Language arts guide, 9-12

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Georgia Department of Education

Foreword
The language arts curriculum in Georgia's schools should ensure that each student obtains the listening, speaking, reading and writing skills necessary to function effectively. The curriculum should integrate various areas of the language arts discipline and avoid the fragmentation that can result when instruction focuses on isolated skill development. It should accommodate each student's individual needs, abilities and learning rate.
As students master the concepts and skills of language arts, opportunities and encouragement for more advanced study will help them become independent, lifelong learners.
Charles McDaniel State Superintendent of Schools

Acknowledgments

The Office of Instructional Services, Division of Curriculum Services, gratefully acknowledges the time, efforts and energies of the many persons responsible for the writing of this guide. This work could not have been achieved without the services rendered by the reading, oral and written communication committee members. These committees were composed of classroom and resource teachers, system level coordinators, graduate students and university professors representing various geographical areas of the state.
To these educators and to the state language arts staff members who were instrumental in the development and production of this document, we extend our appreciation.

Advisory Committee
Mattie Eley Charles Mason Virginia Mickish Carol O'Neal Robert Probst Patricia Stewart Raymon Veal

Writing Committee
Alice Adams Robert Brown Rebecca Cooper lynn Crovatt Maureen Deloach Charles Hacker Bill Hammond Cherry Horne Sally Hudson Gale Hulme Dan Kirby Lanie LaBlanc Tom Liner Ed Merryman Robert Probst Don Rubin Eunice Sims Raymon Veal Dan Ward

2

Preface
An individual must be able to communicate to function effectively. Those who cannot adequately give and receive information are hampered in every aspect of their daily lives. Providing instruction in reading and writing and in speaking and listening has been a role of the public school since its beginning. The Language Arts Guide, which addresses the areas of reading and oral and written communication, will help school systems carry out this critical task. The importance placed on these abilities are reflected in Georgia's program of statewide assessment and in the U.S. Department of Education's Basic Skill's Initiative. The Language Arts Guide provides general suggestions and specific activities for developing and improving instructional programs in the fundamental communication skills. It does not replace or displace local curriculum development. Adaptation and thorough development remain the province and responsibility of local school system personnel, those teachers, supervisors and administrators most familiar with the specific needs of the children within their classrooms. Lucille G. Jordan Associate Superintendent Office of Instructional Services R. Scott Bradshaw Director Division of Curriculum Services
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-Contents

Introduction

5

Philosophy

7

Questions and Answers for Supervisors

9

Questions and Answers for Teachers

11

Oral and Written Communication

Introduction to the Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Imaging

21

Describing

26

Telling

31

Explaining

37

Persuading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Researching

47

Interpreting

53

Social Interacting (Ritualizing)

58

Reading

Reading Comprehension in the High School

65

Teaching Reading in the Content Areas

67

Building Bridges to Reading in the Content Areas

69

Assessing Print Material

71

Levels of Reading Comprehension

73

Vocabulary Development

79

Functional Reading Skills

82

Study Skills

86

Appendices

Appendix A - Evaluating Speaking and Listening Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Appendix B - Leaming Environment Checklist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

Appendix C - Self-evaluation Checklist for Classroom Teachers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

Appendix D - A Quick Checklist for Learning Centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Appendix E - Learning Style Indicator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

Appendix F - Silent Reading Checklist

119

Appendix G - Survey of Vocabulary Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

Appendix H - Readability Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

Appendix I - Cloze Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

Appendix J - Eighth Grade Criteria-referenced Test Objectives in Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

Appendix K - Basic Skills Tests Reading Indicators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

Appendix L - Language Arts Essential Skills for Georgia Schools

131

Appendix M - Standards for Basic Skills Writing Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

Appendix N - Standards for Effective Oral Communication Programs

143

Appendix 0 - Guidelines for Minimal Speaking and Listening Competencies

147

Appendix P - Instructional Re$Ources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

Bibliography

157

Resources

161

4

Introduction
Integrating instruction in the language arts means teaching specific skills in such a way that they reinforce each other. The skills listed under "Reading" and the skills listed under "Oral and Written Communication" should build developmentally upon each other. The sample activities listed in each section illustrate ways in which language arts instruction can be integrated. These activities provide an alternative to the teaching of isolated skills. Furthermore, the examples provide an opportunity to apply those skills in practical situations. This method of instruction is intended to encourage greater student understanding and use of acquired skills through an organized, supportive system of instruction. A student can learn to read by writing, listening and speaking; the creative teacher will find ways which allow this kind of exploration to occur.
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Philosophy

The communicative arts - listening, speaking, reading and writing - are basic to our humanity. By mastering them we gain knowledge of ourselves, and we acquire the accumulated knowledge of our civilization.
Teaching the communicative arts is a complex and difficult task. Without a coherent framework for constructing curricula, the efforts of even the best teachers are sometimes ineffective and often unduly laborious.
This guide was prepared to help those responsible for curriculum development to think through the nature of the communicative arts so that teachers and students may work together in a more efficient, effective and gratifying manner.
A strong program in the communicative arts respects the skills and experiences students bring to school. Some students enter school with well-developed communicative resources - an intuitive understanding of the grammar of their language, an understanding of sound/symbol correspondence and a sense of narration. Other students enter school with only a limited set of language experiences.
Because there is this range of differences, assess-

ment and identification of learner strengths and weaknesses are the beginning points for instructional planning. As learning progresses, individual differences in rate and sequence of growth among learners also become apparent. Curricular and instructional strategies must be sensitive to these differences, providing options for teachers to personalize communicative arts learning.
A fundamental basis of communicative arts is that children learn to communicate best in an experience-based setting. Language learning is an active process. Classroom experiences should have a real purpose for the student. Teaching aboat listening, speaking, reading or writing must be subordinate; it must support, not replace, active learning experiences.
This guide does not attempt to resolve all the conflicts inherent in teaching the communicative arts. The writers are aware of the necessity for local adaptation and for personalized instruction. What follows is a guide for local curriculum developers. It must be adapted to meet the special needs of the young people who enter classrooms at the beginning of every school year.

7

Questions andAnswersfor Supervisors

1. What i. the purpo.e of thi. g~ide?
This guide provides instructional personnel with a resource that can be used as a basis for integrating the language arts curriculum through program planning and program development. The guide also provides reo sources for staff development and improvement inthe areas ofskill development,teaching strategies, classroom organization and evaluation.
2. Howwillthi....ide help as improveoar
program.? The guide interrelates communication skills in such a way that skills are learned and reinforced in a natural context as opposed to an isolated, single subject approach. The guide may be used to improve programs through staff development in the areas of skill development through activities, classroom organization and evaluation.
3. How win this guide relate to what we are currently doing in language arts?
Regardless ofthetype ofprogram being used (i.e., basal, language experience), the guide provides purposes and objectives that are appropriate for any program. The organization suggestions cover most ofthe language artssystemscurrentlyused in Georgia schools.
4. How may this guide be u.ed to move
from a .eparate subject curriculum (readingpening. Engli.h) to an inte grated curriculum? The guide provides purposes and objectives for teaching reading with all ofthe communication skills. These can be used as a starting point for identifying systemwide goals and objectives. Once goals and objectiVes are identified, the teaching activities, materials and texts that are availablefor meetingthese goals may be ietentified.
Suggested steps for implementation
a. Use guide goals as a starting point for identifying systemwide goals.
b. Identify activities, materials, texts and other resources that can be used to meet the identified goals at appropriate instructional levels.

c. Develop appropriate evaluation techniques and follow-up activities.
d. Establish a schedule for the revision of goals and priorities.
5. How may this guide be implemented?
Teachers might be divided into grade level groups or subject matter groups. The purposes of the guide should be discussed thoroughly. The format of the guide should be examined in terms of grade level and areas covered under each section. After the teachers are familiar with the format, they should be shown how to begin at the appropriate grade level, how to select the skill area under consideration and how to find the skill(s) to be taught. After the skill is identified, activities should be selected appro priate to the type of program and organization being used.
6. For whom was the guide written and
to whom should it be disseminated? This guide is intended for use by curriculum specialists/coordinators, administrators, resource teachers, classroom teachers and teachers of special reading programs. Multipie copies of the gUide should be sent to each school so that it is readily available for reference by administrators and staff. Each curriculum specialist/coordinator involved with language arts should have a copy. Curriculum specialists/coordinators of other subject areas should also be encouraged to become familiar with sections of the guide which are appropriate to their subject areas.
.7. What .pecific curriculum areas are addreed in the guide? The overriding philosophy of the guide is integration of the language arts. Speaking, listening, reading and writing are addressed in terms of their interrelationships.
8. Mast the total guide be used or can
.ection. of it be u.ed individually? Each instructional level portion ofthis guide is divided into sections dealing with selected areas of language instruction. However, because of the integrated nature of the guide, examplesofactivitieswhich will improve

9

the teaching of reading, oral and written communication will be found in most sec tions ofthe guide. Therefore, to derive maxi mum benefit from this guide, the user is advised to examine all of an instructional level portion.
9. How may the community be involved in the implementation and use of this guide? The community must be made aware of the educational advantages ofteaching reading and the other language arts in an integrated fashion. Actual classroom observations or instructional simulations of this integrated approach at community meetings will effect awareness. Many of the activities included

in the guide could be conducted by commu nity volunteers. Each school should select the methods which are most appropriate for its community.
10. How may help be obtained hom the Georgia Department of Education in the implementation of this guide? Consultants from the Division of Curriculum Services of the Georgia Department of Education will provide help when requested. Requests may be made by contacting the director, Division of Curriculum Services, Georgia Department of Education, 1952 Twin Towers East, Atlanta, Georgia 30334, (404) 656-2412.

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Questions and Answers for Teachers

1. What is the purpose of this guide? This guide serves as a practical- resource instrument to help the instructional staff improve the planning and organization of the language arts curriculum. It also provides suggested activities and resources for classroom teachers.
2. What is meant by integration of language arts? The integration of language arts means that the communication process (listening, speaking, reading and writing) is interrelated, not fragmented.
3. What is the difference between language arts and reading? Reading is a part of the language arts.
4. Who will explain the guide? This guide will be explained by principals and curriculum directors.
5. Do I have to use the guide? All teachers will be encouraged to use this guide and its suggested activities to supplement their local program.
6. How do I use this guide with the system's reading program? This guide may be used as a resource to provide additional activities and strategies for reinforcement of the language arts skills.
7. How do I use this guide with the school English and spelling programs? The guide is so designed that the materials being used in the existing school program might gain greater vitality. All aspects ofthe language arts program are taught in support of the total language development of the student.
8. What levels does the guide cover? This guide covers instructional levels K through 12 in two documents, K-S and 9-12.
9. How will this guide help teachers pro videforindividualstudentdifferences? Because the activities and suggested resources are designed to personalize the instructional program, all students will benefit from the methods suggested in this guide. Effective student learning comes about as a result of a thorough understanding of the

student's current level of academic performance and a thoughtfully prepared program of instruction.
10. How relevant is this ...ide to specific situations? The guide follows a general format making it adaptable to any situation. Its relevancy is found through the use of many state documents which address concerns for a variety of student populations.
11. When will I have time to do the sug gested activities? The suggested activities outlined in this guide may be incorporated into daily lesson plans where applicable. The use of the guide will actually save you time in terms of planning activities and teaching skills. The activities are intended to be an integral part of the teaching plan, not an additional activity.
12. Where willi get the materials for these activities? The materials suggested can be obtained from a variety of sources including the school media center, community resource file and the newspaper.
13. Where willi find the suggested refer ences? The references may be obtained from various community libraries/media centers, the system-maintained professional library, local colleges and universities and through the state department of education library.
14. How does this guide relate to the other state department language arts prod. ucts and guides? This guide is one of several language arts documents published bythe state department. It serves as a coordinating reference designed to address organization and management techniques as well as suggested teaching/classroom activities. It reinforces the language arts positions of the department as set forth in the Kindergarten in Georgia guide, the Georgia Criterion-referenced Tests, the Standards/or Georgia Public Schools and other relevant state programs.

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Oral and Written Communication

Introduction to the Model

The acquisition of oral and written language is a complex human process. Competency in speak- .. ing and writing is far more than the mastery of a collection of skills. A competent speaker or writer has developed a process for translating thoughts and feelings into language that can be read and understood by a wide range of audiences. While the processes may vary, they are not random or wholly individualized.
The instructional strategies in this guide are based on the notion that the ability to use language develops as a child actually uses language. The model for instruction which follows evolved as a result of observing young children acquire oral language and from discussing children's individual processes with writers and teachers of writing.
Fluency The initial goals in the teaching of oral and written language center around the need to familiarize students with the medium. When students begin to produce language, just as when they begin to acquire any other complex behavior, they need practice, support and response. Experimentation is encouraged. Children must have the opportunity to speak and write often. Judgments about the fine points of correctness and form are suspended. Children, in their initial attempts at language production, are trying to find a personal voice and to gain confidence. The teacher must keep in mind the importance of encouragement and acceptance; frequent positive response is crucial. Specific skills are far less important than whole pieces of discourse or the discussion of those oral or written efforts. Working to develop ease and familiarity with lan-
guage is the primary goal during the fluency period.

Control As students begin to feel comfortable with their oral and written efforts as a means of expression, instructors gradually begin to help students become more precise in their speaking and writing. Because these media make many complex demands on the students, teachers must help them learn the appropriate controls through practice and particularly through revision. Arranging purposeful settings and responsive audiences for students' efforts will provide opportunity for much of the direct teaching of rhetorical and usage conventions; publishing student writing and directing students to write for diverse audiences will accomplish similar ends in written communication. The teaching of the controls, especially in writing (e.g., usage and mechanics, punctuation and spelling), should be integrated gradually into activities. Evaluation of these particulars should also be cumulative, beginning first with a few criteria and slowly adding to them as students gain more familiarity and sophistication. Careful control of language, oral and written, grows gradually; instructors should not try to hurry the process by making inappropriate demands on the inexperienced student.
Effectiveness As students learn to control language, they learn to make judgments about their efforts and to make conscious decisions about the effectiveness of these efforts. They learn to function as their own critics and editors and to accept advice and counsel from other editors. They explore and consider syntactic and rhetorical options, selecting those appropriate to form and audience. Practice and criticism build an intuitive sense. Students develop a "feel" for what works in effective speaking and writing.

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Growth from fluency to control to effectiveness is a cooperative venture between students and teachers. Teachers who work with their students during the process have many opportunities to model the behaviors of a competent sp~aker and writer and to gain a fuller understanding of their students' development.
Remember, no single speaking or writing activity, teacher or grade level can provide a student every language skill. Language is a complex human behavior; it develops gradually through practice. The activities in this guide are designed to help teachers lead students through the process in an incremental, step-by-step manner. The cumulative effect of such concentrated practice should produce competent speakers and writers.

The chart on page represents an abbreviated list of behaviors for both teachers and students. It offers some suggestions for assisting students as their speaking and writing matures. It is left to the teacher to determine at what point Control should become a factor in the instructional program, (i.e., third grade, fifth grade or even second grade). This point varies according to the experiences and the maturity of the students involved. The same is true of Effectiveness; its introduction might be most appropriate in the ninth grade with some students and the 12th grade with others. The stages, as the arrows on the chart suggest, do not displace each other; they are added. Efforts at fluency should be continued throughout grades K through 12.

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A Developmental Model 'or Oral and Written Communication

Fluency-----------.......;;------------------------)~

Control----------------->~ Effectiveness ---->~

Student behaviors
1. Produces language (oral and written). 2. Enjoys words. 3. Experiments with structures. 4. Shares thoughts. ideas. feelings. 5. Responds supportively to oral and
written presentations of classmates. 6. Develops self-confidence and finds
a personal voice.
Teacher behaviors
1. Encourages participation. 2. Creates a stimulating and supportive
classroom environment. 3. Develops nonverbal. oral and
written practice activities. 4. Listens and responds to students'
oral and written efforts with encouragement. 5. Provides opportunities for students to practice and demonstrate publicly accomplishments. i.e. provides audiences for oral presentation. displays and publishes written material. 6. Develops students' skills in responding to and helping each other. 7. Provides through personal action and behavior a model for the students' use of oral and written language.

Student behaviors
1. Seeks and provides feedback. 2. Experiments with mode and
audience. 3. Experiments with different voices. 4. Considers alternative methods
of delivery-style. syntax. organization and presentation. 5. Works ~hin constraints and limits. 6. Seeks peer/audience evaluation. reaction. response. 7. Proofs and edits writings.
Teacher behaviors
1. Encourages participation. 2. Responds to students' oral and
written products with suggestions for improvement. 3. Structures real speaking and writing situations. 4. Analyzes problems and develops practice activities. 5. Evaluates students' oral and written presentations.

Student behaviors
1. Adapts language choices to situation and audience.
2. Controls a variety of rhetorical and syntactic devices.
3. Speaks and writes with polish and technical precision.
Teacher behaviors
1. Offers technical advice and assistance.
2. Develops real speaking and writing situations.
3. Acts as editor and critic. 4. Challenges students to
attempt difficult exercises. 5. Evaluates students' oral and
written products with a variety of previously established and announced criteria.

Adapted &om a model by Dan Kirby. 1981. Reprinted with permission.
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Classroom and Instructional Management

Proficiency in oral and written communication requires frequent and regular practice. For too long students have been admonished to be quiet rather than encouraged to take part in profitable discussion. For too long they have had insufficient opportunity or demand for written composition. To provide for adequate opportunity for both of these activities, classroom exercises should be quite different from the usual oral question and answer routine or the lack of opportunities for written communication. Such practices will afford more productive and surely exhilarating experiences for teachers and students.
Many of the classroom strategies and activities will involve not only oral and written communication but also the companion skills of listening and reading. Oral panel discussions and press conferences will require research and note taking, careful listening and the making of judgments. Role playing will in many cases demand an understanding, through reading, of the fictional, legendary or historical characters to be portrayed. Regular class discussion on subjects of scholarly, general or humorous interest will foster courteous and attentive listening, increase ability to speak clearly and coherently and will call for further reading to gain adequate information on the subject under discussion.
Writing will take place quite frequently and peer evaluation of these writings discussed in small groups will cut down appreciably on the need for the reading and grading of each paper by the teacher. Also, it will give students practice in reading aloud, in listening critically, in becoming aware of the structure and use of language. Finally, it will help develop the insight and judgment needed for students to decide if they have written what they intended their audience to read.
Meeting in small groups of five or less, students read their short papers to one another. After a bit of practice they learn to give positive, helpful criticism to each other in matters of content, coherence, style, mechanics and conventions. The teacher, as monitor or arbitrator, is ready to respond to a raised hand or a spoken query to settle differences of opinion or answer relevant

questions. Students then have the opportunity of revising their papers, using or rejecting the suggestions of their peers as they wish.
Perhaps only one student paper among five needs to be read and evaluated by the teacher; or the teacher may give each student the opportunity to select the paper thought to be the best of his or her most recent five, and collect only these from the students. The teacher may vary the method of selection and reduce the possibility of a student preparing only one good paper when several were to be written.
Short speeches, prepared by each student for presentation to the class, may be evaluated by peers in much the same way. Each student in the small group, making a speech to the group, has the advantage of hearing helpful suggestions or requests for clarification which are not often possible when addressing a large audience.
A trial run before this small group, prior to presentation to the teacher and entire class, is beneficial to the speaker, demands careful attention from peers and trains the peers in audience conduct.
Teaching students to work in groups is an art in itself. But the patience required is rewarded in student performance and teacher satisfaction.
The teaching and learning of grammar and usage take place in a variety of ways. Students will work on the errors they make rather than correcting flawed sentences written by someone else or published in grammar texts; the latter examples do not address the problem and may actually introduce, develop or reinforce a new error.
Sentence-combining exercises make use of correct sentence structure and encourage inventiveness and judgment, while introducing the more sophisticated structures of the English sentence. Learning new vocabulary and spelling practice are worthy side effects to the process of sentence combining.
Small group or paired activities will replace the written short answer exercises usually graded by teachers or aides. Students using textbook exer-

17

cises will work individually, but they will discuss the exercises and their answers and conclusions in small groups, teaching and learning from each other, with adult arbitration when needed.
The most effective method of teaching grammar will result from full class discussions of errors found in the students' own speech and papers. The papers, reproduced without student identity disclosed, will be written on the board or an overhead transparency. Healthy discussions occur over what may be wrong, how it can be corrected and what rule of grammar is involved. Working with examples from their own speech and writing makes a personal impact on students; the information is more vivid and more thoroughly absorbed than filling in the blank or correcting sentences.
A factor which is frequently overlooked, particularly in the classroom, is nonverbal communica-
tion between teachers and students. A. teacher's
protracted frown or pursed lips, the hands in front, all fingers touching, or the fierce glare with hands on hips, can indicate disgust or disap-

proval as clearly as a verbal tirade. A student, squirming and uneasy, may need only a trip to the bathroom, while another, making repeated trips to the pencil sharpener may need encouragement about the writing assignment.
In oral communication, paralanguage, the denial of the spoken words by tone of voice or facial expression, can convey more meaning than the words themselves. The simple phrase, "good morning," can be said with genuine good humor or with such venom that it approaches an insult. Too little attention is given to this form of communication, yet it is an essential medium for understanding.
Finally, a positive classroom climate and genuine praise for worthwhile effort will accomplish more teaching and learning than all the negative criticism and red marked papers. The classroom should always be a cooperative place where teacher and students join in decision making, in oral and written communication and in the exciting business of learning.

18

Grammar and Usage

The following sections address specific activities and suggestions for implementing instruction in various modes of discourse. Much is said of praise and of editing; little is said of what we commonly label grammar. There is good reason for this; it is not simply an omission. Language instruction will be the subject of another document, one that will consider the teaching of mechanics, syntax and usage.
This is not to say that we intend for language instruction to be a separate area of language arts. Problems in correcting grammar and usage arise as soon as children begin to speak or to write and continue throughout their lifetime. Similarly, correction begins at that same point and continues until an individual is no longer concerned with precision in language use.
Instruction in conventional usage and in usage conventions is and ought to be an integral part of the language arts classroom. There is no professional way to avoid it. However, an overdose of correction is detrimental to the individual.
When problems arise in a student's use of language, as they will from the beginning, instruction must follow; but this instruction should address the needs of the student in terms of his or her own writing, not in terms of a textbook. As a student begins to write dialogue, for example, that is the time to explain the use of quotation marks. As students seek to say more complicated things and attempt to say them in more complicated ways, that is the time to explain and demonstrate the punctuation of clauses and

phrases. The acquisition of skills will be uneven throughout any group. Some students will learn to handle commas, for example, rapidly; others will be laboring with them into college.
While periodic reviews of mechanics are not harmful, annual repetitions are. Repeating the same exercises year after year to the same students will simply age both student and teacher prematurely. Such repetition and the lack of appropriate change only disaffect everyone and waste time.
As problems in the students' writings develop, the students should be given proper corrective instruction and subsequent papers should be checked for anticipated improvements. If improvements do not develop, repeated instruction may be necessary for those who need it. Changing instructional techniques or approaches may be helpful. Subjecting an entire class to repeated exercises required by only 40 percent is futile. The result is an inefficient use of teacher and student time.
For best results a personal approach to teaching is required. Group instruction is needed to introduce and develop new topics, concepts and ideas, but errors emerging in the work of some students are signals that some need additional help, i.e., those students still producing the errors. There are numerous ways to do this, from the use of special text exercises designed to correct sp.ecific errors as well as individual tutoring. The teacher's goal is to help students acquire a skill as soon as possible and to eliminate reteaching.

19

A Note From the Writers

Objectives for this document are to provide teachers with a model to help students learn to express themselves well; to regard language development with little fear or apprehension; and to assure as much success as the individuals' potentials and the teachers' skills can jointly accomplish.
We realize that school is not necessarily a training ground for future literary prize winners. We are aware the majority of the students who attend public schools will probably never produce written works of classic quality. Our intent is to help make all students more comfortable and more effective in their use of language. We are not dismissing the budding literary geniuses; it is our conviction that they, too, will be served by the program that follows.
Our plan is deceptively simple. To learn to speak or to write, inevitably, one must speak or write often, as much as possible and in every imaginable context. Injunction must be balanced with encouragement; correction with praise. The students' faltering beginnings must be received with the same pride, excitement and reward as were their infant attempts at speech and movement.
Regular opportunities for trial and error, for success and failure, must be an integral part of

the program. Every note of praise must sound louder than every comment of correction.
One does not learn to speak without correction, but neither does one learn by being silenced. The repetition inherent in the natural process that enables the young to acquire their native tongue can and should be a regular facet of a program of language instruction provided by the school.
A communication program is offered that supports both the receptive and the expressive modes of language. Opportunities for each are a regular feature; they must be the norm not the exception. While we do not always capitalize on it, we already provide a great deal of practice in listening within our schools; but opportunities for our students to talk seem lacking.
For this program to succeed, for young people to realize their potential, students must be encouraged to talk and to write as much as they are now being exhorted to listen and to read. This responsibility rests with those of us who work with young people: we must talk to them, listen to them, read what they have written and comment upon their work. We must provide suitable and varied audiences for our students, audiences responsive and meaningful to the students themselves. This is one of our greatest challenges.

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Imagining

School talk and school writing are too often dominated by the academic and the drab. Yet in each of us, at every age, lurks delightful imagination, fleeting fantasy, even gruesome possibility. We dare not dwell on them. Instead, we learn to submerge them and concentrate on the reality of educational and sociological demands.
Children come to school strong in imagination and full of make-believe. Some have engaged in made up conversations among their dolls or stuffed animals; many have enjoyed imaginary friends or playmates. Such behavior is sometimes tolerated and sometimes discouraged by parents and teachers.
In the early school years lists of things, words and people are often memorized; stories become mere sequences of events. In later years poems are desecrated by reducing them to mere iambic pentameter or anapestic trimeter. Term papers

on assigned subjects become chores rather than joyful explorations. Frequently, such papers result in counterproductive student-coping strategies such as plagiarism.
The need for some of the exercises mentioned above is not to be denied. The exercise of the imagination, however, should also be permitted. Evidence indicates its use should be encouraged throughout the years of formal schooling. Surely, in the area of the spoken and the written word, imagination should playa major role.
Imagination sparks the use of various sentence structures and invites the search for the right word, the succinct phrase. And it is not only in the area of creative activities that imagination is a necessary ingredient; oral and written discourse in any area is enriched and enlivened by imaginative and selective use of language.

21

Sample Activities
Dialogue Grades 910

Purpose
Previous study of one-act plays and short stories will enable students to fabricate brief situations which lend themselves to the writing of dialogue in a short story or lines in a play. This activity permits students to have this experience.
Objectives
The learner will
create a brief, original episode requiring dialogue which might be a part of a short story or a one-act play.
choose between writing the dialogue as part of a short story or as a play.
write the dialogue in the chosen form.
preface the completed dialogue with a brief written presentation of the situation in which the dialogue takes place, including whatever explanation concerning the characters is essential for understanding the piece.
Materials
Copies of one-act plays and short stories containing several good examples of dialogue.
Grammar handbooks as references for proper punctuation of direct quotations.
Summary
Dialogue enlivens many different forms of written discourse, but learning to write dialogue is a special skill. This activity encourages the imaginative development of dramatic episodes using dialogue and reinforces the knowledge of the correct form for conversation in a story or lines in a play. (This activity will take several class periods.)
Procedures
1. Read to the class an example of a short story with a great deal of dialogue.
2. Lead a class discussion concerning the ways in which the dialogue enhances the story. "Does it make a particular character's personality more vivid?" "Does it add informa-

tion you need?" "Is the action furthered by the dialogue?" "How does dialogue accomplish these things?"
3. Read a one-act play. If there are several copies available. have students read the different parts.
4. Direct a class discussion about how these characters reveal themselves through their own speeches or through comments made to them or about them by other characters. Include some consideration of the way the action is also revealed by the lines of the characters.
5. Have students sPend sufficient time (perhaps an entire period or a homework activity) inventing a situation in which they will be able to create dialogue to advance action in a story or play or to reveal characters. These situations can be sketched in note or outline form.
6. Assign students to write the prefaces to their dialogues (brief explanations of the situation and whatever information is necessary concerning the characters). This may be done before or after the next step.
7. Students are to decide upon the written form they will use (play or short story) and write their dialogues.
8. Meeting in small groups of three. students will read their pieces to each other for criticism and suggestions.
9. Time is allowed for revision following the group sharing.
10. Selected finished products are read aloud or acted out. The manner of selection will vary - one from each group. volunteers or whatever seems appropriate.
(The remainder oj this activity may be done in small groups oj three to five students, depending on the size oj the class and whether students are able to work well independently.)

22

Evaluation
Peer evaluation will take place in the small group activity and when the. final papers are read.
Teacher evaluation can be done rapidly as papers are read, but a thorough evaluation will no doubt be desired. Positive comments on each paper and suggestions for improvement will be emphasized. If the level of achievement in some of the finished products suggests a need, students should revise and improve their papers.
Grading will be done after revision. Errors in mechanics and punctuation should be kept on a checklist for future teaching.
FoUow-up Activities
To acquire agility in both forms of using dialogue, students can rewrite their dialogue in the form not used with the first writing.
Students should be encouraged to write the entire short story or one-act play which they have started. Perhaps a group would like to collaborate on this activity. These could be put

in a booklet and copies placed in the school media center.
Resources
Writing Incredibly Short Plays, Poems, Stories, by James H. Norton and Francis Gretton (Harcourt)
Some suggested short stories "Miss Phipps Improvises," by Phyllis Bentley "Tobermory," by Saki "The Dressmaker's Doll," by Agatha Christie "My Queer Dean," by Ellery Queen
All of the above are found in Suspense, A Treasury for Young Adults, edited by Sean Manley and Gogo Lewis (Funk and Wagnalls)
One-Act Plays "Amicable Parting," by George S. Kaufman and Leueen MacGrath "The Patient," by Agatha Christie
The above plays and other appropriate ones can be found in Twenty One-Act Plays, edited by Stanley Richards (Doubleday).

23

Nursery Rhy~es Grades 11-12

Purpose
Many nursery rhymes and stories children enjoy today just for the story element were originally political or social satires written in England to ridicule individuals or situations. The simplicity of these small literary pieces lends itself to imagined symbolism geared to present social, theological or psychological thinking. This activity permits students to invent modem symbolism as it may be deduced from a story or poem and to justify their choices of symbols.
Objectives
The learner will fabricate meanings in the simplest stories and
poems using the total situation of the piece and the most insignificant details as symbolic justifications of these meanings. present these meanings orally and in writing, attempting to convince the audience that they are possible intentions of the authors.
Materials
Several copies of children's stories and rhymes
Summary
A free use of the imagination will permit students to create out of simple situations profound symbolism which may be ridiculous, but will appear to be the intentions of the authors.
Procedures
1. Divide the class heterogeneously into groups of five.
2. Distribute copies of nursery rhymes and tales to each group.
3. Explain that they are to try to see into one or two of these pieces of imaginary symbolism meanings which were never intended by the authors.
4. Read a short excerpt from The Pooh Perplex, by Frederick Crews, or a story by some author who has done this sort of absurd but amusing speculation, to illustrate the kind of activity in which they are engaged.

5. If it seems wise, suggest general areas which might be addressed; e.g., economy, religion, manners, mores, social justice or psychology.
6. Instruct each group to choose a nursery rhyme or story on which to work. Be certain that no two groups choose the same piece.
7. In their groups let the students brainstorm possible symbolic implications in the chosen piece and in the details included.
8. Using the material suggested in the brainstorming sessions, each student will write an individual analysis of the symbolism in the piece. Remind them that the most insignificant details are to be considered as symbols or justification of the total symbolism.
9. Reconvening in their groups, probably the next day, students will read their papers to each other for enjoyment, helpful criticism and suggestions, and for choosing the most interesting paper in the group to be read to the class.
10. Have all papers revised and proofread by the individual writers according to suggestions made in group discussion, and have the one selected in each group read to the class.
Evaluation
1. Peer evaluation will take place in the group sessions described in #9 of the Procedures.
2. Teacher evaluation will be done only after revisions and proofreading have been completed.
3. A booklet containing a copy of each of the finished pieces may be put together.
FoUow-up Activities
Since this is a difficult piece of imaginative writing to have accomplished, it may be well to have students repeat the process with a piece which was not used or heard in class. In this storming on one selection and let each student operate independently. If the group activity seems necessary, repeat that part of the procedures as well.

24

Whether the preceding activity is used or not, students are ready to analyze the symbolism in a poem which has not been studied previously. The group procedure may be used, or individual analysis may be undertaken. In either case, several pieces should be analyzed, each one by several students, for comparison, criticism and suggestions in preparation for revision and evaluation.
Resources
Books of nursery rhymes
Books of children's stories or fairy tales
The Pooh Perplex, by Frederick Crews
The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, by C. S. Lewis, in the Namia Series
'Books containing poems selected for analysis of symbolism
Any textbook on literary analysis

General Suggestions
Positive reinforcement of student effort has proved more beneficial to learning than negative criticism. Praise for unworthy effort, however, is poor practice. Students are quick to detect sham.
Creating an audience other than the teacher for student work is important. This can be achieved through mobiles, bulletin boards or hall displays, school newspapers, completed booklets in the library, quarterly creative writing student magazines and various other methods.
The teaching of grammar and usage can be most effectively taught from lists of student errors with anonymous examples. This teaching involves class discussions concerning the errors, their possible correction and the rules governing the usage. Using the students' own writings, encouraging whole class discussions of problems and solutions, are more relevant than the grammar text rules and exercises and result in more permanent learning.

25

Describing

Description has traditionally been considered one of the four main types of writing, along with narration, argumentation and exposition. To describe something is to convey an image or impression of it in words which reveal appearance, nature or characteristics.
The most effective description usually includes details based on clear, concrete images. These details are presented, not merely cataloged. Selection for a definite purpose and a definite point of view becomes a consideration. Details are generally arranged in some logical pattern; that pattern may be spacial, associative or progressive. The discreet use of words of color, sound, motion and other adjectives which affect the senses enriches a descriptive piece of work. Descriptive writing reveals or implies the vividness, strength and intensity of the writer's personal observation of the world and its people.
Descriptive writing is evident in almost everything we read from a novel with real characters and an enticing setting to a good news story which so accurately reports the facts that the reader feels he or she is there. Most often, description is combined with narrative to create a vibrant story line or with other types of writing as a supporting device. Occasionally, it is used for its own sake.
This guide suggests that instruction in descriptive writing begins in the early grades as the child produces descriptions that merely catalog details. Gradually, in the middle grades students may begin to perceive the importance of discreet wording and point-of-view. Finally, the high school student probably matures into an effective descriptive writer. The teacher should always remember that this is a gradual process which develops only through extensive practice, sequential, purposeful instruction and student insights that deepen with time.
The teacher must encourage and develop in individual students the skills of keen observation.

Lessons in observing details may in fact be ends in themselves at first as well as in the later stages of development. Gradually, students will come to see that although we can be overburdened with details in closely observing a scene or person, observations should be translated and organized into selective, purposeful details to be effective in a piece of descriptive writing.

Instruction in description must build on the example of excellent writing from a variety of media; e.g., newspapers, books, film, magazines, texts. Students should be encouraged to read and to listen to outstanding passages of description so they begin to develop a feel for effective writing. Passages might be compared for degrees of effectiveness and rewritten for improvement. Shakespearean drama and old radio programs provide surprisingly good bases for discussion of the need for description in oral language.

Gradually description is combined with other methods of composing as it becomes appropriate. Since description is generally used to support other types of writing, students should be helped to see how its use can make all types of writing more effective. An exercise which produces a detailed character or descriptive scene might be used as the basis for a short story, for a collection of pieces from several students, or for a novel. Expository writing or persuasion may be enriched by strong descriptive support.

An emphasis upon real situations, scenes, peo-

ple and things with which student writers can

identify and which elicit feelings or ideas they

would like to communicate to others is important.

The descriptive writing process should always be

kept in the perspective of real communication to

real audiences for real purposes. Students should

have the freedom to describe that which is

meaningful to them, whether it is a special toy

in first grade or a special elderly person in high

school.

'

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Sample Activities
Memories Grades 9-10

Purpose
Students will develop interview questions, carry out an interview with an older person and use the responses to write a descriptive paper about an object, process or everyday experience no longer common.
Objectives
The learner will
design questions for an interview.
interview an older person.
record the interview.
write an account of the interview in a style and form appropriate to content, purpose and audience.
revise the account based on suggestions and further information from the person interviewed.
present an informal oral report of the interview.
submit for publication the written account in a reference booklet for the school media center.
Materials/Aides
Paper and pencil
Older persons (preferably over 60) willing to be interviewed by students (e.g., relatives, neighbors, friends, members of local historical societies)
Foxjire books and magazines (optional)
Summary
After discussing this project, developing interview questions and practicing an interview in class, students will interview an older person to elicit detailed information and description about an object, process or everyday experience no longer common. Students will discuss appropriate form and style in class and write a first draft. They will discuss the draft with the person interviewed and obtain comments or suggestions for improvement and additions from those people. Finally, the students will share their accounts orally with the class and submit edited copies for a reference booklet to be placed in the school media center.

Procedures
Allow three weeks jor this project.
1. Discuss the objectives, goals and range of activities for this project with the class. (Reading and discussing articles from Foxfire books and magazines or from other similar materials may help inspire interest.)
2. Encourage brainstorming of ideas for interviews and subjects and list suggestions on the chalkboard. (Enthusiasm is the key.)
3. Ask each student to locate a willing interviewee as homework.
4. Discuss interviewing and questioning techniques. Explain to students that early questions should elicit a flow ofideas about objects, processes or everyday experiences which are no longer common but which were once familiar to the interviewee. Point out that specific, detailed questions should center around one ofthose ideas and should allow the students a clear, lifelike impression of the interviewee's remembrances. Once students have the idea, provide some examples. They should then develop a set of questions for the next day.
Note: Questions will of necessity be open ended to elicit the most information and must be subject to change or quick adaptation. The questions should only be a basis/or the interview. Student interoiewers should be prepared to adapt to any subject 0/ interest to the interviewee. One which may be surprising can also be enlightening.
5. Briefly discuss recording techniques for use during an interview. A tape recorder would be most helpful, but brief, inconspicuous notetaking (fully developed immediately after the interview) can be equally helpful.
6. Explain that notations about the interviewee's appearance, gestures and voice quality may add great life to a final account of the interview.
7. Provide class time for students to practice their interviewing techniques in pairs with each student having a turn at each side of the interview.

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8. Encourage sharing of observations. revision of questions as necessary. consciousness of the interviewee's feelings and effective notetaking.
9. Allow at least five days. including-a weekend. for students to complete their interviews.
10. When the students have completed their interviews. discuss form and style choices appropriate to audience. purpose and content (i.e. who will read the material; what is the intent ofthe piece-entertainment. history. information. and what should be included). Any choices meeting this criteria should be acceptable. Follow-up conferences with individual students having problems might be needed.
11. Allow at least two days to write the account derived from the interview. This is a first draft. but should be clear enough for the interviewee to read and discuss with the student.
12. Students should ask interviewees to read or listen to their first drafts and comment. correct or add details. In this process the student might note further details about the person.
13. Students should then revise papers based on input from interviewees.
14. Students should read their accounts aloud to the class emphasizing enjoyment and information sharing.

15. Discussion should follow each reading: interesting writing and clear observations should be highlighted and complimented.
16. The class should assemble their accounts of the interviews in a reference book to be donated to the school library/media center for use in similar projects.
Evaluation
Participation and success in meeting each objective should be the basis for the teacher's evaluation and for each student's self-evaluation. Interview. tapes or transcripts. student enthusiasm and reflection of student involvement with interviewee in final paper might also be considered.
FoUow-up Activities
This project could lead into a study of regional writers of the time period described by most of the interviewers and lend new insight to this literature.
After reading books of an even earlier historical period. students might repeat this activity by hypothetically interviewing a character from the book or the author and supplementing their imaginings with further research. Students might try to assemble accounts of similar daily events through four generations (such as modes of travel) from personal accounts of representatives from each generation.

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Local History Grades 1112

Purpose
Students will research various aspects of life in their locality from 1900 to present.
Objectives
The learner will
research regional aspects of American life in 20 year segments.
participate in oral discussion of various time periods.
participate cooperatively in class and small group discussions.
write and revise articles based on input from the students' own lives, research and peers.
present papersaloud to the class. analyze and evaluate the effectiveness of the
research and of the reporting.
Materials/Aides
Paper and pencil
School media center or public libraries and public archives
Chalk and chalkboard
Summary
Students will discuss and research regional aspects of past and modern American life. They will share their findings with their classmates. This research will be used to develop individual pieces for a time capsule describing modern American life intended for an audience 20 years from now. These papers will be presented to the class and analyzed for completeness. Bound copies will be provided each student to reopen in 20 years.
Procedures
1. Draw a time line with 20 year segments from 1900 to the present.
2. Ask students to brainstorm aspects of American life appropriate to those time periods. This might include entertainment, sports, travel. furniture, fashion. books. music. technology. appliances. daily chores, jobs. education, economy. reflections ofworld scene.

3. Students should discuss each aspect in 20 year blocks. It is likely that their knowledge will be sketchy; use this lack of information to lead into the assignment for the next few days.
4. Divide students into committees based on their interests. Each committee will address one or more aspects of American life such as education or entertainment. As a group. students will divide their major topic into subcategories for individual research in the library. (For example, entertainment may be divided into home, public, teenager, adult. children.) Each group will then be given two to three days to research its topics. Family photographs. advertisements. statistics from Almanacs and many other resources might be helpful. Notes will be helpful; however. the information gathered is not to be prepared as a report.
5. Continue the class discussion of the time line. Each committee should have an opportunity to participate and to contribute its new information.
6. Explain the full assignment to the students, each group of students will describe American life in the locality for an audience 20 years from now. Encourage enthusiasm and imagination. Remind students to consider all aspects worth developing.
7. Divide the class into small groups by areas of interest.
8. Allow a class period for groups to brainstorm specific topics within their category. The group should determine which topics each student will be responsible for developing. Students may need to write several papers or articles on each topic to address it adequately.
9. Allow several days for research. Encourage students to be open minded and wide ranging in their research; e.g. human resources, newspapers. other media.
10. Encourage small groups to share information.
11. The groups should comment and sort impor-

29

tant details to be included and limit overlaps while covering noticeable gaps.
12. Actual writing of the articles might take several days and should include comments and input from other students.
13. Share papers within small groups and, perhaps, across groups to edit and to reveal areas of weakness.
14. Revise accordingly.
15. Present papers aloud to the class. After readings, discuss the completeness of the project and make additions as necessary.
16. Bind copies of the final document for each student, the school media center, other appropriate locations.

EvaluatioD
1. The teacher's evaluation should focus on the students' accomplishment of the objectives, their participation and enthusiasm in the overall project and the new insights gained of the present and the past.
2. Individual and small group evaluations should supplement those of the teacher.
Follow-up Activities
Students can share their project with the public. Teachers might arrange a local newspaper coverage or panel discussions for civic organizations.
The class could move on to the group writing of a longer work using the description of the current place and time they now have - all that is needed is character and plot.

30

Telling

Storytelling has as its basis the relating of a series of events. A story, however, contains more than just a narrative. It contains descriptions that support the events by relating significant details which enhance the enjoyment and the understanding of the story. Stories also contain dialogue between characters, showing us how they feel, think and react.
Telling has varied purposes. A story may simply entertain. It may teach new ideas or lessons. In many instances a combination of these purposes appears in a story. In some more contemporary literature, the main purpose seems to be to create a mood or feeling. The narrative becomes poetic in the sense that imagery and ideas replace events as the vehicle for relating. While events are a part of the stories, characters and impressions are the focus of the piece. Teachers must be aware that such literature is difficult for many students to understand.
The purposes of writing that tells, then, are to entertain and to convey information or to create a mood through the elements of narration, description and dialogue. One of the purposes for teaching students to communicate in this mode should be to present and explain these principles which improve the students ability to communicate and to read and understand all forms of literature that tell, whether fictional or factual.
This should help the student discover what makes writing, their's or other's, good or bad. This can best be accomplished through discussion of what happens in a piece of writing and what caused it to happen; why the writer chose to have it happen instead of something else. Through such discussion, students arrive at a clearer understanding of a writer's purpose and develop an appreciation for the inventiveness and language skill involved in writing.
The activities that follow deal with telling as a communicative act; they are based on certain assumptions.
In the elementary years (K through 4) students should learn the elements involved in telling a story and how to create their own stories. These basic principles should be taught through regular exposure to stories (read, seen or heard) and through structured and unstructured discussion

led by the teacher rather than through the lecture method. The students become familiar with many different stories through this exposure. They begin to recognize certain characteristics of stories; e.g., some will begin to recognize that a story is about someone or something, others will realize that something is going to happen to that person or thing and that it may affect them. Generally, because children are introduced to many fairy tales and children's stories during these years, most of the stories will be romantic in nature with good winning over evil. These tales are sufficient for teaching the elements of a story.
Besides exposing students to many different stories in grades K-4, teachers should encourage students to tell their own stories. The students might relate true stories or invented ones. Both types of stories have their importance. In encouraging students to relate true stories, the teacher is better able to see how the students view themselves, their families and their world. On the other hand, when students make up stories they deal with romanticism and idealism as well as realism - not only what happened or what probably would happen but also what possibly could happen. Through inventive storytelling, students learn alternative courses of action and possible results of these actions. They also decide which are preferable. The perceptive teacher can use such imaginative information as well as the child's reality to help direct a child's learning experiences about relationships with others.
After creating these stories, students should have the opportunity to share them. They might act out their story for another class or an assembly; they might tape their story for others, or they might draw pictures for the story and make a bound and covered story book. A project the entire class can carry out is to create a series of stories about the same character or characters. Students should discover early that writing is not usually an end in itself. Writing is a means of communication. It is meant to be read, considered, performed and, most of all, enjoyed.
At the 5 through 8 grade level, students should continue to develop an understanding of the elements of telling (what it is and how to do it),

31

and they should begin to understand the steps involved. During these years, students should be exposed to a wider variety of stories. The focus should broaden from romanticism and comedy to include tragedy and irony. As the students read more and more, they should begin to identify stories according to purpose. The teacher must supply good examples of stories with different purposes and help the students see how the author achieves purpose. Questions concerning characterization, actions and language help students see that the author's purpose determines the type of story written and that the author's style determines how well the purpose is accomplished. However, in-depth study of structure and style should not be attempted. Discovering the author's purpose through discussion and teacher questioning will help the student become more involved with literature and reinforce the concept of reading as a pleasurable activity.
The students should have the opportunity to write their own stories after deciding on a purpose. This age enjoys group work and can help brainstorm ideas for the story. The result is usually a much more interesting story and a much more enjoyable learning experience for the students. Again, these stories can and should be published.
Students begin to read stories with different purposes and in different forms (novels, short stories, dramas, narrative poems, musical ballads). They should begin to recognize these forms and expand their writing to include them. By the eighth grade students should begin to answer questions dealing with the structure of the story

and why authors build their stories in certain ways. They will not be able to formulate their own questions about structure, but they should be able to respond intelligently to teacher questions about the elements and function of storytelling. It is not until high school or after that most students become independent readers capable of understanding, enjoying and learning through self-directed efforts. This is the ultimate goal for which we are striving.
In grades 9-12 students should become more involved with critical reading of stories and with writing and using different forms of fiction to meet their own purposes. Also, the students should begin to use the different forms of presentations (drama, chamber theatre, oral interpretation) for publication oftheir own works. More focus should be put on what makes a good story. Students should begin asking themselves why the author used certain words and decided on certain events; they should become familiar with widely used symbols and feel more comfortable about interpreting the literature personally. Such exercises help students discover the author's purpose, a precondition in many cases to a student understanding or enjoying a selection.
The goals for storytelling can be accomplished through integrated activities in the language arts; i.e., reading stories, listening to and discussing stories,' writing stories and ultimately publishing and perfQrming stories. Such activities fulfill two basic needs - the need to create and the need to communicate - and thus become an important part of the learning experiences.

32

Sample Activities
Persona Grades 910

Goal
This activity provides students the opportunity to develop an understanding of the effect perception has upon the manner in which a story is told.
Objectives
The learner will
recognize that perception affects one's view of reality.
recognize that perceptions vary.
study the effect of perception in a first person narrative.
retell a narrative from the perception of a selected character.
Materials
Pencil and paper
Two short, first person narratives
Transparencies or visuals of optical illusions
Picture file
Summary
Students will learn the importance of perception and its affect upon reality through direct experience with illusions that challenge perception and by reading and examining first person narratives. They will discuss and write a narrative oftheir own retelling a story from an adopted perspective.
Procedures
1. Present visual images or devices which can be viewed in separate ways and which can distort reality (such as the "vase faces" illusion used as the cover picture of English Journal, September 1974 or the young woman seated before a mirrored vanity and the overall skull impact in the picture "All is Vanity" by C. Allan Gilbert.)
2. Explain the effect of individuals' mind-sets upon their perception of reality, i.e., how the mind acts as a filter.

3. Allow students ample time to discuss, argue, deny and agree that different people see the same things differently.
4. Assign a short, first person narrative, such as Poe's "The Cask of Amontillado" or Keys' "Flowers for Algernon" for student reading.
5. In large or small groups, have students consider the effect of the narrator's personality upon the story. In the above works, Montresor's obsession and madness affect the way he perceives Fortunato, the events and the outcome ofthe story. And Charlie's handicap, while creating a different situation, equally influences his view of the events surrounding him.
6. After limited time for discussion in step five, ask students to list in order (jot outline) some of the major events or issues in the story read.
7. Ask students to use their outlines to discuss how the events and issues might have been altered if another character related the story, i.e., Fortunato's view in " ... Amontillado" or that of Dr. Strauss or Miss Kinnian in "Flowers ...." (This may be used as a writing assignment in itself, but keep the original goal of the activity in mind.)
8. Allow students time to discuss and to present their ideas about the inevitable change(s) as a result of the shift in perception.
9. Review the importance of the individual's perception upon narrative development, i.e., the statements and observations which are made in a first person narrative must be consistent with the known attitudes, biases and limitations of the individual.
10. Collect from magazines pictures of various interesting people. Select pictures that arrest attention, e.g., an elderly person roller skating. Include an assortment of character types - young, old, voluptuous, squat.

33

11. Allow students to flip through the file. Invite them to choose a picture they find appealing or use a lottery method of selection.

e. friendly f. loving g. chilly

h.sullen i. petty

12. Ask students to form small groups. Advise students to bring their pictures to their group.
13. In small groups have students study each picture.
14. Using character profile questions below, have students suggest how each group member's character might respond. The following are suggested questions for the students' character profiles. The questions should be expanded or extended.
How well-educated is yourcharacter? a. grade school b. high school c. trade school d. college e. professional school f. self-made person
Howdoes your characterviewthe world? a. suspiciously b. openly c. prejudicially d. broadmindedly e. hesitantly f. fearfully
Howdoes your characterspeak and converse? a. authoritatively b. loudly c. slowly d. quietly e. pompously f. nervously
Howdoes your characterdeal with conflict? a. escapes b. agressively c. directly d. sarcastically e. diplomatically f. deceitfully

What is your character's employment?
What is the view the community takes of your character?
15. Encourage students to assume the character's identity. Reinforce role playing as much as possible, i.e., use character's name in addressing the student.
16. Use a story (film, print or audio version) such as "Bernice Bobs Her Hair" as a narrative stimulus for retelling (j.e., as the students' characters might tell the story).
17. In the same working groups as step 12, ask students to discuss how each individual's character might tell the story.
18. Assign students to retell in writing the story from their character's perception.
19. Suggest students use working groups for editorial purposes.
20. Collect final papers for evaluation.
Evaluation
1. Peer and self-evaluation are an inherent part of the small group work and editorial efforts.
2. Teacher evaluation should focus upon the students' in-class work as participating group members and upon the final written product. In terms of the student's paper, the primary objective is the successful use of an adopted perception.
FoUow-up Activities
Extend this experience by assigning compositions for retelling other narratives.
Have students tell an incident from their lives from their own perspectives, then from their parents' perspectives.

What is yourcharacter's publicimage?

a. generous

f. loving

b. stingy

g. chilly

c. nasty

h. sullen

d. pleasant

i. petty

e. friendly

Resources
English Journal, September 1964, Volume 63, Number 6.
Wakefield, Beverly. Perception and Communication, Theory into Practice Series.

What isyourcharacter's private or personal face? "Spaces and Illusions" poster available from

a. generous

c. nasty

The High Museum of Art, Educational Division,

b. stingy

d. pleasant

Atlanta, Georgia.

34

Dear Dilemma Grades 1112

Purpose/Goal
This activity provides a chance for students to tell a series of events that might have led to a particular situation. Students give advice on how to solve a hypothetical dilemma.
Objective
The learner will develop a series of events that might precede
a given situation.
organize these events in a logical sequence. tell these events to a larger group or the entire
class.
give advice on how to solve a hypothetical situation.
Materials
Cards containing hypothetical situations
Samples of "Dear Abby" columns
Summary
In this activity students will brainstorm a series of possible events leading to a hypothetical situation. They will then organize those events in a logical sequence and tell that sequence to the class within a limited time period. Additionally, students will brainstorm possible solutions for a problem, then write a letter offering their personal advice.
Procedures
1. Have the students choose a partner with whom they can work amicably.
2. Without previewing, have each student choose a card on which a situation is written (i.e., they pick a card from a collection that is face down on a table).
3. Tell students to share each situation with their card partner.
4. Have students brainstorm events which might have led to the situation (i.e., students cooperatively develop a series of events which might have preceded the main event).
5. Each student organizes the preceding events.

This can be done on paper in jot list form or simply practiced for presentation from memory.
6. Each student must tell the events which were selected to a larger group or to the whole class in no less than one minute nor no more than two minutes. The list of situations below is not exhaustive. The teacher should supplement with items that are appropriate to the region and to the students' environment, experience and ability. Items which may result in undesirable responses should be deleted.
a. Tell your teacher or principal the events which led to
your innocent possession of the school's burglar alarm and master keys.
your innocent possession of the answer key to tomorrow's final exam in mathematics.
your parking your car in the principal's reserved parking space.
your driving your car through the school's prize rose garden.
your ramming into the vice principal's brand new, diesel-powered station wagon.
the failure of your chemistry experiment and the resulting damage to the lab, two external walls and 14 windows in an adjoining building.
your innocent presence in the girls'/boys' locker room while members of the opposite sex are preparing to dress.
your 14th and final tardy to your fourth period, after lunch class.
your parking the school's new educational training vehicle in the IS-foot ravine behind the school cafeteria.
b. Tell your parent or guardian the events which led to
your being brought home from a date in a police car.
your arriving home at 2 a.m. when you were due at 10:30 p.m.

35

your late arrival at your sister's (brother's) wedding when you had been entrusted with the rings.
your breaking both headlights out of the family car.
your charging $100 worth of merchandise (new clothes) to their account.
Other stem sentences may include siblings, dates, ministers, civil officials and so on.
7. After completing steps above, organize groups of three to five students and appoint a recorder from each group.
8. Distribute samples of "Dear Abby" newspaper column for students to use as a model.
9. Discuss with students the task (that is, they will collectively discuss a hypothetical problem and then individually write a letter as a response).
10. Arbitrarily give each group two cards with dilemmas. Some possibilities are
how to ask for a date
how to graciously turn down a date
how to tell a person you have dated steadily that you wish to date someone else
how to tell someone you are sorry
how to back out of an unsupervised situation that you consider unwholesome without being called a prude or a chicken
how to tell someone you like very much that they have bad breath or dandruff
11. Have students decide which dilemma they would like to discuss.
12. Tell students to brainstorm at least three distinct alternatives for the selected dilemma. Tell students to suggest steps for each alternative. The recorder is responsible for

preparing and, finally, submitting jot lists for the alternatives.
13. After adequate time has been provided for discussion, have students prepare individual letters telling the dilemma writer how to proceed in resolving the problem. The style of students' response matches the "Dear Abby" format.
14. Have students use group revision or editing process to refine their individual letters.
15. Give students opportunity to share the dilemma and one or two of the groups' individual responses with the whole class.
16. Submit final copies of letters and each group's jot lists for teacher evaluation.
Evaluation
Peer evaluation is inherent in the group editing process.
The jot list from group work and teacher observation are evidence of participation.
Letters themselves become evidence of individual effort.
Follow-up Activities
Reverse "Dear Abby" responses by having students tell the distressed person the step-by-step worst possible course of action.
Using student-selected want ad from local newspaper, have students prepare business letter inquiries to the advertiser. Responses are to include statements telling what experiences qualify the students for the desired positions.
Develop a column similar to "Dear Abby" as an integral part of a classroom newspaper or suggest such a column to the sponsor of the school newspaper.

36

Explaining

Explaining undergrids other modes of discourse, such as interpreting. It involves activities quite similar to those in other instructional areas, such as reading. Thus, it becomes doubly important in itself as a mode of communication and as a building block for other phases of instructions.
The similarity of activities in both instances offers the teacher the opporunity to reinforce, through additional practice, elements common to several skills. However, if the activities seem redundant, economize through careful planning. One or a series of activities could be used to build concepts useful for reading and writing and for specific disciplines such as social studies, science or mathematics.
In explaning an individual must be able to make something clear to someone else. The stated or unstated how must be answered. "How did this happen?" "How do I get to your house?" "How do you bake a cake?"
To satisfy this how question an individual must
recognize that a process or procedure is comprised of steps.

identify the steps in the process or procedure.
recognize the order inherent in the steps.
organize and present the data in a fashion appropriate to the audience.
As students progress in age and ability, their efforts should obviously take on a greater level of sophistication. Providing logical development, making connections and demonstrating relationships will require more effort and rely upon the students' increasing maturity.
The how question for older students will become more abstract. Their responses will require the use of appropriate examples and appeals to precedent for justification.
When working with older or younger students, the teacher will need to alert them to the differences in an explanation that is face-to-face (i.e., one in which the receiver's reactions can be seen and his or her confusion resolved by the other) and one that must stand on its own merits (one in which the sender is unable to react to the receiver's confusion or responses, such as a set of written directions).

37

Sample Activities
Feature Story Grades 9-10

GoallPurpose

This activity will help students develop a heightened sense of audience. Students experiment with writing for an outside audience. The feature story is explored. Students make appropriate language choices suitable for the work and the audience.

Objectives

The learner will
develop a feature story. make appropriate language choices for that
story.

write for an outside audience. participate in a small group editorial board.

Materials

Copies of good feature stories

Examples of strong end paragraphs

Chalk/chalkboard

Summary

Students write a feature story on the subject of

why

is a good teacher. Arti-

cles are presented in small groups which select,

edit and submit the best to the school paper.

Procedures

1. Have students brainstorm for the qualities that make a good teacher. Encourage students to elaborate on characteristics.

2. Through the use of the criteria developed above, ask students to indentify a teacher past or present who exemplifies these characteristics.

3. Students complete a free writing assignment about this person and share their work in small groups.

4. Discuss the aspects of a good feature story using examples selected for this purpose. (See Materials.)

5. Have students write a feature story for the school paper on the subject why _______ is a good teacher. They are individually to write an in-depth article on their favorite teacher, enumerating the good qualities of that teacher as a model. The free writing assignment may form the basis of this article, or the students may by now have changed their minds.
6. The form of the article is that of a feature story, which is a long, researched article for the front page of a paper.
7. Instruction in form should concentrate on the lead paragraph and pyramid organization of material typical of journalistic style.
8. Careful proofreading is a part of this step.
9. Have students present articles in small groups, exchange feedback and then revise their efforts.
10. Ask students to return to small groups with revised articles. The group selects the best paper (s) and suggests further revisions.
11. Have the final drafts shared with the entire class.
12. The class then decides which papers to submit to the school newspaper.
Evaluation
Teacher evaluation should be begun through observation of student work. Join several of the small group's proceedings. Notice process and student's interaction in offering and accepting criticism.
The students' efforts in free writing and in individual feature story writing can be evaluated. The evaluation should focus the directions given and the students' success or failure in adhering to them.

38

Follow-up Activities
Repeating objectives and procedures above, students can write similar stories about adults outside the classroom who are or were significant individuals to them.
Similar stories can be developed about classmates.
Students can modify material used in the feature

story or the follow-up and write editorials as appropriate (i.e., important of good teachers or meaningful adults).
Any of the above ideas can be redeveloped in the form of a narrative using a nonfiction or a fiction approach.
Resources
(See hplainin Grades 11-12.)

39

Robota
Grades 11-12

GoallPurpose
The purpose of this activity is to help students develop a heightened sense of audience in their writing.
Objectives
The learner will
make language choices based on audience considerations.
develop a personal. interesting and coherent paper.
emphasize audience appeal.
Materials
Pencil and paper
Appropriate print and nonprint materials on robot themes
Summary
The following activity takes students beyond the pedestrian and routine assignments that sometimes stifle writing. This activity calls for imaginative fiction. but other options can be created. To assess audience appeal students read their explanations to peers as a culminating activity.
Procedures
1. The teacher sets the stage for the activity by assigning an appropriate reading such as Isaac Asimov's 1 Robot or Karel Capek's R.UR. or showing a film or filmstrip about a robot.
2. Instruct students to design a robot. Each must produce a sketch and provide a name for his or her design.
3. Each student then jots down notes on the following.
The robot's components. functions and materials Its capabilities and Iimitiations
Its special features
4. Using their notes. the students individually write a paper explaining their robots to potential buyers. The papers are to be accurate. (This isn't a used robot.)

5. In small groups the students test market their designs and explanations.
6. Based on peer responses students make appropriate revisions.
7. The students read their papers to potential buyers from other small groups. The buyers provide feedback on whether the explanations are clear or adequate.
Evaluation
1. Self and peer evaluation are integral parts of the activity. (See steps 5 and 7 above.)
2. Teacher evaluation focuses upon completeness of exercise. quality of description and effectiveness of audience appeal.
Follow-up Activities
Maintaining the futurist theme. students can design a spaceship for travel in deep space. For this activity blueprints can be drawn. internal division indicated. floor plans provided and so on.
Jot down notes explaning what life support systems have been included and how these systems work. what recreational facilities have been included. what propulsion systems have been designed and how they work. what other provisions for living have been made. Using the notes and drawings. write a paper to convince others to join you on the trip into deep space or to buy the product and use it themselves.
Read your paper to a potential space voyager.. After the space voyager has made a decision have the voyager give you feedback on your paper.
Alternate Activity
Reverse the entire time sequence and ask students to design a product or products which could be used by colonial settlers.
These products must be of wood and capable of manufacture with hand tools only.

40

The written description can be in modern (anachronistic) language for convenience or for comic effect. The description call be made more challenging by requiring students to research the language of the time period and- produce their descriptions as near to that language as possible.
ResoarceslReferences
Irmscher, William E., Teaching Expository Writing. NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1979.
Kirby, Dan and Liner., Tom Inside Out: Strategies for Teaching Writing as a Developmental Process. NY: Boynton/Cook Publishers, Inc., 1981.
Koch and Brazil. Strategies for Teaching the Composing Process. Urbana, III: NCTC., 1978.
Martin, Nancy, et.a1., Writing and Learning Across the Curriculum, 11-16. London: Ward Lock Educational for the Schools Council, 1976 (available from Hayden).

Maxwell, Rhoda J. and Judy, Stephen. Composing. Michigan: The Michigan Council of Teaching of English, 1978-79.
Miller, James E. Jr., Word, Self, Reality: The Rhetoric ofImagination. NY: Dodd, Mead, 1972.
Newan, Beth. Teaching Students to Write. Columbus: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company, 1980.
Olsen, Gene. Sweet Agony: A Writing Manual of Sorts. Oregon: Windyridge Press, 1972.
Stanford, Gene and Smith, Marie A. Guidebook for Teaching Creative Writing. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc. 1977.
Stanford, Gene and Smith, Marie A. Guidebook for Teaching Composition. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc. 1977.
Te'evi.ion Show. - Channels 8 and 17
Pro/eiona' - Media and Methods

41

Persuading

As members of a highly communicative social group, we regularly send and receive numerous messages; many of these messages are intended to persuade. We exhort others to believe as we do, and we are ourselves exhorted to accept the beliefs, statements or opinions of others. In addition, if the statistics describing our viewing habits are to be credited, we are literally innundated with efforts at persuasion in the form of commercial advertising. It is, therefore, extremely important to help young people become more aware of and effective in their use of persuasive discourse; furthermore, it is equally important to help our students become more effective in their ability to identify persuasive arguments.
Predictably, efforts with younger students concentrate on developing awareness, not proficiency. The teacher's initial task is to help students recognize their own natural, normal attempts at

persuasion. Once students understand that persu~ding is not a new or an alien activity, efforts should be directed at helping students to present their own ideas convincingly and to provide supporting information such as examples which help substantiate a position.
Activities at the elementary level include evaluating points of view, developing explanations, providing supporting examples, identifying individual motives, anticipating counter arguments and so on. At the high school level these practices are pursued in greater depth. Students work to refine their persuasive skills and to become more adept at penetrating the manipulative messages aimed at all of us. Efforts focus on providing experiences which will help students recognize attempts (their own and those of others) at persuading.

42

Sample Activities
Persuasive Messases -Grades 910

GoallPurpose
As receivers of persuasive messages, we must be alert to proofs which seek to satisfy our motives. As initiators of persuasive messages, we must be concerned with motive appeal. We must express our messages in a manner that satisfies the motives of the listener. Students will have opportunity to develop their understanding of these facts by writing persuasive messages.
Objectives
The learner will
select and narrow topics.
develop and write conclusions.
develop and write thesis statements.
gain insight into values and motives as an element of audience appeal.
demonstrate logical thinking.
develop, write and present a persuasive argument.
Materials
Access to media center, current periodicals and other related literature
Summary
Students, as a group, will follow a series of steps to develop a sample persuasive argument. Individually, in pairs or in small groups, they will then consider several topics for which persuasive arguments would be appropriate, partially develop persuasive arguments for two of their topics, and, finally, develop one fully into a presentable argument.
Procedures
1. Explain to the students that they are to develop a persuasive argument that takes into account motive appeal.
2. Explain to students that thesis statements are essentially statements of purpose. They answer questions such as "What am I trying to prove?" or "What statement am I making?"

Often it is helpful to write a conclusion before writing a thesis statement, this allows the writer the opportunity to keep the end in mind while developing the introductory statements.
3. Consider this conclusion - Sky diving is a challenge because it presents the diver with a variety of unpredictable and dangerous hazards while requiring training and good sense.
4. Students should construct a thesis from this conclusive or final sentence.
5. Encourage students to develop introductions which present the thesis in palatable ways.
6. Assign students to work individually, in pairs or in small groups to develop, rehearse and refine their products.
7. Students should consider a number of topics that lend themselves to persuasion and in which they have some interest and expertise.
8. Narrow the topic selection alternatives to two.
9. Students should examine the usefulness and manageability of both topics, which must not be too broad or general. Individual, peer, group and teacher assistance may be a necessary part of delimiting a topic.
10. Students should repeat the process above (skip 2-6) for their two topics; i.e., develop conclusion, write thesis statements and develop introductions.
11. Discuss the following rhetorical items in detail with the students. Be certain they understand the meanings and importance of each. Questions and examples follow the items. This should be done with the large group and repeated with the specific topics selected by the students in small groups.
Thesis Statement
Reasoning (effect-cause and cause-effect)

43

Proposition ojJact (occurrence, existence and causality)
A. Occurence American leaders planned in advance the invasion of Cuba.
B. Existence The abominable snowman really lives.
C. Causality Spectator preference for action sports will lead to the death of baseball as a professional sport.
Proposition oj value A. John Kennedy was a great president. B. Modern art is rubbish.
Proposition oj policy A. A program of free medical care for all citizens should be established by the federal government. B. The U.S. should continue its support of the United Nations.
Students will use some or all of the above tactics and activities in completing their work.
12. Students should decide on the one topic they would like to develop further.
13. Students should remember that a mere statement of purpose is not enough; the purpose has to be significant for the person who will be reading or hearing the work. The assumed audience may respond to the thesis with a thought such as, "I'm not sure I agree, but I'd like to see or hear the writer's reasons for that assertion."
14. Students should develop and present a persuasive argument for the topic selected.
15. Students should analyze their products on the following criteria.
a. Each product should be evaluated on the organization, clarity, preciseness, persuasiveness and logic of the evidence presented by the student.
b. Is there a clear-cut thesis?
c. Is there a strong introduction?
d. Did I select the criteria which I thought the audience would accept for judging the truth of my proposition?
e. Did I develop my proposition thoroughly?

f. Does the conclusion make a final statement appropriate to my thesis?
Note: If the audience walks away. the speaker or writer fails at the outset.
EvaluatioD
Peer evaluation should be an integral part of the group process with students providing feedback to each other.
Teacher observation of performance should be based on students' participation in group discussion as well as on their final products using the same criteria as in step 15.
foUow-up Activities
Students sharpen their analytical skills by having them collect (from television, films, newspapers, books, magazines, signs) examples of messages that they think are designed to trick people or to persuade them by flattery or other less than honest means. Bring them to class for discussion. (They need not confine their selection to the printed or spoken word. Pictures are designed to persuade, too.) Share these. See if the class reacts to it as the student did. Do the opinions of the group agree? What generalizations can be made about the teenage appeal of the ad? Would it appeal to an adult audience as much? Why, or why not? Check conclusions by asking parents and other adults how they respond to the ad, and then report to the class.
Write an advertisement for a leading brand of soap or similar commodity, and then write a paragraph discussing the validity of the appeals you have used.
Suppose you were planning a model of a new car to bring the buyer a new way of life. What evidence could you use to support this claim?
Conduct a discussion on these or similar topics
Does the audience believe advertising?
Why do you suppose that overadapting to the audience is a more usual problem in advertising than in other kinds of communications?
Drug companies have found that news programs help to sell their products, but airline companies have found them ineffectual. Can you account for this?

44

Modern Motives Grades 1112

GoallPurpose
This activity familiarizes students with the concept and use of motive appeal in audience persuasion.
Objectives
The learner will identify the intended audience of an advertise-
ment. identify motive appeal in advertisements. examine various persuasive devices. develop a persuasive argument.
Materials
Access to media center
Magazines (older editions and current ones) Reproductions of mail order catalogs such as Sears, Roebuck and Company 1904 and 1906 catalogs
Overhead projector
Summary
Students will identify the intended audience and appeal of advertisements which appeared in magazines. They will then adapt this information, consider the current consumer and develop a persuasive advertising campaign to sell this product in today's market.
Procedures
1. Allow students to peruse advertisements for products which appeared in magazines published at least 10 years ago, preferably longer.
2. Remind students that the purpose of an advertisement is to sell a product and, therefore, an ad must specifically appeal to its audience to be successful. Use an overhead transparency of such an ad for a discussion example.
3. Divide the class into small groups.
4. Have students exchange information about the ads they examine. (In this exchange they must at least identify the audience to which their ad was addressed and the particular motive appeal or selling point.)

Note: Recognition of terminology such as bandwagon and glittering generalities is useful in identifying appeal through propaganda devices but is not essential.
5. Tell each group to identify products or advertising strategies which are not widely used in current magazines. Formulate a master list of these items.
6. Consider older products for which interesting advertisements could be developed.
7. Tell students, either in pairs or small groups, to select a product from the list.
8. Have students make a list of selected product's features; e.g., usefulness, attractiveness,' materials, accessories, cost.
9. Ask students to reflect on the current lifestyle of Americans and identify which features might appeal to modern buyers.
10. Consider current magazine advertisements and identify appeals which can be adapted in persuading potential buyers to consider their product.
11. Remind students to identify a specific market (e.g., children, teenagers, senior citizens, attomeys, teachers, health enthusiasts, sports fans) to which they will address their campaign.
12. Tell students to identify an appropriate appeal for that audience.
13. Have students examine various persuasive devices that could be used in their campaign.
14. Tell students to combine their information and to plan an advertising campaign which would persuade an identified modern consumer group.
15. Have students present their ad campaign to their classmates.
16. After each presentation, have the class identify three components of the campaign, namely audience appeal and persuasive device(s) and identify the point at which they were convinced to buy or not buy the item. (Students must participate in the audience role as representatives of the intended group.)

45

Evaluation
1. Peer evaluation is inherent in step 16.
2. Teacher evaluation should focus on the group. Is the campaign targeted precisely? Is the audience identification appropriate? Is the attempt at persuasion logical? Is the overall effort representative of the group's collective skill and ability?
FoUow.ap Activities
Students cross compare advertising of the same product in different market places such as Good Housekeeing and Psychology Today.
Students compare advertising in American magazines and British magazines or other English language foreign journals.

Using press books students consider variety of appeals used by professional publicists for persuading different segments of the population to attend the same movie. (The local theater owners have quite a number of these press books for their use in offering new films in local areas.)
Students design adjunct material for their initial ad campaign such as buttons, bumper stickers, slogans, additional products including deluxe models, inexpensive models and so on.
Students role play various situations in which successful persuasion was a crucial factor such as talking a police officer out of a ticket or asking to borrow the family car or asking for an advance on their allowance.

46

Researching

Research is literally a process of disc~very and organization. There are a number of steps in this process.
Clearly defining the purpose and the direction of the research
Identifying the available sources of information (in and out of school)
Gathering data from among the sources
Organizing the information obtained
Reporting the results
Traditionally, school related research has relied upon the school media center and the local public library. While these are valid and reliable sources, research should not be limited to or by these facilities. Recognition of the community as a valuable adjunct to the classroom is valuable in researching. Community members, business and governmental agencies and the media (national and local) are often underused sources for student research; everything from rock concerts to retirement homes should be given consideration as rich, relevant sources.

To be successful the researcher must gather useful information efficiently; most students will not be able to intuitively accomplish this. Teacher effort and instructional time will acquaint students with tactics and strategies for streamlining their efforts. Since the majority of this work is done outside the classroom and, frequently, outside the school, the teacher must adapt some systematic method for assuring that students are progressing toward their goal(s).
Reporting findings is usually done in school to the class or a small group within the class; the teacher should rarely, if ever, be the sole audience. This reporting can legitimately take a number of forms; e.g., an oral report, a project, a studentmade tape or media product, or the traditional paper.
Ideally, the information sought by students should be of value and interest to them. The specified tasks are more successfully accomplished when they are related to the students' needs and when the students perceive the process, methodology and results of research as valuable means to a goal which they recognize.

47

Sample Activities
Real People -Grades 910

Purpose
Students are led to see literature as products of human effort, written by real people. Reading and responding are in-depth activities. They focus on a single author rather than on brief pieces by several authors. The emphasis is on sharing insights and on individual student responses.
Objectives
The learner will
study the life and work(s) of one author in depth.
use current secondary sources on author.
respond to several writings of a single author.
write summary portraits of author and his or her work.
Materials
Library resources about writers - Current Biography, Who's Who
Books of library criticism, magazine reviews, biographies
Selected writings by the author
Relevant nonprint media (film, audio disc/tape)
Summary
This research procedure leads students to use a variety of primary and secondary sources. Literature is presented as the product of human efforts; teachers help students learn that authors are real people not merely literary giants. Each student delivers a creative presentation of a portion of the author's work. The sharing of feelings and opinions about the author's work is encouraged. The final product of this effort is a summary essay.
Procedures
1. Toward the end of a class period write the name of an essayist, poet or novelist on the board and simply say "find out more about this writer."

2. Each class member must contribute at least one piece of information about that author at the next class meeting.
3. Pass out copies of the author's work(s) and read to the students from that author's material. Talk about the works and share your feelings. Ask the students to share their feelings and invite them to speculate about the author, the authors origins, attitudes, biases. Direct them to read other works by that author.
4. If possible, incorporate other media such as films, recordings, slides or music about the author or the author's work to increase the students' interest and involvement. (To broaden the context for the writer's works, try something with visuals and sound in a multimedia presentation.)
5. Read some ofthe criticism aboutthe author's work. If possible, read some of the author's own criticism. Discuss the role of the critic. Encourage students to make critical judgments of their own.
6. Ask students to present a p.ortion of the writer's work to the class, perhaps as a short interpretive reading.
7. Involve the class or the group in a limited discussion of the work presented.
8. Each student should write a summary criticism of the author and the work. The teacher should encourage the students to include their own opinions and feelings.
9. Preliminary drafts should be shared and edited in small groups.
Evaluation
1. The teacher should be certain that the papers represent the student's own effort and incorporate material from a variety of sources. Criteria might include the following questions and should be provided to the student in advance.

48

Does the reader get a feel for the author?

Does the writer hOQk the reader's interest in the author?

Does the writer offer adequate support for

the opinion stated?

'

Are papers developed portraits of the author?

Does the author's humanity emerge?

2. Students' interpretive readings are responded to by the class to provide peer evaluation. Small groups should work together responding to and editing the summary essays during revision for the final draft.

FoUow-up Activities
The same procedures can be used for writers in several genres.
Students may also identify, interview and present to the class writers in their community.
Students might attempt writing in the genre or on the subjects of the author they have researched.

Resource.
Fi'.... From the Georgia Department of Education: 4261 Carl Sandburg Discusses His Work 9001 James Dickey, Poet
4296 Mark Twain Gives an Interview 7292 Why Man Creates
Disc or tape recording. Weiss, M. Jerry. From Writers to Students: The
Pleasures and Pains of Writing. Newark, N.J.: IRA, 800 Barksdale Rd., 1979.
Print
Janeezko, Paul. "In Their Own Words - Interviews with Authors." English Journal column.
'ntenne",. ' Paris Reviews, Series 1-4. Other Local writers Kirby, Dan and Tom Liner. Inside Out: Develop-
mental Strategies for Teaching Writing. Montclair, New Jersey: Boynton/Cook Publishers, Inc., 1981.

49

Detective Stories Grades 1112
Adapted from W. Keith Kraus Murder, Mischief, and Mayhem: A Process for Creative Research Papers Urbana, Illinois National Council of Teachers of English
1978

Purpose
Students approach research as a process of discovery, a mystery to be solved.
Objectives
The learner will
develop an understanding of the research process by going through the steps involved.
approach the research process and report findings with an unbiased attitude.
interpret and analyze sources. document sources using an appropriate format. present research findings appropriate to a
particular audience.
Materials
A tape of Poe's "Tell Tale Heart"
A murder mystery
A synopsis of an actual murder case
Library resources
An annotated list of topics
Summary
Writing a research paper is often a frightening prospect for students. Allay fears by giving students an overview of the entire process. Let them know what will be happening as they work this project. Establish the success-oriented nature of this project. Help students see themselves as resident experts on their topic. They are in charge of knowing more than anyone else on that particular topic. Help students see this process as one of discovery, one in which they are detectives in search of clues. There will be false starts and deadend streets and this should

not be a signal to surrender. Present this activity as a case, as a mystery to solve, and emphasize process. Allow five to six weeks for the unit.
Procedures
1. Generate enthusiasm for the project by sharing a Sherlock Holmes, Agatha Christie or other murder mystery. Playa tape of Poe's "Tell Tale Heart." Discuss the role of the detective in these pieces.
2. Encourage students to give a brief summary of recent real murder stories. Brainstorm for a list of famous real detectives. Discuss the glamour mythology of detectives; use TV shows such as Rockford Files or Magnum Pl. as examples.
3. Present a synopsis of a murder case (see resources - Murder, Mischief, Mayhem). Ask students how they might go about solving it. Point out the hours of searching for and sifting through myriad details to locate clues. Reinforce the notion of the often laborious research that goes into solving a case.
4. Explain that students will participate in a similar process for their research. Give a brief overview of the research process.
5. Conduct a school media center tour. If possible, take a field trip to a nearby regional or college library. Introduce students to potential sources of information with which they may not be familiar. Give them hands on experience with microfilm or microfiche.
6. Create and distribute a research activity sheet that makes it necessary for students to actually use the sources they have discovered, i.e., assignments which require the students

50

to use the information sources suggested in step 5. Be sure stud~nts can use indices such as the New York Times Index; require them to put on a reel of microfilm and locate information; have students use theReader's Guide to Periodical Literature. Avoid suggesting that dry, lifeless details are desirable. A culminating activity for this might be a short summary paper on the mood of the times as gleaned from details discovered in completing the activity sheet.
7. Introduce the overall project in more detail and assign topics. (see "An Annotated List of Topics" in Murder, Mischief and Mayhem) Poll student interests based on the topics available and assign topics based on students' interests.
8. Have students immerse themselves in the time period of their topic. Create questions which they might wish to consider.
What was life like?
What did people wear?
What were the big headlines?
Who was President?
What was the popular form of entertainment?
Assure students that this is neither busy work nor wasted effort. Suggest that they may be able to incorporate this information into their research papers and that their additional knowledge of the period will enhance their ability to complete the research.
9. Have students use the New York Times Index to determine the general events of their cases as best they can. Have them simply scan headlines of the Index and fill out what they can on the "Research Paper Fact Sheet."
10. Have students go back to the New York Times Index and choose the stories they want to read. Assist students with some helpful hints on how to carefully screen the articles.
11. As students read, have them note informa-
tion necessary for locating the article again should they need to go back to it.
12. Remind students that they are to check a minimum of 30 sources and that they are to construct a 10 to 12 page paper.

13. Stress accuracy in notetaking. Point out differences in writing styles from 19th to 20th century news stories. Remind students to maintain a researcher's detached view. (Encourage students to bring in examples of attitudes and language that seem interesting.) Remind students to research words and phrases that they do not understand. Help students with other aspects that may be troublesome such as trial material (see pp. 146 through 147, Murder, Mischief, and Mayhem). Alert students to be on the lookout for materials, such as letters-to-theeditor, that were never cited. Finally, help students understand the difference between their synopsis of material and outright plagiarism.
14. Help students brainstorm alternate sources of information such as trial transcripts.
15. Allow two to four weeks for students to review materials, take notes and construct rough drafts.
16. The major portion of in-class time can be devoted to helping students learn to write more effective introductions, to search for strong quotations and then to weave in those quotations, to actually construct the paper, to document sources and to build more effective conclusions. Students should at this time also be writing in a journal. It would not be inappropriate for teachers to provide a range of writing opportunities which are not necessarily related to the research paper.
17. Construct a checklist that reflects those research items you have been helping students learn. Let students work with a partner to check rough drafts. Students can help each other in the revision process.
18. Allow time (one week) for final drafts to be written and submitted.
Evaluation
l. Emphasize the process. Let the student know
in advance that they are to be evaluated on the process, i.e., selecting pertinent facts, maintaining a researcher's objectivity, choosing quotations that strengthen their papers, arranging findings in an organized and effective manner. Therefore, the teacher must use

51

the same checklist form that was given the students when ev~luating the process.
2. Selfevaluation should involve the student in using the checklist provided.
3. Peer evaluation should be done with a partner to check drafts for revision.
4. Final products may be shared with the class.
Follo.....up Activities
Students may write their own mystery stories, possibly withholding solutions, for the class to solve.
The checklist may be applied to other research projects on other subjects.
Resources
Kraus, W. Keith. Murder, Mischief, and Mayhem. A ProcessjorCreative Research Papers. Urbana, Illinois, NCTE, 1978. Within this title see "An Annotated List of Topics."

Newspaper Articles
Locate (or have students locate) articles on murders or mysteries.
Trials
Have students sit in on court proceedings or interview attorneys, jurists or others who have had experience with murder trials.
Novels In Cold Blood by Truman Capote Murder in Coweta County by Margaret Ann
Barnes
D r
Twelve Angry Men by Reginald Rose Music
"Night Moves" by Bob Seegar
tv
Tape of "Mystery" hosted by Gene Shalit, PBS

52

Interpreting

Interpreting is the act of deriving meaning from something. The something might be a fairly simple experience or a very complex philosophical treatise. We may interpret a child's throwing a pencil to mean that he or she is angry or that he or she seeks attention; on the other extreme we may interpret Kant's Critique of Pure Reason to mean whatever it might mean.
Constraints upon the interpretation vary. Something may be interpreted in light of its personal significance - what does this event or this statement mean personally or privately? Things may be interpreted to determine the intent of their author - what does a gesture or statement mean? There are other constraints - what is the significance of this statement to a nation, to a listener. to the future of education or to the detective who overhears it? These varying constraints may be thought of as differences in the purposes of the interpreting.
Finally. the situation or the context for interpretation may vary. It may be undertaken alone in preparation for a paper; it may be presented orally as either a carefully prepared or an impromptu statement; it may be the consensus of a group; it may be the winning position in a debate; or it may simply be a discussion in which a variety of possibilities are explored and no resolution is necessary.
Within this wide range of subject. purpose and situation. there are two constant elements. All interpretation demands both explanation and inference; that is, all interpretation attempts to make something clear or understandable. to find reasons for something or to identify significance. These are all explanations of a sort; however, interpretation also demands reference to things outside the speaker or writer. It is not simply the reporting of feelings generated from within. It

demands an accounting for things outside. It demands that the writer observe features in the event or the statement and draw inferences from them. Interpretive writing is not unchecked. It is bound by the subject being interpreted. If the features of that subject are neglected. then the writing is no longer interpretation.
A program that intends to provide students with experience and instruction in interpreting must draw upon a wide range of subjects. purposes and situations for writing assignments appropriate to the age and ability of the student, assignments that require explanation and inference. A variety of assignments are necessary to encourage the student to interpret. Drawing all topics from a narrowly conceived pool of resources. giving all assignments an identical purpose or asking the student to perform in only one situation is clearly inappropriate. A program. for instance. that directs all interpretive writing to poems. asks the author's intent and uniformly demands a three-to-five page paper on each topic. might be considered anemic. The opportunity to consider several genres or other materials should not be missed. A broadly conceived program. encouraging the teacher to vary assignments by subject. purpose and situation would certainly better sustain the interest of the student and more effectively teach him or her the precision of thought and expression demanded by the act of interpreting.
Clearly. the few plans offered below do not exhaust the possibilities. They simply suggest ways of varying interpretive writing assignments. The individual teacher. reflecting upon the nature of his or her students. the subject matter of the course and the aspects of interpretive writing that might be varied will find a vast range of possibilities for instruction in this mode.

53

Sample Activities
Logical Analysis Grades '.10

Goal
The purpose of this lesson is to interpret a persuasive essay in the form of a speech. The students are invited to examine the speaker's assumptions and logic in an effort to assess the quality of the presentation.
Objectives
The learner will
analyze the logic of a passage.
identify fallacious arguments in that passage.
explain the fallacy in the identified arguments.
analyze the passage in a clear and orderly essay.
Materials
The enclosed speech
Several articles or items illustrating clear, logical arguments.
Several articles or items illustrating unclear or specious logic.
Summary
The task is to analyze the logic of a persuasive passage. It assumes some previous work in the use of logic and critical thinking and in reading and discussing short persuasive essays which ememplify both strong and weak reasoning. Knowledge of a technical terminology is unimportant; however, previous experience is necessary in clarifying premises: providing evidence for generalizations, evaluating conflicts in evidence and opinion and documenting information.
In this activity students analyze a short passage exemplifying inadequate - perhaps even fraudulent - argument. A follow-up may be a choice of more interesting or more difficult passages.
Procedures
1. Use a passage that clearly exemplifies some illogic for students to detect.
2. As a brief introduction, remind students of previous work on rational argument. Point

out that words do shape events. Remind students they are to ascertain if the words are honestly and reasonably arranged.
3. Have the class discuss the following example.
"The City Council of Cambridge, MQISOchusetts, unanimously possed a resolution (December 1939) making it illegal to possess, harbor, sequester, introduce or trans port, within the city limits, any book, map, magazine, newspaper, pamphlet, handbill or circular containing the words Lenin or Leningrad." (Hayakawa, p. 33)
4. Suggest the class consider these questions.
What might the city council have had in mind?
What is the problem with the thinking evident in this resolution?
5. After discussing the passage, use other examples drawn from Hayakawa or elsewhere for additional practice.
6. When the students have warmed to the hunt for the nonsense underlying the examples, present the passage below. Suggest to the class that it is current and that it might persuade those who listen to it. Read it aloud first, and then distribute copies for the students.
"Mister President, fellow councilmen. The time has come for us to make a concerted effort to save this great city from the tidal wave of teenage crime and destruction which threatens each day to inundate it. The citizens of our great and historic metropolis have suffered long enough at the hands of these barbarians - now we must arise and demand justice. We can no longer tolerate the senseless vandalism committed against the churches and monuments of ourforefathers, the brutal beatings of our elder citizens, the continuous theft from our small businessmen, those storeowners and shopkeepers who are the lifeblood of our great city's economy. We must take action against this, the most serious threat to our peace and security.
'And there is no denying that juvenile crime has become our greatest prablem. Look at the facts. Within the last 50 years, the number of crimes committed by these young hoodlums has more than doubled. And yet society still handles the criminals with kid gloves. I prapose to replace this passive, spineless tolerance of adolescent outrages with a firm and practical approach, a program of action. It is not the nature of the American people to

54

stand aside and watch antisocial groups tear at the roots of our democracy. The American people - descendants of the men who fought at Lexington and Concord, at the Alamo, and on the battlefields of Europe and the far east - can no longer be satisfied with mere words. We must give them something more.
"I have two propositions. The first is directed at that most dangerous and odious symbol of our society's decadence - the motorcycle. Let us ban them from our streets. Can we allow the youth of our great country to idolize the Hell's Angels crowd? Can we accept the black leather jacket with Its skull and crossbanes In a society dedicated to the preservation of peace and security for all? How can we hope to curb the moral decay evident in
our teenagers If we permit these corrupting influences to
remain unchallenged?
"Second, I propose an 8:00 pm curfew for everyone
beneath the age of21. Look at the benefits of such a plan.
As everyone knows, crime flourishes under the cover of
dark. It Is the purpose of the curfew to eliminate this cover, force crime Into the light of day where It must
necessarily wither and die. The curfew would rob the adolescent criminals of their most important pratection. And it would be a blow against more than crime. Think of Its value lor the city and the nation as a whole. Restricted to their homes, the young bandits wl1l be con-
stantly under the watchful eyes of their parents who wl1l be able to see that they attend the proper business of
youth--8tudies, helping around the house and the like. Denied the companionship 0/ others like themselves the teenagers wl1l have a chance to reform. They wl1lleam to devote themselves to the Ideals of the /amlly, 0/ justice
and of the American way 0/ life. This bl1l wl1l be the first
real step toward the Great Society."
7. After reading the speech and handing out copies, proceed as suggested in either A or B.
A. Discuss the speech briefly, after which the students write an analysis of the speech explaining in as clear and orderly fashion as possible, what is wrong - or right with the reasoning.

B. Discuss the speech in detail, identifying selected flaws. Provide the class with a current item that offers a similar opportunity for analysis of faulty logic, and assign an analysis on the basis of the new item as described in A.
EvalaatioD
The students' interpretations of the speech may be evaluated by how effectively the students identify the speaker's assumptions and by how carefully and accurately they identify and explain the illogical elements.
FoUo..,ap Activities
Using an approach similar to the steps above the class might analyze an editorial,letter-to-theeditor, advertisement or an election year campaign spot.
Resoarees
Robert W. Allen and Lome Greene, The Propaganda Game. New Haven: AIM Publishers, 1969.
Layman E. Allen, et. al., Queries 'n Theories. New Haven: Wff 'n Proof Publishers, 1970.
Richard D. Altick, Preface to Critical Reading, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1962.
S. I. Hayakawa. Language In Thought and Action, New York: Harcourt Brace and Jovanovich, 1972.
Ronald Munson, The Way of Words, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1976

55

Advice Grades 11-12

Goal
The students will interpret an essay containing subtle irony. They will infer the writer's meaning within this material.
Objectives
The learner will
analyze the messages within sections of an ironic essay.
speculate about the author's intent in each section.
relate sections of the essay.
draw inferences about the essay from the relationship of the various sections.
discuss the essay with the rest of the class.
write a brief paper interpreting the essay.
Material
Mark Twain's "Advice to Youth" or another suitable ironic selection
Summary
In this activity students interpret prose written in an ironic tone. Twain's essay is used as an example. It is ostensibly a didactic, moralistic piece, presented for the edification of youth.
In analyzing and discussing this material, the students will gradually perceive that Twain's true meaning is to be inferred through the use of ironic language. The activity will culminate with a written analysis of the material read by each student.
Procedures
1. Begin by asking the students for examples of the sort of moral precepts they might expect from adults or from anyone else who is concerned with the ethical education of youth. (This might be done as a total group or brainstormed in small groups.)
2. Compile the list on the board. 3. Discuss the list.
How valuable are these precepts or sayings as guides for your lives?

Do you find any that are especially helpful (or not helpful) or true or not true?
Do you think that most (some, none, all) people agree with and observe them?
Other questions.....
Note: (Polonlus' advice to Laertes from Hamlet (I,lii) might be a time saving substitute Jor the steps above or an additional element to be used in conjunction with steps 1-3.
4. In small groups have students discuss and develop a written response to the following hypothetical question.
"IJ you were obligated to give a brief lecture to younger children, presenting a Jew moral precepts by which they might run their lives, what would you include? What would you say to them?"
5. Introduce Twain's essay as though it were serious. Read a few paragraphs aloud to the class to get them started.
6. Allow students time to finish reading. 7. After students complete their reading, elicit
reactions with a few general questions, continue to accept students' observations until the talk lags. 8. Discuss the difference between Twain's observations (statements) and his direct recommendations. 9. Refer students to lower case paragraph two (recommendations) and lower case paragraph three (observations) in "Advice to Youth." 10. Turn now to the last paragraph in the work. 11. Ask "What is implied in the last paragraph? Does that affect your reading of paragraph two? Is paragraph two still a recommendation?" 12. Note that the twists in Twain's writing introduce a slight problem in interpretation - "Is there a moral implicit in Twain's presentation or is Twain sarcastically condemning what he sees as typical behavior? For instance, he seems to undermine the first lesson - obey parents when they are present - by denouncing as superstition their belief that they know better than you do.
Thus, he might be suggesting that readers rely on better judgment. Readers may come

56

from that paragraph confident in knowing what Twain is recommending - humor your parents, avoid angering. them but rely on your own judgment when you can. The essay's last paragraph, however, introduces another complication. Twain has not flattered the human race. When he says, "build your character on these precepts and you will find that you are much like everyone else," he causes the reader to doubt earlier conclusions. The reader who had felt exhorted to rely on personal judgment now hears that in doing so one is likely to turn out as bad as everyone else. How then, is the essay to be interpreted?"
13. Keep in mind that Twain's essay is humorous and thus may not be as rigorously logical and consistent as a more seriously intended piece.
NOTE: Do not allow the humor to be obscured by the analysis.
14. After discussion. point out that the essay is not as simple as it first appeared and suggest a short composition interpreting it.
"What does the essay mean? Is there any serious
advice in it? Does it simply express an attitude - If so,
what? Is it simply funny? Be sure to base generalizations upon the specifics of the essay."

Evaluation
The lesson is intended to foster creative interpretation. The students may become confused and this confusion in the mind of the students is to be resolved in the essay writing. Several positions are foreseeable.
There are serious recommendations to the reader, but they are to be inferred.
There are no recommendations, but Twain does comment satirically on certain foibles.
There are inconsistencies that make the passage impossible to interpret as a unified piece.
The sermon is simply humorous.
The essays should be evaluated on the basis of the strength of the arguments offered. Do the students take into account relevant textual data? Do they provide evidence for generalizations? Do they state their case with reasonable clarity?
FoUow-up Activities
Work on other materials in which much of the meaning is carried by the tone could follow. Personal essays or editorials by such writers as Art Buchwald and Erma Bombeck will provide practice in dealing with irony and sarcasm in prose, as well as the more traditional works from writers such as Jonathan Swift.

57

Social Interacting (Ritualizing)

Some communication acts function for purposes other than to convey information about the world or to influence opinions. What is the purpose of small talk about weather, family or crops? We often engage in such familiar interaction as, "Some game last night, huh?" "Yeah, some game." Why do youngsters and adults tease each other and participate in riddling bouts? We place great importance on greeting each other, even if just to acknowledge another person's existence. Why? Are we concerned with exhibiting proper norms of politeness and, in some situations, proper norms of rudeness?
These are examples of social interactions of communication rituals. They serve a vital function by helping us build, redefine and maintain relationships. Through communication rituals we keep channels of communication operating smoothly. We manage the flow of conversation so that we can accomplish the business of informing, influencing and expressing to everyone's satisfaction. Social interaction (ritualizing) is the

primary way in which we express perceived role relations like intimacy, status and affinity. It helps our partners know how to interpret our messages; e.g., as an order, a joke, an expression of warmth.
In face-to-face interaction, rituals operate in both verbal and nonverbal modes. Back slapping is an instance of ritualizing as is the spoken phrase,"Let's sit down for a minute and see if we can work out this problem together." In written communication ritualizing is related to tone and helps establish a relationship between reader and writer. In a consumer complaint letter positive results can often be obtained by including, "I have long enjoyed Crispy Shnozzies and look forward to the satisfactory solution of this problem so that I can once again purchase your product with confidence." In reading works of literature, the author's depiction of communication rituals offers qs cues with which we can infer relations between characters.

58

Sample Activities
What Shall. Call You? Grades 910

GoallPurpose
Although educators often place emphasis on students' learning to speak a standard English dialect, it is more sound to think of students acquiring a range of speech registers, from intimate to formal. By language choices, which constitute registers, we signal our definitions or perceptions of relationships with audiences. For example, the politicians who work with sophisticated economic data weekdays in Washington must return to their constituents on weekends. Politicians then must show that they are of the people by talkiOng about "Them gall danged big city hucksters what ain't got sense nuff to set one foot front of t'other."
Among the most concrete resources we have for signifying a register are the terms of address we use to name each other. Thus, you name your colleague "Mr. Thomashevski" when speaking formally before your students, but "Melvin Thomaskerski" when introdUcing him to your aunt, "Mel" in the teachers' lounge and perhaps "M.T." at a football game. Students can begin to recognize registers and the dimensions of appropriate language use (as opposed to so-called correct language use) by a study of terms of address.
Objectives
The learner will
become sensitive to varying terms of address.
recognize varying degrees of formality in use of terms of address.
explore role relationships which determine degree of formality in language.
relate these abstract dimensions of relationships to students' everyday communication patterns.
Materials/Aids
Chalkboard
Posterboard or large sheets of butcher paper/ newsprint

Summary
Students will list the terms they use to address people who are representative of a variety of role categories. Through discussion and questioning students will attempt to isolate the social dimensions which govern the choice ofterms of address. The class will produce a type of flow chart illustrating their analysis. Students will discuss how relationships are at first defined (tentatively) and then maintained or redefined, and they will discuss how the nature of these relationships is reflected and manipulated by means of terms of address.
Procedures
1. Teacher explains the concept of role as a category; i.e., a person's role often determines the types of behaviors we expect from him or her.
2. Individually, students spend a few minutes listing roles with which they might interact in a day (e.g., parent, sibling, adult acquaintance, teacher, friend, peer acquaintance, legal official).
3. Teacher compiles a master list of roles on chalkboard.
4. Next to each role designation, students list what term they would use to address a person in that category (e.g., first name, Ms.lMiss/
Mr.lMrs. + last name, Coach + last name, nickname, professional title + last name only,
kinship term, "Sir" and so forth). Expect different responses here, especially from students with differing backgrounds.
5. The central task at this point is to try to abstract the underlying social dimensions which determine choices of terms of address. For example, age is certainly one factor, and this should emerge in the discussion. If we meet someone our own age who has no apparent status or authority that sets him or her apart, we use first name. But an older person is usually addressed as Mr., Mrs., Miss or Ms. (These terms of greater formality also show that the factor of sex is another determinant. InCidentally, an interesting issue pertains to

59

how we decide if someone is older, younger or a same age peer. Tile lines are not clear cut in American cultures.) 6. The discovery of underlying social dimensions can be helped along by the use of hypothetical questions.
What do you call your employer (authority)?
What do you call your employer if he or she listens to rock and roll music? Is a change indicated if common interests or attitudes are shared?
What do you call your parent's friend after camping out for several days on a fishing or hunting trip? (Does age give way to intimacy?)
How do you feel when your teacher addresses you as Mr. or Ms.? (Do you feel more adult? Does that feeling make you uneasy?)
7. After the class has listed a number of underlying social dimensions which govern choices of terms of address, the teacher and students should try to construct a flow chart on the chalkboard. (If the students are more able and mature, this might be done in small groups.) When completed, use posterboard for a permanent illustration ofthe process. An example might look like the chart on page __ .
8. Since terms of address are means for acknowledging perceived relationships, use the chart'to help explain the significance of the terms and how terms define relationships. For example, what does it mean when your employer says, "You don't need to call me 'Mr. Jones,' just call me 'Bob'?"
Evaluation
1. Teacher evaluation should focus on the students' volunteered contributions to large group discussion and on solicited answers to questions demanding application of the communication principles being discussed.

2. If the chart is produced as a group product, evaluation in terms of completeness, presentability, graphic consideration and so on could be included.
Follow-up Activities
Assign students to research terms for persons of special status (e.g., ambassadors, airline pilots, supreme court justices, retired military personnel). Resources include etiquette and secretarial handbooks, special dictionary sections, encyclopedic materials and so on.
Investigate the way speaking practices differ from titles used in letter writing.
An interesting research project involves cross cultural comparisons of terms of address. Oriental cultures, for example, place much more emphasis on the age factor with finer gradations than in America. Native American Indian cultures use kinship terms like Aunt and Uncle, with less regard for actual blood lines. In Germany someone might be addressed in a manner, if translated, like "Mr. Professor Doctor Smith."
Southern literature is an especially good source for material demonstrating use of terms of address to define relationships. Often racial barriers are erected in this fashion as in To Kill A Mocking Bird; an atmosphere of propriety may be projected without any basis in objective reality as in Glass Menagerie.
Resources
Susan Ervin-Tripp. "On Sociolinglistic Rules: Alternation and Co-occurrence," in John Gimperz and Dell Hymes (Eds.), Directions in Sociolinglistics. New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston, 1972.
Roger Brown and A. Gilman. "The Pronouns of Power and Solidarity," in T. Sebeck, (Ed.), StYle in Language. Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1960.

60

Idnship term
(Mom, Dad, Grandma)
I
!directUne

Id_hip term + Fint name
(Uncle George, Co_inSue)
/
7- ~_._.

intimate

Ida'/ subordinate sta*-

special stat_ _ (police, president)

special term
(officer." "your
Honor," ..... "Mr. Pr_ident")

-/./1= special request orformalitv

tide + I.st n.me or
tide .Ione

// older
-- /
(spedfy a.e) - . . . peer .......... ~

~
..power or ~-
equal status

...\.- -.1--_ _u\_ subordinate / \/

\ nonintimate

nonprofessional

/
m.le
~
Mr. + la.t
n.me

-........ female

I "'mamed Mrs\rMs.

unmamed

+ last name

Mis.orM

+ last n.me

_famWar
~
first name

f.mm.r

I
intim.te

~ ............

I

\

nickn.me

first n.me

or

diminutive

("S.mmy"

or

"b.by")

(For a more extensive example. see the article by Susan Ervin-Tripp cited in the Resource section.)

61

Gavel to Gavel Grades 11-12

GoallPurpose
It is easy (or at least quick) to make decisions as individuals, but the quality of those decisions suffers from lack of multiple perspectives. Decision making becomes more difficult as the size of a group increases. However, we can have more confidence in the quality of large group discussions assuming that the division of labor is used to promote a thorough investigation of problems and solutions and that the group process encourages vigorous debate and protects the rights of minorities. Parliamentary procedure represents a set of rituals governing large group decision making in a manner which contains conflict and channels it constructively. Since many organizations abide by some form of parliamentary procedure, basic knowledge of its rules is a useful life role skill. This activity uses parlimentary procedure to conduct a long term project with the ultimate goal of producing a class position paper concerning a current issue of importance to class members.
Objectives
The learner will
sharpen knowledge of a selected critical issue.
construct an ongoing parlimentary system.
conduct a series of meetings using the following tools. order of business agenda main motions subsidiary motions privileged motions incidental motions debate order of precedence of motions committee system
conduct a variety of research activities including library research, taking testimony from guest speakers, interviewing and archival research, as appropriate to the question selected.
engage in large group decision making concerning an issue of critical importance.
assume formal roles of chair, secretary, parIimentarian.

assume emergent roles of expert, skeptic, tension reliever, social leader, communication facilitator.
compose a position paper including minority reports and recommendations.
conduct a public relations campaign, including publication of the position paper, designed to help bring about the final recommendations.
Materials'Aids
paper and duplication facilities
libraries
community resource people as guest speakers
a gavel (optional)
SUDlDlary
In organizing a large portion of class time around the exploration and solution of a particular issue, the teacher is actually employing an alternative curriculum model- class as community. When this model is successfully applied, results are impressive, for students are using communication skills in solving real tasks rather than simply learning about or artificially practicing them. Success in organizing the class as a task-oriented community hinges on finding an issue which can sustain student motivation and on integrating appropriate learning objectives and materials films, works of literature, brief writing assignments and even grammar instruction - with the theme adopted by the class. In this project students use parliamentary procedure to organize themselves and conduct large group meetings leading ultimately to the production of a position paper concerning some issue of vital interest.
Procedures
1. Be certain students understand that it is essential for them to select an issue that is intrinsically interesting to them and will provide strong motivation. This is done early in the term in informal large group discussion. For example, at one school, a pair of tragic automobile accidents involving classmates spurred a project concerning high school driver education.

62

2. The teacher should stipulate that the final product will be a position paper distributed to school and community leaders including the PTA (or a similar group). It should immediately become apparent that students need some form of structure to guide their work.
3. The teacher should explain parliamentary procedure and the committee system. The class need not go into greater depth than provided by most high school speech texts such as Adams and Pollock, Speak Up!
4. It should be agreed that steering decisions will be made by the committee of the whole. Chair, secretary, parliamentarian and perhaps vice chair should be elected for two-week terms.
5. Among the first orders of business will be the setting of a time frame. Standing committees should be organized. These may include a medical research committee, law enforcement research committee, popular culture committee, peer survey committee, committee on ongoing information compilation, document production committee and publicity committee. It should be emphasized that these committees may assign work to students who may not be committee members. Labor is shared equitably.
6. The initial phase concentrates on group research and report writing. The committee as a whole will need to be convened less frequently once initial procedures are set up. However, the large group should meet at least twice a week for committee reports and evaluation of the process. Also, the entire class will convene to hear guest speakers invited by the various committees.
7. After research is completed, a problem overview and specific research review chapters can be drafted. At the same time, each committee should draft specific debatable resolutions for consideration by the committee of the whole. Resolutions are also accepted from the floor. Provision should be made for minority caucuses to compose dissenting views.
8. A final draft of the position paper, including minority reports, is produced. The entire class participates in editing.

9. The report is disseminated to appropriate audiences accompanied by oral presentations where appropriate. For example, the entire class may wish to discuss orally the findings and recommendations with principal.
10. Follow-up publicity should be produced. The class may decide to engage in a persuasive campaign to reach other students by means of posters, a multimedia assembly program and public address announcements.
Evaluation
1. Teacher evaluation and peer evaluation should focus upon the items below
a. Proper use of parliamentary rituals
b. Contributions to large group debate
c. Contributions to committee efforts including quality research
d. Quality of written contributions
2. Depending upon the work assigned and completed as a part of this activity, student products, such as written reports concerning special interests and oral reports presented to the large group, should be evaluated using procedures appropriate to the type and quality of the work and the maturity of the group.
3. Follow-up activities provide opportunities for related sources of evaluation.
Follow-up Activities
In the class as community model, the teacher will relate a variety of class activities to the central theme.
The theme and related work should provide subject matter for student journals. On several occasions students should produce expressive and narrative writings on the subject.
Students can write or orally present reviews of popular culture dealing with their subject including films, magazine articles and songs.
Publicity activities described in the last step of this process will provide numerous opportunities for follow-up projects.

63

Resources
Harlen Adams and Thomas Pollock. Speak Up! New York: Macmillan, 1964.
Henry M. Robert. Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised. Glenview, Ill.: Scott Foresman, 1970.

John Gray and Richard Rea. Parliamentary Procedure: A Programmed Introduction. Glenview, Ill.: Scott Foresman, 1973.

64

Reading

Reading Comprehension in the High School
An Overview

For the high school student. the primary goal of the reading program should be to insure that the reading tasks as required in the various content areas can successfully and independently be performed. At this level. instruction in decoding skills. such as phonetic analysis. is not usually beneficial to the learner. By the time students reach high school. all but the most severely deficient readers have been able to identify some alternative strategies to compensate for their lack of proficiency in word recognition skills. The key to providing students at this level with successful reading experiences lies in the indepth instruction in comprehension skills. including meaningful ,:,ocabulary development and reading-related content area skills.
As illustrated in Table I (Smith. 1961). the

difference between good readers and poor readers is the ability to restructure the material. Varied reading rates. varied purposes for reading and reviewing are part of the capabilities of the good reader. It would be well. then. in our high school reading programs to create programs that allow students to practice these skills in the reading classroom as well as the various content areas. An authority has pointed out. "The effort a teacher expends in building the comprehension program will be reflected directly in students' abilities to effectively derive. interpret. and apply meaning from oral and written communication experiences encountered throughout life" (Ruddell. 1978. p. 38). This must be the ultimate goal of the reading comprehension program.

65

Table I Compari"sons of Good and Poor Readers In
Grade 12

Factor Stating purpose Reading for stated purpose Establishing own purposes Reasons for rereading
Proportion reading every word reading for details reading for general impressions
Approach to organization of material when reading for details
Review while reading When reading for general impressions

Good readers stated it correctly did did
to find definite information to place information in mind
1/2
1/3
restructured material catalogued details connected detail with something else fixed information in mind
frequently
read for ideas

Poor readers 112 stated correctly did not did not because did not understand something
all all tried to remember points in isolation
seldom tried to remember details in isolation

Adapted from Helen K. Smith. "Research in Reading for Different Purposes." In Changing Concepts of Reading Instruction. J. Allen (Ed.) Newark. Del.: International Reading Association. 1961.
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Teaching Reading in the Content Areas

Starting in the upper elementary grades, the instructional program for many students shifts toward an in-depth study of content taught by teachers whose primary training is in areas other than reading. Teachers of social studies, science, mathematics and even English mayor may not have a background in the teaching of reading. The expectations of these teachers and the reading demands made on students, however, increase with every grade. If students are to be able to succeed in these content area classes, the teachers of these students must be made fully aware of the significance of reading to their specific content areas. Regardless of the content area, the following general teaching practices might improve reading competence.
List and discuss the objectives of the assignment for students.
Identify key words and phrases along with the specific definitions appropriate to the lesson.
Employ flexible and fluid grouping patterns (large group, small group, independent study) of instruction.
Provide and use a variety of instructional materials (media and nonmedia) on a wide range of instructional levels.
Provide enrichment and independent reading materials and activities as an integral part of the instructional program.
Recognize and provide for the individual differences in learning styles and reading ability of students.
When textbooks are selected, make sure they are on the students' appropriatf! instructional level.
Provide study guides or questions which identify the important areas of the lesson.
Allow adequate time for students to read and discuss the material prior to larger class discussions.
On a regular basis, do your own assignments, and take your own tests.
Know the specific reading tasks that you expect students to perform in your content area.

Different reading skills are required of students in different content areas. The following section contains some of the specific reading skills necessary to be a successful reader in various selected content areas. Students should be instructed in the specific and representative skills identified within the designated content areas that follow. Reading Skills in Science Understand key vocabulary terms. Understand and interpret symbols, graphs, diagrams, charts and formulas. Follow directions. Read to solve problems. Read for details. Locate and interpret scientific information. Read inductively, deductively and reflectively. Make classifications. Predict outcomes. Recognize similarities and differences. Make judgments. Synthesize data. Recognize sequence. Make appropriate generalizations. Recognize cause-effect relationships.
Reading Skills in Mathematics Understand key vocabulary terms. Understand and interpret symbols, graphs, diagrams, charts and formulas. Recognize relationships. Organize details and processes to find solutions. Evolve procedures for problem solving. Make comparisons to find similarities and differences of objects. Make classifications. Collect and recognize the relevance of data. Judge reasonableness of answers.

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Use sequences. Make and interpret generalized statements. Analyze arguments critically. Recognize common errors in reasoning. Exhibit critical thinking. Reading Skills in Social Studies Understand key vocabulary terms. Locate, analyze and interpret data. Distinguish between fact and opinion. Apply facts to the solution of problems. Recognize cause-effect relationships. Recognize and state a problem. Draw conclusions from facts given. Understand and interpret maps, tables, charts, graphs, symbols and other illustrative materials. Make judgments. Make comparisons. Recognize the use of propaganda techniques. Make appropriate generalizations. Read critically. Follow directions. Make inferences.
Reading Skills in Literature Read for details and main ideas. Make inferences. Draw conclusions. Predict outcomes. Make judgments.

Read critically.
Recognize cause-effect relationships.
Understand sequence of events.
Understand connotation, symbolism and allusions.
Understand literal and implied meanings.
Recognize the author's mood, intent, tone, purpose, style and rhythm.
Locate and interpret clues to plot, character and motive.
Distinguish fiction from nonfiction.
Distinguish between fact and opinion.
Distinguish reality from fantasy.
These particular reading skills, listed by content area provide samples of skills that are most relevant to specific subjects. This list is not comprehensive either in its inclusion of content areas or skills. Teachers are referred to the Essential Skills for Georgia Schools (Georgia Department of Education, 1980), to specific subject area curriculum guides and to professional materials listed under Reading in the Resources section of this book for suggestions for expanding the listing in a particular area or for addressing an area that has not been mentioned.
These samples should be useful for all teachers. Reading teachers are urged to reinforce these skills whenever possible so that skill instruction will be transferred to the content classroom. Content teachers are urged to use this listing as a base, adding or deleting skill items as appropriate. The essential point to be made is that all teachers need to be aware that their knowledge of the importance of these skills will have a direct impact on their success in providing instruction for their students and in the subsequent achievement of the students.

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Building Bridges to Reading
in the Content Areas

Increasingly, there is concern about helping the deficient reader become successful in other subject classes. While the various materials in the reading laboratory should help the student de velop the necessary work.study skills to learn effectively; there are some teaching practices which the reading teacher and the content area teacher should consider to help the deficient reader in learning activities during the course of the day. The following list of practices will help accomplish this goal.
In the reading laboratory, the teacher should do the followin.
Stock the room with materials that provide for useful work-study skills' assignments on a variety of levels.
Discuss with students the specific study skills that will help to improve the overall school performance.
Plan to evaluate the problems that the students are having with homework and other content area reading assignments.
Notify other teachers of students enrolled in the reading laboratory.
Create opportunities for other content area teach e'rs to help students and work with materials in the reading laboratory.
Provide specific assignments to overcome problems observed while the students complete homework assignments.
Make a joint effort with content area teachers to assist the remedial reader.
Identify other programs available in the school (i.e., Homework Helpers Program).

On a schoolwide basis, the content area teacher should do the followin.
Know the reading ability of the student from
cumulative records, standardized tests, informal reading analysis, c10ze procedure. Know the readability level of the textbooks in use.
Use text materials suited in difficulty to the reading levels of students.
Discuss the format of the textbook and how it may be used effectively.
Identify and proVide, if possible, teacher materials written on low-grade and above-grade reading levels.
Note special vocabulary and concepts introduced in various units.
Plan to teach essential vocabulary and concepts.
Provide special assistance