Language arts guide, 9-12

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Georgia Department of Education

Foreword
The language arts curriculum in Georgia's schools should ensure that each student obtains the listening, speaking, reading and writing skills necessary to function effectively. The curriculum should integrate various areas of the language arts discipline and avoid the fragmentation that can result when instruction focuses on isolated skill development. It should accommodate each student's individual needs, abilities and learning rate.
As students master the concepts and skills of language arts, opportunities and encouragement for more advanced study will help them become independent, lifelong learners.
Charles McDaniel State Superintendent of Schools

Acknowledgments

The Office of Instructional Services, Division of Curriculum Services, gratefully acknowledges the time, efforts and energies of the many persons responsible for the writing of this guide. This work could not have been achieved without the services rendered by the reading, oral and written communication committee members. These committees were composed of classroom and resource teachers, system level coordinators, graduate students and university professors representing various geographical areas of the state.
To these educators and to the state language arts staff members who were instrumental in the development and production of this document, we extend our appreciation.

Advisory Committee
Mattie Eley Charles Mason Virginia Mickish Carol O'Neal Robert Probst Patricia Stewart Raymon Veal

Writing Committee
Alice Adams Robert Brown Rebecca Cooper lynn Crovatt Maureen Deloach Charles Hacker Bill Hammond Cherry Horne Sally Hudson Gale Hulme Dan Kirby Lanie LaBlanc Tom Liner Ed Merryman Robert Probst Don Rubin Eunice Sims Raymon Veal Dan Ward

2

Preface
An individual must be able to communicate to function effectively. Those who cannot adequately give and receive information are hampered in every aspect of their daily lives. Providing instruction in reading and writing and in speaking and listening has been a role of the public school since its beginning. The Language Arts Guide, which addresses the areas of reading and oral and written communication, will help school systems carry out this critical task. The importance placed on these abilities are reflected in Georgia's program of statewide assessment and in the U.S. Department of Education's Basic Skill's Initiative. The Language Arts Guide provides general suggestions and specific activities for developing and improving instructional programs in the fundamental communication skills. It does not replace or displace local curriculum development. Adaptation and thorough development remain the province and responsibility of local school system personnel, those teachers, supervisors and administrators most familiar with the specific needs of the children within their classrooms. Lucille G. Jordan Associate Superintendent Office of Instructional Services R. Scott Bradshaw Director Division of Curriculum Services
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-Contents

Introduction

5

Philosophy

7

Questions and Answers for Supervisors

9

Questions and Answers for Teachers

11

Oral and Written Communication

Introduction to the Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Imaging

21

Describing

26

Telling

31

Explaining

37

Persuading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Researching

47

Interpreting

53

Social Interacting (Ritualizing)

58

Reading

Reading Comprehension in the High School

65

Teaching Reading in the Content Areas

67

Building Bridges to Reading in the Content Areas

69

Assessing Print Material

71

Levels of Reading Comprehension

73

Vocabulary Development

79

Functional Reading Skills

82

Study Skills

86

Appendices

Appendix A - Evaluating Speaking and Listening Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Appendix B - Leaming Environment Checklist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

Appendix C - Self-evaluation Checklist for Classroom Teachers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

Appendix D - A Quick Checklist for Learning Centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Appendix E - Learning Style Indicator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

Appendix F - Silent Reading Checklist

119

Appendix G - Survey of Vocabulary Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

Appendix H - Readability Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

Appendix I - Cloze Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

Appendix J - Eighth Grade Criteria-referenced Test Objectives in Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

Appendix K - Basic Skills Tests Reading Indicators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

Appendix L - Language Arts Essential Skills for Georgia Schools

131

Appendix M - Standards for Basic Skills Writing Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

Appendix N - Standards for Effective Oral Communication Programs

143

Appendix 0 - Guidelines for Minimal Speaking and Listening Competencies

147

Appendix P - Instructional Re$Ources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

Bibliography

157

Resources

161

4

Introduction
Integrating instruction in the language arts means teaching specific skills in such a way that they reinforce each other. The skills listed under "Reading" and the skills listed under "Oral and Written Communication" should build developmentally upon each other. The sample activities listed in each section illustrate ways in which language arts instruction can be integrated. These activities provide an alternative to the teaching of isolated skills. Furthermore, the examples provide an opportunity to apply those skills in practical situations. This method of instruction is intended to encourage greater student understanding and use of acquired skills through an organized, supportive system of instruction. A student can learn to read by writing, listening and speaking; the creative teacher will find ways which allow this kind of exploration to occur.
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Philosophy

The communicative arts - listening, speaking, reading and writing - are basic to our humanity. By mastering them we gain knowledge of ourselves, and we acquire the accumulated knowledge of our civilization.
Teaching the communicative arts is a complex and difficult task. Without a coherent framework for constructing curricula, the efforts of even the best teachers are sometimes ineffective and often unduly laborious.
This guide was prepared to help those responsible for curriculum development to think through the nature of the communicative arts so that teachers and students may work together in a more efficient, effective and gratifying manner.
A strong program in the communicative arts respects the skills and experiences students bring to school. Some students enter school with well-developed communicative resources - an intuitive understanding of the grammar of their language, an understanding of sound/symbol correspondence and a sense of narration. Other students enter school with only a limited set of language experiences.
Because there is this range of differences, assess-

ment and identification of learner strengths and weaknesses are the beginning points for instructional planning. As learning progresses, individual differences in rate and sequence of growth among learners also become apparent. Curricular and instructional strategies must be sensitive to these differences, providing options for teachers to personalize communicative arts learning.
A fundamental basis of communicative arts is that children learn to communicate best in an experience-based setting. Language learning is an active process. Classroom experiences should have a real purpose for the student. Teaching aboat listening, speaking, reading or writing must be subordinate; it must support, not replace, active learning experiences.
This guide does not attempt to resolve all the conflicts inherent in teaching the communicative arts. The writers are aware of the necessity for local adaptation and for personalized instruction. What follows is a guide for local curriculum developers. It must be adapted to meet the special needs of the young people who enter classrooms at the beginning of every school year.

7

Questions andAnswersfor Supervisors

1. What i. the purpo.e of thi. g~ide?
This guide provides instructional personnel with a resource that can be used as a basis for integrating the language arts curriculum through program planning and program development. The guide also provides reo sources for staff development and improvement inthe areas ofskill development,teaching strategies, classroom organization and evaluation.
2. Howwillthi....ide help as improveoar
program.? The guide interrelates communication skills in such a way that skills are learned and reinforced in a natural context as opposed to an isolated, single subject approach. The guide may be used to improve programs through staff development in the areas of skill development through activities, classroom organization and evaluation.
3. How win this guide relate to what we are currently doing in language arts?
Regardless ofthetype ofprogram being used (i.e., basal, language experience), the guide provides purposes and objectives that are appropriate for any program. The organization suggestions cover most ofthe language artssystemscurrentlyused in Georgia schools.
4. How may this guide be u.ed to move
from a .eparate subject curriculum (readingpening. Engli.h) to an inte grated curriculum? The guide provides purposes and objectives for teaching reading with all ofthe communication skills. These can be used as a starting point for identifying systemwide goals and objectives. Once goals and objectiVes are identified, the teaching activities, materials and texts that are availablefor meetingthese goals may be ietentified.
Suggested steps for implementation
a. Use guide goals as a starting point for identifying systemwide goals.
b. Identify activities, materials, texts and other resources that can be used to meet the identified goals at appropriate instructional levels.

c. Develop appropriate evaluation techniques and follow-up activities.
d. Establish a schedule for the revision of goals and priorities.
5. How may this guide be implemented?
Teachers might be divided into grade level groups or subject matter groups. The purposes of the guide should be discussed thoroughly. The format of the guide should be examined in terms of grade level and areas covered under each section. After the teachers are familiar with the format, they should be shown how to begin at the appropriate grade level, how to select the skill area under consideration and how to find the skill(s) to be taught. After the skill is identified, activities should be selected appro priate to the type of program and organization being used.
6. For whom was the guide written and
to whom should it be disseminated? This guide is intended for use by curriculum specialists/coordinators, administrators, resource teachers, classroom teachers and teachers of special reading programs. Multipie copies of the gUide should be sent to each school so that it is readily available for reference by administrators and staff. Each curriculum specialist/coordinator involved with language arts should have a copy. Curriculum specialists/coordinators of other subject areas should also be encouraged to become familiar with sections of the guide which are appropriate to their subject areas.
.7. What .pecific curriculum areas are addreed in the guide? The overriding philosophy of the guide is integration of the language arts. Speaking, listening, reading and writing are addressed in terms of their interrelationships.
8. Mast the total guide be used or can
.ection. of it be u.ed individually? Each instructional level portion ofthis guide is divided into sections dealing with selected areas of language instruction. However, because of the integrated nature of the guide, examplesofactivitieswhich will improve

9

the teaching of reading, oral and written communication will be found in most sec tions ofthe guide. Therefore, to derive maxi mum benefit from this guide, the user is advised to examine all of an instructional level portion.
9. How may the community be involved in the implementation and use of this guide? The community must be made aware of the educational advantages ofteaching reading and the other language arts in an integrated fashion. Actual classroom observations or instructional simulations of this integrated approach at community meetings will effect awareness. Many of the activities included

in the guide could be conducted by commu nity volunteers. Each school should select the methods which are most appropriate for its community.
10. How may help be obtained hom the Georgia Department of Education in the implementation of this guide? Consultants from the Division of Curriculum Services of the Georgia Department of Education will provide help when requested. Requests may be made by contacting the director, Division of Curriculum Services, Georgia Department of Education, 1952 Twin Towers East, Atlanta, Georgia 30334, (404) 656-2412.

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Questions and Answers for Teachers

1. What is the purpose of this guide? This guide serves as a practical- resource instrument to help the instructional staff improve the planning and organization of the language arts curriculum. It also provides suggested activities and resources for classroom teachers.
2. What is meant by integration of language arts? The integration of language arts means that the communication process (listening, speaking, reading and writing) is interrelated, not fragmented.
3. What is the difference between language arts and reading? Reading is a part of the language arts.
4. Who will explain the guide? This guide will be explained by principals and curriculum directors.
5. Do I have to use the guide? All teachers will be encouraged to use this guide and its suggested activities to supplement their local program.
6. How do I use this guide with the system's reading program? This guide may be used as a resource to provide additional activities and strategies for reinforcement of the language arts skills.
7. How do I use this guide with the school English and spelling programs? The guide is so designed that the materials being used in the existing school program might gain greater vitality. All aspects ofthe language arts program are taught in support of the total language development of the student.
8. What levels does the guide cover? This guide covers instructional levels K through 12 in two documents, K-S and 9-12.
9. How will this guide help teachers pro videforindividualstudentdifferences? Because the activities and suggested resources are designed to personalize the instructional program, all students will benefit from the methods suggested in this guide. Effective student learning comes about as a result of a thorough understanding of the

student's current level of academic performance and a thoughtfully prepared program of instruction.
10. How relevant is this ...ide to specific situations? The guide follows a general format making it adaptable to any situation. Its relevancy is found through the use of many state documents which address concerns for a variety of student populations.
11. When will I have time to do the sug gested activities? The suggested activities outlined in this guide may be incorporated into daily lesson plans where applicable. The use of the guide will actually save you time in terms of planning activities and teaching skills. The activities are intended to be an integral part of the teaching plan, not an additional activity.
12. Where willi get the materials for these activities? The materials suggested can be obtained from a variety of sources including the school media center, community resource file and the newspaper.
13. Where willi find the suggested refer ences? The references may be obtained from various community libraries/media centers, the system-maintained professional library, local colleges and universities and through the state department of education library.
14. How does this guide relate to the other state department language arts prod. ucts and guides? This guide is one of several language arts documents published bythe state department. It serves as a coordinating reference designed to address organization and management techniques as well as suggested teaching/classroom activities. It reinforces the language arts positions of the department as set forth in the Kindergarten in Georgia guide, the Georgia Criterion-referenced Tests, the Standards/or Georgia Public Schools and other relevant state programs.

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Oral and Written Communication

Introduction to the Model

The acquisition of oral and written language is a complex human process. Competency in speak- .. ing and writing is far more than the mastery of a collection of skills. A competent speaker or writer has developed a process for translating thoughts and feelings into language that can be read and understood by a wide range of audiences. While the processes may vary, they are not random or wholly individualized.
The instructional strategies in this guide are based on the notion that the ability to use language develops as a child actually uses language. The model for instruction which follows evolved as a result of observing young children acquire oral language and from discussing children's individual processes with writers and teachers of writing.
Fluency The initial goals in the teaching of oral and written language center around the need to familiarize students with the medium. When students begin to produce language, just as when they begin to acquire any other complex behavior, they need practice, support and response. Experimentation is encouraged. Children must have the opportunity to speak and write often. Judgments about the fine points of correctness and form are suspended. Children, in their initial attempts at language production, are trying to find a personal voice and to gain confidence. The teacher must keep in mind the importance of encouragement and acceptance; frequent positive response is crucial. Specific skills are far less important than whole pieces of discourse or the discussion of those oral or written efforts. Working to develop ease and familiarity with lan-
guage is the primary goal during the fluency period.

Control As students begin to feel comfortable with their oral and written efforts as a means of expression, instructors gradually begin to help students become more precise in their speaking and writing. Because these media make many complex demands on the students, teachers must help them learn the appropriate controls through practice and particularly through revision. Arranging purposeful settings and responsive audiences for students' efforts will provide opportunity for much of the direct teaching of rhetorical and usage conventions; publishing student writing and directing students to write for diverse audiences will accomplish similar ends in written communication. The teaching of the controls, especially in writing (e.g., usage and mechanics, punctuation and spelling), should be integrated gradually into activities. Evaluation of these particulars should also be cumulative, beginning first with a few criteria and slowly adding to them as students gain more familiarity and sophistication. Careful control of language, oral and written, grows gradually; instructors should not try to hurry the process by making inappropriate demands on the inexperienced student.
Effectiveness As students learn to control language, they learn to make judgments about their efforts and to make conscious decisions about the effectiveness of these efforts. They learn to function as their own critics and editors and to accept advice and counsel from other editors. They explore and consider syntactic and rhetorical options, selecting those appropriate to form and audience. Practice and criticism build an intuitive sense. Students develop a "feel" for what works in effective speaking and writing.

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Growth from fluency to control to effectiveness is a cooperative venture between students and teachers. Teachers who work with their students during the process have many opportunities to model the behaviors of a competent sp~aker and writer and to gain a fuller understanding of their students' development.
Remember, no single speaking or writing activity, teacher or grade level can provide a student every language skill. Language is a complex human behavior; it develops gradually through practice. The activities in this guide are designed to help teachers lead students through the process in an incremental, step-by-step manner. The cumulative effect of such concentrated practice should produce competent speakers and writers.

The chart on page represents an abbreviated list of behaviors for both teachers and students. It offers some suggestions for assisting students as their speaking and writing matures. It is left to the teacher to determine at what point Control should become a factor in the instructional program, (i.e., third grade, fifth grade or even second grade). This point varies according to the experiences and the maturity of the students involved. The same is true of Effectiveness; its introduction might be most appropriate in the ninth grade with some students and the 12th grade with others. The stages, as the arrows on the chart suggest, do not displace each other; they are added. Efforts at fluency should be continued throughout grades K through 12.

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A Developmental Model 'or Oral and Written Communication

Fluency-----------.......;;------------------------)~

Control----------------->~ Effectiveness ---->~

Student behaviors
1. Produces language (oral and written). 2. Enjoys words. 3. Experiments with structures. 4. Shares thoughts. ideas. feelings. 5. Responds supportively to oral and
written presentations of classmates. 6. Develops self-confidence and finds
a personal voice.
Teacher behaviors
1. Encourages participation. 2. Creates a stimulating and supportive
classroom environment. 3. Develops nonverbal. oral and
written practice activities. 4. Listens and responds to students'
oral and written efforts with encouragement. 5. Provides opportunities for students to practice and demonstrate publicly accomplishments. i.e. provides audiences for oral presentation. displays and publishes written material. 6. Develops students' skills in responding to and helping each other. 7. Provides through personal action and behavior a model for the students' use of oral and written language.

Student behaviors
1. Seeks and provides feedback. 2. Experiments with mode and
audience. 3. Experiments with different voices. 4. Considers alternative methods
of delivery-style. syntax. organization and presentation. 5. Works ~hin constraints and limits. 6. Seeks peer/audience evaluation. reaction. response. 7. Proofs and edits writings.
Teacher behaviors
1. Encourages participation. 2. Responds to students' oral and
written products with suggestions for improvement. 3. Structures real speaking and writing situations. 4. Analyzes problems and develops practice activities. 5. Evaluates students' oral and written presentations.

Student behaviors
1. Adapts language choices to situation and audience.
2. Controls a variety of rhetorical and syntactic devices.
3. Speaks and writes with polish and technical precision.
Teacher behaviors
1. Offers technical advice and assistance.
2. Develops real speaking and writing situations.
3. Acts as editor and critic. 4. Challenges students to
attempt difficult exercises. 5. Evaluates students' oral and
written products with a variety of previously established and announced criteria.

Adapted &om a model by Dan Kirby. 1981. Reprinted with permission.
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Classroom and Instructional Management

Proficiency in oral and written communication requires frequent and regular practice. For too long students have been admonished to be quiet rather than encouraged to take part in profitable discussion. For too long they have had insufficient opportunity or demand for written composition. To provide for adequate opportunity for both of these activities, classroom exercises should be quite different from the usual oral question and answer routine or the lack of opportunities for written communication. Such practices will afford more productive and surely exhilarating experiences for teachers and students.
Many of the classroom strategies and activities will involve not only oral and written communication but also the companion skills of listening and reading. Oral panel discussions and press conferences will require research and note taking, careful listening and the making of judgments. Role playing will in many cases demand an understanding, through reading, of the fictional, legendary or historical characters to be portrayed. Regular class discussion on subjects of scholarly, general or humorous interest will foster courteous and attentive listening, increase ability to speak clearly and coherently and will call for further reading to gain adequate information on the subject under discussion.
Writing will take place quite frequently and peer evaluation of these writings discussed in small groups will cut down appreciably on the need for the reading and grading of each paper by the teacher. Also, it will give students practice in reading aloud, in listening critically, in becoming aware of the structure and use of language. Finally, it will help develop the insight and judgment needed for students to decide if they have written what they intended their audience to read.
Meeting in small groups of five or less, students read their short papers to one another. After a bit of practice they learn to give positive, helpful criticism to each other in matters of content, coherence, style, mechanics and conventions. The teacher, as monitor or arbitrator, is ready to respond to a raised hand or a spoken query to settle differences of opinion or answer relevant

questions. Students then have the opportunity of revising their papers, using or rejecting the suggestions of their peers as they wish.
Perhaps only one student paper among five needs to be read and evaluated by the teacher; or the teacher may give each student the opportunity to select the paper thought to be the best of his or her most recent five, and collect only these from the students. The teacher may vary the method of selection and reduce the possibility of a student preparing only one good paper when several were to be written.
Short speeches, prepared by each student for presentation to the class, may be evaluated by peers in much the same way. Each student in the small group, making a speech to the group, has the advantage of hearing helpful suggestions or requests for clarification which are not often possible when addressing a large audience.
A trial run before this small group, prior to presentation to the teacher and entire class, is beneficial to the speaker, demands careful attention from peers and trains the peers in audience conduct.
Teaching students to work in groups is an art in itself. But the patience required is rewarded in student performance and teacher satisfaction.
The teaching and learning of grammar and usage take place in a variety of ways. Students will work on the errors they make rather than correcting flawed sentences written by someone else or published in grammar texts; the latter examples do not address the problem and may actually introduce, develop or reinforce a new error.
Sentence-combining exercises make use of correct sentence structure and encourage inventiveness and judgment, while introducing the more sophisticated structures of the English sentence. Learning new vocabulary and spelling practice are worthy side effects to the process of sentence combining.
Small group or paired activities will replace the written short answer exercises usually graded by teachers or aides. Students using textbook exer-

17

cises will work individually, but they will discuss the exercises and their answers and conclusions in small groups, teaching and learning from each other, with adult arbitration when needed.
The most effective method of teaching grammar will result from full class discussions of errors found in the students' own speech and papers. The papers, reproduced without student identity disclosed, will be written on the board or an overhead transparency. Healthy discussions occur over what may be wrong, how it can be corrected and what rule of grammar is involved. Working with examples from their own speech and writing makes a personal impact on students; the information is more vivid and more thoroughly absorbed than filling in the blank or correcting sentences.
A factor which is frequently overlooked, particularly in the classroom, is nonverbal communica-
tion between teachers and students. A. teacher's
protracted frown or pursed lips, the hands in front, all fingers touching, or the fierce glare with hands on hips, can indicate disgust or disap-

proval as clearly as a verbal tirade. A student, squirming and uneasy, may need only a trip to the bathroom, while another, making repeated trips to the pencil sharpener may need encouragement about the writing assignment.
In oral communication, paralanguage, the denial of the spoken words by tone of voice or facial expression, can convey more meaning than the words themselves. The simple phrase, "good morning," can be said with genuine good humor or with such venom that it approaches an insult. Too little attention is given to this form of communication, yet it is an essential medium for understanding.
Finally, a positive classroom climate and genuine praise for worthwhile effort will accomplish more teaching and learning than all the negative criticism and red marked papers. The classroom should always be a cooperative place where teacher and students join in decision making, in oral and written communication and in the exciting business of learning.

18

Grammar and Usage

The following sections address specific activities and suggestions for implementing instruction in various modes of discourse. Much is said of praise and of editing; little is said of what we commonly label grammar. There is good reason for this; it is not simply an omission. Language instruction will be the subject of another document, one that will consider the teaching of mechanics, syntax and usage.
This is not to say that we intend for language instruction to be a separate area of language arts. Problems in correcting grammar and usage arise as soon as children begin to speak or to write and continue throughout their lifetime. Similarly, correction begins at that same point and continues until an individual is no longer concerned with precision in language use.
Instruction in conventional usage and in usage conventions is and ought to be an integral part of the language arts classroom. There is no professional way to avoid it. However, an overdose of correction is detrimental to the individual.
When problems arise in a student's use of language, as they will from the beginning, instruction must follow; but this instruction should address the needs of the student in terms of his or her own writing, not in terms of a textbook. As a student begins to write dialogue, for example, that is the time to explain the use of quotation marks. As students seek to say more complicated things and attempt to say them in more complicated ways, that is the time to explain and demonstrate the punctuation of clauses and

phrases. The acquisition of skills will be uneven throughout any group. Some students will learn to handle commas, for example, rapidly; others will be laboring with them into college.
While periodic reviews of mechanics are not harmful, annual repetitions are. Repeating the same exercises year after year to the same students will simply age both student and teacher prematurely. Such repetition and the lack of appropriate change only disaffect everyone and waste time.
As problems in the students' writings develop, the students should be given proper corrective instruction and subsequent papers should be checked for anticipated improvements. If improvements do not develop, repeated instruction may be necessary for those who need it. Changing instructional techniques or approaches may be helpful. Subjecting an entire class to repeated exercises required by only 40 percent is futile. The result is an inefficient use of teacher and student time.
For best results a personal approach to teaching is required. Group instruction is needed to introduce and develop new topics, concepts and ideas, but errors emerging in the work of some students are signals that some need additional help, i.e., those students still producing the errors. There are numerous ways to do this, from the use of special text exercises designed to correct sp.ecific errors as well as individual tutoring. The teacher's goal is to help students acquire a skill as soon as possible and to eliminate reteaching.

19

A Note From the Writers

Objectives for this document are to provide teachers with a model to help students learn to express themselves well; to regard language development with little fear or apprehension; and to assure as much success as the individuals' potentials and the teachers' skills can jointly accomplish.
We realize that school is not necessarily a training ground for future literary prize winners. We are aware the majority of the students who attend public schools will probably never produce written works of classic quality. Our intent is to help make all students more comfortable and more effective in their use of language. We are not dismissing the budding literary geniuses; it is our conviction that they, too, will be served by the program that follows.
Our plan is deceptively simple. To learn to speak or to write, inevitably, one must speak or write often, as much as possible and in every imaginable context. Injunction must be balanced with encouragement; correction with praise. The students' faltering beginnings must be received with the same pride, excitement and reward as were their infant attempts at speech and movement.
Regular opportunities for trial and error, for success and failure, must be an integral part of

the program. Every note of praise must sound louder than every comment of correction.
One does not learn to speak without correction, but neither does one learn by being silenced. The repetition inherent in the natural process that enables the young to acquire their native tongue can and should be a regular facet of a program of language instruction provided by the school.
A communication program is offered that supports both the receptive and the expressive modes of language. Opportunities for each are a regular feature; they must be the norm not the exception. While we do not always capitalize on it, we already provide a great deal of practice in listening within our schools; but opportunities for our students to talk seem lacking.
For this program to succeed, for young people to realize their potential, students must be encouraged to talk and to write as much as they are now being exhorted to listen and to read. This responsibility rests with those of us who work with young people: we must talk to them, listen to them, read what they have written and comment upon their work. We must provide suitable and varied audiences for our students, audiences responsive and meaningful to the students themselves. This is one of our greatest challenges.

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Imagining

School talk and school writing are too often dominated by the academic and the drab. Yet in each of us, at every age, lurks delightful imagination, fleeting fantasy, even gruesome possibility. We dare not dwell on them. Instead, we learn to submerge them and concentrate on the reality of educational and sociological demands.
Children come to school strong in imagination and full of make-believe. Some have engaged in made up conversations among their dolls or stuffed animals; many have enjoyed imaginary friends or playmates. Such behavior is sometimes tolerated and sometimes discouraged by parents and teachers.
In the early school years lists of things, words and people are often memorized; stories become mere sequences of events. In later years poems are desecrated by reducing them to mere iambic pentameter or anapestic trimeter. Term papers

on assigned subjects become chores rather than joyful explorations. Frequently, such papers result in counterproductive student-coping strategies such as plagiarism.
The need for some of the exercises mentioned above is not to be denied. The exercise of the imagination, however, should also be permitted. Evidence indicates its use should be encouraged throughout the years of formal schooling. Surely, in the area of the spoken and the written word, imagination should playa major role.
Imagination sparks the use of various sentence structures and invites the search for the right word, the succinct phrase. And it is not only in the area of creative activities that imagination is a necessary ingredient; oral and written discourse in any area is enriched and enlivened by imaginative and selective use of language.

21

Sample Activities
Dialogue Grades 910

Purpose
Previous study of one-act plays and short stories will enable students to fabricate brief situations which lend themselves to the writing of dialogue in a short story or lines in a play. This activity permits students to have this experience.
Objectives
The learner will
create a brief, original episode requiring dialogue which might be a part of a short story or a one-act play.
choose between writing the dialogue as part of a short story or as a play.
write the dialogue in the chosen form.
preface the completed dialogue with a brief written presentation of the situation in which the dialogue takes place, including whatever explanation concerning the characters is essential for understanding the piece.
Materials
Copies of one-act plays and short stories containing several good examples of dialogue.
Grammar handbooks as references for proper punctuation of direct quotations.
Summary
Dialogue enlivens many different forms of written discourse, but learning to write dialogue is a special skill. This activity encourages the imaginative development of dramatic episodes using dialogue and reinforces the knowledge of the correct form for conversation in a story or lines in a play. (This activity will take several class periods.)
Procedures
1. Read to the class an example of a short story with a great deal of dialogue.
2. Lead a class discussion concerning the ways in which the dialogue enhances the story. "Does it make a particular character's personality more vivid?" "Does it add informa-

tion you need?" "Is the action furthered by the dialogue?" "How does dialogue accomplish these things?"
3. Read a one-act play. If there are several copies available. have students read the different parts.
4. Direct a class discussion about how these characters reveal themselves through their own speeches or through comments made to them or about them by other characters. Include some consideration of the way the action is also revealed by the lines of the characters.
5. Have students sPend sufficient time (perhaps an entire period or a homework activity) inventing a situation in which they will be able to create dialogue to advance action in a story or play or to reveal characters. These situations can be sketched in note or outline form.
6. Assign students to write the prefaces to their dialogues (brief explanations of the situation and whatever information is necessary concerning the characters). This may be done before or after the next step.
7. Students are to decide upon the written form they will use (play or short story) and write their dialogues.
8. Meeting in small groups of three. students will read their pieces to each other for criticism and suggestions.
9. Time is allowed for revision following the group sharing.
10. Selected finished products are read aloud or acted out. The manner of selection will vary - one from each group. volunteers or whatever seems appropriate.
(The remainder oj this activity may be done in small groups oj three to five students, depending on the size oj the class and whether students are able to work well independently.)

22

Evaluation
Peer evaluation will take place in the small group activity and when the. final papers are read.
Teacher evaluation can be done rapidly as papers are read, but a thorough evaluation will no doubt be desired. Positive comments on each paper and suggestions for improvement will be emphasized. If the level of achievement in some of the finished products suggests a need, students should revise and improve their papers.
Grading will be done after revision. Errors in mechanics and punctuation should be kept on a checklist for future teaching.
FoUow-up Activities
To acquire agility in both forms of using dialogue, students can rewrite their dialogue in the form not used with the first writing.
Students should be encouraged to write the entire short story or one-act play which they have started. Perhaps a group would like to collaborate on this activity. These could be put

in a booklet and copies placed in the school media center.
Resources
Writing Incredibly Short Plays, Poems, Stories, by James H. Norton and Francis Gretton (Harcourt)
Some suggested short stories "Miss Phipps Improvises," by Phyllis Bentley "Tobermory," by Saki "The Dressmaker's Doll," by Agatha Christie "My Queer Dean," by Ellery Queen
All of the above are found in Suspense, A Treasury for Young Adults, edited by Sean Manley and Gogo Lewis (Funk and Wagnalls)
One-Act Plays "Amicable Parting," by George S. Kaufman and Leueen MacGrath "The Patient," by Agatha Christie
The above plays and other appropriate ones can be found in Twenty One-Act Plays, edited by Stanley Richards (Doubleday).

23

Nursery Rhy~es Grades 11-12

Purpose
Many nursery rhymes and stories children enjoy today just for the story element were originally political or social satires written in England to ridicule individuals or situations. The simplicity of these small literary pieces lends itself to imagined symbolism geared to present social, theological or psychological thinking. This activity permits students to invent modem symbolism as it may be deduced from a story or poem and to justify their choices of symbols.
Objectives
The learner will fabricate meanings in the simplest stories and
poems using the total situation of the piece and the most insignificant details as symbolic justifications of these meanings. present these meanings orally and in writing, attempting to convince the audience that they are possible intentions of the authors.
Materials
Several copies of children's stories and rhymes
Summary
A free use of the imagination will permit students to create out of simple situations profound symbolism which may be ridiculous, but will appear to be the intentions of the authors.
Procedures
1. Divide the class heterogeneously into groups of five.
2. Distribute copies of nursery rhymes and tales to each group.
3. Explain that they are to try to see into one or two of these pieces of imaginary symbolism meanings which were never intended by the authors.
4. Read a short excerpt from The Pooh Perplex, by Frederick Crews, or a story by some author who has done this sort of absurd but amusing speculation, to illustrate the kind of activity in which they are engaged.

5. If it seems wise, suggest general areas which might be addressed; e.g., economy, religion, manners, mores, social justice or psychology.
6. Instruct each group to choose a nursery rhyme or story on which to work. Be certain that no two groups choose the same piece.
7. In their groups let the students brainstorm possible symbolic implications in the chosen piece and in the details included.
8. Using the material suggested in the brainstorming sessions, each student will write an individual analysis of the symbolism in the piece. Remind them that the most insignificant details are to be considered as symbols or justification of the total symbolism.
9. Reconvening in their groups, probably the next day, students will read their papers to each other for enjoyment, helpful criticism and suggestions, and for choosing the most interesting paper in the group to be read to the class.
10. Have all papers revised and proofread by the individual writers according to suggestions made in group discussion, and have the one selected in each group read to the class.
Evaluation
1. Peer evaluation will take place in the group sessions described in #9 of the Procedures.
2. Teacher evaluation will be done only after revisions and proofreading have been completed.
3. A booklet containing a copy of each of the finished pieces may be put together.
FoUow-up Activities
Since this is a difficult piece of imaginative writing to have accomplished, it may be well to have students repeat the process with a piece which was not used or heard in class. In this storming on one selection and let each student operate independently. If the group activity seems necessary, repeat that part of the procedures as well.

24

Whether the preceding activity is used or not, students are ready to analyze the symbolism in a poem which has not been studied previously. The group procedure may be used, or individual analysis may be undertaken. In either case, several pieces should be analyzed, each one by several students, for comparison, criticism and suggestions in preparation for revision and evaluation.
Resources
Books of nursery rhymes
Books of children's stories or fairy tales
The Pooh Perplex, by Frederick Crews
The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, by C. S. Lewis, in the Namia Series
'Books containing poems selected for analysis of symbolism
Any textbook on literary analysis

General Suggestions
Positive reinforcement of student effort has proved more beneficial to learning than negative criticism. Praise for unworthy effort, however, is poor practice. Students are quick to detect sham.
Creating an audience other than the teacher for student work is important. This can be achieved through mobiles, bulletin boards or hall displays, school newspapers, completed booklets in the library, quarterly creative writing student magazines and various other methods.
The teaching of grammar and usage can be most effectively taught from lists of student errors with anonymous examples. This teaching involves class discussions concerning the errors, their possible correction and the rules governing the usage. Using the students' own writings, encouraging whole class discussions of problems and solutions, are more relevant than the grammar text rules and exercises and result in more permanent learning.

25

Describing

Description has traditionally been considered one of the four main types of writing, along with narration, argumentation and exposition. To describe something is to convey an image or impression of it in words which reveal appearance, nature or characteristics.
The most effective description usually includes details based on clear, concrete images. These details are presented, not merely cataloged. Selection for a definite purpose and a definite point of view becomes a consideration. Details are generally arranged in some logical pattern; that pattern may be spacial, associative or progressive. The discreet use of words of color, sound, motion and other adjectives which affect the senses enriches a descriptive piece of work. Descriptive writing reveals or implies the vividness, strength and intensity of the writer's personal observation of the world and its people.
Descriptive writing is evident in almost everything we read from a novel with real characters and an enticing setting to a good news story which so accurately reports the facts that the reader feels he or she is there. Most often, description is combined with narrative to create a vibrant story line or with other types of writing as a supporting device. Occasionally, it is used for its own sake.
This guide suggests that instruction in descriptive writing begins in the early grades as the child produces descriptions that merely catalog details. Gradually, in the middle grades students may begin to perceive the importance of discreet wording and point-of-view. Finally, the high school student probably matures into an effective descriptive writer. The teacher should always remember that this is a gradual process which develops only through extensive practice, sequential, purposeful instruction and student insights that deepen with time.
The teacher must encourage and develop in individual students the skills of keen observation.

Lessons in observing details may in fact be ends in themselves at first as well as in the later stages of development. Gradually, students will come to see that although we can be overburdened with details in closely observing a scene or person, observations should be translated and organized into selective, purposeful details to be effective in a piece of descriptive writing.

Instruction in description must build on the example of excellent writing from a variety of media; e.g., newspapers, books, film, magazines, texts. Students should be encouraged to read and to listen to outstanding passages of description so they begin to develop a feel for effective writing. Passages might be compared for degrees of effectiveness and rewritten for improvement. Shakespearean drama and old radio programs provide surprisingly good bases for discussion of the need for description in oral language.

Gradually description is combined with other methods of composing as it becomes appropriate. Since description is generally used to support other types of writing, students should be helped to see how its use can make all types of writing more effective. An exercise which produces a detailed character or descriptive scene might be used as the basis for a short story, for a collection of pieces from several students, or for a novel. Expository writing or persuasion may be enriched by strong descriptive support.

An emphasis upon real situations, scenes, peo-

ple and things with which student writers can

identify and which elicit feelings or ideas they

would like to communicate to others is important.

The descriptive writing process should always be

kept in the perspective of real communication to

real audiences for real purposes. Students should

have the freedom to describe that which is

meaningful to them, whether it is a special toy

in first grade or a special elderly person in high

school.

'

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Sample Activities
Memories Grades 9-10

Purpose
Students will develop interview questions, carry out an interview with an older person and use the responses to write a descriptive paper about an object, process or everyday experience no longer common.
Objectives
The learner will
design questions for an interview.
interview an older person.
record the interview.
write an account of the interview in a style and form appropriate to content, purpose and audience.
revise the account based on suggestions and further information from the person interviewed.
present an informal oral report of the interview.
submit for publication the written account in a reference booklet for the school media center.
Materials/Aides
Paper and pencil
Older persons (preferably over 60) willing to be interviewed by students (e.g., relatives, neighbors, friends, members of local historical societies)
Foxjire books and magazines (optional)
Summary
After discussing this project, developing interview questions and practicing an interview in class, students will interview an older person to elicit detailed information and description about an object, process or everyday experience no longer common. Students will discuss appropriate form and style in class and write a first draft. They will discuss the draft with the person interviewed and obtain comments or suggestions for improvement and additions from those people. Finally, the students will share their accounts orally with the class and submit edited copies for a reference booklet to be placed in the school media center.

Procedures
Allow three weeks jor this project.
1. Discuss the objectives, goals and range of activities for this project with the class. (Reading and discussing articles from Foxfire books and magazines or from other similar materials may help inspire interest.)
2. Encourage brainstorming of ideas for interviews and subjects and list suggestions on the chalkboard. (Enthusiasm is the key.)
3. Ask each student to locate a willing interviewee as homework.
4. Discuss interviewing and questioning techniques. Explain to students that early questions should elicit a flow ofideas about objects, processes or everyday experiences which are no longer common but which were once familiar to the interviewee. Point out that specific, detailed questions should center around one ofthose ideas and should allow the students a clear, lifelike impression of the interviewee's remembrances. Once students have the idea, provide some examples. They should then develop a set of questions for the next day.
Note: Questions will of necessity be open ended to elicit the most information and must be subject to change or quick adaptation. The questions should only be a basis/or the interview. Student interoiewers should be prepared to adapt to any subject 0/ interest to the interviewee. One which may be surprising can also be enlightening.
5. Briefly discuss recording techniques for use during an interview. A tape recorder would be most helpful, but brief, inconspicuous notetaking (fully developed immediately after the interview) can be equally helpful.
6. Explain that notations about the interviewee's appearance, gestures and voice quality may add great life to a final account of the interview.
7. Provide class time for students to practice their interviewing techniques in pairs with each student having a turn at each side of the interview.

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8. Encourage sharing of observations. revision of questions as necessary. consciousness of the interviewee's feelings and effective notetaking.
9. Allow at least five days. including-a weekend. for students to complete their interviews.
10. When the students have completed their interviews. discuss form and style choices appropriate to audience. purpose and content (i.e. who will read the material; what is the intent ofthe piece-entertainment. history. information. and what should be included). Any choices meeting this criteria should be acceptable. Follow-up conferences with individual students having problems might be needed.
11. Allow at least two days to write the account derived from the interview. This is a first draft. but should be clear enough for the interviewee to read and discuss with the student.
12. Students should ask interviewees to read or listen to their first drafts and comment. correct or add details. In this process the student might note further details about the person.
13. Students should then revise papers based on input from interviewees.
14. Students should read their accounts aloud to the class emphasizing enjoyment and information sharing.

15. Discussion should follow each reading: interesting writing and clear observations should be highlighted and complimented.
16. The class should assemble their accounts of the interviews in a reference book to be donated to the school library/media center for use in similar projects.
Evaluation
Participation and success in meeting each objective should be the basis for the teacher's evaluation and for each student's self-evaluation. Interview. tapes or transcripts. student enthusiasm and reflection of student involvement with interviewee in final paper might also be considered.
FoUow-up Activities
This project could lead into a study of regional writers of the time period described by most of the interviewers and lend new insight to this literature.
After reading books of an even earlier historical period. students might repeat this activity by hypothetically interviewing a character from the book or the author and supplementing their imaginings with further research. Students might try to assemble accounts of similar daily events through four generations (such as modes of travel) from personal accounts of representatives from each generation.

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Local History Grades 1112

Purpose
Students will research various aspects of life in their locality from 1900 to present.
Objectives
The learner will
research regional aspects of American life in 20 year segments.
participate in oral discussion of various time periods.
participate cooperatively in class and small group discussions.
write and revise articles based on input from the students' own lives, research and peers.
present papersaloud to the class. analyze and evaluate the effectiveness of the
research and of the reporting.
Materials/Aides
Paper and pencil
School media center or public libraries and public archives
Chalk and chalkboard
Summary
Students will discuss and research regional aspects of past and modern American life. They will share their findings with their classmates. This research will be used to develop individual pieces for a time capsule describing modern American life intended for an audience 20 years from now. These papers will be presented to the class and analyzed for completeness. Bound copies will be provided each student to reopen in 20 years.
Procedures
1. Draw a time line with 20 year segments from 1900 to the present.
2. Ask students to brainstorm aspects of American life appropriate to those time periods. This might include entertainment, sports, travel. furniture, fashion. books. music. technology. appliances. daily chores, jobs. education, economy. reflections ofworld scene.

3. Students should discuss each aspect in 20 year blocks. It is likely that their knowledge will be sketchy; use this lack of information to lead into the assignment for the next few days.
4. Divide students into committees based on their interests. Each committee will address one or more aspects of American life such as education or entertainment. As a group. students will divide their major topic into subcategories for individual research in the library. (For example, entertainment may be divided into home, public, teenager, adult. children.) Each group will then be given two to three days to research its topics. Family photographs. advertisements. statistics from Almanacs and many other resources might be helpful. Notes will be helpful; however. the information gathered is not to be prepared as a report.
5. Continue the class discussion of the time line. Each committee should have an opportunity to participate and to contribute its new information.
6. Explain the full assignment to the students, each group of students will describe American life in the locality for an audience 20 years from now. Encourage enthusiasm and imagination. Remind students to consider all aspects worth developing.
7. Divide the class into small groups by areas of interest.
8. Allow a class period for groups to brainstorm specific topics within their category. The group should determine which topics each student will be responsible for developing. Students may need to write several papers or articles on each topic to address it adequately.
9. Allow several days for research. Encourage students to be open minded and wide ranging in their research; e.g. human resources, newspapers. other media.
10. Encourage small groups to share information.
11. The groups should comment and sort impor-

29

tant details to be included and limit overlaps while covering noticeable gaps.
12. Actual writing of the articles might take several days and should include comments and input from other students.
13. Share papers within small groups and, perhaps, across groups to edit and to reveal areas of weakness.
14. Revise accordingly.
15. Present papers aloud to the class. After readings, discuss the completeness of the project and make additions as necessary.
16. Bind copies of the final document for each student, the school media center, other appropriate locations.

EvaluatioD
1. The teacher's evaluation should focus on the students' accomplishment of the objectives, their participation and enthusiasm in the overall project and the new insights gained of the present and the past.
2. Individual and small group evaluations should supplement those of the teacher.
Follow-up Activities
Students can share their project with the public. Teachers might arrange a local newspaper coverage or panel discussions for civic organizations.
The class could move on to the group writing of a longer work using the description of the current place and time they now have - all that is needed is character and plot.

30

Telling

Storytelling has as its basis the relating of a series of events. A story, however, contains more than just a narrative. It contains descriptions that support the events by relating significant details which enhance the enjoyment and the understanding of the story. Stories also contain dialogue between characters, showing us how they feel, think and react.
Telling has varied purposes. A story may simply entertain. It may teach new ideas or lessons. In many instances a combination of these purposes appears in a story. In some more contemporary literature, the main purpose seems to be to create a mood or feeling. The narrative becomes poetic in the sense that imagery and ideas replace events as the vehicle for relating. While events are a part of the stories, characters and impressions are the focus of the piece. Teachers must be aware that such literature is difficult for many students to understand.
The purposes of writing that tells, then, are to entertain and to convey information or to create a mood through the elements of narration, description and dialogue. One of the purposes for teaching students to communicate in this mode should be to present and explain these principles which improve the students ability to communicate and to read and understand all forms of literature that tell, whether fictional or factual.
This should help the student discover what makes writing, their's or other's, good or bad. This can best be accomplished through discussion of what happens in a piece of writing and what caused it to happen; why the writer chose to have it happen instead of something else. Through such discussion, students arrive at a clearer understanding of a writer's purpose and develop an appreciation for the inventiveness and language skill involved in writing.
The activities that follow deal with telling as a communicative act; they are based on certain assumptions.
In the elementary years (K through 4) students should learn the elements involved in telling a story and how to create their own stories. These basic principles should be taught through regular exposure to stories (read, seen or heard) and through structured and unstructured discussion

led by the teacher rather than through the lecture method. The students become familiar with many different stories through this exposure. They begin to recognize certain characteristics of stories; e.g., some will begin to recognize that a story is about someone or something, others will realize that something is going to happen to that person or thing and that it may affect them. Generally, because children are introduced to many fairy tales and children's stories during these years, most of the stories will be romantic in nature with good winning over evil. These tales are sufficient for teaching the elements of a story.
Besides exposing students to many different stories in grades K-4, teachers should encourage students to tell their own stories. The students might relate true stories or invented ones. Both types of stories have their importance. In encouraging students to relate true stories, the teacher is better able to see how the students view themselves, their families and their world. On the other hand, when students make up stories they deal with romanticism and idealism as well as realism - not only what happened or what probably would happen but also what possibly could happen. Through inventive storytelling, students learn alternative courses of action and possible results of these actions. They also decide which are preferable. The perceptive teacher can use such imaginative information as well as the child's reality to help direct a child's learning experiences about relationships with others.
After creating these stories, students should have the opportunity to share them. They might act out their story for another class or an assembly; they might tape their story for others, or they might draw pictures for the story and make a bound and covered story book. A project the entire class can carry out is to create a series of stories about the same character or characters. Students should discover early that writing is not usually an end in itself. Writing is a means of communication. It is meant to be read, considered, performed and, most of all, enjoyed.
At the 5 through 8 grade level, students should continue to develop an understanding of the elements of telling (what it is and how to do it),

31

and they should begin to understand the steps involved. During these years, students should be exposed to a wider variety of stories. The focus should broaden from romanticism and comedy to include tragedy and irony. As the students read more and more, they should begin to identify stories according to purpose. The teacher must supply good examples of stories with different purposes and help the students see how the author achieves purpose. Questions concerning characterization, actions and language help students see that the author's purpose determines the type of story written and that the author's style determines how well the purpose is accomplished. However, in-depth study of structure and style should not be attempted. Discovering the author's purpose through discussion and teacher questioning will help the student become more involved with literature and reinforce the concept of reading as a pleasurable activity.
The students should have the opportunity to write their own stories after deciding on a purpose. This age enjoys group work and can help brainstorm ideas for the story. The result is usually a much more interesting story and a much more enjoyable learning experience for the students. Again, these stories can and should be published.
Students begin to read stories with different purposes and in different forms (novels, short stories, dramas, narrative poems, musical ballads). They should begin to recognize these forms and expand their writing to include them. By the eighth grade students should begin to answer questions dealing with the structure of the story

and why authors build their stories in certain ways. They will not be able to formulate their own questions about structure, but they should be able to respond intelligently to teacher questions about the elements and function of storytelling. It is not until high school or after that most students become independent readers capable of understanding, enjoying and learning through self-directed efforts. This is the ultimate goal for which we are striving.
In grades 9-12 students should become more involved with critical reading of stories and with writing and using different forms of fiction to meet their own purposes. Also, the students should begin to use the different forms of presentations (drama, chamber theatre, oral interpretation) for publication oftheir own works. More focus should be put on what makes a good story. Students should begin asking themselves why the author used certain words and decided on certain events; they should become familiar with widely used symbols and feel more comfortable about interpreting the literature personally. Such exercises help students discover the author's purpose, a precondition in many cases to a student understanding or enjoying a selection.
The goals for storytelling can be accomplished through integrated activities in the language arts; i.e., reading stories, listening to and discussing stories,' writing stories and ultimately publishing and perfQrming stories. Such activities fulfill two basic needs - the need to create and the need to communicate - and thus become an important part of the learning experiences.

32

Sample Activities
Persona Grades 910

Goal
This activity provides students the opportunity to develop an understanding of the effect perception has upon the manner in which a story is told.
Objectives
The learner will
recognize that perception affects one's view of reality.
recognize that perceptions vary.
study the effect of perception in a first person narrative.
retell a narrative from the perception of a selected character.
Materials
Pencil and paper
Two short, first person narratives
Transparencies or visuals of optical illusions
Picture file
Summary
Students will learn the importance of perception and its affect upon reality through direct experience with illusions that challenge perception and by reading and examining first person narratives. They will discuss and write a narrative oftheir own retelling a story from an adopted perspective.
Procedures
1. Present visual images or devices which can be viewed in separate ways and which can distort reality (such as the "vase faces" illusion used as the cover picture of English Journal, September 1974 or the young woman seated before a mirrored vanity and the overall skull impact in the picture "All is Vanity" by C. Allan Gilbert.)
2. Explain the effect of individuals' mind-sets upon their perception of reality, i.e., how the mind acts as a filter.

3. Allow students ample time to discuss, argue, deny and agree that different people see the same things differently.
4. Assign a short, first person narrative, such as Poe's "The Cask of Amontillado" or Keys' "Flowers for Algernon" for student reading.
5. In large or small groups, have students consider the effect of the narrator's personality upon the story. In the above works, Montresor's obsession and madness affect the way he perceives Fortunato, the events and the outcome ofthe story. And Charlie's handicap, while creating a different situation, equally influences his view of the events surrounding him.
6. After limited time for discussion in step five, ask students to list in order (jot outline) some of the major events or issues in the story read.
7. Ask students to use their outlines to discuss how the events and issues might have been altered if another character related the story, i.e., Fortunato's view in " ... Amontillado" or that of Dr. Strauss or Miss Kinnian in "Flowers ...." (This may be used as a writing assignment in itself, but keep the original goal of the activity in mind.)
8. Allow students time to discuss and to present their ideas about the inevitable change(s) as a result of the shift in perception.
9. Review the importance of the individual's perception upon narrative development, i.e., the statements and observations which are made in a first person narrative must be consistent with the known attitudes, biases and limitations of the individual.
10. Collect from magazines pictures of various interesting people. Select pictures that arrest attention, e.g., an elderly person roller skating. Include an assortment of character types - young, old, voluptuous, squat.

33

11. Allow students to flip through the file. Invite them to choose a picture they find appealing or use a lottery method of selection.

e. friendly f. loving g. chilly

h.sullen i. petty

12. Ask students to form small groups. Advise students to bring their pictures to their group.
13. In small groups have students study each picture.
14. Using character profile questions below, have students suggest how each group member's character might respond. The following are suggested questions for the students' character profiles. The questions should be expanded or extended.
How well-educated is yourcharacter? a. grade school b. high school c. trade school d. college e. professional school f. self-made person
Howdoes your characterviewthe world? a. suspiciously b. openly c. prejudicially d. broadmindedly e. hesitantly f. fearfully
Howdoes your characterspeak and converse? a. authoritatively b. loudly c. slowly d. quietly e. pompously f. nervously
Howdoes your characterdeal with conflict? a. escapes b. agressively c. directly d. sarcastically e. diplomatically f. deceitfully

What is your character's employment?
What is the view the community takes of your character?
15. Encourage students to assume the character's identity. Reinforce role playing as much as possible, i.e., use character's name in addressing the student.
16. Use a story (film, print or audio version) such as "Bernice Bobs Her Hair" as a narrative stimulus for retelling (j.e., as the students' characters might tell the story).
17. In the same working groups as step 12, ask students to discuss how each individual's character might tell the story.
18. Assign students to retell in writing the story from their character's perception.
19. Suggest students use working groups for editorial purposes.
20. Collect final papers for evaluation.
Evaluation
1. Peer and self-evaluation are an inherent part of the small group work and editorial efforts.
2. Teacher evaluation should focus upon the students' in-class work as participating group members and upon the final written product. In terms of the student's paper, the primary objective is the successful use of an adopted perception.
FoUow-up Activities
Extend this experience by assigning compositions for retelling other narratives.
Have students tell an incident from their lives from their own perspectives, then from their parents' perspectives.

What is yourcharacter's publicimage?

a. generous

f. loving

b. stingy

g. chilly

c. nasty

h. sullen

d. pleasant

i. petty

e. friendly

Resources
English Journal, September 1964, Volume 63, Number 6.
Wakefield, Beverly. Perception and Communication, Theory into Practice Series.

What isyourcharacter's private or personal face? "Spaces and Illusions" poster available from

a. generous

c. nasty

The High Museum of Art, Educational Division,

b. stingy

d. pleasant

Atlanta, Georgia.

34

Dear Dilemma Grades 1112

Purpose/Goal
This activity provides a chance for students to tell a series of events that might have led to a particular situation. Students give advice on how to solve a hypothetical dilemma.
Objective
The learner will develop a series of events that might precede
a given situation.
organize these events in a logical sequence. tell these events to a larger group or the entire
class.
give advice on how to solve a hypothetical situation.
Materials
Cards containing hypothetical situations
Samples of "Dear Abby" columns
Summary
In this activity students will brainstorm a series of possible events leading to a hypothetical situation. They will then organize those events in a logical sequence and tell that sequence to the class within a limited time period. Additionally, students will brainstorm possible solutions for a problem, then write a letter offering their personal advice.
Procedures
1. Have the students choose a partner with whom they can work amicably.
2. Without previewing, have each student choose a card on which a situation is written (i.e., they pick a card from a collection that is face down on a table).
3. Tell students to share each situation with their card partner.
4. Have students brainstorm events which might have led to the situation (i.e., students cooperatively develop a series of events which might have preceded the main event).
5. Each student organizes the preceding events.

This can be done on paper in jot list form or simply practiced for presentation from memory.
6. Each student must tell the events which were selected to a larger group or to the whole class in no less than one minute nor no more than two minutes. The list of situations below is not exhaustive. The teacher should supplement with items that are appropriate to the region and to the students' environment, experience and ability. Items which may result in undesirable responses should be deleted.
a. Tell your teacher or principal the events which led to
your innocent possession of the school's burglar alarm and master keys.
your innocent possession of the answer key to tomorrow's final exam in mathematics.
your parking your car in the principal's reserved parking space.
your driving your car through the school's prize rose garden.
your ramming into the vice principal's brand new, diesel-powered station wagon.
the failure of your chemistry experiment and the resulting damage to the lab, two external walls and 14 windows in an adjoining building.
your innocent presence in the girls'/boys' locker room while members of the opposite sex are preparing to dress.
your 14th and final tardy to your fourth period, after lunch class.
your parking the school's new educational training vehicle in the IS-foot ravine behind the school cafeteria.
b. Tell your parent or guardian the events which led to
your being brought home from a date in a police car.
your arriving home at 2 a.m. when you were due at 10:30 p.m.

35

your late arrival at your sister's (brother's) wedding when you had been entrusted with the rings.
your breaking both headlights out of the family car.
your charging $100 worth of merchandise (new clothes) to their account.
Other stem sentences may include siblings, dates, ministers, civil officials and so on.
7. After completing steps above, organize groups of three to five students and appoint a recorder from each group.
8. Distribute samples of "Dear Abby" newspaper column for students to use as a model.
9. Discuss with students the task (that is, they will collectively discuss a hypothetical problem and then individually write a letter as a response).
10. Arbitrarily give each group two cards with dilemmas. Some possibilities are
how to ask for a date
how to graciously turn down a date
how to tell a person you have dated steadily that you wish to date someone else
how to tell someone you are sorry
how to back out of an unsupervised situation that you consider unwholesome without being called a prude or a chicken
how to tell someone you like very much that they have bad breath or dandruff
11. Have students decide which dilemma they would like to discuss.
12. Tell students to brainstorm at least three distinct alternatives for the selected dilemma. Tell students to suggest steps for each alternative. The recorder is responsible for

preparing and, finally, submitting jot lists for the alternatives.
13. After adequate time has been provided for discussion, have students prepare individual letters telling the dilemma writer how to proceed in resolving the problem. The style of students' response matches the "Dear Abby" format.
14. Have students use group revision or editing process to refine their individual letters.
15. Give students opportunity to share the dilemma and one or two of the groups' individual responses with the whole class.
16. Submit final copies of letters and each group's jot lists for teacher evaluation.
Evaluation
Peer evaluation is inherent in the group editing process.
The jot list from group work and teacher observation are evidence of participation.
Letters themselves become evidence of individual effort.
Follow-up Activities
Reverse "Dear Abby" responses by having students tell the distressed person the step-by-step worst possible course of action.
Using student-selected want ad from local newspaper, have students prepare business letter inquiries to the advertiser. Responses are to include statements telling what experiences qualify the students for the desired positions.
Develop a column similar to "Dear Abby" as an integral part of a classroom newspaper or suggest such a column to the sponsor of the school newspaper.

36

Explaining

Explaining undergrids other modes of discourse, such as interpreting. It involves activities quite similar to those in other instructional areas, such as reading. Thus, it becomes doubly important in itself as a mode of communication and as a building block for other phases of instructions.
The similarity of activities in both instances offers the teacher the opporunity to reinforce, through additional practice, elements common to several skills. However, if the activities seem redundant, economize through careful planning. One or a series of activities could be used to build concepts useful for reading and writing and for specific disciplines such as social studies, science or mathematics.
In explaning an individual must be able to make something clear to someone else. The stated or unstated how must be answered. "How did this happen?" "How do I get to your house?" "How do you bake a cake?"
To satisfy this how question an individual must
recognize that a process or procedure is comprised of steps.

identify the steps in the process or procedure.
recognize the order inherent in the steps.
organize and present the data in a fashion appropriate to the audience.
As students progress in age and ability, their efforts should obviously take on a greater level of sophistication. Providing logical development, making connections and demonstrating relationships will require more effort and rely upon the students' increasing maturity.
The how question for older students will become more abstract. Their responses will require the use of appropriate examples and appeals to precedent for justification.
When working with older or younger students, the teacher will need to alert them to the differences in an explanation that is face-to-face (i.e., one in which the receiver's reactions can be seen and his or her confusion resolved by the other) and one that must stand on its own merits (one in which the sender is unable to react to the receiver's confusion or responses, such as a set of written directions).

37

Sample Activities
Feature Story Grades 9-10

GoallPurpose

This activity will help students develop a heightened sense of audience. Students experiment with writing for an outside audience. The feature story is explored. Students make appropriate language choices suitable for the work and the audience.

Objectives

The learner will
develop a feature story. make appropriate language choices for that
story.

write for an outside audience. participate in a small group editorial board.

Materials

Copies of good feature stories

Examples of strong end paragraphs

Chalk/chalkboard

Summary

Students write a feature story on the subject of

why

is a good teacher. Arti-

cles are presented in small groups which select,

edit and submit the best to the school paper.

Procedures

1. Have students brainstorm for the qualities that make a good teacher. Encourage students to elaborate on characteristics.

2. Through the use of the criteria developed above, ask students to indentify a teacher past or present who exemplifies these characteristics.

3. Students complete a free writing assignment about this person and share their work in small groups.

4. Discuss the aspects of a good feature story using examples selected for this purpose. (See Materials.)

5. Have students write a feature story for the school paper on the subject why _______ is a good teacher. They are individually to write an in-depth article on their favorite teacher, enumerating the good qualities of that teacher as a model. The free writing assignment may form the basis of this article, or the students may by now have changed their minds.
6. The form of the article is that of a feature story, which is a long, researched article for the front page of a paper.
7. Instruction in form should concentrate on the lead paragraph and pyramid organization of material typical of journalistic style.
8. Careful proofreading is a part of this step.
9. Have students present articles in small groups, exchange feedback and then revise their efforts.
10. Ask students to return to small groups with revised articles. The group selects the best paper (s) and suggests further revisions.
11. Have the final drafts shared with the entire class.
12. The class then decides which papers to submit to the school newspaper.
Evaluation
Teacher evaluation should be begun through observation of student work. Join several of the small group's proceedings. Notice process and student's interaction in offering and accepting criticism.
The students' efforts in free writing and in individual feature story writing can be evaluated. The evaluation should focus the directions given and the students' success or failure in adhering to them.

38

Follow-up Activities
Repeating objectives and procedures above, students can write similar stories about adults outside the classroom who are or were significant individuals to them.
Similar stories can be developed about classmates.
Students can modify material used in the feature

story or the follow-up and write editorials as appropriate (i.e., important of good teachers or meaningful adults).
Any of the above ideas can be redeveloped in the form of a narrative using a nonfiction or a fiction approach.
Resources
(See hplainin Grades 11-12.)

39

Robota
Grades 11-12

GoallPurpose
The purpose of this activity is to help students develop a heightened sense of audience in their writing.
Objectives
The learner will
make language choices based on audience considerations.
develop a personal. interesting and coherent paper.
emphasize audience appeal.
Materials
Pencil and paper
Appropriate print and nonprint materials on robot themes
Summary
The following activity takes students beyond the pedestrian and routine assignments that sometimes stifle writing. This activity calls for imaginative fiction. but other options can be created. To assess audience appeal students read their explanations to peers as a culminating activity.
Procedures
1. The teacher sets the stage for the activity by assigning an appropriate reading such as Isaac Asimov's 1 Robot or Karel Capek's R.UR. or showing a film or filmstrip about a robot.
2. Instruct students to design a robot. Each must produce a sketch and provide a name for his or her design.
3. Each student then jots down notes on the following.
The robot's components. functions and materials Its capabilities and Iimitiations
Its special features
4. Using their notes. the students individually write a paper explaining their robots to potential buyers. The papers are to be accurate. (This isn't a used robot.)

5. In small groups the students test market their designs and explanations.
6. Based on peer responses students make appropriate revisions.
7. The students read their papers to potential buyers from other small groups. The buyers provide feedback on whether the explanations are clear or adequate.
Evaluation
1. Self and peer evaluation are integral parts of the activity. (See steps 5 and 7 above.)
2. Teacher evaluation focuses upon completeness of exercise. quality of description and effectiveness of audience appeal.
Follow-up Activities
Maintaining the futurist theme. students can design a spaceship for travel in deep space. For this activity blueprints can be drawn. internal division indicated. floor plans provided and so on.
Jot down notes explaning what life support systems have been included and how these systems work. what recreational facilities have been included. what propulsion systems have been designed and how they work. what other provisions for living have been made. Using the notes and drawings. write a paper to convince others to join you on the trip into deep space or to buy the product and use it themselves.
Read your paper to a potential space voyager.. After the space voyager has made a decision have the voyager give you feedback on your paper.
Alternate Activity
Reverse the entire time sequence and ask students to design a product or products which could be used by colonial settlers.
These products must be of wood and capable of manufacture with hand tools only.

40

The written description can be in modern (anachronistic) language for convenience or for comic effect. The description call be made more challenging by requiring students to research the language of the time period and- produce their descriptions as near to that language as possible.
ResoarceslReferences
Irmscher, William E., Teaching Expository Writing. NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1979.
Kirby, Dan and Liner., Tom Inside Out: Strategies for Teaching Writing as a Developmental Process. NY: Boynton/Cook Publishers, Inc., 1981.
Koch and Brazil. Strategies for Teaching the Composing Process. Urbana, III: NCTC., 1978.
Martin, Nancy, et.a1., Writing and Learning Across the Curriculum, 11-16. London: Ward Lock Educational for the Schools Council, 1976 (available from Hayden).

Maxwell, Rhoda J. and Judy, Stephen. Composing. Michigan: The Michigan Council of Teaching of English, 1978-79.
Miller, James E. Jr., Word, Self, Reality: The Rhetoric ofImagination. NY: Dodd, Mead, 1972.
Newan, Beth. Teaching Students to Write. Columbus: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company, 1980.
Olsen, Gene. Sweet Agony: A Writing Manual of Sorts. Oregon: Windyridge Press, 1972.
Stanford, Gene and Smith, Marie A. Guidebook for Teaching Creative Writing. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc. 1977.
Stanford, Gene and Smith, Marie A. Guidebook for Teaching Composition. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc. 1977.
Te'evi.ion Show. - Channels 8 and 17
Pro/eiona' - Media and Methods

41

Persuading

As members of a highly communicative social group, we regularly send and receive numerous messages; many of these messages are intended to persuade. We exhort others to believe as we do, and we are ourselves exhorted to accept the beliefs, statements or opinions of others. In addition, if the statistics describing our viewing habits are to be credited, we are literally innundated with efforts at persuasion in the form of commercial advertising. It is, therefore, extremely important to help young people become more aware of and effective in their use of persuasive discourse; furthermore, it is equally important to help our students become more effective in their ability to identify persuasive arguments.
Predictably, efforts with younger students concentrate on developing awareness, not proficiency. The teacher's initial task is to help students recognize their own natural, normal attempts at

persuasion. Once students understand that persu~ding is not a new or an alien activity, efforts should be directed at helping students to present their own ideas convincingly and to provide supporting information such as examples which help substantiate a position.
Activities at the elementary level include evaluating points of view, developing explanations, providing supporting examples, identifying individual motives, anticipating counter arguments and so on. At the high school level these practices are pursued in greater depth. Students work to refine their persuasive skills and to become more adept at penetrating the manipulative messages aimed at all of us. Efforts focus on providing experiences which will help students recognize attempts (their own and those of others) at persuading.

42

Sample Activities
Persuasive Messases -Grades 910

GoallPurpose
As receivers of persuasive messages, we must be alert to proofs which seek to satisfy our motives. As initiators of persuasive messages, we must be concerned with motive appeal. We must express our messages in a manner that satisfies the motives of the listener. Students will have opportunity to develop their understanding of these facts by writing persuasive messages.
Objectives
The learner will
select and narrow topics.
develop and write conclusions.
develop and write thesis statements.
gain insight into values and motives as an element of audience appeal.
demonstrate logical thinking.
develop, write and present a persuasive argument.
Materials
Access to media center, current periodicals and other related literature
Summary
Students, as a group, will follow a series of steps to develop a sample persuasive argument. Individually, in pairs or in small groups, they will then consider several topics for which persuasive arguments would be appropriate, partially develop persuasive arguments for two of their topics, and, finally, develop one fully into a presentable argument.
Procedures
1. Explain to the students that they are to develop a persuasive argument that takes into account motive appeal.
2. Explain to students that thesis statements are essentially statements of purpose. They answer questions such as "What am I trying to prove?" or "What statement am I making?"

Often it is helpful to write a conclusion before writing a thesis statement, this allows the writer the opportunity to keep the end in mind while developing the introductory statements.
3. Consider this conclusion - Sky diving is a challenge because it presents the diver with a variety of unpredictable and dangerous hazards while requiring training and good sense.
4. Students should construct a thesis from this conclusive or final sentence.
5. Encourage students to develop introductions which present the thesis in palatable ways.
6. Assign students to work individually, in pairs or in small groups to develop, rehearse and refine their products.
7. Students should consider a number of topics that lend themselves to persuasion and in which they have some interest and expertise.
8. Narrow the topic selection alternatives to two.
9. Students should examine the usefulness and manageability of both topics, which must not be too broad or general. Individual, peer, group and teacher assistance may be a necessary part of delimiting a topic.
10. Students should repeat the process above (skip 2-6) for their two topics; i.e., develop conclusion, write thesis statements and develop introductions.
11. Discuss the following rhetorical items in detail with the students. Be certain they understand the meanings and importance of each. Questions and examples follow the items. This should be done with the large group and repeated with the specific topics selected by the students in small groups.
Thesis Statement
Reasoning (effect-cause and cause-effect)

43

Proposition ojJact (occurrence, existence and causality)
A. Occurence American leaders planned in advance the invasion of Cuba.
B. Existence The abominable snowman really lives.
C. Causality Spectator preference for action sports will lead to the death of baseball as a professional sport.
Proposition oj value A. John Kennedy was a great president. B. Modern art is rubbish.
Proposition oj policy A. A program of free medical care for all citizens should be established by the federal government. B. The U.S. should continue its support of the United Nations.
Students will use some or all of the above tactics and activities in completing their work.
12. Students should decide on the one topic they would like to develop further.
13. Students should remember that a mere statement of purpose is not enough; the purpose has to be significant for the person who will be reading or hearing the work. The assumed audience may respond to the thesis with a thought such as, "I'm not sure I agree, but I'd like to see or hear the writer's reasons for that assertion."
14. Students should develop and present a persuasive argument for the topic selected.
15. Students should analyze their products on the following criteria.
a. Each product should be evaluated on the organization, clarity, preciseness, persuasiveness and logic of the evidence presented by the student.
b. Is there a clear-cut thesis?
c. Is there a strong introduction?
d. Did I select the criteria which I thought the audience would accept for judging the truth of my proposition?
e. Did I develop my proposition thoroughly?

f. Does the conclusion make a final statement appropriate to my thesis?
Note: If the audience walks away. the speaker or writer fails at the outset.
EvaluatioD
Peer evaluation should be an integral part of the group process with students providing feedback to each other.
Teacher observation of performance should be based on students' participation in group discussion as well as on their final products using the same criteria as in step 15.
foUow-up Activities
Students sharpen their analytical skills by having them collect (from television, films, newspapers, books, magazines, signs) examples of messages that they think are designed to trick people or to persuade them by flattery or other less than honest means. Bring them to class for discussion. (They need not confine their selection to the printed or spoken word. Pictures are designed to persuade, too.) Share these. See if the class reacts to it as the student did. Do the opinions of the group agree? What generalizations can be made about the teenage appeal of the ad? Would it appeal to an adult audience as much? Why, or why not? Check conclusions by asking parents and other adults how they respond to the ad, and then report to the class.
Write an advertisement for a leading brand of soap or similar commodity, and then write a paragraph discussing the validity of the appeals you have used.
Suppose you were planning a model of a new car to bring the buyer a new way of life. What evidence could you use to support this claim?
Conduct a discussion on these or similar topics
Does the audience believe advertising?
Why do you suppose that overadapting to the audience is a more usual problem in advertising than in other kinds of communications?
Drug companies have found that news programs help to sell their products, but airline companies have found them ineffectual. Can you account for this?

44

Modern Motives Grades 1112

GoallPurpose
This activity familiarizes students with the concept and use of motive appeal in audience persuasion.
Objectives
The learner will identify the intended audience of an advertise-
ment. identify motive appeal in advertisements. examine various persuasive devices. develop a persuasive argument.
Materials
Access to media center
Magazines (older editions and current ones) Reproductions of mail order catalogs such as Sears, Roebuck and Company 1904 and 1906 catalogs
Overhead projector
Summary
Students will identify the intended audience and appeal of advertisements which appeared in magazines. They will then adapt this information, consider the current consumer and develop a persuasive advertising campaign to sell this product in today's market.
Procedures
1. Allow students to peruse advertisements for products which appeared in magazines published at least 10 years ago, preferably longer.
2. Remind students that the purpose of an advertisement is to sell a product and, therefore, an ad must specifically appeal to its audience to be successful. Use an overhead transparency of such an ad for a discussion example.
3. Divide the class into small groups.
4. Have students exchange information about the ads they examine. (In this exchange they must at least identify the audience to which their ad was addressed and the particular motive appeal or selling point.)

Note: Recognition of terminology such as bandwagon and glittering generalities is useful in identifying appeal through propaganda devices but is not essential.
5. Tell each group to identify products or advertising strategies which are not widely used in current magazines. Formulate a master list of these items.
6. Consider older products for which interesting advertisements could be developed.
7. Tell students, either in pairs or small groups, to select a product from the list.
8. Have students make a list of selected product's features; e.g., usefulness, attractiveness,' materials, accessories, cost.
9. Ask students to reflect on the current lifestyle of Americans and identify which features might appeal to modern buyers.
10. Consider current magazine advertisements and identify appeals which can be adapted in persuading potential buyers to consider their product.
11. Remind students to identify a specific market (e.g., children, teenagers, senior citizens, attomeys, teachers, health enthusiasts, sports fans) to which they will address their campaign.
12. Tell students to identify an appropriate appeal for that audience.
13. Have students examine various persuasive devices that could be used in their campaign.
14. Tell students to combine their information and to plan an advertising campaign which would persuade an identified modern consumer group.
15. Have students present their ad campaign to their classmates.
16. After each presentation, have the class identify three components of the campaign, namely audience appeal and persuasive device(s) and identify the point at which they were convinced to buy or not buy the item. (Students must participate in the audience role as representatives of the intended group.)

45

Evaluation
1. Peer evaluation is inherent in step 16.
2. Teacher evaluation should focus on the group. Is the campaign targeted precisely? Is the audience identification appropriate? Is the attempt at persuasion logical? Is the overall effort representative of the group's collective skill and ability?
FoUow.ap Activities
Students cross compare advertising of the same product in different market places such as Good Housekeeing and Psychology Today.
Students compare advertising in American magazines and British magazines or other English language foreign journals.

Using press books students consider variety of appeals used by professional publicists for persuading different segments of the population to attend the same movie. (The local theater owners have quite a number of these press books for their use in offering new films in local areas.)
Students design adjunct material for their initial ad campaign such as buttons, bumper stickers, slogans, additional products including deluxe models, inexpensive models and so on.
Students role play various situations in which successful persuasion was a crucial factor such as talking a police officer out of a ticket or asking to borrow the family car or asking for an advance on their allowance.

46

Researching

Research is literally a process of disc~very and organization. There are a number of steps in this process.
Clearly defining the purpose and the direction of the research
Identifying the available sources of information (in and out of school)
Gathering data from among the sources
Organizing the information obtained
Reporting the results
Traditionally, school related research has relied upon the school media center and the local public library. While these are valid and reliable sources, research should not be limited to or by these facilities. Recognition of the community as a valuable adjunct to the classroom is valuable in researching. Community members, business and governmental agencies and the media (national and local) are often underused sources for student research; everything from rock concerts to retirement homes should be given consideration as rich, relevant sources.

To be successful the researcher must gather useful information efficiently; most students will not be able to intuitively accomplish this. Teacher effort and instructional time will acquaint students with tactics and strategies for streamlining their efforts. Since the majority of this work is done outside the classroom and, frequently, outside the school, the teacher must adapt some systematic method for assuring that students are progressing toward their goal(s).
Reporting findings is usually done in school to the class or a small group within the class; the teacher should rarely, if ever, be the sole audience. This reporting can legitimately take a number of forms; e.g., an oral report, a project, a studentmade tape or media product, or the traditional paper.
Ideally, the information sought by students should be of value and interest to them. The specified tasks are more successfully accomplished when they are related to the students' needs and when the students perceive the process, methodology and results of research as valuable means to a goal which they recognize.

47

Sample Activities
Real People -Grades 910

Purpose
Students are led to see literature as products of human effort, written by real people. Reading and responding are in-depth activities. They focus on a single author rather than on brief pieces by several authors. The emphasis is on sharing insights and on individual student responses.
Objectives
The learner will
study the life and work(s) of one author in depth.
use current secondary sources on author.
respond to several writings of a single author.
write summary portraits of author and his or her work.
Materials
Library resources about writers - Current Biography, Who's Who
Books of library criticism, magazine reviews, biographies
Selected writings by the author
Relevant nonprint media (film, audio disc/tape)
Summary
This research procedure leads students to use a variety of primary and secondary sources. Literature is presented as the product of human efforts; teachers help students learn that authors are real people not merely literary giants. Each student delivers a creative presentation of a portion of the author's work. The sharing of feelings and opinions about the author's work is encouraged. The final product of this effort is a summary essay.
Procedures
1. Toward the end of a class period write the name of an essayist, poet or novelist on the board and simply say "find out more about this writer."

2. Each class member must contribute at least one piece of information about that author at the next class meeting.
3. Pass out copies of the author's work(s) and read to the students from that author's material. Talk about the works and share your feelings. Ask the students to share their feelings and invite them to speculate about the author, the authors origins, attitudes, biases. Direct them to read other works by that author.
4. If possible, incorporate other media such as films, recordings, slides or music about the author or the author's work to increase the students' interest and involvement. (To broaden the context for the writer's works, try something with visuals and sound in a multimedia presentation.)
5. Read some ofthe criticism aboutthe author's work. If possible, read some of the author's own criticism. Discuss the role of the critic. Encourage students to make critical judgments of their own.
6. Ask students to present a p.ortion of the writer's work to the class, perhaps as a short interpretive reading.
7. Involve the class or the group in a limited discussion of the work presented.
8. Each student should write a summary criticism of the author and the work. The teacher should encourage the students to include their own opinions and feelings.
9. Preliminary drafts should be shared and edited in small groups.
Evaluation
1. The teacher should be certain that the papers represent the student's own effort and incorporate material from a variety of sources. Criteria might include the following questions and should be provided to the student in advance.

48

Does the reader get a feel for the author?

Does the writer hOQk the reader's interest in the author?

Does the writer offer adequate support for

the opinion stated?

'

Are papers developed portraits of the author?

Does the author's humanity emerge?

2. Students' interpretive readings are responded to by the class to provide peer evaluation. Small groups should work together responding to and editing the summary essays during revision for the final draft.

FoUow-up Activities
The same procedures can be used for writers in several genres.
Students may also identify, interview and present to the class writers in their community.
Students might attempt writing in the genre or on the subjects of the author they have researched.

Resource.
Fi'.... From the Georgia Department of Education: 4261 Carl Sandburg Discusses His Work 9001 James Dickey, Poet
4296 Mark Twain Gives an Interview 7292 Why Man Creates
Disc or tape recording. Weiss, M. Jerry. From Writers to Students: The
Pleasures and Pains of Writing. Newark, N.J.: IRA, 800 Barksdale Rd., 1979.
Print
Janeezko, Paul. "In Their Own Words - Interviews with Authors." English Journal column.
'ntenne",. ' Paris Reviews, Series 1-4. Other Local writers Kirby, Dan and Tom Liner. Inside Out: Develop-
mental Strategies for Teaching Writing. Montclair, New Jersey: Boynton/Cook Publishers, Inc., 1981.

49

Detective Stories Grades 1112
Adapted from W. Keith Kraus Murder, Mischief, and Mayhem: A Process for Creative Research Papers Urbana, Illinois National Council of Teachers of English
1978

Purpose
Students approach research as a process of discovery, a mystery to be solved.
Objectives
The learner will
develop an understanding of the research process by going through the steps involved.
approach the research process and report findings with an unbiased attitude.
interpret and analyze sources. document sources using an appropriate format. present research findings appropriate to a
particular audience.
Materials
A tape of Poe's "Tell Tale Heart"
A murder mystery
A synopsis of an actual murder case
Library resources
An annotated list of topics
Summary
Writing a research paper is often a frightening prospect for students. Allay fears by giving students an overview of the entire process. Let them know what will be happening as they work this project. Establish the success-oriented nature of this project. Help students see themselves as resident experts on their topic. They are in charge of knowing more than anyone else on that particular topic. Help students see this process as one of discovery, one in which they are detectives in search of clues. There will be false starts and deadend streets and this should

not be a signal to surrender. Present this activity as a case, as a mystery to solve, and emphasize process. Allow five to six weeks for the unit.
Procedures
1. Generate enthusiasm for the project by sharing a Sherlock Holmes, Agatha Christie or other murder mystery. Playa tape of Poe's "Tell Tale Heart." Discuss the role of the detective in these pieces.
2. Encourage students to give a brief summary of recent real murder stories. Brainstorm for a list of famous real detectives. Discuss the glamour mythology of detectives; use TV shows such as Rockford Files or Magnum Pl. as examples.
3. Present a synopsis of a murder case (see resources - Murder, Mischief, Mayhem). Ask students how they might go about solving it. Point out the hours of searching for and sifting through myriad details to locate clues. Reinforce the notion of the often laborious research that goes into solving a case.
4. Explain that students will participate in a similar process for their research. Give a brief overview of the research process.
5. Conduct a school media center tour. If possible, take a field trip to a nearby regional or college library. Introduce students to potential sources of information with which they may not be familiar. Give them hands on experience with microfilm or microfiche.
6. Create and distribute a research activity sheet that makes it necessary for students to actually use the sources they have discovered, i.e., assignments which require the students

50

to use the information sources suggested in step 5. Be sure stud~nts can use indices such as the New York Times Index; require them to put on a reel of microfilm and locate information; have students use theReader's Guide to Periodical Literature. Avoid suggesting that dry, lifeless details are desirable. A culminating activity for this might be a short summary paper on the mood of the times as gleaned from details discovered in completing the activity sheet.
7. Introduce the overall project in more detail and assign topics. (see "An Annotated List of Topics" in Murder, Mischief and Mayhem) Poll student interests based on the topics available and assign topics based on students' interests.
8. Have students immerse themselves in the time period of their topic. Create questions which they might wish to consider.
What was life like?
What did people wear?
What were the big headlines?
Who was President?
What was the popular form of entertainment?
Assure students that this is neither busy work nor wasted effort. Suggest that they may be able to incorporate this information into their research papers and that their additional knowledge of the period will enhance their ability to complete the research.
9. Have students use the New York Times Index to determine the general events of their cases as best they can. Have them simply scan headlines of the Index and fill out what they can on the "Research Paper Fact Sheet."
10. Have students go back to the New York Times Index and choose the stories they want to read. Assist students with some helpful hints on how to carefully screen the articles.
11. As students read, have them note informa-
tion necessary for locating the article again should they need to go back to it.
12. Remind students that they are to check a minimum of 30 sources and that they are to construct a 10 to 12 page paper.

13. Stress accuracy in notetaking. Point out differences in writing styles from 19th to 20th century news stories. Remind students to maintain a researcher's detached view. (Encourage students to bring in examples of attitudes and language that seem interesting.) Remind students to research words and phrases that they do not understand. Help students with other aspects that may be troublesome such as trial material (see pp. 146 through 147, Murder, Mischief, and Mayhem). Alert students to be on the lookout for materials, such as letters-to-theeditor, that were never cited. Finally, help students understand the difference between their synopsis of material and outright plagiarism.
14. Help students brainstorm alternate sources of information such as trial transcripts.
15. Allow two to four weeks for students to review materials, take notes and construct rough drafts.
16. The major portion of in-class time can be devoted to helping students learn to write more effective introductions, to search for strong quotations and then to weave in those quotations, to actually construct the paper, to document sources and to build more effective conclusions. Students should at this time also be writing in a journal. It would not be inappropriate for teachers to provide a range of writing opportunities which are not necessarily related to the research paper.
17. Construct a checklist that reflects those research items you have been helping students learn. Let students work with a partner to check rough drafts. Students can help each other in the revision process.
18. Allow time (one week) for final drafts to be written and submitted.
Evaluation
l. Emphasize the process. Let the student know
in advance that they are to be evaluated on the process, i.e., selecting pertinent facts, maintaining a researcher's objectivity, choosing quotations that strengthen their papers, arranging findings in an organized and effective manner. Therefore, the teacher must use

51

the same checklist form that was given the students when ev~luating the process.
2. Selfevaluation should involve the student in using the checklist provided.
3. Peer evaluation should be done with a partner to check drafts for revision.
4. Final products may be shared with the class.
Follo.....up Activities
Students may write their own mystery stories, possibly withholding solutions, for the class to solve.
The checklist may be applied to other research projects on other subjects.
Resources
Kraus, W. Keith. Murder, Mischief, and Mayhem. A ProcessjorCreative Research Papers. Urbana, Illinois, NCTE, 1978. Within this title see "An Annotated List of Topics."

Newspaper Articles
Locate (or have students locate) articles on murders or mysteries.
Trials
Have students sit in on court proceedings or interview attorneys, jurists or others who have had experience with murder trials.
Novels In Cold Blood by Truman Capote Murder in Coweta County by Margaret Ann
Barnes
D r
Twelve Angry Men by Reginald Rose Music
"Night Moves" by Bob Seegar
tv
Tape of "Mystery" hosted by Gene Shalit, PBS

52

Interpreting

Interpreting is the act of deriving meaning from something. The something might be a fairly simple experience or a very complex philosophical treatise. We may interpret a child's throwing a pencil to mean that he or she is angry or that he or she seeks attention; on the other extreme we may interpret Kant's Critique of Pure Reason to mean whatever it might mean.
Constraints upon the interpretation vary. Something may be interpreted in light of its personal significance - what does this event or this statement mean personally or privately? Things may be interpreted to determine the intent of their author - what does a gesture or statement mean? There are other constraints - what is the significance of this statement to a nation, to a listener. to the future of education or to the detective who overhears it? These varying constraints may be thought of as differences in the purposes of the interpreting.
Finally. the situation or the context for interpretation may vary. It may be undertaken alone in preparation for a paper; it may be presented orally as either a carefully prepared or an impromptu statement; it may be the consensus of a group; it may be the winning position in a debate; or it may simply be a discussion in which a variety of possibilities are explored and no resolution is necessary.
Within this wide range of subject. purpose and situation. there are two constant elements. All interpretation demands both explanation and inference; that is, all interpretation attempts to make something clear or understandable. to find reasons for something or to identify significance. These are all explanations of a sort; however, interpretation also demands reference to things outside the speaker or writer. It is not simply the reporting of feelings generated from within. It

demands an accounting for things outside. It demands that the writer observe features in the event or the statement and draw inferences from them. Interpretive writing is not unchecked. It is bound by the subject being interpreted. If the features of that subject are neglected. then the writing is no longer interpretation.
A program that intends to provide students with experience and instruction in interpreting must draw upon a wide range of subjects. purposes and situations for writing assignments appropriate to the age and ability of the student, assignments that require explanation and inference. A variety of assignments are necessary to encourage the student to interpret. Drawing all topics from a narrowly conceived pool of resources. giving all assignments an identical purpose or asking the student to perform in only one situation is clearly inappropriate. A program. for instance. that directs all interpretive writing to poems. asks the author's intent and uniformly demands a three-to-five page paper on each topic. might be considered anemic. The opportunity to consider several genres or other materials should not be missed. A broadly conceived program. encouraging the teacher to vary assignments by subject. purpose and situation would certainly better sustain the interest of the student and more effectively teach him or her the precision of thought and expression demanded by the act of interpreting.
Clearly. the few plans offered below do not exhaust the possibilities. They simply suggest ways of varying interpretive writing assignments. The individual teacher. reflecting upon the nature of his or her students. the subject matter of the course and the aspects of interpretive writing that might be varied will find a vast range of possibilities for instruction in this mode.

53

Sample Activities
Logical Analysis Grades '.10

Goal
The purpose of this lesson is to interpret a persuasive essay in the form of a speech. The students are invited to examine the speaker's assumptions and logic in an effort to assess the quality of the presentation.
Objectives
The learner will
analyze the logic of a passage.
identify fallacious arguments in that passage.
explain the fallacy in the identified arguments.
analyze the passage in a clear and orderly essay.
Materials
The enclosed speech
Several articles or items illustrating clear, logical arguments.
Several articles or items illustrating unclear or specious logic.
Summary
The task is to analyze the logic of a persuasive passage. It assumes some previous work in the use of logic and critical thinking and in reading and discussing short persuasive essays which ememplify both strong and weak reasoning. Knowledge of a technical terminology is unimportant; however, previous experience is necessary in clarifying premises: providing evidence for generalizations, evaluating conflicts in evidence and opinion and documenting information.
In this activity students analyze a short passage exemplifying inadequate - perhaps even fraudulent - argument. A follow-up may be a choice of more interesting or more difficult passages.
Procedures
1. Use a passage that clearly exemplifies some illogic for students to detect.
2. As a brief introduction, remind students of previous work on rational argument. Point

out that words do shape events. Remind students they are to ascertain if the words are honestly and reasonably arranged.
3. Have the class discuss the following example.
"The City Council of Cambridge, MQISOchusetts, unanimously possed a resolution (December 1939) making it illegal to possess, harbor, sequester, introduce or trans port, within the city limits, any book, map, magazine, newspaper, pamphlet, handbill or circular containing the words Lenin or Leningrad." (Hayakawa, p. 33)
4. Suggest the class consider these questions.
What might the city council have had in mind?
What is the problem with the thinking evident in this resolution?
5. After discussing the passage, use other examples drawn from Hayakawa or elsewhere for additional practice.
6. When the students have warmed to the hunt for the nonsense underlying the examples, present the passage below. Suggest to the class that it is current and that it might persuade those who listen to it. Read it aloud first, and then distribute copies for the students.
"Mister President, fellow councilmen. The time has come for us to make a concerted effort to save this great city from the tidal wave of teenage crime and destruction which threatens each day to inundate it. The citizens of our great and historic metropolis have suffered long enough at the hands of these barbarians - now we must arise and demand justice. We can no longer tolerate the senseless vandalism committed against the churches and monuments of ourforefathers, the brutal beatings of our elder citizens, the continuous theft from our small businessmen, those storeowners and shopkeepers who are the lifeblood of our great city's economy. We must take action against this, the most serious threat to our peace and security.
'And there is no denying that juvenile crime has become our greatest prablem. Look at the facts. Within the last 50 years, the number of crimes committed by these young hoodlums has more than doubled. And yet society still handles the criminals with kid gloves. I prapose to replace this passive, spineless tolerance of adolescent outrages with a firm and practical approach, a program of action. It is not the nature of the American people to

54

stand aside and watch antisocial groups tear at the roots of our democracy. The American people - descendants of the men who fought at Lexington and Concord, at the Alamo, and on the battlefields of Europe and the far east - can no longer be satisfied with mere words. We must give them something more.
"I have two propositions. The first is directed at that most dangerous and odious symbol of our society's decadence - the motorcycle. Let us ban them from our streets. Can we allow the youth of our great country to idolize the Hell's Angels crowd? Can we accept the black leather jacket with Its skull and crossbanes In a society dedicated to the preservation of peace and security for all? How can we hope to curb the moral decay evident in
our teenagers If we permit these corrupting influences to
remain unchallenged?
"Second, I propose an 8:00 pm curfew for everyone
beneath the age of21. Look at the benefits of such a plan.
As everyone knows, crime flourishes under the cover of
dark. It Is the purpose of the curfew to eliminate this cover, force crime Into the light of day where It must
necessarily wither and die. The curfew would rob the adolescent criminals of their most important pratection. And it would be a blow against more than crime. Think of Its value lor the city and the nation as a whole. Restricted to their homes, the young bandits wl1l be con-
stantly under the watchful eyes of their parents who wl1l be able to see that they attend the proper business of
youth--8tudies, helping around the house and the like. Denied the companionship 0/ others like themselves the teenagers wl1l have a chance to reform. They wl1lleam to devote themselves to the Ideals of the /amlly, 0/ justice
and of the American way 0/ life. This bl1l wl1l be the first
real step toward the Great Society."
7. After reading the speech and handing out copies, proceed as suggested in either A or B.
A. Discuss the speech briefly, after which the students write an analysis of the speech explaining in as clear and orderly fashion as possible, what is wrong - or right with the reasoning.

B. Discuss the speech in detail, identifying selected flaws. Provide the class with a current item that offers a similar opportunity for analysis of faulty logic, and assign an analysis on the basis of the new item as described in A.
EvalaatioD
The students' interpretations of the speech may be evaluated by how effectively the students identify the speaker's assumptions and by how carefully and accurately they identify and explain the illogical elements.
FoUo..,ap Activities
Using an approach similar to the steps above the class might analyze an editorial,letter-to-theeditor, advertisement or an election year campaign spot.
Resoarees
Robert W. Allen and Lome Greene, The Propaganda Game. New Haven: AIM Publishers, 1969.
Layman E. Allen, et. al., Queries 'n Theories. New Haven: Wff 'n Proof Publishers, 1970.
Richard D. Altick, Preface to Critical Reading, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1962.
S. I. Hayakawa. Language In Thought and Action, New York: Harcourt Brace and Jovanovich, 1972.
Ronald Munson, The Way of Words, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1976

55

Advice Grades 11-12

Goal
The students will interpret an essay containing subtle irony. They will infer the writer's meaning within this material.
Objectives
The learner will
analyze the messages within sections of an ironic essay.
speculate about the author's intent in each section.
relate sections of the essay.
draw inferences about the essay from the relationship of the various sections.
discuss the essay with the rest of the class.
write a brief paper interpreting the essay.
Material
Mark Twain's "Advice to Youth" or another suitable ironic selection
Summary
In this activity students interpret prose written in an ironic tone. Twain's essay is used as an example. It is ostensibly a didactic, moralistic piece, presented for the edification of youth.
In analyzing and discussing this material, the students will gradually perceive that Twain's true meaning is to be inferred through the use of ironic language. The activity will culminate with a written analysis of the material read by each student.
Procedures
1. Begin by asking the students for examples of the sort of moral precepts they might expect from adults or from anyone else who is concerned with the ethical education of youth. (This might be done as a total group or brainstormed in small groups.)
2. Compile the list on the board. 3. Discuss the list.
How valuable are these precepts or sayings as guides for your lives?

Do you find any that are especially helpful (or not helpful) or true or not true?
Do you think that most (some, none, all) people agree with and observe them?
Other questions.....
Note: (Polonlus' advice to Laertes from Hamlet (I,lii) might be a time saving substitute Jor the steps above or an additional element to be used in conjunction with steps 1-3.
4. In small groups have students discuss and develop a written response to the following hypothetical question.
"IJ you were obligated to give a brief lecture to younger children, presenting a Jew moral precepts by which they might run their lives, what would you include? What would you say to them?"
5. Introduce Twain's essay as though it were serious. Read a few paragraphs aloud to the class to get them started.
6. Allow students time to finish reading. 7. After students complete their reading, elicit
reactions with a few general questions, continue to accept students' observations until the talk lags. 8. Discuss the difference between Twain's observations (statements) and his direct recommendations. 9. Refer students to lower case paragraph two (recommendations) and lower case paragraph three (observations) in "Advice to Youth." 10. Turn now to the last paragraph in the work. 11. Ask "What is implied in the last paragraph? Does that affect your reading of paragraph two? Is paragraph two still a recommendation?" 12. Note that the twists in Twain's writing introduce a slight problem in interpretation - "Is there a moral implicit in Twain's presentation or is Twain sarcastically condemning what he sees as typical behavior? For instance, he seems to undermine the first lesson - obey parents when they are present - by denouncing as superstition their belief that they know better than you do.
Thus, he might be suggesting that readers rely on better judgment. Readers may come

56

from that paragraph confident in knowing what Twain is recommending - humor your parents, avoid angering. them but rely on your own judgment when you can. The essay's last paragraph, however, introduces another complication. Twain has not flattered the human race. When he says, "build your character on these precepts and you will find that you are much like everyone else," he causes the reader to doubt earlier conclusions. The reader who had felt exhorted to rely on personal judgment now hears that in doing so one is likely to turn out as bad as everyone else. How then, is the essay to be interpreted?"
13. Keep in mind that Twain's essay is humorous and thus may not be as rigorously logical and consistent as a more seriously intended piece.
NOTE: Do not allow the humor to be obscured by the analysis.
14. After discussion. point out that the essay is not as simple as it first appeared and suggest a short composition interpreting it.
"What does the essay mean? Is there any serious
advice in it? Does it simply express an attitude - If so,
what? Is it simply funny? Be sure to base generalizations upon the specifics of the essay."

Evaluation
The lesson is intended to foster creative interpretation. The students may become confused and this confusion in the mind of the students is to be resolved in the essay writing. Several positions are foreseeable.
There are serious recommendations to the reader, but they are to be inferred.
There are no recommendations, but Twain does comment satirically on certain foibles.
There are inconsistencies that make the passage impossible to interpret as a unified piece.
The sermon is simply humorous.
The essays should be evaluated on the basis of the strength of the arguments offered. Do the students take into account relevant textual data? Do they provide evidence for generalizations? Do they state their case with reasonable clarity?
FoUow-up Activities
Work on other materials in which much of the meaning is carried by the tone could follow. Personal essays or editorials by such writers as Art Buchwald and Erma Bombeck will provide practice in dealing with irony and sarcasm in prose, as well as the more traditional works from writers such as Jonathan Swift.

57

Social Interacting (Ritualizing)

Some communication acts function for purposes other than to convey information about the world or to influence opinions. What is the purpose of small talk about weather, family or crops? We often engage in such familiar interaction as, "Some game last night, huh?" "Yeah, some game." Why do youngsters and adults tease each other and participate in riddling bouts? We place great importance on greeting each other, even if just to acknowledge another person's existence. Why? Are we concerned with exhibiting proper norms of politeness and, in some situations, proper norms of rudeness?
These are examples of social interactions of communication rituals. They serve a vital function by helping us build, redefine and maintain relationships. Through communication rituals we keep channels of communication operating smoothly. We manage the flow of conversation so that we can accomplish the business of informing, influencing and expressing to everyone's satisfaction. Social interaction (ritualizing) is the

primary way in which we express perceived role relations like intimacy, status and affinity. It helps our partners know how to interpret our messages; e.g., as an order, a joke, an expression of warmth.
In face-to-face interaction, rituals operate in both verbal and nonverbal modes. Back slapping is an instance of ritualizing as is the spoken phrase,"Let's sit down for a minute and see if we can work out this problem together." In written communication ritualizing is related to tone and helps establish a relationship between reader and writer. In a consumer complaint letter positive results can often be obtained by including, "I have long enjoyed Crispy Shnozzies and look forward to the satisfactory solution of this problem so that I can once again purchase your product with confidence." In reading works of literature, the author's depiction of communication rituals offers qs cues with which we can infer relations between characters.

58

Sample Activities
What Shall. Call You? Grades 910

GoallPurpose
Although educators often place emphasis on students' learning to speak a standard English dialect, it is more sound to think of students acquiring a range of speech registers, from intimate to formal. By language choices, which constitute registers, we signal our definitions or perceptions of relationships with audiences. For example, the politicians who work with sophisticated economic data weekdays in Washington must return to their constituents on weekends. Politicians then must show that they are of the people by talkiOng about "Them gall danged big city hucksters what ain't got sense nuff to set one foot front of t'other."
Among the most concrete resources we have for signifying a register are the terms of address we use to name each other. Thus, you name your colleague "Mr. Thomashevski" when speaking formally before your students, but "Melvin Thomaskerski" when introdUcing him to your aunt, "Mel" in the teachers' lounge and perhaps "M.T." at a football game. Students can begin to recognize registers and the dimensions of appropriate language use (as opposed to so-called correct language use) by a study of terms of address.
Objectives
The learner will
become sensitive to varying terms of address.
recognize varying degrees of formality in use of terms of address.
explore role relationships which determine degree of formality in language.
relate these abstract dimensions of relationships to students' everyday communication patterns.
Materials/Aids
Chalkboard
Posterboard or large sheets of butcher paper/ newsprint

Summary
Students will list the terms they use to address people who are representative of a variety of role categories. Through discussion and questioning students will attempt to isolate the social dimensions which govern the choice ofterms of address. The class will produce a type of flow chart illustrating their analysis. Students will discuss how relationships are at first defined (tentatively) and then maintained or redefined, and they will discuss how the nature of these relationships is reflected and manipulated by means of terms of address.
Procedures
1. Teacher explains the concept of role as a category; i.e., a person's role often determines the types of behaviors we expect from him or her.
2. Individually, students spend a few minutes listing roles with which they might interact in a day (e.g., parent, sibling, adult acquaintance, teacher, friend, peer acquaintance, legal official).
3. Teacher compiles a master list of roles on chalkboard.
4. Next to each role designation, students list what term they would use to address a person in that category (e.g., first name, Ms.lMiss/
Mr.lMrs. + last name, Coach + last name, nickname, professional title + last name only,
kinship term, "Sir" and so forth). Expect different responses here, especially from students with differing backgrounds.
5. The central task at this point is to try to abstract the underlying social dimensions which determine choices of terms of address. For example, age is certainly one factor, and this should emerge in the discussion. If we meet someone our own age who has no apparent status or authority that sets him or her apart, we use first name. But an older person is usually addressed as Mr., Mrs., Miss or Ms. (These terms of greater formality also show that the factor of sex is another determinant. InCidentally, an interesting issue pertains to

59

how we decide if someone is older, younger or a same age peer. Tile lines are not clear cut in American cultures.) 6. The discovery of underlying social dimensions can be helped along by the use of hypothetical questions.
What do you call your employer (authority)?
What do you call your employer if he or she listens to rock and roll music? Is a change indicated if common interests or attitudes are shared?
What do you call your parent's friend after camping out for several days on a fishing or hunting trip? (Does age give way to intimacy?)
How do you feel when your teacher addresses you as Mr. or Ms.? (Do you feel more adult? Does that feeling make you uneasy?)
7. After the class has listed a number of underlying social dimensions which govern choices of terms of address, the teacher and students should try to construct a flow chart on the chalkboard. (If the students are more able and mature, this might be done in small groups.) When completed, use posterboard for a permanent illustration ofthe process. An example might look like the chart on page __ .
8. Since terms of address are means for acknowledging perceived relationships, use the chart'to help explain the significance of the terms and how terms define relationships. For example, what does it mean when your employer says, "You don't need to call me 'Mr. Jones,' just call me 'Bob'?"
Evaluation
1. Teacher evaluation should focus on the students' volunteered contributions to large group discussion and on solicited answers to questions demanding application of the communication principles being discussed.

2. If the chart is produced as a group product, evaluation in terms of completeness, presentability, graphic consideration and so on could be included.
Follow-up Activities
Assign students to research terms for persons of special status (e.g., ambassadors, airline pilots, supreme court justices, retired military personnel). Resources include etiquette and secretarial handbooks, special dictionary sections, encyclopedic materials and so on.
Investigate the way speaking practices differ from titles used in letter writing.
An interesting research project involves cross cultural comparisons of terms of address. Oriental cultures, for example, place much more emphasis on the age factor with finer gradations than in America. Native American Indian cultures use kinship terms like Aunt and Uncle, with less regard for actual blood lines. In Germany someone might be addressed in a manner, if translated, like "Mr. Professor Doctor Smith."
Southern literature is an especially good source for material demonstrating use of terms of address to define relationships. Often racial barriers are erected in this fashion as in To Kill A Mocking Bird; an atmosphere of propriety may be projected without any basis in objective reality as in Glass Menagerie.
Resources
Susan Ervin-Tripp. "On Sociolinglistic Rules: Alternation and Co-occurrence," in John Gimperz and Dell Hymes (Eds.), Directions in Sociolinglistics. New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston, 1972.
Roger Brown and A. Gilman. "The Pronouns of Power and Solidarity," in T. Sebeck, (Ed.), StYle in Language. Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1960.

60

Idnship term
(Mom, Dad, Grandma)
I
!directUne

Id_hip term + Fint name
(Uncle George, Co_inSue)
/
7- ~_._.

intimate

Ida'/ subordinate sta*-

special stat_ _ (police, president)

special term
(officer." "your
Honor," ..... "Mr. Pr_ident")

-/./1= special request orformalitv

tide + I.st n.me or
tide .Ione

// older
-- /
(spedfy a.e) - . . . peer .......... ~

~
..power or ~-
equal status

...\.- -.1--_ _u\_ subordinate / \/

\ nonintimate

nonprofessional

/
m.le
~
Mr. + la.t
n.me

-........ female

I "'mamed Mrs\rMs.

unmamed

+ last name

Mis.orM

+ last n.me

_famWar
~
first name

f.mm.r

I
intim.te

~ ............

I

\

nickn.me

first n.me

or

diminutive

("S.mmy"

or

"b.by")

(For a more extensive example. see the article by Susan Ervin-Tripp cited in the Resource section.)

61

Gavel to Gavel Grades 11-12

GoallPurpose
It is easy (or at least quick) to make decisions as individuals, but the quality of those decisions suffers from lack of multiple perspectives. Decision making becomes more difficult as the size of a group increases. However, we can have more confidence in the quality of large group discussions assuming that the division of labor is used to promote a thorough investigation of problems and solutions and that the group process encourages vigorous debate and protects the rights of minorities. Parliamentary procedure represents a set of rituals governing large group decision making in a manner which contains conflict and channels it constructively. Since many organizations abide by some form of parliamentary procedure, basic knowledge of its rules is a useful life role skill. This activity uses parlimentary procedure to conduct a long term project with the ultimate goal of producing a class position paper concerning a current issue of importance to class members.
Objectives
The learner will
sharpen knowledge of a selected critical issue.
construct an ongoing parlimentary system.
conduct a series of meetings using the following tools. order of business agenda main motions subsidiary motions privileged motions incidental motions debate order of precedence of motions committee system
conduct a variety of research activities including library research, taking testimony from guest speakers, interviewing and archival research, as appropriate to the question selected.
engage in large group decision making concerning an issue of critical importance.
assume formal roles of chair, secretary, parIimentarian.

assume emergent roles of expert, skeptic, tension reliever, social leader, communication facilitator.
compose a position paper including minority reports and recommendations.
conduct a public relations campaign, including publication of the position paper, designed to help bring about the final recommendations.
Materials'Aids
paper and duplication facilities
libraries
community resource people as guest speakers
a gavel (optional)
SUDlDlary
In organizing a large portion of class time around the exploration and solution of a particular issue, the teacher is actually employing an alternative curriculum model- class as community. When this model is successfully applied, results are impressive, for students are using communication skills in solving real tasks rather than simply learning about or artificially practicing them. Success in organizing the class as a task-oriented community hinges on finding an issue which can sustain student motivation and on integrating appropriate learning objectives and materials films, works of literature, brief writing assignments and even grammar instruction - with the theme adopted by the class. In this project students use parliamentary procedure to organize themselves and conduct large group meetings leading ultimately to the production of a position paper concerning some issue of vital interest.
Procedures
1. Be certain students understand that it is essential for them to select an issue that is intrinsically interesting to them and will provide strong motivation. This is done early in the term in informal large group discussion. For example, at one school, a pair of tragic automobile accidents involving classmates spurred a project concerning high school driver education.

62

2. The teacher should stipulate that the final product will be a position paper distributed to school and community leaders including the PTA (or a similar group). It should immediately become apparent that students need some form of structure to guide their work.
3. The teacher should explain parliamentary procedure and the committee system. The class need not go into greater depth than provided by most high school speech texts such as Adams and Pollock, Speak Up!
4. It should be agreed that steering decisions will be made by the committee of the whole. Chair, secretary, parliamentarian and perhaps vice chair should be elected for two-week terms.
5. Among the first orders of business will be the setting of a time frame. Standing committees should be organized. These may include a medical research committee, law enforcement research committee, popular culture committee, peer survey committee, committee on ongoing information compilation, document production committee and publicity committee. It should be emphasized that these committees may assign work to students who may not be committee members. Labor is shared equitably.
6. The initial phase concentrates on group research and report writing. The committee as a whole will need to be convened less frequently once initial procedures are set up. However, the large group should meet at least twice a week for committee reports and evaluation of the process. Also, the entire class will convene to hear guest speakers invited by the various committees.
7. After research is completed, a problem overview and specific research review chapters can be drafted. At the same time, each committee should draft specific debatable resolutions for consideration by the committee of the whole. Resolutions are also accepted from the floor. Provision should be made for minority caucuses to compose dissenting views.
8. A final draft of the position paper, including minority reports, is produced. The entire class participates in editing.

9. The report is disseminated to appropriate audiences accompanied by oral presentations where appropriate. For example, the entire class may wish to discuss orally the findings and recommendations with principal.
10. Follow-up publicity should be produced. The class may decide to engage in a persuasive campaign to reach other students by means of posters, a multimedia assembly program and public address announcements.
Evaluation
1. Teacher evaluation and peer evaluation should focus upon the items below
a. Proper use of parliamentary rituals
b. Contributions to large group debate
c. Contributions to committee efforts including quality research
d. Quality of written contributions
2. Depending upon the work assigned and completed as a part of this activity, student products, such as written reports concerning special interests and oral reports presented to the large group, should be evaluated using procedures appropriate to the type and quality of the work and the maturity of the group.
3. Follow-up activities provide opportunities for related sources of evaluation.
Follow-up Activities
In the class as community model, the teacher will relate a variety of class activities to the central theme.
The theme and related work should provide subject matter for student journals. On several occasions students should produce expressive and narrative writings on the subject.
Students can write or orally present reviews of popular culture dealing with their subject including films, magazine articles and songs.
Publicity activities described in the last step of this process will provide numerous opportunities for follow-up projects.

63

Resources
Harlen Adams and Thomas Pollock. Speak Up! New York: Macmillan, 1964.
Henry M. Robert. Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised. Glenview, Ill.: Scott Foresman, 1970.

John Gray and Richard Rea. Parliamentary Procedure: A Programmed Introduction. Glenview, Ill.: Scott Foresman, 1973.

64

Reading

Reading Comprehension in the High School
An Overview

For the high school student. the primary goal of the reading program should be to insure that the reading tasks as required in the various content areas can successfully and independently be performed. At this level. instruction in decoding skills. such as phonetic analysis. is not usually beneficial to the learner. By the time students reach high school. all but the most severely deficient readers have been able to identify some alternative strategies to compensate for their lack of proficiency in word recognition skills. The key to providing students at this level with successful reading experiences lies in the indepth instruction in comprehension skills. including meaningful ,:,ocabulary development and reading-related content area skills.
As illustrated in Table I (Smith. 1961). the

difference between good readers and poor readers is the ability to restructure the material. Varied reading rates. varied purposes for reading and reviewing are part of the capabilities of the good reader. It would be well. then. in our high school reading programs to create programs that allow students to practice these skills in the reading classroom as well as the various content areas. An authority has pointed out. "The effort a teacher expends in building the comprehension program will be reflected directly in students' abilities to effectively derive. interpret. and apply meaning from oral and written communication experiences encountered throughout life" (Ruddell. 1978. p. 38). This must be the ultimate goal of the reading comprehension program.

65

Table I Compari"sons of Good and Poor Readers In
Grade 12

Factor Stating purpose Reading for stated purpose Establishing own purposes Reasons for rereading
Proportion reading every word reading for details reading for general impressions
Approach to organization of material when reading for details
Review while reading When reading for general impressions

Good readers stated it correctly did did
to find definite information to place information in mind
1/2
1/3
restructured material catalogued details connected detail with something else fixed information in mind
frequently
read for ideas

Poor readers 112 stated correctly did not did not because did not understand something
all all tried to remember points in isolation
seldom tried to remember details in isolation

Adapted from Helen K. Smith. "Research in Reading for Different Purposes." In Changing Concepts of Reading Instruction. J. Allen (Ed.) Newark. Del.: International Reading Association. 1961.
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Teaching Reading in the Content Areas

Starting in the upper elementary grades, the instructional program for many students shifts toward an in-depth study of content taught by teachers whose primary training is in areas other than reading. Teachers of social studies, science, mathematics and even English mayor may not have a background in the teaching of reading. The expectations of these teachers and the reading demands made on students, however, increase with every grade. If students are to be able to succeed in these content area classes, the teachers of these students must be made fully aware of the significance of reading to their specific content areas. Regardless of the content area, the following general teaching practices might improve reading competence.
List and discuss the objectives of the assignment for students.
Identify key words and phrases along with the specific definitions appropriate to the lesson.
Employ flexible and fluid grouping patterns (large group, small group, independent study) of instruction.
Provide and use a variety of instructional materials (media and nonmedia) on a wide range of instructional levels.
Provide enrichment and independent reading materials and activities as an integral part of the instructional program.
Recognize and provide for the individual differences in learning styles and reading ability of students.
When textbooks are selected, make sure they are on the students' appropriatf! instructional level.
Provide study guides or questions which identify the important areas of the lesson.
Allow adequate time for students to read and discuss the material prior to larger class discussions.
On a regular basis, do your own assignments, and take your own tests.
Know the specific reading tasks that you expect students to perform in your content area.

Different reading skills are required of students in different content areas. The following section contains some of the specific reading skills necessary to be a successful reader in various selected content areas. Students should be instructed in the specific and representative skills identified within the designated content areas that follow. Reading Skills in Science Understand key vocabulary terms. Understand and interpret symbols, graphs, diagrams, charts and formulas. Follow directions. Read to solve problems. Read for details. Locate and interpret scientific information. Read inductively, deductively and reflectively. Make classifications. Predict outcomes. Recognize similarities and differences. Make judgments. Synthesize data. Recognize sequence. Make appropriate generalizations. Recognize cause-effect relationships.
Reading Skills in Mathematics Understand key vocabulary terms. Understand and interpret symbols, graphs, diagrams, charts and formulas. Recognize relationships. Organize details and processes to find solutions. Evolve procedures for problem solving. Make comparisons to find similarities and differences of objects. Make classifications. Collect and recognize the relevance of data. Judge reasonableness of answers.

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Use sequences. Make and interpret generalized statements. Analyze arguments critically. Recognize common errors in reasoning. Exhibit critical thinking. Reading Skills in Social Studies Understand key vocabulary terms. Locate, analyze and interpret data. Distinguish between fact and opinion. Apply facts to the solution of problems. Recognize cause-effect relationships. Recognize and state a problem. Draw conclusions from facts given. Understand and interpret maps, tables, charts, graphs, symbols and other illustrative materials. Make judgments. Make comparisons. Recognize the use of propaganda techniques. Make appropriate generalizations. Read critically. Follow directions. Make inferences.
Reading Skills in Literature Read for details and main ideas. Make inferences. Draw conclusions. Predict outcomes. Make judgments.

Read critically.
Recognize cause-effect relationships.
Understand sequence of events.
Understand connotation, symbolism and allusions.
Understand literal and implied meanings.
Recognize the author's mood, intent, tone, purpose, style and rhythm.
Locate and interpret clues to plot, character and motive.
Distinguish fiction from nonfiction.
Distinguish between fact and opinion.
Distinguish reality from fantasy.
These particular reading skills, listed by content area provide samples of skills that are most relevant to specific subjects. This list is not comprehensive either in its inclusion of content areas or skills. Teachers are referred to the Essential Skills for Georgia Schools (Georgia Department of Education, 1980), to specific subject area curriculum guides and to professional materials listed under Reading in the Resources section of this book for suggestions for expanding the listing in a particular area or for addressing an area that has not been mentioned.
These samples should be useful for all teachers. Reading teachers are urged to reinforce these skills whenever possible so that skill instruction will be transferred to the content classroom. Content teachers are urged to use this listing as a base, adding or deleting skill items as appropriate. The essential point to be made is that all teachers need to be aware that their knowledge of the importance of these skills will have a direct impact on their success in providing instruction for their students and in the subsequent achievement of the students.

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Building Bridges to Reading
in the Content Areas

Increasingly, there is concern about helping the deficient reader become successful in other subject classes. While the various materials in the reading laboratory should help the student de velop the necessary work.study skills to learn effectively; there are some teaching practices which the reading teacher and the content area teacher should consider to help the deficient reader in learning activities during the course of the day. The following list of practices will help accomplish this goal.
In the reading laboratory, the teacher should do the followin.
Stock the room with materials that provide for useful work-study skills' assignments on a variety of levels.
Discuss with students the specific study skills that will help to improve the overall school performance.
Plan to evaluate the problems that the students are having with homework and other content area reading assignments.
Notify other teachers of students enrolled in the reading laboratory.
Create opportunities for other content area teach e'rs to help students and work with materials in the reading laboratory.
Provide specific assignments to overcome problems observed while the students complete homework assignments.
Make a joint effort with content area teachers to assist the remedial reader.
Identify other programs available in the school (i.e., Homework Helpers Program).

On a schoolwide basis, the content area teacher should do the followin.
Know the reading ability of the student from
cumulative records, standardized tests, informal reading analysis, c10ze procedure. Know the readability level of the textbooks in use.
Use text materials suited in difficulty to the reading levels of students.
Discuss the format of the textbook and how it may be used effectively.
Identify and proVide, if possible, teacher materials written on low-grade and above-grade reading levels.
Note special vocabulary and concepts introduced in various units.
Plan to teach essential vocabulary and concepts.
Provide special assistance for poor readers.
Plan to evaluate students' understanding of vocabulary and concepts and reteach them, if necessary.
Know the special study skills involved in the subject area and teach them as necessary.
Make clear and concise assignments.
Provide differentiated reading assignments for the different groups of the class either through varied texts or prepared material.
Teach the use of appropriate reference materials.
Encourage students to read Widely in related materials.
Encourage the reading of recreational as well as informational reading matter.

Adopted &om: New York City Board of Education. Bureau of Curriculum Development. Reading Laboratory for Second ary Schools. Project No. 2017. November 1974.

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Assessing Print Material

Although texts and other reading materials are assessed and selected to correspond to appropriate instructional levels, students may be hampered in handling the content of printed matter. Primary factors which create difficulties are vocabulary, sentence structure, relationships and levels of abstraction. Teachers, therefore, should use the following factors as guidelines in scanning content to determine or anticipate whether reading problems might occur.
Vocabulary Multiple meanings Technical vocabulary (specialized) Affixes Technical names (groups of similar items) Key words (signals) Local variations (slang) Symbols Connotative meanings (definitions which go beyond the dictionary definitions) Idioms Figures of speech (metaphor, simile, hyperbole) Pronouns
Sentence Structure Sentence length Sentence phrasing
I
Clauses Definitions provided within Sentence patterns Questions which serve a purpose (guide for study) Parallel sentences Either/or construction Items in a series Parenthetical expressions Appositive structures Comparisons Generalizations

Conclusions Formulas Sentences which require the reader to follow directions Punctuation
Relationships Books written to involve the reader Clues to contrasting relationships Time relationship clues (and rank order) Order clues (position) Order clues (former/latter) Clues to the order in which information is presented Conditional relation (expressed by small words) Purposes Reasons Same word to express different relationships Examples Numbers to tie items together
Levels of Abstraction Examples Technical references Propaganda and fallacious reasoning Assumptions Implications Symbolism Conversion of words to formulas Choice of words (specialized or connotative)
If difficulties are encountered in reading assignments, teachers may need to teach skills related to the identified areas of difficulty or adapt information to accommodate different levels of reading competency. The level of sophistication or difficulty of print material may be lowered by making changes or adjustments that would simplify vocabulary and shorten sentence length. Also, additional information provided in writing or presented orally to clarify the text will alleviate difficulties.
Almost all adult reading is done silently and independently. Therefore, every effort should be

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made to teach or reteach students those techniques that will help them more fully and effectively obtain information and read for meaning during independent silent reading.
Reading techniques that should be acquired and used include
reading for previously established purposes
surveying to learn the organization of the print material (headings, graphics, paragraph and chapter make-up, length)

skimming to gain an overview
scanning for troublesome words
adjusting rate and reading depth for meaning and fulfilling the purpose designated for the reading
thinking while reading by forming mental pictures, gathering ideas and making judgments.
Adopted &om: Ohio Department of Education The Sequence of the Reading Lesson. Teaching Teen Reading Series. Columbus. Ohio. 1979.

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Levels ofReading Comprehension

Traditionally, reading comprehension has been viewed as having at least three levels: literal, inferential and critical. Each level has distinctive characteristics. The objective for the effective secondary reading program should be to develop readers who can operate with equal proficiency at each of these levels. The skills, as the names imply, move from simple recollection of facts to sophisticated analysis of an author's message. This section deals with each of these levels as it affects reading comprehension.
The Literal Level
The literal level of reading means getting only the obvious, direct, exact or dictionary meaning from the printed page.
To arrive at literal meanings. the learner _ust acquire the folloMa. skills.
Noting key words in a sentence Noting explicitly stated facts Noting central ideas, subordinate ideas, relevant and irrelevant ideas, supporting and nonsupporting ideas Perceiving the relative importance of ideas Noting topic sentences Recognizing the author's purposes, if specifically stated Perceiving direct relationships Following directions
Organizing ideas or events in sequence (order, series arrangement, importance, succession, chronology, steps in a process, character development, plot development and argument)
The Inferential Level
The inferential level means that the reader must be able to combine facts from the text with his or her experiences, thinking and imagination to understand fully what the author is trying to say.
To arrive at inferential meanings. the learaer _ust be skilled at the folloMa. Recognizing the author's intent and mood

Noting implicit facts
Perceiving similarities in ideas and events
Perceiving differences in ideas and events
Selecting specific ideas from which to draw inferences
Selecting related ideas from which to draw inferences
Making comparisons of similar ideas
Noting contrasting ideas
Recognizing cause/effect or symptom/cause relationships
Anticipating and predicting outcomes
Seeing interrelationships among ideas
Drawing conclusions
Perceiving relationships in sequence, time, space, relevancy, cause and effect
Teaching the student to note facts and draw inferences in order to organize information and arrive at conclusions extends to other types of materials not recorded in narrative or expositional form. The student must acquire the comprehension skills needed to arrive at literal and inferential meanings from reading charts; diagrams; pictures, drawings, cartoons; graphs (pictorial, line, circle, bar); grids, circles, meridians, parallels; time lines; directions and locations; maps of different types and projections and maps depicting physical, cultural, economic and political factors.
The Critical Level
This level involves an interaction between the author and the reader. It is purposeful reading in which the higher level thinking processes such as questioning, analyzing, comparing, reasoning, evaluating, perceiving relationships and detecting propaganda are used in making sound judgments.
To react as a critical reader. the learner should be skilled at the folloMa.
Identifying an inherent problem, question or issue
Distinguishing fact from fiction

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Distinguishing the realistic from the fantastic Identifying the author's purpose. mood and intent Determining relevancy of ideas to a problem. question or issue at hand
Recognizing patterns of thinking as inductive or deductive development. scientific reasoning and logic Recognizing abuses of logic Judging source and accuracy of material Noting completeness of analysis Judging competency of the author as a source of information Predicting outcomes Making generalizations

Recognizing controversial materials or issues
Differentiating between objective and subjective statements
Distinguishing between the informative. referential and emotive use of words
Understanding the denotation and connotation of words
Recognizing differences in levels of abstractions
Recognizing hazards to clear thinking--emotion laden words. irrelevant ideas. bias. unsound conclusions and invalid assumptions
Identifying specific propaganda techniques: namecalling. card stacking. using catch phrases. bandwagon tactics and testimonials

74

Sample Activities
The Literal Level
*This is a basic skill test item.

Objective
The learner will organize to show sequence. *
Activities 1. Give the students a set of scrambled senten-
ces describing a sequence of activities. Have them arrange the sentences in the appropriate chronological order.
2. Give the students a scrambled sequence of material and a heading. Have them arrange the material in proper order under the heading.
Example: Learning to Swim - list the steps of learning to swim in a scrambled order.
Objective The learner will note details and recall facts. *
Activity Assign the students a short passage to read. Next have them write two of the specific facts or details contained in the passage.
Objective
The learner will recognize main ideas.*
Activities 1. Give the students a sentence and have them
explain its meaning in their own words.
Example: The African bushbaby, weighing less than one pound, is being used in experiments dealing with muscular cells.

2. Have the students read a paragraph and state the main idea.
3. Give the students a set of paragraphs which summarize a main idea. Have them identify which one best represents the main idea.
Example: Cigarette Smoking May Be Hazard- . ous To Your Health.
Objective The learner will locate specific information.
Activities 1. Have the students read a story and list a speci-
fied number of facts about the story related to its content and characters.
Example: "The Fall of the House of Usher," by Edgar Allan Poe.
2. Give the students a topic and reference on that topic. Have them identify a specific number of facts contained therein.
Example: Color Pigment. 1. Red, blue and yellow are primary colors. 2. White is the absence of all colors, etc.

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The Inferential Level

Objective
The learner will draw conclusions.*
Activity Have the students read two passages on the same topic. Have one of the paragraphs contain faulty conclusions. Then have the students identify which paragraph contains faulty conclusions and specify the inadequate or misinterpreted facts.
Objective
The learner will see relationships.*
Activities 1. Give the students a topic and several para-
graphs. Have them identify those paragraphs which relate to the given topic.
2. Give the students a series of related statements. Have them subdivide the statements into two groups, each grouping based upon a common characteristic. Then have them name the characteristic common to each group.
Objective
The learner will interpret story facts. *
Activity Have the students read a story silently. Then have them orally explain its meaning. Have the students list the similarities and differences in content with respect to geographical setting, characters or personalities and time period.
Objective The learner will select correct definitions.
Activities 1. Give the students a word and have them select
its nearest meaning from a series of words.
Example: equivocal (a) uncertain (b) equal (c) equivalent
2. Give the students a word and have them identify its synonym from a series of words.
Example: cram (a) empty (b) stuff (c) fill

3. Give the students a word and have them identify its antonym from a series of words.
Example: obese (a) fat (b) thin (c) heavy
4. Give the students a set of unusual words and have them use a dictionary to describe their derivations.
Example: (a) bandanna (b) mutton chops (c) voodoo
Objective
The learner will use word meanings.*
Activity Give the students an abstract word and have them describe the meaning by using the word in a sentence.
Objective The learner will make inferences from facts.
Activity Have the students read a passage and state the ideas which may be inferred from it.
Objective
The learner will interpret figurative language. *
Activities 1. Give the students a group of colloquialisms
and have them rewrite the sentences in standard English.
Examples: This class is really a drag.
2. These sentences could be written on the board or duplicated prior to discussion. Ask students why they made a particular choice and why they didn't select the other choices.
Examples: I know you're in a predicament but keep your chin-up. (a) lift your chin upward and outward (b) raise your chin until it crosses the horizontal bar (c) be brave and don't let things get you down.
Today, I'm not feeling up to par. (a) I can't break 36 on the back nine holes. (b) I'm not feeling very good. (c) I've lost my touch.

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The Critical Level

Objective
The learner will distinguish fact from opinion.*
Activities 1. Have the students read a highly opinionated
passage and identify the author's viewpoint on the subject.
2. Have students read the editorial pages of the newspaper or read a magazine. Students could look for the key words or phrases which make the articles opinionated . . . I fervently hope ... they seem to be ... it would appear

that I've gotto admit ... think ... believed felt.
Objective
The learner will compare and contrast stories.*
Activity Provide a fictional history such as Rifles for Watie by Harold Keith and a text such as The Civil War published by American Heritage.

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Integrating Comprehension into theLanguage Arts Cuniculum

Objective The learner will improve comprehension through oral/written communication activities.
Activities 1. Divide class into groups. Assign each group a
famous individual from history, e.g., an explorer, scientist, statesman. Have the group research the life of the individual. Then have them conduct a simulated press conference with one individual taking the part of the famous person, the others serving as reporters. The other members of the class will be responsible for preparing either a newspaper article reporting the press conference or a television or radio news item concerning the press conference.
2. Have students write a step-by-step outline of a science experiment that the class has conducted or a historic event that they have studied. Have a student read the outline to the class. The class is to listen for any errors.
3. Have students read the feature sections of the newspaper describing the new line of fashions for men and women. Have them identify and discuss the descriptive and persuasive language. Have students discuss language used that might persuade them to buy some particular apparel. Have them discuss the audience addressed in the ads.
Objective The learner will improve comprehension through functional reading activities.

Activities 1. Have the students read the description of a
piece of merchandise. Have them identify a given number of facts within the description. (reading for detail)*
2. Have the students read a sales contract. Ask the students to list those things in the contract for which they are responsible and for which the contractor is responsible. (locate information)*
3. Take a label from a medicine or food container. Have the students read the directions, give them the directions in a scrambled list and have them sequence the directions. (sequence)*
4. Give the students a copy of the want ads. Ask them to find a given object that fits a specific description. (note details and recall facts)*
5. Use a selection - perhaps from a newspaper - which gives information relative to registering to vote, one's health. Have the students read the selection and then select, from five possible titles, a title that would be appropriate for the selection. (main idea)*
6. Use a newspaper article about a sports ~vent. Have the students read the article and based on the facts in the article, interpret what they have read. (interpret facts)*
7. Give the students copies of two different sales contracts. Ask them to list those things which are similar in the contracts and those things which are different.. (see relationships, compare and contrast)*

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Vocabulary Development

Concerning vocabulary development, the authors of A Synthesis of Research on Reading with Recommendations for Instruction in Georgia Schools stated that "Vocabulary knowledge has been shown to influence reading comprehension, but individual words have meaning only as they relate to other words and to ideas being expressed. Research generally has shown that being exposed to new words incidentally orthrough direct instruction helps increase students' vocabularies but that vocabularies grow more rapidly when at least some planned vocabulary instruction is provided and when students use words they are learning in their spoken and written discourse, and thus discover ways in which those words communicate meaning" (Hall, et al., 1978, p. 13). Providing a variety of vocabulary development experiences for students that emphasize usage (both oral and written) will insure that words will become a meaningful part of the students' vocabulary.
Among the vocabulary development skills that

might be appropriate for students to examine are the following. Multiple word meanings Technical vocabulary (specialized) Affixes Technical names (groups of similar items) Key words (signals) Local variations (slang) Symbols Connotative meanings Idioms Figures of speech (metaphor, simile and hyperbole) Pronouns Word origins
Source: Ohio Department of Education. The Assessment of Print Materials. Teaching Teen Reading Series. Columbus. Ohio. 1979.

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Sample Activities
Vocabulary Development

Objective The learner will use affixes to increase vocabulary development.
Activity From list of scrambled words, have students classify words according to family or affix. Write categories (as listed below) on the board. Have students discuss meanings of words and word parts. Write their answers next to the words. Students can use dictionaries to check their responses.
Prefixes
1. exclude (shut out) 2. exhale (breathe out) 3. export (ship/carry out) 4. exclaim (shout out) 5. expect (look out)
Suffixes
1. beautify (to make beautiful) 2. pacify (to make peaceful, calm) 3. rectify (to make right) 4. testity (to make(a), bear witness) 5. gratify (to make pleasing)
Families
beautify (to make beautiful) beauty (a thing or person having this quality) beautiful (having or full of beauty)
Have students find a synonym or make an antonym using words or roots from the above lists that would fit the sentence.
Examples I will correct my mistake. (rectify) The baby is fretful. Calm her. (pacify) Take a deep breathe of this fresh air. (inhale)
Objective The learner will use multiple meanings of words.
Activity On the board have a list of homonyms in one column and sample sentences in another column. The words and their meanings can be discussed prior to the activity. Then have students read

sentences and determine the correct word to be used in the sentence. Examples (a) coarse (b) course (c) breaks (d) brakes 1. The texture of my hair is (a). 2. This race (b) is very curvy. 3. The (d) on my car need relining. 4. During the meeting we will have two refresh-
ment (c).

Objective The learner will use word origins to increase vocabulary.

Activity There are many kinds of different and interesting jobs and job names, such as car hop, discjockey, meter maid or bag boy. Have students trace the origins of these coined words. Have students outline their information or organize their findings chronologically. Have them give oral reports using the outline form.

Objective The learner will acquire specialized vocabularies.

Activity Home economics, science or English classes provide opportunities for studying vocabulary and word names and origins in the content areas.

These categories suggest words that could be

studied.

Scie.ce

.a._ .a._ .a._ .a.._ Food

Cloth

People tech.olotn/

frankfurter linen

David Titan rocket

hamburger worsted Helen Atlas missile

sandwich cashmere Deborah retro rocket

pralines denim Patrick gyroscope

tangerine

lunar module

While studying word origins, discuss types of reference materials and the location of these resources.

Objective The learner will recognize local variations (dialects, slang) in vocabulary awareness.

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Activities 1. Have students read some interesting literary
works. Spin-offs frOIn reading could lead into interesting oral and written language activities. For instance, after reading Sheridan's play, "The Rivals," the origin of the word malapropism could be discussed. Activities could follow to demonstrate misuse of words.
Examples: Discuss emphasized words. What's wrong?
I am confidant that I can do the job. (confident)
The chairperson has much affluence upon his subcommittee. (influence)

Do you apprehend what I'm trying to say? (comprehend)
The criminal was comprehended. (apprehended)
2. Have students listen for misused workds (malapropismis) or transpositions of sounds in words (spoonerisms). The next day discuss any malapropisms or spoonerisms detected.
Example of spoonerism our dear old queen - becomes - our queer old dean.

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Functional Reading Skills

The necessity of specific reading skills to function adequately in the world outside of school can serve as a motivator for reading instruction especially at the high school level where relevance is a key issue. Educators must capitalize on the fact that students of all ages come in contact with symbols and words in situations other than in the classroom. We cannot assume that the reading skills previously taught in basal readers and other school books will automatically transfer to the varied reading contexts encountered beyond the school setting. To ensure successful reading in these outside contexts, we must include instruction and practice with reading materials that are part of the real world. Georgia's high school graduation policy (Georgia Board of Education Policy IHF) reflects and reinforces the position that the mastery of skills needs to be demonstrated in life role situations.
Functional reading includes knowing symbols and words to respond effectively to the complexities of daily living beyond the classroom environment. Functional reading skills are also called survival skills. life role skills or competencies, functional literacy and real world learning.
It is essential that functional reading skills be included within the total curriculum for all grades. In particular, grades 9 through 12 serve as a springboard from the classroom to the adult world. Many classroom activities should be grounded in life role situations for this transition to be smooth and successful for the student. Problem solving and career choices through repair manuals, job listings and employment applications should be emphasized.
The following objectives are listed under functional reading in the language arts section of the Essential Skills for Georgia Schools. It is suggested that objectives 1 through 4 be introduced in grades K through 4 and developed throughout grades 5 through 8. Many career education objectives are appropriate for K through 4; those listed under objective five, however, are more suitable for introduction at grade levels 5 through 8 and reinforcement at grade levels 9 through 12.

The learner will
1. interpret and use basic instructions and labeling information such as
recipes, clothing care instructions, owners' manuals for appliances, warning labels (poison control, electrical hazards), product contents and nutritional information, labels.
2. interpret and use procedures, forms, applications and agreements including those relating to money management (at a nontechnical level) such as
discount coupons, credit cards, banking procedures, payments and loans, change of address forms, social security card applications.
3. interpret and use various forms of written communication such as
directories, correspondence (business and personal), mass media (newspapers, magazines, advertisements).
4. interpret and use functional transportation information such as
routes, schedules, and timetables, signs, marquees and billboards, driver's manual, travel brochures.
5. interpret and use occupational and career information such as
job listings, paycheck stubs, salary schedule and benefits.
Students may encounter various materials in their daily experiences (such as contest/game rules, merchandise order forms, menus) which require specific skill instruction to ensure proficiency. The list above may include skills and materials which should be introduced at a more appropriate grade level than that indicated; it

82

may be necessary to tailor this list to meet the needs of particular students.
Effective reading of the materials suggested in this list requires many of the word recognition. comprehension and study skills that are taught as part of the developmental reading program. Many materials. however. present some unique demands to which students must be exposed in a systematic way.
Some of these unique demands include
Orientation Functional materials such as schedules and timetables often require other than the traditionalleft-to-right. top-to-bottom progression.
Specialized vocabulary Students must become familiar with the specialized words. abbreviations and symbols that are used in specific real world contexts.
Style Materials such as instructions. labels. billboards and brochures often do not follow the formal style of textbooks. Incomplete sentences. variations in the use of punctuation and capitalization (and sometimes spelling) are frequently present and may confuse the student.
Details Many functional reading materials such as recipes. instructions for appliance operation and assembly instructions contain information requiring careful. deliberate. word-by-word reading. Students must learn to adjust their reading styles and rates to ensure comprehension.
Context Many words stand alone or in very short phrases. Situational context rather than the traditional context clues will more likely be important. and the question. "What word makes sense in this situation?" may prove helpful. For example. the level of understanding of words such as "inbound" and "express." when reading transportation schedules or phrases such as "machine wash," "tumble dry-low" when reading clothing care labels is enhanced by introducing them in a situational context.
Functional reading materials used should emphasize actual real life materials. such as those students collect and bring to class. Kits. workbooks and spirit master sets are also available but should be screened carefully to be sure they represent real life situations. Motivational value

depends heavily on the real thing. Audiovisual materials such as transparencies or charts illustrating a sample form which students are learning to complete or a sample schedule which students are learning to interpret are useful when working with large groups. A copy of the actual form or schedule should also be provided so that each student can complete it or refer to it as instruction takes place. A listing of 155 suitable reading materials appears in Chambers and Lowry's The Language Arts: A Pragmatic Approach.
Emphasizing the teaching of functional skills ensures that curriculum specialists. administrators and teachers will include instruction in these skills in a student's regular educational program. Functional reading skills instruction must not be perceived or conducted as an isolated segment of the classroom educational program for numerous possibilities exist for integrating such instruction into the already existing curriculum. Content area materials provide appropriate opportunities for the teaching of functional reading skills. The social studies class presents opportunities to focus on transportation schedules and travel brochures. Health and science classes are appropriate places for examining product contents and nutritional information labels. Career and vocational exploration classes provide opportunities to examine the forms. applications and other reading demands related to specific types of employment.
Instruction may be adapted to coordinate with the classroom teacher's preferred organizational patterns. using individual. small group or large group methods depending on the learning styles of the students. Direct teacher instruction should be reinforced by various strategies such as guided seat work. self-directed learning. peer teaching and discussions. Reinforcement through learning centers should also prove effective. Emphasis should be placed both on comprehension of the information contained in the functional material and on applying this information to life-like situations. These procedures will encourage the student to see the relationship between what is learned and real world needs.

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Sample Activities
Functional Readin!J Skills

Objective The learner will identify new words through the use of context clues.
Activity Paste a label, assembly instructions or other materials with ample context on one side of a folder. Eliminate certain words from the label. On the other side of the folder list the missing words. Depending on the level of the students, a few additional words can be added to the list as foils to increase the difficulty of the task. Have the student choose the correct word for each blank by using the context. Discuss the function it serves in the sentence (i.e., noun, noun marker, verb, adjective) and the context in which it appears.
Objective The learner will identify the correct meaning of multimeaning words used in context.
Activity Underline multimeaning words contained in labels, newspapers and brochures. Provide students with several meanings for each word and have them choose the correct meaning according to the context in which they appear.
Objective The learner will place items into correct categories.
Activity Provide the students with several pages from the yellow pages of the telephone directory. Provide them with a worksheet containing categories such as edible goods, nonedible goods, services usually performed indoors, services usually performed outdoors. Have the student classify the businesses according to the categories. In some cases a business may fit in more than one category. As long as the students can logically defend their choices, their answers should be accepted.
Objective The learner will identify descriptive words and
persuasive techniques.*

Activity Have the students select several advertisements from different magazines. The students should underline the descriptive words used. Small groups of students should then discuss how certain words appeal to certain audiences and how this appeal is used to persuade consumers to buy a product.
Objective
The learner will identify specific facts and details.*
Activity For this activity each student needs a copy of the same TV listing section. The teacher or a student provides number clues orally and the listeners must scan to find the program which matches the clues. The clue is given only once. The following code should be used when giving the clues.
first number - day of the week (1-7) second number - a.m. or p.m. (1-2) third number - time of day fourth number - channel
For example, 3-2-8-5 is "The White Shadow" broadcast on Tuesday, 8:00 p.m. on ChannelS. The activity can be made into a bingo-type game. After the caller gives the clue, each player checks the listing and covers the name of the program if it appears on the card.
Objective
The learner will identify facts and opinions.*
Activity Choose newspaper or magazine ads and paste each one on a piece of tagboard larger than the ad. Select several words, phrases or sentences from the ad and write these on the tagboard.
Have the student select one or two ads, divide a sheet of paper into two columns, one labeled facts, the other labeled opinions. Then have student place the words, phrases or sentences in the proper column. Use words or phrases such as "our most exciting," "makes you feel rich," "13 inch wheels," "front-wheel drive," "a pleasure to drive," "comes in five colors."

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Adaptation For more advanced students, simply give them the ad and have them choose the words, phrases or sentences which express facts or opinions and place them in the proper columns.
Objective The learner will identify the main idea of a slogan.*
Activity Discuss the main idea of various slogans that students have learned in social studies classes. "Remember the Maine," is one example. Ask students to identify political slogans of the day and their main ideas. Relate the use of slogans to current advertising. Ask students to volunteer appropriate advertising slogans and paraphrase their main ideas.
Objective The learner will locate specific reference information.*
Activity Have individual students write a brief description of a situation in which a person would need to look in the yellow pages to obtain information. (An example might be that your car has a flat tire and you don't have a spare.) Students then exchange descriptions. Each student must identify a service needed (towing) and locate where that service can be obtained (John's Service Station 666-0000).
Objective The learner will compose a friendly letter.
Activity Provide students with a transportation schedule (bus, train or airline), the weekend entertainment section of the local newspaper and any travel brochures which describe attractions in the local area. The task is to write a letter to a friend who is coming to visit for a weekend. The letter will inform the friend of the times of departure and arrival and include a detailed schedule of the activities planned for the weekend, such as restaurants, movies and concerts.
Objective The learner will identify abbreviations used in content materials.
Activity Have students collect abbreviations found while reading content materials such as social studies

books or physical education material - Pres. (President), U.S.A. (United States of America), INT (interception), MVP (most valuable player.)
These items can be added to a graffiti board with the content area changed periodically.
Objective The learner will identify several careers relating to mass media and the accompanying responsibilities, benefits and shortcomings of each one.*
Activity Divide the class into small groups based on their interest in a type of medium such as the newspaper, radio, film or television. Have each group brainstorm a list of the people and jobs related to that medium. Plan field trips and interviews and provide various resouce material such as films, brochures, job application forms from which students can gather information. Each group should develop a method for sharing the information by posters or a skit.
Objective The learner will recognize information that might appear on a job application, verify that information and correctly complete the actual job application form. *
Activity Have students cut out job offerings from the classified section of the newspaper. Each group of students should select one ad and jot down information concerning job requirements. Then students should list what information might be asked for on an application form for this job. They could compose a letter to the company explaining the project and requesting a dummy application form or send an appropriate teachermade letter. The actual form and the students' list should be compared. Students can then use acetate sheets to complete the form individually.
Resources
Taylor, Nancy and Wynant, Priscilla. "Reading Logs Reflect Students' Real World Reading Needs." The Reading Teacher, vol. 32, no. 1, 1978, p. 7-9.
Chambers, Dewey Woods and Lowry, Heath Ward. The Language Arts: A Pragmatic Approach, Dubuque, Iowa: W. C. Brown Publishers, 1975, p. 219-225.

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Study Skills

Goal
Learning to read is of limited value if the learner is unable to apply this reading ability to the acquisition of new knowledge. Study skills acquisition will enable students to become more effective, independent readers and learners. The immediate goal is to provide the student with the skills necessary for satisfactorily coping with the study demands of formal schooling years. However, the ultimate goal of such instruction is not limited to school requirements but is concerned with information gathering. It is to produce an individual who is able to locate and organize information to satisfy his or her own curiosity about the world; i.e., an individual who has learned how to learn.
Study skills proficiency, however, does not occur automatically as students master word recognition and comprehension skills. The types of expository materials to which a student applies study skills have different demands than the narrative offerings that dominated the beginning years of the student's reading program. Therefore, provision must be made in the reading curriculum for direct and systematic instruction in the use of study skills as well as for structured review and maintenance activities.
Objectives
Instruction in the study skills begins as a part of the reading program in the primary grades and continues throughout the developmental reading program sequence, grades K-6 or eight depending on the reading series being used. In grades 9-12 the study skills should continue to be taught, extended, reinforced and refined not only in reading classes but also in content area classes.
The representative list of study skills delineated below are taken from the language arts section of The Essential Skills for Georgia Schools (Georgia Department of Education, 1980).
The learner will
demonstrate knowledge of alphabetic sequence.
alphabetize words up to the third letter.
locate information using a variety of sources such as

table of contents, page numbers dictionaries - guide, entry words glossaries indexes - key words, main and subtopics encyclopedia library card files (card catalogue, periodical files) catalogs newspapers, magazines thesauri Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature bibliographies.
demonstrate the ability to locate materials in a media center
use dictionaries for a variety of purposes such as
identifying word meanings, finding synonyms, identifying and interpreting phonetic respellings to aid pronunciation, selecting appropriate meanings of words in context
use titles, headings, subheadings and pictures to locate and preview information
adjust reading techniques and rate according to the difficulty of material and purposes for reading, rereading, skimming, scanning
use a variety of study techniques, e.g. survey, question, read, recite, review (SQ3R)
Materials
Most basal reading programs contain a reference and study skills strand as part of their scope and sequence of skills. This strand is a good beginning. A systematic approach to study skills instruction is also necessary in grades 9-12. Since the goal of this instruction is to produce the selfdirected learner who is able to locate and organize information independently for personal use, the treatment of study skills especially in grades 9-12 must be expanded to include practice and reinforcement with actual content area texts and reference materials. In such a context the study skills will actually serve a useful purpose as contrasted to the somewhat artifical world of the basal workbook page or duplicated worksheet. If not provided with many opportunites to practice and maintain a study skill after it has been intro-

86

duced, the student will probably never realize the extent of its usefulness, and, consequently, it will not become part of his or her repertoire of independent study techniques.
Audiovisual materials (films, filmstrips and transparencies) which demonstrate visually how to use certain reference materials such as dictionaries, encyclopedias and the card catalog are available. These are useful for group instruction since a visual aid can focus on a specific characteristic or component of material that is being discussed. However, the student should quickly be exposed to the actual material so that the necessary transfer of learning will take place.
Since each student who has been diagnosed as deficient in one or more of the study skills needs instruction in those skills regardless of his or her reading level, it is important that there be available in each classroom and media center sufficient reference materials written at a variety of readability levels. Material used for instruction should be at a level comfortable for students to handle. If the student has difficulty with the vocabulary or sentence structure because it is too advanced, more energy will be expended in trying to overcome these difficulties than to attending to the immediate learning tasks.
Procedures
The development and implementation of the study skills component of the curriculum should be accomplished through cooperative efforts of reading teachers, content area teachers and media specialists. Joint planning is important for several reasons. Reading teachers should be familiar with which content texts are being used so that they can develop exercises based on these texts; but it is just as important that content area teachers be aware of the scope and sequence of study skills and the time they are introduced in the reading program. Neither teacher should be solely responsible for teaching study skills. Both teachers should share this responsibility. The reading teacher may introduce and develop the study skills whereas the content area teacher may provide the opportunity for their practice, application and reinforcement.
Cooperative planning should eliminate considerable confusion which can result from a student's being taught one method for previewing a text or for using an encyclopedia by the reading teacher and another method by a content area teacher.

Of course. there is more than one appropriate method for teaching two skills, but being exposed to more than one method when learning a new skill can cause unnecessary difficulties for the learner.
The media specialist also plays a key role in the study skills program since the library/media center is a practical setting for applying many of the skills. Depending on the school's organizational structure, the media specialist may provide the initial instruction in certain informationlocating skills which can then be reinforced both in the reading and content area classrooms.
Whichever pattern the school chooses for study skills instruction. there must be a definite, structured program with shared responsibilities agreed upon by the reading teachers. content area teachers and media specialists.
It is important to diagnose student proficiency with study skills to determine instructional needs. There are several ways this diagnostic information can be obtained. Teacher observation when students are using textbooks, dictionaries, card catalogs and other materials requiring specialized skills is one of the most valuable ways to gain information concerning the students' strengths and weaknesses in applying study skills.
At the elementary and middle school levels, many of the reading series contain informal pretests designed to assess which students require instruction in a particular skill. At the high school level, commercial kits and spirit master sets contain exercises which can be used or adapted for preassessment purposes.
Another assessment method is for teachers to prepare their own informal tests using available content texts. For example, to assess a student's ability to use an index, the teacher can select a text which contains an index and prepare a set of appropriate questions such as. "Under which key word(s) did you look to find the pages containing information concerning the schools in Brazil?" "On which page(s) would you expect to find information about what products are exported by Bolivia?" "Where else should you look for information about cameras besides under the key word cameras? If sufficient copies of the text are not available for the entire group being tested, an acceptable though not preferred ahernative is to place a page of this index on a spirit master and provide each student with a copy.

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Whichever materials are used for diagnosis. it is important that their readability level be appropriate for the reading level of the students. If the readability level of the material used is too difficult. it will be hard to ascertain whether a student's poor performance on the test was the result of a deficiency in that particular skill or was caused by his or her inability to read the questions or the material on which the questions were based.
The Georgia Criterion-referenced Tests contain objectives which assess study skills mastery. Those objectives and test results could provide useful information for teachers.
Some standardized tests include a section called work-study or reference skills. If your school system administers such a test. and if the results are reported in such a way that they can be analyzed relative to an individual student's performance on a specific skill. it may provide valuable data which can be used for diagnostic purposes.
Once the initial study skill needs of students have been evaluated through a combination of the above described means. the teacher may want to record them on a chart indicating which students have mastered which skills. This chart can serve as the basis for forming skills groups for instruction.
Diagnosis should not stop with this initial study skills assessment. Teacher observations of student performance during instruction as well as student responses on worksheets should serve as data sources for diagnosis.
Instruction in the study skills can easily be coordinated with the classroom teacher's preferred organizational patterns. It can be accomplished through individual, small group or large group methods. Depending on the learning styles and abilities of the students. direct teacher instruction followed by guided seat work or selfdirected learning at learning centers will prove effective.
Whichever instructional strategies are used, the following suggestions should be considered in relation to maximizing the conditions for learning to occur.
The instructional process should include a discussion of the practical reasons for learning the skill, an explanation of how to use it and a demonstration of its use. Once this initial instruc-

tion has taken place, it is essential that opportunities be provided for practice of the skill using actual textbooks and reference materials so that transfer of the learning occurs. One method of accomplishing this is to ask the students to bring a content text to reading class and have them practice using the book. This procedure will eliminate problems similar to that of the student who is able to work out correct solutions in a workbook consisting of sample lines from an index but who does not know how to use a real index. The use of these real materials will allow the student to get one step further than with the workbook or worksheet. The student can actually verify whether the page(s) identified through use of the index as containing the information asked about, do, in reality. provide this information. Such activities should help motivate the student to want to become proficient in the use of the skill because they emphasize to the student the skill's usefulness in relation to a real learning context.
However, even this practice is not sufficient to develop within the student the habit of applying these skills when independently searching for information. Continued use of these skills in content areas such as science, social studies or literature is necessary if the student is to reach the goal of independent application. Content area teachers are not expected to provide the same type of structured. indepth instruction that the student receives in reading class, but these teachers should take advantage of opportunities to illustrate the proper use of their textbooks. For example. during the study of energy in science class. a question may be asked which requires a comparison of various sources and uses of energy which were studied previously. Some students are having difficulty recalling enough information concerning energy to answer the question. Rather than allowing the students to flip through their text until they locate the correct section on energy. this is an ideal time for the teacher to remind the students that using the index is the most efficient way to determine where in the text the information is found. The students can also be reminded that when they turn to the correct page, it is unnecessary to read every word, but that it is more appropriate to scan to find the desired information.
The content area teacher should also make project assignments which help to underscore the functional uses of certain reference skills and

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which serve as meaningful gUided practice. For example, a social studi~s teacher may assign a research project while the class is working on a unit related to the Revolutionary War. The students should, with the teacher's help, make a list of the various reference aids. such as the card catalog, bibliography, encyclopedia and the Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature, that are available to help them complete their assignment. While observing the students as they work, the teacher can make suggestions concerning the proper use of these reference aids.
When grouping students for such projects, one factor to be considered is the grouping of students who have developed proficiency with study skills with students who have not yet reached an acceptable level of performance. The former can serve as a resource and model for the latter.
The beginning of a new chapter in a content text is the perfect place to remind students of the value of previewing and applying a study method such as SQ3R. If the teacher emphasizes how helpful SQ3R will be in reading and retaining the information contained in the homework assignment, students should be anxious to master the technique.
An efficient method of providing study skills instruction to students of various reading abili-

ties is to group students on the basis of specific needs. The initial oral explanation of the reasons for learning the skill and how to use it should be spoken in language the average student in the group can understand; but the written examples used to demonstrate application of the skill should be selected with the poorest readers of the group in mind. In the guided seatwork activities that follow, materials are matched to each student's reading level. For example, if students are being instructed in how to use guide words in a dictionary, the words used as examples would be familiar to the poorest readers in the group. This would not adversely affect the accomplishments of the better readers because the principle being taught is the same no matter which words are used as examples. When the students are given follow-up practice activities using the dictionary or duplicated pages adapted from the dictionary, the levels of the dictionaries may be matched to the reading levels of the students.
If learning centers are used for independent skills instruction or for skill reinforcement, they should follow this same principle. A learning center on dictionary skills should use dictionaries with corresponding worksheets appropriate to various reading levels. A color-coding system might be used so that each student could locate the correct materials for his or her level.

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Sample Activities
Study Skills

Objectives
The learner will
use a dictionary to determine abbreviations.
use a dictionary to determine correct spellings.
Activities
1. Present students with abbreviations which are commonly used in the dictionary (n., irreg., pI., vt., syn., obs.. fr., sing). Provide students with sample dictionary pages. Have the students locate entries that contain these abbreviations and underline the abbreviations. Have the students find the key to the dictionary abbreviations and identify each abbreviation.
2. Provide students with sentences containing multimeaning words which are underlined. Have the students use the dictionary and identify the meaning by entry number (if word is a homograph), part of speech and meaning number, e.g. bank1, vt. 4.
Objective
The learner will use research techniques in the preparation of an oral report.
Activities 1. Have the students prepare and present an oral
report based on topics of their choice. The students should use reference materials in developing the report. To encourage listening, have several students in the audience tell one new thing they learned about the topic from listening to the report.
2. Decide on a research topic with a group of students. Give each student a specified amount of time to locate sources of information for the report. Have each student explain to the others why the specific sources were selected. Have the group decide which of the sources are best.
3. Have a student explain orally the steps in preparing a research report. Other students will listen to detect whether any steps were omitted.

Adaptation The same type activity could be used in describing the Survey, Question. Read. Recite, Review (SQ3R) method.

4. Provide students with exercises of the follow-

ing type. I had a pain in my

_

n e k s hoi' d e r e I' b o. The students

must choose the correct word for the sen-

tence using the dictionary respellings. The

student must then spell the word using stan-

dard orthography.

Objectives
The learner will
determine main headings and subheadings in an article.
use a table of contents.*
use SQ3R method to formulate questions.
Activities
1. Present students with an encyclopedia article. Provide the students with a skeleton outline of the article containing blanks for main headings and subheadings. The students should fill in the blanks.
Adaptations Depending on the level of the students, the main headings can be prOVided so that only subheadings must be filled in. Provide students with a mixed list of main and subheadings taken from an outline of an encyclopedia article. Have the students arrange these in appropriate outline form.
2. Provide students with the tables of content pages from several books. This can be actual tables of contents cut from old books or duplicated copies of tables of contents. Have the students classify the books as fiction or nonfiction. Under fiction the books might be classified into subcategories of fantasy and reality. Have students give reasons for classifying the books.
3. Using the SQ3R method, have students formulate questions from the subheadings in a chapter section. Have them read to see if the material contains the answers to their ques-

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tions. If it does, have them explain which references could be used to find the answer to the questions.
Objectives The learner will
Use a table of contents in functional materials.*
determine organization of functional materials.
Activities
1. Have students use the table of contents ofthe Georgia Driver's Manual, the newspaper or any other functional reading material which contains a table of contents and answer questions such as the following. "On what page does the chapter begin that would probably tell what the solid yellow center lines mean?" "What is the title of the chapter that would probably contain information concerning what types of questions you can expect on the test?"
2. Use functional reading materials with headings and subheadings. Have students predict what each section is about from the heading or subheading. Then have them read the section to test the validity of their predictions.
Objectives
The learner will
use reference material to prepare a written report.
determine multiple meanings of words.
Activities
1. Have students prepare a written report which requires using reference materials. Table of

contents, headings, subheadings, index and bibliography must be included.
2. Provide students with five or more multimeaning words. The students should then write a story using at least two of the meanings for each word. Encourage the use of the dictionary to look for uncommon meanings of the words.
3. Provide students with the index from a book. Either use the book itself with the title covered or use a copy of the index. Have the students write down the subject of the book and think of a title for the book. The students should then look at the titles and table of contents for accuracy.
Evaluation Evaluation of progress toward study skills mastery can take several forms. One of the most effective is teacher observation as a student applies a skill in a realistic setting such as using the card catalogue in the library when doing research for a project. If documentation of skill mastery is desired, informal tests similar to the pretests described earlier can be used for this purpose. The work-study or reference sections of standardized tests can also be used for the same purpose if the results are reported in a way that you can analyze them relative to performance on specific skills. The only disadvantage to these last two described data sources is that the administration of these tests is limited to a specific time of year so they cannot provide immediate feedback on progress.

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Appendix. A
Evaluating Speaking and Listening Skills in the Classroom

Communication does not thrive in a climate of evaluation. Presentation of self through speech is always extremely ego-involving and normal speech anxieties are heightened by testing. Oral style, which is so dependent on situation, audience and honest purpose, becomes artificial. Self-disclosure is inhibited. Meanings are distorted. Still, speaking and listening must be evaluated in some manner so that teachers can diagnose strengths and weaknesses, so that students can be aware of their successes and the routes to further growth, and so that oral communicaton can be legitimized for those who believe that educators are accountable for tangible outcomes. But in evaluating speech communication skills it is especially important to maintain a supportive climate, one in which students are encouraged to try out new communication behaviors without threatening their self-esteem. It is equally crucial that students feel they are communicating for genuine purposes, that the evaluation function is incidental to, and not the primary motivation for, interaction. Finally, feedback to students should be useful in guiding their further development. It should be concrete, primarily descriptive and include positive as well as negative remarks. The evaluator is a party to classroom communication and is therefore subject to limitations of his or her own communication skills. Evaluation might best be prefaced by, "This is what I observed your group doing," or "This is how I responded to your presentation."
Typically we think of speech evaluation in terms of teachers grading formal speaking assignments on some rating scale including criteria of pronounciation, standard usage, audibility, intonation and perhaps quality of written outline. This is too narrow a view in a number of respects since this typical speech assessment loses sight of the primarily communicative nature of the performance. We should try to define rating criteria in functional terms like appropriateness to audience, intelligibility and expressiveness. Also, criteria should go beyond elocution, should reflect that oral skills include ability in discovering, selecting and organizing supporting materials.

Evaluation of oral skills need not be limited to formal public speaking. Especially in the elementary grades, students are not ready for this type of assessment. Although it may be easier to evaluate the extended noninterrupted discourse of public speaking, other classroom situations calling for evaluation include participation in small and large group discussions, role-playing interpersonal interactions (and other forms of dramatic improvisation), listening for various purposes and performance of social rituals. Not all evaluation need be teacher-centered. Peer evaluation reinforces the notion that the teacher does not solely comprise the audience. All audience members experience valid reactions. Selfevaluation encourages students to introspect and to apply communication principles in personally meaningful ways.
Finally, not all oral activities need be evaluated in a formal manner. Some assignments, even formal public speaking assignments at the secondary level, can be left upgraded. Often a teacher may discuss the class' performance in general terms rather than directing evaluation to individuals, and may discuss the class' performance in purely descriptive terms with no evaluative tone.
The suggestions and examples on the following pages illustrate these various approaches to evaluating speaking and listening. In using these illustrations, teachers will need to adapt them to grade and ability level.
A. Listening 1_ Standardized Tests. A number of com-
mercially published tests of listening ability are available. Among these are the Brown-Carlson and the STEP Listening tests. Often a unit which sensitizes students to the need to listen actively will result in gains on such evaluation instruments.
2. Listening/or Comprehension. Teachermade tests of listening comprehension are easy to construct. At the upper grades these

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can be administered in conjuction with lecture materials. Frequently film and film strip teacher guides include comprehension questions. If students are presenting informative talks. it is a good idea to ask them to construct their own comprehension quizzes. Their fellow students' accuracy will serve as useful feedback concerning the speaker's effectiveness. It is helpful to offer instruction in notetaking along with pratice in listening for comprehension.
3. Listening to Distinguish Facts from Opinions. A typical newspaper editorial will contain both facts and opinions. Read an editorial aloud and ask students to identify each sentence as fact or value judgement. Sports reporting often blurs the distinction. Here, vivid adjectives and verbs may evalua tively color accounts of events: One way in which factual accounts are distorted is by the inclusion of unwarranted inferences. Critical inference tests such as that in Example A can assess students' skills at distinguishing fact from inference in narratives.
4. Listening for Speakers' Attitudes. Students should be able to identify a speaker's point of view in public discourse. Locate a tape of Roosevelt's "Four Freedoms" speech. a videotape of the 1960 Nixon-Kennedy debates or a recording of Martin Luther King Jr:s "The Nonviolent Method:' Ask students to identify the speakers' points of view on the various issues they are discussing. Ask students to extrapolate how these speakers would react to various current events. When students are delivering persuasive presentations, ask audience members to identify their theses as specifically as they can. Student speak ers may be surprised to learn how often their peers have misinterpreted their claims. In interpersonal interaction. when we listen for speakers' attitudes we are trying to listen emphatically. Students should be able to practice such techniques of emphatic listening as reflecting feelings and paraphrase ("What I hear you saying is ... "). The empathy test illustrated in Example B is suitable for high school students. but has been simplified for use by students as young as fourth grade. The students engage in a conversation about favorite movies or the like for about 10 minutes before marking the scales.

5. Listening to Evaluate Ideas. As students engage in discussion. listen to prepared presentations or receive broadcast messages. they should be able to judge the validity of the many persuasive appeals they encounter. This type of listening is important for at least two reasons. First, students need to learn to defend themselves intellectually from inflated claims and propaganda. In addition to engaging in such defensive listening. students need to be able to listen to evaluate ideas so they can participate constructively in group discussion. One typical failure of classroom discussions is that individuals are eager to offer their own contributions without acknowledging or following up the ideas of their classmates. In some methods of conflict resolution. participants must state their opponent's point of view to the satisfaction of their opponent and identify points of agreement before offering a new argument or proposal. This is a workable system for many types of classroom discussions. as well. Since the mass media are major sources of persuasive messages in our society. students should dE'lllorastrate skill in analyzing and evaluating broadcast advertisements. Bring in videotapes of television advertisements or secure films of CLEO Award winning advertisements. In the primary grades, students should be able to distinguish advertising from program content and recognize the persuasive intent of commercials. In middle school. students should be able to name several basic advertising strategies (bandwagon. testimonial, glittering generalities).
6. Listening for Aesthetic Appreciation. Much literature is written to be read and heard. This is true of a good deal of poetry and drama. Younger students enjoy listening to stories told or orally interpreted from text. So do older students. A teacher who reads well may find that students are eager to complete assigned work if they know that odd minutes before the bell rings will be spent in listening to literature. Tape recordings of radio theatre ("The Lone Ranger" or "War of the Worlds"). recordings of authors reading from their works or recordings of actors interpreting prose are available. Evaluating students' responses to aural literature centers on their degree of engagement. empathy for characters and ability to relate themes to their own lives.

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Example A
Observations, Assumptions and Inferences Worksheet
Teacher reads the following passage a'oud Harry got out of the sports car. The police officer approached him with a pad in one hand and pencil in the other. After talking with Harry for a few minutes, the officer wrote down the necessary information. Harry returned to the car, slammed the door and continued to school.
Students number their pages JJO. Based on the story above, are the following statements True (T), False (F) or Unknown (?).

T

F

? The police officer stopped Harry.

T

F

? The police officer approached Harry before he had a chance to get out of the car.

T

F

? The officer had a pad and a pen with him.

T

F

? Harry was driving his car.

T

F

? The man who talked with Harry was a police officer.

T

F

? Harry received a traffic ticket.

T

F

? Harry slammed the door of his car.

T

F

? Harry was angry.

T

F

? Harry went to work after talking with the police officer.

T

F

? Harry was traveling in a station wagon.

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Example B
Empathy Test Circle the answer that best describes how you feel.

A. This is how I perceived myself.
Happy 1 234 5 6 7 Sad Secure 1 234 5 6 7 Insecure Calm 1 234 5 6 7 Excited Tough 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Gentle Open 1 234 5 6 7 Guarded

C. This is how I perceived my partner.
Happy 1 234 5 6 7 Sad Secure 1 234 5 6 7 Insecure Calm 1 234 5 6 7 Excited Tough 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Gentle Open 1 234 5 6 7 Guarded

B. This is how my partner perceived me.
Happy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Sad Secure 1 234 5 6 7 Insecure Calm 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Excited Tough 1 234 5 6 7 Gentle Open 1 234 5 6 7 Guarded

D. This is how my partner perceived himself or herself.
Happy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Sad Secure 1 234 5 6 7 Insecure Calm 1 234 567 Excited Tough 1 234 5 6 7 Gentle Open 1 234 567 Guarded

Instructions for obtaining score
1) Compare your D predictions with your partner'. A, Find the numerical differences for ratings on each of the five lines. Find the sum of these differences. 2) Compare your B predictions with your partner'. C. Total the differences as before. 3) Add the sums from steps (1) and (2). A small numerical value tends to indicate a high degree of empathy. Discuss with your partner possible reasons why each of you received the scores you did.
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7. Listening to Identify Sounds. In kindergarten and first grade it is wise to devote some attention to sound discrimination. Teachers can create their own tapes of common sounds or buy commercially available sets. For example. students can practice counting by listening to the sound of footsteps on dry leaves. Or students can demonstrate their knowledge of "safety sounds" by identifying a police officer's whistle. a fire engine siren. an auto horn, etc. Practice in discriminating speech sounds. - especially common articulation errors such as Ir/. III. lsi and Ithl is also helpful. Notice that evaluating speech sound discrimination is not equivalent to assessing reading phonics skills. In teaching speech sounds, no graphemic representations are provided. Instead. students may learn to associate a picture of Sammy the Snake with the snake hissing sound or Rudy the Race Car with the motor sound.
B. Self as Communicator J. Communication Apprehension. Anxiety
about oral communication is a personality trait with far reaching consequences. About one in five adults experiences communication apprehension to such a degree that it negatively affects their academic success. choice of career and sometimes influences their choice of mate. Communication apprehension is a learned trait, and evidence points that it is learned somehow between kindergarten and third grade. Experts speculate that students learn to withdraw from the risk of communication when they are punished for speaking up and rewarded for silence. It is important that students learn from an early age that it is normal to be fearful of some communication situations. but that they need not avoid interactions. This requires open discussion of communication fears. It is vital that teachers identify apprehensive students in the classroom. (Note: Reticence is a broader concept and may be due to hostility, uncertainty or other factors. The quiet child is not necessarily apprehensive.) Apprehensive students need especially tender care and should never be forced to speak. Some valid assessment instruments are available and may be used for diagnosis or simply as stimuli for classroom discussion. The "Measure ofElementary Communication Apprehension," shown in Exam pie C, may be read aloud with students

marking smiling. frowning or neutral faces to show their agreement with each statement. The "Personal Report of Communication Fear," presented in Example D, is intended for grades 7-12.
2. Daily Interaction. Students should be aware of their daily interaction patterns and assess their own effectiveness as communicators. Students at all grade levels can keep a "conversation diary." In the primary grades this may take the form of a picture book with students drawing and perhaps labelling their various daily conversations. For older students, logging and reflecting on conversations should be encouraged as a regular part of journal writing. From time to time, remind students not to harp on the more negative interactions, as we all are wont to do. Students in early adolescence are beginningto form self-concepts and this is an especially important time to stress the role of communication in daily life. For it is primarily by seeing how others react to us that we get a feel for who we are. The family is a fundamental interaction unit and students at all ages can begin to understand how their families work by analyzing conversations among family members.
3. Communication in Careers. In exploring and choosing career options, students need to be especially aware of the role of communication in work. Some jobs. such as attorney or teacher, are transparently and exclusively careers in communications. Some jobs, such as physician or auto mechanic, require communication skills for effective functioning. Still other careers, such as interior decorator or police officer, are essentially communications oriented, but are rarely thought of as such. Students can choose and prepare for careers more wisely if they are aware of the roles of communication in the world of work.
4. Consumer of Mass Communications. For many Americans, the role of mass communication receiver is significant both in terms of our lifestyles and our personal development. Yet for students who may spend up to 40 hours a week viewing television alone, the immersion in mass communication is taken for granted and the significance of this role is rarely appreciated. Students need to evaluate their exposure to mass media and the effects this type of communica

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Example C
Measure of EleDlentary CODlDlunication Apprehension IteDls Refer to Subsequent Tables

QO

very happy I like it a lot.

happy I like It.

no feelin. I don't care.

unhappy I don't like it.

1. How do you feel when you talk to teachers or your principal? *2. How do you feel about talking to someone you don't know very well? *3. How do you feel when you hold something and talk about it? 4. How do you feel about talking to people who aren't close friends? 5. How do you feel about talking when you have a new teacher? *6. How do you feel about talking a lot when you are on a bus? 7. How do you feel when you are picked to be a leader of a group? *8. How do you feel about talking a lot in class? 9. How do you feel when you talk in front of an audience? 10. How do you feel about talking to other people? 11. How do you feel about trying to meet someone new? *12. How do you feel after you get up to talk in front of the class? 13. How do you feel when you know you have to give a speech? 14. How would you feel about giving a speech on televisibn? 15. How do you feel about talking when you are in a small group? *16. How do you feel when you have to talk in a group? *17. How do you feel when the teacher calls on you? *18. How do you feel about talking to all of the people who sit close to you? 19. How do you feel when the teacher wants you to talk in class? *20. How do you feel when you talk in front of a large group of people?

Q
very unhappy I really don't
like it.

*ltems with asterisks were responded to with the faces in reverse order.
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Example D

Penonal Report of Co anicadon Feu

Verbal Acdvity Scale
YES yes ? no NO YES yes ? no NO YES yes ? no NO YES yes ? no NO YES yes ? no NO YES yes ? no NO YES yes ? no NO YES yes ? no NO YES yes ? no NO YES yes ? no NO YES yes ? no NO YES yes ? no NO YES yes ? no NO YES yes ? no NO YES yes ? no NO YES yes ? no NO YES yes ? no NO YES yes ? no NO YES yes ? no NO YES yes ? no NO

1. Talking with someone new scares me. 2. I look forward to talking in class. 3. I don't like it when it is my turn to talk. 4. I like standing up and talking to a group of people. 5. I like to talk when the whole class listens. 6. Standing up to talk in front of other people scares me. 7. I like talking to teachers. 8. I am scared to talk to people. 9. I like it when it is my turn to talk in class. 10. I like to talk to new people. 11. I enjoy talking. 12. Most of the time I would rather be quiet than talk. 13. Other people think I am very quiet. 14. I talk more than most people. 15. Talking to other people is one of the things I like the best. 16. Most of the time I would rather talk than be quiet. 17. I don't talk much. 18. Other people think I talk a lot. 19. Most people talk more than I do. 20. I talk a lot.

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tion has on them. To become aware of their media use. student.s may participate in a "media withdrawal" exercise. Students spend a day or a weekend free of print and electronic media. Beware of violent reactions from students whose fundamental lifestyles are threatened by this activity. Afterwards. discussion centers on heightened sensitivity to their own and others' use of mass media. on how students felt during withdrawal. on the difficulties in this society of isolating one's self from seemingly omnipresent mass communication messages and on how students otherwise occupied their time and minds. Other ways of sensitizing students to their use of mass media include media logs (recording time. location. content of diary fashion), and media inventories. one of which is reproduced in Example E. Once students are attuned to their media habits. they can begin to explore how their lives and attitudes are affected by this exposure. Sometimes a comparative approach may help lend perspective. Introduce students to examples of popular culture current two decades ago and ask if students a generation back might differ from today's youngsters because of their different mass media exposure. Discussion of mass communication effects can pertain to three areas - use of time (time spent with mass media as opposed to interacting with family and friends. developing hobbies. studying; time spend viewing and listening as opposed to reading); interests and values (mass media models for ideal career. malefemale relationships. consumer goods. physical appearance. sex roles. interaction styles; have mass media extended student interests by giving entry to a "global village"?); and intellectual functioning (attention span. perseverance or easy frustration in acquiring knowledge. analytical skills. range of knowledge).
5. Classroom Communicadon. Achievement in school. and pleasure in school. is a function of verbal interaction. The class is a community - what does the student contribute and what does he or she reap from this community? Students should be encouraged to evaluate their participation in large-group discussion focusing on questions of attitude. topics and occasions that seem to bring out comments. listening habits. relationship to

mood and out-of-school concerns. relationship to homework and preparation. In addition to judging their own participation in the larger group. students should be given every opportunity to assess their own performances in communication exercises and in small group activities. If students criticize their own public speaking performances. they will probably acquire more insight than could be imparted by reams of teacher rating forms. They may also be more honest about their own shortcomings than most teachers can bear to be.
C. Oral Language
1. Speech Disorders. Classroom teachers cannot be expected to serve as professional diagnosticians or therapists. On the other hand. teachers are in the best position to screen dysfunctional speech and refer students for proper treatment. This is of particular importance in the early primary years. Certainly every student should receive routine hearing checks. But if students show repeated hearing difficulties due to infection. abuse or disease. the school nurse should be alerted. Expressive disorders are defined by three criteria. They render the student difficult to comprehend. They call attention to themselves rather than to the student's message. They make the student uncomfortable. Speech disorders most commonly encountered are dysfunctions of voice, of articulation. of fluency and delayed language development. Voice disorders of pitch (as in running up and down a musical scale when speaking) and quality (hoarseness) are often transitory. Also. young children may have some difficulty controlling voice volume. Students should have the opportunity to hear tape recordings of their voices and should learn not to abuse vocal apparatus. Consistent misarticulation, (e.g. substituting Iwl for Irl or III. "slushy" or whistled lsi) are common and usually outgrown by time the student reaches third grade. Persistent problems should be referred. Informal enunciation is an element of style, not an articulation disorder. (See following section.) Fluency disorders (stuttering and stammering) are serious because many can be prevented by avoiding over-correction in the elementary grades. Apparently some people are actually taught

100

Medium Books Newspapers Comic Books Magazines Pamphlets BroadsidelBWs Radio Recordsrrapes P.A. Announcements Muzak 1V Movies Others

Example E
Media Inventory

Titles

Type E I P TImes Used Place Used

Concurrent Activities

Comments

101

to stutter because parents and/or teachers call attention to natural hesitations and dysfluencies in speeth. Children then become overly conscious of their speech and have difficulty getting words out. For some reason, incidence of stuttering reaches a peak among fifth-grade boys. Don't tell students to choose their words before they speak. Don't tell students to speak more rapidly. Don't force a self-conscious person to speak. language delay (infantile vocabulary and syntax) may be due to lack of interaction or to emotional problems. In the first case, students will start to show great progress in kindergarten or first grade simply through exposure and interaction - so long as talk is encouraged in the classroom. In the case of speech delay due to emotional difficulties, professional help is required.
2_ Standard Dialect. Children come to school speaking the language variety of their regional, social and ethnic communities. It is wellestablished that no variety is any more logicalor communicatively efficient than any other. There is no convincing evidence that language variety affects learning to read or write, so long as teachers do not confuse spoken and written language (as in correcting oral reading pronunciation). Instead, our culture teaches us to associate status and positive values with the kind of speech typified by "Broadcast English." This presents a serious problem for teachers since we often expect nonstandard dialect speakersto perform poorly, and those expectations may become selffulfilling. But we all speak one dialect or another. Dialect, itself, is not cause for remediation or negative evaluation. Analyzing students' native dialects and comparisons with language variation around the nation may even be a fruitful avenue for instruction in language. The Linguistic Atlas of the Southeast is a valuable and useful source for teachers to use in this analysis and in discriminating genuine language problems from legitimate dialect variations.
3. Language Appropriateness. We sometimes want to teach our students to speak correctly. But what is correct speech? In some areas, in some situations, a person who speaks like a radio news announcer would be ridiculed and ostracized. No one speaks grammarbook English all the time. Even in teaching

we don't always speak in complete sentences. Surely it is unfair to evaluate student speech by criteria of correctness, criteria which are based on written language and not oral. But at the upper grades it is reasonable to evaluate student speech by criteria of appropriateness. Each of us controls a range of styles (also called "registers") which we select from in any particular communication situation. For example, we speak with different enunciation, vocabulary and syntax in front of class. in the teachers' lounge and yet differently at home with our families. Some of the factors affecting the appropriateness of our choice of style include topic of conversation (e.g baseball versus symphonic music); setting (cocktail party versus library); pnrpose (e.g., entertaining narrative versus academic exposition); and - perhaps most importantly - listener (child versus peer. small group versus assembly. friend versus stranger. boss versus colleague, celebrity versus neighbor). "Hey, Slick, ya wanna chow down?" may be an appropriate luncheon invitation for a close friend, but it would be highly inappropriate to address the School Board Chairperson in this manner. Recognize. however. that it would be equally inappropriate to invite your friend (unless done with humor) by uttering. "Pardon my interruption, Sir, might you be desirous of coordinating your midday repast with that of my own?" Grammatically correct but communicatively inappropriate. In teaching oral language we wish to expand our students' stylistic options and toinculcate criteria for shifting styles to adapt appropriately to communication situations. In assessing oral language, teachers need to d~ermine what level of language usage is appropriate for the particular assignment, and evaluate on that basis. Thus. a student who says ain't may be adapting appropriately if he or she is informally addressing an audience of peers. On the other hand, if the activity specifies a role-playing situation in which the student is interviewing for employment as a salesperson at a high-fashion boutique, ain't would rightfully incur negative evaluation.
D. Nonverbal Communication
It sometimes escapes both teachers and students that speech is more than language. Non-

102

verbal communication accompanies language and is an integral part of speech communication. Probably the most important point of evaluation in this area is that nonverbal signals ought to be consistent with language. Mixed messages are confusing and often have deleterious interpersonal consequences. Nonverbal signals often carry the relationship (as opposed to content) aspect of messages. They help us know how to interpret messages. They can also emphasize, illustrate, substitute (as in familiar signs for quiet, shop, etc.), and regulate the flow of conversation. There are six basic categories of nonverbal signals. Kinesic gestures include body posture, movement and facial expression. Eye contact is so significant in establishing relationships that it deserves singular attention. Through eye contact we acknowledge shared humanity, establish trust, express intimacy. Proxemic signals communicate by the use of space. We can distinguish between intimate, cordial and formal relationships by how we distance ourselves in conversation. Seating and furniture arrangement indicate relationships and can have profound effects on quality of communication. Touch is another important means for communicating relationships. Learning cultural meanings of touch is a major task for primary grade children. Paralinguistic signals include all oral sounds which are nonlinguistic. Among these are yawning, crying, sighing, intonation, volume, rate of speech, hesitations, hems and haws. Artifacts that we keep about us, our clothing, jewelry, cars, books and home decorations, are also means of nonverbal communication. In teaching and evaluating nonverbal communication, it is important to bear in mind that gestures such as laughter have universal meaning, but others, conversational distance for example, may be interpreted differently in different cultures.
E_ Role Playing and Dramatic Improvisation
Role playing and creative dramatics can be powerful instructional strategies as well as tools for personal growth, especially if used consistently from the early grades on. In a sense, all classroom exercises which are other than natural interaction require a suspension of reality and entail a degree of simulation. It is indeed difficult to know how to evaluate an imaginative performance. Certainly, it is defeating to allow evaluative purposes to overshadow students' joy in creative expression. Consider the following six evaluative criteria.

Does the student display the communication skills specified in the lesson's objectives? If the purpose of the role-play is to practice introductions of various degrees of formality, does the student demonstrate these behaviors?
Is the student actively involved in the performance? Does he or she get into the activity by participating with energy, by solving the communication problem creatively?
Is the student able to maintain concentration? In pantomiming a ball game, does the student jerk his or her hand back when catching the line drive? Does he or she see the scene so that one character does not set her or his elbows where another character has just placed the bowl of steaming porridge?
Does the student cooperate and interact with other players in planning and performing the scene? Does he or she feed lines to others (e.g., "So tell me about your day, John."), help others create their parts, (e.g., "You don't have to prove you're so tough. Let me help you carry that treasure.")?
When proper. does the student play to the audience? Without stepping out of character, does the student project loudly, allow the audience to view actions, avoid blocking other actors?
Can the student analyze the performances? Can she or he abstract and express the communication principles which were demonstrated in the improvisation? Are alternative scripts apparent? Can he or she explain what the characters were thinking, what guided their behavior at various points? Can students relate the improvised situation to events they may have experienced?
F. Small Group Discussion.
Small group discussion skills are useful in their own right and can be useful instructional strategies. Peer group evaluation of compositions has been found to be helpful. But many teachers have found that for students to work well in groups, they must receive deliberate instruction in group dynamics. Whenever groups are used in a classroom, it is worthwhile evaluating the quality of the group process. Example F lists some basic questions about group process that may guide such evaluation. Understanding small group

103

Example F
Questions 'or Group Communication Analysis
Important Note The purpose of this analysis is to describe your group's dynamics, not necessarily to evaluate.
1. How did the group go about biting into the task? Any initial procrastinating? Attempts at organizing members?
2. How did the group arrive at a problem solving strategy? Were alternative approaches (e.g., process of elimination, stating operating assumptions) discussed first? Any false starts? Any objections to the procedure finally adopted?
3. To what extent did the group engage in non-task oriented talk? At what point? Did this non-task oriented talk serve any function with respect to how the group was able to function in the task domain?
4. What kind of communication network operated? Were comments addressed to the group as a whole always, or occasionally to smaller factions? Did all members contribute comments equally?
5. What seating arrangement did your group assume? Any particular reason? Did the seating arrangement affect the flow of communication?
6. To what extent was disagreement voiced in the group? Did each member feel free to dissent? At what points in the discussion did you feel that further disagreement would be unwelcome or unwise? How did the group cope with conflict? Did the conflict help or hinder the final group outcome?
7. Did the group show signs of cohesiveness? How was this cohesiveness (or lack of it) established? How was it reinforced during the course of the meeting? Did you find a relationship between cohesiveness and conflict? Between cohesiveness and the final group outcome?
8. What role did each member play? Examples are experts. idea testers. switchboard operators. tension relievers. affect checkers, clarifiers, etc.
9. Was there any member perceived by others as the group's leader? Did this person perceive himlherself as leader? Were more than one leader evident? How were leadership tasks apportioned? In what sense did the leader lead? What were her/his contributions? Any relationship to expertise? Any relationship to seating arrangement?
10. Were both men and women present in the group? Did gender tend to affect the different roles assumed? Any relationship to the flow of communication or the degree of participation?
11. What was the group outcome? Did the group succeed at the task? Did the group succeed on the social dimension?
12. Was this a good task for your particular group to work on collectively? What were the costs of performing this task as a group as opposed to working as individuals? What were sources of members' satisfaction and dissatisfaction? Overall. what was the ration of costs to benefits in this communication event?
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communication entails synthesizing information concerning roles (more fine-grained than just one leader and several followers), norms for behavior (humor, expressing warmth), decisionmaking process (authoritarian leader, majority rule, consensus), interaction patterns (who speaks to whom) and outcomes (personal satisfaction, task success, group status, social success). Example G illustrates a self-evaluation form for group discussion. One system frequently used to represent group process is the Bales Interaction Process Analysis, consisting of six task-oriented categories and three positive and three negative group maintenance categories. As shown in Example H, participants or observers can rate each group member according to each type of behavior. Another method of recording group process is the communication network. Here, a line with an arrow is drawn from each name to each other member. When a participant directs a comment to one (or several) other members, an observer places a slash mark on the corresponding arrow(s). The flow of communication within the group thus becomes graphically apparent. When groups are assigned a joint project (panel discussion, group paper), the issue generally arises as to whether a single grade should be assigned to all group members. Under this system,
those who work hard carry the slouchers, and those who are less competent pull down those of high ability. One option is to assign both an individual and a group grade. However assigning a single group grade has the advantage of forcing the group to attend to its dynamics, rather than acting as a largely unrelated congregation of individuals. Groups should devote the last five minutes of each meeting to evaluating their communication. Structured methods of evaluation (e.g. process recording forms) should be used as often as possible. In any event, group members should be encouraged to write journal entries about each meeting. Outside peer observers should be used frequently, and the teacher should also conduct periodic unobtrusive observations.
G. Fonnal Public Speaking
1_ General Procedures. For many of our students an assignment to give a speech engenders more fear and loathing than a week of detentions. This reaction is due to a basic misapprehension about the nature of public speaking. Many of our students, who otherwise may be

competent talkers. fail miserably in presenting speeches. Often this is due to their attempting to conform to some distorted stereotype of oration. Formal public speaking is simply an area on the same dimension as interpersonal communication. albeit closer to the pole of formality. In fact, a speech is sometimes characterized as extended conversation. Formal speeches are planned, but they do involve improvisation. They are structured. but so are interviews. They allow limited audience interaction. Discourse is sustained. but audiences do provide meaningful feedback through nonverbal channels. Thus, public speaking builds upon interpersonal skills and, above all, it is an act of authentic communication, person to persons. Especially in the lower grades public speaking need not require students to stand before the audience nor to conform to rigid organizational patterns. Helpful evaluation of formal speeches shares some characteristics with writing eval uation. It should accentuate the positive. go beyond mere ratings or letter grades to include detailed comments justifying reactions. include more description than evaluation, and be returned to students soon after the speech for maximum reinforcement. Evaluating speeches requires great concentration and is among the more exhausting pastimes known to education. Peer evaluation is critical to help legitimize the larger audience for the speaker and also to emphasize the responsibility of listeners. Many teachers will stop after every few speeches to solicit audience comments. Students must learn that they are not a wolf pack intent on tearing apart their peers, that they are a team working together to improve speaking skills. Speakers should also receive written feedback. from both teacher and peers, to which they may refer in preparing their next presentation. On peer feed back forms, you should identify the topic as specifically as you can, such as one area that most impressed me. one area to think about next time and how the presentation affected me. Teachers must develop feedback forms that are workable for them personally. The more specific and concrete the feedback. the more helpful it is. Example I presents a teacher feedback form which combines rating scales with open-ended comments. When possible. written feedback should be discussed in conferences. (Conferences are also important in the planning stages.)
2. Public Speaking Evaluation Criteria. Public speaking encompasses the entire realm of

105

Example G
Self-evaluation for Group Discussion

This is how the poup operated.
1. We felt comfortable in the group. 2. We were interested in accomplishing the
task. 3. We encouraged everyone to participate. 4. We welcomed all ideas. 5. We all participated equally. 6. We listened carefully and made sure we
understood each persons ideas. 7. We had an acknowledged group leader. 8. We were satisfied with the way in which we
accomplished the task. 9. We were satisfied with the feeling of friendli-
ness between members. 10. We accomplished this task more success-
fully as a group than we could have as individuals.
This is how I operated within the poup. 1. I felt comfortable in the group. 2. I was interested in accomplishing the task. 3. I participated as much as the. others. 4. I was the acknowledged leader. 5. I was satisfied with the group's leader. 6. I was better off working with a group on this task than I would have been had I worked alone.

Strongly Agree

Agree

Di.agree Strongly Di.agree

106

Example H.
Adaptation of Bales Interaction Process Analysis

Rate each member as foUows. I-never, 2-sometimes, 3-usually

Members

Behaviors shows solidarity shows tension release agrees shows antagonism shows tension disagrees gives suggestion gives opinion gives orientation asks for opinion asks for suggestion

107

rhetoric. Aristotle's five Canons are still serviceable. Invention includes ~iscovering, researching and selecting ideas. An important part of speech instruction is educating students in methods of elaborating and supporting their ideas. Arrangement refers to organization skills. Often public speaking is the place where students learn how to prepare outlines, but it is most important to stress the function of outlines rather than their form. Style is a tool for effectiveness and also a means for establishing a personal relationship with an audience. Delivery focuses on the specific linguistic and nonverbal devices used to express the message. Delivery should be natural and consistent with the student's personality, the occasion and the purpose of the speech. Nonverbal signs - hand gestures, facial expression, voice intonation, loudness, rate, posture and eye contact - should not be histrionic but should reinforce and emphasize the message. "Memoria," the fifth Canon, does not translate easily but generally refers to the speaker's control over the entire presentation. In situations other than oratorical contests students should be discouraged from memorizing their speeches (or composing a written text). Still, the speaker must be familiar with the sequence of ideas, with the types of support he or she can draw upon. The student should have more information available than he or she plans to use, information which can be spontaneously inserted in response to the audience's nonverbal feedback. Some more specific criteria are listed in Example J. Students may even have a hand in developing the points of evaluation they consider important. "Appropriateness to audience" relates to the speaker's attempts to interest and involve listeners and to use information and appeals meaningful to the audience. A pre-

sentation is "appropriate to purpose" if it conforms to the assignment (persuasive, demonstration, visual aids), stays within reasonable time limits, and maintains proper focus (topic and point of view are well defined). "Progression of ideas" should be logical and is most effective if organizational cues like transition statements and internal summaries are used. In persuasive speeches, students should include a section in which they anticipate and refute reservations to their arguments. (This is a worthwhile goal for the elementary grades.) "Support" is an an~a which troubles many students. After making an assertion, they have difficulty knowing what else to say; it is not obvious to many that their audiences need elaboration, illustration, explanation.
As discussed in the previous section on "Language Appropriateness", standards for judging "language effectiveness" in speech are different from those in writing. In fact, students may be penalized for using written texts. While notes are essential, manuscript reading is an advanced art. Manuscripts hinder spontaneity, relation to audience, and generally reduce sincerity conveyed by spoken delivery. This is equally true of memorized texts. True, students feel more secure with written or memorized texts. In fact, though, there is no substitute for thorough preparation and familiarity with material, for if a speaker loses his or her place in a memorized speech, it is very difficult to recover. The final criterion in Example I, "projection of personality." emphasizes to students that they must establish a personal bond or tone with the audience, reinforces the notion that public speaking is not some artificial form but a genuine act of communication.

108

Example I
Speech Feedback
Rate the speech on a scale of 1 to 5. (1 = you forgot this and 5 = you did this superbly)
12345 Appropriateness to audience Appropriateness to purpose Introduction Conclusion Progression of ideas Support Language effectiveness Voice rate Voice volume Voice intonation Eye contact Gestures and movement Projection of personality
One aspect to think about especially for the next presentation
One aspect that especially impressed me during this presentation

Grade

_

109

Appendix B
Learning Environment Checklist Rank yourself on a 1-5 continuum, 5 being the highest ranking.

In my classroom

1

2

3

4

5

1. Many types of books are available for browsing and reading-fiction and nonfiction.
2. Interest centers are available.
3. A library corner is provided.
4. Students have access to tapes and records that accompany books.
5. Reading material other than books is provided.
6. Films and filmstrips are available.
7. Creative materials are available for per-
sonal interpretation.
8. Research opportunities are provided.
9. Space is allocated for oral activities (readers'
theatre, choral speaking, playacting) so as not to interfere with silent reading or listening activities.
10. Tapes are provided so that students may listen to their own stories or their oral reading experiences.
11. A quiet corner is established where students
may write, read, think.
12. Bulletin boards enhance the learning environment.
13. Charts are used both as a means of improving the classroom living and also as a vehicle to improve reading skills.
14. Space is available for creative sharing of books.
15. Learning centers provide reinforcement of learned activities through independent work.

Source - Cuny. J. "How Am I Doing? Assessing the Components of a Managed Curriculum." Diane Lapp, editor. Making Reading Possible Through Effectille Classroom Management. Newark. Delaware: IRA. 1980.
111

Appendix C
Selfevaluation Checklist for Classroom Teachers Rate your present skill or knowledge for each of the following aspects of teaching reading.

Yes
1. I understand the processes involved in reading comprehension.
2. I know a variety of methods or reading instruction - the strengths and needs of each method.
3. I know my role as teacher in the learning process. 4. I understand the sensory and perceptual factors that
affect the reading ability of the student. 5. I understand the cognitive factors that affect the reading
ability of the student. 6. I understand the language factors that affect the reading
ability of the student. 7. I understand the socioeconomic factors that affect the
reading ability of the student. 8. I understand the concept of readiness at all levels. 9. I understand the importance of motivation in helping
students learn to read. 10. I know books that should be read to students. 11. I know how to read aloud well. 12. I have enough knowledge about children's literature to
be able to buy appropriate books for my classroom. 13. I know how to establish a reading center or corner. 14. I read aloud to my students every day. 15. I know how to assess my students attitudes toward
reading. 16. I know many ways that students can share books with
one another. 17. I know how to involve students in dramatic play. 18. I know the processes involved in developing listening
skills. 19. I understand the interrelatedness ofthe language arts. 20. I know the processes involved in developing speaking
skills. 21. I understand the use of syntactic cues which allow
students to understand word arrangements. 22. I understand the use of semantic cues which enable
students to understand the meaning of texts.
113

SOlDewhat.

but I need

No

lDore infor-

lDation

23. I know sight word strategies for analyzing unknown words.
24. I understand the role of structural analysis strategies in word recognition.
25. I understand the role of contextual analysis strategies in word recognition.
26. I understand the role of questioning in the development of reading comprehension.
27. I know the study skills.
28. I can help students learn to use study skills effectively.
29. I know the skills common to reading in any content area.
30. I understand the interrelatedness of reading and mathematics. reading and social studies. reading and science. and reading and music and art.
31. I know the historical overview of reading instruction in the United States.
32. I understand the special needs of bilingual and Englishas-a-second-Ianguage students.
33. I understand the linguistic influences in second language teaching.
34. I know the most appropriate methods of diagnosing the reading ability of bilingual and second language speaker.
35. I know methods to teach reading in the native language as well as reading in English.
36. I know how to determine the readability of printed material.
37. I know how to informally assess a student's achievement.
38. I know how to compute the reading expectancy levels of my students.
39. I understand the concept of thematic teaching.
40. I understand the techniques of grouping.
41. I understand the value of classroom management.
42. I can use a process of continuous evaluation.
43. I understand the value of sequencing instruction.
44. I know what the International Reading Association is and have read the publications of the organization.

Somewhat.

Yes

bat I need

No

more infor

mation

Source - Adapted from Curry. J. "How Am I Doing? Assessing the Components of a Managed Curriculum." Diane LapP. editor. Making Reading Possible Through Effective Classroom Management. Newark. Delaware: IRA. 1980.
114

Appendix 0
A Quick Checklist for Learning Centers

Do the Learning Centers
1. Provide activities to develop and enhance reading skills? 2. Provide opportunities for the students to reinforce a
previously presented skill? 3. Provide opportunities to listen to material being read aloud? 4. Provide the students with activities that will allow them to
practice their writing skills? 5. Provide the students with activities that will allow them
to respond creatively? 6. Provide opportunities for students to share their work with
their peers? 7. Provide activities which the students can do alone. in
pairs. in small groups? 8. Provide games which will reinforce formerly presented
reading skills? 9. Provide complete directions and materials so that confusion
and noise are kept to a minimum?

Yes

No

Source - Adapted hom Curry. J. "How Am I Doing? Assessing the Components of a Managed Curriculum." Diane LapP. editor. Making Reading Possible Through Effective Classroom Management. Newark. Delaware: IRA. 1980.
115

Appendix E
Learning Style Indicator
Read eaeh pair of atatements and mark the box next to the atatement that moat eloaely deacribea you.

1. I understand things better from a picture.
2. I look at charts and diagrams
before I read the written part.
3. I memorize things by writing
them out.
4. I like examples first, rules later.
5. I usually get more done when I
work along.
6. I enjoy doing a number of things
at the same time.
7. I usually ask "why" questions.
8. I prefer working quickly.
9. I answer questions quickly.
10. I take chances at making mistakes

00
00
00
00 00
00
00 00 00 00

I understand things better from some one telling me or reading about them. I read the written part before I look at the charts and diagrams. I memorize things by repeating them aloud. I like rules first, examples later. I usually get more done when I work with others. I prefer doing things one at a time.
I usually ask about facts. I prefer to work slowly. I answer questions carefully and slowly. I try to avoid making mistakes.

Soare. - Adapted from Diane Lapp and James Flood. Teaching Reading to Every Child. New York: Macmillan. 1978. p. 146.
117

Appendix F
SHent Reading Checklist

Students name
Material read Grade level of material read

Date

_

_

When reading si'ent'y. the student

Never Sometimes Always

D 1. Is distracted. D 2. Persists in endeavors. D 3. Moves lips. D 4. Reads at a rate commensurate with the purpose of reading. D 5. Exhibits smooth left-to-right ~ye movements. D 6. Exhibits effective eye hand coordination. D 7. Uses hand as a marker. D 8. Assumes a proper reading posture. D 9. Comprehends recall type questions. D 10. Displays adequate vocabulary skills. D 11. Can find main idea. D 12. Can skim to locate details. D 13. Can scan for particular items of information. D 14. Can follow the sequence of the story. D 15. Can follow directions. D 16. Exhibits competence in critical and creative thinking.

So_ee - Adapted from Curry. J. "How Am I Doing? Assessing the Components of a Managed Curriculum." Diane Lapp. editor. Making Reading Possible Through EffectilJe Classroom Management. Newark. Delaware: IRA. 1980.
119

Appendix G

Survey of Vocabulary skin.

Naftle of Student ______________________ Date

_

The student
1. Can define a word by example. 2. Can define a word by description. 3. Can define a word through comparison and contrast. 4. Can define a word by using a synonym or antonym. 5. Can define a word by apposition. 6. Can develop meanings for new words through experiences. 7. Can develop new meanings for known words through experiences. 8. Understands the connotation of words. 9. Understands idiomatic expressions. 10. Can use figurative language (similies, analogies, metaphors). 11. Makes use of context clues. 12. Understands compound words. 13. Can discriminate between/among homonymns. 14. Understands and can use prefixes. 15. Understands and can use suffixes. 16. Understands the root meaning of words. 17. Is aware of multiple meanings of words. 18. Understands concept of acronyms. 19. Can use the dictionary competently. 20. Can use a thesaurus.

VsuaUy Rarely Never

Source - Adapted from Curry J. "How Am I Doing? Assessing the Components of a Managed Curriculum." Diane LapP. editor. Making Reading Possible Through Effective Clossroom Management. Newark. Delaware: IRA. 1980.
121

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I

Appendix H
Readability Graph

Directions for using the Readability Graph 1. Select three one-hundred word passages from near the
beginning. middle and end of the book. Skip all proper nouns. 2. Count the total number of sentences in each one-hundred word passage. (estimating to nearest tenth of a sentence). Average these three numbers. 3. Count the total number of syllables in each one-hundredword sample. There is a syllable for each vowel sound. For example, cat (1) blackbird (2) continental (4). Don't be fooled by word size. For example. polio (3) or through (1). Endings such as -y, oed. -el or -Ie usually make a syllable. For example. ready (2). bottle (2). It is convenient to count every syllable over one in each word and add 100. Average the total number of syllables for the three samples. 4. Plot on the graph the average number of sentences per hundred words and the average number of syllables per hundred words. Most plot points fall near the heavy curved line. Diagonal lines mark off approximate grade level areas.

100 - word ..mple Page 5 100 - word umple Page 89 100 - word ..mple Page 160

9.1 8.5
-1!L
3) 24.6 8.2

......... Syu..........
122 140 129 3)39l 130

Plotting these averages on the graph we find they fall in the 5th grade area: hence, the book is about 5th grade difficulty level. If great variability is encountered either in sentence length or in the syllable count for the three selections. then randomly select several more passages and average them in before plotting.
The Readability Graph is aimed at the United States educational scene. The grade level designations are for America; the simplicity is a need that Fry felt was universal.

ShOll WOlds

Average number of syllables per 100 words

long words

108 112 116 120 124 128 132 136140 144 148 152 156 160 164 168 172

;.c..".:

25.0 20.0 16.7

.....~

a

14.3

"VI ~'" 12.5

~ 11. 1

o 10.0 o 9.2

~ 8.3

VI 7.5

-~ 7.1
~ 6.7 ~ 6.3
-= 5.8
~ 5.5

~ 5.3

~ 5.0

c: 4.8

~ 4.5

111

... ~ 4.3 <>t 4.2

:

4.0

i:::

3.8

..Dc.:.

3.7 3.6

V

.....~.......

....- l /

~

V

"' 2 V

V VV
I_V'" L....- V

~. V

V ...,...V
"" 1\ ""v .........

V

l7 V

V ",. I::

\

/

/

/

/

~

,

., ~p 'I'<

IllT

r. 10 , .... IC

I.. .r-

, '- / f' v'

/
~

""/'" /

VI

-/'

J

!!

II

/

~ [] 1/

/
/

II

/
,.,

/

I"iiiiO ~
1/

1/ ...... ~

I II

V

1/ I""'"p....

, . -""'1"- 9f7

[J

I

/

IV

/

., / rln I.- ~~

7

II

Source - Adapted from Fry, Edward A. "A Readability Formula That Saves Time." TheJoumal ofReading,lnternational Reading Association. 800 Barksdale Road, P.O. Box 8139, Newark, Delaware. 19711. Vol. XI. 1968.

The Readability Graph is not copyrighted. Anyone may reproduce it in any quantity as long as the source is cited.

123

Appendix I
Cloze Procedure

The doze is an assessment procedure whereby every fifth (or eight. or tenth) word is deleted from a section of text. with the student being required to complete each blank with the word that makes the most sense. given that context. The results give the teacher some idea of the general level of a student's comprehension of that text material, rather than information regarding the student's use of specific skills. Here is a detailed set of directions for constructing. administering and interpreting a doze test. fol- . lowed by an actual doze test constructed for use in assessing mathematical reading.
Directions
1. Select approximately 260 running words from required text material.
2. Print the first sentence in its entirety. unmutilated.
3. Select. at random. one of the next five words (i.e. one of the first five words in the second sentence). Delete this word and replace it with a blank of standard length. Continue to delete every fifth word until you have 50 blanks. End that sentence. Follow with a complete. unmutilated sentence.
4. Since most students will find the doze a new experience. it is important to explain the purpose ofthe test. and to precede its administration by one or two similar very brief and easy exercises. completed with teacher guidance and/or peer collaboration. Administration rarely takes more than 30 minutes.
5. Since the test is not to be graded or returned to the students. the easiest means of scoring is to avoid the search for synonyms. Rather. mark as correct only those words or symbols which are exact replacements according to the original text material. Multiply each correct replacement by two to arrive at percent correct.
6. Research has shown the doze to be a valid and reliable measure of reading comprehension.

As with any test. however. your interpretation of the scores is most important. The research suggests that doze scores of less than 30 to 35 percent are likely to indicate inadequate comprehension. while scores of greater than 55 to 60 percent are likely to indicate very high comprehension of the text in question.
7. Perhaps the best way to interpret your doze scores. however. is to organize them in a simple frequency distribution. i.e.. arrange the scores in order to show that so many kids got 10 percent. so many got 12 percent. so many got 14 percent. and so on. This kind of organization will give a more graphic picture of how well individuals and groups in a particular dass comprehended the test.
Note: In constructing the cloze test. some teachers use blanks of two standard lengths; for example. fifteen spaces for word symbols and five spaces for numerals and other mathematical symbols. Although this practice tends to give the reader additonal clues. its use is defended on the grounds that it preserves the appearance and integrity of mathemati cal writing. which normally includes numerals and other symbols throughout most printed passages. Also. in order to avoid confusion in identifying blanks (as opposed to lines separating fractions. for example). some teachers print all lines indicating a deletion in red .or some other color.
It is important to note that high scores on the doze test. while indicating probable high general comprehension of the passage in question. do not indicate the ability to perform at high levels in the model (e.g. problem solution). Nor do low scores necessarily indicate that a student can function only at low levels (e.g. perceiving symbols). According to the definition of reading used throughout this volume. since symbol perception is requisite to all comprehension. it is possible that a low score on the doze test may indicate the inability to perceive symbols accurately. Therefore. some teachers follow the doze test with a simple test of pronounciation for only those students whose scores on the doze are very low (i.e. below 30 to 35 percent).

Source - Richard A. Earle. Teaching Reading and Mathematics. Newark. Delaware: International Reading Association. 1976.

125

A Typical Mathematics Cloze Test

Our numeral system uses ten as its base. We are so familiar (""th) the base-ten system that (the) idea of using a (numeral) other than ten as (a) base might seem strange. (Yet), the Celts, who lived (in) Europe more than 2,000 (years) ago, probably used twenty (as) a base. Some Eskimo (tribes) even now, group and (count) by fives. Let us (suppose) that we take a (trip) into space and land (on) the mythical planet Septus, (",here) the inhabitants use seven (as) the base for their (numeral) system. If we study (the) numeral system used on (the) planet Septus, it will (help) to give us a (deeper) and more thorough understanding (oJ) our own base-ten system.

(!) (!)O@O (On) the planet Septus the (natives) use square coins.
Look (at) the coins shown and (note) how they are grouped (by) sevens. Here we see

c:u::>
00 0 0
00 00

00 0

00 "0

g0o o C1

(one) group of seven and (three) more. The

o

0

0

numeral that ('ndicates) this is 13 (seven).

The (numeral) 13 (seven) means "one group (oj) seven, and three ones." (Here) we see

three groups (oj) seven squares each, and (,",0) extra squares. The numeral that indicates

this is written 32 (seven) means" (three) groups of seven, and (,",0) ones." .

In our modern (decimal) system we do not (need) to write the base (because) everybody understands that the (base) is ten. For example, (in) the decimal system the (numeral)
"27" means two groups (oj) ten, and seven ones, (or) 27 = (2 x 10) + (7). However,
when we use (bases) other than ten, we (must) indicate the base that (",e) are using.
Note: Answers in parentheses. In our decimal system we use the 10 symbols O. 1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8. and 9.
Source - Mathematics: A Modem Approach by M. Peters and W. Schaff. p. 41. Copyright 1971 by Litton Educational Publishing. Inc. Reprinted by permission of Van Nostrand Reinhold Company.
126

Appendix J
Eishth Grade Criterion Referenced Test Objectives in Readins

Uteral Comprehension
The literal comprehension skill area tests the student's understanding of information explicitly stated in text. This skill area includes the following objectives.
Objective I The student distinguishes between fact and opinion in the context of academic, everyday, or employment materials. (Related BST indicator, Rdg 1)
Objective 2 The student recognizes explicitly stated main ideas, details, sequence of events and cause and effect relationships in the context of academic, everyday or employment materials. (Related BST indicator, Rdg 2)
Objective 3 The student interprets instructions in the context of academic, everyday or employment materials. (Related BST indicator, Rdg 3)
Inferential Comprehension
The inferential comprehension skill area tests the student's understanding of material that is not expressed literally in text. This skill area includes the following objectives.
Objective 4 The student recognizes implicitly stated main ideas, details, sequences of events and cause and effect relationships in the context of academic, everyday or employment materials. (Related BST indicator, Rdg 4)
Objective 5 The student interprets semantic and syntactic relationships in the context of academic, everyday or employment materials. (Related BST indicator, Rdg 5)

Objective 6 The student interprets figurative language in the context of academic, everyday or employment materials. (Related BST indicator, Rdg 6)
Objective 7 The student recognizes propaganda techniques in the context of academic, everyday or employment materials. (Related BST indicator, Rdg 7)
Problem Solvins
The problem solving skill area tests the student's skill at locating, interpreting and evaluating information.
Objective 8 The student uses reference sources in the context of academic, everyday or employment materials. (Related BST indicators, Rdg 8 and 12)
Objective 9 The student makes generalizations and draws conclusions in the context of academic, everyday or employment materials. (Related BST indicator, Rdg 9)
Objective J0 The student makes predictions and comparisons in the context of academic, everyday or employment materials. (Related BST indicator, Rdg 10)
Objective JJ The student recognizes relevance of data in the context of academic, everyday or employment materials. (Related BST indicator, Rdg 11)

127

Appendix,K
Basic SkiDs Test Reading Indicators

Uteral Comprehension The literal comprehension skill area tests the student's understanding of information explicitly stated in text.
This category requires the student to identify. interpret. and recognize explicit information and to follow directions in the context of academic. everyday. and employment situations or materials.
Indicator Cluster 1 The student distinguishes betweenjact and opinion in the context of academic. everyday or employment materials.
Indicator Cluster 2 The student recognizes explicitly stated main ideas. details, sequences oj events and cause and effect relationships in the context of academic, everyday or employment materials.
Indicator Cluster 3 The student interprets instructions in the context of academic. everyday or employment materials.
Inferential Comprehension
The inferential comprehension skill area tests the student's understanding of information which is not expressed literally in text.
This category requires the student to draw conclusions. make predictions. and recognize and interpret implicitly stated information in the context of academic, everyday. or employment materials.
Indicator Cluster 4 The student recognizes implicitly stated main ideas, details. sequences oj events and cause and effect relationships in the context of academic. everyday or employment materials.
Indicator Cluster 5 The student interprets semantic relationships in the context of academic. everyday or employment materials.

Indicator Cluster 6 The student interprets figurative language in the context of academic. everyday or employment materials.
Indicator Cluster 7 The student recognizes propaganda techniques in the context of academic, everyday or employment materials.
Problem Solving
The problem solving skill area tests the student's skill at locating, recognizing. interpreting. and evaluating information in its various forms and sources.
Indicator Cluster 8 The student locates information in reference materials in the context of academic, everyday or employment materials.
Indicator Cluster 9 The student makes generalizations and draws conclusions in the context of academic. everyday or employment materials.
Indicator Cluster 10 The student makes predictions and comparisons in the context of academic. everyday or employment materials.
Indicator Cluster 11 The student recognizes relevance oj data in the context of academic. everyday or employment materials.
Indicator Cluster 12 The student recognizes appropriate reference sources in the context of academic. everyday or employment materials.

129

Topic A. language Study
B. listening Skills

Appendix L

Essential Skills for Georgia Schools

Concept/Skill

K-4

The learner will

1. make choices which indicate an appreciation of the aesthetic qualities of oral and written language.

2. use a variety of oral and written language structures.

a. learn ways of expanding basic language structures.

(1) use (not label) whatever language

structures best express ideas and learn

alternating ways of phrasing ideas.

10

(2) use modifying phrases, compound structures, single word embeddings and single clauses.

(3) use phrases, clause embeddings and complex clauses.

b. experiment with and learn how word order reveals meaning.

c. recognize and use options for word order.

3. use appropriate usage patterns in oral and

written language.

10

a. distinguish between informal options of word choice and formal counterparts.

b. use a variety of usage patterns in different contexts.

4. demonstrate an understanding of how

dialects differ.

10

5. demonstrate an acceptance and understanding of other dialects.

6. use generally accepted oral and written language forms.

7. demonstrate the knowledge that language functions in a variety of ways, e.g., for personal expression, to regulate, to receive information, to create and imagine.

8. demonstrate an understanding that language can be described in a variety of ways, e.g., grammars, parts of speech.

9. demonstrate an understanding of word etymologies.

The learner will

1. expand the number of words understood when heard in context.

a. learn multiple and specific meanings of

words, their denotations and connotations.

10

b. understand figurative language, idiomatic expressions, colloquial terms and allusions.

c. learn specialized vocabularies.

131

KEY I = Introduce D = Develop R = Reinforce

5-8

912

0

R

0

DR

10

oR

lOR

0

oR

0

oR

0

R

0

R

DR

R

10

oR

0

oR

10

oR

10

oR

0

oR

0

oR

0

oR

Topic

Concept/Skill 2. adjust listening strategies according to

K-4

5-8

9-12

i

i

i

a. the purpose (distinguish message from

noise, concentrate, suspend judgment, avoid

distraction, wait for turn to talk, avoid inter-

I rupting, display interest and involvement).

10

b. the nature of the material (topic, density

and concept difficulty).

II

c. the organizational cues of the speaker

(statement of points, organizational phrases,

repetition).

II

3. listen and respond for a variety of purposes.

I0 I0
I0

I OR I oR
I oR

a. pleasure and enjoyment b. to follow directions c. to make intelligent consumer judgments

I10 10 I

I LI

R R R

d. to function as an informed citizen, e.g.,

news broadcasts, editorials, speeches, political appeals
e. to obtain information

I I I I 10

oo

R R

R R

f. to apply information heard to new situations
4. recognize and discriminate among

I 10 I 0 I o R

common sounds and sound signals in his or

her environment.

I lOR I

RI

R

I 5. demonstrate understanding of a basic
vocabularv related to his or her environment. 10

I0

I oR

6. recognize and recall the following when

specifically stated by the speaker.

I 10 I 0 I o R

a. main ideals)

b. details

c. sequence

d. cause-effect

7. infer the following when not specifically stated by the speaker.
a. main ideals)

I 10

I0

I oR

b. details

c. sequence

8. receive and comprehend varied materials

at difference levels of thinking, e.g., literal,

inferential. evaluative and appreciative.

I I0

9. receive and evaluate material critically by making judgments about validity, bias, speaker qualifications, fact and opinion, fantasy or realism.
10. recognize and identify the qualities of a speaker's style, imagery, word choice and technique.
11. accept and understand other dialects as valid communication.

I
I
I I0

i 0 i oR
I I0 I oR
I I0 I oR
I oR i oR

132

Topic C. Reading Readiness
O. Word Recognition

Concept/Skill
The learner will
1. show an interest in hearing materials read.
2. discriminate auditory similarities and differences in commonly used words in and out of context.
3. discriminate visual similarities and differences in commonly' used words in and out of context.
4. identify individual letters of the alphabet, high-interest words and phrases that appear frequently in his or her environment.
5. analyze and interpret pictures, people and events using elaborated language.
6. demonstrate understanding of terms used in reading instruction, e.g., top of page, leftto-right progression, beginning-ending of words.
7. attempt self-expression in writing using individualized spellings.
The learner will
1. recognize and use sight vocabulary in context from various sources. a. his or her own vocabulary b. high-frequency word lists c. basal readers d. words specific to content areas

K-4
10 10 10 10 10
10
lOR
lOR

2. demonstrate an understanding of and use various aids to develop and expand vocabulary. a. context clues b. synonyms, antonyms and homonyms c. acronyms d. multiple meanings of words e. classification (categories, general to specific)

3. demonstrate an understanding of and use phonetic analysis clues and principles to identify new words. a. consonant sounds and clusters b. silent consonants c. multiple sounds of consonants d. short and long vowels e. variant vowel sounds (dipthongs, controlled vowels)

4. demonstrate an understanding of and use

structural analysis clues and the related

principles of

a. syllabication,

e. possessive forms,

b. accent,

f. compound words,

c. contractions,

g. plural forms,

d. abbreviations, h. word parts.

lOR lOR lOR

5-8

9-12

R

R

R

R

R

R

R

oR

oR

R

oR

oR

R

133

Topic E. Comprehension

Concept/Skill

K-4

5-8

9-12

S. demonstrate the understanding that symbols stand for referents.
I The learner will 1. recognize, recall and retell a. the main idea(s), b. details, c. sequence, d. cause-effect relationships.

I

I

I

I I I lOR

oR

R

I 10 I o R I

R

2. read and follow printed directions. 3. draw conclusions from facts given.

I I I 10

oR

R

iO

oR

R

4. infer that which is not explicitly stated

in a selection

I 10 I o R I

R

a. main idea(s),

b. details that support main idea,

c. sequence,

d. cause-effect.

o o 5. recognize information and ideas through I 10 I

RI

R

a. clas::iifying,

b. outlining,

c. summarizing,

d. synthesizing.

6. make judgments. 7. predict outcomes.

I I I 10

oR oR

10

oR

R

8. infer literal meaning from author's use of

figurative language.

I 10 I o R I

R

9. infer figurative meaning from author's use

of literal language.

10

10. distinguish between fact and opinion.

10

11. distinguish fiction from nonfiction.

10

12. distinguish reality from fantasy.

10

oR

R

oR oR

oR oR

oR oR

13. make comparisons using stated information.
14. make comparisons using implied information.

II 10 10

15. recognize use of propaganda techniques. I

I oR I R

I I 0

oR

0

oR

16. interpret symbols (including special

subject area notations) and symbolic

language.

10

17. recognize relevance of data.

18. recognize relationships of time and place. 10

19. make appropriate generalizations.

10

oR

R

10

oR

oR

R

oR oR

20. interpret and use information presented

graphically, such as

I 10 I o R I

R

a. maps

b. graphs

c. charts

d. tables

e. schedules

f. diagrams.

134

Topic F. Study Skills
G. Functional Reading Skills

Concept/Skill
The learner will
1. demonstrate knowledge of alphabetic sequence.
2. alphabetize words up to the third letter.
3. locate information using a variety of sources.
a. table of contents, page numbers
b. dictionaries - guide, entry words c.' glossaries
d. indexes - key words, main and subtopics e. encyclopedia
f. thesauri
g. library card files (card catalogs, periodical files) h~ catalogs i. newspapers
4. locate materials in a media center.
5. use dictionaries for a variety of purposes. a. identifying word meanings
b. finding synonyms
c. identifying and interpreting phonetic respellings to aid pronunciation
d. selecting appropriate meanings of words in context
6. use titles, headings, subheadings and pictures to locate and preview information.
7. use a variety of study techniques, e.g., survey, question, read, recite, review,(SQ3R).
8. adjust reading technique and rate according to the difficulty of material and purposes for reading. a. rereading b. skimming c. scanning
The learner will
1. interpret and use basic instructions and labeling information. a. recipes b. clothing care instructions c. appliance instructions d. warning labels (poison control, electrical hazards, etc.) e. medicine labels f. product contents and nutritional information labels

K-4
lOR 10 lOR 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
10

5-8
R R
R R R R R 10 R R R R
oR
10 10
oR oR
0

9-12
R R
R R R R R
oR
R R R R R
R R
R R
oR

135

Topic
H. Oral/Written Communication

Concept/Skill

K-4

i

I

2. interpret and use forms, applications and

agreements including those relating to money

management (at a nontechnical level). a. discount coupons

II

i

b. credit cards

c. banking procedures

d. payments and loans

e. change of address form

f. social security card application

5-8
I
0i

3. interpret and use various forms of written

communication.

iI

a. directories

b. correspondence (personal and business)

c. mass media (newspapers, magazines,

advertisements)

i0 I

4. interpret and use functional transportation

information.

II

a. routes, schedules and timetables

b. signs, marquees and billboards

c. driver's manual

d. travel brochures

I0 I

5. interpret and use occupational and career

information.

I

a. job listings

b. paycheck stubs

c. salary schedule and benefits

IThe learner will

I 10 I

1. demonstrate an understanding that speech

and writing are tools of communication.

II

I oR I

2. speak clearly and write legibly.

a. use language understandable to others. I 10 I 0 I

b. demonstrate understanding of left-to-right

pattern of writing.

I lOR

c. manuscript and write standard letter forms,

lower and upper case.

I lOR I

R

3. increase, enrich and refine oral and written

expression.

I 10 I 0 I

a. use functional vocabulary related to

experiences.

b. eliminate unnecessary words such as and, well, um, uh, ya know.

c. use standard language patterns.

4. use oral language for a variety of purposes. I I 0 I 0 I
a. personal and creative expression b. relating and obtaining information
c. describing experiences
d. communicating feelings

9-12
oR
oR oR oR
R
oR oR oR

136

Topic I. Literature

Concept/Skill

K-4

5. use oral language in a variety of ways.

10

a. dialogue and discussions

b. retelling and paraphrasing

c. summarizing

d. interviews

6. write and compose for a variety of

purposes.

10

a. personal and business communication

b. clarifying thoughts and ideas

c. self-expression and personal satisfaction

d. recording information. e.g.. message and

note taking

e. entertainment

7. write and compose in a variety of ways.

a. organize paragraphs using various modes (argumentation. exposition. narration. description)

b. combine paragraphs to create longer works

(letters. stories. essays. reports)

10

8. demonstrate the ability to adjust manner and style of speaking and writing to suit audience and situation. e.g.. formal and informal.

The learner will
1. recognize and demonstrate an understanding that literature has a variety of purposes.
a. artistic expression
b. recording events, ideas and values of diverse societies and cultures (past through the present)
c. entertainment and diversion
d. extension of individual knowledge and experience
e. comparing values, beliefs and behaviors
2. recognize and demonstrate an understanding that individual reactions to and perceptions of literature are affected by many factors, e.g., attitudes, experience~. maturity. knowledge.
3. recognize that literary representations of individuals. events and society are influenced by the perceptions of the vvriter and the perceptions of the reader.
4. demonstrate an understanding that literature has a variety of external structures, e.g., poetry, prose, fiction. nonfiction, drama.
5. recognize the complexity of the individuals and situations as depicted in literature.
6. recognize that critical reading requires reader involvement and interaction with the material being read.

5-8
0
0
10 0
10
0 0 0 0
0 10
oR

9-12
oR
oR
oR oR oR
oR
R R R R
oR oR
R
oR oR

137

Topic
J. Mass Communication

ConceptiSkill

K-4

5-8

9-12

7. recognize the importance of making

inferences and drawing conclusions in

reading literature.

II

8. demonstrate the understanding that

literature can be read and compared from

several perspectives, e.g., genre, theme,

chronology, nationality, author.

I

9. recognize that literary works can take a

number of forms, e.g., fables, myths, fantasy,

short story, novel. essay.

II

10. recognize and understand the various

recurring features of each literary type, e.g.,

romance, irony, tragedy and comedy.

II

11. make individual, personal determination

of worth, desirability and acceptability of

various pieces of literature.
IThe learner will

II

1. differentiate among several classes of

communications - intrapersonal, interper-

sonal and mass communications.

II

2. distinguish four essentials of the com-

munication process - source, message,

medium, audience.

II

3. analyze relationships among source,

message, medium and audience.

II

4. identify primary communication vehicles

comprising American mass media.

II

5. analyze complexities distinguishing mass

communications from interpersonal and intra-

personal communications.

I

6. evaluate degree of saturation of mass

media in contemporary society.

I

7. describe the primary functions of mass

media.

II

8. analyze the fulfillment of information,

persuasion and entertainment functions by all

major mass media.

II

9. show how mass media depiction of

standards of living affect contemporary living

standards.

II

10. assess the probable reliability of media

message sources.

II

11. demonstrate an understanding of the

influences advertising has on personal buying

habits.

II

I I I oR

II

I lOR

I0 I R

II

I oR

I0 I R

I 0 I oR
I 0 I oR I 10 I o R
I 10 I o R

II
II
I0

I oR
I oR
IR

I 0 I oR

I0
II

I oR
I oR

I 0 I oR

138

Topic

Concept/Skill

K-4

5-8

12. define and identify propaganda devices of

mass media; messages as glittering

generality, card stacking, name calling,

testimonial, plain facts, bandwagon, transfer

and elitism.

10

13. understand and use basic components of

visual literacy.

ID

a. identify visual persuasion techniques, including logical processes and affective appeals such as use of color, placement, sequence and repetition.

b. differentiate between visual fact (representation) and visual fiction (creation/ fabrication).

c. differentiate between visual fact (representation) and visual metaphor (imagery, allegory, fantasy).

d. differentiate between visual fact (representation) and visual commentary (selection/slanting).

e. recognize visual appeals (color, shape, familiarity).

f. recognize visual stereotypes in film and television, including hero/heroine, villain, man, woman, child, family, professional, ethnic group.

g. differentiate between visual logic and visual fallacy.

14. explain the influence of advertising on

editorial role, tone and stance.

D

15. analyze nonverbal symbols of communi-

cation used in television programming and

visual advertising.

D

9-12
oR
DR
DR
oR

Souree - Essential Skills/or Georgia Schools, Language Arts Section. pp. 1-9. Atlanta. Georgia: Georgia Department of Education 1980.
139

1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1
I

Appendix M
Standards for Basic Skills Writing Programs

The following standards were developed by a specially selected committee of teachers, supervisors, and writing specialists for use by states and school districts establishing comprehensive literacy plans. The National Council of Teachers of English urges study of these standards as a means of determining that plans attend not only to effective practice within the classroom but also to the environment of support for writing instruction throughout the school and the community. If effective instruction in writing is to be achieved, all the standards need to be studied and provided for in shaping comprehensive literacy plans.
At a time of growing concern for the quality of writing in the society, it is important to take the most effective approaches to quality in school writing programs. These standards will help states and school districts assure that efforts to be undertaken will indeed lead to improvement.
Planners must begin with an adequate conception of what writing is. To serve this purpose, we offer the follOWing:
Operational Definition of Writing
Writing is the process of selecting, combining, arranging and developing ideas in effective sentences, paragraphs, and, often, longer units of discourse. The process requires the writer to cope with a number of variables: method ofdevelopment (narrating, explaining, describing, reporting and persuading); tone (from very personal to quite formal); form (from a limerick to a formal letter to a long research report); purpose (from discovering and expressing personal feelings and values to conducting the impersonal "business" of everyday life); possible audiences (oneself, classmates, a teacher, "the world"). Learning to write and to write increasingly well involves developing increasing skill and sensitivity in selecting from and combining these variables to shape particular messages. It also involves learning to conform to conventions of the printed language, appropriate to the age of the writer and to the form, purpose and tone of the message.

Beyond the pragmatic purpose of shaping messages to others, writing can be a means of selfdiscovery, of finding out what we believe, know, and cannot find words or circumstances to say to others. Writing can be a deeply personal act of shaping our perception ofthe world and our relationships to people and things in that world. Thus, writing serves both public and personal needs of students, and it warrants the full, generous and continuing effort of all teachers.
Characteristics of an Effective Basic Skins Propam in Writin8
Teaching and Learning
1. There is evidence that knowledge of current theory and research in writing has been sought and applied in developing the writing program.
2. Writing instruction is a substantial and clearly identified part of an integrated English language arts curriculum.
3. Writing is called for in other subject matters across the curriculum.
4. The subject matter of writing has its richest source in the students' personal, social and academic interests and experiences.
5. Students write in many forms (e.g., essays, notes, summaries, poems, letters, stories, reports, scripts, journals.).
6. Students write for a variety of audiences (e.g., self, classmates, the community, the teacher) to learn that approaches vary as audiences vary.
7. Students write for a wide range of purpose (e.g., to inform, to persuade, to express the self, to explore, to clarify thinking).
8. Class time is devoted to all aspects of the writing process: generating ideas, drafting, revising and editing.
9. All students receive instruction in both (a) developing and expressing ideas and (b) using the conventions of edited American English.

141

10. Control of the conventions of edited American English (supporting skills such as spelling, handwriting, punctuation and grammatical usage) is developed primarily during the writing process and secondarily through related exercises.
11. Students receive constructive responses from the teacher and from others - at various stages in the writing process.
12. Evaluation of individual writing growth
is based on complete prices of writing;
reflects informed judgments, first, about clarity and content and then about conventions of spelling, mechanics and usage;
includes regular responses to individual pieces of student writing as well as periodic assessment measuring growth over a period oftime.
Support
13. Teachers with major responsibility for writing instruction receive continuing education reflecting current knowledge about the teaching of writing.
14. Teachers of other subjects receive information and training in ways to make use of and respond to writing in their classes.
15. Parent and community groups are informed about the writing program and about ways in which they can support it.
16. School and class schedules provide sufficient time to assure that the writing process is thoroughly pursued.
17. Teachers and students have access to and make regular use of a wide range of resources (e.g., library services, media, teaching materials, duplicating facilities, supplies) for support of the writing program.
Progam Evaluation
18. Evaluation of the writing program focuses on pre- and post-program sampling of complete pieces of writing, utilizing a recognized procedure (e.g., ets holistic rating, the Diederich scale, primary trait scoring) to arrive at reliable judgments about the quality of the program.

19. Evaluation of the program might also include assessment of a sample of student attitudes; gathering of pertinent quantative data (e.g., frequency of student writing, time devoted to writing activities); and observational data (evidence of prewriting activities, class anthologies, writing folders and student writing displays).
Committee on Writing Standards Gary Tate, Chair Department of English Texas Christian University Martha L. King Department of Elementary Education Ohio State University Barbara Leib-Brilhart Speech Communication Association Richard Gebhardt English Department Findlay College Betty Murray Language Arts Program Manager Lexington Schools, Massachusetts Lee Odell Department of English State University of New York, Albany Marjorie Farmer Director, English and Reading The School District of Philadelphia Eileen Tway Department of Elementary Education Miami University Charles Suhor Deputy Executive Director National Council of Teachers of English (formerly Supervisor of English, New Orleans Schools)

Reprinted with penaission - National Council of Teachers of English. 1111 Kenyon Road, Urbana. Illinois 61801. March, 1979.
142

Appendix N
Standards for Effective Ora' Communication Programs

Adequate oral communication frequently determines an individual's educational. social and vocational success. Yet. American education has typically neglected formal instruction in the basic skills of speaking and listening. It is important that state and local education agencies implement the most effective oral communication programs possible.
The following standards for oral communication were developed by representatives of the Speech Communication Association and the American Speech-language-Hearing Association.
If effective oral communication programs are going to be developed. all components of the recommended standards must be considered. Implementation of these standards will facilitate development of adequate and appropriate oral communication necessary for educational. social and vocational success.
Definition
Oral Communication: the process of interacting through heard and spoken messages in a variety of situations.
Effective oral communication is a learned behavior. involving the following processes.
1. Speaking in a variety of educational and social situations. Speaking involves. but is not limited to. arranging and producing messages through the use of voice. articulation. vocabulary. snytax and nonverbal cues (e.g gesture. facial expression. vocal cues) appropriate to the speaker and listeners.
2. Listening in a variety of educational and social situations. Listening involves. but is not limited to. hearing. perceiving. discriminating. interpreting. synthesizing. evaluating. organizing and remembering information from verbal and nonverbal messages.
Basic Assumptions
1. Oral communication behaviors of students can be improved through direct instruction.

2. Oral communication instruction emphasizes the interactive nature of speaking and listening.
3. Oral communication instruction addresses the everyday communication needs of students and includes emphasis on the classroom as a practical communication environment.
4. There is a wide range of communication competence among speakers of the same language.
5. Communication competence is not dependent upon use of a particular form of language.
6. A primary goal of oral communication instruction is to increase the students' repertoire and use of effective speaking and listening behaviors.
7. Oral communication programs provide instruction based on a coordinated developmental continuum of skills. pre-school through adult.
8. Oral communication skills can be enhanced by using parents. supportive personnel and appropriate instructional technology.
Characteristics of an Effective Communi cation Program
Teaching/Learning
1. The oral communication program is based on current theory and research in speech and language development. psycholinguistics. rhetorical and communication theory. communication disorders. speech science and related fields of study.
2. Oral communication instruction is a clearly identifiable part of the curriculum.
3. Oral communication instruction is systematically related to reading and writing instruction and to instruction in the various content areas.
4. The relevant academic. personal and social experiences of students provide core subject matter for the oral communication program.

143

5. Oral communication instruction provides a wide range of speaking and listening experience, in order to develop effective appropriate communication skills.
a. a range of situations; e.g., informal to formal, interpersonal to mass communication.
b. a range of purposes; e.g., informing, learning, persuading, evaluating messages, facilitating social interaction, sharing feelings, imaginative and creative expression.
c. a range of audiences; e.g., classmates, teachers, peers, employers, family, community.
d. a range of communication forms; e.g., conversation, group discussion, interview, drama, debate, public speaking, oral interpretation.
e. a range of speaking styles; impromptu, extemporaneous and reading from manuscript.
6. The oral communication program provides class time for systematic instruction in oral communication skills; e.g., critical listening, selecting, arranging and presenting messages, giving and receiving constructive feedback, non-verbal communication, etc.
7. The oral communication program includes development of adequate and appropriate language, articulation, voice, fluency and listening skills necessary for success in educational, career and social situations through regular classroom instruction, cocurricular activities and speech-language pathology and audiology services.
8. Oral communication program instruction encourages and provides appropriate opportunities for the reticent student (e.g., one who is excessively fearful in speaking situations); to participate more effectively in oral communication.
Support
1. Oral communication instruction is provided by individuals adequately trained in oral communication and/or communication disorders, as evidenced by appropriate certification.
2. Individuals responsible for oral communication instruction receive continuing education

on theories, research and instruction relevant to communication.
3. Individuals responsible for oral communication instruction participate actively in conventions, meetings, publications and other activities of communication professionals.
4. The oral communication program includes a system for training classroom teachers to identify and refer students, who do not have adequate listening and speaking skills or are reticent, to those qualified individuals who can best meet the needs ofthe student through further assessment and/or instruction.
5. Teachers in all curriculum areas receive information on appropriate methods for a) using oral communication to facilitate instruction and b) using the subject matter to improve students' oral communication skills.
6. Parent and community groups are informed about and provided with appropriate materials for effective involvement in the oral communication program.
7. The oral communication program is facilitated by availability and use of appropriate instructional materials, equipment and facilities.
Assessment and Evaluation
1. The oral communication program is based on a schoolwide assessment of the speaking and listening needs of students.
2. Speaking and listening needs of students will be determined by qualified personnel utilizing appropriate evaluation tools for the skills to be assessed and educational levels of students being assessed.
3. Evaluation of student progress in oral commu. nication is based upon a variety of data including observations, self-evaluations, listeners' responses to messages and formal tests.
4. Evaluation of students' oral communication encourages, rather than discourages, students' desires to communicate by emphasizing those behaviors which students can improve, thus enhancing their ability to do so.
5. Evaluation of the total oral communication program is based on achievement of acceptable levels of oral communication skill deter-

144

mined by continuous monitoring of student progress in speaking and listening, use of standardized and criterion. referenced tests,

audience-based rating scales and other appropriate instruments.

lleprIated with .......... - American Speech-LanguageHearing Association and Speech Communication Association.

145

j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j

Appendix 0

Guidelines for Minimal Speaking and Listening Competencies for High School Graduates

Leamer

Producer

Citizen

Individual

Consumer

A. Identify main ideas in messages.
B. Distinguish
facts from opinions.

Identify the task to be performed when given instructions orally.
Recognize performance standards for work assigned orally.
Recognize commitments, promises, threats and commands.

Select main ideas when listening to political speeches.
Identify key points in broadcast interviews with political candidates.
Identify critical issues in trial testimony.

Obtain main ideas in messages concerning health related news.
Identify main ideas in broadcast messages about tax return preparation.

Obtain factual information about job opportunities.
Distinguish between facts and opinions in customer complaints.
Distinguish between facts and opinions in labor-management disputes.

Distinguish between facts and opinions in political speeches.
Distinguish between evidence and opinion in testimony.
Distinguish between fact and opinion in newscasts.

Distinguish facts from opinions with respect to effective iIIness treatment.
Distinguish facts from opinions regarding nutrition.

Determine main ideas of information involving credit, financing and the like.
Identify main ideas in a contract agreement.
Distinguish facts from opinions in advertisements.

C. Distinguish between informative and persuasive messages.

Distinguish between informative and persuasive messages in a job interview.
Distinguish between informative and persuasive messages from a union organizer.
Distinguish between informative and persuasive messages of management.

Identify when being Distinguish between

subjected to propa- informative and

ganda.

persuasive mes-

sages about nonpre-

Distinguish between scription drugs.

informative and per-

suasive messages of

politicians.

Distinguish between informative and persuasive messages of trial attorneys.

Identify when being subjected to a sales presentation.
Distinguish between informative and persuasive messages about purchasing on credit.

147

Leamer

Producer

Citizen

Individual

ConsulDer

D. Recognize when Recognize lack of another does understanding in not understand other employees. your message. Recognize when a job interviewer doesn't understand your explanation of your work experience.
Recognize when a customer doesn't understand your directions for product use.

Recognize when another person doesn't understand your position on a public issue.
Recognized when a public official doesn't understand your request.
Recognize when a judge does not understand your testimony.

Recognize when

Reconize

another family

when a sales

member doesn't

person does

understand your in- not under-

structions.

stand your

request.

Recognize when

a doctor doesn't

understand your

description of your iII-

ness.

E. Express ideas Make a report to

clearly and your job super-

concisely.

visor.

Explain job requirements to a new employee.

State clearly relevant information about your work experience when applying for a job.

Describe a desired course of political action.
Describe an accident or crime to a police officer.
Explain citizens' rights to another.

Explain an unfamiliar task to a child or other family member.
Explain your values to your child or a friend.

Explain an appliance malfunction to a repair person.

F. Express and defend with evidence your point of view.

Express and defend your view in a union meeting.

Express and defend your suggestions for changes in job conditions.

Express and defend your reasons for job absence to your supervisor.

Express and defend your view in a political discussion.
Express and defend your innocence in court.
Express and defend your position in a city council meeting.

Express and defend your faith or reIigion.
Express and defend your feelings in a family discussion.

Express and defend your refusal to accept products or services you did not order.

148

Learner

Producer

G. Organize (order) Use "a chronological

messages so order to explain a

that others can complex business

understand procedure to a

them.

co-worker.

Use a topical order when explaining production problems to a supervisor.

Use a problemcause-solution order when making a suggestion to a supervisor.

Citizen
Use a topical order to explain your political views.
Use a cause-effeet order when giving an accident report.
Use a chronological order to explain your complaint to an elected offidal.

Individual
Explain to your child how to prevent accidents using a causeeffeet order.

H. Ask questions to obtain information.

Obtain information about correct job performance procedures.

Obtain information about job benefits.

Obtain suggestions about how to improve your job performance.

Obtain information from publie officials about laws and regulations.
Obtain information about another's evidence on a political issue.
Obtain information about a political candidate's views.

I. Answer ques- Answer a poten-

tions effective- tial employer's

Iy.

questions about

your qualifica-

tions.

Answer customer questions.

Answer a supervisor's questions about your job perfonriance.

Answer questions about your position on public issues.
Answer questions of a census taker.
Answer questions as a witness.

Answer a doctor's questions about an illness you have.
Answer a tax auditor's questions.
Answer a child's questions so that the child understands.

ConsuDler
Use a problem-causesolution order to explain your financial position when applying for a loan.
Use a chronological order to explain to a mechanic the development of an automobile malfunction.
Obtain information about interest rates for purchases bought on credit.
Obtain information about your credit rating.
Obtain information about product safety.

149

Learner
J. Give concise and accurate directions.

Producer
Direct co-workers or subordinates in performing unfamiliar jobs.
Instruct customers about product use.
Instruct an employee about improving job performance.

K. Summarize messages.

Summarize oral instructions given by your job supervisor.
Give a summary of customer suggestions to your job supervisor.
Summarize your qualifications in a job interview.

Citizen
Give directions to another about the procedures necessary to vote.
Give directions to another about the procedures necessary to file a tax retum.

Individual
Teach your child how to playa game.
Teach your child what to do in case of fire.

Give directions to another about the procedures necessary to appear before the city council.

Summarize the position of a poIitical candidate on a campaign issue.
Summarize the arguments for and against a controversial issue.

Summarize for family members a telephone conversation.
Summarize for family members the family financial position.

Summarize for another the laws/regulations pertaining to some action.

Consumer Instruct Maintenance people on how you want some repair made.
Summarize a public service message on auto safety.

150

Leamer
L. Describe another's viewpoint.

Producer

Citizen

Individual

Consumer

Describe the viewpoint of a supervisor who disagrees with your evaluation of your job performance.
Describe the viewpoint of a co-worker who disagrees with your recommendations.
Describe the viewpoint of union officials in a contract dispute.

Describe the viewpoint of a friend with whom you disagree about publie issues.
Describe the viewpoint of a legislator who proposes a law you oppose.
Describe the viewpoint of a jury member with whom you disagree.

Describe the viewpoint of your spouse when you disagree on a major decision.
Describe the viewpoint of your neighbor who complains about your children's behavior.

Describe the viewpoint of a retail store manager to whom you return merchandise.

M. Describe differences in opinion.

Describe differences in opinion with coworkers about work related issues.
Describe differences in opinion with your supervisor about the steps necessary to accomplish a goal.
Describe differences in opinion with customers about product performance.

Describe differences in opinion with a legislator about proposed legislation.
Describe differences in opinion with other jurors.
Describe differences in opinion in a zoning hearing.

Describe differences in opinion with spouse about child rearing practices.
Describe differences in opinion with your doctor regarding health care.
Describe differences in opinion with spouse about the responsibility for household chores.

151

Learner
N. Express feelings to others.

Producer
Express personal reactions to changes in job conditions to your supervisor.
Express satisfaction to a coworker about his or her work.
Express feelings of dissatisfaction with coworkers regarding the quality of work interactions.

Citizen
Express feelings of anger to your city councilperson.
Express your positive reactions to an elected official's work.
Express feelings of disapproval regarding a Iegislator's position.

Individual
Express feelings of approval to your child for hislher school achievement.
Express feelings of sympathy to a friend whose parent has died.

Consumer
Express dissatisfaction to a store clerk.

O. Perform social rituals.

Introduce yourself at the beginning of a job interview.
Greet customers.
Conclude a conversation with your employer.

Introduce a motion at a public meeting.
Request an appointment with an elected official.
Indroduce a speaker at a political rally.

Make a small talk in casual social settings.
Introduce strangers to one another.
Introduce yourself.

P. Listen effective- Performs according to Understand direc-

Iy to spoken directions given by

tions on TV or

English.

job supervisor.

radio on proce-

dures necessary

Recognizes complaints to vote.

and needs of custo-

mers.

Understand di-

rections to a

Responds to sugges- jury from a judge.

tions and questions

of fellow workers.

Understand di

rections given

by police officers.

Understand weather bulletins broadcast on radio or TV.
Understand a plumber's suggestions for preventive household maintenance.

Understand a doctor's or pharmacist's directions for taking prescribed medication.
Understand a household maintenance worker's suggestions for preventive maintenance.

152

Leamer

Producer

Q. Use words, pro- Use appropriate

nunciation and language during

grammar appro employment inter

priate for

views.

situation.

Use words, pro-

nunciation, and

grammer which do

not alienate co

workers.

Use words under stood by coworkers.

R. Use nonverbal
signs appropriate for situation.

Use appropriate gestures and eye contact during employment in terviews.

Use appropriate facial expressions and tone of voice when conversing with a supervisor.

Use gestures which aid a co-worker in learning to perform a pro duction task.

Citizen

Individual

Use language un derstood by memo bers of diverse groups at civic meetings.
Use inoffensive words when expressing poli. tical views.

Describe an ailment so that a doctor can un derstand the symptoms.

Use language understood by public officials.

Use language un derstood by a police officers when making a complaint.

Use appropriate facial expres sions and posture when expressing your point of view at civic meetings.

Use gestures which enhance a child's un derstanding of how to perform a household task.

Consumer
Use language understood by business personnel when trans acting personal busi ness (e.g., banking shopping, paying bills).
Use gestures which help business personnel to un derstand your point of view as a consumer.

Use appropriate nonverbal signs when campaigning for a political candidate.

Use gestures which enhance a friend's understanding of how to playa game.

Use appropriate nonverbal signs when engaging in informal discussions of po litical views with friends.

Use nonverbal signs to indicate sympathy to a friend.

153

Learner

I Producer

S. Use voice effec-, Use sufficient

tively.

volume when

making a pre-

sentation to a

large group in

an on-the-job

setting.

Use appropriate volume when conversing with a customer via telephone.

Speak with appropriate rate volume and clarity when conversing with your supervisor.

Citizen
Speak clearly and loudly enough to be heard in publie debate or discussion.
Speak with appropriate rate, volume and ciarity when expressing your views to an elected official.
Speak clearly and loudly enough to be heard and understood when giving testimony in court.

Individual
Speak with appropriate rate, volume and ciarity in social conversations.
Speak with appropriate rate, volume and ciarity when reporting a fire or accident.
Speak with appropriate rate, volume and clarity when soliciting funds for a charity.

Consumer
Speak sufficient volume and clarity when making consumer reports, complaints or responses.

Reprinted from Oral Language and Listening Task Force Report. Basic Skills Advisory Board, Georgia Department of Education, November, 1982.
154

Appendix P

Instructional Resources

Educational media programs in Georgia public schools focus not only on the provision of instructional resources in all formats to support the curriculum. but also on the use of those resources in supporting teaching strategies and learning activities to effectively meet student needs. A combination of resources including print and nonprint materials and equipment essential for their use or production along with programs. services and additional resources available through state. community and other educational agencies are necessary for effective support of instructional programs.
Innovative teachers. media specialists. administrators. curriculum specialists. students. board members and representatives of the community are cooperatively evolving a media concept that supports the instructional program. facilitates access to information in all formats and provides services for production of locally designed. curriculum-related learning materials. Media specialists should serve on curriculum committees and integrate their professional skills in a cooperative effort to develop effective instructional programs. In addition. efficient use of appropriate materials which foster student growth in listening. viewing. reading and inquiry skills is being increased by these populations. Georgia Board of Education Instructional Media and EqUipment Policy requires that local media committees composed ofthe groups mentioned above be involved in selecting materials and establishing procedures for using these materials effectively. Language arts teachers should express their interest in being involved in or prOViding input to this planning process to their principal and media specialist.
Timely access of teachers and students to information and the prevention of unnecessary duplication of resources can be accomplished when the information about and the location of resources that support the language arts program in a secondary school is available through the school's media center. Through involvement in such activities as policy and procedure development. curriculum design and materials evaluation and selection. language arts teachers have an opportunity and a responsibility to develop

improved media services supporting the instructional program.
A community resources file. developed cooperatively by media and instructional staff. provides valuable information about local people. places. activities and unique resources. enhancing the language arts program. In some school systems. a resource service designed to augment the building media program is also provided at the system level for all schools.
Numerous sources of information about resources exist; some are commercially prepared. others are provided by the Georgia Department of Education while still others exist in the local school. Media personnel in each building media center can assist teachers in using the following suggested sources.
Sources of Commercially Produced Resources
Many professionally prepared. commercially published reviewing sources which are available in school media centers. system media collections. and public and academic libraries are listed in: Aids to Media Selection for Students and Teachers available from the National Association of State Educational Media Professionals. Division of Publications. 605 South Street. Indianola. Iowa 50125.
Resources hom the Georgia Department of Education
The department of education provides resources and services which are available through school media centers and/or system media contact persons.
Materials Distributed by the Instructional Media Services Division
Georgia Tapes for Teaching: Catalog of Classroom Teaching Tapes for Georgia Schools (and supplements). Arranged by subjects. this catalog lists the titles of audio tapes which will be duplicated on request. Recommended listening audiences are indicated. A school registration is required. The requesting

155

media center must provide the blank reel-to-reel or cassette tape on which the recording is made. Return postage is provided by the Georgia Department of Education.
Cata'og of C'assroom Teaching Fi'ms for Georgia Schools (and supplements). The annotated list of 16mm films is arranged by titles but indexed by subjects. Recommended viewing audiences are indicated. Registration (annual beginning in September or semiannual beginning in January) requires a minimal fee. Each registration provides a specified weekly film quotes, but multiple registrations are accepted. Many films are broadcast over the Georgia Educational Television Network and some may be duplicated on videotapes for later use. Information about this .service and the broadcast schedule are provided annually to media specialists through the system media contact person.
Instructiona' Te'evision Schedu'e. Copies of the Schedule with series descriptions and broadcast times are available on request through the media specialist from the system media contact person, who also coordinates orders for needed teacher manuals. Descriptions of telecourse series and programs in related fields should be examined for potential programs to support the language arts curriculum. Although recommended viewing audiences are indicated, the Schedule and/or teacher manuals should also be examined for potential use of a program or series to introduce, develop or reinforce language arts concepts. Upcoming broadcast specials are announced in MEDIA MEMO which is provided monthly to media specialists during the school year by the department of education.

Additional Sources of Information Pro vided by the Georgia Department ofEduca tion
Educationa' Information Center (EIC), Georgia Department of Education, 1866 Twin Towers East, Atlanta, Georgia 30334. A research service of computer and manual searches of the Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) data base, which includes over 450,000 references to education documents, is provided to Georgia public school superintendents and their central office staff.
Readers Service, Pub'ic Library Services Division, Georgia Department of Education, 156 Trinity Avenue SW, Atlanta, Georgia 30303. "Selected List of Books for Teachers" (and supplements) and "Periodical List" (and supplements) identifying titles in the Georgia Public Library Information Network (GUN), another reference and bibliographic service, provides access to publications in the collections of participating public, special and academic libraries. Requests for these services and resources should be made through the local public libraries by the school media staff.
Other Sources of Information/Ideas
Reviews and bibliographies of recommended resources and innovative program descriptions for language arts are published regularly in journals and periodicals. The following tools for selection are recommended.
English Journal, National Council of Teachers of English, Kenyon Road, Urbana Illinois 61801, monthly September-April.
Georgia Journal of Reading, Georgia Council International Reading Association, Box 218, Georgia State University, University Plaza, Atlanta, Georgia 30303, semiannually.
Journal of Reading, International Reading Association, 800 Barksdale Road, P,O. Box 8139, Newark, Delaware, 19711, monthly OctoberMay.

156

Bibliography
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i
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160

Resources
Reading
General
Allred, Ruel. Spelling: The Application of Research Findings. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, 1977.
Baratz, Joan and Roger Shuy, eds. Teaching Black Children to Read. Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1969.
Berger, Allen and Hugo Hartig. The Reading Materials Handbook. Oshkosh, Wisconsin: Academia Press, 1969.
Graves, Michael F., et al. Easy Reading: Books Series and Periodicals for Less Able Readers. Newark, Delaware: International Reading Association. 1979.
Hall, MaryAnne. et al. A Synthesis of Research On Reading with Recommendations for Instruction in Georgia Schools. Atlanta: Georgia Department of Education, 1978.
Heilman, Arthur. Principles and Practices of Teaching Reading. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company, 1972.
Loban, Walter. Language Development: Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve. Urbana, Illinois: The National Council of Teachers of English, 1976.
Mueser, Anne Marie, ed. Reading Aids Through the Grades. New York: Teachers College Press, 1975. Reading and Language Arts: Products from the National Institute of Education. Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Government Printing Office, 1977. Schubert. Delwyn and Theodore Torgerson. Improving the Reading Program. Dubuque, 10wa:W. C. Brown
Company Publishers. 1972. Shane, Harold and James Welden, eds. Classroom-Relevant Research in Language Arts. Washington, D.C.:
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. 1979.
Strickland, Dorothy. "A Program for linguistically Different Black Children," in Research in the Teaching of English. 7 (Spring. 1973). 79-86.
Thomas, Ellen Lamar and H. Alan Robinson. Improving Reading in Every Class. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1977.
Weaver, Phyllis and Fredi Shonkoff. Research Within Reach. Washington. D.C.: National Institute of Education, 1978.
Witty. Paul. ed. Reading for the Gifted and the Creative Student. Newark. Delaware: International Reading Association. 1971.
Comprehension Skills
Barrett. Thomas C. "Taxonomy of Reading Comprehension" in Reading 360 Monograph. Lexington. Massachusetts: Ginn and Co., 1972.
Berger, Allen and James D. Peebles, eds. Rates of Comprehension. Newark. Delaware: International Reading Association, 1976.
Eller, William and Judith Wolf, eds. Critical Reading: A Broader View. Newark, Delaware: International Reading Association. 1969.
Gerhard. Christian. Making Sense: Reading Comprehension Improved Through Categorization. Newark. Delaware: International Reading Association, 1975.
161

Golinkoff. Roberta M. "A Comparison of Reading Comprehension Process in Good and Poor Comprehension" in Reading Research Quarterly. 11 (1975-76).623-659.
Green. Richard T. ed. Comprehension in Reading. Newark. Delaware: International Reading Association. 1971.
Griese. Arnold. Do You Read Me: Practical Approaches to Teaching Reading Comprehension. Santa Monica. California: Goodyear Publishing Company. Inc. 1977.
Critical Reading: Do You Believe? Comprehension (7-12). Indianapolis: Indiana Department of Public Instruction, 1979.
Jongsma. Eugene. The Cloze Procedure as a Teaching Technique. Newark, Delaware: International Reading Association, 1971.
Lundsteen, Sara. Listening: Its Impact on Reading and the Other Language Arts. Urbana, Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English. 1979.
Morgan. Clifford G. and James Deese. How to Study. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Inc. 1964. Pennock. Clifford, ed. Reading Comprehension at Four Linguistic Levels. Newark. Delaware: International
Reading Association, 1979. Ruddell, Robert B. "Developing Comprehension Abilities: Implications from Research for an Instructional
Framework" in What Research Has to Say About Reading Instruction. ed. S. Joy Samuels, Newark, Delaware: International Reading Association, 1978. Schulwitz, Bonnie S. Teachers, Tangibles, Techniques: Comprehension of Content in Reading. Newark, Delaware: International Reading Association, 1975.
Smith, Frank. Comprehension and Learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1975. Smith, Frank. Understanding Reading. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971. Tierney, Robert, John Readence, and Ernest Dishner. Reading Strategies and Practices. Boston: Allyn and
Bacon, 1980. Voix, Ruth G. Evaluating Reading and Study Skills in the Secondary Classroom. Newark, Delaware:
International Reading Association, 1968.
Functional Reading Adams, Anne, Anne Flowers, and Elsa Woods. Reading for Survival in Today's Society. 2 vols. Santa
Monica California: Goodyear Publishing Co., 1978. Blair, Susan. "An Implementation ofa Functional Reading Program." ERIC Document Reproduction Service,
161.017, March 1979. Cassidy, Jack. "Survival Reading" in Motivating Children and Young Adults to Read. eds. James L. Thomas
and Ruth M. Long. Phoenix: Oryx Press, 1979. Cassidy, Jack and Carol Vukelich. "Survival Reading for Parents and Kids: A Parent Education Program" in
The Reading Teacher, 31 (March 1978), 638-641.
Cassidy, Jack and Timothy Shauchar. "Survival Skills: Some Considerations" in Journal of Reading, 23 (November 1979), 136-140.
Chambers, Dewey Woods and Heath Ward Lowery. The Language Arts: A Pragmatic Approach. New York: William C. Brown Publishers, 1975.
Fuctional Reading Prescriptions. Baltimore: Maryland State Department of Education, 1979.
Reis, Ron. "A Curriculum for Real Life ReadiI!g Skills" in Journal of Reading. 21 (December 1977), 208211. Schrank, Jeffrey. Deception Detection. Boston: Beacon Press, 1975.
162

Sticht. Thomas. "Needed: A Functional Literacy Skills Curriculum for the Secondary School." ERIC Document Reproduction Service. 088 039. Spring. 1974.
Wilson. Robert and Marcia Barnes. Survival Learning Materials. York. Pennsylvaina: College Reading Association. 1974.

Content Area Reading

Collins. Ellouise and Linda Craig. "Module 13" in Reading in the Content Area. Atlanta: Metropolitan Cooperative Educational Service Agency. 1977.

Earle. Richard. Teaching Reading and Mathematics. Newark. Delaware: International Reading Association.

1976.

.

Estes. Thomas H. and Joseph L. Vaughan. Jr. Reading and Learning in the Content Classroom. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Inc. 1978.

Fay. Leo and Lee Ann Jared. Reading in the Content Fields. an Annotated Bibliography. Newark. Delaware: International Reading Association. 1975.

Herber. Harold L. Teaching Reading in Content Areas. Englewood Cliffs. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Inc. 1978.

Vocabulary Development in the Content Areas. (7-12). Indianapolis: Indiana Department of Public Instruction 1979.

Placing Study Skills in Context (6-12). Indianapolis: Indiana Department of Public Instruction. 1979.

Laffey. James L.. ed. Reading in the Content Areas. Newark. Delaware: International Reading Association. 1972.

Lunstrum. John P. and Bob Taylor. Teaching Reading in the Social Studies. Newark. Delaware: International Reading Association. 1978.

Piercey. Dorothy. Reading Activities in Content Areas. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Inc. 1976.

Reading Mathematics. Atlanta: Georgia Department of Education. Atlanta: 1979.

Reading and Science. Atlanta: Georgia Department of Education. Atlanta: 1976.

Reading and Social Studies. Atlanta: Georgia Department of Education. 1975.

Reading and Physical Education. Atlanta: Georgia Department of Education. 1979.

Learning Partners: Reading and Social Studies. Austin. Texas: Texas Education Agency. 1977.

Thelen, Judith. Improving Reading in Science. Newark. Delaware: International Reading Association. 1976.

West. Gail B. Teaching Reading Skills in Content Areas. Orlando. Flordia: Sandpiper Press. 1974.

Management/Organization
Cleary. Donna McKee. Thinking Thursday: Language Arts in the Reading Lab. Newark. Delaware: International Reading Association. 1978.
Courtney. Brother Leonard. Reading Interaction: the Teacher. the Pupil. the Materials. Newark. Delaware: International Reading Association. 1976.
Educational Leadership in Reading Instruction for Secondary School Principals. Montgomery: Alabama State Department of Education. 1977.
Fay. Leo. Organization and Administration of School Reading Programs. Newark, Delaware: International Reading Association, 1971.
Ford. David H. and Mildred Fitzgerald, eds. Contingency Management and Reading. Newark. Delaware: International Reading Association, 1973.

163

Moffett. James and Betty Jane Wagner. Student-Centered Language Arts and Reading. K-13. Boston. Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin. 1976.
Nichols. Nancy J. "Interclass Grouping for Reading Instruction: Who Makes the Decisions and Why?" in Educational Leadership. 26 (March 1969). 588-92.
Petreshene. Susan. Complete Guide to Learning Centers. Palo Alto. California: Pendragon House. 1978. Stauffer. Russell. Directing the Reading-Thinking Process. New York: Harper & Row. 1975.
Assessment/Evaluation
Aaron. Ira. "Reading Achievement in Georgia Today" in Proceedings: President's Seminary on Basic Skills in Georgia Schools. Athens. Georgia: The University of Georgia. 1976.5-13.
Aaron. Ira. "Reading and Reading Evaluation in Georgia Today" in Georgia Journal of Reading. 3 (Fall. 1977). 18-21.
Alexander. J. Estell and Ronald C. Filler. Attitudes and Reading. Newark. Delaware: International Reading Association. 1976.
Chase. Larry. The Other Side of the Report Card: A How to Do It Program for Affective Education. Pacific Palisades. California: Goodyear Publishing Company. 1975.
Johns. J. L.. et al. eds. Assessing Reading Behavior: Informal Reading Inventories. Newark. Delaware: International Reading Association. 1977.
Potter. Thomas C. and Gwenneth Rae. Informal Reading Progress. A Practical Guide for the Classroom Teacher. Englewood Cliffs. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Inc. 1973.
Punfrey. Peter D. Reading: Tests and Assessment Techniques. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1976. Rude, Robert T. "Readiness Tests: Implications for Early Childhood Education" in The Reading Teacher,
26 (March, 1973), 572-580. Sawyer, Diane J., ed. Disabled Readers: Insight, Assessment. Instruction. Newark, Delaware: International
Reading Association. 1980. Shcreimer. Robert. ed. Reading Tests and Teachers: A Practical Guide. Newark, Delaware: International
Reading Association. 1979. Venzky. Richard L. Testing in Reading. Urbana, Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English, 1974.
164

Federal law prohibits discrimination on the basis oj race. color or national origin (Title VI oj the Civil Rights Act oj 1964); sex (Title IX oj the Educational Amendments oj l1Il2 and Title II oj the Vocational Education Amendments oj 1976); or handicap (Section 504 oj the Rehabilitation Act oj 1973) in educational programs or activities receiving Jederal Jinancial assistance.
Employees. students and the general public are hereby notified that the Georgia Department oj Education does not discriminate in any educational programs or activities or in employment policies.
The Jollowing individuals have been designated as the employees responsible Jor coordinating the department's effort to implement this nondiscriminatory policy.
Title II - Ann Lary. Vocational Equity Coordinator Title VI - Peyton Williams Jr. Associate Superintendent
oj State Schools and Special Services Title IX - Myra Tolbert. Coordinator Section 504 - Jane Lee. Coordinator oj Special Education
Inquiries concerning the application oj Title II. Title VI. Title IX or Section 504 to the policies and practices oj the department may be addressed to the persons listed above at the Georgia Department oj Education. Twin Towers East. Atlanta 30334; to the Regional Office Jor Civil Rights. Atlanta 30323; or to the Director. Office Jor Civil Rights. Education Department. Washington. D.C. 20201.

~,
,l
Division of Curriculum Services Office of Instructional Services Georgia Department of Education
Adanta, Georgia 30334 Charles McDaniel
State Superintendent of Schools 1984