards 38 6 Jungle Gymns 44 7 Cleated Boards 6.3 1 (6' or 8'x7", %" thick) Various sizes of Utility Balls 63 11 Portable Ladders 18.9 3 Climbing Ropes, Rope Ladders or Cargo Nets 6.3 1 Bouncing Boards (10' 7" to lO'xYs") Playground Packing Boxes, Crates or Barrels 6.3 1 Saw Horses, Var. Hts 6.3 1 Wheel barrows Playboards ( % "x5 Vz "x44" ) 6.3 1 Sandpiles, Shovels, Pails 6.3 1 36 Because it was not feasible to list all of the toys, sup- plies and materials which aid in the development of the child, Table III does not represent a true picture on play materials, equipment, and supplies. Good health may well be considered our greatest asset. It is such an important factor that it should never be neg- lected at any age. Giving a child proper medical care and attention and instilling in him the fundamental health habits assures him of a chance for becoming a noteworthy citizen. Just as the foundation for social traits is laid during the formative years, so it is with the building of the foundation for proper health habits. Preschool children should form the habit of eating a variety of foods. In addition to form- ing a good habit, they are getting the elements necessary for proper growth and development. The meals should be well-balanced and given at a regular time, and in between eating should be omitted except fruits and juices. Chil- dren need proper rest and sleep according to their ages and individual differences. Fortunately several of the health measures are enforced in the centers according to the facts in Table IV. TABLE IV HEALTH MEASURES SUPPORTED BY THE DIRECTORS OF THE DAY CARE CENTERS Number of staff members having yearly X-rays and occasional check ups 16 Schools keeping Immunization Records 16 Schools Conducting Daily Health Inspections 16 Schools serving hot, well-balanced lunch and morning and afternoon snacks 5 Schools Providing Rest Periods 16 Schools using Cots, Rugs or Mats during rest periods 7 Schools having First Aid Kits 16 Schools Permitting Children to bring lunch or snacks 16 The data in Table IV shows that only five centers sei've hot, well balanced meals. This is probably due to the fact that so many schools dismiss by one o'clock. One more re- minder, children must be protected from undue social and mental ills ; otherwise, they will not be able to cope with the challenges of life. FEES Table V indicates a very low fee per month paid by parents. From personal interviews, it seems as if this trend stems from the problem of low income. Money received from those who pay according to their ability is meager, and some of the teachers acknowledge that they keep some 37 children from time to time whose parents are not able to pay any thing. The rescue solution has not reached teach- ers maintaining private centers. TABLE V FEES PER MONTH Fee $10.00 $9.00 $8.00 $7.00 $6.00 $5.00 No. of Nursery Schs. 2 1 4 1 3 Fee $4.00 $3.00 $2.00 $1.00 Depending on Ability to pay* No. of Nursery Schs. 1 1 3 5 ''Five Nursery Schools in addition to their established fee also charge according to the ability to pay. TEACHERS The child who is making his initial departure from home and loved ones needs someone who is understanding, sympathetic, and friendly. Gardner sums up the desired personal qualities of the preschool teacher by saying "Mod- ern methods . . . demand that the teacher should have a sensitive insight into the minds of children, that she shall be swift to appreciate and sympathize with their purposes, to understand their anxieties and those of their parents, and intelligent enough to perceive and take up in the right way the many opportunities which are there to be used for the child's happiness, welfare, and intellectual progress."'* The same personal qualities required of the director or head teacher are necessary for the assistant teacher also. However, the head teacher has a much greater responsi- bility. She is the guiding light for the parents, children, and those who assist in the school. Savannah's requirements for formal education and experience, generally, are in ac- cord with those recommended by specialists in the field of early childhood education. The director and teacher are expected to be graduates from an accredited college with a major in early childhood education, and the assistant should be a graduate of an accredited high school. Regard- less of training or lack of it, those who work with children must be alert and interested in their growth and develop- ment.^ Table VI shows the educational status of the teachers. Their personal qualifications observed during personal in- terviews seemed quite fitting for preschool teachers. *D. E. M. Gardner, The Education of the Young Child, Philosophical Li- brary, New York, 1957. pp. 82-83. 'Friendly and understanding pediatricians, nurses, and dentists are in- cluded as invaluable people in the life of the child. .38 TABLE VI TRAINING OF THE PRESCHOOL TEACHERS Number Percentage Teachers 28 Less than High School Diploma 6 21.4 High School Diploma 3 10.7 High School Diploma Plus 10 35.7 College Degree 3 10.7 College Degree Plus 3 10.7 M. A. Degree Plus 3 10.7 CONCLUSION The Negro preschool centers fail to measure up to the minimum standards in the following areas: buildings, in- door facilities, play materials, supplies, equipments, and formal teacher training. In spite of substandards in most categories, it is encouraging to note the progress made in the field of health, even though its program needs to be improved. FUTURE OUTLOOK FOR NEGRO NURSERY SCHOOLS IN SAVANNAH 1. Preschool standards will be raised so as to meet national standards in the areas of staff training, physical facilities, equipment, toys, supplies, and health and safety measures. 2. Preschool training will become a part of the formal educational system in all of the states. 3. Child care agencies will see to it that private schools get more financial help than they are now getting. 39 The Savannah State College Library: In Retrospect and Prospect by E. J. Josey The founding of any library is usually the result of the thoughts and actions of a few people in a community. But before these library-minded citizens can act, there must be an environment which nurtures or encourages the growth of a libraiy. In our institutions of learning, the need for books and related materials to support the instructional program is the one single factor which nurtures the birth of the academic library. Such institutions of higher learn- ing as Harvard University and the University of California can boast that their libraries preceded the growth and de- velopment of their institutions. Most American university and college libraries are not as fortunate as Harvard or California. There is overwhelm- ing evidence that, in most instances, the library has lagged behind her sister departments in the college. One scholar asserts, "In many institutions it is very low on the totem pole below the student union, athletic field, gymnasium, and other accepted facilities. Colleges and universities will invest great sums in expensive scientific and technological development, all of which may be necessary, but will not meet satisfactorily the needs of that branch of the institu- tion which is extremely close to its reason for existence, and which is perhaps the best single means of guaranteeing the continuity between classroom and post collegiate cul- ture."i Returning to the assertion that the need for books and related materials to support the instructional program which nurtures the development of an academic library, we find that other factors and influences, in too many instances, have operated against or restrained and retarded the de- velopment of many of the nation's college libraries in gen- eral, and Negro college libraries in particular. If Carlyle's dictum "The true university of these days is a collection of books" is taken seriously, America's universities and col- leges are rather poor. In spite of the plight of many Ameri- can academic libraries, in the building of institutions of higher learning, libraries have played a significant role. THE PURPOSE OF THE STUDY The opening of the new college library concurrently with the commencing of the 1959-60 academic year marked a ^William W. Brickman. "The Library and Higher Education," School and Society, 87:348, September 12, 1959. 40 new phase in the history of Savannah State College. For the first time in the history of this venerable institution, library service is available to students and faculty in a library building erected exclusively for library purposes. Such a historic occasion merits a little reflection and crys- tal-gazing. The specific purposes of this paper are twofold : Firstly, to take a historical glance at the Savannah State College Library, and secondly, to do a little crystal-gazing by attempting to chart a new course for the development of the Savannah State College Library in the light of new standards of college library service and the development of new programs for library service. Limitations and Strengths There are many weaknesses inherent in a study of this kind. In retrospect, one has hindsight and the lessons of the past which enable him to generalize and reach a plausible conclusion if sources of information are available. In pros- pect, one is charting a new course for the ship with foresight that may not be as safe as hindsight in view of unforeseen developments and circumstances which may cause him to alter his course. Specific limitations also include conflicting reports in the college catalog with respect to book stock figures and figures on inventory records. The lack of library reports from 1891 to 1942, the gaps in the college catalog collection, the absence of the accession record up to 1941, and the paucity of information in general on the library during the early years of the institution are a few of the impediments for producing an exhaustive historical study on the library. The strengths of the study stem from the fact that three former librarians. Miss Joan McAllister (now Dr. Joan Gordon of the faculty). Miss Ursuline Belcher (now Mrs. Ben Ingersoll) and Miss Luella Hawkins (presently Asso- ciate and Reference Librarian) were gracious enough to submit to the writer's probing in order to ferret out bits of unrecorded history. The preparation for the future would not have been possible if the new college standards were not available. 2 The serious consideration of the challenge of the sixties and the effect of the challenge on educational institutions, generally, and academic libraries, specifically, by a vanguard of educators and librarians have aided the writer in his attempt to shape a course for the future. THE LIBRARY'S HISTORICAL PAST It is virtually impossible to consider the history of an academic library without some consideration of the history of the institution of which it is an integral part. The Savannah State College is the oldest Negro, state- supported higher educational institution in Georgia. The -Association of College and Research Libraries. "Standards for College Libraries," College and Research Libraries, 20:274-280, July 1959. 41 fii"st step for its founding was taken by the legislature in 1890, when it accepted the provisions of the second Morrill Act of 1890.2 It was not until November 26, 1890, however, that the Legislature enacted legislation establishing the Georgia State Industrial College as a branch of the Univer- sity of Georgia. The newly appointed board, under the lead- ership of P. W. Meldrim of Savannah invited towns to bid for the college. After giving consideration to other sites, the board accepted the old Warren Estate near Thunderbolt, six miles from Savannah. On October 7, 1891, approximately 1200 persons assembled on the campus to witness the for- mal opening of the college.^ Range reveals that "the Morrill Act had provided spe- cifically that emphasis must be placed on industries, on the teaching of Agriculture, the Mechanic Arts, the Physical, Natural and Economic Sciences, Mathematics, and English all with reference to their practical application to everyday life." For many years, the college curriculum emphasized the courses of study listed above. However, in the fall of 1951, Agriculture was discontinued. In subsequent years the curricular offerings have expanded to ran the gamut from business to music, therefore, going beyond the original aims and purposes of the institution. There was not much in the early history of the college to foretell or reveal in a prophetic view the rich fulfillment which was to come in later years. In addition to the college offerings, Georgia State Industrial College had to provide college preparatoiy studies, because there were only one or two high schools for Negroes in the state. Nevertheless, the groundwork was laid for its contribution to Negro higher education. The name of the college was changed to Savan- nah State College on Januaiy 18, 1950. Despite the exciting development of the college to its present position of the largest Negro undergraduate college in Georgia, the his- torical development of the library was not impressive be- cause emphasis, at the outset, was on the practical ; there- fore, there was little need for books. Certainly, emphasis on college preparatoiy studies and the lack of emphasis on the library as a teaching instrument impeded the progress of the Savannah State College Library. Beginnings of the Library Collection Turning from the history of the college to the historj^ of the library, it is quite evident that while the college was expanding and growing rapidly in many directions, it was unfortunately neglecting the development of library re- sources. This is quite evident from the present status of the library collection and the history of its growth and develop- ^Willard Range, The Rise and Pi-ogress of Negro Colleges In Georgia 1865-1949 (Athens: The University of Georgia Press, 1951), p. 62. *Ibid. p. 63. ^Ibid. p. 64. 42 ment. The first college catalogue reveals that there was a library collection of 250 volumes.^ Twenty years later, the official catalogue of the college reveals that only 350 addi- tional volumes had been added ; thus, giving a total collec- tion of 600 volumes.' The slow growth of the book collection gives evidence which supports the belief that the library played a minor role in the early history of the institution. However, the statement, "We are anxious to increase this number as rap- idly as possible, and therefore solicit donations of good books from our friends"^ is a profound testimony which demonstrates that the college authorities were cognizant of the importance of the library but were unable to build a first-rate library collection because of lack of funds. Six years later, the college catalogue reports that the collection had decreased to 400 volumes.^ Since there are no inventory records available, it is impossible to reach a conclusion re- garding the decrease ; in all probability, the volumes were discarded because they were obsolete or lost duiing the in- ter\^ening years. Thirty years after the establishment of the institution, a library collection of 400 volumes is substantial proof of the little use of books in the instructional program. Hulbert suggests that "books were instruments of formal instruction and study; the pleasure and recreation elements in reading had no place in the strict academic discipline then main- tained"^ in the early development of Negro collegiate edu- cation. Closely allied with Hulbert's explanation is the fact that there was no real need for a large variety of books necessary for a college library as there is in the 1960's, be- cause so many Negro college students were unable to read anything except the basic elementarj^ textbooks. Therefore, the majority of Negro college library collections, at the turn of the century, were woefully inadequate. Continuing the historical survey of the book collection, it is impossible to trace the growth of the collection in the 1920's as reflected in the college catalog, for the college catalog does not mention the number of volumes in the library collection. Nevertheless, the United States Office of Education's sui'\^ey of Negro institutions in 1928 reveals that very few additions had been made to the library collection in the 20's. Klein writes, "The library of the Georgia State Industrial College has only a few books, the majority of which are old and out of date. Because no card catalogue ^Announcement and Catalogue of the Georgia State Industrial College, Savannah, Georgia, 1891-92, p. 26. ''Yearbook of the Georgia State Industrial College, Savannah, Georgia, 1909-1910, p. 41. Hhid. ^Catalog of the Georgia State Industrial College, Savannah, Georgia, 1920-21, p. 9. "James A. Hulbert, "The Negro College Librarv," Journal of Negro Education 12:623, 1943. 43 has been made, the institution was unable to furnish infor- mation regarding the number of volumes on hand. "The committee found, however, that a large, well- lighted room had been provided with reading tables and chairs and that the shelves and other equipment were of first-rate type. Expenditures for library purposes in 1926-27 amounted to $400, of which $300 was expended for books and $100 for magazines. "Plans for the expansion of the library have recently been made ; some science books of a collegiate quality have already been added . . ."^^ The Klein report not only reveals the deficiencies of the Georgia State Industrial College Library, but also points out the inadequacies of Negro college libraries in general, for it revealed that only fifteen Negro colleges of the sev- enty-nine surveyed had 10,000 or more volumes and seven had no libraries at all.^- The foregoing statement is not given as an apology for the snail-pace growth of the Savan- nah State College Library, but given to portray the weakness of library service in Negro institutions during this period. The following commentary by Holmes, "While the report generously praises the Negro Colleges for their great ad- vancement under serious handicaps, yet it reveals, in gen- eral, a serious deficiency in support, in library facili- ties . . ."^3 supports this writer's premise in a foregoing section of this paper that in most colleges, the library has lagged behind the other departments within the framework of growth and development of the entire institution. The integration of the library and the instructional program has only been emphasized during the last thirty years ; this emphasis has resulted in the improvement and upgrading of academic libraries in our nation's colleges. The period 1931 to 1940-41 is significant. The library has grown to approximately 6,000 volumes during the school year 1931-32.1* By 1940-41, a collection of 8,000 volumes was housed in the college library.^^ The college library's accession record dates from 1941. The greatest growth in the library collection has come dur- ing the last two decades. The accession record reveals that as of June 30, 1942, which marked the end of the first year in which the accession record was maintained, the library ^ ^Arthur J. Klein. Survey of Negro Colleges and Universities, United States Office of Education, Department of the Interior, Bulletin, 1928, No. 7 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1929), p. 329. ^-Ibid. p. 624. ^^Dwight Oliver Wendell Holmes, The Evolution of the Negro College (New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia Uni- versity, 1934), p. 184. ^'^Catalogue of the Georgia State Industrial College, Savannah, Georgia, 1931-32, p. 13. ^'Catalogue of the Georgia State Industrial College, Savannah, Georgia, 1940-41, p. 15. 44 added 1,753 volumes. By June 30, 1960, the library had offi- cially accessioned 37,375 volumes which represent a 467 per cent increase over the holdings of the library in 1940-41. This total does not represent a true picture of the library's holdings, for many volumes have been worn out, superseded, discarded and withdrawn, so as of June 30, 1960, the total holdings of the library collection was 28,750. The tremen- dous growth of the book collection during the last two decades gives first hand evidence of the increasing impor- tance of the role of the library in the institution. The Library Staff Although the library was established in 1891, and 600 books were added by the school year 1900-1901, the first time a librarian is mentioned in available records is in the catalog for 1930-31. Miss Ursuline Belcher's (now Mrs. Ben Ingersoll) name appeared in the catalog as the librarian. However, Miss Joan McAllister (now Dr. Joan Gordon, of the Social Science faculty) served part-time for two years prior to Mrs. Ingersoll's appointment. Mrs. Ingersoll also divided her time between the operation of the library and the teaching of English classes, but spent considerably more time in the library. Before the establishment of the Hampton Library School, there was no satisfactory agency in the South which had the responsibility of setting standards for admission to the profession of librarianship. Therefore, as a result of this sorry state of affairs, there was a wide range in formal edu- cational achievements among Negro college librarians than in any of the older professions. Dr. Gordon assumed the posi- tion with no training in Library Science, while Mrs. Inger- soll had a few courses at the University of Minnesota. In spite of their lack of training, Dr. Gordon and Mrs. Inger- soll performed admirably, for much of the equipment or- dered by Dr. Gordon remained in use until the opening of the new library building in 1959, and many of the titles catalogued by Mrs. Ingersoll are still a part of our collection today. One of the most cogent statements which show the im- portance of trained librarians for Negro educational insti- tutions is "probably the greatest impetus to general library development and, doubtless, the most important single fac- tor in the improvement of libraries within Negro institu- tions of higher learning, was the work of the Hampton Insti- tute Library School. The activities of its director. Miss Flor- ence R. Curtis, were greatly responsible for the arousing of Negro educators from their indifference regarding libraries. The fourteen years of the school's existence show a remark- able record. "1^ The Savannah State College library owes a great debt i^Hulbert, op. cit., p. 624. 45 to the Hampton Institute Library School, for the first pro- fessionally trained librarian employed by the college was a graduate of this school. Miss Luella Hawkins assumed the position of Librarian in the fall of 1934 and remained at the helm until she became Associate and Reference Librarian in the fall of 1959. In the fall of 1946, Miss Madeline Harri- son joined the staff as Assistant Librarian ; and in 1948, Miss Althea Williams augmented the professional staff. The as- sumption of the position of Librarian by the writer in 1959 increased the professional staff to four. It can be said with great authority that it is with Luella Hawkins' librarianship, forty-four years after the founding of the college, that a new beginning for the establishment of a real college library seems modestly to have been made. All would agree that an excellent book collection is the sine qua non of a college library ; nevertheless, unless there is a highly qualified pro- fessional staff of librarians to organize the book collection and to assist readers in the use of the book collection, ade- quate library service is an impossibility. Library Quarters Efficient library service is not possible without adequate library quarters. All available information indicates that the first organized and catalogued library was housed in Meldrim. A picture of the modest and well appointed li- brary appears in the 1930-31 college catalog. The 1936-37 catalog announces the opening of the library in new quar- ters located on the first floor of the Walter B. Hill Hall and the library remained in this location until the summer of 1959. It is universally true that library quarters are overtaxed when either its readers space or its book capacity is more than 75 per cent in use. For many years the Hill-Hall quar- ters were inadequate, for students would spread out their work and lay coats or books on adjacent chairs; conse- quently, students were unanimous in their dissatisfaction with the library as a place to study. During the middle of each quarter when the highest attendance was counted, the library was always overcrowded and congested. By and large, the library was not at all inviting. The physical aspects of the library were far from being ideal. Working space for staff was at a premium. There were congested areas behind the Circulation and Reserve Desks and a small area for technical processing. The total inadequacy of the library seriously hampered efficiency of service to readers and technical operations. For years, the college administration, the library staff, the faculty and the student body yearned for and dreamed about a new library building. This dream became a reality when students and faculty entered the new library on Oc- tober 7, 1959 for library service. There is no need to describe 46 the new building here, because a description appears else- where in print. 1' Designed to be the focal point of the entire educational experience at Savannah State College, the new library building is destined to become the intellectual center of the campus. PROSPECTUS FOR THE FUTURE A historical portrait of the library has been drawn which depicts the growth of the library in three areas : book collection, professional staff, and quarters. This section of the paper represents a blueprint for the future. To chart a course for the future is one of the most difficult tasks facing man in any field of endeavor, for the rapid changes are so fast until the architect of the future must, in some cases, alter his plans before he removes the blueprint from the drawing board. However, academic librarians would agree that college administrators and librarians must look into the future with sound plans for a number of reasons. Firstly, it is virtually impossible for a college to provide a good general education for its students unless it has a good library. Secondly, library services and facilities are of such importance until the absence of first-rate facilities and serv- ices along with a superb book collection seriously handicap students and faculty. And thirdly, costs in relation to serv- ices are high, e.g., a growing student enrollment demands a rapidly growing collection and services; acquisition and cataloguing become more expensive as these operations be- come more complicated. The three factors listed above rep- resent only general factors that plague library planners for the future. More specific factors will be dealt with as these become germane to the discussion. A Book Collection For the Future Most college librarians contend that a well chosen col- lection of 100,000 volumes will provide for the reading pro- gram of an undergraduate institution. Our present collection of 28,750 is woefully inadequate. According to the new standards, an institution of our size should have a minimum collection of 70,000 volumes. ^^ The need for library ma- terials is determined in part by the extent and variety of course offerings as well as the extra-curricular reading in- terests of the students. "Also it should contain a generous selection of works to keep the members of the faculty abreast of the latest advances in scholarship. "^'^ Although the library has a responsibility to faculty needs and interests, the collection should be a live working collection and not primarily a research collection. Esoteric and little used material should not be part and parcel of an ^"^E. J. Josey, "Savannah State," Library Journal, 84:3721-3722, Decem- ber 1, 1959. ^^Association of College and Research Libraries. Op. cit., 278. i976fff. 276. 47 undergraduate collection ; these materials may be borrowed from one of the university or research libraries on inter- library loan. To ensure the assembling of a useful collection for the support of the instructional program, it is necessary for the faculty to participate in the book selection process. What are the essentials of a good library collection? It is essential that the library amass a good reference col- lection which will provide bibliographical keys to the world of scholarship. Secondly, current books should be reflected in the library's holdings. These current titles should not necessarily be those appearing on the best-seller list, but books that will become a part of our heritage, e.g., Vance Packard's The Status Seekers, Joseph Wood Krutch's Hu- man Nature and the Human Condition or C. Wright Mills' The Power Elite. Thirdly, "in addition to the materials re- lated directly or indirectly to the curriculum, the collection should contain the standard works which represent the heri- tage of civilization. These works should be continuously sup- plemented by a wide variety of books which combine time- liness with enduring values chosen to arouse the intellectual curiosity of students and to satisfy their recreational read- ing needs."-" And fourthly, the collection must contain a periodical collection which will supplement the book collec- tion on subjects which the library does not have, as well as provide the most recent information available. In the years ahead, the periodical collection must be augmented by at least 200 titles. To provide for the kind of collection suggested above, it is imperative that the library should have a continuing budget for books and related materials of not less than $30,000 for the next ten years. This budget would aid in filling in the gaps of the collection of older landmark books which should have been procured during the library's lean years, as well as provide for the generous acquisition of significant current books. The sum $30,000 per year may sound exhorbitant; however, one college librarian suggests "the college should be prepared to spend enough money for library services. As a rule of thumb, an average expenditure of $100.00 per student per year is desirable; anything less than $50.00 per student, per year is inadequate."-^ Library Staff No library is better than the professional staff which provides its services to readers. The addition of the Serials and Curriculum Materials Librarian in the fall of 1960 will increase the professional staff to five. The new positions that will be needed for the future will be largely determined by an increasing enrollment, an increase in book funds, and -^Ihid. 276-277. -^Wen Chao Chen, "A Sound Library Service for the Small College," Liberal Education, 46:239, May 1960. 48 the addition of new library services. In the immediate fu- ture, it is our desire to add an assistant cataloguer to handle special materials, e.g., records, curriculum materials center items, and foreign monographs, etc. The provision for an Assistant Cataloger, along with competent clerical assist- ance will provide the library with adequate personnel for the decade ahead. A highly trained professional staff is essential to the efficient operation of a college library. Library Use The use of the library by college students is the direct result of faculty teaching methods. The assembling of the best book collection and the procurement of the most able librarians in the world will not alter this fact. A faculty that employs the use of the textbook does not demand the use of the library. The Savannah State faculty is greatly con- cerned about the use of the college library. During the year 1959-60, the dean of faculty stressed the use of the library at one of the Curriculum Committee Meetings and at a special faculty-instructional meeting. The electrifying discussion which followed generated more li- brary assignments than ever before. Another healthy sign during the 1959-60 school year was this fact: there was a 71.48 per cent decrease in the use of reserve books, for our students now have access to the entire book collection be- cause of open stacks in the new building. In the years ahead, our students will depend less and less upon reserve books. They will do more independent study as recommended by Mr. Guy Lyle, Librarian of Emory University who opened the 1959-60 Savannah State Faculty Workshop with a brilliant address on "The Use of The Col- lege Library." Two scholars hold this view : One of Amer- ica's most library-minded college presidents writes, "I dis- covered at the early stage of my career that the reserve shelf, instead of facilitating use of books, was often, in actual practice, a barrier to their effective employment. Many students never touched any other books; the cata- logue, the reference works, bibliographical aids of everj^ kind were all neglected."-- Knapp writes, "Perhaps the heyday of the reserve collection is over. . . . Perhaps college instructors, in general, are returning to textbooks, source- books and books of readings, and are also taking advantage of the newly-available paper-bound reprints. "^^ The trend away from the assignment of specific readings to a sampling of a wider range of materials will certainly give our stu- dents more knowledge of and appreciation for books, which in turn, will be a variation from being spoon-fed to learning. --Henry M. Wriston, Academic Procession; Reflections of a College Presi- dent (New York: Columbia University Press, 1959), p. 133. -^Patricia B. Knapp, College Teaching and The College Library (Chi- cag-o: American Library Association, 1959), p. 19. 49 With regard to the role of the library staff in stimulat- ing library use, the professional library staff has a sacred duty insofar as encouraging greater use of the library. The staff should keep the faculty abreast of the new materials in their teaching fields. In addition to the faculty's responsi- bility to encourage more student reading, the library staff must promote cultural and recreational reading by provid- ing and making accessible stimulating materials and pro- viding displays, book lists, publicity, lecture series, and stimulating a readers advisor service. The prospectus for the future is great. Our problems are complex but not insolvable. Assembling a book collec- tion for the future, maintaining a highly skilled staff and stimulating library use are by no means all the problems we face. A myriad of additional vexed questions, e.g., effi- cient utilization of space, a more extensive use of microtext materials with the accompanying problems of procurement of machines for our readers' use, the use of time and motion studies for the effective use of staff personnel and the inau- guration of plans for bibliographical training for upper level students, are being studied but could not be taken into con- sideration in a paper of this length. SUMMARY A thumb nail sketch of the development of the college and a history of the library have been discussed as essential to an understanding of the complex library situation of the past and the presentation of a program for the future. The whole history reveals that during the early years of the college there was a terrifying complacency about the li- brary. This complacency and neglect stemmed from a lack of funds available, the absence of trained personnel, unsuit- able library quarters and to a large extent, the emphasis of the curriculum on the practical. As the college began to grow curriculum-wise, there was not a corresponding growth in library resources. In its comparative neglect of the library during the early years, Savannah State College has followed a pattern which was prevalent in all Negro institutions of higher learning. As we project into the future, our number one task will be to strengthen the library collection. Strengthening the book collection demands a large capital outlay of funds during the next decade in order to catch up in the assem- bling of a basic book collection, filling in the gaps of the collection, and at the same time, acquiring significant cur- rent titles. As the library collection grows, as library serv- ices increase, along with an increased college enrollment, correspondingly, the staff must be augmented. During the next decade, there will be less use of reserves and more use of a wider variety of materials from the stacks. The library staff must be unrelenting in its encouragement of the love for and appreciation of books by our students. 50 All in all, the Savannah State College Library must foster and nurture scholarship. Its proper future should be to become the richest, the most varied, and the most acces- sible college library in Georgia. As the library grows to achievement, the library will be measured by its service and its usefulness to the institution. Sympathetic support it will always need. It must never slip into inconspicuousness and mediocrity. So long as the library fosters and nurtures scholarship, it will be the intellectual center of the campus. 51 Sherman, Savannah, and the Negro by Blanton E. Black This monograph relates to an intriguing and little pub- licized facet of the history of the Civil War, namely, the proposed experiment of General W. T. Sherman in 1865 of establishing the freed Negroes in self-sufficient reserva- tions in the coastal area of South Carolina, Georgia, and northern Florida. Issued as Special Field Orders, No. 15, Headquarters Military Division of the Mississippi, In the Field, Savannah, Georgia, January 16, 1865, excerpts follow: 1. The islands from Charleston south, the abandoned rice fields along the rivers for thirty miles back from the sea, and the country bordering the St. John's, Florida, are reserved and set apart for the settlement of the negroes now made free by the acts of war and the proclamation of the President of the United States. 2. At Beaufort, Hilton Head, Savannah, Fernandina, St. Augustine, and Jacksonville, the blacks may remain in their chosen or accustomed vocations; but on the islands, and in the settlements hereafter to be established, no white person whatever, unless military officers and soldiers de- tailed for duty, will be permitted to reside ; and the sole and exclusive management of affairs will be left to the freed peo- ple themselves, subject only to the United States military authority, and the acts of Congress . . . 3. Whenever three respectable negroes, heads of fam- ilies, shall desire to settle on land, and shall have selected for that purpose an island or a locality clearly defined with- in the limits above designated, the Inspector of Settlements and Plantations will himself, of by such subordinate officer as he may appoint, give them a license to settle such island or district, and afford them such assistance as he can enable them to establish a peaceful agricultural settlement . . . each family shall have a plot of not more than forty acres of tillable ground, and, when it borders on some water- channel, with not more than eight hundred feet water-front, in the possession of which land the military authorities will afford them protection until such time as they can protect themselves, or until Congress shall regulate their title. 4. Whenever a negro has enlisted in the military serv- ice of the United States, he may locate his family in any one of the settlements at pleasure, and acquire a homestead, and all other rights and privileges of a settler, as though present in person. 52 5. In order to carry out this system of settlement, a general officer will be detailed as Inspector of Settlements and Plantations. The same general officer will be charged with the enlistment and organization of the negro recruits, and protecting their interests while absent from their settle- ments . . . 6. Brigadier-General R. Saxton is hereby appointed Inspector of Settlements and Plantations, and will at once enter on the performance of his duties. By order of Major-General W. T. Sherman L. M. Dayton, Assistant Adjutant-General This remarkable document is quoted in the 1885 edi- tion of Memoirs of General William T. Sherman. By Himself Vol II (pp 250-252). Herein is an extraordinary compilation of descriptions of military engagements, official correspond- ence, and personal reflections published by D, Appleton and Company. Long since out of print, these Memoirs exemplify an elegance of diction and clarity of expression that dis- tinguish the General as of uncommon literary talent. To say the least. General Sherman is a controversial figure ; for, by some he is described as cruel and vindictive, cold-blooded and merciless ; by others he is extolled as hu- manitarian and liberator of those who were in bondage. Without a doubt, with reference to tactics resorted to in his march through Georgia from Atlanta to Savannah, he looms as the nineteenth century precursor of this century's philos- ophy of total war and scorched-earth policy. And yet, was Sherman in his all-consuming desire to save the Union dedicated to the task of freeing the Negro? For an answer, the objective historian is impelled to search for hidden clues amidst the skillful wordage of his free- flowing prose. An inkling as to General Sherman's attitude toward the Negro is suggested in his account of demolition proce- dure in the vicinity of Atlanta (Memoirs, p. 105) : The track was heaved up in sections the length of a regiment, then separated rail by rail ; bonfires were made of the tires and the fence-rails on which the rails were heated, carried to trees or telegraph-poles, wrapped around and left to cool. Such rails could not be used again; and, to be still more certain, we filled up many cuts with trees, brush, and earth, and com- mingled with them loaded shells, so arranged that they would explode on an attempt to haul out the brushes. The explosion of one such shell would have demoral- ized a gang of negroes, and thus would have prevented even the attempt to clear the road. General J. B. Hood, commanding the Confederate forc- es in Atlanta on September 12, 1864, wrote a letter to Gen- eral Sherman protesting the conditions of surrender the 53 forced removal of the civilian populations. Further protest also included denunciation of General Sherman for using Negro troops (Memoirs p. 123) : You came into our country with your army, avowedly for the purpose of subjugating free white men, women, and children, and not only intended to rule over them, but you make negroes your allies, and desire to place over us an inferior race . . . Better die a thousand deaths than submit to live under your Government and your negro allies. Upon receiving this letter, Sherman, evidently filled with indignation, replied to General Wood in the following manner (Memoirs, September 14, 1864. p. 127) : We have no "negro allies" in this army; not a single negro soldier left Chattanooga with this army, or is with it now. Here is clear evidence of the General's negative, if not derogatory, estimate of Negro Militia. In a letter to the Mayor and City Council of Atlanta (Memoirs, pp. 125-126) , the General asserts: We don't want your negroes, or your horses, or your houses, or your lands, or anything you have, but we do want and we will have a just obedience to the laws of the United States, Sherman expressed pity for the slaves v/ho felt that the war was being fought for their freedom. This, to the Gen- eral, was a misapprehension attributable to the Negro's child-like lack of understanding. Clarifying this point of view, he relates the following incident which occurred No- vember 17, 1864, during his march from Atlanta to Savan- nah, On a plantation near Covington, Georgia, the General questioned an elderly Negro of visible and superior intelli- gence : "I asked him if he understood about the war and its progress. He said he did ; that he had been looking for the 'angel of the Lord' ever since he was knee-high, and, though we professed to be fighting for the Union, he supposed that slavery w^as the cause, and that our success was to be his freedom. I asked him if all the negro slaves comprehended this fact, and he said they surely did." (Memoirs, pp, 180-181). General Sherman then proceeded to explain that he wanted the slaves to remain where they were so that his army would not be overloaded with useless mouths to be fed. Two Special Field Orders issued at the command of General Sherman on November 8 and 9 of 1864 emphasized his consideration of the slaves as so much troublesome en- combridge. Special Field Orders No. 119: . . . All surplus servants, noncombatants, and refugees, should now go to the rear, and none should be encour- aged to encomber us on the march. At some future time 54 we will be able to provide for the poor whites and blacks who seek to escape the bondage under which they are now suffering (Memoirs, p. 174), In spite of the efforts made to discourage the slaves from following in the wake of Sherman's army, a great num- ber followed just the same. On December 13, 1864, in a letter to Hon. E. M. Stanton, Secretary of War, Washing- ton, D. C, General Sherman wrote : We reached Savannah three days ago . . . we can go ahead . . . We have not lost a wagon on the trip, but have gathered a large supply of negroes, mules, horses, etc. and our teams are in far better condition than when we started. My first duty will be to clear the army of surplus negroes, mules and horses (Memoirs, p. 201). Even in the moment of General Sherman's triumphant acclaim for his successful raid through Georgia, powerful political forces having great influence with President Lin- coln were making serious charges against the General : namely, (1) he manifested almost a criminal dislike for the Negro, and (2) he was not willing to carry out Mr. Lincoln's program of extending the blanket of emancipation immedi- ately to all Negroes. In a letter appraising him of dissatisfaction in Wash- ington, Major General Halleck wrote December 30, 1864 : They say you might have brought with you to Savannah more than fifty thousand, thus stripping Georgia of that number of laborers, and opening a road by which as many more could have escaped from their masters (Memoirs, p. 248). The seriousness of the alleged defection of the General was pointed up by the arrival in Savannah of E. M. Stanton, Secretary of War, on January 11, 1864. Five days later. Special Field Orders, No. 15, representing the combined planning of General Sherman and Secretary Stanton was issued. One does not hesitate to surmise that the guiding hand behind the overall plan was that of President Abraham Lincoln to whom both General Sherman and Secretary Stan- ton were accountable. Alas, on that dire 14th of April, Lin- coln was assassinated ; and five days earlier at Appomattox the war ended with Lee surrendering to Grant; this alone arrested Sherman's northward march of devastation. Within the same year. President Andrew Johnson be- gan a futile though heroic effort to heal the breach and to resolidify that which must inexorably remain fluid amidst the heat of progress. Hidden within the pages of James D. Richardson's com- pilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, Vol VI (pp. 350-351) are Special Orders, No. 503 and General Orders, No. 145 attributable to the administration of Andrew 55 39594 Johnson. These irrevocably rescinded the idea and plan of reservations for the f reedmen. Special Orders, No. 503 War Department Adjutant-General's Office Washington, September 19, 1865 It has been represented to the Department that com- manders of military posts and districts in Georgia . . . have assumed to decide questions of contracts and conflicting claims of property between individuals, and to order the delivery, surrender, or transfer of property and documents of title as between private persons, in which the Govern- ment is not concerned. All such acts and proceedings on the part of military authorities in said State are declared by the President to be without authority and null and void . . . By order of the President of the United States. E. D. Townsend, Assistant Adjutant-General. General Orders, No. 145 War Department Adjutant-General's Office Washington, October 9, 1865 Whereas certain tracts of land, situated on the coast of South Carolina, Georgia and Florida, at the time for the most part vacant, were set apart by Major-General W. T. Sherman's special field order No. 15 for the benefit of refugees and freedmen that have congregated by the opera- tions of war or had been left to take care of themselves by their former owners ; and Whereas an expectation was thereby created that they would be able to retain possession of said lands ; and Whereas a large number of the former owners are earnestly soliciting the restoration of the same and promis- ing to absorb the labor and care for the freedmen: It is ordered that Major-General Howard, Commis- sioner of the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Aban- doned Lands, proceed to the several above-named States and endeavor to effect an arrangement mutually satisfac- tory to the freedmen and the landowners, and make report. And in case a mutually satisfactory arrangement can be effected, he is duly empowered and directed to issue such orders as may become necessary after a full and careful investigation of the interests of the parties concerned. By order of the President of the United States : E. D. Townsend, Assistant Adjutant-General. 56 This book may be kept FOURTEEN DAYS A fine of TWO CENTS the Book is kept over time will be charged for each day MR WSi. \ .Jk|^ '>l?Jlv/'< Library Bureau Cat. No. 1137.24 N378 3959^l-. G352S Georgia. State College, Savannah Faculty research edition of the Savannah State College Bulletin