Manual of methods for Georgia teachers, 1909

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MANUAL OF METHODS

Georgicl Teachers.

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CONTENTS.
SPELLING -- ~ ---------------------------- 7
PF,NMANSHIP ---------------------------- 17
READING ---------------~---------------- 23
ENGLISH GRAMMAR ----------------------- 45 GEOGRAPHY------------------------------ 81 HISTORY ---- ____________________________ 107
ARITHMETIC -----------------------------139 NATURE STUDY ---------------------------179' ScHooL MANAGEMENT --------------------227 PHYSIOLOGY ------------------- __________ 247 DRAWING --------------------------------271 SYLLABUS -------------------------------281 HoME READING ---------------------------283 EvANs' HISTORY oF GEoRGIA________________285 CIVIL GoVERNMENT _______________________ 289
TERRITORIAL GROWTH OF THE UNITED STATES_295
THE RECITATION ----------------------~--303
1ft~,~~~ ~ ~ I 0 !.c-.-.:.o__"_"_._"_..,

SPELLING.

BY E. C. BRANSON, STATE NoRMAL SOHooL
(Copyrighted.)

I. PURPOSES.

1. To teach vocabulary of every-day English. 2. To teach the vocabulary of the common achoo.l
texts.

'l'hese two purposea concern about 10,000

words; about one-third the number in the

average speller.

1. To teach the use of the dictionary In order to

extend his vocabulary, now and later.

I. To teach (1) the forme (spelling and pronuncla-

Uon) of tJhe words acquired, (2) their meanings

and uses, and (3) their forms In writtfln Eng-

lish (capitals, hyphens, quotations, etc.)

1. To aim directly at reading from the start.

1. To develop promptly a ready self-determination

of words b7 puplls.

'1. To lodge a memory of word-forms In the D.ngers.

1. To excite an interest In words: (1) dertva.Uon. (J)

composHlon, (3) Mstory, (4) choice.

I. To teacll the lmportanrt rules of apelllnc.

10. To eduCSJte the pupil. Teaching spelling and

educating the pupll by means of spelling are

dltrerent things. Appeals to a:;-bltrary memoJT

of woro-forma alOM are not qutckentnc but

deadentnc to tn.telltgence.

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IL KETHODS.
l. Primary Gmdea. (Worde from Readers .mo.tlJ',) .(1)_ CopJ'Inc words In script from dall7 leuou.

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!" .. ...
[(I) lt&'ll.t Qell1ng; on.llJ from bb., ellart, or
openboolt. (I) Memory spelling, words in all lessons. .(4) Word-bulldlnc; using letter cards (both
.c:ript and Roman text.) -) Phonic word-buildi ng. a. To teach to
eye and ear t:he sign- and sound-ll!te nesses of words. b. In order to de Telop ready ~~elf-determination of nt>w
words. :(1) Picture spelling. a. Children write words
for things seen in pictures. b. Cse
of outline drawings. (7) Se~nce bullding. a. Using word-cards .
1n script and Roman text. .(1) Short sentences. a. Dictated by teacher
b. From given words. (t) Elliptical sentences. Copied and oompl
ted . .(18) Picture stories. Short sentencet au~ge.
ted by pictures. .(11) Clualfying words. a. Alph!llbetically.
b. According to No. letters. c. According to No. syllables. d. Capitals.
e. .Action words or name worda, etc.

I. lntermedl~ Grades.
(1) Sentence making, for doubtful or difficult words, in all lessons, (1) orally, (2) ln wrltin~t.
(I) Dictation exercises. Paragraphs assigned for study from any school book, the readers mostly.
Recollection lessons. Observation spelling. (1) Indoor obser-
Ta.tlons. (2) Outdoor obser'rll.tlons. SpelUng to be centered lar&"elJ around uture etudiN.

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., .... -.,

'(I) Reproduction llt.Ort

(I) Marking worca dlacrttioally-berlutq

with 3d Reader cl&Mea.

(7) Making word Uata for ginn eoun~.

(I) Grammaltical spelling. {1) Plur&ll, (%)
Poa&e88ivea, {3) Put tense forma, <)

Contraction and abbrevlatlona, lly~

phenated words, etc.

(9) Memory versee a.nd maxima.

(10) Supplementary llsta, made by the puplla

{1) In school, {2) out of school. Thinca

.een on the way to school; commoll

farm or garden products; household

furniture; ta'ble ware and toocla; arti-

cles made at clay, Iron, atlver, etc.;

garden and farm tools; Bible char&o-

tera; amusements and gamea; thlnct

found In a boy's pocket; u1mt.la tlLat

ea.t grass, fl.esh, that swim, wade, ato.

(11) Common misspelled worda.

(12) Spelllng matobea. Suggestlona:

L Preserve sides throughout the aesaloa

It possible.

J. Keep pupils In the ranks throughout

the exercise.

I. Each side notes the mlnpelled words

of the opposite side In all exercise.;

report.a them to Ita captain, who
ilsta them for the teachera to ctn

out to the ot.her aide.

4. The teacher tallies tlhe wortt. mluet

by each side, and also recoru tht

victories by days.

I. Hatches once a fortnlg1lt.

(111) Trapping In oral ttpelllng.

(U) Listing, sounding and spelling 'W'Orfa dta. cult of artlculs.tloa; mist., IUta.~f!

~ rlai!ln~, ..,_

.

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(11) !l.creM!OU. .L l:lpeUing rh;ruuiL Teacher "vii out word, pupll spells, gives out a rlaymJng word and spells. J. Bulldtng words out of the letters of a given word; "legislature," tor example. I. Teacher gives out the name of a tool, say; pupil spells and calla the name of another tool for the next pupil to spell and so on down a Ust of tools. Each pupil calls out and spells a word beginning with the last letter of the word previously spelled. 6. Pupils point out objects, parts or qualities of objects; class !lpells. S. Pupils describe words, cla..qe sp~>lla. "Whllit gums envelopes!" C!&sa spells, "mucilage," etc. 7. One pupil gives out .a word, the next spells Its opposite. "Stral gb t,.. "crooked." I. Spell1ng synonymL
I. Upper Grades.
(1) Diotatlona. (2) Common misspelled words. (8) Teach the Important rulee of IJ>ellln&
(1) by induction, (2) by use, for ex-
<~.mple:
Rule for doubling the final consonant. Rule for dropping the final silent e. Rule for changing final 11 Into t '(4) Spell1ng derivatives from primltlvea given.
(6) Deftntng derlv8Jt1ves etymolaglcally.
,(I) Forming words from common fo"elp
I'OOUI; like graphei.n, ta.cerr., etc.

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(7) Making word lists for given suffixes or roots; like un-, -ion, -logy.
(8) Listing words according to origin-Latin, Greek, Arabic, Celtic, etc.
(9) Word studies, as they occur in course of upper class work. "Swinton's Rambles Among Words," a good cue to the teacher.
(10) Listing and sounding words commonly mispronounced.
III. SUGGESTIONS.
1. Get spelling mostly from the readers the first three years at least, and aim all spelling all the time at intelligent reading and correct written forms.
2. Omit, therefore, infrequent words-mere catch words difficult to spell. Stress the words the pupil needs constantly-the vocabulary of the various school books certainly.
3. Do not have the pupil spelling words from the spelling books, the meaning and uses of which neither he nor the teacher knows.
4. Make sure of meanings and uses, along with forms of words everywhere. Breed in him the habit of using the Dictionary. .
5. Remember that oral spelling teaches (1) the sound values of the letters, (2) syllabication, and (3) pronunciations; and cannot therefore be dispensed with. You can easily have too much of it, and you can easily rob it of its chief value, by neglecting to have pupils for the first three years to pronounce syllables as they are spelled.
6. In oral spelling: (1) Give out the words once, distinctly. (2) Permit no guessing.

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(I) Han p11pU to ~OWl.. wor4 )le!Me epelllnc 1t. (A le680n In arUcul..tlon and pronuncl &tlon, this).
<> Have 'lrlm pronounce each syllable aa
spelled. Also to call capital letters, hyphens, &c. wlhen the:r occur. (6) Hane sentences for doubtful words. (6} Do not becin &1ways at the head of the class, nor with the 1lrat Wl>rd tn the ieee on. (7} Vazy the methode only when fta~g!nc
interest requlr lt, but do not ran to
do so then. (8} ~reserve good linea and postures. T. But remember that spelling Is first an aid to the ready recognition of words (reading) and next to the ready reproduction of words (writing); tha.t we do not need spellin~ In oral speech, but only In written BPeech; that we spell In llfe with our flngTrs; th111t writing words Is the best way to learn to write words; and tha.t at lut
we must lodce In the fingers the memory \f word forms. I. Wrlotten spelling.
(1) Teaches the forms of English, capitalIzation, punctuaJtlon, use of hyphen, apostrophe, capitals, quota.tlon mar.U, paragraph1ngs, etc.
(!) Gives each pup1l more words to spell In each lesson.
(3) 'K~ps a.ll tihe pupils engaged.
(f) Gives a better chance to criticise and
-1 correct mlss,pelled words.
(6) But takes more time for the recitation. (6) Tempts pupils Into dlshonetJty. ; 1. Rave no more written work than you have time te correct, be that much or little; much wr~

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r * In~ u certainly 11.xet 'ba4 h&blta u

oa:

hence the a.baolute need of lnepecUoll. Take

only a pupll'a be.t work.

10. Develop In pupUa the powc of Mlf-crltlclam &aC

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correction. (1) Have puplle correct th.tr own work wWl

open booka. (2) Or cheek up one a.nother'a work almi-

la.rly. Eadh pupil correct Ilia owa

work. Correction is -.t;he &lm; not 4e-

tectlon of errora by teacher, merely.

(3) Examine the work yourself olll:r after

the correotlone of the puplla.

(4) Have misspelled worda r..wrlttell a

number of tlmee 'by the pupil.

11. AsPign spelling lessons occaslona.lly from the

day'.: lesson In Arithmetic, or Geocraphy, or

any of the school booka. 'Y

IV. QUIZ REVIEWS.
1. State ten purposes ln teachlnc spelllnr. 2. How teach the UMI of the dictlonar:rT 3. State the three elementa of mastery of a Toe&b&
la17. 4. ~db one is usually neglected In teacblnr apeU-
lncT 1. How aim spelllng directly at readlncT
t. How make spelling aid In the maetery ot all the
pupU'a school books T 'f. Sta.te some ways of teachtnc apelllns which are
not educa.t!Ye. 1. State and explain live method of ape111ar a4a.-
t.d to Primary G!'lPI;!ea.
t. 8ta.W the purpoaee of Phonic word-bull41ar.
.., ......,. 11. Illustr&~ "hat Ia meant by Phonic wor4bUlltialo
u. 8tat.e m TUletl ot wn\wa Qt1Ua1 1 - .eta

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U. 8tet.e wb.at Ia taught In aentenoe spelllnr and

dictation exercises.

11. Outline two klnda of observation apelling leawne,

(object spellinc).

14. State the apeclal educa.tloDAl va.luea of obaena.Uon

spell1nc.

11. Sta.te four uses ot dlacrltlca.
11. When begin drill& ln dla.crltlcl?

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17. Mark tJhe followinc worda:-(To be trelected bJ

tea.cher).

U. State the valuu of dictating memory verna and

mmma.

11. State tlhe wa:r- of ma.king apelll~ m8/tchea valu-

able.

10. Cr1Uclae a apelllng ma.tch poorly conductecl. 11. Sta.te five clasae~ ot words usually e.rticula.ted

carelessl7.
a. Pronounce the foHowing words (worda com-

monly mispronounced, &eJected a.nd glvea by

the teacher).

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11. State and explain ftve forms of written epelltq

for inJtermedla.te grades.

14. State and explain five forma of oral apelllnr for

inJtermediate grades.

Ill. State a.nd explain five forms of spe1llng games.

18. State a.nd lllUSitrate the three most important

rulea of spelling.

J'l. A.bl>Teviate the following words: (to 'be ~elected

and &inn by tJhe teacher).
II. Write sentences for the fo'llowlng worda: (to oo

~elected a.nd ~ven by the teacher).
11. Gift 1Vorda for the' following sumxe~~ and 4elne \

each: --er, -1st, -ness, -some, -al, -loa,

..J (or othen as teacher chooses).

....

10. Ho1V te&Cib pupil the use of the dictlon&r7f

11. Sta.te the usee of oral spelling.

12. State the u - of 1Vrltten apelllnc.
U. What d081 ea.ch teach tlhat the other .... ue
t.OT

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34. State six cautions in giving an oral spelling lesson 35. State six ways of correcting written spelling
lessons. 36. State two dangers in written spelling lessons. 37. How avoid each. 38. How decrease the opportunities for cheating in
written spelling. 39. How use a spelling book wisely. 40. Give opinion upon the following matters:
(1) At what stage in a pupil's course would you put a spelling book into his hands.
(2) Should a pupil know the meaning of every word he is called on to spell.
(3) Should pupils in writing words in columns begin them all with capitals.
(4) Should pupils be allowed to correct each other's work.
(5) Should pupils be given incorrectly spelled words to be corrected
(6) Should we abolish the spelling book

v. REVIEW TEXT-BOOKS IN THE COURSE.



1. Penniman's Common Words Difficult to Spell. D. C. Heath & Co., Boston.

2. Penniman's Prose Dictation Exercises.

D. C. Heath & Co., Boston.

3. Abernathy's Academy Orthoepist.

Maynard, Merrill & Co., New Yerk.

VI. REFERENCE BOOKS.
Sweet's Methods of Teaching, Chap. III., Part II. American Book Co., N.Y., $1.00.
2. DeGraff's School Room Guide, p. 60. Bardeen & Co., Syracuse, N.Y., Sl.50.
3. Moore's Suggestions for Seat Work. A. Flanagan, Chicago, Ill., 25 cents.
4. Methods in Reading and Spelling, b;y Branson. D. C. Heath & Co., Bo1ton.

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PENMANSHIP.
BY FRED J. ORR, STATE NoRHAL Scuoo:L, ATHENS, GA.

L PURPOSE.

The purpose of handwriting Is obl'lous, yet a.n

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UlldUe emphasis on the teaching of certain ot

Ita features, to the neglect of others, frequently

makes of It an end In Itself, rather than a means

to an end. It Is therefore well to remember that

Ita service Is rendered, completely, when the

writer has been enabled by Ita use to record hi&

thought quickly, and In such manner that It

may be easily read.

The teacher, then, may del'ote himself principally

to these two desiderata: legibility and speed, or,

as thought of In the class-room-form and mol'e-

ment.

L IN REGARD TO TEACHING FORM.

The two classes of script letter forms taught generally are: "Vertical" and "Slant." Their relative merltll may be adjudged by reference to the following considerations, viz.: that, In general, a system of penmanship should be so planned that Its forms will be t>asy to read. easy to wrth. nnti easy to learn. This generalization Is meant to Include hygienic consldern Uons and a reasoua ble amount of attention to beauty. It Is advisahle to use that system which mo.st nearly conforms to these conditions. Whatever the style or writIn&' adopted, a aeries of "copies" or model In Mme form Is easentlal.

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GENERAL SUGGESTIONS.
1. Models may be provided in copy-books or supplied by the teacher. In the latter case, either by supplying each student at every writing period with an engraved or written sentence, or series of letter forms, mounted on cardboard, or by models written distinctly and neatly on the black board. The first plan is preferable.
2. Be sure that the pupil is making an effort to reproduce the given models, and is not mechanically copying his own errors.
3. Point out differences between the written work and the models, and lead pupil to see the same.
4. Be specific in all criticisms of faults.
5. Commend progress, but always in such a way as to encourage its continuance.
6. Use the blackboard to illustrate errors an methods of correction; formation of difficult letters; correct and incorrect proportions; points of beauty, essential and non-essential, etc.
7. Stress a proper spacing between letters, and be tween words. (Note the difference).
8. Emphaisze uniformity in the size of letters on a page.
9. Encourage individuality within bounds. That is, don't expect every child to write exactly alike, nor need it be expected that every o! e will write exactly like the models given. However, the modles are ideals and should be constantly the goal toward which the class aspires.
10. Do not permit a student to write only a part of a letter at a time, having to refer to the model before finishing. See the whole-write it. Compare with model, then rewrite, correcting error. Apply this to sentences and words as well as to letters.

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11. It is unnecessary to emphasize "joinings" (or connecting lines between letters), or in fact, any feature not essential to good form. Plain, well proportioned letters are the essentials to know.
12. Detect the elements that go to make a wellformed letter: proportion (height to width), curves, straight lines, stems, and loops.
13. Require and exemplify neatness, on the blackboard and on paper.
14. Don't teach writing at the writing period only. Discountenance careless work in any written exercise.
15. Large forms are perhaps preferable for beginners (children). After the proportions are learned, the "size" of one's writing is a matter of individuality.
16. From the standpoint of care of the eyes, and illdependent handling of the pen, single line paper would seem to be preferable to pages with spaced interlinings.
17. See that each member of the class is supplied with good writing materials. A long, mediumsoft pencil is preferable to a scratchy pen; and
a good pen is rather to be had than a hard stub
pencil. Use judgment as to when to begin the use of pen and ink. 18. It is to be remembered always, that ability to visualize the forms of letters being studied, must precede free construction of the same with the pen or pencil. Hence, use methods that will serve to fix these forms in every student's mind. 19. Blackboard work (see above).
III. MOVEMENT, OR THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPEED
1. Position. {1) Body-should be free from all strain (shoulders,
eyes, fingers, etc). It does not seem wise to re-

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quire all pupils to sit in exactly the same way. In general, however, the writer should sit far enough from the page upon which he writes, to insure perfect freedom in the use of arm and hand. A line through the two eyes should be parallel to the line of writing. This means that the head is inclined neither to the right nor left, and shoulders same height.
(2) Pen-should rest lightly on the side of the second finger at the root of the nail, and be held in position by thumb and first finger, the latter being bent slightly only. Finger tips not less than one inch from the pen point. Third and fourth fingers folded under the palm. Staff crossing knuckle of the first finger and so turned that the nibs of pen point rest equally on the paper. Avoid: gripping of the pen; grasping too near the point; a right angle in the middle joint of the first finger; ink stains on the fingers.
(3) Paper-so placed that lines on the page are parallel to a line through the two eyes, thereby insuring equal focal distance.
Note.-Teach positions by example if class is not too large. Otherwise, by definite directions.
2. Methods.
(1) Kinds of movement-three:
a. Whole arm, with shoulder as pivot.
b. Muscular, or forearm, with the under muscle just below the elbow, stationary on the desk and acting as a cushion and pivot upon which the arm rests and moves.
c. Finger, in which the entire control of the pen . is exercised by movement of the fingers.
Note. A combination of these three is perhaps the best form of movement.

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(2) Movement exercises should be given in concrete form; i. e., letters, and their combinations in words and sentences. Begin with the easiest and advance to more difficult, e. g.: c, e, i, a, o u, v, w, n, m, etc., and combinations.
IV. MISCELLANEOUS.
1. The writing period.
(1) Devote a part of each period to study and reproduction of correct letter forms, in which form is especially stressed; part to movement exercises, in which movement is especially stressed. Neither form nor movement must be forgotten however, at any time.
2. Grade according to general conformity to corercisesmay be given with pen, pencil and crayon.
(3) Writing period should not be more than twenty minutes in length, for primary pupils; about twenty to thirty minutes for advanced students.
2. Grade according to general conformity to correct letter forms, improvement and neatness
3. Blackboard Work.
(1) Have your own writing on the board, on horizontal lines (not drawn), distinct always, and never careless.
(2) Guard neatness scrupulously. Never erase with fingers.
(3) This is a good place to train in full, free, arm movement.
4. A definite understanding of correct positons is essential at the start. It may well precede an1 theught gf letter forms or of movemen~.

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READING,
BY LAWTON B. EVANS, SuPT. oF ScnooLS,
AUGUSTA, GA.
(Copyrighted)
MATERIAL FOR TEACHER'S USE.
1. Natural objects-flowers, insects, grain, etc. 2. Phenomena-boiling water, growing plant, burst.
ing cocoon, etc. 3. Familiar objects-a ball, a cap, a top, a fan, a
knife, etc. 4. Toys-a horse, a cow, a cat, a donkey, etc. 5. Pictures cut from story books, magazines, etc. Note.-This material in named is the order of importance, By all means use the natural object itself if it can be done. Children love nature, and objects of nature excite their curiosity and interest. Use the every-day familiar objects, and teach the things about them that a child ordinarily does not see. Train him to observe and count. An ear of corn will give a great deal of work in language, reading and nature study.
TEACHING THE WORD.
1. Conversation exercise. The first thing to be done is to show the child the relation between the spoken and written word. Show the object to the class, and induce the pupils to talk about it. Call their attention to the main features. Lead them to talk by asking questions. Arouse their curiosity, gain their attention and awaken their mind1.

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Note.-When the pupils come forward to recite let them stand around the teacher, or sit down, assuming whatever easy and natural position they prefer. The things to be insisted on in the recitation are attention, animation, enthusiasm, freedom in speech. If these are obtained, the pupils are in order, do what they will. Do not repress any of the natural activity of the child. Merely require all movements to be natural, graceful and spontaneous. B'ooks are not needed for several weeks. Use the blackboards, slates, writing-paper, etc.
2. The Word Symbol. After the pupils have discussed the object, and named its parts, the teacher can write or print the word on the blackboard, making an intimate connection between the object itself and the word as its symbol. At the first lesson only two or three words should be taught. Pupils should practice naming these until they know them without the aid of the object. For seat work they should be required to copy the words they have learned.
3. In the next exercise the pronouns may be taught objectively and such simple verb forms as "see" and "have." Also "a," "an" and ''the,' Depend upon the child's memory to retain and recall these word forms. With this preparation the teacher may proceed at once to teach the reading of simple sentences.
Note.-This method is known as the word method, and proceeds on the principle of first the idea, then the spoken word, then the written or printed word. The object is always used in the be,3inning, and each word is illustrated and memorized. N o account is taken of the letters separately until some thirty or forty words have been memorized. Do not toach the alphabet. It will teach itHlf after awhile. Teach tho Worcl,

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Eutcfae.
The folio ing tesf!. fs severe, but developing and helpful. Let the pupils be shown some object, say a hat, and let them name it and watch the teacher as she writes in her best style on the board the word hat. The pupils attentively regard it until they think they know it. Let them memorize the form las best they can. Then let each one, whenever he chooses, turn his back on the copy and write what he remembers of it on the board or on his slate. The reproduction must be from memory and not from sight. This stimulates intense perception and aids the power of recollection. Wonderful results can be obtained by a patient trial of this form of word-making from memory.
TEACHING THE SENTENCE.
As soon as a few words and phrases have been taught, the teacher should lead the pupils to read written or printed sentences. Get to the simpl~ ,.entence as quickly as possible. "These sentences .should be developed by conversation, and every word previously studied. The teacher should write or print them on the blackboard in the best style.
The use of colored crayons adds beauty and Tariety to the exercises. Let the teacher regard the following rules:
1. The pupil is to read silenttyall the way through the sentence, and be sure that he knows every word before he tries to read any part of it. He can then give his entire attention to the manner of expression, and knowing all the words beforehand he can more easily read in a natural tone of voice.
2. The pupil is always to read naturally. He llhould never be allowed to spell his wa7

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through the sentence, nor read in a singsong, humdrum, monotonous manner. Reading is throught getting and thought giving. The mere calling of words in a sentence is not always reading.
3. In reading a sentence from the blackboard the pupil himself is to use the pointer. The pointer is to move evenly and rapidly along the board under the whole sentence at one impulse of the hand. It is not to tap the board under each word. The pupil reads the sentence after the pointer has designated it.
4. The pupils must be trained to see the sentence as a whole. They must understand it as containing a thought, and speak it as a whole.
Note.-The teacher must begin with the first sentence to teach naturalness and to avoid monotone. Have as much care for expression, for an easy flow of the voice, and for proper emphasis, as for correctness in pronouncing the words. In order to accomplish this the eye must be made to go ahead of the voice. We can get this by silent reading of the sentence and calling it out from memory. All the work developed on the blackboard may be left there for the pupils to copy on their slates.
Exercise.
Let the teacher draw a pretty colored picture on the board of some flower or animal, by using colored crayon, or a blackboard stencil. Better still, use a butterfly, a beetle, an autumn leaf, a bunch of flowers, or any other object of interest to children. Develop by conversation six or seven words new to the class, and write these neatly about the picure or object. Then develop a few sentences and write these below in white crayon. Make the effect artistic and pleasing. Teach the words and

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sentences thoroughly, and then allow the pupils to draw the object and the words and sentences on slates or paper. This kind of exercise will take the place of charts, and has the advantage of variety and adaptation.
Home-made Charts.
If you must have a reading chart, make one for yourself. Get :C:4 dheets of stout unglazed manilla paper, about 24 by 36 inches in size. Paste in center of each of two or three sheets some bright colored picture of a familiar object-a dog, a cat, a horse, etc. Print a few names above it and print one or two phrases underneath. Make each sheet progressive, every few pages have one for review, have one with sentences only, one with words only. Use ink and a rubber pen for printing. Use the spare pages for penmanship, colored maps, etc. Bind together at the top between two laths, leaving six inches projecting. Hang up by nails in the wall. This chart will cost you, for the paper, 25 cents, for ink and a rubber pen to do the printing, 15 cents for the pictures, nothing, for the laths and nails, nothing. Total cost of a te.n-dollar chart, 40 cents.
PHONIC SYNTHESIS.
Exercise in phonic synthesis, that is putting of sounds together into words, should precede phonic analysis. Ask the pupils what words these sounds make, touching the object at first yourself, and afterwards having them touch it, viz: m-ou-th; ch-ee-k; f-a-ce; d-e-s-k; t-ee-th; n-e-ck; b-oo-k; h-a-n-d. Tell the pupils to r-u-n; s-t-a-n-d; s-i-t; j-u-m-p. Point to the b-e-11; c-l-o-ck; b-oa-r-d; ch-al-k; etc., etc.
Pronounce the sounds slowly and distinctly; practise beforehand so as to get it right. Reverse the

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process and have the pupils give the sounds of the word that names some object held in their view, etc.
PHONIC ANALYSIS.
After the pupil has learned the words, has copied them on his slate and can tell one from another, he naturally observes that the words themselves are composed of several parts. Phonic synthesis has aided him in this. The teacher then is ready to analyze the words into their vocal elements.
1. Let the teacher choose any word that the child knows, as rat, and wri,_te it on the board and have the pupils pronounce it.
2. The teacher will then pronounce the word very slowly and separate it by his voice into the three sound elements, represented by the three letters. As he pronounces each part he touches it with the pointer.
3. The children repeat after him the sounds as nearly as they can. The teacher writes on the board the letter r, and gives the proper phonic value, the children repeat it after him. Then he writes the letter a and gives it the proper sound, the children repeating it after him. He does the same way with the letter t.
4. The word has been separated into its parts by long pronunciation. The first part, the second part and the third part have been shown and sounded. It only remains for the teacher to tell the class the names of the three letters. Let him be careful .to draw a distinction between-
(a) The appearance of the letter. (b) The sound or phonic value of_the letter, {c)..a.Th~ name of the lett~r,

I. :A& tM Mid. :-em C. t.cller tak the wort
man, &Did b:r trea.t1nc It In the I&IIle wa:r u the word ral 'WU treated, introduces two new
elements m and n. The pupils now hA~e ftve
IOUllda, represeJllted b7 the letters r, e, m, n,
&nd CJ. Tihen ftve !etten should be wrlbten on the board In tile best style. The pupil llhould cop:r 1n order to C'et the 11ppeaunce. The teacher ehould drtll 1n -the namee &DAl ID th~ phonic ve:Iues.
I. From the known Phonic elements new worda eaJt be d!scovered. From the aibove ftve elementa the tea.eher ea.n construct such new words as ran, mal, tan, cml, ram, by Ieadln~ the pupUa to ~ve tlwl IOilnda of t.h.e letters as he polnta to them and by wrttlnc ~ down aa clve.u until
a word Ia made.
"" '1. ID th4s way the enUre alphabet 111 ~a.dual1y ac-
quired b7 the pupils, according to the use of the letten In the words. It ma.y happen that an
entire Y'eM may pass without the pupil learnInc 10me of the lettera.
2\'ote.-It Ia enerall;r qreed that time 11 wasted by teachinc the alphabet ft.nrt. The 9JlUd cannot associate the names of the letters with the pronunciation of the words t.he7 spell. There Is Indeed no connection. On the other hand there 1.s a vlte.l connection between the separat11 .aund values and the united sound value. This phonic &nalym should be continued untU the chlld acqulrea the power and tihe ha.'blt of constructing the sound of a word tor hlmself. Jrlan.y words are not subject to the above anal711la. These mUBt. be memortzed b7 the pupila botll 1n torm and apell1nc.
Jrlany tee.cliera compla!DI that they themse1vea are lpona.nt ot tiM eilemfllll.t&r7 ud eompold.t.e 110undil of the 1aa-

guage. In order to overcome this difficulty the following directions are given by Mr. E. P. Moses of Raleigh, N. C:.
"First, learn to speak accurately the vowel sounds of our
language. They are seventeen, and are a as in mate; e as in mete; i as in pine; a as in note; ti as in pure; a as in mat; e as in met; 1 as in pin; a as in not; ti as in bud; a as in far; aw as in law; e as in her; a as in move; 6w as in cow;
6j as in boy; 66 as in foot."
Second, learn the consonant sounds, of which there are twenty-four, making with the seventeen vowel sounds, forty-one elementary sounds in the language.
The b IpIt IvIz sounds are founded by noting the names of
these six letters and dropping the final e sound heard in
each.
The f, 1, m, n, s, x sounds are found by noting the names of these .six letters .and dropping preceding e sound in each.
The j and k sound are found by noting the names of these two letters and dropping the final a sound in each.
The r sound is found by noting the name of the letter and dropping the preceding a sound.
The c, g, h, qu, w, y sounds are found by uttering the initial sound heard in the spoken words cow, go, ho, quit, we, ye.
The ch, sh, th (flat), th (sharp) and wh sounds are found by uttering the initial sounds heard in the words chin, she, the, thin, whip. The ng sound is found by uttering the last sound of the spoken word ring.
The zh sound is found in the word azure.
PHONIC ANALOGIES.
After the children have learned the phonic values of most of the letters, the teacher should arrange an exercise designed for the construction of words by adding a letter to a certain termination. This is the arranging of words according to their vocal analogies. Take such termination as: at, an, am, ag, ad, et, en, eg, etc., and placing each at the head

31
of a column arrange all the monosyllabic words that have that particular termination. Many hun dred words can be found and he drill in phonics is made very definite and valuable. The following are given as examples of this class of work. Each one may be called a. family: "Mrs. at and her children," etc.

at

ag

et

en

ill

ad

od

bat bag bet

cat fag

get

fat hat

fag . ag

let net

mat nat

laa.gg

pet set

pat mag wet

rat nag

yet

sat rag

etc.

tat sag

vat tag

chat wag

that etc.

etc.

den

bill

bad God

fen

fill

cad

hod

hen gill

fad

nod

men pen

hill mill

faadd

pod rod

then pill

lad

sod

when rill

mad shod

etc.

sill

pad etc.

till

sad

will

shad

chill etc.

quill

etc.

THE USE OF THE BOOK.
1. Teach the new words. Before the pupils are called to read, the teacher should find the new words in the lesson and place them on the blackboard,and have them thoroughly learned. Thes: new words constitute the advance of the pupils in word knowledge. Use the illustrations in the text to devolap interest.
2. All the pupils read each sentence. The teacher should handle a class so that all get the instruction given to each. Every pupil is required to read the sentence silently. Hands
show when each has finished. One or more

32
ea.tt be ea.lled oD. to read tJo'IIC!. TM tiMW must have a ca.re thla.t every pupil ID. the ela 1JI reading and t. prepa.red to read &loud II called on.
1. The value of expreulon. Care m'Wit be taltea to insure proper expression of the sentence. Let It be read over a.nd over until the pupils c&n ree.d u they would II>II.Y It. Let tihem read lt without looking at it. A good expreaelon Ill reading le of u much Talue u con"ect pronunela.tion of the words.
L Word exercises. It I Gf the utmoet Importance tlha.t the pupils know the word lot 111cht, otherwise they cannot read easily and fluently. All the words are learned the teacher should write or print them ou the blackboard. Every day, uae word calUng, word finding, word matching. It the child be given a small object or drawtq and told to 1lnd the word wh!ch n&'JD.elt lt, It will add Interest to the exercise.
L En unclatlon. The pupils should be requlr@d to pronounce every syllable and every letter that ought to be pronounced. Omitting !lna.l letters, slurring syllables, running words together are faults that should be corrected. To Induce correct reading, the pupils should not be allowed to read too rapidly. Time should be taken for enunciation, pronunciation, emphatla and expression. Most pupils read too fuL
&. Emphasis. Puptla can be taught emphula b7 2udlcloue questioning better than by imitation. The teacher may write a ~entence on tlile
boo.rd euch ae, I haV6 a red top. The pupil are required to ree.d the sentence ao u to gin anewers to such quett.1ons: Who hu a red top! Wh&t 111 the color 311 your top T What Ia tall

33
red thing you have? In the r~ading lesson require the sentences read with a variety of emphasis according to the questions to be answered.
7. Posture. Pupils should stand erect while reading, well in front of the recitation seat or out in the aisle. They should not lean on anything, nor stand up lazily or ungracefully. Let them assume a military posture standing erect on both feet, head up and shoulders back. The book should be held in the left hand unless the book is too heavy, in which case both hands may be used. The book should be held down below the level of the face, fourteen inches from the eye, at right angles to the line of vision.
8. Corrections. Allow no interruptions while the child is reading. Let him finish the sentence or his paragraph. The child's attention should not be distracted by other pupils shaking their fingers or raising their hands. Any criticism that is to be made should be reserved until the pupil has taken his seat. In all cases require the pupil to pronounce correctly the words he has previously missed.
Caution.-The teacher must not allow the pupils to come to her desk as individuals to have the lesson pointed out to them as they recite. Each pupil should keep his own place.
The pupils must read loud enough for the class to hear, without distracting those not in the class.
The teacher must not give too long a lesson. A page or half page well learned is far better than a half dozen pages indifferently learned. Remember that in all teaching it is not how much but how well that counts.
Do not allow the bright pupils to answer all the ques~io~s. It is the dull ones t)lat ne11d the teacher's help.

34
The bright ones can teach themselves. The teacher must have a care that the backward pupils be given all the attention possible.
Do not allow other pupils to interrupt the teacher during a recitation; time is wasted and attention is distracted. Use a monitor in ungraded schools to answer questions. Use hand signals for permissions. Provide seat work to keep pupils busy who are not busy at the recitation.
Exercise.
"What I see," "What I think."-Take a slip of writing paper of ordinary size and paste a picture at the top of it and have the pupils write a list of the ob-
jects in this picture, or sentences of w p.t they see
in the picture. A story can also be m.ide of what the picture suggests to the child. These may afterwards be read in class.
SEAT WORK FOR PRIMARY CLASSES.
1. Pupils may print or write the lesson on slates or on paper, copying from the book or from the blackboard.
2. Pupils may be provided with small cards on each of which is a letter of the alphabet. With these they can build upon their desks thelessons for the day. Sentences on the board may be copied in the same way.
ITihlel lclolwl lglilvlelsl lmlilllkl.l
3. Small cards with words written or printed on them can be distributed to the pupils, out of which they are to build sentences of their own making.
!THE I COW I EATS I GREEN I GRASS.!

35
4. Cards on which the teacher has drawn one or two simple objects and written or printed three or four short sentences can be distributed to the pupils. These they may study at their seats, copy on paper, and may also use in recitation.
5. In the second and third year pupils may be required to write a summary of the story of the lesson in as many sentences as they can remember.
6. Pupils should be allowed to draw simple objects, from drawing cards or from the blackboard, or better still, from the objects themselves, color them with colored crayon and write original stories. In this way should nature and science be brought into the schools and related to the language and to the life of the children.
READING IN ADVANCED GRADES.
Selecting a text-book.-After the third reader in the course, the pupils are prepared to begin the study of literature proper. By this time they should know how to read, and their instruction should regard information and cultivation. The teacher should select a suitable text which will be
1. Of recognized literary standing.
2. Entertaining to the class.
3. Full or information and culture for the pupils.
4. Easy enough for them to understand.
Reading for Information.-In order for the pupils to derive pleasure from the recitation it is best for the teacller to keep the text-books and distribute them when the class is ready to recite. Let the teacher and pupils study together. The following rules are to:_)e observed:

36
1. The pupils stand as they recite. 2. Each pupil reads until the teacher stops him. 3. Corrections must be made by class at end of in
dividual recitations. 4. The meaning of new words must be explained. 5. Each paragraph must be read by several pupils
until it is read satisfactorily as to elocutionary effect. 6. All allusions of an historical or geographical nature must be explained. 7. Make the lesson short, but let the study be intensive. 8. Question pupils as to the meaning of what they are reading. 9. Let the pupils summari~e the story in their own language. 10. Write the very hard words on the blackboard to be used for spelling exercise and for definitions.
Note.-One of the main duties of teachers in higher grades is to create and cultivate a love for good reading among their pupils. For this purpose every school should have a library, large or small, of books adapted for children, and the teacher should see that books are given the pupils to read. When the children are at leisure in school they may be allowed to quietly read the book they have taken from the library. They had b rer be reading than be idle or noisy. The teacher may require of them a written summary of the story, or a composition about some feature of it. Their reading can thus be of profit as well as entertainment. Some child's book or periodical containing stories, descriptions, etc., could be read in the school. The teacher could read it aloud or the pupils could read aloud to one another. The story should be reproduced orally or in writing. Resort to every means to make the pupils fond of reading good books. Show them what good books are. Place them in the hands of the pupils and see that they read them. After

37
having taught the children to read, let us see that the) read to some purpose.
Reading for Expression.-The pupils having studied a selection and mastered the story, understood the words and their meaning and had all the allusions explained to them, are prepared to study the same selection from another standpoint. That is the standpoint of elocution or expression. For this purpose they cannot know it too well, nor study it too closely. The best expression is possible only when the words are in the memory.
1. The pupils stand with especial care to posture. 2. The rate of reading should be adapted to the
piece, never so slow as to be sluggish, nor so rapid as to be indistinct. 3. Pupils should be taught the value of rhetorical pauses and how to determine their use. 4. The quality of the voice is decided by the sentiment of the piece to be read. Tones must be joyous, light, grand, solemn, reverent, fearful, according to the nature of the piece. 5. Emphasis is the stress of voice on one or more words, with reference to meaning, and must be taught from the beginning. 6. The force of the voice, whether loud or soft, and the pitch, whether high or low, are indispensable parts of good reading.
Note.-The teacher can give instruction to the pupil in the use of the voice and in breathing exercises. Every day the pupils should take deep breathing movements. Show them how and when to fill the lungs with air in order to expel it with ease and force in reading. Appropriate gestures are not .to be discouraged. If pupils wish to emphasize their reading by physical movements encourage them to do so.

38

Reading for culture.-After the child has learned to

read fairly well, the time has come for him to lay

aside the study of the mere form, and begin to

study the content of the text. The significance of

the words, rather than, their shapes and sounds,

should engage his attention. He should learn how

to read and to enjoy classical literature. The les-

sons should be short and intensive. Thirty '\nes

of a great poem is enough for a day's lesson. JLet

the meaning of every word be understood; every

metaphor and comparison be studied; every ref-

erence be explained; every choice expression be

memorized. Let it be translated into his thought

and language as though it were a Latin selection.

The text is no longer to be read, but it is to be

studied, and studied intensely, with reference to

the beauties of the literature it contains. A whole

year can be employed in the study of the three

poems-Evangeline, Enoch Arden, and the Deser-

ted Village. They then become a part of the child's

life, his thoughts are elevated, his character en-

nobled, his love for high literature cultivated. He

is shown how to study literature properly, and the

key is given him wherewith he can unlock the

storehouse of the world's literary treasures.

"Sweet Auburn! loveliest village of the plain, Where health and plenty cheered the laboring swain,

I

Where smiling Spring its earliest visit paid,

And parting Summer's lingering blooms delay'd;

Dear lovely bowers of innocence and ease,

Seats of my youth, when every sport could please;

How often have I loiter'd o'er thy green,

While humble happiness endeared each scene;

How often have I paused on every charm,

The sheltered cot, the cultivated farm,

The never-falling brook, the busy mill,

The decent church that topt the neighboring hill;

The hawthorne bush, with seate beneath the shade,

For talking age and whispering lovers made."

39

Where and what was Auburn? What was its real name? What made it sweet to the poet? What part of his life was spent there? Was it a plain? What is a swain? What !Should health and plenty do for every one? Why is Spring .called smiling? What is meant by parting summer's? what are lingering blooms? What are bowers? Why were they of innocence and ease? What does loitered mean? What does green mean? What is meant by humble happiness? What is the significance of paused on every charm? What is a decent church? Note the spelling topt. Describe a hawthorn bush. Why talking age? Why whispering lovers? etc.

SUMMARY OF FAULTS IN ADVANCED GRADES.

Teacher to Avoid

Teacher to Correct

1. Using too hard a text book. Pupils find no pleasure in severe reading. Err on the side of simplicity.
2. Using an uninteresting text book. It is a great deal easier for pupils to learn when they enjoy learning. It is the same way with grown people.
3. Giving too long a lesson. It is better to give short lessons and have them will prepared. Not how much but how well is the ke;y:note in education.,

1. Inattention on the part of the pupils. This is done by calling on them unexpectedly, by using an interesting lesson, by having them watch for errors.
2. Reading too fast and without expression. Pupils are in too great a hurry to finish, and read with no effort for effect. Take time to pronoun~e,, and enunciate every,w;~:r;9,: ~ Do not slur non.. elide...
3. Lazy and ungracefuLj posture. Require the ., pupils to rise promptly. to stand up well, book in one hand, head up, shoulders back. Posture ~ e!'Sential to g.ood efl'11,9t,,

40

4. Giving too much assistance. Make the pupils rely on their labors, and find out things for themselves. Throw the burden of education on the child himself.

4. Monotonous and uninteresting reading. This generally shows the pupil is not interested in the lesson, or that it is too hard for him.

5. Teaching by individuals. Every pupil should get all the teacher's instructions, should read silently or aloud all the lesson, and be ready to answer all the question~. Class work is different from individual work.

5. Faults in articul1tion, enunciation. Lack of knowledge of word meanings, historical al-
lusions, etc.

6. Interruptions while pupil is reading. Let the teacher, the class and the pupil be understood during the individual recitation. Cor r e c t i ons made at close.

6. Lack of elocutionary eiTort. Pupils must feel they are reading to somebody and for some purpose. Let them read from the platform if necessary, by competition one with another.

Some Helps in Teaching Reading.
Cyr's Reading Slips. Ginn & Co.. Atlanta. Pictures of Simple Objects. From any source. Augsburg's Easy Things to Draw. E. L. Kellogg & Co.,
New York. Word Cards and Alphabet Cards. Milton Bradley Co.,
Atlanta.
Some Books on Teaching Reading.
Language and Reading-(Anna Badlam.) D. C. Heath & Co., Atlanta.
Primary Reading-How to teach it. (Boston Method.) Educational Publishing Co., Boston.

41
Methods of Teaching Reading. (Branson.) D. C. Heath & Co., Atlanta.
How to teach Reading. (LeRow.) Maynard, Merrill & Co., New York.
Calkins' "How to Teach Phonics." E. L. Kellogg & Co., New York.
How to Tr.mch Reading. (Hall.) D. C. Heath & Co., Atlanta.
Preparing to Read. (Spear.) New Eng. Pub. Co., 3 Somerset St., Boston.
QUESTIONS ON METHOD OF TEACHING READING
1. Name the material, in order of value, for the teachers' use in a primary reading class.
2. What is the first thing to be taught? 3. How should the word be introduced? 4. What about the conduct of the pupils in the recitation? 5. How is the word taught? 6. What principle underlies the word method? 7. Describe the exercise of word making from memory. 8. How many words should be memorized before any ac-
count is taken of the letters?
9. When and how should sentence reading begin? 10. What of reading silently before vocalization? 11. What of naturalness in reading? 12. How should the pointer be used on the blackboard? 13. How can an exercise be made of a drawing, a few
words and sentences? 14. Describe the making of a home-made chart. 15. Describe an exercise in phonic synthesis. 16. How should phonic analysis be introduced? 17. How many sounds in the word rat and man, and what
other words can a child discover from those sounds? 18. Narne the 17 vowel sounds. 19. How can the consonant sounds be learned? 20. Mention the consonant diphthongs.

~1. What exercises can be arranged in phonic anaiogies1 Construct one.
22. Draw a phonic diagram to illustrate variety in the exercises.
23. What shauld first be taught in the reading lesson? 24. H~tw can evety dne be made to read the entire lesson1
25. What af e'xptession?
26. Haw should word exercises be conducted? 21, What about enunciation? ~8. iiaw should emphasis be taught? ~g. What should be the proper posture in a teading class?
tiD, When should cotrections be made?
3L In conducting a recitation what cautions should be observed?
32. What can you say of seat work in reading and lan8uage? Word cards? Alphabet cards?
33, Illustrate the relating of science and language work.
34, What are the points of excellence in a text-book for advanced grades?
35. Mention some of the rules for good reading in advanced grades.
36. How can a love of good reading be"aroused in pupils? 37. What can you say of reading for expression 38. Mention the six rules for expression. 39. What of breathing exercises? 40. What is meant by reading for culture? 41. How long should a culture lesson be? 42. What should be studied? 43. Mention three poems that could take a year to master. 44. What are some of the faults a teacher should avoid in
advanced grade teaching?
45. What are 11ome of the pupil's faults the teacher should correct?
46. Mention some helps in teaching reading. 47. Mention some books on Teaching Reading.

43
INSTITUTE PROGRAM ON READING.
FIRST DAY-45 Minutes,
1. Material for teacher's use. 2. Introductory conversation exercises. 3. Teaching the word. 4. Teaching the sentence, 5. Home-made charts.
SECOND DAY-45 Minutes.
1. Exercises in phonic synthesis. 2. How to introduce phonic analysis. 3. Exercises on the vowel and consonant sounds. How
to learn them and how to teach them.
THIRD DAY-45 Minutes,
1. Phonic analogies; construct one or more columns of words according to the analogy of termination.
2. The use of the book. Teaching new words, enunciation, emphasis, posture, etc.
3. Certain cautions for the teacher to observe.
FOURTH DAY-45 Minutes.
1. Seat work for primary classes. 2. How to relate nature to reading work. 3. Reading in advanced grades. Selecting a text-book. 4. Reading for information.
FIFTH DAY-45 Minutes.
1. Reading for expression, posture, tate of reading, rhetorical pauses, quality, emphasis and force of the voice.
~. Reading fot culture, Illustrated by same selections. 3, SUmmary of faults in advanced gtade. What should
the teachet avoid and what should the teacher cor-
rect. 4, S<>me helps in teaching readibi and toine book oD
teaobini teadinj1

I

\
I I
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
BY EULER B SMITH. DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH,
STATE NoRMAL ScHooL, ATHENs, GA.
(Copyrighted.)
pART !.-GENERAL VIEW OF GRAMMAR.
INTRODUCTION.-Language lessons should precede, but. not supersede, the study of formal grammar. Language lessons afford instruction in the art of correct expressjon; grammar is a science as well as an art. In teaching language lessons, the instruction is inductive and synthetic; in teaching grammar, the process is both deductive and inductive, analytic as well as synthetic. Language lessons, then, can no more supply the place of grammar than number lessons can afford instruction in the science of arithmetic. "Practice precedes theory, the art comes before the science;" but, as Dr. DeGarmo says, "It is a poor art that does not lead toward and culminate in corresponding science." It would be unwise to discard grammar because it has been poorly taught? Would it be wise to banish from the schools all the common-school branches that have been unsuccessfully taught Anarchy is a poor substitute for faulty government.
Many have argued that technical grammar* should not be taull:ht in the public schools. But it will be noticed that every such person, though his education may have been only such as the public school affords, is always ready to apply the principles of technical grammar in the criticism and correction of errors.-RAun.
Grammar does not dictate language; it only records the usage of the best writers and speakers, and states the principles that underli~ their use of language. A child uses language long before he begins the study of grammar, If he has always "heard good English, read good English, / and practiced good English," he does not need to study
~"By t~cbnical grammar is meant that part of grammar which deals stnctly wttb the science itself, including the technicalities and idioms."

46
grammar in order to speak and write correctly. While it is true that there are eminent writers and speakers who have never studied grammar, still it must be remembered that they have devoted a large part of their lives to a careful study of standard English. Is it necessary to travP" e the earth in order to learn the science of geography? 11. favored few have the advantage of association with those who use correct language; the vast majority are not so fortunate. As a rule, pupils cannot acquire right habits of speech from their associates; and, unfortunately, not always from their teachers. Practice, of itself, does not make perfect. Principles should underlie practice. Therefore the science of grammar should be understood, and its principles should be applied in the study and use of language. This paper deals mainly with methods of teaching advanced grammar.
PURPOSE OF TEACHING GRAMMAR-The two main objects in teaching grammar should be to aid the pupil (1) in understanding language used by others, (2) in expressing his own thoughts correctly. The immediate aim should be to enable the pupil (1) to recognize the parts of speech, (2) to analyze sentences as to structure and syntax, (3) to construct sentences properly. Besides its practical value as an aid in correct interpretation and expression of thought grammar holds a most important place as a disciplinary study.
SCOPE OF GRAMMAR-In order to teach any branch successfully, it is of paramount importance that the teacher should have a clear conception of the nature and scope of that branch. The teacher of grammar should constantly ask himself these questions: What is grammar? How are its parts correlated? What does each part contribute to the whole? Knowledge is of little value unless things are known in their relations. On page 49 is presented a bird's-eye view of grammar, showing its divisions and that of which each division treats. This outline, while intended especially for teachers, will be helpful to advanced pupils.

I. ORTHOEPY-Pronunciation!of words.

II. ORTHOGRAPHY-Spelling"of words.

III. LEXICOLOGY-Meaning and derivation of words

Noun. Verb.

.

Pronoun.

Adjectiv

Adverb .

. Preposition.

J Conjunction.

l Interjection

IV. ETYMOLOGY

[Number.

IGender. Person.

~

2. MODIFICATION 01' WORDS 1 ~~~.

DGLISB GRAMMAR.

1\lode.

1Tense. Comparison

l { ~~ L ANALYBI&-Separation of sentences into elements Phrase. Clause.

V. SYNTAX i

~Classification.

l r 2. PARSING-Analysis of elements as to Modification Construction. 1. Construction-8yntacticnl relation of element~.
1 3. SYNTHESIS l 2. Collocation-Arrangement of elements.

l 3. Punctuation-Pointing elements and sentences.

l VI. PROSODY-Versification of sentences.

48
Grammar is the science of correct language. Language
is spoken as well as written. Correct language demands,
then, not only the right spelling of written words, but also
the proper pronunciation of spoken words. To mispro-
nounce a spoken word is as grave an error as to misspell
a written word. Language, in order to be correct, also re-
quires a knowledge of the meaning of ords. Orthoepy,
orthography, and lexicology are studied incidentally in
grammar; because, long before formal grammar is begun,
they have received particular attention in spelling-books
and readers. Again, language is expressed in verse as well as prose;
hence prosody claims a place as one of the divisions of
grammar. Prosody belongs partly to grammar, partly to
hetoric. The mere form of verse (verse-making) belongs
to grammar; the diction of poetry belongs to rhetoric.
Clearing this branch of its externals, so to speak, we have
left the two main divisions of grammar-etymology and
syntax. In fact, grammar deals almost exclusively with
the etymology of words and the syntax of sentences. To
make it plainer still, grammar treats of the classification
and modification of words, and the structure of sentences.
Syntax treats of the structure of sentences. It includes analysis, parsing, and synthesis. Analysis shows the structure of the sentence by separating it into its elements. Parsing continues the analytic process; it is the analysis of the elements of sentences. Parsing deals with words, not as individual words, but as parts of sentences; i. e., in their sentential relation. Synthesis combines elements to form sentences; it views sentence-structure from the constructive standpoint.
Referring to the outline, it will be seen that etymology deals with the word as the unit; syntax, with the sentence as the unit. Whether the sentence or the word should be the starting point, is a question still much discussed. We talk and write in sentences. Rules and principles are proved by reference to the sentence. Elements are parsed according to their sentential use. In expressing thought, words are but fractional; the sentence alone is integral. The true grammatical unit is the sentence.
The starting point of the instruction should be the sin1ple sentence. Procedure from the whole to its parts takes precedence of that from the parts to the whole.-JOHONMOT.

~I

49

) METHODS OF TEACHING GRAMMAR-There are two /general methods of teaching grammar, which I shall call the Sentence Method and the Word Method. In the Sen1 'tence Method, the sentence is regarded as the unit; and it is separated into its elements, which, in their last analysis, are words. After a study of analysis, the classification and modification and construction of words are considered. The tendency of this Method is to devote too much time to analysis and diagramming. In the Word Method, which is the one in general use, the word is considered the unit; and the sentence is studied synthetically through its parts. In this method, parsing usually receives undue attention; and analysis, if studied at all, is taken up as being last and
east.
Of the two methods, the Sentence Method is much to be preferred, since it begins with the true grammatical unit -the sentence. In the Sentence Method, the procedure is analytic and inductive; principles and rules are learned through a study of language; there is no foolish attempt to learn language through a study of definitions. Laurie says, "Grammar has to be studied in and through sentences, and to be extracted from sentences by the pupil if it is to be really taught."
In successful teaching, the above-mentioned methods should both be employed, thus forming what may be called the Combined Method. By this method, the sentence is first seperated into its elements; or, in other words, speech is reduced to parts of speech. Then each part of speech is classified and defined as soon as its nature and use are clearly understood in the analysis of the sentence. The classification of words should be taken up in connection with analysis, because some elements of the sentence are named from the parts of speech. For instance, an adjective clause implies a knowledge of the adjective. On the other hand, analysis aids the pupil in better understanding the parts of speech; a conjunctive adverb is more clearly understood after analysis has shown its use in connecting a dependent clause. In the Combined Method, as the pupil

50

proceeds with the study of analysis, he is taught the first

step in parsing; namely, to recognize the parts of speech.

After the different kinds of sentences have been analyzed,

the pupil takes up the modification and construction of

the parts of speech; and he is then prepared to parse elements

in full.

)

pART !I.-SENTENCES.

It is not my purpose to give a detailed method of teaching the various topics of grammar, lest this paper be too long; but it is hoped t.hat the general plan suggested and the few illus.trations given, may be of service. As has been already . suggested, the proper method of teaching grammar is to begjn with-
I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.

Begin with short declarative sentences. Using sentences like DoGS BARK, for example, teach pupils the two essential elements of the sentence-the subject and the predicate. When subject and predicate are well understood, introduce the two principal parts of speech-the noun and the verb. Now, in the sentence Dogs bark, substitute they for dogs; and pupils get an idea of the third part of speech-the pronoun. Sentences like DEAD leaves fall QUIETLY, introduce modifiers of the subject and the predicate; and pupils begin to recognize the fourth and fifth classes of words-adjectives and adverbs. The sentence VERY LARGE trees grow VERY SLOWLY, introduces a new form of word elements-the complex form. A complex word element consists of two or more words joined together without the aid of a conjunction. In the last example given, pupils also see the remaining uses of the adverb; namely, to modify adjectives and adverbs.
The book lies ON THE TABLE illustrates a new element, the phrase; and pupils are shown the use of the sixth part of speech-the preposition. Before requiring a definition of a phrase, see that phrases are clearly understood. A phrase*
*Theword phrase is often used in a wider sense. Under phrases, some grammarians include participle phrases, verb phrases, and varioua other expressions. The terms used is grammar should be as clear and preelse as
PGillbllo'

51
is an element consisting of a preposition and its object. A preposition can never be used alone as a word element: it is an inseparable part of a phrase. The sentence He. lives IN A HOUSE NEAR THE CHURCH, contains a complex phrase. A complex phrase consists of two or more phrases joined together without a conjunction. BoYs and GIRLS study AT HOME and AT SCHOOL illustrates,compound word and phrase elements and gives an idea of the seventh class of words-the conjunction. A compound element consists of two or more elements connected by coordinate conjunctions. AH I I am so glad! contains an interjection-the eighth and last part of speech. The following sentence contains all the parts of speech: Ah I but you speak lightly of sacred things.
The three kinds of complements should be carefully discriminated. Teach pupils that a complement completes the predicate, not the verb. A subjective* complement relates to the subject by denoting a class or a quality asserted of it; as, Man is an animal, God is good. Pupils frequently have trouble in distinguishing object complements from objective complements. The former is always a substantivet; it denotes that which receives the act. The latter relates to the object complement; it may be a noun or an adjective. As a noun, the objective complement denotes the class to which the object of the act is made to belong; as an adjecive, it denotes a resultant quality that the object is made to possess. The following sentences illustrate the two lastnamed complements: They elected him PRESIDENT; The snow made the ground WHITE. In parsing, the object complement is called the direct object; the objective complement, the factitive object.
Other offices of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives should be taken up, the teacher moving by safe gradations from the simpler to the more difficult. Common noun and proper nouns should be discriminated, and the pupil taught to capitalize the latter in his written work. The subclasses
Subjective means relating to the subject. This term is more precise than attribute complement. The objective complement denotes an attribute of the object, just as the so-called attribute complement does of the subject; hence each of these complements has a right to be called an attribute com-
pletmAe1nutb. stantive ill aaoun, a pronoun, or any element uaed as a noun.

52
ot the otlher parts of speech should be ~ud!ed later. After the pupll ie familiar with declaraltive &ellltencea, he should analyze interrogative, imperative, and exclama.tory senten
cea. Tbe pupil should be ta,ught to classify and generalize in~
&vidual ta.cta. Then, the process being reversed, he should be required to illustrate; that is, KiTe ex81II1plee (particulars) of the generalizations he has made. Knowledge ot ea.ch new principle and definition should be conatan.tl; a.pplled in the construction of s.mtences. Synthesis should
elosel;r follow am:a.lysis: the pupil shoul-d learn to bui/4 u well aa tear down. Too lltJt.le attention 1.8 usually given to
Mntence-bu!lding. In connection with each element. its punctuation should be taught in order to a.id the pupil in writing hl.a exerctsea correctly.
In studying the simple sentence, the pupil haa become fa.mUia.r wlt!b. two kinds of elements; he has learned t.he three forms of each; and he has also obtained a knowledge of the eight parta of speech, claasi.fied according , to their use in the aentence. He is now prepared to understand
that a rimp!e sen.rence is one that contains onl7 word and
phrase elements; and he knows that these elements may be simple, complex, or compound in form. Beyond namini the parts of speech, no parsing should 7et be attempted.
n. THB COMPLEX SENTENCE.
It tM atmple sentence Ia 1mderliJitood, the tra.nsltlon to the complex aenteoce Is not dimcult. The th:lrd and last element of sentence., the clauae, must now be introduced. By examining the 11entence Pupil!! wao atudy will learn, the pupil can see that it haa two pa.rta, and that each part contains a subject and a predicate. Develop the de1!.nltlon of a clause: A clause is a part of a sentence containing a subject and a prediOOite. The clauM tcho 1tud11 modifies pupi.Z&; therefore 1t hu the 118'8 of an alljective. It is seen that a relative pronO'Im Ill one used to connect a.n adjective clause. When the underlying !acts are understood, a definition beoomes intelligible. Rul.- U1ld principles are properly
1-.rned 'b7 derlTI.na th.m from tiU \fa.cta to 1t"hich th.e7
nrc. .,
Now, ..t..e u t.IIIOI..t t. -.t.aoe Ub tll.llt W attn~~~

53

WHEK tM wn ra.e. Show that the elanse wheft the sun ro~t

modlfiee rtarted, and therefore has the uae of an adverb. Let

the pupil aee tha.t when modifiea rose, a.nd also connects an

adverb clause. He Ia thus prepared to get an Idea o! the

conjunctive adverb. A subordtn.a.te conjunction may also

connect an ad verb clause; as You can learn nr yr11.1. Htudy.

A. noun clause 1a conta.ined In t'he aentence Geography

teache1 THAT the earth il round. Call attention to the facl

that a noun elauae, atrictly apeaklng, has no connect! ve.

It is lrenerally introduced by the subordinate conjunction

that; but the conjunction Ia rrequenrtly omitted, and It need

not be auppl1ed In parsing. Require puplla to write exer-

cises illustrating the punctuation of complex sentencE'S,

and aee thai they understand the ditference between re-

atrictll.ve a.nd unrestrictive clauses.

Do not accept either of the following definltlone: A de--

pendewt clause 111 one that does not makt> ,;n1se when stand-

Ing alone; A dependent clause Is one that depends on some

other clause tor itr meaning. The c~'r nbl ""'ion to these

statements Ls, tha.t they are not n

> tar as

noun clauses are concerned. In tbe sen tei~C't llnttm ~a111,

"KNOWLEDGE 18 PowER," the d!'pend!'nt no>un cl:ousP makes

very good sense; moreover, it does not depend on any-

thin&' else tor ita meanln~::.

To determine whether a complex sentence Ia declarative,

ln.terrogatlve, Imperative, or exclamatory. alway!l examine

the 'Jule~ndent clause. Although the lnclependi?nt clau.;;e

ot a complex sentence always decides the klod of sentence,

a final noun clause generally dictates the terminal mark

of punctua.t4on. A period Is not placed at the end of evPry

declarative eentence. Examine these sen1ences: Tha

teacher uked, "Who will gof" Shakespeare says, "What a
u pi~ of work man/" Each of the sentences Is declarative;

th~ ftrwt enda with an Interrogative clause; the second, with

u excla.ma.tory clause.

Let ua sum up the facta that have been lea.rned In study-

ins the complex 1entence. A dl'pPndt'rtt clause ls one that

)lu the ,.. ot Ul adjecthe, an adverb. or a noun A.o in-
. .M4MI .-... Ill oae tha.t doe& not perform t.he o111ee or

54
a trlngle part of speech. A comple~ sentence fa one that contalns one independent clause '8.Illd one or more dependent clauses. Three parts of speech 111re used to connect dependent clauses; namely, relalt.ive pronouns, conjunctive adverbs, and subordinate conjunctions. Ea.Cih of these three connectives is always a part of the dependent clause il' which it is used. The independent clause of a complex sen :ten.ee is necessarily simple In !orm; a. dependent clallSe may be simple, complex, or oom_pound. A simple clause :is a single clause; a complex clause consists of two or more clauses joined by subordinate connectives; a compound <clause consists of two or more clauses connected by coordinate conjunctions. The following sentences wUl Uluatrate the forms of dependeilJt clauses:-
! believe he u honeat (simple noun clauee). This is the cat that caught the rat that au the mall (complex
adjective clause). The clock struck when wt atarted and when we returned (com
pound adverb clause).
III. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE.
The compound sentence contains no new elements: it pre.sents new combinations of elements already studied. A com ;POUnd sentence is one composed of two or more independent .clauses connected by coordinate conjunctions. These inde )Pendent clauses, in form, may be simple or complex or com pound. The following sentences illustrate the several forms:
Both clamea simple-~Ian proposes, but God disposes. Both clauaea complex-He who receives a favor should never forget it, and he who does a favor should never remember it. Firat clause compound-Wrath is cruel, and anger is out rageous; but who is able to stand before envy T The expressions "compound-complex" sentence and "com plex-compound" sentence are misnomers. These terms are very confusing to pupils, and the use of them should be discouraged. A complex sentence is always complex; a compound sentence is always compound; they need no other term to define them. As I have already stated, the clauaea of these sentences may be complex or compound. To illustrate, the econd eentence in the prece-ding parqraph il a compowul

55

~taee coul.tblc el ~ eomIa- f!Ufepen&at' elaaer,
the third sentence coatatn one compound independent clause and one simple independent clause.
In cl1U18lfyin compound sentences u to mmmg, remem-
ber til&t Independent clause. are of equal rank, and that

-.ch clause hu it.l ln11ueace bl determining the kind o!

.entence. The following sentenee~~ lUust~e the princl-

le:-

Im,erat~lariSt~TniSit meo.. a.nd the7 w1ll be true
.., :you.

Declar-.tM~e.Werrogative-Xmnrledge 1a power, IID.d who

1riH d~ itT
It 1a aeen that a eomJound eentenee consists of two or more simple, complex, or compound independent clausea.

The three kinde of eerut:encee ma.) be eul17 discriminated.

If a Mlltence eontalu ooi7 worda aDd phrasea, it il! simple;

if it contains only one independent clau.se, it is complex; if ii contains two or more independent clau.ses, it is compound. A compound 8ellltence mall contain a dependent

clause; a complex sentence "'"'' conWn at least one dependent clause. The essential parta of compound sentences

an connected by coOrdinate conjunctions: the esserutial

pa.rta of complex aenltences are jolne:d lb7 subordl!nate con-

uct.lv-.

~

Mter a trtudy of simple, complex, and compoun-d senten-

eee, the pupil should be well prepaTed to cla.Mlty se11tence1 u to form and mean,ing: he should umlerstal1d the three

ktnds of elements, words, phrases, and clauses; and he should recognize readlly the three forms ot elements: simple, com-

plex, and compoul1d. He should be able to construct tile

different ldnds of sentences and punctuate them properly.

Punctuation is a much-neglected part ot synt'hesis, and ln-

teHi&'ellt punctuation Is largely depel1dent upon a knowl-

edp of gramma.tlcal ana.lysis.

ANALYSIS. )
or.ehen ootrld apprecia.te the importa.nce of analyslL

If t!lU exerdM 1e profitable and neoeBI!IIII'7 .ln teachinl
.u-.ede, tt ta .till...-. luJlptul and flll8ell.tia.l tn teaclltnc.

II"'

Bill .-lltMal ~of MDtce. 11,... a bcnrl--

56

etp et ..teii.M-.tru.eture t!lat e&Jii treTer be obtained 'b7 a llt.ud7 of mere worda. The psychological value of gram-
matical a.na.lyel 1n trainin&' the pupil's judgment, and denloplllr In him tale habit of aoouraste thought, cannot be overestimated.
Ana.lyala should precede pa.rsing. Ana,lysls tl.rst resolves the sentence !Into lta elemenJta, or parts of speech; then paralnc, &Qlng Into detail, describes each element as to its classi.fl.ca.tion, modifi.OOI!.ion, a.nd construction. This Is the u.tural order of procedure. Wickersham says: "The bota.niat analyzes a plant, and then names and describe!l ltll several pa.rt& Grammar can be JPtudied successfully 1n no other way. Parsing without a preceding analysi!l can lead but to a very imperfect knowledge of the organic atructure of sentences." In connection with analysis, dlarams should be used but not abused. Diagrams are as useful In aualyzlnr; sentencee u ge<l!lll~rical figures are In demollll'tra.tdng propositions. A strong argument in
favor of diar;rama la the fact that tlhey show, a.t the same time, both the ama.Iysm and the synthesis of tlhe sentenei!.

Gi'l'e mea man who e&n, with tun tntelllrence, tall:e to pieces an English eentence, brief and not too complicated, even, and I will welcome bim ao better prep&rtld to further etudy In other ll<nguages than if be bo.d read both Cleaar and Virgil, and could pan<e them In the routi.D.e atrle in 1fllich $her are oHea paned.-WJUrt<r.

PARSING.

Parslnr Ia the complement of analysiL Each hall tu use;

teach both; do :aot make a hobby of either Grammar

Should not be studied tor the sole purpose either of learn-

Ing to parse or ot knowiiilg how to analyze a.nd diagram.

Too much t!me Ia usually devoted to parsing. It ls not

always necessary to require pupils to parse every word ln

a aentence. When they are familiar with a principle.

leave that, a.nd direct their attention to something not BO

well understood. Teachers sh:ould clearly understand t.he

object of parsing.

Pal'l'lng aldl pupils in beeoroln~~: famlltar with the <1etlnltloo and rniel of grammar, by frequent repetitiotJ, a'ld It te.tcheo them to ex pre"' their knowledge ill a evawmatic manner lt reqn1r~ pupil tn o,.min 1a11g """ and ucertaln th~ nature an<l relation of w"rds "' ..ent- TICJe' &llrl thlo not nly chee pG1fM In the aaalrais of lan~ruace. but culti'f..""' the lu.bh ooi alleP'toet U...llt.-Baoou

u-

to - ~ ab.au.ld be - otl~11 ~ u -

57

1ional exermse in "false IJ'ntax." If a pupil every day teel

and h&&.l'l erTOI"ll outli.U of .c.h.ool, ia it unwiae '" school to

correct errors and teach him to avoid tJhem T Grammar

proper ill not intended tor 8III&ll children; a pupil old

enougfb to study grammar ia old enou~h to appreciate

''what not to do." A gramm'81tica.l "keep-oft-th&-CJ"illl"

wm not lead many astray. Signboarda are useful aa well

as guideboards. Right is otten impre.Med by contrast with

wrong. Should the Ten Commandmen:ta be taqht to a

child? They; are all negative except one.

Below a.re given model tor orad a.nalysia and written

parsing. One advliJiltage ot such models la, tlh&t they lie-

cure system a.nd unitorml<ty in the pupil's work. When

the teacher has no plan, it often happens that no two pu-

pils of a class parse or analyze a sen>Denee in the same ma.n-

ner. The model tar wrttten parsing, while tnltended for

nouns, may be mod.IL!led eo as to serve for the other parta

of sveech.

MODEL FOR ORAL ANALYSIS.

1. De8crtbe t he sent ence u to (1) torm, (2) meanlnc.
z. It complex or compound, name the clausea and &D&lJH

ea.c.h in order.

~

3. Give grammatical IUbjeet.
Name modifiers ot 1ubject and de1cribe them u to (1) form, (2) kind.

6. Give modified subject.

6. Give &Ta mmatical predicate.

'1. It incomplete, give itl complement and name the oom
plete prediclllte.
a. Name modifiers ot predicat. and de.erlbe themu to (1) f.orm, (2) kind.
I. Gin modified predicate.

10. Name and describe connectives and independentelementa.

MODEL FOR WRITTEN P A.RSING.

CLASSIFICATION.

MODIFICATION.

ITNTi%.

Clasa. Subclass. Kind. Number. Gender. Penon. Cue. ConltnlcUon. B'Gie.
- - - - - --~---1-- --1-~t----11---

r-
1'101: Sli:NrENCE

L D&FlNITION-.A HIIWilce II the nrbal UJireufOil of i tholtP\,

1. Simple.

L

.A.I

to

Foax" {

2. 8.

Complex. Compound.

U. OL.lSSl!:s {

1. Declarative.

1. .A.I to M..ururo { 2. Interrogative. 3. Imperative. 4. Exclamato17,

l. !tum: Word, phraae, cla118e.

f2. FOil)(: Simple, complex,.compount!.
m. ELEMENTS! fl. Principal"{~: ~~~i4

L R.t.N&

r I L Complementary SOubJbejecct tcivoemcpolemmpenlet.mqt Ob ective complement.

en
00

'""-{f~t:~~~ I. Subordinate 2. Modlfytnc

Nouna1.

1s.

Connective.,_ {

Conjunction. Relative prononn. ConjuncttTe &dverll,

4. Independent.

- - - - - - - IV.

Pll0C!SSE8{

1.
s2..

PAANRJ.BLYtNSom: :OOraral,l,wwrirtittetenn., SrNTHES18.

diagr&mmecL

.Verbal meana (n word~, 1poken or 1nitten.

M
PART m-Wo:B:D8.
I. OLASSI~CATION OF WORDS.
br studying analysis, the puptl has learned tha.t worda.nr
elasslfted according to their U8lll 1n sentences. The I8Jile ~l"d may be one part of speech in on.e sentence, another
part ot epeech in another sent'en~ In the following aen.-
tencea, the word well h:aa the use or five dUI:eren.t parts of apeech:-
The tceR t. deep. (Noun.) Sprlnp wen troan the earth. (l"erll.)
Ia your father weZZI (AdjectWe.) She aings tceZZ. (Adverb.) Well, what llball we doT (Indeperurenf Gdverb.) Well/ I am BUrPrised to hear it. (Interjection.) In a.ddlition to irts general use, a part of speech has special 1 synta.ctlca.l usee ea.Iled its constructions. For instance, a . uoun ia always a name; burt lt may have various constnJr.- tdona: aa, subject, Object of verb, etc. Bf'low are given the eight pa.ite of speech, cl'llSSified according to their 9ellten- Ual use. The terma used lin connection with these clus.- : of warda aTe 1DJten.ded u conclee deacrlptlona rather th&IU formal definitlons:NOUN-Name-wol"d.
VERB-AI!Bertin~:-word.
PRONOUN-Noun-au'bstltute. :ADJECTIVE-Noun- or pronoun-modifier. :ADVERB-Verb- or adjective- or adverb-mod11ler. PREPOSITION-Phrase-introducer. CONJUNCTION-Element-coniJieetor. INTERJECTION-Feeltng-word. While the pupil 11 studying the amalysis of sentencl!'l!, h harrul inddenJtaUy some of tlhe subclasses of ihe parts of l!l)eeCh. Arter simple, complex, and compound senten.cea have been: litud1ed, the pupil should take up arul studW 1n uta.il the 1111'b<Mvtsiona of the parte of speech. Tli:e pr. position and the interjection are the only classea of worda.
t11at ~tre not nbdividoo. Below are given the aubelUMI;,
..U, ud aubJtoln.da of the part of speech.

60
I. Covvox. 1. Concrete; u, tree. !. Abstract. Attributive; u, uootfMM. II. Verbal; a.s, runnin1, to 1leq. I. Collective; a.s, cla11.
II. PRoPER. 1. Strictly proper; u, Atlanta, RocTev Mountatnt. J. Used u common noun; as, a Dw~iel, & Cicero.
THill VERB.
I. FoiUL
1. Regular; u, wall:. I. Irregular; as, 1ee. I. Redunda.lllt; u, h<ml. 4. Defective; u, llewar"
II. 081:.
1. Tra.nsl'tlve; u, Farmers ratse corn. Corn u raf1ed.
2. Intransitive.
Complete; as, Dogs bark. t. Copul8ltlvet; u, 8Ili()W i1 white. Marble feel cold. III. RANK:. 1. Pri:nclpa.l; u.. He ha:s returnell. J. Auxilia.17; u, He hat returned.
THE PRONOUN.
I. PERSON.u PRoNoUN, L Simple; aa, M. !. Compound; 18, hlmM!lf,
A proper noun hu no meaning: 1t II merely a dlltfn~thlng mark 01 llrand A noun naually proper becomes a common noun when. Instead of Indicating a particular lndfvidnal, It denotes the elau to which that lndiTidaal beloaga. In tbll senl!9, a Oiuro 11 au orator, not & Roman by thai Ja&me. When proper nouns become common, the capital letter Is retained.
tA eopulatioe verb Ia one that has a subjective complement. Tr&ositive Yerba In the pualve voice are 10metlme1 oopulatlve; u, H t101 elecUd IJUJJUUJI.

61
n. RELATJTJ: P1tolfotnf.
1. Simple; aa, who. 2. Compound; u, ~. I. The double relrutl~
a. Simple. what. Compound; wlul.tevet', ttJh&t804JM'. I. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN j &110 who f IV . ~DJEC'TIVE PRONOUN.* 1. Demonstrative; as, Th&l 11 mine. 2. Indefinite; as, Some are scllolal'll. I. Distributive; as, He gave each an apple.
' Reciprooa..t; aa. The children love ecwl lltlter,
THE ADJJOOTIVll.
I. DtcsCRtPTrn:. 1. Common; aa, ltUitl. 2. Proper; u, Oulln. 3. Participia.l; aa, chann4tlf.
n D&nNrTrv~:.
1. Articles.
a. Definite, tM.
b. Indefini.te, an (a). 2. Pronominal.
a. Demonstr11Jtive; u, 'l'hat book bl mi b. Indefinite; as, Some men are achol&rll. c. Distributive; as, He ga.ve eac1t bo:r an appM,. d. Reciprocal; u, Each ch.1ld lone the oCMr.
S. Numeral.
a. Cardinal; as, thrM, ttm.
b. Ordinal; as, thtrd, tenth. c. Multiplicative; aa, tripltJ, tenfol4. 4. Relative; a.s, Which things contain an alle~ry. (GaL IV. 24.) 5. InterrogaJt.lve; aa, Wh4cll book will 70U taket
' djective pronouns sometimes lay aside their sabstant!Te nature,_.
become mndillers Wbeo ased to modlfT - , dle,T are eaDN , _ . .
ill&l <'- .... proD-)~

62
THE ADVERB.
I. SIMPLL 1. Time; aa, now.
2. Place; as, here. 8. Manner; a.s, quietlv. 4. Degree; as, verv. 6. Cause; as, why, therefore. II. MoDAL* ; as, You su1ely are mistaken. III. RESPONSIVE ; as, No. (AI ways independent.) IV. ExPLETrn; as, There is a God. Well, let ua 10 hom
(Always independent.) V. NuMERAL; as, once. VI. INTERROGATIVE; as, When did you comeT VII. CoNJt'NCTIVE; as, I came when the bell rang. VIII. CoRBJtLATIVE; as, James is tU old a~ John.
THE CONJUNCTION.
I. OoORDINATlt. 1. Copulative; as, anci. 2. Alternative; as, or. 3. AdveTSaltive; as, but. -4. Illative; as, therefore, consequentlv. 6. Correlative; as, both , , cm4.
JU, 8UBORDINA.TB,
:a.. Real cause; a.s, becau~t.
:2. Reason; as, tor.
:a. Condition; as. it.
.,, Purpose; as, that. 6. Concession; as, alt1wuuh.
I. Correlative; as, t1wuuh , vet.
II. MODIFICATION OF WORDS. English Is, comparatively speaking, a non-in:llected language. In a highly ln:llected la.nguage like Latin, every 'WOrd "has Its !unction as noun or verb or adverb ticketed 1upon It;" but English words are seldom labeled, and their classification must be determined by their sentential use. 'The modificaJtlone (or so-called lnfiections) of English worda are ch:anges In merunlng and use r81tlb.er than ch:angea
A modal adverb !a one that denotea the manner In which the thon_ght II lreprded by the apeaker,-whether aJlllmati~, mgatitJe, or cloubt(W: u., JV..U, I I&T untll.JOU.. Thou.llh.alt not iill. :8f'loo.p. he wUI GOme.

63

r. form. In En&11sh, tile coastruct10111 of wor.S. 4ependa

more upon relation than upon tdect1on. It Ia a narrow'

'riew of any grammar, especially of En&"llah srammar, to'

auppose that it should treat of inflection alone. Ja study-

in&' Engllsh, the pupll has llttle to do with telltale forma; he

has much to do with the use and relation and ILI'l'Upment

of words. Pupils should study and master the taw lldeaed
torms that do exist. Following are the namea of U a...

in1leoted parts of apeech, with their modi11cationa:-

NouNa AND PRONOUNs.-Number, gender, person, case.

VERBB.-Voice, mode, tense, number, person.

ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS.-Compariaon.

Number.-The rules for forming the plural of noun111

should be well understood, and applled 1n practice. The pilL-

raJa of words like the following are often improperl)l

written: llly, money, hero, tobacco, spoonful, co1Lrt-marUa4.

11011-in-Iaw, pair, ftsh. The pupil should understand the-

number and &"ender of collective nouns 1n order that tJw,

verba ud pl"OOWima may be used properly.

Gender.-8ince the gender of nouns denotes the '"of the object, the term "common gender" ia a misnomer. A ooa--

lfWn lea! 1a unth.1nk.able and absurd. With eqiLal proprlet:r

we could aay that deer and the pronoun 11011 are common.

tJumber. In the aentence Mv pupiZI are 110111 and girZI, puplll

S. masculine anll feminine. In the sentence He oalZell to lt141 11

friend., the r;ender of friend. ia unknown.

Peraon.-It should be impressed on the minds of pupils

that peraon in grammar doea not necessarily refer to human

beinga. In the sentence Fid.o, come Ml'e, Fid.o 1a aecond

pei"S''11, although it Ia the name of a dog . Person (from

Latin perspna, a mask) denotes the speaker, tlb.e one spoken

to, or the one spoken of. The same noun, John, in d11fer-

elllt sentences, may peraonate these three dUferimt relation&

Personal pronouns and verba are the only classee of worcla

that have person-forma.

.J

Caae.-Noune have only two case-forms-one for the

possessive, and one common to the nominative and ob-

jective. Ae tar as form la concerned, errors in the uee of nouna are llmited to the possessive case; therefore the for-
lllatlog ot tht P041011lT-. tinJul~ P4 ~' PONelliTe plural

64
1hould be thoroughly understood. It ts Important for puptl1 to know the nominative and objective constructions in order that they may use the proper case-form of pronouns. In the sentence I thought it wa11 John, It is of little value, per se, to know the construction of John. But, when a pronoun 1.e aubs t.ituted. It makes a difference whetheT one says I hmt.Qht tt vtt.< HE . or says I thought it was HIM.
There are only ttve words In the English lan&"Uage that have thn a.~P-(orms each: I, thou, he, she, and who. In the declensions of these ttv.e words w!l! be round too only nominaticl'l' and obf,prti1e case-forms In our language. See that your pupils are thoroughly drilled In the forms and constructions of these few words, which give Engllsh-speaklng people so much trouble. Most of the rules of constructio'D apply practically to these (011.rteen words:-
EIGHT NoHil!IATIVB FoRMs.-I, we, thou, ye, he, she, they, who.
Sn: OBJECT~ FoRHs.-Me, us, t.hee, him, them, whom. Before leaving this topic I must say, See that your puplls are thoroughly fam11lar with the following principles of rrammatlcal constructlon:1. 'I'he subject of a fl,nite verb is in the nominative case. 2. Every verb consists of two parts-the fl.nit.e verb and the infinite verb. 3. The fl,11ire verb cons!sts of all the forms of & verb except Its participles lllld Infinitives. oi. The i11fl,nite verb consists of tJhe pa.rticipleB a.nd lntlnitlves of a verb.
6. A prPdirate noun Ia tn the sa.IIW~ ease u the word to
W'hich It relates. 6. A predicate noun ts always either a ubjectivtl comple-
ment or a.n objentive eomplement. 7. The subjective eomplemeDJt of a flnite ver'b 1s in the
ttom'nati've case.
A f.niu VPrb [La.t. jlnUm, llmltedl derive.~ Ita name from the fact that It lollmtted or rf'lltf!cted to a. subject; that 1~, It cannot be used in a entenee e l - !t baa a. subject expressed ~>r Implied. A participle or a.n lntlnltlve
- r ba.ve a. oo-called subject. but we cannot ay tba.t It mmt bave one.
l'her a.re frequently u.oed In a aentence to ex pre.~ r.oUoa or belncta a , _ a.1 .,.,, ao nbJeo' belDJ up~ or lmpU.t.

65
I. The dbjeottve complement 1a ahra,_ 1a tll oJt!CIIw eue, because it relates to the object complemeDit (dlr. . object).
9. The su ...Ject of an intf,nlttve fa tn the obftotlf!e case. 10. The subjective complement of an ln1ln1Uve, whea th indl.nltive has a 11ubject, is tn the objective case. 11. Sometimea tht>< infinitive haa no subject, but baa a aubjeottve comi>lement.
12. The .subjective complement of an tnlfinitlve (or a p&J'oo ttciple) used witlwut a. subject, is in the nomtnath'fl case, used abstractlv; that ia, without any word to which it crammatlcally relates.
Voice.-Voice is that modification of a verb that tiOicta or tells somethlng ooncernlng ita subject. The active Toice shows that the subject denotes that which perforiWI an act receit>ed bv an object. The passive voice llhow1 that the subject denotes that which is passive, or receivee an act. A transitive verb is not a verb that mav have, bu\ a verb that doe& have, an object. This ObJect in the active voice Ia the direct object of the verb; in the passive voice it b the passive subject. An in.transttive verb is one that doe~~ not have an object. A verb may be traasitive 1n one 1entence, and intransitive in another; hence a verb ehould be parsed according to Lta use in the particular sentenC41 under consideration. An intransitive verb may be a complete predicate; as, The wind blows. It may be complemented; aa, The wind blows cold. Be careful to teach pupil that a vel'b may assert action, and yet not be used in the ccuve voice. In the sentence Horscs run, the verb run ulert& action; but the ver'b is intransitive, a.n<l consequently baa no voice.
Mode and Tense .- English verbs have very few Inflected forma. A regular verb has only seven Inflections, all told. 'I'he Terb to be, the most irregular ot all verbs, has only eleven in11ected forms-am, art, Is. are, was. wast, were. wert, be, beinc, been. Most of the verb-m odifications are formed lly an external chan~; that Ia, by auxiliaries. A knowl~~e of the Tarb demanda a careful lrt.udy o! a.ux.iliarJ
"'l'lle NJ:t denote. tlt.a& which recetvee the act expreued by the nrb.

66
t'erba. PupU. should be drlllecl 1n the proper 1i.8e ot the
past tense and past participle of irregular verba. Errors like the following are heard too frequently: Who cklne that? The bulible bursted. The man was hung. I have gottent my lesson. He Ht* the lamp. Is It possible that any teacher uses these expressions: "I 1een him." "He taken the school "?
As a rule, the Imperative mode is used only in the second person. Teac'h pupils that the forms Let me go, Let him
1tav, are not imperatives of the first and the third person. In the expressicm. Let me go, let is imperative mode, second person, agreeing with vou implied; me is indirect object ol
let; the Infinitive (to) go is direct object. It is tlie goitlfl that is permitted ()r allowed; me denoteJ the person to whom permlssdon is granted.
Ins.tead of the regular construction with let, an idiomatic imperative of the flnt or the third person is aometimea used, especially In poetry; as,-
Now tread t~e a measure, said yonng Loch!nvar.-Scotl. FaU M that mnst beneath bla rlva.l'e arme.-Pope.
In tlhe example just given, tread is first person and agree. with w.e; fall is third person and agrees with he.
The aubjunctive mode expresses cklubt or supposiUo". Th'la mode has tour tenses: the present a.nd present per.feot, denoting doubt; the pw;t and past perfect, denoting aupposition. The present perfect Is rarely used. The prt'llll't tense expresses a doubt to be settled In future time; aa, .If he studv, he will learn. The present perfect exprei!'iel :a doubt concerning past action or being,-a doubt still ex:iating at the pre8ent, as, If he have 1tudicd, he has learned. 'The past tense expresses a supposition contrary to tact at tthe pre8Cnt time; as, I wish I were 8lt home. The past perJtect expresses a supposition contrary to fact in past time; u, It he had known it, he would have gone. As tar u (form ia concerned, the subjunctive differs from the lntlicad\v.e J.n having no infiection for the thdrd person lingul&r, 1lllllil wrually none for the second peilWJII. lllnculu'.
B,.nttd ls not fonnd ln dlctlonarl... fWeblter eaye f.utten ls obsoleecent .,..,_ 11 pre erable to UL

67
Ja the su'b,tllletiTe moc!e the Mllkf ot the tenee cloee aot la-
dicate the ~l ti1M. In meaning ~arb tenee ie anticipative: the present tense refera to future time; the prel!ent perfect and the put, to present time; and the put perfect to time limply put.
The indicative mode, with if, unlP.as, etc., is also nPed to ex
preBB a condition or donbt: but, in the indicative, the condi tion fa usumed u a fact, not as a future contingency; as, If tw~ -lines are parallel, they will never intersect. When the
indicative expresses doubt,! the doubt is not in the fact itlelf,
but in the epeaker's hwwledge of the fact. Examine the fol lowing eentences :-
~-u Ml.a Dun.nt - rtn her thla book. Iftdtcoti-U ahe u In the room. I han not ~een her.
In the firat eentence, MiBB Durant's coming is doubtful: itc is a future contingen<'Y In the second eentence, it is a fact . fiOtD that the person referred to either ior is not in the room; : therefore it is not a future contingency, and the doubt existl only in the speaker's knowledge of the fact.
In the potential mode the auxiliaries are always notional;: in the other model the auxiliaries, having lost their original: meaning, are used as mere tense-signs. Compare these sen tences: I have a book, I have lost my book. In the first exam- ple, ha11e means p01uu; therefore it is notional. In the secondl example, have does not denote possession: it is an auxiliary, a ai~ of the present perfect tense. Shall and wiU, as used in the indicatiTe mode, are mere ligna of future time. When 1haU and will are notional, they are properly auxiliaries of the present potential. Examine the following sentences : -
I urllZ ro (pret~ent d~termlnatlon). He tDOUid go (pat determination). He aays yon 1h.aU go (present oblll!l\tlon). He said you 1/iotdd go (~ast obligation).
Since would and 1hould are auxiliaries of the p~Ut potential, it seems remarkable that grammarians have not conaidered wiU and hall u corresponding signs of the prt.unt potential. In the examples given above, does not 1haU go E\XpreBII pretent obligation just as truly as houl4, go expreBBes pall obligation T h not lhaU ,. a pre~ent potenti.ft form, rather than a 10-called " future of determinat!on " f

68

m CONSTRUCTION or WORDS.

J

"

THE NOUN.

L 0111WA.t"IT-. L Subject of lUte Terb; u, Blru DC.
I. Predt~ of ftnite verb; u, Atlu.ta t a eftJ.

L Abtftract predicate of I.Winite nl"b.

(1)Wtth tntlllitlve; u, To be a PI'IIIIIH reQuires

practice.

'(J) With participle; a, No Olle thoul'ht of ~~~ betq a teccMf'.
I. Ia appoeitloa; u, :M!lton, the f*ll, wu bllat. L bulependent.

(1) By addre~~S; ... Jltu'fl, len\1 DM your book. .

(%) B7 pleonasm: aa, WiUfcm, he Ia my aon.
(3) By exclamation; u, Poor JMn/ he II un
fortunate.

(4) By luetipttOD; U, Adclm JIU. (title of'

book).

'(I) By aubserlptlOlli; u, .,._ (uaedl u algnature).

'(I) With participle; u, The "'" rlline, we

lltarted.
'('1) Ill appostt1011.; u, .Tolm, m:r liOfl, come here.
n. POI!Rill!rn.
1. :ModUler: as, The &ott hat ,... lost.
z. In apposition; aa, :Mlltont, the poet' llfe wu eacL m. OB.rJCCTI,n.
1. Direct object; u, Rlnc the kJl.

_____J. IndlrecU object. (1) With tl'anaitlft Terb; u, Lend ~ :rour ... knt!e.

.,.f ~Is meant, tf ooune, a ,.,.._.. - ta anat,..te, Uall.,

aen & ealled a 1nbjectJve eomplement.

t JIIJimlla a ~tve modifier of lf/t. TIM nomfnt.tJve 1 - 11 1111ed by

"!I' llap for tlle poeseo!!!!ve co.e. In En1liA,- II determined by OOiletruo-

tloll rather

by form. In the exp~lroll !Mt ...._of JM-ll'e, we llave

Uae ~tve ued bJ' ent.llap for \'be ebjeetlft. Teb'f Ill objeetlve ,....

~ by -f. KII&IJ.qe II tlw- el -part ef , . _ . r oae aodUI

........... ,_,_ '*'...., ... iiofn!Mfert.anaQewUltenr.c verbe are ~-Uy ...S wUb aa t..lnlot Mjld: an. lliNI, .............

69
(2) With intransitive verb; as, The hat lasted me a year.
3. Factitive* object; as, They made him president. 4. Cognatet object; as, He lived a useful life. 5. Retainedt object; as, He was offered a position
(without governing word). 6. Object a preposition; as, He goes to school. 7. Adverbial objective (without governing word).
(1) Time; as, It rained last night. (2) Place; as, We returned home. (3) Direction; as, The ship sailed west. {4) Distance; as, We walked a mile. (5) Value; as, The book is worth a dollar. (6) Weight; as, I paid him ten cents a pound. (7) Measure; as, This wine cos(.i:a dollar a
quart. (8) Extent; as, he is a great deal better than
he was. (9) Manner; as, The word is pronounced both
ways (10) Specification; as, They bound him hand
and foot. J 8. In apposition; as, I spoke to Miss Davis, the
teacher. 9. Subject of infinitive; as, He wants me to be a law-
yer. 10. Predicate of infinitive; as, He wants me to be a
lawyer.
*A factitive object (Lat. facere, to make) is a resultant object, the verb. being used causatively.
tCocnate meai\11 kindred, of a similar nature. A cognate object has a meaning lil<e that of the verb which governs it. A verb is transitive when it baa a cognate object.
tWhea a verb is changed from the active voice to the passive, the direct obJect becomes the subject, and the indirect object is reteined; as, He of. fered lUI a J)OUtion, A ~ilion was olfered wr:. Sometimes, however, the indirect object is used idiomatically as the subject: and then the direct object is carried over to the P~~Sive as a retained object. Since a verb in the paasive voice bas no ~roveraing power, the retained object is without a governing word.
IThis objective is sometimes used with nouns; as, His return home, My '!~ream last nla:ht. When thus used, it is properly called an adjectival object;J.ve. The indirect object, the retained object, and the adverbial objective are diagrammed as the base of a phrase without a preposition expJ'888ed
~~plied. ThO intJ.\~Q~ \\\>je'?~ !'t'\q ~~~l} ~Wz\eq Obj~~ ltt\"1\'art' II\Odiff~

70
'J'HE VERB.
ftt flntte Ttrll alwa71 constltutea tht predicate, or forme a part of Ult ,.Ucate.
1. Used alone as ~he predicate; as, Horses run. J. Used with other word or words.
(1) With subjective complement; as, Roses are red. (2) With object complement; as, Boys play ball. (B) With objective complement; as, They chose him
leader. (4) With inseparable adverb; as, They pul out the tl.re (6) With several words, the combination forming an
inseparable complex verb; as, 1 wru~ taken care of.
THE PRONOUN.
Generally speaking, the constructions of the pronoun are llmilar to those of the noun; there are, however, some special conatructions that deserve attention.
1. Him destroyed, all else will follow. 2. Than whom none sat hlgber.
Him and whom are Miltonic soleclsmR.f In determinir.r .ease, comtruction takes precedence ofjorm. Him [Lej is nomi ,native independent with dutroyea. Whom [who} is su hjPct of ~eat implied. The sentence in full is, Than who (sat bi~h) nons ,l(lt higher. When the comparative is expressed, the po~itive IIDUBt be eupplied in pai'sing. In order to justify whom, some ;authors call than a preposition; but it is a conjunctive adverb .denoting comparison, instead of a preposition allowing relation.
1. Poor me I what shall I do'
Jle is objective by exclamation, a construction peculiar to the pronoun.
4. Thllll a faYOrtte book of mf""
'The words of tbla group cannot be parsed separately : the eomDlex Yerb mnat be tre&ted as If hyphenated: &1, 10#-taU:n-eart-oJ. This Ia an idlo
matfo pualn construction; Tbe aentenee Ht I<>Ok care Q.f me, when
ehanged to the regular pasa!Ye, becomes, Care of me IDll4 taken by him. In ~be fdiMMtk pa.a~~ln, which II the form cenerally used , the object of the prep. Olltlon 18 made the subject; and the paMive nrb, the retained object, and the prepoeltlon are throwu tocether to form a complez verb.
f.A. IObiM II a de'riatloa .frolll tablllhed uaage 1n the atructure of
....... J)r. BJJ1 ta ~~~~to be "toNtrllctl!IP not bfi!f4"

71
JR"' t. a personal pronoun, posseulve cue, modlfyln1 the
partitive objective booA:I implied. Jfim is a euphonic form of
war. juat as the article a is a variant of an. The euphonie forma mim, oura, thi m, yours, her, and theira, are uaed w.bea
the name of the thing possessed ia not expruwl.
&. Tb!A heart of mi .u wlll br ale.
Jltne i8 objective case, obj ect of the preposition of. The
poa-~lve form ia used by enallage for the objective. The p011888sor is denoted by the post~essive form, or by a phrue introduced by of; as, Solomoo' temple, temple of SolOfii(M, Sometimea the two constru, tions are combined : of and the poase~sive form are both used, and there is formed an Idiomatic douhu prl8&1lssive. This icliom ia used to make the poelessor more emphatic and the expre~:~sion more euphonioua;
hance, instead of the regular construction of xz, we have the
idiomatic form of HINK . Anoth er reason for using the idiomatlo form is, that it often prevents ambiguity. For instance, picture of MINE dqes not necessarily mean a pk-tur1 qf KL The douole posHes~ive iR usec.l witb nouns aa well as pronouns; U. tllat tongue of John' Some authors make a separate clue of mine, thim, etc., calling them puue31ive pronouns. Properlr ap,.altinll:, they are possessive form of pertonal pronouna. John's, in the expression IZiven above, is the posseaaivefor. of a noun ; WI' would hardly call it a poueuiw (/) noun .
6. ll d ng oucb a1 you haTe.
.! is a rel.a ti v.. pronoun, direct object of "- After tuM.
l<tme. and mlf" Y a1 is ue..d as a relative.
7. Tbe re ia no one b<U makes mltakeo:
But is a ne)(ativ.. relative, equivalent to that 7101. The Hatence means There is no one that does nlt make mia\akea.
When but is used as a relative, aome other negative word 11
alway s found in the Bntence. s. It wa.s from ""' thai he obtained tiM lnformatloa.
The foregoing sentence contains two En&lish Idiom~: 1. The
re lativ.. that is usecl after the indefinite u; 2. The relative Uaa&
ne vt!r immediate ly ~o ll ows the preposition that governa it. Tht> preposition is g..nerally placed at the end of the eentence; as, This is the house that I referred to. That mfy come , . \he preposition provided one or more words inte"ene. '
'fl:!.t J;Ueapin~ of tbe aentence ia u....: U wu 1 (. .) tr..

72
ea. (that) 'll.e obta4ned tlhe lnformatlOD. Blnee w Ia
Jppa.rently the object ot (rom, the objective torm Ia ue4 lllllte&d of the nominative. We have he%'9 an example of GHrczcf'OIJ u well aa ena.llage. Me is nomlna.ttve cue, pred
loate nominative a.tter wa.. Thai Ia objective ca.., objeal
or trom.
THlll ADJ:S:CTIVlD.
, L HoDIJ'rn. 1. A.ttrlbutin: u, ~d applee. J. Appoaltlve; u, .A. man, old an4 'ntfrm.
u. PBEDICATJ: ADJECTIVK.
1. Subjectln complement; u, He ts like- hl1 father. J, Objective oomplemeJllt; aa, The dinner ma.de tU
to:r rid:.
a. Uled abstractly Iotter tnflntte verb; u, To be ,...
1~1 Ia tmpoelli'ble.
THE ADVERB.
t. MODIJ'l'IIJI,
1. Modltying verb; u, We walked lfwWllf,
S. Moditytnc adjective; a.s, It 1s veru cold.
I. Modityln& phraae; aa, She studies onlfl at hom&
II. INDEPKlllDEli'T; as, WeU, what do you say?
lJJ, (:loNJUNCTIV'a. 1. Connecting &dverb clause; u. We came IDIIM tb
bell ranc. J, Comlecttng adjective clau'Se; aa, I remember the
bouse wher~ I waa born.
t. CYrrela.ttve; a.s, John ia IU old a I am.
THE PREPOSITION.
l . ~how!n~r !"f'lat!on : lUI, ~hP ~roe tn ~f"hnol Z. Merely l llt.rofluMory a.s IJut "' atgbr 111 ""' f mind
T'tt Ia lmpliftort ., t Pr ,,,., tt"M 1\.~ &-D e.t11~ t1ve"r an k.1'1vPrb t:i:;d ~~
......... Uab oondemn.. rh.... u..... t)f ttk/' a oonjuurtt.,. ~tderb .tA >~bonld be a&f'd
Init ea<l t!ee Lbal ouptu old 111cb ooleallllll u "''" I told 1011." "Will

73
L ~J!J)tlfAU. 1. Connecttnc wordtt: u, James eut4 .Johtl st114f, I. Connecting phluee; u, She .tudies at bome ...,
&t BChool.
I. Connecttn cla\18811; u. JlarT reada, csfiCI Blancb
wrttee.
A."' 4. :Merely tntroductorr; u, the Lord spake unto
:Mo-.
I. Correlatdve; u, BofA Mar7 elM Blanohe haTe cone.
II. BuoBnnuTJI. 1. Connecting wborcUnate olau.; M, You caD leara
~f you trr.
J. Introduetnc subordtn&te clauae; u, 2'7wlf the eutll
Sa round Sa & ta.ot.

THE PARTIOIPLB.

I. DEFINITIO!f.-A participle fa an SMUttlfng form of tb

verb, having the use of an adjective or a noun.

II. CLJ.sli'J:s.

Common form; as, toriting.

1. Preum

1.

Active

{

Pro~trf:'~ive
ing (rare).

form;

u, being

"""""

{

2. Paseive, ae, bring written.

2. Pllltf (active and passive); as, 10!'ittln.

c.,mmon form; u, haoing w~

I. Perfect

1.

Active {

Prn~trf:'BI!ive
writing.

form;

aa,

hav'ng

been

{

2. Paeslve; as, having been tDritten.

'1'b~ partklplea of In tranaltlve 'l'erbe &re formed 11ke the Jl&ftlc1Pl of tranMitlvP veri> In tbe 1\Ctl'l'l' voice.
tTbe lliUI' partlet pre baa tbe oame fonn In both '1'010111. Thl.l parttcfpll Ia ne'l'er uoed alone tn an aetlu aenoe : Ita only 11M ID Ule ...ST o1 Ill
trltb anx1lie.rt 10 fora oomJtOUD4 se.... ; u, "-"' - .-..,....

DJ. 0olf11UIJC'I'IOJII.

L .t4J--.

(1)

Modi1ler ;

u{ The man. ~. stllrted to
Th11 au.u ~149, we ~t.an.o.d.

lea.-.

(2) Predicate adjective.

a. l:lubjectiTe ; aa, We stood VICilr.hing th" eloada.
l. ObJecttve; aa, He had hia wa.tcb ._,lUG.

& Ueed abstract11 atter lnfinlte ferb; u, To keep WflptaSMII-1/ 1a U.UWiae.

I. N0t1~a.

.(1) NomlDattTe.

.. Subj-ect of dntte nr'b; u, Picking cotton 1.1

hard work.
a. Precllcate of finite Tet'b; aa, Btealinc 1.1

faklt~l wit:lwut permission.

& ID appositl.oD.; aa, Her taak., _,n~ the

floor, waa unpleaall41t.

& ID4ependent.

() BlmplJ independent; aa, C~ntfi.Wi~

hiaadT&JLtagee, he deserTes much credit

.(t) With a participle; as, Talldn1 "anne

been forbidden, the children remained

alent.

:(o) By pleonum; aa, Raf.Mng cotton, wlll

~ PUT

(41) B7 exclamation; as, Killing his brother! What a crime he has committed!

(e) In apposition; as, DeliKhdul task.

llcMng the :ronnel

II) Objeetln.

., Object of Terb; as, She commenced tcrUinf

a letter.
t. Objeot of preposition; aa, We learn to do 1t7

tlolng.

& Subject of Infinitive; as, I want :your reiJII'~ aloud to be continued.
f. Predicate of tnJl.nlrtin; aa, He thought dla-

gra.mmdng sentences to be tM.Ifm, tl~

& J'actttln object; as, Some on 11M calW

lli*lt nadine get""* Uloup.t.

75

f, In appolfttoa; [ coulder thfa e:~:erelae, .,.,..

ing composition., to be nry profitable.

I Adverbial objective (without governing word);

aa, The 1leld ia not worth plowing.

The participle, u Ita name indicate., always parCicipaltl the

nature of two parts of apeech. While It retaina all the goT-

I
I

erning power of a verb, it differe from the tlnite nrb in

'II lacking power to alBert. In addition to ita Terb nature. the P..t..&TICIPU ..t.LWA vs bas the use of an adjective or a noun.

The dop, bar.ttng loudiJ, kept me a.w&te. Be 1upported his mother bJ idl(ng p&JM!rl 011 the ltreeL

In the first eentence, barking ahowa ita nrb nature (1) by
assuming action, (2) by taking the adverb modUlar loudlv. U

ahowa Its adjective uae by modifying dogl. In the 18C0nd

sentence, telling eho11n ita nrb nature, (1) by assuming action,

(2) uy taking the direct object papera, (3) in being mod1fied by

the adverb phrl48e Oil tM ltreet. [t ahows ita noun 111e, (1) by

naming the action, (2) in being governed by the preposition Z~r

When a participle losel itA verb nature, it ceGaU ,. be 11 par-

ticiple, and becomea a participial noun or adjective or adverb or

prepoHition. ln the eentence The water ia boiling hot, boiling

is a participial adverb. The tentence Regarding hia conduc~

we have the same opinion, contaiua a participial preposition.

A, an aid in distinguishing participles from wortla that are

participial in form, the following suggeetiona are given:-

A P..t..aTICIPLa WITH TBI Uu OJ' .... ADI&eTna-

L ABSumea act1on or belns ot the word modUI.ed.

I. Ia complemen.ted ln same manner u ftnite nrb.

I. Ma:y be modl11.ed b:y a.n adverb, adverb phrase, or

adverb clau~.

Uaually follow. the word modUI.ed. &. Ia aet oft b:y t"he comma un.l88a reatrictin.

A PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVal. Denot.ee a quaJlty or the won! modlfted.
l . Haa loet tta verb nature Alllld eanoot be comple-

mented.
1. CUI be modUied b:r Ul a.dnrb onlr.
'- UnleR ueed aa pr,edlca~ adjeetln, alw~ P~tl'rl
o till. W'OMS modl11.ed.
IJ. Jf ., ..,., Mt 1117 Ul ......,

70

.i PAJI'I'HliPLW wrn' TRW Uaw op NotTW-

L Not onlJ namea, but auumea &Ctton 0!' betnc.

J. Ia oomplement.ed 1n the ~ manner u llnttt

verb.

J. Jri&J be modified bJ adjective, poM888lve, adverb ,

adverb phraae, or adverb elauae

.

4. Ie not preceded by article or tollowed bJ prepoai-

tion.

.A pABTIC'IPIA.L NOlTW-
1. Simply ll&IDe&. without UIIUmlng action or b@lnr;. 2. Dot'4 not admit a verb-complement' of any kind. I. Ia modified only by adjective or adjt'Ctlve phrase. 4. .M.aJ be preceded by article &nd tollowed by prepo

attlOD.

We, lllarltng early. arrived In time lpa.rtl~lple uMd u adjectlel Jhin.Wag ful 11 tlreoome lP rtlcpl~ u-ed ... o.. un) Our cradl~ Ia tb" ~<l'ling pliLilf' l uar tel pial &djec\lve), Lit. !.I \he "''antng of \lle """ h>arlclplal noun)

THE INFINITIVE PHRASlll.

I. DKFtNtTION .-A n infinitive pt.raflf' is onP that consiat. of

an 1nflnitlve preceded by the prepo&itlon eo.

II. Cl.Auu.

L Pruenl.

(1)

Active

{

CProomgm....o~Anivf"orfmor;m

u .

,a~(.t

o(ltoV)IM~U.wl'itif19.

(2) Puaive; a.a, (to) be written.

J. Per/eel.

. {Common form; u. (to) h.a"' _.;tun. (1) ActJVfl ProJCrt'FIIIiVP form . RR . Ito h""' bun Vl!'thf\0
(2) Passdve; u, (to) lww but~ ""'"""'

m. 1. Noun.

Ueu. {

2.
S.

AnjPctive. Adverb.

An Infinitive pbr...., Ia commonly called om tntlnltlve.-loriL of ayneo docbe to Wblcb a pari I ulle<l lor 1hP noh Tho ln~nU"' ,..,_ I an
aumln1 <rerb form, nl!e<l ... a oono or o.n llllj..,.tl~ Itt. .00 .,,ht~nUt'tl
u \be bue of an lnllultlve pb,.... . It lo tule<l ~r.rtivU111 u modlll"r of lbt -IIWt'd lllbj-ct
Ill Anglo-i!&xon. 10 wu nn\ n!led wltb any lntlnltlv~ rxcept an Inflected fefDI expreMina puf'J>O'It. an<l the prepoo~l Inn. "'""n tbn n~d, alwa.y de aoted relation. "Now \be p...-poo<ltlnn to. ren trb.-o It 10&- ""' how rela&ion. 11 plaeed before the lnHnltlv~ ao mere ffvHrr1lor. bowlnl thai be lellowto1 word I liD totln!\1'08 To 11 olgn of tb" tnllltlve, nul 11 pari of
I\. However. do not bar paollJ &naly.. b lnCIAitt pb~ let \laa
.._,U..Ieta-tMawbole

77

IV. CoN RTRtli'TIOI'I.

1. Auull.

(1) Nomtnatdve.

a. SubJect ot finite Terll; aa. f'o CmJ ta ~

~- Predlca.te ot tl.nite verb; aa, To h~ S.

ko f!Ul.
c ln apposition; aa. It Ia human eo .,.,..
d. lndevtludent.
{a) Simply Independent; aa, To leU the truth.

1 wu mtataken.

(II) With a pa.rt.ictple; u, To ptul throueh

the fiE~Id beinJl forloidJen, WEI followed the road (c) By pleona.am; u, To huUate, that would

be to fall.

(d) By excla.ma.tton; u, To tlrotlml what &D

awful dea.thl

(e) In apposition; u, DelJghttul tull, 1e

froch the young!

(J) Objeot.l ve.
A. Object of verb; aa. He Uke. eo ttudfl.

ObJect of prepo~lt1on; &a, They dld not.hinl but (to) talk.

c. Factitive obJect; u, I regard to hesitate aa

to fatl.
ct. Retained Object; u, He wu allowed to t10t.. e. In apposition; aa, The boy liked h1a tuk, le

twtnv the mall.
t." ObJective wbject of tnilnit!Te; as, To IlliG

lflu sentences he oonetdera to l>e uselen.

g. Objective predicate of tnAn.ltlve; aa He

thinks to steal to be lotake without permiBBion. L AdJective.

- - - -(1'

Mod"1ftert

{TItheiar

e is a time impOBBible

to laugh. for me lo

go.

t

Thl conl!truotlon 111 well&l the precedlnlt one, 11 rarely Notlt'P c&refullv the UIM! of tbf' lnllnltlve pbrue1 ln thf'l!e

Dtwieod.. entenee~.

f'o latl{lh lor I ugb In!{) Is and mooHflea ti-. To II a.

an lnjlnUive preposition,

phrallt It II n.,.d ao obowlnlt tbe relation

&bnet&wtelejencltwln,

&nd lat.~{~h. l.atl{lh 11 an lnflnit!vt. Io 11 uaed ""a noun, objP()t or Co.

In the eeoond oe tenoe, to Ia a mere prepoaltlonal tign : It d0<11 not denote

relation ; ln fact, It 11 not a notlon&l word. Tbe lnll.nlt!Te fO II D.Md

&d,leettnlly to modUy ttl &IIUmed 1nbjec\-. J11 Co,. Ia equtnlut -

,...., (toor fOMII).

78

(I) Predicate adJectiTe. .. 8nbjeetive j u, TheM qrpl'ew 111"1'1 eo ~

.. ObJective; u , He mad~> me (to) ttay.

e. U~ed abetraetly after the infinite verb. (a) With participle; u, His seeming lo lN bl-

\

nocent waa of no avail.
(> With infinitive; u, To appear lo boet il

nc.t aufficient.

.. .Atlwr6.

(1) Modifying verb; lUI, Strive lo e:rcel.

(%) ModUying adjective; u, Applea are ~ to .C.

(I) Modifying adverb; u, He ill old enough 10 .oil.

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS.

., .... a. ....mar lbOukl not be m>dled .antll tba mlnda of pnplla are nlllc!euUy ..wnd. lleldom ~uldlt be ltndlec1 bf puplla llDder thaneen yean

1. De Dot attempt t.e t.eech crammar \laroucll a ~udy at 4aiD1tloDI; t.elcll tetlnuto tllrourll a 1\U<ty of lanl'ao.ce.
1. Do aot allow pupila to memoriae detlnltlonl and nalea that they do not 'llll4erat.end. NeYer 1\&tea prtnrlpla until puplllanprepared to com

prebend Ita meanllll " ll'lraL the Idea, Lhen the D&lllle, then the del

atdon."

ar &. ID4UC!Uoa alloul4 p~ deduction. A atudy of lndh1dnallaeta 1hould

a.d w ddnltlone aad princtplea. "The mind rauat

rlaa hora

et-.r tn41Yldual to cll.ltlnOt reneral notloDL"

1. Dadncdoa ellould follow tnductloll .t.lter prlnelpl ant rulea llaa

'lloen tearuedlnductlely, re- the proceas and require the pnplll

1o llluatrat.e ; that Ia, rtn ex&llllplea (partlculam) of the ceneraltatiODI

Uaey laue Jeanted.

Grammar b comparatlnly uael- ani- Ita prtnclplea are applied In

-structlng, orltlollanc. and oorrectln,..'lentencea. Arithmetic Ia bet-

ter underatood than (rllmmar, mainly becauee more practice Ill

required In the former branch. " Few rniM and many ezerollel."

7, JIUe pammar practJoal ll:r ba't'ln& pupUa crltlclee Cbelr own l&nJUare,

M wall u the languaae ot otbera. "For 1 am notblq, U Do& critical."

1. PraeUoa wlaat JOU teach. lD the aae of eorrect lan~re, the teaoheJ

llllonl4 be modal. Caa yoa ooDIOleatloualy aay 10 .JOnr pupll1, NJ'oDew aa"t

ft ef lila tntlDIUn pllrue 11 1111l&lly omitted (lrapllecl) alter the follow
- ..,..; ..., w., fuJ., ltMr, ,., - .... - . . . .- , 1.1 ... -
. . . . . . after~.~. &H a few etlaer ..,..,

79

I

kiVDtW Ql1EBTIONI1

II

L
1 ftat are the matn obJects tD tesehtDJ cr&mliW' r

('

I. .A.t what ace ah<'uld a papU beltin formal rrammar f
I. What Ia meant b:r lhnietll rrammar?

'- Name the two grammatical uulta. Whlolllhould bo Be ~fll'1f(B'f

In toM:blnl' crammar? WhJ' J

1. What are tho aaa111 dln.tom of crammar J Of what dooa oaoh treat 7

D.
1. Deline a phr&M. 81n example of a eomplex phr&M. '7, Name, dellne, and Ulaatrato the three eomplementa,
a. In parsing, what ta each complement called J
I. Define a clause; a dependent clanao.
10. What three parta of speech are Wled to connoot dependent elauHII t
U. How does a eompound aentonce dUrer from a complex aentonee?
12. How Is a complex aontenoe elaullled u to munfng r a compound en
tenee?
u. I a period placed at tho end of IM'Y deelarattn aentonoo J
14. Which ahould precede, anal;rala or parallll'? Wh:r?
16. llbould puplta enr be l'iTaa exereta. In " falM :rnt&x "J
m.
11. Name the lin !:nJlllh worda that han Qree -forms ea.eh. 17. Since the noun bas but oae lnGoeted fon:a, whJ' allould the eonatructlon
of noun1 be taught?
18. What Is meant by IUblt.rntlw r ~mu m-b r
19. Define and 11l11strato a U"ansltiTe Terb; a eopulaUTe Terb, 20. Why are pel'IIOnal pronouua ., called?
n. lllwMa.to In ~~entencea the followlnJ oomtruetlona : (1) Indirect object,
(2) retained object, (8) predicate nom.lnatln UMd abatr&elly, (4) ad Terb used Independently,
22. Define a participle. Gin aa example of (1) a participle aaed u ar
adjeettn, (2) a participial adjeetiTOo 23. Gin example of an lnllnlttn phraoe 1llled (!) u a noun, (I) u an ad
Terb.
!4. After what worda 11 the lllp of tile IBhltln unall:r omitted? 1&. What part of~ Ia aoT -.4 . a - u an olemOD$ ot a eentaoo?

I

)
GEOGRAPHY.
BY E. v. BRANSON, BT.A.n: NomuL eo.oc.
(Conrif~d.)
CHAPTEB L
1.-WHA.T GEOGRAPHY I&
(1) n Ia atudy of Ule earth' aurf.ace. u Ule home .. .... .
The word reopphy meaJUI earthwritlq.
Ia pocrapby we atud7 God' hudwritlq upoa tile
anh.
(2) n II, therefore, a ltudy el Ule condit.ioDI ihat make ...
earth' aurfaee a home for man.
J.-WHA.T THE SUBJECT INOLVDa
(1) G.oraphlcal Forma (oflancl ud nteat.
e. A. they are. Hap-lanpap for Ul.... 0. The readiDI of map-lanpap. (2) The ~raphical Fcmea. Heat ud cold.
. Lich~
o. Gra'ritadoa.
d. The Yital foi'Cel of plan' ucl ual..& U.
(I) The Geopaphical .A.pnta. .. .A.lr Water
.. XID..a...ea.
.. Olpa ......

(4) Pl&llt Ufe (Surface Oonrinp).
Ita relation to animal IUe epeciallJ
(I) Animal LUe. Ita relation to man epectally.
(f) lrlaD. .. .Aa he Ul conditioned by all th-.
.. .Aa he modiJiee all theee.

a.-NOTE.

(1) That Geography study is Nature lltudy-the great infor-

mation etudy iD elementary education.

(I) That it il a composite o! all the &eiencee; hence the

diJBculty of teaching it successfully. (8) That ~~:ettinc ready to teach the aufi1ect ie a lifetime

work, and fumishee the common echool teacher op-

portunity for the most liberal eelf-culture.

(4) That a good geography text-book will have lPMOne ia

1eneible proportion, ill all the llix fundamental eub-

jectl named.

(I) That a poor geography will nerlect the td, Bd, 4th and

6th euhjecte, and oyeratreu map-etudiee and political

geography.

(I) That poor ceoJP'aphy-teaching emphaaisee man's book

abou\ the earth and neglectl God' boot about the

earth-the creat open boot of Nature.

(7) That good teachln~~t in geography opene a pupU'e eyee to

the JTUt world outeide, and preparee him to ander-

atand the Geography boot.

(I) That the maiD queetioa, all the time Ia, How did the

Earth' surface come to be a home for man f AI,

What did the earth-worm have to do with itf The

froetf The rainfallaf The etreamef

(I) That a main purpose ill thileyllahne is to m81nlffy and

cHanify a commonplace subject., and to stimulate the

Indifferent teacher to liberal eelfculture ID a pat

leld of learning.

(10) That Ule real teacher caa 'be 10 etimalated, while aM

,.....-.,~-

.

l
fJ (1)
r (2)
,I
(3) 4)
(5)
(6) (7) (8)

83
4.-WHY WE TEACH GEOGRAPHY.
To enrich the pupil's mind with real knowledge by di rect observation of Nature-her forms, forces, processes, and creatures.
To prepare him to interpret and appropriate the accumu. lation of race-wisdom about the earth.
To equip him with first hand experiences for entrance into the formal sciences later.
To wake up his mind so that he may go on to educate himself in studying the world he lives in. Col. Jim Smith is a great farmer because he knows how to study corn and cattle,soil and men. Geography has a practical as well as a cultural value.
To free him from narrow, two-penny notions of man and his achievements,of policies and measures; to broaden his horizon, and to enable him to see a long way beyond his father's corn-crib.
To make him feel at home in the world he lives in; to enjoy it and subdue it for the highest uses, "for the glory of God and the relief of man's estate."
To make him feel at last that citizenship is partnership in every good undertaking and in all perfection.
To put him into proper relationship with Nature, Human Nature, and God.

5.-INFORMATIONAL LIBRARY IN GEOGRAPHY

.![OR TEACHERS-
(1) Shaler's Geology. D. C. Heath & Co., Boston.
(2) Guyot's Earth and Man. Chas. Scribner's Sons, N.Y.
(3) Marsh's Man and Nature. Chas. Scribner's Sons, N.Y (4) Heilprin's The Earth and Its Story. Leach, Shewell
and Sanborn, N.Y. (5) Ballard's The World of Matter. D. C. Heath & Co. (6) Huxley's Physiography. D. Appleton & Co., N. Y. (7) Tyndall's Forms of Water. D. Appleton & Co., N. Y. (8) Treat's Home Studies in Nature. Am. Book Com-
pany, N.Y.

84
Geikte' Physical Geography. 'lhe MaemlllaD Oo. N.Y.
(10) Croaby's Common Mlnerala and Rocks. D. 0. He1th. &Co.
(11) Hyatt' About Pebblee. D. 0. Heath .t Oo. (12) Newell' Botany. Bookl 1 and 2. Ginn & Oo.
(13) M.ra. Dana' Bow to Know the Wild Flowen. Ohuh Scribner' Bone, N. Y.
(14) Hyatt and Arm'a Insecta. D. 0. Heath & Oo. (16) Longman' Geog. and New School .A.tlaa. Longman,
Green & Co., N. Y. (16) Grove' GPogrsphy. D. .Appleton & Oo. (17) Martineau's Earth, Air, and Water. Geol'le RuUedp
& Bone, London.
Foa Oun.Dao:-
(1) Wright's Nature Readera. D. 0. HMth & Oo. (2) Ginn' All the Year Around. Ginn & Oo. (3} Johonnot'a Natural Hiatory Seriea. American .Book
Oo. (4) Jane Andrew' Booka, Seven Little Slaten, and othen
Ginn &Oo.
(6) Flagg' A Year with the Birda. Educational Pub-lishing Oo., Boston.
(t) Auni Martha' Corner Oupboard. Educational Puhliahing Co., Boaton.
(7) :Montieth' Popular Science Reader. America Book Oo.
(I) The Natural Hiatory of Selbourne. Ginn & Oo.
(I) Johonnot'a Glimp1ee of the Animal World .A.mericaa Book Co.
(10) llorley' Song of Life. A. 0. McCIUJ'I & Oo., Ohlcago. (11) The Zig-Za1 Journeye. The Lathrop Publishing Co.,
Bolton. (12) Tbe World by the Jl'ii'Mide. Thoe. Nelaon Son1, N.Y. (13) Rupert'a Gt>ographical . Reader. Leach, Shewell A
Sanborn, N. Y. (U) Jobonnot'a Gf!OII'apbieal lteader. .A.mertcu Book 0.. (11) .Uoa.'e Joumey AloaJlcl the WorbL GlaD A 0..

Here ta 1 miilblftr.eit! iorltina library ta Geoaraffht. l
oamP them aa the very choicest bookl in my own <:ieogtapb ical library. They can be had frt..m any reneral boclk dt&l in the larier citiea.
a.-QUIZ REVIEW.
1. What t. Geo~rraphy?
.Heanin~r of the word? lD Heography what ought we to be atudytqf 1. What does the euhjet iuclu.te? How are surface forma to be ftrat atudied T What is a map T What i.e nec.,l!8ary to the reading of a map T What i1 meant by m~<p-rearling? What are the Geographical ForceaT Name the Gllo~traphical Agents? Ditferencf' between Forces and Ag!'!nta f How ia Plant Life regarded in Geography T Animal Life T What doee Geography tell Ull about Man T
:.a, What kind of a study ia Geography T What ia meant by an informational atudy T
Why ia Geovaphy 10 valuable for the teachert t
What ia true of a good Geography text-book T Of a poor Geography T The chief fault of poor Geography teacbin~ 1 What will good Geography-teaching accompliah T What i1 the main question in Geography? llluat.raao The main purpose of the ayllabua? The mark of a poor teacher alwayd
'- Why do we teach Geography! What ia "real" lmowledre T How obtained T Source of it? What doea good Geographyteachln1 prepare the pupU to do? The relation of Geography to the formal ecienoe. 1tudied later T 'Wbat tpeli&1 educatin T&lue hu Geo,raphy T

1nat J)l'acticil ~ue ?
Pare calla Geography a 11 catholic 11tudy!' Why f llow ia a pupil to be related to the world he live11D f
What view of citizenship ill herein presented T How does Geol(raphy help toward thia? Bow ia every man related T Illustrate. How doe1 Geoiraphy help in thi.IT
CHAPTER ll.
HOME GEOGRAPHY.
I.-WHAT IT MEANS.
(1) It means a ~eographical study of the child' world ot
outdoor life. (2) It is a simple study (1) of the familiar surface forma of
his neh:hborhood, (2) the chanjl:es that these are 'llDdo>rgoln"' and (3) the rehttione of Geographical Form~ and Al!enll! to Plant and Animal Life. (8) It ia teachin~t, also, geographical language for the lmowlo edge gained. {4) ThWI, it rueana, al10, bnt much more than, mappinr the tchoolroom, the echool grounds, and 10 on, and tearbing map locations and directions. (I) It ia Nl\ture-study from a gE>ograpbical standpoint-not a book-study at first. It is meant to be a preparation for the geography-book, and a constant accompani ment of book-study throughout the course.
t.-THE METHODS.
(1) A teft mlnute quls each day upon an orderly Ht of topiCI i the vnrpoee being (1) to have the Children "-&lly tD- the geographical fa<.tl in their o.-n little world, and (I) Ce l.b.1nil &Ad (3) talk aboo& W &a.,
d.Uicov~JJ.

87
(t) Page would call these "wa1dn~t--np '1 litudtea. Tht method beat sUited for the work ia completely exhib ited in his chapter upon " Waking Up Mind" (Page' Theory and Practice of Teaching). Study that chap ter thoroughly, and then, in a similar way, give any of the following lessons.
(I) The teacher cannot do much field-wort in geography with the children. What he can teach them about geography In the schoolroom is of amall value com pared with what he can stimulate them to dilcover for themselves outdoors.
8.-HO'\IE-STUDY LESSONS IN GEOGRAPHY.
(See Frye's Child and Nature, and Frye' Brook1 and Brook Baains.]
(1) Ox GBoGRAPHro..u. FoBKI ol' L.llm 411 W.Au.. (1) Slopu. (1) Develop idea of 1lope. (2) Then ehal lenge the cliU!I to tl.nd some land that doe not lope. (S) Have children deacribe their lopes, getting auch terms, meantime, u ~ntle, abrupt, lon!, abort, amooth, rough, bare, rocky, grassy, woody, barren, fertile, blutr, precipice. (4) Thought question: What are the uses of alope1? (I) Hilla and Ridgu. (1) Develop the idea of a pair of slopes meet ing at the top. (2) Ha't'e these located outdoors. (8) Call for the term " hill." Give the idea and term" ridae." (4) Have 1ome ridges located and described. (5) Develop the idP.a of "water-parting.'' (6) Have hills and ridges modeled in a.and (outdoora in the school yard at play time). Expand the ideu of hill and ridae into mountain and raniJ:e. Show pictures abundantly here. lD similar way, introduce the ideas of plateaUI, peaka, Yolcanoea, de1ertl. Thought queltioa 1 1Wha' are the uea ol hilll uul Ada !

ll) ~allet~
(1) llPveloj> the t<"lea of elopee Wt>etlnK Rt tht-
botto'Il. (2) G..t or ~iVt! tb.. tt!ru "Wiiter mt'..tinl!'' for tht! lint' of ntert~t~Ction. (4) Havt' ~nell slop..e located in the n"i!'hhorboo<i, ""d (5 1 th.. watt1rmt!etinll irl, ntilled (61 TniC the WRLerp .rting ~tround the upper t!dJle. (7) ;.t..del tht: brook basin in Blind (uutdurt> pr ferably). Htudy marMhee,
meRduwH, swamps. Tlwu)(ht question: How lire tht'llt' formed 1 Study plaint~. prairies, llanos, pliru p118, ~r)(el!, caftun>~, showing pi<-tur..e libll odantly, and challen~ing fre.- qut't!ttont~ from th.. children. Uet~ picture!' freely. Thoullht qUt!t!tlun: What are th .. 118f!M of valleye? (4) Shor,., (coa.IU, bllnA:,).
Study the brook or branch in the hrook haRin.
Bring out the idea of blink or ehor e. flood, plaine, cape, promontory, bluff, pt>ninsula,
isthmus, island, and have these identified
and named uutdoore. Have these forma and terma firmly aseoctated. ThP land modeling will help, but it ou~eht always to follow a etudy of the real forme, if p011sible.
Treat the idea of llf!acoast, beach, coa..tal plains, marshes, &c., with abunrlant pictnr~>a and atoriea The order al waya is obaervation followed by imagination and thinking.
1
(hY11: S BROOKe Aim BROOJ:: BA.IIINI.)
~) Brook Lu.am.
Bring out the Idea of banke, bed, ebaunel, eource, mouth, tributary, pool, pond, lake,
waterfall, atrait, bay. Have tbeae found in
the neigbborinJl stream, and described. Expand theee ldeaa into river eyetems, st>u, oceana, harbora, using picturea and stories abundantly. Though\ queationa: Where

89

doew the water m broob ud rfnrt come
from T What are the uses pf broob T Of lakes T Of waterfalls T Of harbora T Of aeu and oceana T The teacher's O'WD knowledge ought to be rich-richer by far than the children can rive or get for m&aJ yean yet.

(2) 0. m Goatu.Parc.u FoBca AND A.GNTI.

(1) Water. (Frye'a Child and Nature, Ohap. VL) (1) How water gets into the air. (2) Forma of water in the air (fogs, clouda, inviaible npor). (S) How water gets out of the air. (Condensation lessons.) (4) Forma of water ~tting out of the air (dew, frost, rain, anow lessons). Story of the water drop in
f the air. Thought questions : What are the
uses of clouds? Of dew T Of frost T rain T What becomes of all the rain T WhJ does water run down hill?

(2) &tl Making. (Ga. Experiment Station Bulle&

No. 11.)

What soil lis. Lesson on a piece of ~tr~nite or

gueisa. Story of the grain of aand. StoJ7

of the pebble. Earthworms, ant., and

beetles as soil-makers. Frost u a aoil

maker. How soil i.e distributed. Story of

the muddy streamlet. What are fertilizers.

Thought questione: How did the pebble
ret rounded? What i.e the moat fertile pana of alopee T Why are pond bottoma rich t

Lesso111 in Erosion, Transportation, DeP*

itation.

'

(8) Drainage. Overland drainage. Underground drainap. Springs and wells. Later, hot aprinp ud ceysera with picturea and deacriptlou. Thoucht qneetio111: What kinda of alopee
wuh Ndl7 T Wh7 T WW helpl .....

90
rronnd drainage ? Why do fannel'l terraee their farms 1 What good does water do un derground? Story of the drop of water UD
der~o:round?
(4} Heat and Light Lu!om. Why the blacksmith heats the tire befou putting it on the wheel-frame 1 Why epac is between the raile on the railroad? Effect of heat on water? Why the woorlpile amokes some mornings in winter? Where the water-dust in the air comea from 1 Have the pupils observe the water-pan on the etove anrl a saucer of water set out in the sun. Effect of beat on air? Havl" pu pils observe the draft around a stove or fire place. What i1 wind ? What aete air in motion 1 F.ff,..ct oi heat on the baby seeds T When do seeds sprout? Why? Story of the Baby Heeds' Royal Visitors (Light, Heat.and Moistnre). Have children observe aeed germination. Usee of clothing. bark, hair, fur and feathers? How is the earth heated ? The hotteet 1eaeon ? Tbe cold11et 1 The hottest part of the day? The coole1t T Have children obaerve the noonday 1hadow regularly . Quill upon it and mark it every fortnight on the floor with the date. Day and night-how caused? Usee of? Lonr eet day? Shortest? The four seasonsthese to be studied u tbey come on, and comparisons t>licited. (Changes in plant and animal life, appt>arance and disappearance of the birds and insecta, fr()Jla and enakes, and eo on.)
DI.ZCTIONI AND MAPS. Teach and drill upon the horizon diredlone (N., E., 8., W., N. E., 8. E., 8. W., N. W.) Dirf'ctione of the Jiaoma from tbe IChoolhouae; of objl'ctl In the .ahool
a..._ froa IOQle eeotral objiOt. Map &he ~aboolo-

91
lJOnlle TPach and rlrill upon map dirertione. Map of lht< town nr county . Ordl~ upot ruap dirt>ctlone. lntrt>dun tb ... ~~:l .. be aJ.:&in Tea<"b . be C'ontinents and ot'"'"'a "~tori s of the ~"<..v.,n Little Hi~ters" and "Ea<"b 1111<1 All." Ch Tal'tt'n~tlc alllmale of each contlnt'D ' lUI lull owe. N. Awertca, btson, wolf, bear; B. A.rut'nca, ruonkE>y, boa-co,Hnctor, ant-eater; Europe, wtld boar, rt"todeer; A.sia, tiger, camel, elephant; Afriea, lion, ~eorilla, ostnch ; Australia, kanJ.:aroo, paradiae bids; Sea life, the whale, the coral animal, tht' 11tar dsh. (Sea Life in Stories Mother Nature Told.-A.ndr, ws.) Brio~ out the ideas 01 r;onea and locate on the ~~:loba. ::ltories of A.rctic and Tropical Life. (A.~oonaek. the E"quimau Maiden, and Manenk:o, in "8even L1ttle !:listers.") Why it is so cold around the Poles and so hot around the Equator. Fix the attention of the children upon the continents (on the globe) as these descrtptious of animals and stori811 of child hfe are progressing.
PLANT LIFE.
(1) How plants ~rrow. (2) What plants eat. (3) What. plants are good for. (4) Lessons on food plants,. medicinal plants, clothing plants, building and! furniture woods. (5) Compare plants with our bodies-identifying their mouths, nosee, feet, bodies, arms, fin)!ers, akin, blood, &c. (6) Plant ing seasons. Harvest seasons. (7) The appearance of the planta during the different seasone. (8) How plants help underground drainage, and prevent washing. (9) Children, study Nature' Treasure boxes (seed pods), collecting and mounting these on boards. (10) How eeeds are dilltributed. (11) Plant enemiee. (12) What planta have to do with occupations. (13) Crope in the county; (14) in the State. Make a product map of the State. Wonderful plants: The Big Tree of California, the mosses of arctic North America; the India-rubber tree of South America; the viAe

92
yards of Europe; the date palm of Africa ; the te. planta of Asia; the peculiaritiea of tree life in Australia.
Food lessons on mace, cloves, cinnamon, nut mega, pepper, mustard, olives, currants, orangea, lemona, bananas, coffee, tea, sugar. butternuts (nigger toea), almonds, English walnuts, datea, flga. Where do they come from ? Interesting things about them? The idea ia to invest the continents and countries with interest to the children before they come to study the leas engaging details and features of the countries of the earth.
Gray' "How Plante Grow.'' and "Aunt Mal' tha'e Comer Cupboard" will aid the teach~!( lfe&tly.
6. Anr.u. Lrn.
(1) .Animall ueful to men: Food animals, clothin' animals, draught animals, scavenger animals. Han these liated and talked about-some one or two in each list studied in detail. Have the chil dren contraat the cow and the horse; other animals also. Have the children to list the grass eaters, the grain-eaters, the flesh-eaters, the treelivers, the ground-livers. Study bow each kind of animal il fitted for the life it leads. The birds: the scratchers, the perchers, the climbers, the awimmere. Compare the feet of these ki~ds of birda. Hibernation : What becomes of the froga, the snakes, the spider111 the flies, the bears, the cray fish, the birds in winter? Useful animals in the different countries. Have pictures and etoriea for these. Have each located on the globe.
I. Bvxu LJ:n.
Ohild Life in the different zones and countries as already indicated. Frye'e "Primary Geography,'' "Child Life In the Different Countries" (Kt-~ll ugg and Co., N. Y.), and The World by the Fireside (Thos. Nelson Sons, IT. Y.), will flll'nilh mate,.;..U.abunda.!ltly. "Ten Little

93
Bo11," by Jane Andre1r1 Ia tndllpenable tn rfTinta historical view at Geo,raphy for children. Locate! Lotate I I everything.
Study, with abundant Pictures. New York, Chicago, Ban Francisco, New Orleans, Atlanta, Sltlta, New .Mexico, Rio Janf'iro, London, Berlin, Parla, Conatan tlnople, St. Peterdburg, Cairo, J ohanneaburK, Calcutta, Damucua, Hong Kong, Peking, Tokio, MelbournetheM twenty-one cities especially; chief induatriM, routee of trade, and why; relieion, mannera and cuetoma.
Excite the children to uk question about the picturea. Don't lecture-or no more than ia abaolutely neceasary. By thi1 time, aay in the latter part of the Third Reader year, the children can take a 1;0od Primary GeoKraphy book.
REVIEW QUIZ ON CHAPTER ll.
1. What Ia meant by Home Geography? It Ia a aimple atudy of what three thinl(P? Wh&t is meant by GaogrHphical langu >~ gA? Why must thia aleo be raught? What il Hom.. Geography not? What relation haa Home Geolr" raphy to boolt tieogaphy?
2. How ie worlt on Howe Geography to be done? Wbal three purposes are to be lr.apt 1n mind? Dtl&Cribe Pa~~:e'a "Walr.in11 up mind" method? Apply it to aome Geographical topic. Why cannot the teacher do much tleld work with hie clue in Geography? What il more im portant T
S. Write out the aix beadings for the main aubjecta in home atudy leseon in Geography, and list the eub-topica. (1) What are the four tbinjZII to be taUJCht about elope a? What i~ thf' main que~tion? Write out ten uaea of the elop... (2) What ie 11 bill or rid!<e? A water-parting? What a rf' tbf' e1x ett'p" 1n tea~:bng hi lie and rid~tea? The ideae ot hi I and ridg.. can be t'Xptmded Into what? Bow? Write out ten use of ridg..a and htlla. (S) What il a ullttJ T A. water-me~::tiD& T Uonuut ridp &RCl TalleJ'.

94
What la a brook-buin T How ia it boundf'd T What are the aeven atepa in teaching 'falleye ? What can be atudied in the 'falleys about home? Into what can these ideaa be expanded? How? State four good thought questiona &bout nlley1. (4) What GeoJlraphical ideaa and terms can the child get In studying the aborea or banks of watercourses? When should sand modeling occur? Into what can these ideaa be expand ed? How? In ' h (t order does the mind worlt naturally in Geogr&phical study? (5) What ideas of water forma can be gotten by the child in studying a brook or bran~:h' Into what can these ideas be expanded T State teL good "thought question" about brookt. What ahould be true of the teacher's knowledge T (Tynd..U'a " Forma of Water" will help the teacher hete. ' ~2. Name the Geographical Forcea. The Geographical Agenta. (1) State four kinds of Geo1faphica1 lessons about water. How appeal to the child's fancy? Why do so? State ten thought quea tious about the Geographical uses of water. (2) What ilsoil T What are the constitu!lntll of granite T Where did the aand clay come from T The use1 of ~&nd? Clay T Tell the story of the pebble. How are earth worms, ants, and beetles soil-makers? How does rain make soil? Frost? How is soil distributed? Which ill the richest part of a slope? Why? W by are swamps and pond-bottoms rich? (8) State two kinds of drainage. The uses of each? How are springs formed? (Show by a drawing.) What kind of alopes wash badlyT WhyT What helps underground drainage? How appeal to the child's fancy? Why T Mention three kinda of work done by water aa it flowa off over-ground 1 What ia meant by erosion ? Transportation 1 Deposition in Geo~~:raphy? (4) What law of heat i1 to be brought out simply? Give tlve illustration of it. State three ' thought questions' about wind. State four hea' le1110n1 on seeds. How give ob1ervation heat lessons oa plant life? How appeal to the chlld'a fancy 1 Why T 'ou 'ibOtJJht queetioDI' Oil aauqi!IJ of_ ~~ ~a.

95

heat 1 What observation le~~~ona may precede a study

of the 1eaaona? State four season lessons for children.

8. State two kin<l1 of map directions to be taught in

Geograph;y. How? How introduce the idt>a of con

tinenta, oceans, and zones 1 Why so 1 4. State 10me

kinds of leesona on plants proper to Geography. Com

pare a plant with your own body. Mention five ways

in which seeds are distributed. Mention ten plant

enemies. What are the chief crops of your county? Ita

chief occupations? Chief crop1 in the State 7 Its chief

occupations 1 Make a product map of Georgia. How in

crease the child's interest in the countries of the globe 1

Mention some wonderful pointa of each continent. Men

tion eome interesting iessons on table foods. Tell where

the following fooda come from: Mace, cloves, cinna

mon, nutmegs, butternuts, almonds, datee, figs 1 6.

Mention some lesson ahowin&' the uaefules of annlmal

life to man. How give these lessons 1 How develop

the child's faculty of comparison? Why? Bow teach

the adaptation of animals to the life they lead? State

aomele110ns in this 1ubject. Study and draw the foot

of a ben, a pigeon, a woodpecker, a duck. How is each

foot adapted to the life of the bird? State some inter-

eating facta about hibernation. Mention some animals

specially serviceable to man in the different countriee.
e. Why preeent to children child-life in the different

sonea and countriea1 Why locate everything in these

elementary Geography lessons 1 Why teach a few great

cities fully instead of thousands II! we used to do 1 How

teach these citie1 to children? What are some main

queations to have in mind in teaching these citie11 Why

not lecture on these cities to children ? What ia better?

When can children be&'in to ~"d7 a Geo&'faphical ~t

prodtablT 1

-

96
CHAPTER m
BOW TO TEACH THE GEOGBUBT BOOK.
1-PB.IJ'.A.TOBT,
The r.hance1 are that yon are goinr to have to ue an oldtime, irrational Geography book for many yean yet. The 1 only thing to do il to do the best thing possible with it u 1 chance otfera in the Bituation in which you 1lnd your1elf. U will be necessary therefore :-
1. To be a scholar in Geo~aphy m'jlch beyond the book you teach.
2. To know mote about the daily lessons with your book shut than the cll111 does with its book shut.
8. To omit the dead, meanlngleBS, and useless details of the book whenever necesea~;,y; and to do eo wisely.
4. To enlarge, independently, the meager chapten of the book,-111 thoe on relief, reographical forcu and agents, climate, plant life, commerce and trade routes, for instance.
6. To have a familiar acquaintance with 1tandard professional texts in the subject. (See chapter I.) Chapter Ill., Part ill. of Swett's "Method of Teach:olng" i.l especially suggestive to the Common Schoo]! teacher.
I. To know that a lesson may be interesting without being educative; but that it cannot be educatin without being intere~~ting.
n.-HINTI .ABOUT Mlmlolll.
1. Boo1: muat nol be too hard. Be eure that the geography book is not too dUBeult for the ci&IS to read. The simplest good geography I know il about u ditllcult as the ordinary J'ourtlt Reader.
t. The language of lhe book muae be maatn-ed. The geography book ia first of all a reading book to be read by the child Intelligently. Therefoe sec to it
~PI JHm~ (1) the forma CIPlliAI ad.tmllD

97
alattona), (!) the meanin~C~~ and (Sl the oeea o1 the Tocabulary of the book, le1!8on by le><110n ; also (4) bt> mnllt be taught to look at a map and to form from It a good mental picture of the <otmtry 1t reprE'een~. The power to do this will develop slowly ln the heel pupil under the beat teaching.
I. 7nmllGte 1M book br 4~ lo 1M familiar.
In order to give reality and meaning to what the child atudiea in the gt>ography book, call up hia outdoor experiences, for illuPtration and explanation. Relate what he already knows to what he reada about. ~ill lD doin~r thia evidencee the true teacher. Read Page' Theory and Practice, p. 296-8 (Phelps'e Ed.).
16. 'fJMlop Imaginaliora.. in order to cultivate the pupil's imagination, and mab liTing knowledge out of dead information. (1) After finishing the etudy of a country or city have the pupil placehimeelf, in fancy, in a particular place, and tell what be sees. Thus, after finishing Ellypt., .l&y, "Yo!l may stand on top of the pyramid of Gizeb 1 .-nd tell me what you see." It ilalwaya an effective end intereatine review. (2) Or have them write up imalrlnary jourue;ya through a eountry that baa been studied.
I. l!lt!Mol CaOintU.
Have the children to All a cabinet or museum with aU aorta of eeographical objeets,-treasures from nature' lltorehouse, leaTea pressed, mounted and labeled, minerals and rocks, aeed pods, grall88s, bird nests, and 10 on endleesly; articles from the different countrie1 .of the earth,-India-rubber and coffee from Brazil, quinine from Peru, fl.recrackera and tea from China, bory from Africa, ftgs from Asia Minor, lemon from Sicily, and 10 on. Label each article, lhowinr the eountry it ia from.
a. Team 1M Pidurea in 1M Bool. Pay 1pecial attention to the picture~ ill the pography hot. Qu1s 11pon them le110n by ltliiiiOJl, till they

98
hne told their full tory. 8uch quizzing pays. OhU dren uuallylook at theM picture without seeing all they have to tell.
'1. P~ure &rap-Boob. Engall'e the children Ia ftllinr a Geographical Picture scrap-book. A bu1ine11 man's Pocket Letter File will hold a bushel of acraps. Each pocket can be labeled and devoted to the pictures of eome one or two coun tries. Afterwards, the picture can be winnowed, and the best eelected and posted into a ecrap book. Adnrt!sing cards-especially the Arbuckle coffee card11-the monthly maaazinea, the railway tourists' bookl, book catalogue, etc., furniah picturtlll abun dantly.
8. Orayon &lief Mt~pl. Map and illustrations In crayon relief are euily drawn after a little practice. Augsburg'a " Easy Thinp to Draw in Geography" will help the teacher. The drawing of relief maps il much more important than that of outline mapa.
e. Outlim Map Drawing.
Outline map drawing ought to accompany Geographical work throughout. A1hmore' notion and instructions about thia are the very beet. See Georgia Outlinea of Methode, 1896, pp. 67, 72. Have the bed work displayed on the walla.
10. Progrt~~itJe Outlint Mapa. Learn the nee of progressive outline map1. You can buy these, or make them yourself eaeily. Draw the country on atiff pasteboard, cut it out along the outline, and then the pupils use it for quickly drawing their own outlinee on sheets of paper. The idea then il to put into the map the geographical features u thee are 1tudied day by day. Preaern aud dilplay the beat of these on the walla-
11. Ban4-Gnd- Mucilage Mu.p~. The e&~~ieat of all relief mapa to mab an the und-aadmacila~re map1. Draw the otlba ell a lace boaN

99
(from the dry-goods atoretJ). Mucilage the eurfact inside the outline. Sprinkle jim eand on it, and leave it to dry. Shake off the loose eand, and put more mucilsee where the highlands are, and again pour on the eand. When it is dry, build up your plateaus, then your mountain ranges, then your peak&. Mean tJme, with your fin2er, you easily correct any milltakes and shape up the forms before they are com pletely dried. It will take the best macilage. Buy your gum-arabic, and mix youreelL {I got this-idea from Supt. Noble, Wilmington, N. 0.)
12. Production Map1.
Taking the outline mapa, made 1UJ indicated, ehade in the agricultural crops and mineral productions as these aubjects are being located in course of the lessons. The production maps in Redway' Elementary Gt>ography are good. The children easily and quiekly do this work. Preserve and display on the walls the betJt work
18. Diaect< Mapt.
Dillllected maps are easily made-of the U. B., say. Trace upon good pasteboard the.- large U. 8. map in the Geography. Then with a cobbler' knife cut out all the St.atee carefully . The amaller children find aood occupation in putting the pieces together to form the.whole map.
1'- Production Map qf Georgia..
An intereetine production map of Georgia iaeasily made upon a large sheet of drauyhtman's paper. Trace it from a medium size wall map. Mount It &Jtainst a smooth surface. Put in the rivers, mountains, rail roads and cities. Then, with mucila2e, stick on rice, corn, sugar-cane seed, cotton, coal, marble, &c., where these productions are found.
In all of theee forme of occupation the teacher will do aa little u pouible himself and arou.. and d.ilwo<;t the ehildren'l eneJ'iiea inltead.

100
1& .An tJuM.oo,. &lief Map ! Gwrgta, In a 'protected place on the school grounds a la~tl f'l!lfef
map of the State can be made by the children Rt their play times. The teacher outlines the Htate, directs in building up the slopes, highlands, ridgee and mountains. Then he can safely leave the children to put in the rivers, railroads, citie11 and productions by themst-lve<~, the teaeher merely overlooking and cor retmg errors. N. E. Ware's children did thia at. Hawk.insville interestedly and prufitauly.
16. Weather Ob.,ervativm. Th, se ought to be recordl:'d on the blarkbna.rd re~nlarly twice a day at st..ted tlme:~s. The idea i.e, mind you,
to lead the children into noting coiuddencs and
causes. At the start the ihe:~rmompter, the direction of the wind and the aBIJecte of the:~ sky (clear, cloudy, foggy, rain, hail, snow) nePd to bl:' recorded, along with dew or frost, or their abftt>nce, Ill' noted 61U'Iier. Th..se records can get to be more 11laburate later.
17. 8r/wol I 'orreJpondencu. The lt>a<'ht>r can, by letter with aome other tesrher in the North, or We:~~t. or Snntb lllet!t1 start up class corrE>spondtlnCt>8 betw.....n their pupi111 upon tht> geographical surroundinlll! of the two clas~<es. Thi.a ia ~:ettiug to be a comiuon resort in this country.
18. Lorote el'tr!Jthing m the H~tvry U&om.
Tb1e onght to be a standin~ot rqnirement in hilltory te~tching, as well as in such readm~rt lesHonl! a11 r..quire it. The habit of locatiul! what 11 read. wh~never poe sible, w11l ttlach your pnp1le mor~< gf ogr11.phy after awhilt> than you ean J.IOBsibly do now.
19 .Attend to ( 'urrmt Geoyraphtcal Newa. For instance, poe' on lhe bulletin-hoard of the echool a nt>w~papPr map of the E.londik.e rejlinne, with brief interestin~~: infnrmanon about the country; or of Cuba.
?X). Deal Sparin.qly tvith Statuttca. Meas, popul11.ttons, hl:'ightl!, latitudAI, lonllitudea, and the like. .A.ccW!tom pupila to tumin1 ~uch detaill

. .;..t.-u~~~.~ .-n~

-\,

Of)'

101 1 18RAR;

bato real knowledge by compariso 'J&,!l11'11"1tDly a

little problem in arithmetic to lea ~~&~==~~~

that India iB about as large as the Unite

st

of the Misai18ippi river, that France is about sa larg~

aa South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama and Missiasippi;

that all the people in Georgia would make a city one-

third aa large as London. It is only by compariaoa

that any kmd of information become definite.

21. Compare I Compare II .AU the time Ill

Enry new subject should be studied by itself and then

in comparison with what is already known. When

the children come to study South America, haTe them

compare it with North America; the Nile with the Amazon;\he Japa.ne~e Islands with the British Isles;

dry climate countrie1 with moist climate countriel;

tropical life with arctic life, and 110 on endlessly. If

your pupils are not comparing, you are not teaching.

Remember that. See the comparison& in Chapter Ill..

Part ill., of Sweti.

22. Map Quutionl.

Usually there are entirely too many map questiona.

In a geography book at my ri~~;ht baud there are

nearly 6,000 of them; most of them too, entirely des-

titute of significant or interesting information for the

child. He does not remember all these; be oughl

not to do it, if he could. The detaile in geography

you have yourself forgotten ought to be a hint that

the children will aieo forget them. Why waste time

upon matter1 that neither enrich nor discipline the

mind profitably T As a rule, it is best to have the

map studies directly in connection with the dt-scrip-

tive matter, and following it aa a special review.

~~ Topical Study. AI 1100n u possible, the class ahould settle do~

regularly into topical study and recitation upon geo-

gt'llphical 11ubjecta; because (1) it throws their knowl

edge into orderly systematic form, (2) provokes inde-

pendent investigation, (S) brings all the old geogra.

phy books about the home into eemce and (4) dev~

If' ~ ~' t:bUd '-' ~llP;' ot ~mfl~~~

102
h. Bupplmlentary Reading Boou in Gwgra.phy.
Hanaae in eome way to have just a few of thePe on your deek for tbe fret- use of your pupils. Any of the book! of Jane Andrews orJohonnot (Ret> Chapter 1. wUI enrich and arousP thf' minds of your class.
16. Quis: Don't ucture too Much, Remember that your class is much mort> intl>re~t.Pd in the knowledge they hav~> ~ained than in tb.. info rna tion you have to give them ; more in their o'il'n reci tation than in yours. Suppression on your part; ex pression on their part; or depression on every body'a
part.
ill.-DoNT18.
1. Don't forget that the geo~raphy book la usually beyond the maturity of the child.
2. Don't make the lessons too long. Attraction ia better than propulsion-leading tban driving.
8. Don't fail to draw on th11 child's own experiences for illus tration and explanation of the book lessons.
4. Don't overload the child's memory with useless details It doesn't matter much if he doesn't know where Arch angel is, or the'Chuput river.
5. Don't forget to appeal to observation, imagination and thinkii::ti as well as to verbal memory in geography teaching.
6. Don't fail to exhaust the information of your class before you begin to lecture.
'1. Don't neglect local and current geography. 8. Don't expect the child to remember what you have for
gotten in GeoJtraphy. 9. Don't expect the child to know more about the subjec~
with his book shut than you do with yours shut. 10. Don't forget that you are not teaching at all unleSB you~
pupils are forming the habit of comparison. 11. Don't neglect reviews. Young teachers usually fail jqe~
here. 12. Don't fail to have plenty of map-drawing. ~8. Don't forget that relief map-drawing ill QlOrt hnportg*
t4ft oQtlW,' ~p-<4-awinf

103

1-'. Don't fail to han your clau draw a map of the State onoe a year at least.
15. Don't make a bobby of map-drawina, and wute ~im
fooli~hly.
t6. Don't fail to save all the Geography picturee that fall into your hands.
17. Don't fail to learn bow to teach Geography from picturee. 18. Don't hesitate to buy a good professional book on the aub
ject oc:caeioually. 19. Don't forget that when you lrnow tbo much about Geogrc
phy for a small place, you'll know just about enough for a bigger place elsewhere. 20. Don't fail to visit the old book store11 in the cities. I bought two good books for my Geography library in them the other day : Captain Cook'11 VoyJ1ie, 5c, and Davia's Two Yeartl before the Mast, JOe. 21. Don't put off private study in physical aciences u an aid to Geography teaching (and to en.arged scholarship u well). 22. Don't forget that when you have come to be a really com petent t1>ach er of Geography, that you have acquired a pretty liberal education. 23. Don't forget that Geography books and Geography teach ing are undergoing the most radical changes. 24. Don't forget that you'll be stranded high and dry on ~ha suhject if you don't wake up. 25. Don't forget that there ia alwaye room at the top in any department of teaching. 26. Don't fail to read the Report of the Committee of Fifteen on Geography-Teaching. Write the United Statee Com missioner of Education, Washington, D. C.

Two thin~ in conclusion: 1. My aim bu been to t!Upple-

ment and not to supplant Ashmore's notes on Geography

teaching In the Georgia Teschere' Outlines for 1897. That ia

wholly arlmirable. I would not change a syllable of it. 2. My

own notel! have been made up under great hardehips-for love,

and not for pay, and I therefore crave, even if I do not cl.,

!rve, the kindly criticia~ of m'! f~llo"!~h~

'

104

IV.-QuiZ Rxvnnr,

I. What are the faults of the old-time Geography-book?

What is necessary in order to use a poor Geography

book wisely 1 Instance some of the useless details of a

poor Geography-book. What is to be done with them?

What are some of the subjects that are usually treated

meagerly in ordinary Geography-books T What must

the teacher be able to do 1 How is the teacher to get a

familiar acquaintance with the best methods in Geog-

raphy-teaching? Is an educative exercise necessarily

intPresting? Why soT

ll. 1. Why must not the Geography-book be too difficult?

.Are they usually too difficult for Geography

classes 1 Primary Geographies are about as diffi.

cult as what No. of Reader?

2. What four things are necessary to understanding the

language of the book 1 Which is most difficult?

Why?

8. How is the pupil to get firm hold of the meaning of

the book 1 State the illustration in Page.

4. State two ways of developing the imagination in

Geography-teaching. Why appeal to the imagina-

tion?

6. How can school cabinets be filled T Suggest proper

objects for a Geographical cabinet. The uses of

such a cabinet ?

6. Why set the class to studying closely the pictures in

the GeograpHy-books 7 Select a picture and give

an exercise upon it.

7. What are the uses of a scrap-book of Geography-pic-

tures? How 1ill such a scrap-book 1 Sources of

pictures?

8. Why are crayon relief maps more important than

outline maps T Draw a relief map of Georgia.

~. How can children come to understand what a map

means? (p. 67, Syllabus '97.) The real object of

map-drawing T The aim at first? S~te how a

claM is to ba drilled in mapdrawing. (p. 73,1S1,l

~bJ11 o1 'J.;



10~
16. State how a ~&ndand-mucllage mal 11 made T !taU
three advantages this form of relief map hae. 11. What i1!J a progressive outline map T How ued f
How ~;Dade, easily and abundantlyT 12. What are production mapa T How madeT Why
preserve and display the beat ma~ of the claae T Their special value T
18. How make a dissected map of the United StatU f
Its uses? 14. How make a production map of Georgia T Why ~
sort to such a device 't 15. How make an outdoor relief map of Georgia T Rea-
eon for having the children mainly do the work T 16. How record weather observations 1 WhyT What
records might be made? 17. What is meant by school correapondencee? How
start them up? 18. How take note of current Geographical news T Men.
tion some important Geographical news recently. 19. How teach statistics? Why ? Size of India? France T
How ascertained ? 20. How should any subject be studied T Reason for
each step? Illustrate. Contrast N. America with 8. America. The Nile and the Amazon, The British and the Japan Isles. 21. What is true of the map questions in most Geography books? What hint does the teacher have? The best way of teaching map questions? 22. When should pupils begin to study topically? The usee of topical study 1 Make out a set of topics for Georgia. 28. The specia:J use of supplementary reading boob in Geography teaching? How use them?
24. State the reasons for teaching by quest1ona instead
of by lectures?
m. 1. Is it trm that Geographical boob an naually too dif.
1icult for the child? 2, Reasons for short lessons T
a. Why must explanatioJI.I be riven In tei'DUI of tlle
child' own experience~ 1

iOo
4. What are the dan~rers of overtaxinr the nrbal mem
ory ln Geojtl"apby ? 1. Define Observation; Imagination; Thinking. How
appeal to each in Geography teaching? 8. When may a teacher properly begin to lecture ?
Why'! 7. Reasons for teaching local and current Geography? 8. What may you raasonably expAct the child to forget
in Geography? Wtoat conclusion foUows? 9. What rAasonable rlemand may pupils make of the
teacher of Ueography ? 10. Wbeo are yon really teaching? When not? 11. Where do young teachere usually fail ? State two
qualities of a good revtew in Ueography. 12. Why do teachers omit map-drawing? What do you
consider proper woo.ieratlon 10 map-drawing T 18. Justify, If it can btl done, the superior value of relief
map-drawing? U. Why have a county and a State map drawn fre
quently? How fro::qotently? 16. What indicatee that a teacher ia making a hobby of
map-drawing? 16. Tht< use>< of Ueographical picturee ? How nee them 1 17. Select a Geographical !Jicture and ~o:ive an exercise. 18. Why buy a profeSBJOnal book on Geojlraphy teaching? 19. What alvant.tl(e lies in being an expert teacher? 20. Why visit ''Old Book Htores" T 21. How do the physical sciencee help ln modern Geog
rapby teaching? How can the teacher be schooled in these? Name thf' physical sciences. 22. What rPward lies in being a competent teacher of Geography 1 Show that this ia so?
23. What r~ dical chan)!'"B are Geographical books undP.r-
going? What neglected ~uujecta are being treated more fully? 24. Penalty for neglecting a thorough preparation? 26. Who i~ gPtting poor pay T High pay? 26. What Report is recommended? Where obtained? No'f.-ProfeSBional r,ourses in common school methode (thiJ cour~~e amonr the othera) can be had at the State Normal School.

HISTORY.
BY J. IIA RRIS CHAPPELL, PRESIDENT GEOBGU NuRMAL AND INDUSTRIAL CoLLEG:s.
PREFAOJJ.
This article has been prepared by the writer at the reo quest ot Georgia's State School Commissioner, Hon. G. R. Glenn. Its object Is to otrer to the teachers or Georgia some suggestions In regard to teaching United States History. It will be confined strictly to United States History and will not embrace any part ot American History outside ot the United States.
History Is one or the most Interesting ot all studies. It Is more Interesting than geography; geography Is a description or the stage on which the drama or human lite Is enacted, but history Is a description or the drama of human Ute Itself. It Is more Interesting than mathematIcs; mathematics appeals to the Intellect only, but hiltory appeals to the whole mind of man. It Is more Inter estlng than psychology; psychology anatomizes and analyzes the human soul and points out Its relation to environment, but history exhibits the human soul as a living creative power In the act ot producing environment. It Ia more Interesting than natural science; natural science deals with physical forces, but history deals with spiritual forces; how the young Napoleon led his army across the Alps Is more Interesting than how glaciers slide down the Alps; how the Puritans established New England Is more Interesting than how corals build Islands In the sea.; how the Boutherne1'11 "wore themselves to a frazzle" ftghtln lor the Loet O&UIIe IJI more tntereat1Dc than how roclul an

101
erumbled to dust by heat and cold, rafn and enow. His tory Is more Interesting than the so-called "nature 1tudles"; the genesis of the American Revolution Is more Interesting than the germination ot a bean stalk; George Washington and Robert E. Lee are more Interesting than bugs and butter1Ues. "The proper study of mankind is man."
A number of other studies pursued In our schoola have a greater practical or strictly utilitarian value than history has, and are more important In the narrow sense, but none of them possess so high a culture value. History, properly presented and properly pursued, is perhaps the most liberalizing of all studies.
To teach history as It should be taught requires on the part of the teacher a ~eat deal of study, thOUiht. and careful preparation.
It is with sincere modesty and without the least dogmatism or cock-sureness that the author otrers to the teachers of Georgia the followlni suggestions:
THE TEACHER'S PREPARATION.
1. Master thoroughly the text-book that your class uses. Know the book so well that you will Dftt have to open It in the presence of the class. You require your pupils to recite the lesson with book closed; surely you should be able to hear the lesson with book closed. Know every lesson Ib the book Incomparably better than the best pupil in the class knows lt.
2. In your own study use a number of text-books besides the one that your class uses. Compare their presentation of each subject with Its presentation by your class textbook:- It Is Important that these parallel texts should be the best books obtainable, and some of them should be ot higher grade than your class book.
3. You should know a great deal more about the subject than is contained in any text-book. Text-books on history are necessarily bald and inadequate; especially Ia thl.l

101
the case With UnJted States Histocy, for the extent, iii;. portance and complexity of the subject make it impossible for it to be presented adequately within the limits of a school text-book. The very best text-book needs to be enlarged, enriched and vitalized by the teacher f~om hla fuller, better and more vivid knowledge of the subject. Therefore, parallel with the study of text-books, read on each subject the best masterpieces that you can procure. Don't waste your time, dissipate your powers, and addle your brain by reading Inferior books on United States History. On thiS subject, as on all others, the world in our day Is flooded with inferior works. Beware of them. Concentrate your intellectual energies on a few of the very best obtainable books. Lists of such books will be given further on in this article.
THE PUPIL'S PREPARATION.
1. Require your pupils to study thoroughly the lesson in the text-book. You can scarcely be too exacting about this. A foolish notion quite commonly prevails among would-be progressive teachers that pupils must not get the lessons in the book. This iaea has been propa.gwted by certain brilliant pedagogical geniuses who preach the doctrine. that the getting of an education should all be a delightful entertainment, a charming pastime, without labor, without pains, and without the faintest suggestion of drudgery. This is one of the fallacies of the sG-called "new education." Believe not in it. "There is no royal road to learning" is a perennial truth.
2. The text-book Is the- very backbone of the pupll's knowledge-the ridge connecting and holding firm all. that comes to him from other sources. The pupil should be re. required to master the body of facts that It contains so thoroughly that he can stand a rigid examination on them. Be should not be encouraged or even permitted to com mit to memory, as a rule, the exact language of the book, but should be able to give in his own language the subltance or essence of everr p&rail'&Ph in the lesson . .

110
signed. Of course, the paragraphs In the book differ greatly In Importance-some may well be entirely omitted, some lightly passed over, while others must be very thorou~hly studied, and a few perhaps committed to memory verba-tim. These differences ot emphasla should, as far as practicable, be Indicated by the teacher In assigning the lesson. The pupil should be Instructed to examine himself before coming to the recitation by asking himself the questions that In most text-books are put at the end of each lesson or at the bottom of the page. This Is "oldfashioned," but It Is nevertheless right and good. Ot course, the teacher must not use these questions In his examination of the class, but must Invent his own questions; this he can readily and skillfully do It be bas himself thoroughly mastered the lesson.
3. The writer well knows that In giving the above ad-
vice In regard to the pupil's use ot the text-book he bas
gone directly counter to the doctrine of some s~called "improved methods," but from very cloee and careful personal observation and experience he Is perfectly convinced that the so-called "Improved methods" In this, as In many other matters, are wholly wrong. It the text-book is to be studied at all, It should be thoroughly studied, and not in the loose, sUp-shod, scatter-brained way that some pr~ &Tesslve teachers advise.
MEMORIZING.
No "Improved method of teaching" can llo away Wfth the necessity of committing to memory certain historical data, such as the names of the presidents In order of succession, with dates of their administration and the political party to which each belonged; the principal wars of the United States, with cause of each concisely expressed, and date; population of the United States at Intervals of about twenty vears, beginning with 1790; the dates of the most Important events In each period, as the founding of the priDclpal one1 of the thirteen colonies, etc., etc. Such data

111
\...
ltl the multiplication table of history, so to speak, and, like that, should be at the tongue's end. Some foolish "progressive" teachers oppose even this limited memorizing work In history, just as they oppose committing the multiplication table or the ten commandments to memoryfor no other reason In the world except that It is "oldfashlon.ed." Pay no heed to the voice of these foolish "progressive" teachers!
It Is also an excellent practice to require puplls to commit to memory verbatim certain salient passages from state documents and from the utterances of great statesmen and orators on vital issues, such as closing passages of Patrick Henry's Immortal speech; peroration of Webster's great Union oration; opening paragraph of the Declaration of Independence; extracts from the Constitution; the abominable Fifteenth Amendment, etc., etc.
THE RECITATION.
1. The recitation Is the teacher's opportunity to enforce, explain, illustrate and amplify the lesson. This he cannot do effectively unless the pupil bas first thoroughly studied the lesson. Therefore, catechise the class closely on the les. son In tbe book, and as this exercise proceeds offer such explanations. Illustrations, corrections and amplifications as in your judgment may best serve to illustrate the lesson, to give it interest and vivacity, and to Impress It upon the minds of your pupils. Be careful, however, not to talk too much. As far as possible, lead your pupils to do tbe talking. By skillful questioning, bring out what they know and what they think on the subject, and then In the most graphic language that you can command give your corrective and Illuminating utterances.
2. The recitation affords a splendld opportunJty for the teacher to lead the pupils Into Impromptu, Informal discusstons ln which they ar6 encouraged to think for them aelves, draw their own conclusions and express their own news on moral and hlatorlcal questlon.a. .ll'or lnst&Dce, &t

the close of the French and Indian war period, betn.g tuN that the class thoroughly knows the facts of the condletlng claims, ask some such question as this: "Which do SIOU think bad the best right to the disputed terrltoey, France or England?" A great many such questions might be suggested. Such discussions, properly conducted, arouse the thinking powers and exercise the reason and judgment of pupils beyond almost any other study pursued In school.
In these exercises (which should always be sprung upon the class unexpectedly) the teacher should very carefully direct and guide the mental processes of the pupils, but at the same time should avoid being dogmatic and dictatoriaL
REVIEWS.
1. At the beginning of each recitation a few moment~ should be devoted to a review of the salient points In the previous lesson, especially when that lesson has any close connection with the lesson In hand. Sometimes this preliminary review should cover several previous lessoua; th11 should be done, as far aa practicable, whenever a number of successive lessons are very vitally and Intimately connected. The review questions should touch only upon vital points.
2. Impromptu topical renews should be given as occasion demands. For instance: Before beginning the lesson on the "Missouri Compromise," review clearly and concisely all previous agitations and decisions of the slavery quest! u in the Constitutional Convention and in Congress. r,Ikewlse whenever In any lesson an Important recurring subject Is treated, give a concise, clearcut topical review of that subject from Its origin up to the lesson In hand. Such vital Issues as the Tarltr, Slavery, States' Rights, etc., etc., should be thus repeatedly reviewed and re-revlewed.
S. About once a fortnight gin oral reviews covering the rround ~one over during the two weelta. Ask ahort, aharp

113
question on the most Important points ancl require prompt, brief answers. Vary the questions calllni tor ahort answers with questions that require the pupil to ifve the whole ot a subject; for Instance: "Give an account of the settlement ot VIrginia from 1607 to 1630."
4. Give written reviews about once a month or lese frequently. A good method Is this: After the class Is assembled assign to each pupil a separate aubject to write upon, selected from the lessons gone over during the month; or It the class be too large tor this plan, select ten or twelve subjects. assigning each of them to a number of pupils; make sure that pupils having the same subject do not sit :within communicating distance of each other. Have the subjects and assignments either written on the blackboard or on a slip ot paper placed on the pupll'l desk before the class assembles. Always notify the clasa at least a day In advance ot a formal review, whether oral or written. Always carefully Inspect the written exercises and return the papers to pupils with mlstakea marked and with other criticisms.
SELECTION.
United States History Is a vast subject, pervaded by complexities and abounding In Important events, Interesting episodes, significant facts, dramatic Incidents and romantic stories. From this enormous mass of material, what to select and what to omit, and how much space to give to each part and subject, is properly the function of the author of the text-book and not the function ot the teacher. Most text-books are very faulty in this particular. In trying to tell too many thln~s they haven't the apace to tell the important things adequately. and they seem to have little regard tor histor:.-al perspective and proportion. This fault In the text-book may be In large measure corrected by a thoughtful and skillful teacher. As to how this way be done. 11owe IUi~elitlona will be of Cered further PD lp Ul!.f liJ"ticle.



114

EMPHASIS.

The subject-matter of history varies greatly in importance. In te:,tching history, therefore, some things should be strongly emphasized, some moderately emphasized, some slightly emphasized, and some not emphasized at all. What to emphasize, how to emphasize, what degrea of emphasis to give, is one of the most important considerations in the teaching of history, and it is a matter in which the teacher must depend mainly upon his own judgment and skill. The text-books can give, or do give, but little help in this direction. The following suggestions are offered with the hope that they may prove helpful:

HISTORICAL EVENTS.
FRUITFUL AND UNFRUITFUL.
1. There are two principal classes of historical events, namely, the fruitful and the unfruitful.
(1) Fruitful Events are those which produce and reproduce other events, and which ha:ve a great subsequent inliuence on the history of the country.
For Example: The introduction of negro slavery into the American Colonies. If that event had not occurred, the subsequent history of the United States would have been far other than it has been, and the social and industrial conditions of the Southern States would be very different from what we see them to-day.
(2) Unfruitful Events are those which do not produce other events and whose influence is transient, having little or no effect on the subsequent history of the country.
For Example: The Salem Witchcraft delusion. That event had no lasting consequences on the history of the country or on the civilization of New England. Things are now just as they would have been if the event had never occurred.
2. Distinguish carefully between fruitful events and unfruitful events, and in your teaching lay the greatest em-

115
phasis on the former class. Trace their influence through subsequent history and lead your pupils to do the same.
3. Guard against devoting too much time and giving too much emphasis to magnificent but fruitless performances, while passing by with little notice less showy but infinitely more important deeds. For it frequently happenP. that a wholly unfruitful historical event, like DeSoto's expedition, is full of splendor and intense dramatic interest, while an event of vast and far-reaching influence, like the invention of the cotton gin, by Eli Whitney, makes its appearance as a modest and obscure deed.
4. It does not follow, however, that all unfruitful events are to be lightly regarded. Many of them possess a, rich historic value. Some of the most brilliant episodes in American history are events which had no important eonsequences, but which, nevertheless, are well worth teaching for the heroism and thrilling human interest they contain; for instance, John Smith and Pocahontas, young Washington's journey through the Wilderness, Walter, Raleigh's Lost Colony, etc. Others which had only a transient or ephemeral effect, are invaluable as illustrations of the spirit of the times in which they occurred; such as the Salem Witchcraft heresy, the John Brown Raid, the Ku Klux Klan in Reconstruction days, etc.
Select the very best and most significant of such stories and, in their proper place and connection, relate them to your pupils with as mush vivid power as you can command, but don't give them undue emphasis by reiterating them or by calling for them in reviews and examinations.
5. To summarize the foregoing:
In regard to every historical event that comes under your consideration ask yourself questions like these:
To which class does this event belong, the fruitful or the unfruitful? Is it worth presenting to my pupils? What is its particular educational value? How much emphasis should I place upon it? By what method can I teach it best?

116
Always place l!peclal emphasis on those events tha.t have a. great subsequent lnfiuence on the history ot the country and the life ot the people. Train your puplla to distinguish such events and to follow them closely In their development and lnfiuences. Iterate and reiterate such events, a.nd let reviews, examinations and written exercises be made up mainly of them.

HISTORICAL FACTS.

JISS:&NTIJ.L J.ND INCID:&NTA.L,

1. lllve17 historical event is composed of two sorts ot

facta, namely, Essential Facts and Incidental Facts.

E88enUal Facts are those that cav"''t be changed without

radically changing the character ot the event itself and its

historical significance.



In.odent!U Fact8 are those that may be changed without

in any wise changln~: the character ot the event or Its his-

torical significance.

For Example: In that noted event, the FoundJng of

Plymouth, the essential facts are these: Plymouth was

founded by the Pilgrims, a band of Puritans who fied

from England on account of persecutions, and came to the

wilds of America in order that they might estabUsh here

institutions in which they and their brother Puritans and

their posterity might enjoy religious and civil Uberty.

They landed, by mere accident, far to the north on a bleak

and sterile part of the American coast. They were a

hardy, heroic, earnest and devout people, . but narrow-

minded, bigotted and fanatical.

Not one of these facts could be altered without changliJ,i

radically the character of the event Itself and its subse-

quent lnfiuence on the history of the country.

The Incidental facts are these:

There were 102 Pilgrims; they came over In a ship

called the Mayftower; they landed at Plymouth on De-

cember 21st, 1620; the landing was made alongside a big

&TLUlte rock; the Arst person to spring from the ship upo11

11'1

"' the rock u a young girl named Mary Ohllton; befott9
landing the Pilgrims drew up and signed, In the cabin of the Mayllower, a constitution or agreement known aa The Compact.

Now, every one ot these facts might be changed without In the least degree atrectlng the character of the event or changing Its lntluence on subsequent history. It there had been 123 Pilgrims, If their ship bad been named the Butterlly, If they had landed on the 19th of January, 1621, It' the landing had been made on a sandy beach, It the first person to spring ashore had been the redoubtable Miles Standish, and It The Oompact had been signed on rerra tfnnia eleven days after the landing, It would have made no difference In the subsequent history of Ne England or ot the United States.

2. DistingUish carefully between the essential facts and the Incidental facts ot every Important historical event that comes under your consideration, and In your teaching put the emphasis on the essential facts. See that your pupils get them very clearly and accurately, and that they understand their significance. Iterate and reiterate them, and let reviews and examinations and written lessons be made up chietly ot them.

3. Incidental facts are, however, not to be sligbted.

They constitute the most attractive and Interesting part of

history. They make "the story" ot history. Without them

history would be a dry and juiceless study. They appeal to

the Imagination and enable the mind to visualize historic

scenes and persons and to realize historic deeds. With

very young pupils the lesson should be made up main-

ly of Incidental facts, and with all pupils there

should be a rich abundance of them; but they should not

be emphasized, they need no emphasis, they are apt to

emphasize themselves rather too much. They are th~t

easlest of all facts to remember. The knowledge of man;r

persons who consider themselves "well up" In history con~

slstll almost entirely In incidental facta.

-...

118
4. In your teaching use an abundance, but not a superabundance, ot Incidental facts: Select them carefully, taking those that are graphic, picturesque and characterIstic, rejecting those that are trivial and without significance. Don't emphasize or put too much stress upon them. Don't use them In reviews and written examinations, except to a limited extent.
HISTORICAL HEROES.
P:&RJ'BCT .A.ND J' AULTY.
1. Every youth should be a hero-worshipper, and most youths are prone to be. One of the most Important uses ot the study ot history Is to give right direction to this renerous tendency and to make it of high educational value. No more powerful formative influence can take bold ot the mind and heart ot youth than a splendid heroic character.
There are two kinds or heroes, the Ideal hero ot fiction and the real hero ot history. For Inspiring, and all educative purposes, the real hero ot history is Incomparably more eiiectlve than the Ideal hero ot fiction. Fortunately, American history furnishes some superb models of real heroes.
2. The qualities that the generous soul or youth most admires In men are a commanding presence, physical courage, great Intellect, strong will, and moral grandeur. The man that possesses all ot these In hlgb degree, is your perteet hero. Such was George Washington and such was Robert E. Lee. Every Southern boy and girl should be taught from earliest childhood to admire, love and revere these two peerless Southerners, par twbi~ fratncm! By book lessons and oral lessons, by song and story, puplls should be made familiar with their pure and lofty character and their lllust;r.ious deeds. In every school In our Soutbland Washington's birthday and Lee's birthday, abould be1 observed wltb suitable exercises, and rreat ...na abould be taken to make tbeae occulona lm-

119

presslve and edifying. The most powerful lesson

that can possibly be given on pure and exalted

patriotism and unselfish devotion to duty Is the close

study of the life of George Washington. The most

splendid Illustration of perfect and lofty manhood that can

possibly be presented to the mind of youth is furnished In

the life of Robert E. Lee. Deep, lasting, and of priceless

value will be the benefit that you wlll confer upon your

puplls If you will make them well acquainted with the

character, private life and publlc deeds of these two great

men. No other history lesson can be worth as much to

them.

3. There are perfect heroes and there are faulty heroes.

Compare DeSoto and LaSalle, the two greatest American

explorers-note the cruelty, avarice and selfish ambition

of the former, and the kind-heartedness and disinterested

motives of the latter. Compare hero Sherman, with his

motto, "War is hell," devastlng with fire and rapine the

defenceless land through which he marched, with hero

Lee requiring his soldiers to respect with the utmost

strictness all private property in the enemy's country.

Compare that great rich Admiral having his head turned

with extravagant ovations and eagerly snatching at prof-

fered house and lot, with that great poverty-stricken Gen-

eral shunning all publicity and, though fortunes were laid

at his feet, refusing to accept one penny except what he

earned by the sweat of his own brow. Compare Benedict

Arnold, brave, able, but In moral character utterly In-

famous, selllng his country for a mess of pottage, with

young Andre, giving his life without a murmur for the

British cause.

Lead your pupils to note for themselves these llkenesse1

and differences and these nice distinctions between heroes.

Lead them to observe that perfect moral rectitude Is the

quality of first consideration in the hero, and that no man

Ia truly great who lacks it. Lead them to observe that a

certain mora~ gramdeur has been the crowning gloQ" of all

the earth's greatest heroes.

(,

120
4. t>on-t weaken the talth ot your pupils In human nature by emphasizing too much the selfishness and rascality of men In high public positions. Don't let them get the Idea (which too commonly prevails) that all or nearly all public men are self-seeking demagogues, moved only by personal ambition, for this Is not true. Show them the American demagogue, and hesitate not to give them concrete Illustrations, of which you can find a great abundance; but put the greater emphasis on the American patrW>t, of which there are many shining examples. Show your puplls that personal ambition and patriotism are not Incompatible with each other, and that most men In public Ute are governed by this mixed motive, but that whenever the former prevails over the latter It Indicates a scoundrel. Show that a man may be ardently and unselfishly devoted to what he conceives to be a right cause and yet be a very bad man, like the diabolical fanatic, Thad Stevens; and on the other hand show that a strenuous political partisan may be a true patriot and a generous-hearted, jul!lt-mlnded man, like Abraham Lincoln.
Show that our people are constantly exacting a higher and higher standard of morals In men In public otnce, and that the ecoundrel, the drunkard and the libertine, however splendid his talents, stands little chance ot preferment by the votes ot the American people. Show them that no President of the United States bas ever been In the slightest degree tainted with dishonor, either in hit private or in his public lite.
HISTORICAL PERIODS.
LOGICAL AND CHRONOLOGICAL,
In the Ute ot every nation there Is apt to be at all times lome one strong dominant feeling which causes the principal public acts ot the people and produces the principal historic events.
For Instance: From 1765 to 1783 the dominant feeling ID America wu desire tor Independence and civil liberty;

121

from 1854 to 1861 the dominant feeling was sectional animosity.
Logically, an historical period includes all of the principal events produced by any given dominant feeling. Chronologically, an historical period Includes the time during which any given dominant feeling holds sway or remains dominant.
It Is Impossible to make the chronological period coincide exactly with the logical period, because It Is Impossible to say precisely when any popular feeling begins to dominate or when It ceases to dominate; but these dates may be approximated.

PRINCIP.A.L PERIODS.

In the history of the United States there have been nine

principal periods; that is to say, there have been nine dom-

inant popular feeling& which in succession have held sway

and caused the principal historic events.

Below we give these nine periods and underneath each

period the dominant feeling that belongs to it:

1. Discovery and Exploration.

(Love of Enterprise and .Adventure.)

2. Settlement and Colonization.

(Desire for Freedom and Fair Opportunity.)

8. The Revolution.

(Desire for Independence and Civil Liberty.)

4. Organization of the Union.

(Instinct of Self-preservation.)

5. Development of the Nation.

(Love of country, or patriotism.)

6. Sectionalism and Secession.

(Bitter Disagreement Between North and South.)

'l. Civil War.

(Hostility Between North and South.)

8. Reconstruction.

(Northern Malice and Southern adlpatloll.)

e. The Re-united Nation.



(Desire for Wealth and H&terlal Denlopmellt; CoJDo

merc1allamj
I

122

WHAT TO EMPHASIZJII.
In the following pages we give a brief syllabus of ~hat we conceive to be the most Important events In each historical period. They do not Include, of course, nearly all the things that should be learned, but only those things that seem most vital and upon which therefore the teacher should put the strongest emphasis and the pupil the most careful study. Of these eminently Important things those that are pre-eminently Important are ind4cated ~ taZic.l.

L DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION.

1492-1681.

o (LOV111

BNTBRPRISB AND A.DVBNTURB.)

1. Columbus's first voyage and discoveries made. DiscoTery of Florida by Ponce de Leon. DeSoto's expedition.
2. TM Cabota'8 d.i8ooverie8 and. ea;plorat~. 8. Cartier's e:cplorati<ms. Champlain's expeditions. LaSaZle'8 e:Dploration of tM MuBissippi. Ri.v61'. French SettZe-
'tM'ntB cuut forts.
4:. Hudson'a discovery and exploration of the Hudson river.

SUMMARY.
State accurately and trace carefully on map discoveries and explorations made by Spanish, French, English and Dutch In territory now occupied by United States, giving dates. Sta.te what territorv each na.Ucm olcime4 em aooount of these &i.!roooriu.
DATES TO BE MEMORIZED.
Discovery of America by Columbus, October 12, H92. The Cabot's expeditions, 1497-98.
Ponce de Leon'a diacovery ot Florid-, 1~1a.

123
Oartler't! explorations, 1534-35. Champlain's expeditions and settlements, 1608-15. Hudson's exploration of the Hudson river, 1609. LaSalle's exploration or the MIJSslsslppi, 1681.
II. SETTLEMENT AND COLONIZATION.
1607-1763.
(DESIRE J'OR J'R:S:li:DOH AND J'AIR OPPORTUNITY.)
1. Sir Walter Raleigh's !utile attempts. 2. VIrginia-Settlement or Jamestown and account or the colony tor first five years. Description or Indians, their char acter, appearance, mode ot lite. Climate and soil. Cult! vatlon or tobacco. Ooming of fM "cavaliera;" ther character; their dominance. Introduction of Afriotm atoveru. Political, educational, religious and commercial condition and Institutions In 1754. Population. Manners and customs. 3. Massachusetts.-Voyage or the Mayflower and settle ment ot Plymouth. Settlement ot Salem and Boston. Character ot the Puritans, their piety and heroism; their rnu[/Otrv, tvr!Mitntl and f(lJII(ltici.ml ~mustratea). 4. Founding and settlement ot Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Hampshire, Vermont, and Maine. 5. Climate and soil or New England. Occupations or the people. Puritan dominance, their Intolerance and tyranny. Thetr part in the Afrlcan alave ~rv;ul.e. Their manners and customs. 6. New York.-Hudson't! discovery (1609). Settlements by the Dutch. New Netherlands and New Amsterdam under the Dutch. Conquest by English in 1664. Effect on growth and development ot the colony. Settlement ot New Jersey. 7. Maryland.-Settlement by the Cathollcs under Lord Baltimore. Act ot Toleration. Clayborne's Rebellion. Comlnr ot Pnrltan1, their lnrratltude and bad talth. Com-

In; ot ituguenots. instabllshment ot Protestant Episcopal
Church. Condition of colony and character of people in 1760.
8. Pennsylvania.-Settlement by Penn and the Quakers. Their dealings with the Indians. Rapid growth and great prosperity of the colony-reasons. ln,iratltude of the colonists. Settlement of Delaware.
9. The Carollnas.-Settlement by VIrginia "Squatters" along North Caroilna coast. The Lord Proprietors. Clarendon and Albemarle colonies-eharacter of the emigrants. The "Grand Model" government. Settlement of Charleston. Coming ot the Huguenots; their character and Influence. Immigration of Virginians. Separation Into .North and South Carolina. Climate and soil. Cultivation of rice and Indigo. Pine lumber and turpentine. Prosperity. Character, manners, and customs of the people. 10. Georgla.-Settlement by Oglethorpe. Slow growth ot colony-reason. Introduction of slavery and rum; prosperity. Immigration. of Virqi:niam. Population and general condition of colony In 1760. 11. Colonial Government.-The three types at the close ot the Revolutionary period; (a) Royal Province. (b) Proprietary. (c) Charter. Define each of the8e and name t'M oo!onU/11 livinq under each at t'M clolle of the Oolonial Perwa. 12. French and Indian War.-Contllctlng claims of French and Engllsh,-the territory In dispute, on what each nation based Its claim, circumstance that brought about the tlrat colllslon. Washington's mission. Washington's defeat at Great Meadows. Braddock's defeat. Siege and capture or Quebec by the English. End of the war. Treaty
ot Peace and ruult of tM war.
SUMMARY.
Name the 13 original colonies and state when, where and by whom each was rounded. What cUr.811 or cla~~!e.. of poop~ beoame dominant and gttve tone to thd civilization of Ut.e New England oo'loMe8, (Massachusetts, Connecticut, Jlhode leland, Vermont and New Hampshire.) Wool cUr.8

126
,.. o'lau& of P"!>P~ M.oame domvnant amd (}avt: tone to tM
cnvili;ro,tLo.n ot the S&utlw:rn oolon4u 1 (VIrginia, the Caro-
linas, Maryland and IJeorgla). What class or classes ot people became dominant and gave tone to the civilization ot the Middle colonles1 tNew York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Delaware). Conuast the climate and soil ot New England with that of the Southern colonies. Compare the character, culture, the dominant ldeaa, the occupations and the modes of life of the people ot these two sections. Define the three types of colonial government and name the colonlea Jiving under each at the close ot the period. State the cause ot the French and Indian war and the reault ot the war.
DATES TO BE MEMORIZED.
Founding ot VIrginia, Massachusetts, New York, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Carolina and Georgia. Introduction ot African slavery. First Immigration of Royalists Into Vir ~Pnla and ot the Huguenots Into South Carolina. Founding ot Harvard College and of William and Mary College. Es tabHshment ot the first printing press. The beglnlng and the end ot the French and Indian war.
IIL THE REVOLUTION. (17651783).
{DESIRE J'OB INDEPENDENCE AND CIVIL LmERTY.)
lat. Prellmtnary.-Political relation ot the colonies to England. Loyalty ot the colonies to England. England's Inconsiderate and oppressive treatment ot the colonies aa illustrated by the revokmg ot charters, appointment ot ty rannlcal governors, the Navigation Act, Writ ot Assistance, Restriction on Manutacturera. Population and resourcea ot colonie in 1765.
2d. Causes ot the Revolution.-Tlie Stamp .A.ct. How r.ceived by the colonists. Protests ot Samuel Adams an4 Patrick Henry. Repeal ot the Act. Tax on teL "B01tolt f'tJCJ ParlJI." Boston Port B111~ iraJ; Co~~!!e~~ '?Onfl',.... ~~ ot~ tell.

126
Sd. Campalll.'ns and Rattles of th~ Revolutlon.-Battles ot Lexington and Rnnker Hill. Gt>neral account of Washington's Campaigns from Battlt> of Long Island. August 22, 1776, to Valley Forge, wlntpr (Decembt>r. 1777). General account of Burgoyne's Campaign. Desperate condition of American cause (1777). Wn.qhi ngto11'8 illfluf'nce. The French Alliance. War In the South. GPneral account of conquest of Georgia and Carolina. Guerilla Warfare In the South. Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown and end of the War. Sketch of some of the greatest heroes of the Revolution.
4th. Politics of the Revolutlon:1. The Constitutional Congresses-thetr ~era am4 1.'011-
n itutiollal po8iti0'718.
2. Growth of the desire for separation from England. 3. Declaration of Independence-full acoouf!-t of. 4:. Weakness and Unwisdom of the war-time Congresaea. 5. Finances of the Revolutionary war. 6. Tories. 7. Full account of the French Alliance. 8. The Treat;y of Peace.
SUMMARY.
State clearly and concisely: ' The polftlcal, or govern mental relations between American colonies and England. Feeling of colonies towards the "Mother Country" at close of French and Indian war (love and loyalty). England's Inconsiderate and oppressive treatment of the colonies prior. to the Stamp Act. History of the Stamp Act and subsequent tax measures. England's defense of right to tax; Colonle8' protest against. Colonies open revolt In "Boston Tea Party," etc. England's punishment of the otrenders. Rapid growth of Insurrectionary spirit among the colonIsts-how inspired, propagated, and spread. Outbreak of the war. Genesia and de-velopment of the Declaration of l>n~endence., Length and result of the war. Other thlnp
. besides American valor that contributed to the defeat of
~ llr1tllh. Wa.!Mngto<lr--fl.rn ion UICIIT.

127
DATES TO BE MEMORIZED.
Stamp Act, Boston Tea Party, First Continental Con cress. Battles of Lexln~rton and Bunker Hill. Declaration of Independence, Burgoyne's Surrender, Washln~rton at Valley Forge, Capture of Savannah by British, Battle of Guilford Court-house, Surrender of Corwallls, Treaty of Peace.
IV. ORGANIZATION OF THE UNION,
(INSTINCT OF SELPPRESEBVATION.)
1. Political relation of the colonies to each other prior to the Revolution. Political relations during and Immediately after the Revolution. Tlu! A.rUclu ot Orm~a.tion--full account of.
2. Deplorable condition of the country at the close of the war-debts and poverty; discontent and Insurrectionary spirit of the army; discord among the States; weakness of the government under Articles of Confederation.
S. The Annapolis Convention. 4. The Philadelphia., or OoMtitutiona~ O~ln of; per.wnnel. Debata on: (a) Tlu! con~rol and regulation of oom100r0e. (b) Tlu! &lave tralk. (c) Ma>MZer in wMcA ~lch Srote &1wuld be repruente4 in Oongru&. (d) TM ratio of repruentative& in slave populatioM-1wto ~ch of thue quuUom toa& &ettled. 5. Submission of the Constitution to the people; popular discussion ot; differences of opinion; State 801)(!}tt"eigntv id~a; "The Federalist." Ratification. 6. Tlu! Con&titutirm a compact between &overeign State&. 7. Explanation of form ot rovernment under the Constitution. 8. Election of Georre Washington &II ftnt president of the United States.
SUMMARY.
Gin a clear, concise statement of: Condition of countrt
,Jt clo~e p[. ~evQlQtlo"; iua4equac1 ot 4rt1clel ot CoDte4

128
eratlon; Annapolis Convention; Constitutional ConventionIts work. Principal provisions of Constitution. Ratification of by the States. Different Interpretations of. State Soverela:nty Idea. Plan of a:overnment under the Constitution. First presidental election.
DATES TO BE MEMORIZED.
Annapolis Convention, Colurtit~tional Convention, Flnt presidential election.
V. DEVELOPHE~T OF THE NATION, 1789, 1853.
(LOVE OF COUNTRY, OB PATBIOTIS.ll,)
1. Organization of the government under the constltutloa. Extent. population, wealth, natural resources of the United States at this time. Principal cities. Distribution ot population. State of education and religion.
2. Washington's Admlnlstratlon.-Hamllton' dnancl&l plan; the first taritr and revenue tax; trouble with France (Genet); anti-alavery petltion-/ww ~t with ~ OO#{IJ"eU; Invention of cotton gin and Its tar-rf''4.rhing e.trects; surrender ot Land Claims by Virginia and othes States-the Northwest Territory. Hamilton and Jefrerson; their ditrer lng views. First political parties-Feder&llsts and Anti Federalists. John Adams elected president.
S. Adams's Admlnistratlon.-Alien and Sedition lawspassed and repealed. Unpopularity of administration. Capital removed to Washington. Death ot George Wash lngton--Bketch of hi& chatracter. Presidential election; triumph ot Anti-Federalists-political meaning.
4. Jetrerson's A.dministration.-The Louisiana Purchase-full account ot. The Embargo Act; N~ Et't{l!ana'l Nullift-
oa.tron; New EnqUlln4'8 throeatooed leceBII'iml.. Threatened war
with England. Madison elected president-political mean lng. Sketch of Thomaa Jetrerson-hia character, deeds, a.nd political doctrines.
Hadison'a Admlnhrtratlon.-War of 1812-brlet account
tf lf~ Mllf~'f re~~-.I io f'Q11lltb ~9op1, etc,, ~

129
PrulUtf.oaUM. Netb l!Jnutana Hartford Clonventloti---ctalnu right of eoou!on and threatens secession. Unanlmoue .
election of Monroe for president. 5. Monroe's Adminlstratlon.-"Era of good feeling." Dis-
ippearance of the Federalist party. Expansion of the Union-number of States, total population, wealth and reiource, Industrial development, educational conditions. trowth of patriotism. The Monroe doctrine. Preservation Of balance between slave and free States. TluJ Jlluoiui O~fuU acoount of. Election of John Quincy Adams-political meaning.
6. John Quincy Adams's A.dmlnlstratlon.-High Pro~ Tarl.ff-di.verH i.~t and view~ of North and South. Acquisition of territory b;y treaty with Creek Indians. Construction of first railway lines. Election of Andrew Jackson-political meaning.
7. Jackson's Admlnlstratlon.-Establlshment of the "Spoils System" In the distribution of offices. Higher Protective Tarltr. S&Uth Oarob'116'1 Nulltflcattolt-full acOOtmt. Clay's Tarltr Compromise. Abolitionut agitat!oMGarrlson and Phillips. Great material growth and prosperity. Rise of the Whig party-Its doctrines. Sketch of character of Andrew Jackson. Election of Van Buren.
8. Van Buren's A.dmlnlstralon.-Great financial panic. Establishment of the Sub-Treasury System-full explanation of. Presidential election-political meaning of.
9. Tyler's Admlnlstratlon.-Death of President Harrison. Tyler's split with the Whigs. Webster-Ashburton Treat;y. Expulsion of the Mormons. Invention of the electric telegraph. Polk elected president.
10. Polk's A.dmlnlstratlon.-Growlng suspicion and bad feeling between slave and free States; strugg'te to pruervfJ bal.ance of power between the t100 (pu.relv poliUool, oot moral.) Admission of Texas to the Union-political meaning of. (Short account of previous hlstoty of Texas.) Brief aew count;y of Mexican war. The presidential election. Tht Free Soli Part7.

11. Administration of Taylor (and Ffiimore).-Rapfd aetJ
tlement of California by gold seekers. Admission of California-bitter ~ootional conf!rover871 ~}vet". Clay's "Omnibus Bill." Rapid Increase of sectional antagonism. Election of Franklin, Pierce as president.
SUMMARY.
Name the presidents In order with political party to which each belonged and length of administration of each, and mention most important events of each administration. State political doctrines of Federalists and Anti-FederalIsts; Democrats and Whigs; Free Soldiers. Give a summary of most Important Tarltr Legislation-diverse views of North and South In regard to. Concise account of the slavery (purely political) controversies; Missouri Compromise, Wilmot Proviso, Admission of Texas, Admission of California, Omnibus Bill. Sketch expansion of the Union, rapid growth In material prosperity. Universal patriotism or love of the Union. Growth of sectional antagonism.
DATES TO BE MEMORIZED.
Period of each president's administration. Invention of the cotton gin. Louisiana Purchase. Embargo Act. Battle of New Otleans. Missouri Compromise. New England'& Nullification and secession threat. First Protective Tariff. South Carolina Nullification. Establishment of Sub-Treas ary. Mexican War. Wilmot's Proviso. "Omnibus Bill."
VI. SECTIONALISM AND SECESSION, 1853-1861.
(BITTER DISAGRE"RMENT BETWEEN NORTR AND SOUTH.)
1. Pierce's Administration-The Kansas-Nebraska BIIJ and struggle-full account of. Nullifl,ration of Fuutive S'UJJv(J Law by NMt1wrn St>ate.ll. Increased bitterness between North and South.
2. Buchanan's Admlnlstratlon.-Dred Scott decision. John Brown Rald-tts glorification by Northern press. pulpit, and platform. Formation of Republlcan party-elements

lS1

et which It was composed. Split in Democratic party.
Election of Lincoln and overwhelming triumph of Republicans-what it n!RMIJ fo:r tM Sooth.
3. Secesslon.-"State S<Wereign.tv" fkc~rme-caretull4f w p'/.a:in. Secession of Southern States-reasons for. SecesBion t1>0t wnconstitutiml4l; the right ropeatedl11 claimed btl No:rthern
States. The Oon.8titutiAJn always strictly observed b11 the South, frequently violated by Northern States, and openly defied by Republican leaders. Secession opposed by strong min-
ority In the South, but whollv on. tJte_grownd ot ft8 in.~
MOJ,I.

SUMM.A.RY.

A concise history of negro slavery fn Amerfca:-its

adoption by all of the colonies; first protest against came

from the South. New EnQl.and Us molft ardent adtvooate and

defender; N01"thern Sfiatea cztng to it cu long l8 it vavs them;

dies a natural death in the North; obtains a permanent

lodgment In the South and becomes a vital and lne.'l:tricable

part of Its civilization; ethnological place of the negro;

Southern slavery cwiUzed. and Ohri.!ti;a;niood him, infl:nitdr

ameUomted hli.! conditiAJn in every way, and made him do th~

only good toork that hi:J raoe has m-er done fin the too.rld.

Kindly relations between master and slave. Northern

abolition fanatics assail the Institution of slavery with

great bitterness and Injustice, nullify acts of Congress, defy

the Constitution, and stir up discord between North and

South. Statement of the several agitations of the slavery

question in Congress, showing that these controversies were

only political struggles to preserve balance of power be-

tween slave and free States, and did not concern the moral

aspects of slavery. Northern politicians combine with

Northern abolitionists to form the Republican party, wtilch

gains complete control of the country. Southern States

being at the mercy of this anti-Southern party exercise

!Mat tlw1J bel.WP~J to tie tluM "IOWJN)ign right'' and secede from

tbe UDion. '

, _)

182

DATES TO BE MElWRIZl!lD.
Plll!leage ot Kansas-Nebraskan Bill; Buchanan's election: Dred Scott decision; John Brown Raid; Lincoln's election; Secession o! first four Southern States.

VII. CIVIL WAR, 1861-18~.

(HOSTILITY BKTWEEN NORTH AND SOUTH.)

1. Much opposition In the North to coercion o! the seceded States. Lincoln's war proclamation. The Fort Sumter affair. A careful comparison o! the population, wealth, resources, strength, and military advantages o! the North and the South at the beginning or the war. OpenIng scenes o! the war.

2. Campaigns o! the War.-A clear, general account or the great Eastern Campaigns !rom battle o! Bull Run to Appomattox: surrender, including description o! battles of Bull Run, Seven days around Richmond, Second Manassas, Sharpsburg, Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, Gettysburg, Appomattox. General account of the great Western campaigns from Fort Donelson to Johnston's surrender, in eluding desc1iptlon ot battles of Fort Donelson, Shiloh, Chickamauga, Missionary Ridge, Atlanta, Sherman's marh through Georgia and Carolina.

S. Naval Warfare.-The blockade-ita effects on the

South. Overwhelming superiority ot the Northern Navy.

Confederate privateer, "The Alabama."

4. War Heroes.-Sketch of Robert E. Lee and Stonewall

Jackson and or the Confederate women's devotion and

heroism.

5. Result of the War.-Defeat ot the South~auses. A ,

l'areful comparison of the size and material equipment of

the Northern and the Southern armies during the war; and

of the comparative sufferings of the people, North and

South. Deplorable condition o! the South at the cloae of

the war.

.(

133

SUMMARY.

The following is a concise statement ot the whole mat :er of the Civil War:

From perfectly natural causes there grew up in the Union, side by side, two distinct and irreconcilable clviliza

tlon, namely:

1

The cold climate, manufacturing, Puritan dominated, tree

labor, purely white civilization of the North, and the warm

climate, agricultural, Cavalier dominated, slave labor, negro permeated civilization of the South. In some im-

portant respects the Interests of these two civilizations

were 8.Jl,tagonistic, and !or this reason each civilization be-

came suspicious of the other, and there arose between them a strenuous political struggle to preserve the balance of

power. The Northern civilization grew to be physically much the stron:ger of the two, and became very aggressive

In Its attacks upon a certain peculiar and vital institution ot the Southern civilization. Aggravated by Northern fan-

atic!! and Southern extremists, the difference between the

two civilizations grew more and more irreconcilable, and

bitter feeling arose between Not'th and South.

The Southern States, with an earnest desire to settle the trouble, asserted the right of State Sovereignty, and withdrew from the Union; in taking this step they may have acted rashly and unwisely, but they broke no law, they

violated no faith, they committed no crime, they did no moral wrong. The Northern States, denying the right of State Sovereignty, and sincerely believing it to be their

duty to preserve the Union at any cost, determined to force the Southern States back into the Union; for this pu.rpoae

they got up vast hostile armies, and with fire llnd sword Invaded the Southland. The Southern people <;inrply arose in the majesty of their manhood to repel thla Invasion. JA

dreadful war ensued, during which the armiel!! of boih sec

tiomfought with great valor and from pure patriotism. The odds against the South w~.-e overwhelming, but !ot. tour years she maintained the unequal contest with a suit~' }le,riQ"~' apd ~en we~~ 49wn 1n lj.t;~r 4~f~!l.

134
VIII. RECONSTRUCTION, 1865-1870.
(NORTHERN JlALICJ: AND SOUTHERN INDIGNATION.)
1. Lincoln's generous Ideas of reconstruction. Lincoln's assassination-sketch of his character. President Johnson's plan of reconstruction; his proclamation; action of t"M Southern States. Congress rejects Johnson's plan; passes Fourteenth an.d Fifteenth Amendments, which Southern States refuse to accept. Southern State put under military despotism. Rule of the "Carpet-baggers." "Black and tan" conventions. "Freedman's Bureau." ~nsult!l and outrages heaped upon the South. Southern indignation. Ku Klux Klan-Its good work and Its iniquities. The Fifteenth Amendment-how finally forced upon the Southern people; t"M abomitwbUI iniquit11 of t"M m&Uwre.
SUMMARY.
The Northerners had, from a high sense of duty, fought heroically for the preservation of the Union, which they earnestly beUeooa to be a righteous cause. The Southerners had, from the fundamental Instincts of manhood, fought heroically to drive from their country and their homes an army of hostile Invaders, which unquestinably was a righteous cause. The Southerners overwhelmed by vastly supe1"1or numbers, were utterly defeated, and at the mercy of their conquerors. The noble-hearted President, Lincoln, who undoubtedly would have dealt generously with them, was dead. The fair-minded President, Johnson, otTered them terms that were somewhat harsh but not unjust, and which were readily accepted by the Southern States; but the United States Congress repudiated the!le terms ang insiste<J upon others that were otdf'ageous atul debasi-ng. 'In BP.It!l 0'! the etTorts an.d appeals of President Johnson and many other magnanimous Northerners, both in and out of Congress, the United States Government, after keeping th~ tytllel-11 Stt!ll' fq-,: ~ve 7e~ 'IJ~C}er ttle ~~~f~P"Il!l mllltf!.fT

135

<despotism and "carpet-bag" government, forced upon them the Fifteenth Amendment, which action has rightly been calletl the worst crime ~er attempt~tl agaim.BI cvUzaUon In cthe .blstory of the world

DATES TO BE MEMORIZED.

Johnson's Proclamation, Meeting of Congre11; Paaalng of Fourteenth and Fitteenth A.mendmenta, ReadmiHion ot Seceded States In Order.

IX. THE REUNITED NATION. 187G-1000.J

(DESIRE FOR WEALTH AND KATERU.L DJ:VBLOPJONT, COK

KEROI ALISJf.)

1. Grant's A.dmlnlstratlon.-Contlnuance of Carpet-bag

rovernment In Southern Statea. Georr;la under ca.rpet-bar-

ger Bulloch's admlnlstratlon-resubjected to Military RUltl1

Involved In debt by Bulloch's shameful extravagance; the

fraudulent bonds. The Washington Treaty. War wltb the Hodoc Indians. Presidential campaign ot 1876; the dis

puted election. The "I to 7" Electoral Commlsaloll-H:fl

Geclalon.

2. Hay's A.dmlnlstratfoL-The President'& "Pe~e PoUcr."

Disappearance ot "Carpet.barrera" trom the SolJtb. CJYJI

Bervlce Reform.

8. Garfield (and A.rthrlr's) A.dministra.tlon.-A.naulna

tlon ot Garfield-great Industrial prosperity. S.pld rece eration ot the South. Decrealle of sectional anlmoalq.

Prohibition ot Chinese lm.~nirr~tton. PresldeJiltl,aJ electlo.Jlo,-:

Its political slgntlcance.

~. Cleveland' A(\minfstratlon.-'l11J~ 'li'&;~t.i ~11~1rt,i~~-(qtJ\ account of.

IS. Harrison's A.dmlnlstratlon.-The HcKinle~ Tart 1&;~.

tully explained.

6. Cleveland's (second) A.dmlnistratloQ.-Tbe People' (or

Third) Party-its doctrines. "Hard ttmes,"-alleced

causes. The Tarllr agaln-Wllson law. "Free coinage of

allver 16 to 1 doctrllle."--4:arefull1 eJ;plalnecl. Pni}.C\I.Jl~

~

0

138
T. McKinley's Admlnistrat!on.-The Spanish-Amerlcu war-full and careful account of. Tile Philippine warconcise and careful account of. Great material prosperity. The "Boxer War" In China-United States relation to. "Trusts,"-eareful explanation of. "lmperianism" (socalled)-explalned. Census of 1900--principal statistics of. Presidential election. The rtill unbroken "Soti.d SoutN'rtJil&O'n oorv oau-etuUv e<Vpkl4nea. How the Southern people have In a measure circumvented the infamous Fifteectb .A.mendment.
DATES TO BE MEMORIZED.
Terms of Grant, Hayes, Arthur, Oleveland, Harrison and McKinley. Blowing up of "The :Ualn." United State!' Declaration ot War. Battles of Manilla Harbor, San Juan. Destruction of Cervera's fleet. Signing of Treaty of Peace at Paris. Beginning of Flllpino War (February 5, 1899).
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
The following books are especially recommended to students and teachers ot United States Histo~y:
TEXT-BOOKS.
Jones's "History of the United States"; Eggleston's "History of the United States;" Chambers's "Higher History of the United States;" Cooper's "Our Country;" Mary Sheldon Barnes's "Studies In American History;" Montgomery's "Leading Facts of American History;" Lee's Hi&- . tory of United States.
SPECIAL BOOKS FOR TEACHERS.
washington Irving's "Columbus;" Parkman's "Pioneers of France;" Bryant's Popular History:" Henry Cabot Lodge's "Short History of the English Colonies in America;" Henry Cabot Lodge's "Story of the RevoluijQn;" Hp11h~'a "Lite Gt W!iMhhlJton;" Spar~' "I4te ~

187
Washington;" Woodrow Wilson's "Lite ot Washington;" Goldwin Smith's "Outline ot .United State Political HIB
tory;" Greeley's "American Conflict;" Davis's "Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government;" Stephens's "Constltutional View of War Between the States;" J. Li M. Curry's "The South;" Pollard's "Lost Cause;" S. S. Cox's "Three Decades of Federal Legislation;" Long's "Memoirs of Robt. E. Lee;" "Fitz Hugh Lee's "Life of R. E. Lee;" Page's "Red Rock;" Dabney's "Life or Stonewall Jackson."
BOOKS ON METHODS.
"Guide to the Study of American History," by Channing and Hart; G. S. Hall's "Methods of Teaching History:"
SPECIAL BOOKS FOR PUPILS.
Pratt's "American History Stories;" Pratt's "Columbus;" Coffin's "Old Times In the Colonies;" "Washington and hill Country" (Ginn. & Co.); Scudder's "George Waooington;" Abbott's "Paul Jones;" John Esten Cook's "Hilt to Hilt;" "Wearing of the Gray," "Life of Stonewall Jackson;" Fltz
Hugh Lee's "lAte of R. E. Lee;" Thomas Nelson Page's
"Among the Camps;" "Red Rock;" W. A. Caruther's Cava-
liers or Virginia." Knights of the Golden Horse Sh~;"
Mr!l. L. M. Child's "Boston Before the Revolution;" Rich ard Oarvel."

I

ARITHMETIC.
By G. G. BOND, ATHENS, GA.
(Copyrighted.)
It is not the design of this paper to be a general treatise on the subject of Arithmetic. Its purpose is, (1) to point out the ground which every teacher in the common schools of the State is expected to cover, and (2) to indicate some good form for the figure process of each kind of operation. Of course it is expected, in every case, that the teacher will develop the form inductively, supplying all needed stimulus in the shape of question and explanation. There are no certain infallible forms, not even the ones herein illustra ted. In fact they are submitted more in the hope that they will suggest other better ones than that they will serve as models. But this one point is strenuously urged: when once a rational form lias been adopted, see to it that the ratiocination of every pupil clothe itself in this garb until it becomes so easy fitting that it can be donned and doffed at will. When this has been done, let the teacher drill his class in any short-cut process he can lay his hands on. The crazy-quit blackboard work to be seen almost any day in many of the schools of Georgia stands as a per petual reminder to the intelligent pbserver that Heaven's first law is a dead letter in that school. In fact in some schools every pupil seems to be a law unto himself in so far as the form of his arithmetic work is concerned. The form work is simply the mathematical sign language of the problem, the expression of the mathematical thought, and the only way to judge the quality of the thought is by its expression. If the expression 'is defective the inference is that the thought must be defective also, and the only way to secure precise logical thought is to insist on good expression. No attempt has been made to originate new methods. Suggestions have been received from both books

140
aa4 teachers. Credit 11 due Mr. E. C. Branson for the ~eneral scheme of Primary Number work, and espec\ally for the use of the story, and seat work devices, though the detalls are original.
A.a to the ground to be covered, 1t is plain that the beginner must be taught how to perform all the operations with the ten digits beginning as low as necessary, with ' and 1ometimes with even 3 and 2. He must be taught how to make figures, the use of the signs, formal Addition, Including the table, Subtraction, Multipllcation, Including of course the table, and Division. He must be taught_the four fundamental rules in each of the following subjects: Fractions, Decimals, and Compound Quantities. He must be taught the ditrerent cases in Percentage, Interest and Proportion. Some of these subjects are so simple that they will receive very Httle attention in this paper, while those tbaJt usually give the teacher the greaJtest troulble will reeetve the fullest treatment. The teacher who can teach all the above mentioned subjects in such a manner as to 1tand the test of enlightened criticism may justly claim to be a good teacher of arithmetic.
It has been the aim, In presenting each new operation, to 111ustrate a teaching unit under that head. The teacher who knows how to teach one addition fact ought to be able to teach a thousand. There has ever been present a conscious purpose to show the teachers of the State, 1f possible, how to cause another to know something he did not know before without tell1ng him, in other word11 to aiscover facts and Ideas. The mechanical side of thtr teaching 11 expressed In the four following propositions:
1. Present an 1llustration. %. Ellett the facts wanted by means of questions. 3. Arrange the facts in the desired form.
' Give the term. '1)ba Ia bT ~ ca.lll ~ucUn teacl!Kttf

141

l'..lltT I.

- When the aixyear-old child timidly preaents himself before the teacher, a candidate for initiation into the mysteries of Number, the first question that confronts the teacher is, How to begin1 He must treat the beginner a11 he would any other pupil applying for admission; he must examine him to ascertain what he already knows. Instruction rpust begin at this point. Beginners usually know 2, but it wlll be necessary to test ll. Two or three auggestions are offered:
1. Ask the pupil to count 3. 2. Ask 'him tJo ola.p hds lhanda 3 timet.. 3. Show him 3 lines on the board. Erase and ask him to make the same number. -4. Require him to name 3 animals. [f he passes sa.tLs'flact:ori1y on tihese tests, 1Jhe t.ea.'Ob.E!II' ma.y be srutlsified thrat he k!101WS 3 as a whole. He is t'hen reaJdy to begin a study of t'he OOilltelllt.s of 3, whidh are represeillted as rollowa:

The contents of S:-

(1)
1 + 1 + 1 ~ 3.
2+1=3.
1 + 2 = s.

(2)
3-3 = o.

(3) 3X1=S.

3-2=1. 1X2+1=3.

3-1 = 2.

1X3=3.

{4)
3+3=-1
3 + 2 = 1(1)
3+1=3

Of course these abstract expressions must be presented In the concrete, must come in the shape of a problem, and be vitalized by the questions of the teacher. The manner
in which this is to be done will be hereinafter shown In a
s: aomewhat extended treatment of the number
Fioure~r.-As a f'orm of seat work it wUl be well just at this point to teach pupils how to make the figures. This ean be done by simply writing the figures on the board with white crayon, and allowing the children to take some lrlnd of coloa-ed crayon and "pa.111l>t" tlhem. T'heir first attempt will be crude enough, but it will not require much Ume for them to learn to make the fi&Urea.

i42

'l'he Number 1.>

l'actl in the number 8.

Facie to be tattg.ht

L .Additive : -
+ 1. 7 1 = 8

2s..

6+2=8 5+3=8

+ 4. 4 4 = 8

+ 5. 3 5 = 8

6. 7.

12++67 ==88

L Additive :-
+ 1. 7+1-8
2. 6 2-8 3. 5+3-8 4. 4+4-8

II. Subtractive:-

1. 8-8 =0

2. 8-7=1

8. 8-6=2

4. 8-5=3

5. 8-4=4

6r..

8-3=5
s-2 = 6

8. 8-1=7

II. Subtractive:-
1. 8-8-1 2. 8-6-2 8. 8-5-3 4. 8-4-4 5. 8-3-5 6. 8-2-6 7. 8-1-7

UI. Multiplicative:-
1. 8 X 1 ... 8 2. 7X1+1-S 8. 6X1+2=8 4. 5X1+3=8
5. 4 X 2 = 8
6. 2X4=8

III. Multiplicative:-
1. 8 X 1-8 2. 4 X 2-8 3. 2X4-8

IV. Divisional:-
!. 8+8-1 2. 8 + 7 -1(1) 3. 8 + 6 -1(2) 4. 8 + 5 -1(3) 15. 8 + 4-2 6. 8 + 3 - 2(2) 7. 8+2-4 8. 8+1-8

IV. Divisional:-
1. 8+8-1 2. 8+4-2 8. 8+2-4 4. 8+1-8

V. Partitive:-

t1. of 8-1
2. of 8 -1(1) 3. of 8 -1(2)

I54..

of of

88--21(3)

8. of 8- 2(2)

7. of 8-4

V. Partitive:!. iof8-1
2. l of 8-2 3. iof 8~4

. &Tery fact in the column headed " Facts to be taught"

mttst be taught, and the pupil muat be thoroughly

drilled on it before he can be said to know the No. 8. In the same way all the other small numbers, probably

as far a.s 20, should be resolved Into their contents and

taught. A good practice for the teacher w!ll be to take the

No. 12 and outline It a.s shown above. The question now

Is, How to teach these facts f And by teach Is meant that

the pupil must be led to discover every fact for himself

under the lntelllgent and sympathetic guidance of the

teacher. The signs should be taught the same aa an

operation; but as it would make this paper too long t<>

teach all of them, It w!ll be taken for granted that they

I have already been taught.
The Teaching Unit The pupils are to be supplied with

In

splints, toothpicks, straws, or sticks,

Addition.

or with any kind of object whatsoever.

Splints w!ll be used in these exer-

cises. Every pupil Is supplied with a

hand!ul.

COLLOQUY.
Teaoher.-How many sp1tnrt.s In "IIey" right 'hand? (HoldIng up 6 splints.)
PupiL-There are 5. Teacher.-How many In my left hand? (Holding up 3.) PupiL-There are 3. Teacher.-What d:ld I do with them? (Putttn~: them together.) PupH.-You purt: tb:em oogether. Teacher.-How many are there In all? PupiL-There are 8. Teacher.-Now tell me the whole story. PupiL-You had 6 splints In your right hand, and 3 In rour left. You put them together and then you had 8. Teacher.-Why7
+ Pupil.-Becauee 5 S- 8.
Thl..l 11 the unit of work In addition. Br slmplJ repeat-

144

tnr- thl1 unit often enou&"h eTery addition tact can be taught. A little time every day should be devoted to teachIng the tots how to count, 110 that when they go into formal addition they should be &ble to count 100 with ease.
Story Work.-Immedlately aner teaching the above fact, It would be wen to have a story drlll on it. Have anywhere from 10 to 20 stories, every one cllnchlng, in the
+ pupil's mind, _the fact that 5 3- 8. Let the pupils im
a11ine the splints to be birds, marbles, topQ, 11pples, pen nies, dons, etc. This Is an class-work, and should be done ~ithln e. ten or fifteen minutes' recitation. The story may be used in four ways, an so simple that t!hey need o~y be euggested to the intenlgent teacher.
1. 'l'he teacher performs the operation with objects and requires the pupil to ten the story.

What the tPacber doea. Holds up 5 splints, Puts 3 more with them,
Holds np all 8 in one hand,
.Asks why.

What the pupil say1.

I saw 5 birds on a limb,

And 3 more fiew to them,

+ 'rhen there
Because 5

were
a=

8, 8.

J. The teacher tells the story, and the pupil perform the

operation with objects.

What the teacher ay1. I have 5 marbles, John gave me 3 more, Then I han (pausing).

What the pupil d{)U,
Holds np 5 splints, Puts 3 more with them, Pupil sees the 8.

11. The teacher performs the operation with 1lgures and

require the pupil to tell or write the story.

What the teacher writes.
5+ s- 1

What the pupil says or writE-s. I bad 5 apples, and my
brother gave me a more.
+ Then I bad 8,
Because 5 3 = 8.

'- The teacher tells the ator:r and the pupil performs the operation with figures.

What the teacher says.
I had 5 dolla, and mother
pve me a more,
Then I had how many P

What the pupil writM.
6+8- 8

ftll ater:r work II baaed t:.. Idea that we mu.t ,.

145

from the ldmple to the complex. The ft.rst and second

kl'IIKLI are ID.Jtended for cQasa~ The thdrd &llld ~

are for seat .work.

I --'- .;_ _ _ _ _._._.._..

I
_.____._~,..

Be4# Dril'll:-

- - - ~-~ ., ~ - - . - .....,

1. With Objecu.-For a few months with beginner!! good results can be had from a Uberal use of objects In aeat
drUls. Object should not ordinarlly be continued beyond
the No. 6 or 6. Any kind of crain or aeed wlll do.
The teacher make1 dots on Pupil with seed on hit desk. the board.

+

+ --

or .. + ""' 1

-+- -=-

Many teachers get very satisfactory results from pe1

boards. They consist of poplar boards, one-half Inch

t'hick a.nd 6 lndhes square. Ho~es large enoug1h tor BlLoe

pegs are on one side, one-h41.'lt inch apart. Pup!IB an ~~up

plied 'Witlh pep w!Mcll tlhey stick in the holes instead at

Pla.ciD: the .eed as 8h:oW1Il. asbove. Probably 1lhe grea.teet

gain from objective seat-work is that it affords profit

able aiild oorutenlted employment to 11rtJti-e 'fellows who oth:er-

wise woud JIJOt be alblle to move a pee <WII:tlroUJt lbhe constant

pq-esenee at 1:!b.e teacher.

2. With Dra'll!ings.-These are to be used in somewhat

the same manner as the objects, only greater akUI 111

needed on the part of 'both teacher and pupil. The draw-

Ings at ftrst must be very easy.

The teacher draws on the board: The pupil draws on his alate:

+0

0 0

0 0

+0

0 0

0 0

or

00000

0 0 O+O o... ?

0()0+00=00000

The number of d.r&wl.n<ga to be UISed 1a 11m.tted only by ttiLe

energy e:n.d inlenuity of tale tea.dher. 'l'welve ldnda ....

anggested: Triangle, aquare, leaf, fan, cat, pitchfork, b~tckit
..U, bat, dot. OGd!De .t taoe, ad booltt.

!46

S. With F{,guru.Tbe teacher writes on the
board: 5+3=? 5'+?=8 ?+3=8 ?+?=8
f. Wth Blorlei.The teacher writes on the
board: Write a story for
5+3=?

The pupil writes on his slate: 5+3=8 5+3=8 5+3=8
The teacher can require 81 many answers to this as he chooses.
., --- -
The pupil writes on his slate: I bad 5 dollars, and Mary gave me 3 more. Then I
+ bad 8, Because 5 8 ""' 8

The teaching unit The same material can be used u in

in

addition.

Subtraction.

COLLOQUY.

Teacher.-How many splints have I? (Holding up 8.) Pupll.-You have 8. Teacber.-<Wbla.t e.m I cfulng? {Taking out eome of
them.) Pupll.-You are taking out I!OIIle of them. Tea.cller.--lHow many d'fd I rta.ke awa.y1' PupiL-You took away 3. Teaicher.-How many have I lett? Pupil.-You /have 5 lett. Teadher.-TeR me t'he wlrole story. Pupil.-You had 8 splints, you took away 8, and you have
6 left.
Tea.cher.-WihyT Pupll.-Because 8-3 equ:a.l 15. This is the unit of wurk in subtractllon. Just repea.t. tbb unit as many times as there are fa.ats to be ta.ught. Story Work.-Immediately after teaehing the above fact, 1t would be well to 'have a.bout 20 stories <bold illuetra.tin thalt fact. Th1a fa ~gh tor one leseon. U !tile lour forma of lftor7 drill at pleuure.

147

&at Worl!:-

1. With ObfectB.--'I.'h.e same material aa 1n add1tton

Of course the use of objects must be dlsoonlblnued just u

soon as possi'ble.

'rhe teacher writes on the board: The pupil on his desk, putting

down 8 seed and remov-

ing 3:

00000~~~ =?

OOOOOM~ = 00000

!. With DrawingB.-.It 1s not lit all probalble thlllt It will be

n'8Cess811"Y to OOIIlt'lnue ihlle 111ustrllltdve numlber work up to

this paint. It lB shown here sl~ beca.UIS6 this Is the

proper place in th.fs scheme to Show lt. L'lke objecits, draw-

ings must be d!lsca.rded just as soon as the pupil comp~

hends the n'lWI.ber without them.

Theteacherdrawson the board: The pupil draws on his slate~

~~~ =?

00000~~~ = 00000

I. With Ftguru.-

The teacher writes on the board: The pupilwrites on hia slate:

8-3~?

8-3=5

8-?-5

8-3-5

?-3-5

8-3-5

?-?~5

RequdTe 1ili:l~ la:st form tlo be answered sevel'llll, 1r&71L Gin

drllls on the diffilreDJt kinds of 1Jtor1 work u UlUJStrasted lD

a.dd1b101ll.

The teaching unitl Let th" pupi1s cSJther around tale

in

teacher's talble just as dose as ~Y

Multiplication. can. If there Bllould hla.ppen to be no

det'k OT ta.ble tn the 'house, t'hren a. slate or the tloor can 'be

used Just u we41.

OO'LLOQUY.

Tea.cller.-How ~ rl:np elM I makef (Drawinc '-
~rcles.)
Pupll.-Tou made .{ ring&
Teacher.-If I put .ame ocm1 hl every ~1 1!.'01f maiii.J1
lea wfll then beT

,... _, _

148

I

l'luptL_,_.. will be 4 pita

Tea.cher.-How mallY B'radu in ~err lJ!lht

Pulpil.-There are 2.

'l'ea.cher.-How many twos or piles are tlleref

Pupt1.-There are 4.

Tea.dh1:1r.---<How mrany gra.inB in dl!

Pupil.-There- are 8.

I'I'ela.IC!her.--'I'hen ~U/1" ltiwos 8ll"e ibbiW m&nT?

Pupi!l.-Four tJWos are 8.

,

In some places poplar boards about four by eight lncbN,

with holes in them one-eighth of an inch deep are used.

They are caJlled hole boa.rds. Each child puts the seed lDte

tilles. holes, i:nstead of using a cirdle u described albove.

Cf.a811 Drill.-Jit. will be wem to present tlhis same idea ln

lleverad different forms. For mstanee: Take ben.ehea 01'

ehairB &ll.d put 2 pupila on each, and h&ve class aee that

4 X 2 - 8. Or draw~ nestl on the board and pu~ 2 eggs in

each. .Ask pupils how many ears on 4 boys; how many hands

on ~ girls ; how many feet on 4 chickens, how many eyes 4

dogs have; how mall)' horns Oll 4 cows, etc. But in every
cue, haTe the pupil see and say that it is so because 4 X 2-

8. In the same way all the oth.,- multiplication operations iu.

8 can be taught. Drill on the firat and aecoad kind of atory

work as illustrated ill addition.

Seal Werl:.-

1. With Objectl.

"!'he teacherwriteson the board: The pupil uses objects.

00 00 00 00 - ?

00 00 00 00 - 00000000

Of cou:rae dbjectlive n'Ullliber work is DICit collltbtued up Clo

tlrlll poiDt. With the amal!ler n11llllben. llowever. it ill a

ill.'ftl.lUlllble aid.

\._

!. With Drcvinga.

The teacherdrawson the board: The pupil draws on hill alatle:

(:) (:) (:) (:)-?

(:) (:)(:)(:)- ....... .

'l'lrlll 111 a Tflt7 ater'tiWl:lUW ad proat&b'le Jr:bl4 ot 111!11&

._.,..oa--. W'OI"k. It ca. be n.ried bT d.ra-wtq apples, ~ llT ,_..._ . . . a ......

149

S. With Figure.

The teacher writes on the board: The pupil mites on hia llatt:

4X2-?

4X2-8

4X?-8

4X2-8

?X2-s

4X2-s

?X?-8

A very nice varLaltton of t'hls 'W'Ol'k tiJ to b~n lllmple

lrol'k In Compound Quarutltles lilt this juncture1 bdt.h by

teacbilng and in Uhe seat work. Teachers could 8l!T8.Ilge

dr111s by b.a.vlng pup11s write answers to such questions 811

the following: 4 gills - ? pints; 8 gills - ? pints; 2 feet -?

ln.; 2 yards -? feet, and so on.

4. With Btoriu.-Use the last t"\ro forms of the story

wurk illustrated In addition. The first and IIOOODJd to:rma

are o! course intended far dl'3SS driiD. only.

TEACHING 'l1HE MULTIPLIOATION TABLEJ.

Arter the pupil hM been in school two or three months

wm It

be well txl bgln formal study ~ tlb.e multiplication

tabte. Teadhers are a.dV'ised to have pupll.la study the t&blea

b7 writing them out. !Have pupils make 2 dota, and juat

to the right have them write 1 X 2 - 2. Then let them

make two groups of dots, two each, and write 2 X 2 -

4. As BOOn 811 a table 1:8 lea.med, have pupEls write 1t by

d~V'lslon. 'Ilb.ey can learn the 'llalblea both by multiplication

and dlvls:lon just abolllt as easily 811 one W'a."f alone. It 11

unnecessary Ito sa.y tlha/t thlla wdll pave the W'&7 to llhor1

d1Ti2100n.
Uni, Teachi.ng In Division.

COLLOQUY;

TeaclJ.er.-WihaJt ha.ve I in my ha.:n.d? 1plints.)
PupiL-Yuu have some aplllllbl. Tea.cher.--How JD&DZ7 bpD.-&.

(Holding up some

tMC'her.-4v'hat am I dotnc 'W'l'tlll themT (G111Da J ._....
to eome boys.) Pupil.-You are &il"tn them to the bar& Teacher.--H'ow many to each boyT Pupil.-2. Teacher.-Boys w111h rthe splln'ts, please stand. Teacher.-lf I diTide 8 aplllnrts among some boys, gf1T1q
2 splints to eadh boy, how many boy will there beT Pupil.-There will be t boys.
Teacher.-Why?
Pupil.-Because 8 + 2 - 4. (The pupil will have to be helped along by means of questions.)
Clas1 Drill.-'Pu!t 8 gra:iD.8 of corn lnto pliet!l, 8 eggs Into nests, 8 boys on benchas, etc. and In every oa:se after the opel'llltlon requiTe the pupil to say "Because 8 divided into twos are 4." 'I1halt is, of course, the ftrst farm of sbory W'Ork lllustrated In Addition. For the second form, tell the story and require t:he pupN to perfol"'D the operation on h~ desk ar ltla.rte with Objects.
Seat work w1.'th drawings a.nd Objedtll Ia not neocessaTY wbern t'he pupil hU advanced this far.

Seat Work wlth Jlliguru.-

The teacher writes on the board: The pupil write! on hiulate:

8+4-? 8+?-2 7+4-2 7+?-2

8+4-2 8+4-2 8+4-2

'I1here are aevena.l answers rto the last problem.

The P8l'll1lllve problem Is omdtted on purpose. There Is

a logloa.l difference betJw'een parti-tioning and dlvlsion, btrt

without a. long explanatJ1on, the av~e tea.cher 1a apt to

oonfoun:d t'he two.

.A. Fifteen Minute Seat Work Exerciee.-
In aJl the l!e8lt work tlb.own ltlhua tar t!he teacher hiUI d'O~tlesa noticed thBit Ube answers are always the same, a.nd haa probably 'been dbposed to crl<t1ctee the work on W. &.OOOIDI.t. 'Dill Pia 11M been lollow'ed in order to alro1r

I

.\

151

the ctdfterenJt idn<ds of sewt work that can be u:sed with each
operation. lt ~ now in order 1Jo give a sug&"esti~ seat

wurk exercise sulit:aJble tor plllpils wll'o hlave just completed
a study of 1Jhe No. 8.

Every exercise should Involve a review of a:s many of 'the facts previously taught as posslblle.

The teacher writes on the board: The pupil writes on his slate 1

5+2-? 7-4-? 8+4-? ?X3-6 ?+3-5 6+3-? ?-5-3 4+?-6 ?X4-8 2 qts. - ? pts.
~~-?~
2yds.-? ft.
+ Write story for 4 3- ?

5+2-7 7-4-3 8+4-2 2X3-6 2+3-5 6+3-2 8-5-3 4+2-6 2X4-8 2 qts. - 4 pts.
1~ -s~
2 yds.- 6ft.
I had 4 sticks of can dy, and John gave
+ me 3 more. I then
had 7. Because4 3- 'l

The forego'img ds <Wlh'alt is ol'dlnarl1y kniown as Gru~

Numbers, because a young German teach er by tllat name tlrst used it. lA moment's refiectlon w111 Show the teacher jUSit whalt ground 'is Ito 'be covered in the Primary Num,ber

work, tb:en tJhe best pllan 'is tor him to arrange the details

of hts own trerutmenlt. No tlwo systems of Primary Number

Work ue ex81Ctlly alike, am:d yet all are esserutlally the

ll8Jile. Prlnctplu.-1. Since tlhe child's mind takes the cO'llcrete
1lrst, and goes from thlat to the ab-stract, so the concrete of

arDthmetic must be presented fl.rst.

2. The work must ~ SY'Stmnat'ic.

!. Every met, aJter beln;g taught, must be reviewed until tharoug1hlly known.

4. In plain.nilllg the wark, go !rom. the s~le to the crum-

plu..

152
NltT ..
Nt11.fmRA.'riON .AJNiD NOTATION.
T.hfa is a. suibject 8ilmost entirely neglected in 'bOOks pro-
plosl.D:g .to glive methods in a'l11ltlhmetic, and consequenrtJy overlooked by many tea.ohilrs. 11t is lmpossiblle to u.y just
to whiaJt eXJtent a pupil's 'W'OI'k in a:rithmetic may be retarded
by' a neglect dt llhds subject, burt ilt does seem tundameD.JtaJJ thllJt every puipll should be able to readily anid accurately read and W'l1i:te figures. Many Children never learn that tihere axe units, t<ens, h'lllldreds ot unJibs, Uillib, tenJS, hundreds of oth:oUJSands, etc., Wlltll they aTe grown.
Methocls.-Take one box ot ~ks or one bundlle of spllnta and five cents' worth of rubber bands; make bundles of 10. Then tJake some ot the 10 bundles and make t"W'o or three 100 'bundles. Thtbl Clllll lbe done lby silJlJP1Y fastenln&' ten ol the 10 bundles t:o~her. 'Ilhe toothpicks a.re now .dllstlrdbulted truto thTee kinds of 'lnmdles, ones, tens, hunJdredtt. 'Titre teiadher can use three dig18.T' 'bbxes tacked to~et'lrer as Mr. iBram100 Ulust.ralted last year, oa- he oa.n mark otf three square~ on the tla.blle or floor or on tihe trroUJld. Put 5 1:!oat!h.picln1! tn the :lim box to the right, two
10 ibunldlee in the IIJeXIt box, 13Jld on:e 100 bundle dn the nut. Question as follows:
Tea.cher.-{How mam.y hUL!Ldreds have weT PupU.--"We have one hiundred. Tea.cher.-Maike the figure one jwst aibove CJhe 100 box. 'l'eacher.-<H'ow many 'telliS have we? Pulpil.-We bla.ve two tens. Teadher.-Mruke the fl.gure 2 just albove the 10 boL TeaoCher.-Hmr m!IUly sincle lboothplckll are there? Pup!L-ll'b.ere a:re 6. Teacher.-M~ t!he ~ l'i just above thls box. Teacher.-Now look lilt the buniiles 8llld tell me how ma.t1.7 tlootihp!cks :tJhere are in alii. Pupil.--There an one hundred, two teDJJ, and :liTe. T-.cl1JIIr.-1How 'IIUio1lY ..-re two tuaT Pu.JG,-'l'W'o-- ... ~-

153
Tea.ocher.-Then tell me lb.ow miiL11y tllere a.re altlog'ethOI usirug twenty instead of two tens,
Pupiil.-There are '(line hundred and twenrty-five. Teac.her.-Thait is just wha.t the figures 125 say, D rills.-Ask the pupils to write 124 on their slates. Those who succeed In doing this have followed the teacher. Such as have nO!t foHorwed may be made to see the poin!l: by repealt)ing the opeTaJtion. W'Iiite. 123 on the 'board and ask pupils t'O reald it. Ask them whaJt the 3 represeruts, tihe 2, the 1. Write 225 and ask them to read. Ask them to wri>te 226. W'iith very stupid pUJplls, the teacher mllgh!t take ten 100 hum.d'les to make one tlb.ousa.nd, tih<l'llgJh, as a ru!le, U W'll1 not be necessary.
ADDITION.
If all the opemtl'ons 'Wiith the small numbers have been well taught, there will be only one difficulty in teaching ~mal add'ilti'on, am.d tbaJt irS "ca:rry'ing." Teachers are adv1sed to continue drills on the additlion table by usdng some wch aid as Branson's add'ition cards, or dlrill cards. Let 1t be requlired to add 65 and 28.
The ~her wr'iltea on the !board: 65
+28
The pupils are supplied W'llth tooltbpickl!l or bun,dles of 6'traw.s.
COLLOQUY.
Tealdher.-cl:ass read the figures. Teacher-Is the 5 in the units or the tens box? Pupitl.-It is in <the units !l'Ox. Teacher.-Where S.Te the 6 and 2? Pupi1.-They are in the tens box. Teacher.-WbaJt L<~ 1lhe sum ott 8 and 5? Pupil.-It 1s 13. Teacller.-How many tens a.nd h:aw ma.nriiiii.Ita ~ Uf
J>uplil.-'rhere are 1 ten a.nd a UD:i'!Ait.

154

~.-om :vou. pdt ltbe 1 teD. UDder the UDita oo11111111.t

IPiapU.-You Olllllllot.

fl'eacher.-Where muBt lit got

PupU.-R must go tmder the tena oolumn.

a'eaeher.-Then w:blllt do we put under the un1ta GOllliiiiJlt

!flupU.-We put the 3 un1ts.

-

T-.c'her.-Whalt do w:e do 'With tbe 1 .tent

lPupll-We add lit Ito rthe tens ool1JDU1.

'Tea.cher.-'Wbalt Ia the aumt

'!Pup11.-lt tB 9.

't.l'eaOher.--J:t Is 9 wfbat!

JPupll.-It ts 9 teD&

'r!'ea.cher.....JW'here does Itt got

1Pupll.-:rt I'OeS under the tens etolumn. 'Teacller.-What Ia the total aum?

'Pupll.-lt Is 93.
Sometimes bl'JPt pmplls w:Ul understand th1s wtlthwt

1the objects. In ltihatt case they are superfluous. Throw
. away Objects just as soon as y<ou ca.n. The next operatloa

llhOll14 Involve 'blun:dreda.
The teacher write. o:n the board:

Z48

+379

The OD1:r dUference b&'t:nen. tlblla rproolem and t1le 1l1'llt
one is tlbat tt bu three figures, and the sum ot the tau edlumn exceeda 10. Let the pupils make the ten lteDs mto a hUJIIdred just as they made t'he unJJts 1Dito a ten 1D. the ant prOblem.
SUBTRACTION.
The t.ermll b1 Rb'tradJI.OD CllLD. lbe lba.ug'ht Just U 81DJ' ot/her detD.loblon. U J118Ce81l18.1'7, let 'the pupl]s be .mpplled Kitlh tloothplckB ;Just u In addltllon, though lt will be better, ot
OOU1'88, .t:t tlhey Clllll. follow t'he teacher W'lthout them. ~
It be required m find t'he difference between 80 and 46.
The tea.c!her write. Oil t'he 'boalrd:
710
~

155

'I'ea.ch~."'""'Wi!lai do ~~ find in the Mlnueru!f

Pupil.-We ftn'<l 8 tens and n'O un.ltts.

Tea.eb:er.-Wl!Jalt do we find In the Su:btr'a.hend1

Pupll.-We fl.n'<l 4 tens and 6 Ull.!f...s.

:r'eacher.-{lan we take 6 1mlts :trom no UD!Itaf

Poupll.-You cannot. Teacher.-Take 1 ten from 8 tell!S and hOIW many are lertT

Pupil.-Seven tens are left. (The te 1.1er marks out the 8 &nd writes 7 just bove e.n!d wdtea 10 just above the

naught.)

Teac'her.-H'ow many un.lrts have we ni:YW 1D. the Minuend1

PupiL-We have 10.

'l'ea.ober.-Ta.ke 6 units trom 10 un1ts and how many ILl'G

lett?

Pu'Pil.-F1our are left.

Tea(!her.-Fou:r tens trom sev-en tem1 a.re 'hO'W many tens?

PupiL-Three \ens.

It will be seen that it is psychologtca;ny and mathemati-

cally incorrect to say "one tx> carry to 4 makes 6, and 6

from 8 leaves 3." The wbove example really gives the unit

'Of work tin su:l>t:reci:~on. There are, h.'O'Wever, ttwo other

kinds o! pro'tJilems: t'he problem that goes i'Il!OO hundreds ;

and tlhousandB, and the problem that has naugbit:s in the1

mbtuend. They are illustr&ted as tollowa:

{1) 4 5 13
~~3 -2 7 4

(2)
9
7 J~ 10
~00
-4 56

n 1.8 not necessary Ito sat anY't111'1lg a;bout the 1li'st. ii1
the second, develO'lJ 'by mea.ru~ o:f questi'ons the following points: You ca'llilJOit take 6 from 0, a.nd Since you have nn tens to change Into units, you must tlake 100 !rom the hundreds column: That will ieave 7 hun<ired, a;nd yoo have 10 tAms tor the tens column. '11ake one of the 10 tens and put
at av~ the units column. The questil.ou DOW fs to ~ke 461
rrom seTen hundred and mn.et:r ten.

iiroLTJ!pLIO.A.TION.
Tuch term the same as a.ny other deftnttlon. It 11 all!umed that w'hen the pupil reaches this poiDit he knowa the multiplication table, though 818 & matter of ~ it wlll be found necessary to continue reV'iewlng 'it for eome tim~
yet. No alttentlon is given here to problema where w
product is always less than 10. Let it be required to multiply 35 by 3. 'rule tea.cher writes on the board:
x3s5

105

COLLOQUY.

TfJ&.oher.-II'!Te unlt.IJ taken 3 ti~M~~ are how many undltaT

Pupil.-Flve units taken 3 times Me 16 units.

Teacher.-How IDtalny ten.l and how m&nJ' units' in 15

untts?

Pupll.-one ten md 5 unite.

Teac!her.-Under w1h.ich column must we put lthe 6 units?

Puplll.-Under the unita column.

Teacher.-Three tens taken 3 t1imea are 'how IDtalny tens?

Pupll.-Three tens taken 3 time. are I teM.

Teacher.-How :mai17 tene ddd we have 'Willen we multi-

plied the 6 units?

!PupiL-We had 1 ten.

Teacher.-Nine ltena and 1 ten are lh.ow man7 temsT

Pupil.-Nlne tens and 1 ten are ten temJ.

There are twe other kinds of example, but lUI the modm

operandi is the same lUI in the above example, they will not

be developed tuNy. !Let 1't 'be required to multiply:

(1) 86 X49

(2) 368 X206

In the fl.nrt e:mmpte, tMJ pupil 'W'lll have no trouble Ill
multiplying by 9. When he begins to multiply by 4, han him under~Jtiawi that 6 Ulldt. taka ' ttu tlmel are J4 teM.

157

ftere a:re no untts. Ca:n ttens go under unJ1itlll T No. Wh'el"e must they go? Under tens. Of couJ"se tens times tens W1111 Cive hundreds, and it there are more than 10 hundreds, they become thousands. In the second emmple, the only point ll!able t1o cause trouble is the PTesence of a naught 1n the :nuJltlipller. Develop the idea. Cllait when Y'O'Il pass over the naught you are multiplY'iD'&" by hundreds, and must tlherefore put the result down lJieg!nning W'it'h the hundred cdlamn. The SJddng 1a 811wa.YB just the .sa:me as In addl ti'OJ?.. rrhe teacher wlll have no trouble '1n shoWing pupilla how to multiply by a mUltiPlier endlni 1n na.\l&lht.

DIVISION.
Thls is one or lthe mrost difficult sulbjecb!l !n arfltbmette,
and yet, s!Jmnge ro say, in an <the books on methods, and
in all the articles in .sdhodl journals, it is ha.rdly ever ~ven a.nythling like a roll treatment. A fine article on the sub-
ject or Doug DIVision by Superintenderut Otis AShmore, of
SaV'&'DDJah, Ga., can be found 1n the May or JUID.e number ot The Southern iDducational Journal, A1Jlanta, ~ If the advice given on a previous page, that the division table be taught with the multiplication table, be followed, short dl vision ought not to give tb~ teacher any trouble. There is no ro}'l811 road to long dlvislon. The two will be treated
tJoge1Jher. Teacll terms as any other defulitton. tAt it be required to diViide 1452 by 12.
The ttea.cher writes on the board:

Firlt Procul.-

121

or

l2J 1~2

158
COLLOQUY.
Tea.dher.-How many twelves 1n 14P PupiL-There Is 1 twelve In 14. Teacher.-How many are lett over? Pupil.-There are 2 left over. Tea.cher.--How many twelves in 26? !Pupll.-There a.Te 2 twelves In 26. Teo.cher.-How many are [eft over? Pupta.-.Jfhere Is 1 left over. Teacher.-How many twelves In 12? PupiL-There Is 1 mvelve In 12. This is not a scientific process, but If U ean help tn the msJtter of tea.C'hing as dimcult a subject aa long division, U3e 1t. \;,..
Beconit Proou1.-
121 UJ 1452
12
25
24
12
12
COLLOQUY.
'I'ea.db.er.-How ma.n;y hundred welves tn 14 hundred? PupiL-One. (The teacher writes 1 over the 4.) Teacher.-one hundred times 12 a.re how many? PupiL-Twelve hundred. (The teacher writes 1200 1n it.l proper place.) Teo.cher.-How many axe lett? PupiL-Two hundred and ftfiy-two. (The teacher writes :Z52.) Teac'her.-How many 10 twelves 1n 260? Pupil.-There are two. (The teacher writes 2 over the 5.) Tes.cher.-'l'wen.ty twelves are how ml!l.1ly? Pupil.-Twenty twelves a.re, Qw,~ hund.~cl and forty. (~
Me..hf!r ,'!V.rJte 240.)

159

Tealdher.-lH.ow D1AJ1Y are lellt! Pupil-There are tweave left. Tea.cher.--lllow many ttwelves in 127 Pupil.-There is one twelve in 12. (The teacher writes l.J Tea.c:her.~How many are left? Pup!J.-None. !Another way t'o teach long dlv'lston iB to take a sertes of examples ea.ch just a litJtle more dilfioult than the preceding.

1. 3) 960 Teach by short division.

2. 8) 960 Teach by long division.

3. 80 J 960 " " "

..

4. 31 ) 960 " " " " Teachers sometimes get good resu'lt.s by having tb:e dl
vl.'Si'On table o! the divlsoi" up ro the nines writrt.en an tlh6
boaord.

PART lli.

!FRACTIONS.

The dellnltlon ot F1ra.ctions am.d all the ter!IlB must be taught inductively. They cannot be taught here ror lack of space. The moot dijlficult term 1n Frlwtlons, D~~ tar. will lbe ta.ughlt.

COLLOQUY.

Denomlnatar.-

Tealdb.er.-WJJ.ialt have I 1n my hand T Pupil.-.A piece of crayon. Teacher.-What a.m I domg wdth !tT (Breaking It 1n'tb

3 pieces.)

!Pupli.-You are breaking it into pieces.

Teaclb.er.-lnJro how many plecesT

Pupil.-Iruto 3 pieces.

Teacher.-As nearly as you ca.n jud.;e. ~0! do $,e:r ~

pare 1n S11ze?



'

f~pU.--Ther ~ ~~ ~ ~

160

Teacher.-What partie this? (Holding up 1 piece.)

Pupll.-It t.s ooe-thdrd.

-

Tea.cher.-I wdll write tha.t on the boa.rcl. (WrJt4Dr; one-

third.) 1'eacher.-Wbat part have I now. (Holuiog up 2 pieces.) Pupll.-You have two-thirds. Tea.c.b.er.-I will write th&Jt oon tlb.e board. (Writing two-

thirds.) Teacher.-In't'o h'OW many pieces did we 'break the crayon1

iPupll.-Into 3. Tea.cher.-Whlch ot these figures shows that, the ooe
llbove Or the one b'eiow the line?
Pu~I.-The one below the line.
Tescller.-Tell me then what the number belaw the 11lne

llroWS.
Pupil.-It alhOWB into haw Ill.8.D7 parts the object bas beeG divided.
Teacher.-That number we ca.ll the denomln:atlor of a f~'Oil. NOw tel1 me wh&Jt the deniOmlnaJbor Is.
Pupi1.-The denO'IIllna.tor ot a fraction 1.s the number below the l!ne, and tt sh~ Into how many equal parts tlhe whole tlllng bas been divid~

. 1. To reduce fractional Require pupils to look at the dillto its lowest terms. gram and solve such problems as

I ,_jj'f

WHOLE.
f

f-

? if

t-i-

,\lniiJIII

l

---2? ?

l I t lr.ln I i I

3 Etc.

are 'J11eee !ltUe examples to be 110lved b:V blsDecUon. ll

161

4f'lt1 'IJ'dff be fa otdM to determ!tie & ruie for chnlllnt the
form of a fra.Ctl[on 'When tt Ll too 1Jarp to be eolved bJ in
~t.lon.
The pupil ha.e seen that t - f.

COLLOQUY.

Tea:cher.-'.ID:Yw can you change t into twos?
!Pupil.-By dividing by 2. Teacher.~How oa.n you dha.nge 6 tnlto threes? l>up:il-By dllvidinlg by 2. Tea.cher.~But blow dOles four-i!.lxths compare fD ftlue
with tw'<>-thirda?
IPupil.-It is equal to it. Teaclher.-{HOIW does it afrec!t the value of a fra.ctlbn to d1vtde both numera.toc and detnominaiolr by the sam<e num-
ber? Puplil.-It does ntit change 1ts valm-.
Teacher.-How could you change t into t thus without
using the diagram? Pupil.--<B7 dlvidllng 'bOitlh numenlltor and denomdnator
by 2.
Teacher.-Can you chan~:e t into a fraction having smaller
terms? Pupll-<You cannot.
Teacher.-Then 1is said to be reduced to its lowest terms.
Teacher.-When Its a. traCtion reduced to its lowest lterms? Pupil.-When it cannot be changed to any smaller terms. Tea.cher.~lfuw do you reduce a fraction ~ its lowest
terms? Pupil-By divtding both numeratxxr and denJomtnartm by
any number that will divide them evenly.

To reduce fractions to a common denominator.

Let it be required to solve the

following:

,

The pupil write answers by inapeoo "on.

162
OOLLOQIJY.
~.---lA w'h~e 'thiD:g equals how ma.'ny ~:rte&ntt:Uf !Puldl-6i:rteen Bi:rteent'hs. Teacher.--one-fourtlb equals h:Ow many sl:rteen.t!hll? Pupil.-One-!ourth equals lJ.l Teacher.-Three-fourths equal how many?
Pupil.-Tbree-fourths equal H Teaoher.-To get the H what was the first thing you did?
!PUpil-The lr&t tb<l'llg was to dlv1de 16 by to 'Tea.cller.-Wilatt u the 16? l>upll.-'lb deniOml\nart'on of the required fracll001..
Teaoher.-How did you get the 1j2] ?
Pnpll.-By multiplying h by 3. Teacher.-What is the 8? (Pointing tc. the fraction f.)
PupU.--llt 115 the numerator of the given fraction. Tea.er.~How then do Y'OU change one fra.ct.I'On &DIOitlhJer 'W'ltl10ut altering 1ltB value? Puptl.-DiY'I.de 1fue denomlinlatoc of the required fraclllon br thle denk:xmilnllltor of the pven fraction and mll!ltip1y . . QUatii'8D.t by -Uhe nume111ator. fiaoe the result oTer t:U required deniO!ml1n.aitJor. Teadher.-In !Uhe examiple rtven a:blove, wh.at do TOQ no-
esc. aboat ~ den'ominaltora!
PupN.-They u-e all the me. ~er.-When tra.cti.'Ons are chla.ntged 90 tb.a.'t theT ILl! llaT t!h.e UI!IW denominaltor, Uhey an aa.id tJo be reduced to oommOll denominator.
'lbl& pra.ot!iee of USI:ng !ract1tons 'W'itth enormOW! denoon-ina--
tora is to be severely condemned. If, however, the teacher ~ld ~ torced lt!o handle la.:rge fraebtomr, the best plan HI
tlo 1lnd the L. c. K.
!ADDITION.
'!'he 1lnrt step 1s to reduce the tra.etloDJ! to a common d .amtna.txw. ..U this ha. already been s'hown, it will be
......laaa far ~ hAicre, a.ml tM <teadhdml' W'llli 'lleldJl at tll.lil

16SJ

Let tt be ~utred to find the sum of twoth1i\ls, three
fourtlbs and one-halt. The pupil reduces these tractions to a common denominator Mld g&ts lt in this s'bape: eigb.t-
tweltths plus nine twelfths plus six tiVieUw equals T
Let it be required to find the sum of i. t and ;.
The pupil reduces these fractions to a common denominator
11nd gets it in this shape: 1~ + 1!1 + f f - P
COJ..LOQU.Y.
+ + Teacher.-How many twelfths are t\ 19r fs?
Pupii.-H. Tee.cher.-How did you get this resUlt!
PupiL-By adding the numerabors and placln' the sum over the 12.
Teacber.-H are how many whole ones?
I Pupil.-ti- Ill.
Forms for the figure process.

(2) f+t+~=?
f ~ ,aJ t =l!li
; =1~ l~~tH
One flotm ls as good as anotlb.er. Mllxed numlber11 can 'be
reduced to improper fra.cti'Ons and &dded by one of ltlhe

above forms, or they can be added aa follows:

l4i lOt-? 141-14/. lOi ... 10/.
24ii When once a form b.rul been adopted, see ro tl toot t11-e

wor1: uniformly follow it.

SUBTRACTION.

This subject 1s so easy that nothin' need 'be done further than to submit two form&. Let it be .required to subtract
l from f.

(1) H-i"r-t~-h

(2)
f-t-?

t--h>!

184
-I

1'o multiply a frac-1 tion by a fraction.

fXt- ?

COLLOQUY.
Teacher.-How many are 1 X i?

Pupil.-f.
Teacher.-How many are i X f?

Pupil.-,'f.
Teacher.-How many are t X f ?

P u p i l . - l-2 Teadher.-How can yoo take 2 amid 3 a.nJd make 11

Pupil.--By mu1tJ11Ply1Dg them toget:her.

Teacher.--IH.low can you take ~ and 3 o.nd make 12T

Pupn.~By mulltlpaydng them together.

Teacher.-Tell me t!b.en a quick Wtcy to multllply a frac-

tion 'by a tra.cbion.

Pupil.-tMUlti'PlY the numemltors together aDid puJt their

product over the product of the denouilll'8i'tlors.

Mixed numbers can be reduced to improper fmctions, and

mu1rtiplied by the rul just given.

Cance1181til.on, tWihich 1s just a short pl'Oee6S of simplifying

fr&ctiona, should 'be erpla!lned. and used whenever possible.

I To divide a fraction

DIVISION.

by a fraction.

f+t-T

COLLOQUY.
Teacher.-How many times is i contined in 1T
Pupdl.-4 times.
Teacher.-How many times are t contained in 1T
Pupil.-l of 4 or i times. Teacher.-How many times are t contained in f1 Pupil.-i oft times, J. Teacher.-What did you do with the f '
hpil.-Kade it t.

165

Tea.cher.-Thll.t ts, TOll lnverteel It, l.m1 ldt.nr thla mv

s10n whast was done?

)

Pupil.-The frac!Jtons were mult1plled..
Teacher.-Jiow then can you divide one tra.et:l'on 1tt

ano1fher? Pupil.-IDJVert the diV'is01r and proceed 11.1 1n multipl1ca.-

tlliQD.

DEOIMALS.

Draw a square on tb!e board. Divide each side tnto 10 equal parts and conn_oot. This wiU give 1 Large square diTided lntlo 100 small ones.

COLLOQUY.

Tea<:her.--4How many squares ln the large one?
Pupll.-100.
Teacher.-one square Is what part of the whole 1igure7
Pupil. ---.h. (The teachf:'r writes J1 11 on the board.)
Tea<:her.-What pal't are 4 little sqU'ares?
Pupil.-,-alf (The teacher writeR rh un the board.)
Teacher.-(POI!nting to 1 row of the small squares): How
many squares in 1fhis raw?
Pupll.-10.
Teacher.-one Is w'hai part?
Pnpil.-ro. (The teacher writes 11a- on t.Le board. ) Teacher.-Flve are wha.t part1
Pupil.-fu. (The teacher writes 1\ on the board.) Teacher.-1'11 show you another way to write three fractions. (The teacher writes l ~= l, fo=.OI, f ,;= .5, rfnl-=.04.) Teacher.-What do you notice at>out these denomina;t()I"S'
Pupil.-They a.re all eit!her 10 m 100.
T~E.'P .-such fractions are oalled declma<ls. JI'es.cht~r.-Now tell me what is a deolmal tract!O'D.'r
Pupil.-A decimal fraction is one whose denominator is always 10. 100, etc. Addition and subtraction of deciJII!ll~ ~re sp simple the;r are omitted on !?urpose.


-

166

lmJ'LTIPLl'CATION.

The only d1mculty in mu1tipl~catlion of decliXUI!l.s 18 "pi01Dtlng off." Let t:he tea<:her once brdng the pupil to wnderstand this point, then it becomes a DJ.aibter of mere multi-
plicatlo.n. The toocher writes on tJhe board:
.& 5

2.5 COLILOQUY.

Teaeher.-Five times 5 tenths are how many tenths! Pupil.-25 tenths. Teacher.-25 tenltlh9 are lmw many w!holesf Pupil.-2 whOles and 5 ten'ths.

2.53
X5

12.65
Teaclier.-6 times 3 hundredths are !how ma.n:r hun-

dredths?

J

Pupil.-15 huildredlths.

Teadher.-How many tenths and how many hundredths!

Pupil.-1 ten1Jh amd 5 hundredths.

Teacher.-5 times 5 tenths are how many 'tenths?

Pupii-25 tenths.

Teacher.-An<d 1 tenth makes lrow many?

Pupil.-26 tenths.

TOO<iher.-How many wholes and how many tenrtlhs?

Pupil.-2 wholes 3!Ild '6 tent'hs.

~her.-5 times 2 wholes are how ma:ny wholes?

'Pupil.-6 1Jimes 2 wholes are 10 whOles.

Teacher.-And 2 more are?

PU!p!L-12. 1..'

,.-.,

A!ter solving two or three more sucll examples, ask the

pupil to notice the first example. Ho~ many decimals in

the multiplicand? In the multllplier? How many In the

~~? ~ doea tile n1J.IID.ber ot d~ 1Jl t1le ~~

0

compare mth 't'he numlbi!l' In the multlpltca.nd and mult4p1'ier? Have him discover th.aJt it is the same. Ha.ve him ata.te 11P.e rule.
DIVISION.

The 11.gure work is exactly the same e.s in lQilg dlfv11don.

eo no at;tenti'on will be paid to thlllt paii't of the wOTk.

1. When the number of decimals in the dividend equals the number in the
divisor.

6.76 + .24 ... T

COLLOQUY.

Teadher.-How many times are 6 hundredths eontllallled

!n 12 hundredths?

!PupiL-Twice.

Tea.cher.-Is that a decimal or a whole number?

Pup11.-A whole numuer.

Teaclrer.-When you div<ide hundredt.h.s by hundredths

Whalt does it give you?

PupiL-Whole numbers.

Tea.cher.--When you divide 76 hundredths by 24 hun--

dredths what kind ot an answer will you goc?

Pupfi.-Wholes.

Teacher.-How many dectmals in the dlvldend.1

Pupll.-2.

Teacher.-How matny in the dlvlsor?

IPupll.-2.

Tea.dher.-What kind of a number did you get, a wbode

numlber m a decimal?

Pupll.-A whole num'b.n'.

Tea.cher.-Wbat kind of an answer diO you get when ~

number ot decllmals In the dividend equals the number liD

the divlsar! ~.,.

Pupll.-A wfhiOle number.

Require the pupil tx> make a sllllltement.

2. When the number of deci

male in the dividend ex-

6.76 + 2.41 T

ceed thOle in the divilor.

168

COLLOQUY.

Teacber.-V\'1Hlt ls tlhe whole number In tbe rl!v!sO'I'T

Pupil.-2. Teacner.-In the dividf'nd?

PupJl.-o. Teacher.-U you divide 5 by 2 what d'o you get T
Pupil.-:!~.
Teacher.-oan lt lYe as much as 37 PupH.-It cannot. Teacher.-Tihen where must we put the decimal podn.t tn

tlb.e quotient? Pu1.-Between the 2 and 4. Teach16r.-HOIW many decimals in the d!v1'den.d! Pup!l.-2. Teacher.-In. the divisor! Pupil.-1. Teacher.-By h!O'W much does the number in the dividend
exceed <tlhe number in the divisor? PupiL-By 1. Teaclher.-An.d how many decimals did we point otr? Pupll.-1. Tea;cher.-Then give me a rule for pointing otr when the
number ot decimals in the diV'idend exceeds the number in the d!V'isor.
Pupi'l.-PO'int otr as many decimals In the quotient as the number ot decimaJls in the dividend exceeds bhe number
m the divisor. ~

When the number of ded mals in tbe dividend is smaller than the number in the divisor.

67.6 + .24-= :

'l'!b.e only thlng necessary Is to annex naughts to the decimals In the ddvldend until there are as many there u l:Q ~ dll.Vl.$0r. The a.tlS'wer then IS in wtb.ole numb!}rs,

169

OOKPOU'ND QU~

This Wbject :Ia oompa1'81t1Tely f!J&8Y, The ta'btee 'W'hlleh were studied '1n Primary Numben~ are lliOW formally re-
Yiewed. The on!ly 'tfirlng necessary Is to give a cood 1!orm ~r each ot the !our fundamental operatioDA
.....
!ADDITION.

1. Addition.
8 mi. fur. 64 39
10 6

40 5l 8 12

rsdo .

yd. ft. 72

in. 8

16 8 1 9

761 6

+ 12in. -= 1ft.
17in. = 1ft. 6in.
+ 8ft. -= 1yd.
4ft. = lyd. 1ft., etc.

In writing dawn the problem, care Should be taken to

write the columns !ar enough apart to keep the pupils from

thllnking they represent units, tens, etc. Write a.n allibTevkl.tion o! tl'e name over each column. Wl'lite or omit the
table at will. H the pupil writes the table lit recitation,
of coul"Se have him do so from memory. It is better to

make Uhe dhange or reductiO'IlS in the pupil's mdnd. If he eannot d'O thia, have tlhem written down systemalticailly.

2. Subtraction.

20

25

T. cwt. qr. lb.

125 6 80 15

2 12 1 18

84 10

0 19

COLLQQUY.
TeaCher.--can Y'OU t'ake 18 lb8. from 12 llbs. T
PupiL-You cannot.
Teacher.-What did yoou do in BUbtraJCtfon wh'eD yuu r >uld not take the unit fi~ure in the subtrahend from the r.nlt figure in the -rpinuend?
Pupll.-You changed a 10 into units. ..;, Tea.cher.-1 qr. trow 2 qra. leans how manyT Pupll.-1 qr.
Tes.cher.-1 qr. Ill h"O"tr 1DJILD.1' lbL T
Pup!L-ll6 n.....

110
1'eacb'"'e' t.-H()W' many ThL llaft :roa &ll'e&clyT
n.. Pupll.-12.
Teacher.-12 lbl. and 25 lba. are how ma.ny T Pupi'l.-37 lbs. Teacher.-18 lb6. from 37 lbs. ~ve hmv many? Pu'I)'l1.-19. Jwrt repeast this unlit wHib. the other columns.

MULTIPLICATION.

How much oorn in 8 'box~. ea.dh box oontain1n: 6 bu.

I pk. 6 qta, 1 pt.?

The teacher writes on the board:

482

bu. pk. qt. pt.

5.

8 5 xs1

COLLOQUY.
Teacher.-Il ee.c'h !box 'hold11 the amount named, haw lll.IIIJilY times that amount wil[ 8 boxes h'Old?
Pupil.-8 times. Teacller.-T'hen. 'blow many pjnu 1n 8 b'Oxe.a? Pupil.-8 pints. Tea.cher.-8 opiDite are lhow many qUia.rta 7 Pu pi!.---4. Teacher.~ pints !em! Pupil-No. Tea.c.her.-5 qts. 1111 1 box, how many 1D 8 'bores? Pupll.-40. Tee..cher.-How IIlla41Y qta. have we a.lrea:dyT 'Pupil.-4. Tea.cher.-flow many 1n a.IlT
Pllipi~.-44.
And 110 on. It t'he teacher wlsb, 'he ~n put down all 01 tlle81 operaUomr, lbut 1t Ill ~t Ito d.o it a.lwa.ys 1n som..
putkula.r .....;.

171

DIVISION.

If 1 doz. BIIVfT SjJO'OnS weigh 1lb. 9 OZ. 17 dwt. 1J Cl'.

whaJt is the weight of each one?

The teacher writes on the 'board:

12 20

24

lb. oz. dwt. ~r. oz. dwt. gr.

12\1 9

17

~~

1

16

11

21 197 13Z

12 -1-2 - -12

9 77

12

- -72

11

0

COLLOQUY.

Tela.cher.-can you divide 1 J.lb. 'by 12f

Pupil.-No.
Teacher.-~How many oo. 1n one lb. T

Pupll.-12.

Teacher.-How many oz. already?

Pupil.-9.

Teaeher.~ow many in 8111?

IPupll.-21.

'l'ea.cher.-Haw many twelves 1n Zlf

Pupil.-1.

TeaiCher.-1 w1bat, Sln.ce we are divldinl 011.!

Pupll.-1 oz.

Tea.ch.er.-H'ow many oz. 'lert?

Pupil.-9.

.

Teacher.-Can you divide 9 by 12 and get a whole num'oel't

Pupll.-No.

Teacher.-What can: we reduoe t11e t ~to!

iE'tu.pll.-To penn~ghts.

Teacher.-'How many drwt.. kl. I OS.!

~pJII.-180.

Teacller.-And 17 more a.re !low ID&li;J'T

Pupn.-1~7.
Taeher......JHow IDU7 ~ cu ... llD4., IQL

bl. un

172

I'EROENTAGE.

The ldea of percentage ts to be taught Ill exacUy the same wayas decimals. The terms are to be taught just as any other definition, t'hat is, by an applimtion ot the !our steps bl in.ductlve teaching.

1. To find a certain perj cent. of a number.

Find

5

o/ 70

of 360

m 100 per cent. - 360

1 " "=

of 360 ~ 3.6

5 " " = 5 X 3.6 = 18

.'. 5 " " of 360 = 18

COLLOQUY.

'I"eacller.-Wblat per cenlt. ds 360 of !l:tse1f? Pupil.-100. Tea.c'her.-Then. 1 per cent. will be what part of 360? PupiL-do of it.
Tea.cher.-Horw much is tha.tr
Pupil.-3.6.
Teaclher.-5 iper oont. will be how m:an'Y times 1 per cenJt.!
I Pupill.-5 times 3.6, 'Wihicll will be 18.
2. To find what .Per cent. one number 18 of an 18 is what per cent. of 360 ? other.

m 360 - 100 per cent.

1-

of 100 per cent. -= 1~ per cent.

18 18 X fr per cent. = 5 per cent.

. 18 - 5 per cent. of 360.

COLLOQUY.

Teacll9.-860 !I w'h&t per cent. of 2JbHlff

PuP!'l.-100 per cenJt.

Toacller.-What per 08lllt. 'W'1ll 1 be!
jtupil.-n\r of 100 per cent., or h per cent.

'J'eraolltii'.-And 18 W1lil N bow~ t1m41 U m&1117

P.l-n-

.,;J

Ml

Jf

--

Y .

._. ,.,

or

5 per '

~t, "'"'

173

f1 Given a certain peri cent. of a number to 18 is 5 per cent. of what number? find the number,
100 per cent. = the required number. 5 per cent. = 18.
1 per cent. = t of 18 - 8.6.
100 per cent. = 100 X 3.6 = 860 5 per cent. of 360 - 18.

COLLOQUY.

Teacller.-W'lulrt per cent. equals the num'berT Pupll.-100 per cent. Teacher.-5 per cenlt. are h'OW many? Pupil.-5 per cent. are 18. Teadher.-Then 1 per cent. 8l1'e how many? Pupil.-1 per cent. are 3.6. Teacher.-100 per cent. wm be 'how ma.nyT Pupll.-100 per cent. wll1 be 360.

i. To find a certain num-~ ber when another, a What number increased by 5 certnm p~-"r cent. great- per cent. of itself becomes 378? Pr or 1~. is p:iven.

+ 100 per cent. = the number.
100 per cent. 5 per cent.= 105.

105 per cent.

= 378.

1 per cent.= rh X 378 = tH.

100 per cent. ;;, tH X 100 = 360.

. 378 ts 5 per cent. greater than 360.

COLLOQUY.

Teacher.-Wblit per cenrt.. is the number of ftSel!T
PupiL-100 per cent.
Tea.dher.-Wlm.t part of t'he number I. 378? Pupii.--'I'he wfbX>le numlber >and 6 per oenJt. mOT"e.
Teacher.-Then wb!alt per re:~.t. of the number 'is 1717
Pup.il-105 per cent.
Tea<:her.-1Wllast wm be 1 p~er cent. of itT
Pupil.--rh of 378.
Teacher.-Whart wim 'be 100 per cent. 01. 1tf Pupil.-100 X tH, 1rhich will be 360.

174

!I:NTJJRiaT.
~ termt~ u needed. Let It be required to ftnd tbe I.Jl.
tce&lt on f:t-20 for 1 yr. 7 mo. and li Ga. -.t. 8 per cent.

120 .08

i e mQ.
1"

9.60 int. for 1 Tf

4..s8o0 .".

." .

6 mo. 1 ..

15 da. j .40 .. " 15 da.

15.60 whole interest.

COI1LOQUY.

Teacher.-Haw do you 11.nd lllhe lntereJ~t tor 1 year!

Pupll.-By multiplying the prlnc!pa.'l b7 the rlllte.

Tea.cher..-How much is that T

Puipll.-9.60.
Tea.cller.-6 monthB a.re what part at a yea.rT

PuP!1.-()ne-ha1t.
Tea.cher.-Th~ 1!11'8 Interest tor I monJtba will be whu j)'ll.rt ot the '1nltereSt tor 1 7earT
Pupil,-()ne-halt.

Tea.Cher.-Htow much is t'haltf

PupU.-$4.80.

Teaeher.-The ln'terest for 1 month Is whaJt part of the Interest tor 6 monif!hs?

Pupll.-lt is ooe-sixth of $4.80, or SOc.
Tea.cher.-15 days are whast part. ot a :mJorithT
Pup!l.-()ne-haU.

Teacher.-Then the Interest for 16 da)'11 Will be what part

of SOc.?

Pupfi.-()ne-halt, or 40c.
Teacller.-How can you cet tlhe Interest tor the ent!lre

tllme!

?upl:.- By a.ddlng these amounts together.

ti')

Tea.cher.-I.t you boiTOW fl20 from a party, bmr m~

wfll :rau owe hllm aJt t!he end of 1 'f'l',, 7 mo. &nd li li&7llf
Pupll.-$120 and $15.60 inltereat.

Tescller.-Tllat Ia nlled taw! &mCllllll&.

..

175

ltJATIO AND PROPORTION.

Thlfl ratlb ot two numlbers is t!he lindica.ted qootllen.t of one divd.ded by lt:he other.
'/ , ~ are ratios. These are also written, 12:3 : 4:1. They are read, 12 divided by 3; 4 divided by 1. Compare the ratio '>f 12 to 3 and 4 to 1. What do you observe? The compariwn mi~~:ht be expressed as follows: 12:3 - 4: 1. This is a provortion, or equality of ratios. There are two kinds of problems under proportion :
1. Prob'lems 1n 'W{hldh tll.ere are onl7 4 quantities (Simple).
2. Problems in which there are more than quantities
( OompiOU!D.d).
There is one general law about a proportion. The prodnet of the end terms (extremes) is always equal to the product of the inside terms (mEiallS). Tblat being true, any 3 ot the 4 terms beln.g gJlV'en, the fourt.h can easily be found. lin all probllems ot thUI fJOl'!t, something always causes or produces something else. Because at this tact, arithmet.fc'ia.ns a.r'e generally ~eed tlhalt it 1s a good p1a.n to state a universal proportion in the following manner:
Fl.rat cause: Seoocn.d cauae eqUIIIJls First effect: Second effect. When tlhe teacher meets a prOblem In proportion,
BJll he has to db fa to ascerta.in whalt ldl the first cause, etc., unlttl he finds 3 terma, putting the blank where it properly belonp, a.nd !then make t!he product ot the extremes equal to the pl"'fd..1ldt ~ the means.

ILLUSTRIA.TIONS.

8impu Proportlon.-

It Ill cloe.ks can hi! made tram 64 ;rards ot broladcloth,
how many yards would it require fCJr 32 cloaks?

1st Cause. 2d Cause. 1st Effect.

yd.

yd.

cloak.

54

:e

12

Product of extremes = product of means.

12 X= 54 X 32

9 16

- -HX-;J-~1

'I

2d Effect. cloak. 32

176

Compound Proportion..-

It 7 horses eat 21 bus'bels of OOJts In U days, how many bushels would be required to serve 35 horses 28 days?
1at Cause. 2d Cause. 1st Effect. 2d Effect.

h7

3h5 }

201

0
If

14

28

Product of extreme = product of means.

7 X 14 X % = 35 X 28 X 21. By calculation :

52 ~%X~~ X 21
-210.
1XJ~Xz The same by ana1ysls:

7 Lvrses in 14 days eat 21 bushels

1" """ "3"
1 ""1" "h"

8X35

35 .. " " .. " - - "

.85

IC 28 II

14 8X35X28 - - - - - U .,. 210

14

-Ihese two eDLmplea &re taken from Sa.nford'a

Arithmetlc.

177

METHODS OF LEARNING PRIMARY NUMBERS.

1. TM old Wav.

The pupil, after having attended school a while, learns

to make figures, and then commits to memory the difrerent

tables, having recitations at Irregular intervals. This

work is often put into the hands of older pupils.

2. Grube Number&.

Part I. of this Manual Is OM presentation of Grube Num-

bers. Usually every system of schools has Its own way or

handling this subject. For instance: In teaching the num-

ber 8, one system will teach all of the multiplicative

facts, then all of the divisional facts, or all of the additive

fa.ota first. and then .ro on to the number 9. Another sys-

tem will teach an additive fact. then a subtractive fact,

then a multiplicative tact, and so on. One plan Is just as

good as another, provided the teacher follow system-

atically whatever plan Is adopted. Here Is the psycholo-

gical basis of the work: Nurpber is presented to the child

through sen~'l. The perceptive facultie being most acute

at this stage, the subject Is presented In the concrete rather

than the abstract. The pupils see and handle the objects,

and thus get a conception of number that could never

be gotten by committing table to memory. Some varia-

tion of this plan 11 now used almost exclusively in the best

1chools of the country. This caution should always be

borne in mind: Do not use the objecta any longer tban la

absolutely nece1sa.ry. A. pup1l'1 development may be bind

ered rather than accelerated b7 onrlookiDJ thla cautlor:l.
a. TM Bpwr svnwm.

Thla 11 a treatment of number from the atandpolnt of
relation ot masnltude. One thlnl it 10 manr time l&raer,

,.ctl IJI tr locer, or benler tban another. Tblt 171ttm Ultt o-..

tbe

18 Grube DUmber~, bu$ tllt tb~e~ tre ....

178
80 much to be counted as to be compared. The usual outfit consists of a table covered with blQ,cks of different 'engths and sizes. This work can be extended by using llnes on the board also. For a full treatment of this subject, write Ginn and Company for Speer's Arithmetic, Teachers' Edition. In this book will be found illustrations showing the number and size of blocks to be used, tocether with suggestions, model lessons and so on, much more 1n detail thaD could be expected 1n a ahon DOUce like tbiL

NATURE STUDY.
BY T. J. WooFTER, PH.D., GEoRGIA NoRMAL
AND INDUSTRIAL CoLLEGE.
I. WHAT IS IT? WHY HAVE IT?
"The study of nature Is the study of. things about us . which we can perceive with our senses."-Packard.
"Nature study Is seeing what Is bef.ore us and construing correctly what we see." It Is the study of. God's world about us, placed here for our development.
Nature Is the outer world of. educative materials about us. It Is continually and from all direction pressing in on the child, calling forth his activities. The child In turn really hungers and thirsts for contacts with the outer world about him. He asks questions; he has a burning desire to know; he Is every ready and anxious to come in <'ontact with things. Nature and human nature are thus In thorough concord. They mutually Interact. In other words, the child 11 prompted to know and to grow, both by nature about and by human nature within.
"Teaching Is aiding the mind to perform Its functions of knowing and growing." Natural education will aid the development of the child In accordance with nature. What are the lesson nature gives the child? How has he been knowIng and growing be!ote he entered school? 011 what has he spent his actlvltlea'! On boolta'J Far from lt.

Bow has nature educated the race from prlmlUTe man down to the present?

L PrlDlltlve man had to learn early the uae of certain plants for food and shelter.

I. He learned to 'outwit, conquer, domeatlc&te pow erful and useful animals.

IL He had to fl.nd out how to make of wood, bone, stone, metal, rude weapons, and to QSe these.

4. He gained knowledge of the elementl, of suo. moon and stars as ciocks.
Such is the character of the education fl.rst given the race by nature. Has this education been effectIve? To doubt this Is to doubt the wisdom of God's plans.
There Is somewhat of a parallel between the development of the child and of the race. From these lessons nature has given the race we CfJP get the cue as to what lesson we should d.~~ give the child.

1. Let us note that In early education there were np books. Man learned from outside nature. Ou~ education has become too bookish, therefore toQ unnatural.

fa. Man has divine Instruction to "Subdue the eartlt

and have dominion over every living thing."

There are two steps In thla: (1) Domestlcatloq

of aDbnals; (2) cultivation of soil.

ll'bere coald be no effectual cultivation of the 10Q

without the ox and the horse. It 11 lnterelt-

lnc to note that the doc wu the flnt anima~

domeatlcated, probabl7 .becault of lall oompaa

loDihJp,

.

ftl btlfDDIDI ot loll ODitare WU dt0111Tt for lt&bl~
' llaltttauou. Kaa atllld to be waadtrtr ac
u found ~ 'alae of ~" te~" - . -
-~~"~

111

Hence the t'ollowlng are suggested as the first school

steps in Nature study.

1. Sympathetic Interest In animal llt'e, especially anl.

mals as related to human Interest.

2. The soli, Its cultivation, plants, etc. Tllis step

centers In and around the garden. Competitive

growing ot plants and flowers Is good to bring

children to observe natural laws, the weather,

sunshine, rain, heat, cold, etc.

3. Observation ot the sun, moon, and stars.

Shaler says that city people to-day are losing certain

stable t'oundations "i:lt' character gotten through

contact with domestic animals. And It Is true

that anarchists do not come t'rom the country.

Prot'. Hodge of Clark University has been inviting

passing tramps to work in his garden that he

might have the opportunity to ask them this

question: "Have you ever planted or cultivated

anything?" Only one out ot forty had ever

planted a seed or cared for a plant.

Are we educating a race of anarchists and tramps?

Is Nature Study then worth while? Has It any

practical good in it?

Again we may r ote that keen perceptive tacultles are

needed:

1. For material success, the good observer has the

advantage In cotton buying, merchandising,

t'arming, blacksmithing, in all pursuits of life.

2. For enjoyment, whether in ttavel, literature, art,

or every-day affairs.

Who gets most enjoyment out ot' these? Nature Study

has a practical value not surpassed by even

arithm etic.

r

Still again, all first hand knowledge must come

through the senses. Without the senses we

could never know. Sense knowledge is founda-

tion knowledge. It is the concrete material that

we u11e Inductively. We need It to Interpret

182

tnture knowledge, to apperceive. Yout"h 111 the

time to supply this sense knowledge. The activ-

Ity of the senses In youth, the plasticity of the

growing brain, the Interests of childhood vs.

those of later life, all emphasize youth as the

time for storing the mind with material from

the outer world as foundation material for

future development as well as the best material

for present development.

And lastly, let me urge that Nature Study wlll react

not only on the life of the Individual child, but

also on the life of the school and of the whole

community. It will furnl11h recreation and

variety in school work, relieve the monotony of

book work and dull routine, wlll Intensity In-

terest along all school linea.

It will have a tendency to check the movement from

country to city, wm Increase capacity to enjoy

country surroundlng11, and thus will materially

benefit the whole State.

Will you have It? Without your decision to have It,

fellow teache111, all talk &bout methods will be

in valn. You cannot alrord to be without It. Do

not be a book murderer of natural development,

a slave to past Ideals. On the other hand, aim

to dcvek>p the active powers ot tM child a114 to give

I

or him an ab~ flnterut in the 1001rk8 GOO..
Through Natur" Study, lay a rational foundation for

the religious belief. Necessity for a creator may

be clearly shown. There Ia evidence of Immeas-

urable power, transcendent wisdom, supreme

goodness everywhere manifest. Mighty forces

come from the sun. But who endowed the sun?

Food, air, sunshine, water, are here In propor-

tion to our need"' Who ordained It so? Behold

the adaptability of structure In plant and ani-

mal. Who arranced it? "The heavens declare

the clory of God &nd the tirm&ment llhoweth h.1a

183
b11 nd!work." "How manifold are thy worke. In wisdom thou hast made them all; the earth Is full of thy riches."
ll. l\IETIIODS.
This topic, Miss Arnold, In Waymarks for Teachers, aptly divides Into three, "get," "see," and "say."
First stE'p. The getting has to do with thP. selection of the specimens aurl their sequence In a course of study. In selecting specimens for class study, some tnmgs should guide.
1. The specimens should belong to the Immediate surroundings of the child. The best observation work cannot be In the schoolroom. The Indoor lessons should arouse Interest and stimulate outside obserratlon. The pupils should apply the schoolroom lessone. They are to be led to see and to interp1et the out-of-doors, to ap preciate the beauties of their environment. The toad Is a better topic than the starfish.
2. The specimens l!lhonld be typP~ of import:mt groups. Of abom 300.000 species of animals and 200,000 of plants only a few can be studied. It the few are types, a fairly good Idea of all may be obtained.
8. The specimens should, as far as possible, lead to valuable observation and application. The cornfieldpf.'a takes nitro~r<'n out of thf.' air and puts it Into the soil. The Canner pays blgh prices tor nltro{:!"eu in tertlllz!'rs. Certaio eommon insects are deHrucrive. These should ue recognized In any stagE' of developm!'nt. The value of birds, toads, etc.. sra rnp!! thNH? a!l useful topics.
Se<>ond step. This Is the sE-eing. First find out whal pnplls ha .-e a.lrendy !I<:<'D. thE'n guide them to sE>e more. Skillful lJUel>"tlonlng will do this. The observation!'< ~hould UE' orderly. There will a& lr.t be the t ..ndency to see tblnJ b&pb&.&an!,

184
without any logical connections. To overcomt> this the teacher's questions should be planned in order. Ha"e a definite plan of procedure. Arrange your questions. Again the observations should be thoughtful. The pupil should interpret properly what he sees. The question should be thought-provoking; fhe why should always be in evidence. The observations should be complete. They should not stop until they bave seen all they ought to see. A definite plan will be needed for this, one which indicates a beginning and an end. Such plans well followed will Induce logical habits of thought. Third step. Observation should lead to expression. All the various !otms ot expression should be cultivated, but especially oral and written language and drawing. Have oral descriptions always and frequent written descriptions and life stories. Encourage drawings of leaves, flowers. animal, trees, anything studied. Have these just as a matter o! course, not as a tegu1ar drawing Jesson. Leaf, flower, and animal forms may be cut in paper or pricked and embroidered. This is good :Ldustrial busy work in connection with Nature Study. Outlines !or embtoidering may be had from any kindergarten supply house, such as Milton Bradley Co.. Atlanta. Pictures and literary gems should be brought in, tlle poet and the artist thus bt>lping t.be child to appreciate the beautiful. Free use of memory gems from literature at appropriate times is valuable. The reading of inspiring books is to be recommended. These books should not be mere eompilatlons of tact, but should be genuine good literature. Suclr are the works of Burroughs, Thoreau, Seton-Thompson. Long, and others. B:y way o! general suggestion let me add. Do not at any time let the lessons dwindle into were

186
knowledge-getting lessons, or Into a mere count lng and naming of parts. Let the life story stand out What can the plant or animal do, then how Is It fitted to do so. About the latter part of November celebrate Arbor Day. Have a program, invite patrons, and plant trees. About April first have a Bird Day. Have as much as possible of the nature work center In the garden. Make suggestions, dlsttibute seeds, do all you can to Interest them In plantIng and tending. Ir at all practicable, have a competitive exhibit of pupils' productions, flowers, plants, vegetables, school work. All of this will help to make the school the community center.
III. SUGGESTIVE MATERIAL.
Since this is a. new field, It seems best to give here more specific outline showing what material may be used. Nature Study is not fully organized as yet. Oourses of study wlll be found to agree generally In such subjects as arithmetic and geography, but there is no 1uch agreement In
Nature Study courses. The following outline course ot
study Is a step toward the organization of this material for Georgia. It is therefore suggestive in its alms. It will be too extensive for some, too limited for others. Topic may be taken, othen left according to individual tastes. Some may be abbreviated er added to, brou,ht In earlier or postponed. TboM who feel timid about entering tbi1 nat field are advi1ed to make a beilnnlni a.nywhere.
Select a taw toplca ot tntere1t to you, begin with
theae, and ;you'll 10011 radiate In all dlrectlonl. Tllo who 1eem Inclined to be oritlcal, please bear ID
mind tb&t much bP bMD UtCHMl'll7 l~riACt4
~ brtnq.

188
To correlate with the general course of study, the following course Is arranged In ftve groups agreeing with the ftve reader grades of the graded course of study for the common schools of Georgia, published by Commissioner Glenn. It is planned for the rural. and vlllage schools, and If put into effect will tend to dignify and elevate country life.
Suggestions have been adapted from many sources, but it is hoped that there will be found some pedagogical merit distinctly Its own in the , course.
SUGGESTIVE OUTLINE COURSE OF STUDY.

TALL.

FIRST GROUP.

Life histories of dog, cow, cat, chicken, duck. Inatl-

tute comparisons. Stress use to man and care

of do~DJ!Stlc animals. Bring out habits, adapta-

tlona, bodily covering. Properties of hair, fur, .

etc. Hickory and pine trees; form, parts, arrangements

of buds, fruit. Comparisons. Falling of leaves.

Covering of buds with little overcoats.

Higratfon of birds. Collect cocoons. From this study of the preparations of plant and ani

mal for winter, pass to our protection against the

cold of winter.

WINTER. Bkln, hair, nalls; their uses and care. Cleanllneaa.

Olothlng and related industries. Houses. Primitive

houses and dresa; the Indiana. Eaquimau life.

Teacher get information from Schwatka' Chll

dreD of the Oold. A.lao bring 1n the Hiawatha

ao.,, rrimer (BouchtoD, )Jut.

tor llld1aD ltOd-.

187
tegends, etc. What were Hiawatha's Brothers?
Hiawatha's Chickens? Also study parts of human body, bones and muscles.
Fish, oyster, a vertebrate and an !'nvertebrate. SPRING.
Nature's preparation for return of warm weather.
Familiar seeds and their germination. Opening ot
leaf and flower buds. Which open first In the elm? Why? in the dog'~ood? Note others. What are some of the first signs of Spring? Stut':y butterflies and moths. Have individual colle"tlons or lt>aves arranged according to shape and veining. Study the horse; simple structure, habits, food, use, care. Compare with cow. For wild animals, study the squirrel and the rabbit. Contrast habits. Begin an interest in birds. Have som! general weather observations. For some sample lessons worked out in full on the dog, cow, ho1'se, chicken, rabbit, etc., get McMurray's Method in Elementary Science. Thl~ Is a good book on Nature Study for the first three grades; price 50 cents, Public School Publish lng Co., Bloomington, Ill. Read them Thompson's "Raggy !Jug" from "Some Wild Animals I Have Known." in connection with the rabbit. Also Uncle Remus's tales of "Brer Rabbit." Give them many. Interesting stoiies of domestic animals. Encourage them to tell about the doings of animals.
SECOND GROUP.
FALL. Teach names of months and seasons. Forms of water; vapor, rain, hail, snow, Ice. Simple experiments to show e!'fect ot heat on matter: (:P on air, (2) on water, (3) on Iron, (4) on mercury. The t.hermometeJ." u a mea-1re or heat. Dail:

188
record or thermometer. Weather record kept this year. Sum these records weekly, then monthly. Which the hottest day? Which the coldest? What the average temperature? Which days were about average? On which days did it rain? How much? What the direction of wind these days? The prevailing weather? Prevailing winds, etc.? Flowers. Work or parts ot fiOW'-15. Fa!Ung or flowers. Which parts fall? Which remain? Use or the flowers to the plant. Study ot any r::~t flower !Ike Goldenrod, Chrysanthemum. Study or oak and walnut trees. Recognition by bark, leaf and wood. Properties of their wood. Nut trees In general and nuts. Collection ot autumn leaves. Have some drawn In outllne and colors. Collection ot seeds; morning glory, acorn, pecan, beans, peas, cockle-burs, lettuce, radish, mustard, corn, wheat. Every child should have a seed box. Some of their own collection should be planted next spring. How nature sows her seeds.
The storing or rood by animals; by plants In seeds and In roots as In beets, turnips, parsnips, etc. Storing of starch as rood. Identification or starch (iodine test). Is it soluble? Try cold water and hot. Necessity for grinding and cookIng, for conversion of starch Into sugar.
Sugar-cane, sorghum, sugar maple. From this t:tudy of the needs and preparation of ani-
mals and plants from the standpoint of food, pass to a like study of man.
WINTER.
Primitive and modern methods of making fire, cookIng, grinding.
The teeth. construction. use. carP. Proper way to eat. Food& Digestive 11ystem. Chl'nhtory system. Story

189

of a Mouthful of Bread In "The House I Live In." The sun, our great giver of heat and light.
SPRING. (G a rden suggestions.)

Germination of seeds. Parts of a plant as developed from seeds. Morning glory, bean, squash, and corn, are good plants to sprout and study.
Sheep, pigeon. Further study of butterflies. The ant by way of contrast. The life history of the toad.

1. Cat (tiger, panther, lion). Flesh eaters. { 2. D\g (wolf, fox).
Grass eaters. Horse, cow, sheep (reindeer, goat, camel, buffalo, elephant, deer).
Study the apple-tree, its peculiarities, flower, fruit, etc. Begin with flowers from the early crabapple. Have these observed, drawn, colored.
"Black Beauty" and "Beautiful Joe," may be read to them this year to continue to develop kindness to animals. Beecher's "The Anxious Leaf," Larcom's "When the Leaves Turn Brown," and other suitable gems should be used in proper connection. Tyndall's "Forms of Water" and Needham's "Out-Door Studies" w!ll suggest to the teacher. The latter book has excellent treatment of goldenrod and its inhabitants. Get
Hodge's "Outline on the Toad." Read Jane Andrews' "Seven Little Sisters" to them this year.

THIRD GROUP.

I 'A L L .

Leaves studied more systematically. Organs of leaf.

Main purpose of leaf. Uses of leaf to plant and

to man. Falling of leaves, how, why? Deter-

mine bow much is one leaf in clover; In china-

berrY'; in walnut; In hickory, thistle, etc. Adapta-

tions. Summary of kinds of leaves. Ferns &Dd

_,chell.ll u types of dowerless plan~.

,_.

190

Coal, petroleum, carbon, properties in fuels and illuminants.

WINTER.
Carbon in roods. Lungs, res:~Jlration, bodily heat. Hygiene of breathing. Ventilation, heating. The voice and its organs. Review circulation and digestion.
The camel and elephant may be studied as beasts ot burden in other lands.

SPRING. (Garden suggestions to be carried out at home.)

Mica, quartz, glass, feldspar, marble, granite.

Earthworm, bugs and beetles, snail and oyster.

Mosquito, dragon fly, and pond life 1n general.

The !ollow!ng topics may be divided between Fall

and Spring, according to circumstances:

1. Ideas of north, south, east and west.

,

Observe direction and length o! shadow !rom same

point, forenoon, noon, afternoon. Changes why?

Shortest when? Shape of sun's path daily?

Shadow mid-day points north. Sun-S. Right-

E. Left-W. Observe sun's path tall, winter,

spring. Compare. Sun's rising where? Setting?

Drill in doors and out. Observe at home. In

how many ways we find the north and south

line? Find north star, big dipper, and observe

motion ot stars. Make a weather vane and a

sun dial.

II. P .A.RTS OF THE EARTH.

1. Land, a solid.

Walk on what to school? House rests on what?

Compare with water, with air. It is a robid.

Give ideas of l!m!tations in all directions.

2. Water, a liquid.

@I

Do what with water you cannot do with land? (Pour,

1wim in, drink, etc.). Movet freely; 1l.ow1 dOW11

_,!Jli collects q. low placetL

191

8. Air, a gas.
Where is air? Can you feel It? See It? How high? Tree tops. birds, clouds. Does air keep stiii ever? What do we call air in motion. Difference between gale and breeze?
Color of distant objects, hills, sky. Why blue?
Is It warmer at noon or In morn,lng'l Day or night? On which side of house is it coolE-st, and why? Why cooler at nights? What heats the air? Why cooler on top of mountain than at foot? San heats the air how? How does air protect us from cold? How many uses of air can you name? Tell all we have found out about air.
liT. WATER IN THE AIR.
Boil water and condense. Place a pan of water where It will evaporattt\. Ask what has become of it. Teach vapor, steam, clouds. Is all the moisture in the air in clouds? (Ice pitcher experiments.) How does the air get Its moisture? On what kind of nights does dew collect? Where come from? Does It "fall"? Why collect on plants and flowers? What becomes of the dew-drop? What is its "shining pathway?" What has been called "cloud dust?" What doe& the air do with Its moisture? Uses of water In air? Teach rain, mist, fog, hall, snow. frost.

IV. WEATHER.

Weather observations and records continued. Get directions for voluntary observers from U. S.

Weather Bureau, also their pictures of varloua

clouds. Note the amount o:t' rainfall and the

prevailing directions of winds before and after

raina and during dry season&.

U

t'Jont1nne observations on the sun a.nd moon. Expla.tn
phuea of moon. Our relations to the ama,
~e In lenJi:h ot 4&TL

192
V. WATER ON THE LAND.
Slopes, universality of; kinds, gradual, abrupt, long, short, rough, grassy, etc Water-meeting waterparting, divides, creek-beds, rills, branches, creeks, rivers, ponds, lakes, oceans, banks, basins, creek systems, river systems.
Uses of Slopes. Suppose no slopes. Suppose all abrupt.
(1) Sources of soil. (2) Distributes soil. (3) Variety of plants. (4) Of animals. (5) Of climate. Produce springs, streams,
oceans, etc.
IV. WATER IN TRE EARTH.
What becomes of the water that falls as rain? What of that which soaks in the ground? Through what kind of soil will it sink deepest? What will stop its course? Change its course? Doe any of it ever come out again. All of it?
Springs, wells, caverns, streams, mineral springs, etc. Uses of underground water.
VII. LAND FORMS.
These have already been taught in substance in connection with slopes. Sum up or teach hills, mountains, plateaus, valleys, deserts, swamps.
VIII. ANIMALS OF VALLEYS AND SLOPES.
Where find muskrats, frogs, turtles, crawfish, tadpoles, snakes, dragon flies, cranes, snipes, wild ducks, etc
Where wolves, foxes, chipmunks, squirrels, bears, robins, jaybirds, eagles? How are these adapted to their homes? Long-legged webfooted, sharp bill, etc.
Animal life in various regions of the world,

193
t:X. PLANTS OF VALLEYS AND SLOPES.
Where do you go for huckleberries? For water lilies? What trees grow in the valleys? On slopes? Where is vegetation the rankest? Why so in valleys?
Vegetation in various regions.
X. SOIL MAKING.
1. Kinds ot soil and rock. Examine some sand to find out what it is made out ot. Examine clay in a similar way. In Georgia the mica in clay will help to the conclusion that It too is made out of rock particles. Bring in some black soil from the wood-yard or elsewhere. Find all you can In it. It has what, not found in sand? What becomes of all the animals that die? Ot the plants? Thus teach loam as another kind of soil. Which do you think is made out of the harder rocks, sand or clay? Why do you think so? .Sand out ot quartz, clay out of feldspar. Loam out ot what?
2. Weathering. Work ot frost, lee, wind. S. Work ot streams. Wash, transport, deposit. Signa
ot these? 4. Work of plants and animals.
XI. OUR NEEDS. 1. Food. Make a catalogue of vegetables raised within radius ot one mile. Do the same tor fruits; also grains. What the chief product ot home county. Do you eat many things not raised in the county? Name some. Source. 2. Clothing. Its materials, sources, related trades. Show by an examination that nearly all cloth is put together in the same way. Then If possible get a small toy loom and show how It is woven. 1. Shelter. Its materials and rell!-ted trades. Ideal hom ea.

194
XII. OCCUPATION.
(1) Farming. (2) Stock-raising, etc. (3) Lumberltig.
(4) Mining. (5) Fishing. (6) Manufacturingflour, clotll, Iron, steel, wood, etc. (7) Trade. commerce.
XIII. PEOPLE.
Let pupils read "Seven Little Sisters."
XIV. GOVERNMENT.
Tllis should first be an objective, sense study, to open the eyes and the understanding of the chJld to his surroundings.
Do you know any one who holds office? What does he do? Who made him an officer? Who pays him? Did you ever. pay taxes? (How about postage stamps?) Name things that have to be done for the good of the whole community. Roads, schools, etc. Care of public property.
XV. WOHLD AS A WHOLE.
This topic Is brought In as a proper conclusion to the series above, and not because it Is in itself a Nature Study topic.
Payne's Geographical Nature Studies, Tarr and Mc1\'Iurry's Home Geography, Frye's Child and Nature, Stories of Industry, are some valuable aids to teachers.
FOURTH GROUP.
FALL. Soil. A more complete study than In the preceding group. (See following outline.) Birds. A fall study to be continued In the sprlni. The English sparrow is a handy type. Bees, a colony or animals. The grasshopper by wa1 ot compar.Won. Emphasize thritt.

19~
The cotton plant. Instincts of animal\, Intelligence ot m11n7. How we krnn.o and ful.
WINTER.
The nervous system. Its control over other organ. the heart, lungs, stoiL tch, muscles, etc. Nervous matter In general, the white and the gray. Th,. brain, spinal cord, ganglia, nerves, and the special sense organs. Adaptations of these organs. What we know through each. Hygiene ot the netvous system in groeral. Care of the special senses.
SPRING.
Bird study continued. Cra~flsh. The o trn plant. More critical study of trees. Endoge~s, exogens. Life In the woods. Orchard life. (See Comstock's "Insect Life," chapter on Orchard Life.\ Fruit trees.
Metals: Iron, tin, lead, copper, zinc, gold, silver, alloys.
At any time of year observe moon, its phases, motion among stars, time from moon to moon. Also notice behavior of all visible planets during year, especially motion among stars.
"Birds and Bees," "Sharp Eyes," "Fur-Bearing Animals," all by John Burroughs. "Ways of Woodfolk." Long. "Some Wild Animals I have Known," Thompson. "Bird World," Stickney. These are all Interesting and Inspiring books for
( both teachers and pupils. "Our Native Birds," Lang, and U. S. Government
Farmer's Bulletins on Bird and Their Relation to Agric:!'ture, are rood tor Information for teachera.

196
SOIL. (A tuner outline.)
Man's prosperity, wealth, and life depend upon the earth, atmosphere, and sunlight. Over which of these does man have little control? Which can he treat to advantage? (The soil.)
1. What Is sol!? (That part of crust of E. In which plants grow.) How deep is It? Distinction between land and soil?
Land, areas. Soli, the attributes of land. 2. How soil Is made. (1) Basis of soli is rock dust or fragments. Ex
amine sand tor rock particles. Examine clay. Which made of harder rocks? How was the rock prepared? (2) By change of temperature, frost, Ice, rain, wind. Weathering. Find some crumbling rock. After It crumbles what becomes of It? Transportation. Signs of the same? (Water muddy, hill-side gullies, sand banks along streams.) Leveling prOl<!SSes of water and wind. Mountains laid low. (3) Organic matter. Will plants thrive In pure rock dust, sand? In pure clay? These give body, but something else is needed to give heart or life to soli. (a) Examine some dark soil for organic matter, such as chips, bark, leaves, etc. Loam. Humus. (b) Plants help soil-making In two ways. Roots have acid effect; also crack and break rock. First plants, lichens, mosses, etc. Plants also deca)-and add matter to the soil. Humus. (c) Animals help soli-making too. Thl'.f die ard add decayed matter. Humus. The earthworm contributes how? the groundhoi? (Burrowing.) 8. Kinds of Soil. (1) Sandy soli, mostly quarts wlth humus. Pecul&rltiee of.

197
(2) Ciayey, mostly feldspar with humua. Pecullarl ties of.
(3) Loam, sandy of clayey, or both, with greater proportion of humus. Peculiarities. Which kind is best for gardens?
4. Resources Ol" uses of son. (1) Give root-hold for plants; also necessary con
citlons for root work, such as protection, moist ure, regulated temperature, air, etc. (2} Storenouse of plant food, such as potash, nitrogen, phosphoric acid. Plants unlock the soil and air and take from them certain elements for plant material. (3) How does nature regulate the fertility? (Return plant to soil.) How has man modified this plan? (Sends crops away.) What should man do then1 (Make some restoration, fertilize.)
lllXPERIMENTS.
Take some fresh earth and weigh it. Let-It remain Ia sunlight awhile and weigh again. Why the difference? Moisture.
Heat it hot so as to burn or bake it. Weigh again. Why this difference? If you burn wood what matter will be left behind? What burned up? This is the case with the soil baked. Pulverize this baked soil and try to grow something in it. ~xplaln results.
ri. Treatment of soil. (1) Water Is necessary In soil. (a) To dissolve plant
food for root to take ,ln. (b) To contribute to building the plant. What proportion of our ( bodies is water? Is any part without water? . (2) The direct supply of plants is capillary water, that 111, water held by soil particles like oil 11 lltld up lD upper part ot lamp wick.

198

/

(!) The capacity ot soil to hold moisture inay be In creased by: (a) Loosening It too hard, so that water will go In, not run off. (b) Addition of humus-green manures, barn manures, chip dirt, leat mold, etc. (c) Tillage, to Increase depth or capillary soil and to Increase capillary capacity through pulverizing; also to admit air an<l warmth.
{4) Escape of moisture. How prevented.
Moisture works upward by capillary attraction, an.d at surface may be rapidly evaporated by sun and wind during drouth.
Prevention. Deep preparation so moisture may sink and plant roots may go down deep; then shallow working to keep cruat from forming and to keep a surface covering too loose tor capillary action.
Query: Why plow rround? Mention all reasons you can.
7. Perpetual Motion.
Tue plant gets its food where? The plant in tum becomes tood tor what? Animals finally return to what? Are any new elements created by these changes? Are any lost?
What is the aim ot agriculture? (To raise the plant)
See Bailey's "Elements of Agriculture."

FIFTH GROUP.
No etrort will be here made to classify topics according to season for this group. Much matter is at the disposal or the teacher and pupil.
The following are some topics which may be used l.P
c, convenient order.
L Physiology. A text-book may be put In the hands ot the pupils for the last year's work. This will au!llmllrize, fiX. &ad enlarJe the or&l wort.

199
II. Physlclal Geography. Nearly all the topics In a good physical geography like Davis's or Tarr's, should be covered orally In connection with advanced commercial geography.
III. Summary ot the Animal Kingdom. Give some Idea of microscopic animals, then trace the development up to man.
Geographical Distribution of Animals. 1. Some barriers. (1) Climatic. (2) Altitude. (3)
Other physical barriers. 2. Great areas of distribution. (1) Of continental masses. (2) Types In these areas. How animals are fitted tor environment. Animal communities and social life. Instinct and rea-
son. ("Animal Lite," by David Starr Jordan, treats these topics.) A similar summary of the plant world. Bergen's Botany Is good; so Is Bailey's.
IV. THE ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE.
Relation of agriculture to prosperity. The dependence ot the city upon agriculture, etc. The country as the place to develop character.
Success ot country bred boys. What farm resources are. The plant In Its relatlon.s to agriculture. Forrestry,
Fruit trees. Animals In their relations to agriculture. ("Elements ot Agriculture," by Bailey, will turnlllt
material.)
V. LESSONS FROM PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
1. Air. (!)Pressure In all direction. Experiments. Tht
barometer. (2) It occupies space. Show this. (3) An agent of
combustion..

(3) Relation of beat and air ,pressure. (4) The thermometer, studied more fully. Dll!erent
makes. 2. Lie:ht and the Solar System. Reflection of light and mlri'ol'll. Refraction and lenses. The telescope and spectro-
scope. Shadows and ecllnses. 8. Heat. How produced. Effect on matter. How dit
fused. Evaporation, condensation, distillation. Energy and beat. Steam-engine. 4. Machines. 5. Elements and compounds. Oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon.
SOME ANIMAL OUTLINES.
L OLASSIFIOATION.
L Invertebrates. (1) Protozoans. (2) Porifera. (S) Coelenterata. (4) Vl'.rmes. (5) Echinodermata (6) Mollusks. (7) Arthropoda.
2. Vertebrates. (1) Fishes. (2) Amphibians. (3) Reptiles. (4) Birds. (5) Mammals.
II. PROTOZOANS.
These are microscopic animale of one cell only. Myriads of them are to be found In water, but these are not available for ordinary Nature Study. When a good microscope can be had for upper grades, some bay may be steeped in water and a drop of this water studied for the tiny infusoria. Some protozoans bave shells. The chalk clltrs.
III. PORIFERA. (The sponge u & type of a slightly complex antmai,J

201

This may be studied In the upper gradea In conneetlon with geography. It Is not the best topic for lower grades, since puplls cannot find them In their daily surroundings for appllcatlon.

IV. COELENTERATA..
These are slightly complex also, and Include such aa Jelly Fish, Hydra, Polyp, etc. No type from these Is good for ordinary lessons. The coral
po!yp should be considered In Its proper ra.
graphical connection.

V. VERMES.

The earthworm as a type.

1. Haunts and Habits.

Where have you seen earthworms? Where can you

find them now? What have you ever seen them

do? When do they come out of the groand? Did

you ever see a robin try to pull one om of hll

hole? Did you every try the same? How does he

hold on. Can he cllmb?

2. Note carefully his body. Have specimens dis-

tributed to class. How long Is he? How does

he travel? Try to make him go the other end

foremost. Leave him alone again; which way

does be crawl? What Is your Inference? (Head

and tail ends.) A.re both ends exactly alike?

Tell the difference. Roll him on some other

side. What does he do? Will he crawl with

the same side under every time? Can you tell

any difference between sides? (Upper and

lower sides.) What else can you tell me about

his body? (Rings, collar, veins, etc.) Look for

his digestive canal. Where is his mouth? What

will he eat?

\..."'

I. Sensation. Has he any feeling? Can he 1ee?

Will light affect him? Do you think he haa any

1Dtelliren,ce? He will feel around a lea!, thee

202
turn the small end toward his hole and drag it in that end first. To have sense he must have a nervous system. Explain his brain, spinal
cord, and ganglia. 4. Young. Have you ever seen young worms? Are
they at all like old ones? Hatch from eggs? How about if one is cut in two parts? 5. Uses. (1) Castings. Plow soil; nature's first plows. Average of about ten tons to the acre brought up this way. Soil maker. (2) Holes, for roots, w!lter, air. (3) Leaves. Enrich soil. (4) Cover seeds. How is he adapted to his life? (Shape, eyes, bones, legs, slime.) Draw a worn. Draw a robin pulling a worm out of hole. Darwin's "Vegetable Mould and the Earthworm" is good to read here.
VI. ECHINODERMATA. (Spiny skinned.) Star fish, crinoids, sea urchins. A star fish is a good thing to have in a school cabinet. A brief lesson may be given on it, but this will be more of a knowledge lesson than an observation lesson, hence not one of the best for a primary
grade.
VII. MOLLUSKS. (Soft bodied.) The snail is a convenient type. The oyster may be used also. Have you ever been on the seashore? What did you see? What shells did you find? Which the most plentiful? Do you find any shells about fresh water creeks and ponds? Do you find any shell animals on land? Where? What? Have specimens distributed for individual discovery. or have members of class bring them in. Where did you find the snails? Are they there all the year 'round? Sunshine or warm water will make them put out heads. How does he
travel?

203
Does he use his whole body to move, or only a special part, his foot. Has he any bones? Soft body, mollusca. How protected? Shell made up of how many pieces? Univalve. Can he come all the way out of his shell? Did you ever see a snail without a shell? A slug. What else do you see about the snail? Horns I How many? Their difference? What does he do with them? Can he see? Where are his eyes? At end of long stalks. What advantage to him this arrangement? What other animal has eyes on stalks? Do snails live in water? Difference between land and water snails? Who can find where the snail breathes? Look for a hole in side of neck. What does he eat? Does he grow? How can he when his shell will not stretch? Look for lines of growth in shell? How is shell made. What kind of path does he leave? Why secrete slime? Is he a good thing to have in gardens? How protect garden beds? Paths of ashes or lime will cause so great use of slime that snail will waste away.
What animals have two shells opening hinge-like Bivalves. Can they close their shells very tight Find muscle spot in shell; also the muscle in the oyster. Find something like the mantle of the snail This the oyster's mantle. Find his mouth. Use of mantle Tell me something about the shell. Compare the two valves. Note shape, size, composition, surfaces, lines of growth. Find about the young and habits through life. Did you ever see a pearl? Where come from? How made? Pearl fisheries. Oyster fishing and culture.
VIII. ARTHROPODA. (Jointed-legged.) 1. Crustaceans, crawfish a type. This is an interesting and often, useful animal, $Dod for study iq any grade. _

204

Get some specimens early In spring and keep them In

a bowl of water In the schoolroom. Get one

large one I{ possible.

Where found? Behavior In retreat? When fright

ened? Morning and evening? Winter? Did you

ever see a well he had dug? What damage done?

Look at his body. How many parts? What else do

you see? Frighten him with a pencil. What do?

How defend himself? What about these feet?

(Jaw f) Has he many such? Tell me more

about his body. (Hard outside, segmented, collar

or carapace). What appendages has the head?

Uses of these?

The mid-body has what appendages? The hind body?

Describe the tail? Which are his walking legs?

How does he swim? Do you think he can hear?

Where his ears? What does he eat? He is a

cannibal and will eat flesh, tadpoles, snails, etc.,

dead or alive. A scavenger. His value in a ~ spring? Find out about the young and theit

development.

(1) Eggs attached to swimming feet. (2) Young in

shape of adults. (3) His shell can not stretch.

He cannot add to it like the snail. He mouZJs.

He may pull oft' a leg or jaw or foot in moulting.

What then?

Find out about the hermit crab, his habits, and oc-

casional relations with sea-anemone.

2. Insects.

This class furnishes the richest and most inviting tleld

In the whole invertebrate group. Its animals

are of such variety, beauty, interest and Impor-

tance that they may be studied In any grades aa

time will admit. No one animal will serve as a

complete introduction, but types should be se-

<jlected from the following orders. No detailed

treatment, only a general outline of this e:rtea-

~n cl&ll ~ here be riven,.

1..

205
(1) ;R.Straight:winged;(Orthoptera) ,grasshopper, locust, cricket.
(2) Scaly winged (Lepidoptera), butterfly, motn. (3) Sheath-winged (Coleoptera), beetle, June beetle,
potato beetle, etc. (4) Haif-winged (Hemiptera), bug, cicada, squashbug
plant lice. Note differences between bugs and beetles. (5) Membrane-winged (Hymenoptera), bee, wasp, ant. (6) Two-winged (Diptera), fly, mosquito. Characteristics. Insect, cut in. The body is divided how? How many legs? Wings? What peculiar life cycle Metamorphosis. Beetle eggs hatch what? Butterfly eggs what? Moth eggs? Fly eggs? Mosquito eggs? 3. Arachnids. Spiders. These are sometimes classed as insects. Find points of difference between spiders and true insects. Haunts and habits. Find out about the trapdoor spider. 4. Myriapods, many-footed. Thousand legs. Not of importance. Point out as you go that a few insects are beneficial to man, many are very destructive. The reports sent out from the experiment station, at Experiment, Ga., and the farmers' bulletins published by the United States government, Washington, D. C., are useful and may be had for the asking. If man had no help in keeping these insects in check, they would drive him off the face of the earth. What are our allies? How do we show our appreciation of val~able services? Huxley's Crayfish and Comstock's Insect Life are valuable books for reference.
IX. VERTEBRATES. What five orders of vertebrates can you name1

206

Only two of these will be outlined here.

1. Amphibians. The common toad as a type. Life

history.

Ar~ there any toads to be found about here? When 1

They came from where?

(1) Out of the ground. Hibernation.

The toad is a cold-blooded animal; its blood is

about the same temperature as the surrounding

air. When air gets too cool, toad becomes stu-

pid, inactive. He goes into a kind of death

sleep in which he hardly moves or breathes. Do

you know of any other cold-blooded animal1

Any other hibernating animal?

What does toad do to get ready for this sleep1

Watch one dig sometime. What wa.kes him?

What will he then do?

(2) Out of the water. Cycle of life.

Wm. Harvey tells us that every animal comes

from an egg. For what else is Harvey noted 1

Does toad live on land or in water? Often far

from water, but the early part of his life was

spent in the water. There is where you must

look for his eggs. Look for some about the

ponds in April, or when you hear the frog cho-

rus on a summer evening. How does he make

that noise?

Can you tell toad's eggs from frog's eggs?

(Toad's in strings or egg ropes; frog's in

bunches.) Take some eggs from the pond and

place in a basin of water from same pond. It

weather is right, they hatch in two or three

days. What is the young toad called? What Is

It like? Watch one several days and see if it

likes to stay under water. How does it breathe

under water? Describe its actions as 1t .~):rows

older, and account for them.

.

How distinguish a toad tadpole from a frog tad-

pole? (Color.) Get toads, tor they develop fast-

~ - SOT
er. Watch carefully when they are !rom tour
to six weeks old. Legs begin to grow. Which enes drat? Shape changes! What becomes of tall? (Absorbed.) Finally one Is transformed Into a toad.

. What will It eat when on land? Any flying, creeping, crawling thing 1t can swallow-fly, caterpillar, spider, worm, hornet, etc. One has been aeen to eat twenty-tour caterpillars In ten min-

utes; another to catch and to eat thlrty-dve celery worms In three hours. One will eat ten thousand Insects In a year. How Is he a friend to man? To the garden? What harm does he

do? You should watch one catch a fly some-

time. How does It do It? What are some ene-

e mies of the toad? Should you be an enemy or a

trlend?

"'~

Toads look brighter and fresher at times. Why Ia this? They change their coats. Fln.d ont about

this.

Does a tadpole haTe bones? Does a toad? Does It have ribs? Backbone? What other animals have backbones? Describe toad's teet. Try to make It hear you. Oan It hear?

A!ter hibernating two or three winters the little toad becomes a bf~ one. Some spring when It

awakes from long sleep, It has longing to get back to pond where Its Ute began. It finds a pond, lays a great many eggs, perhaps a thousand or two. Its cycle o1' lite Is complete, though it may live seven or eight years longer. )

The leaflet on The Toad, published by Oornell's Bureau of Nature Study, fills In the above outllnef'Prot. Hodge, of Ola.rk University, has a pamphlet on the toad, prlce five centa. J..ddreaa

lllm, Worcester, Ha-.

208

BIRDS.

so the Bluebirds have contracted, have they, tor a house? And a nest is under way for little Mr. Wren? Hush, dear, hush! Be qui-et, dear, quiet as a mouse. These are weighty secrets, and me must whisper them."
(Coolidge.) 1. Some characteristics.

What is a bird? Can all birds fly? Which birds can not fly very far? How prevent a hen frbm flying over the fence? Is a b!rd's tail any help to the bird? Why are the feathers of the wood peeker's tail so stili? What d!lrerences have you noticed In the feet of birds? (Three types-walk lng, swimming, perching.)
In their bills?

Name some bird fam1l!es you know. (Parrot.)

) Where find the dilrerent birds you know?

2. - Haunts and habits.

'...

What birds remain about here all year? Why do some birds migi,:ate earlier than others? Are many birds to be found In dense forests? Why so? What birds like trees, what the meadows, and what the houses? What birds may be called "birds of the air?"
Do all birds sing? Name some song birds you know. Tell something of their songs? Which is your favorite? Do you think the songs of birds

can be set to music? What poet speaks of these songs as "Sweeter than Instrument of man e'er caught?"

In what d!lrerent ways do birds move about on the ground? Perch on limbs? What evidence~~
\ of bird !ntell!gence can you give? 1. ._,Bird enemies.

Do birds have enemies? Know their enemies? How do they show this? In what ways are some birds enemiea of others? What birds build

209
where enemies can not well get at their nests! How do the young behave in these nests? In other nests? Why do some birds build about houses rather than in woods? This has brought what new enemies? How?
In what way do old birds protect young? What Is a parasite? What birds have parasitic tendencies? Why have many men become enemies o! birds? What kind of bird study has done much harm? In what way are girls and women enemies o! birds? What birds make choicest decorations? How are tht!se deco~ations prepared 7 Is this ornamentation civllized or barbarous? Should we be !rlends or enemles o! the birds? Why?
4. Nests and nesting.
When do birds build the first nests of the year? Why are these birds llke pioneers? Which stand the better chance, Aprll or July nests? Why? Suppose the early nest Is robbed? Do birds return In pairs, or do they mate In spring after return? Which birds sing, male or !emale? Which have the gay plumage? Account for this? Which do the work, bulld nests, sit, feed young?
Do most birds build high or low? Why? What bird lays eggs on dry leaves, no nest? How behave when approached?
What birds rear more than one brood a season? Only one? Do birds ever return to the same place year after year? Do birds teach their ;young? Do birds have emotions, sur:!J. as grief, sorrow or joy? Should we respect these?
I. Original research.
Observe some nests, noting: (1) location, 11:1rround (_ lnga, material of nests. (2) Color, shape, number
of ergs. (8) Time from first egg tlll first hatch. J'rom batch till le&Tlng nest? (4) Appearance

210

and behavior of young birds. (5) Which blrt'll feed young? What food? (6) Dill'erence In appearance of male and female. 6. Study of special birds. Partridge, meadow lark, crow, sparrow, blue jay, woodpecker, robin, owl, etc. Families of birds and their characteristics. The hen family. The pigeon.
Query:-Judged from commonly a..ccepted stand ards of human success in life, what bird is the most successful of all?
Are birds decreasing in number? 7. Summary.
Distinguishing marks. Location In animal king dom. Families and thwlr characteristics. Parts of a bird, their functions. Uses to man. Life story of a bird.
Write to Singer Manufacturing Oo., Richmond, Va., for their pictures of sixteen Amertca.n singers. Sent free.

THE USES OF BIRDS.

1. Birds destroy millions of Insects and their eggs.

2. Trees and all vegetation are necessary to human

life. Insects multiply so rapidly, If left alone,

that they would destroy 'an vegetation.

8. Birds inspect all trees, limb by limb, bud by bud,

searching for insects, eggs, and larvae as no

..

human eye can search. 4. Lawns, gardens, groves, grain fields, would soon

'be desolation without birds to check Insect rav-

ages.

IS. Take all birds from woodlands, fields and yards

,. and we would then realize how much beauty

they add to our landscape. Their glorious music

Is the sweetest l~ nature. Birds fill the world

with beauty and melody.

211
8. Blrdl! are as necessiU'y as the shower!! ot l!prlnr. They are worth $500,000,000 annually to tarmer11 ot United States.
7. In 1891 and 1892 there was a starvation time in Russia due to Insect ravages, the birds having been kllled by excessive winter treezes.
A French philosopher says, "Without birds, human lite would be Impossible."
Birds are decreasing in numbers. Why? How save them?
1. 'fhe clearing ot torests is partly responsible. Teach tolly ot ruthless destruction 'ot trees. Schools should have arbor days.
2. The wearing or leathers, breasts and entire birds on hats causes annual slaughter ot mil lions ot harmless, beautiful and usetul birds. Discourage such wear.
8. Sportsmen and boys unthinkingly shoot thousands. Teach their use and beauty.
4. Let boys expend their "shooting" Instincts on English sparrows.
Report of N.Y. ZOOlogic&! Society, 1898, w. T. Horn&d&y. The moa&
T&luable document ever published on thls subject.i. reports tb&t In 11 ;rean bird life In Georg!& decreased 65 per cent., In u. 8. 46 per cen\.
SOME PLANT OUTLINES.
I. WHAT IS A PLANT?
II! a tree a plant? Is a growing onion? A weed? Rock?
II. WORK A PLANT HAS TO DO.
Did you ever think a plant has to work tor a lil'lng? What has it to look after or do? Must have tood? How get It? Alter it get!! its too4 11 ttl work done1 No, lt must digest lt.

212
Why do we need food? What use has the plant for food? To live, to grow.
A part which enables to do a particular thing Is an organ. An organ is any part which has its own work to do. Eye, mouth, stomach, heart, lung1. Has a cow organs? Has a rock? Has a plant!
III. ORGANS OR PARTS OF A PLANT.
1. For living and growing. Root, stem, leaf. 2. For reproduction. Flower, fruit, seed.
What is a root? Rootlets? Use? What do we mean by the stem? It bears what? Why has a plant leaves? Let us find out all we can about leaves.
IV. LEAVES.
1. Comparison of oak leaves with maple. Generalize. 1. The stem of a leaf is called its petiole. 2. The broad green part is called its blade. 3. Petioles of maple are long and green. Ot oak, short and green. The blades are not sbaped alike; the margins are different; blades of oak thicker, dark green; of maple, lighter green.
2. Compare oak and maple with elm. 1. Have petioles, blades, margins, are green. 2. Elm blade not so long as oak, not shining, not so wide as maple. Petioles differ how? Oa.k leaves of different treea differ. Identify.
' Draw an elm leaf; a maple; an oak. Color. Cut in paper.
,1. Changes in leaves. When cold weather comes? Maples change to red ' and yellow. Oak to red and brown.{ Others how? What becomes ot leaves then? And then? Do all leaves have petioles? No. Find some without. (Marl., pink, mul'n). Review. See ~c.t on leaves.

213
15. Veins. 1;,1. Examine maple and Ivy leaves tor hard lines; examine oak, plantain, grass, etc. All have a vein through middle. (1) Midvein. (2) Veinlets. 2. Uses or veins. (1) Keep leaf spread out; sunlight; shade. (2) Carry sap; out or broken veins comes juice-leaf's blood. 8. Kinds ot leaves according to veins. Hold leaves between you and light. (1} Peach leaf, lace or fish net; net veined. (2) Plantain, midvein and others side by side; parallel veined. Lily another kind. Look at corn leaf, grass, wheat, cotton. I. Shapes. 1. Base. Apex. Broad base; sycamore, tulil', birch, morn.lng-glory. Pointed apex: elm. Rounded, black oak. 2. Oval: Plum, pear. Lanceolate: willow, grass. Cordate: lilac, violet. Some lanceolate are netveined; some parallel veined. 8. Margins. (1) Crenate: broad, rounded notches; violet, catnip, geranium. (2) Serrate, sawtoothed: elm, apple. (8) Dentate, tooth-notched: dandelion. 4. Lobes. Deep cuts In some margins, portions between cuts called lobes. 7. Simple and compound leaves. Is there one leaf or three on the stem ot what we call three-leaved clover? In the chinaberry tree find one leaf. Find one leaf or a blackberry brier. Just where do these leaves break oft when they fall? Where will the next leaves come out? Can you find next year's leaves? Where? It this specimen Is not one leaf, then It must be a limb or twig. Do twigs fall like leaves? Then how much or this is a lear? lome leaves are simple, some compound. Find examples. Walnut? Oak?

214
I. Arrangement on a tree.
Looking up from beneath a tree, where do molt of the leaves seem to be? Why there? Are any leaf buds on or nearer the trunk? Why do not they open out? (Dormant, suppressed.) What would make them open out? What suppresses them? Leaves arrange according to sunlight. Why? The leaf aided by the sun works for life of plant. Sunlight necessary.
I. Ofllces of leaf.
The great purp0t1e of the leaf Ia to enable the plant to perform Its vital functions. These are:
1. Respiration. Everything that lives, breathes. Plants like animals give off carbon-dioxide In breathing. Why do we breathe? Where does the air do Its work? This for the plant takes place In leaf. What then may you call the lean Lungs.
2. Transpiration. Taking In mineral food through the roots It must take In much water holding mineral In solution. Some of this must be gl'l'en off through doors. Stoma. Find these. In llry seasons doors nearly close. Why?
8. Feeding, digestion, 1. e., starchmall:lng. Stor;y of ChlorophylL
10. Other uses of leaves.
1. Shade. 2. Food: Insects, squirrels, cows, man. What
leaves do we eat? Cabbage, turnips, lettuce, etc. 8. Cover: to protect roots, cover seeds. ~. Commerce: tobacco, tea, fans, chair bottoml,
ornaments. 5. Fertlllzer: humus to soiL
What the gM&test use or real p1JlPOH of lean 01
plallt!

215
V. ROOTS.
1. What? What part of a plant is under ground? Is any part of the stem under ground? Do you know any plant with roots not under ground? Why does a plant have roots? Food, drink hold.
2. Kinds. 1. Primary. Originate how? (From caulicle.) 'I'ap root. What work has the tip end? Capped for it. 2. Rootlets. 3. Aerial roots. Water roots. 4. Thick or fleshy roots: beet, turnip, etc. omce of these? Will they go to seed in one year? Is an Irish potato a root? Does it not bear buds? It Is really an underground stem.
I. Work. How do plants get food through roots? Mineral food in water. How roots take in water: mouths like spor.ge pores. Root pressure.
4. Structure of roots. Of a tree, sassafras; to note corky layer, paler layer, woody cylinder. Uses of each layer. Roots help soil how? Loosen. prevent washing, fertilize.
VI. STEMS.
1. What? The work of nourishing plant done by root and leaf. The stem connects these. It lifts the leaves high, bears up the branches to !!pread leaves, and communicates with roots and leaves.
2. Parts. Place on stem from which leaves grow, nodes. Places between nodes are internodes. Compare Internodes on same tw)g, then on different twigs as to length, distance around. When leaves fall, how tell where node was? Describe scars or different twii:'!l. Wha.t Is a.t

216
end or twig in winter and spring? Does terminal bud leaYe scar? (In many trees. See elm.) .A ring about twig. How many such rings on a twig? What will the number tell? 8. .Arrangement of buds:
(1) In pairs. Opposite. Maple, horse chestnut. (2) Singly. .Alternate. Elm, oak. (3) In whorls. Pine.
4. Covering of buds. Find the scales, the velvety, woolly or waxy outel' parts, and smooth, soft lining. Uses or these?
5. Pl::lce of leaves on tree. Umbrella like. Why? The dormant buds and "The Battle for Existence."
6. Study the unfolding of leaves from buds. Find how they are PI/-Cked in maple, elm, peach, a.pple. Make drawings of buds, leaves, twiga, trees. What else besides leaves come out ot buds? Flowers, twigs.
7. Structure and growth. Oompare tree with conL Exogeos and endogens.
VII. FLOWERS.
1. Work of the flower.
What becomes or the tldwers of an. apple tree? Of the bean stalk? Peach tree? Pumpkin? What remains where the flowers were? Fruit. What is the work of the flower? To produce fruit. Why should the plant bear fruit? Seeds within to reproduce the plant. Let us find about the work of the flower.
:Where have you seen flowers? What trees have flowers? Do leaf buds open first, or flower buds? Which remain longer on the trees, leavet or flowers? Let us see how the flower does it.l work. The story of the flower is one of the moat wonderful of the plant world.

217
2. Parts.
Study a crab-apple twig of fiowers. D:':)scribe one. Draw it. Now again tell what you see. Who sees yellow dust. Flowers have to help one another. Story of pollen.
(1) What part produces pollen? Stamens. (2) What part receives pollen? The . part extend-
ing to seed. Pistil. (3) How get from fiower to fiower? Wind, bees,
butterflies, etc. Use of colored parts. Petals. (4) Petals were enclosed in other parts; these at
base of petals, very often green, sepals. Here calyx, carolla, perianth may be taught. It one lacking, which? (5) Compare carollas as to color, number of petals, regular o'r irregular, as the apple vs. sweet pea. (7) Compare stamens. Anthers; number, length, color, use.
8. Fragrance. What wild flowers have you found to be fragrant? Non fragrant? Which the more common? "Genius a specialty. It does not grow In every soil." Do bees get honey from any non fragrant flowers? Do they from honeysuckle? Rose? Where does the little white violet grow? Is it fragrant? Is the blue? Your favorite fragrance? Flower?
VIII. FRUIT.
Tile use or thfl 11.ower? The parts of the 11.ower?
1. What Is fruit? Matured ova...->y, ripened plstll, together with Intimately related parts.
2. Kinds. (1) Fleshy. (a) Stone: peach. cherry. (b) Gourd: pumpkin, melon. (c) Pome: apple, pear. .. (2) Dry. (a) Grain. (b) Nuts. (c) Akenea: straw berry, sun:tl.ower.

918

KJnds according to dissemination. (1) That roll: pea, bean, nut. Testa smooth. (2} Sail: dandelion. (3} Fly: pine, maple. (4} Stick: burrs.
Fill these claeses with others. Tell how each 18 adapted.
8. Agents. Seed carriers. Water, wind, animals, birds, ftsh, beasts, man.
4. Queries. Which fruits have eatable pulps? .Why so many? Why are seeds of pulpy fruits often bitter, ae orange seeds? Why coated as In stone fruits? Why some too small to be chewed, aa flg, banana? Account for raspberries growing 1D forks of trees.

IX. GROUPS AND FAKILIJDS.
L Trees. Common tree8 of Georata; pecul1ar1tl and uses.
2. Oorn group. 8. Cotton. 4. Legum& 5. Potato and tomato. 6. Weeds and struagle for ulstencl. 7. Wild flowers. 8. Cultivated flowers. 9.. Flowerless plants: mould, yeast, mossee, Ucbeu.,
mushrooms, ferns. Flowerless plants are of much great61' Importance and. Interest than generally thought to be, and should be fully notlcell ba lower as well a& htaher ,rades.

TREES. PINE A.S A. TYPE.
1. Compare pine with other trees. leaves, branches, section, etc. growth from bud. root, seed.
2. Called contter. Other eonltel'l. Flowert 9f the pine tree.

Color, trunk. Difference ba

l

219

,,

8. What Is a forked tree? What made It so? Did
you ever see a Corked pine? Why scarce? Destroy a terminal bud of young pine and note the results, a race for leadership, one branch winning, others dropping back as branches. Does the pine shed Its leaves? How prove lt7 How many leaves In each bunch? What m&J the number tell you? Uses of pine leaves? '- Kinds of pine. Size, age. G. Uses to man; to other animals. 8. Turpentine farms of Georgia. Where? How up procured? Waste in present methods.

WliiiiDS.

What Is a weed? Name some. "A plant out ot

place." "A plant whose virtues we have not

discovered."-Emerson. Burroughs styles weeds

''the most human plants." Why? They cling to

man; follow him around the world; crowd btl

~ barn, house, crops.

Who seem to be the greatest enemies of weeds?

'

Are they? How do they help weeds? Where do

'

weeds begin to grow? Why do they grow? To

cover bare places; to replenish. From what do

they grow? They seem to spring up like magic.

How deep do seeds sometimes get In eartb1

How long live?

In what ways wlll a weed protect its species!

Wild carrots multiply heads; toad flax and Ber-

muda travel under ground. Late corn starts otf

as usual, but a late weed will hurry up a short

stem and go to seed as quickly as possible. e.

Weeds have been called the tramps of the vegeta.-

ble world. Justify. How do they trave11

Where most easily? How far known to tran11

'~

Why should weeds flourish in our countr;r! 1 ltoom;r, waste. Wb&t weeds are natives ot tM

. . , worlcn Kllk, rq, poke, pldenrocL De

220
these In!est crops, or come atter them? Ar~ they hard to keep down? What weeds have come to us from over the seas? How do years of contact with civilization change habits of vermin and weeds? Pugnacious, persistent. Compare wild wood mice with house rats. Have we given, any mean weed to Europe'i Tobacco. What weeds are plants escaped from civilization? Radish, carrot, liveforever. What weeds have pretty flowers? Uses of weeds, especially grass. Have weeds any virtues to be admired? Not easily discouraged; take what they can get; make the most of their opportunities; die game. Study of particular weeds. Dandelion, Cocklebur, etc. Read Burrough's A Bunch of Herbs. For some good suggestions on the dandelion, Balley'1 Lessons with Plants.
THE CORN GROUP.
L WHAT IS CORN?
In the United States we think of maize as corn: In Scotland, oats; in England, wheat. At the beginning of barley harvest, Ruth asked to glean corn. Corn meant hard, dry gmin. Called cereals. Tell the story of Ceres, goddess of agriculture, and Proserpine, her only daughter. Also the Indian legend of corn, Mondamin.
II. COMPARE CORN, WHEAT, RYE, AS TO GRAINS, PLANTING, GROWTII, STALKS, FLOWERS, EARS, HARVEST, ETC.
1. Note adaptations to fields, winds, rains, springy stalk, tubular arrangement, long, wavy, springy leaves. Did you ever see a field of grain wavIng? A beautiful sight. Advantages of tubular arrangement.

221
2. Growth. (1) Internodes lengthen. Race for life; 4. rapid grower. How high have you seen corn? (2) Roll within roll as It grows. Movable shea.th protects when wind blows. Rain guards. Brace roots.
3. Drouth. (1) May root deep. Rye as deep as four teet. May stop loss of wat~r; roll leaves. Leaves roll when? Spread why? How arranged to send water to roots?
III. LIFE WORK.
1. Food making for self. This the main purpose of early life. (1) Which parts aid in getting raw materials from earth and air? (2) Which serve in bringing materials together? (3) Green parts use sunlight to make over the materials. (4) Some puts carry digested food where needed. Roots, stems, leaves grow rapidly in early life. (5) Branch factories establ!shed. How -many heads from one grain wheat?
2. Provision for olrspring. This the final duty of plant.
(1) Floral parts. (a) When made? hen plant ill well under way. (b) Maize ftowers compared with wheat and oats. In maize, pistils, silk. (c) The ear, takeu husks and all, a specialized stem. The flower bud, a specialized leaf bud. (d) Beginning of seed. Why all these parts? "Cross pollination." How guard against "close pollination?" which bettet? (e) .Agent of pollination, wind. Best varieties; how obtained? Examine corn on a solitary stalk. (f) After polllnatlon, how do stigmas and anthers behave? What further work is to be done? Sap must carry sugar to be converted into starch, which in turn must be stored. Where stored? Protection of r1peDIJaf kerneL

222
...... (2) Scattering of seed. (a) Wild vl!l. cultivated
plants. How did nature plan to scatter maize seed. (b) Coyote corn founu in Mexico. Section!!! or ear. (c) Coyotes, wolves, birds, etc. Hair starved Indians rob stores of birds and other animals. Did man first learn from these the value of this food? (d) Badey scattered by grain loving ants. See Proverbs vi., 6-8.
HARVESTING ANTS. FARMER ANTS.
IV. GERMINATION.
The infant plant and its food. "Surely the vege-table kingdom has no greater marvel than a kernel of corn. It represents the joint achieve-ment of man and .nature working together tor untold generations upon this kind of plant to promote the most perfect provision for Its orrspring."
1. Contents of kernel.. Starch, gluten, fatty oil, lite germ. Why these? Chew a handful of wheat. Note change In taste as you chew. Ptyalin in mouth, pepsin in stomach are ferments. Ferments change starch Into sugar.
2. How use this material? (1) Moisture. This wakes up the seed; starts ferment. (2) Ferments. Starch to sugar; proteids to peptones, making liquid food. (3) Main roots sent out. This soon covered with hair roots which ~lp plant to begin to teed itselt.
V. A.DVANTAGES OF CEREALS AS FOOD PLANTS.
1. ~avage food; how obtained? Hunt, fish, gather roots, nuts, fruits. Does this make large and strong nations possible?.
2. Superiority of cereals. (1) In yield. (2) In separation of seed. (3) In bulk, c~ndensed. (4) In
~eeplni

-
.223
8. In.fiuence or cultivation on yield. Pliny tells of Cresinus charged with sorcery 'ror increasing yield. How much wheat sown on an acre? How much reaped? How much corn planted on an acre? How many bills to an acre? Ears to an acre? Advantages or drilling wheat? Food taken from the soil? Effect on soil?
L Separation. (1) Plant depended on wind, hence easily shattered. (2) Food stored by germ in grain, hence simply crush. Mills. (3) Plant depended upon liquid food, hence easy digestion.
fl. Bulk, compact, light, much condensed. 6. Keeping, dry, hard, like weed.
VI. COMPARISON OF CEREALS.
1. Which is king of cereals? Wheat. "Statr of life." White bread.
(1) Native home, Mesopotamia, Tigris and Euphrates.
(2) Its relations to civilization. In Palestine, Egypt. Prehistoric. In Persia, India, Greece, Rome.
(3) Where most cultivated to-day? United States. Vast fields where?
(4) Wheat harvesting and threshing. Wheat products. Mills of Minneapolis.
2. Oats. Grain of hardiness. (1) Some advantages. Contains proteids, muscle substance. In fatty material, richest of grains. Thrives north. (2) Home, middle and eastern Europe. (3) Oats products.
(1) wm grow on poor son, in climate too hot or
dry for others. These conditions met in northern Europe and Asia. (2) Native home. south Europe, middle Asia. Not
probably known to early great nations. Cultiva.~Qn spre11-ds abo-qt Ohriati&ll el-'4-

224
(3) Rye products. Straw tough, not good fodder. Good for packing, for hats, paper, boxes, etc.
4. Barley. The brewer's grain. 5. Rice. The corn of the east. 6. Maize. The corn of the west.
(1) Native home. (2) Advantages in raising, yield. (3) Kinds. (4) Uses. (5) Relations to history of this country. Benj&
min Franklin's method of parching. Why should Georgia raise more cereal crops? Corn Plants, by Sargent, (Houghton-Mifllln Co.,)
covers the above.
TEACHERS' HELPS.
It has been said that teachers need no books to prepare for nature lessons; that God's great book 1s spread out before them. Such advice is not only discouraging-it is folly. It is not the fault of the teachers that their preparation has been unsuitable and inadequate. This is the fault of the schools. The greatest need of the teacher in this work is scientific knowledge. Teachers can get knowledge, stimulus and suggestion from books. Just as the teacher is to guide the children, books can guide the teacher. However, the teacher should always verify book knowl edge by personal observation.
There are books of knowledge, of inspiration and of method. The writings of Burroughs, Thoreau, Long, Seton-Thompson are inspiring. Text-books in zoology, botany, physiology, physical geog raphy, etc., may be good tor knowledge, but many of these are unsuitable in method for intruction of children. Some of the late hand books of method contain also valuable informaUon. Such boob are McMU1T1' llllement&rJ

121
lclence, 1!0 cents; Lange'l Handbook of Nature Study, $1.25; Howe's Systematic Science Study, $1.50; Jackman's Nature Study, $1.50; Scott's Nature Study and the Child, $1.50. Any teacher can make a good beginning with McMurry's Method and Lange's , Handbook. McMurry discusses the underlying principles, gives an outline course for first four grades, and works out in full many valuable lessons on domestic animals. Lange is adapted to higher grades, as well, and Is full of good material Another cheap but suggestive little book is Boyden's Nature Study by Months, first four years, 50 cents. Some books have already been suggested in the preceding outlines. Without any attempt at classification or complete list, the following are added as helpful: Nature Study, Wilson. Sealide and Wayside Readers. Lessons on Elementary Science, Longman. How to Know tJie Wildflowers, Dana. A Year With the Birds, Flagg. Birdcratt, Wright. The Great World's Farm, Gaye. Trees of United States, Apgar. About the Weather, Harrington. Story of a Piece of Coal, The Story of the Cotton Plant, The Story of the Earth's Atmosphere, The Story of Electricity, all from D. Appleton Co. Bees, Wasps, and Ants, Lubbock. The Crayfish, Huxley. Butterflies, Scudder. How to Teach Minerals and Rocks, Kellogg & Co. Fam1llar Animals and Their Wild Kindred, Monteith. ene of the most valuable and suggestive of books for teachers of any grade Is Jordan' Animal Ltf~t D. Appleton & Co. b)' books can be bou1ht at diacount throu1h B. 8. Oole, Atlanta, GL

I

SCHOOL MANAGEMENT.
c. BY SUPT. B. GIBSON, COLUMBUS PUBLIC SCHOOLI.
( CopvrlgiiUd.)
ExPLANATORT.-Thi.!l ehapttr on School Management ill intended to be suggestive merely. It aims at quickening thought among the common school teachers of Georgia and bringing them to consider and discuss in the county institutes questions of vital importance to the successful management of their schools. It is written with the ungraded ruralschoole in Tiew-the schools that stand most in need of a better management-and for the purpose of aiding especially the large body of young, ambitious, and comparatively inexperienced teachers who constitute so large a part of the teaching force of Georgia. The suggestions are not the direct or indirect result of reading and theorizing alone, but they come from actual and sometimes painful experience in the most rural of rural schools, the semi-graded village school, and the wellgraded or over-graded city 11chool. In one chapter it is impossible to enter into a didactic discussion of the principles laid down or the brief statements ventured. This must be left to the conductor and conducted at the institute.
INTRODUCTORY.
DEFINITION.-School management is the art of properly eli recting internal and external school affairs.
ScoPs.-Broad enough to embrace all the influence~~ and agencies that operate on the school from within or without. That management which aims at only the internal affairs of the echool will fall short of a full measure of succe81. There ill an intimate relation existing and a cordial co-operatioa which 1hould exist between the in1!uencea of the home, where

228
the child apenda sixteen houri a day, and thole of the tchoo11 where he spends leu than eight hours a day. Sound, rational BChool management should aim to reach and manage educa tionally the homes, the parents, and eTen the school officiall.
BAsrs.-The soundest educational principles. As an art it is the outgrowth and exponent of the science of education.
RELATION TO GooD TEACHING.-The lint qua non; the chief thing needful; absolutely indispensable. Especially is thia true in rural and village schools, where more evils can be traced to a lack of management of the school forces than to any other cause. There are many good instructor~ in these schools, but their measure of success is small because they fail to organize and systematize and manage the educa tional forces of the community-pupils and patrons, material 118 well as mental resources.
DxvisroNs.- I. School Facilitiea. II. School Organization. III. School Government. IV. Outline of Work. V. Tests, Records, etc. VI. School Hygiene (sufficiently important to
constitute a division of the subject.)
In this brief article the first three only ean be considered.
L-F.ACILITIES.
I. Building and GTounda.-It ia a mistake to suppose that these are facilities with which the teacher bas nothing more to do than to accept them as be finds them, adapt himsell to them, use them under distressing disadvantages, and when he leaves, surrender so much of the grounds as the rains have not washed away, and so much of the building as the pupila, unhindered, have not whittled or torn away.
These are thin~ with which the teacher hal to do: 1. .As he finds them. 2. As he uses them. 8. A. he leaves them. "- AI he is instrumental in supplying them.
Fir1t. Statistics from the office of the State School Oo .aialioner ahow that Geor~~:ia baa 7i19 common achooll, aa41

229
tbat these are taught in 5207 schoolhoul!es, Problem: Deter mine the schoolhoul!e facilities for each school.
After careful investigation the Commissioner gives the fol lowing in his report, 1894: "The average number of school houses, outside of the city, is about sixty. As reported by the county commissioners, the value of all the sixty I!Choolbouses, outside of the towns, is less than $2,000. (Find the average. The average value of decent barns for Georgia mules is $175.) Of those in this number that are ruitab/.e for 1ch.ool purpoaea, the average number is not over jour or five."
The natural results are: 1. Nine-tenths of the country schools must be conducted during the hot, sultry summer months. 2. Many of the schools are "kept," and the resnlta are distressing and dil!couraging to teacher and patron alike. 3. Many of the best citizens are moving from the country to the towns and cities, to have the advantages of good schools. '- Conflicting duties on the farm in summer keep many children away from school altogether. With a school population of 604,971 the average attendance ia le111 .than 250,000.
The teacMra of :he past and pruent are largelv r~oruibu for lhil condition of things,
Second. The teacher should be careful how he uses the school building, grounds, and appliances. It is the teacher's duty
1. To see that the building is provided with means of pro tecting the school property against burglars and vandals, and to keep the building locked when not in use for educational or other good purposes.
2. To replace or repair anything that he may break 01 damage, and require the same to be done by pupil!!, whether the damage be accidental or otherwise.
8. To inspect closely the furniture and premil!el at lean once a week, and cause amendl to be made for u.y thing found to be amin.

~30
'
4. To keep in order and r~ady for nne all apparatus and appliances belonging to the school.
5. To exercise a business care and vigilant supervision over all the school property-grounds, building, furniture, apparatus, library, appHances.
Third. If every teacher were careful to leave the school facilities in at least as good condition as he finds them, and all carefully locked and protected, the schools of Georgi>~ would be far better equipped than they now are. No matter what may be the circumstances attending the teacher's leaving a school a proper regard for his good name will lead him to put everything in order before going away. His successor, whether he ever meets his predecessor or not, will be sure tn form and express an opinion of him. 'Vhen the schoolhouse door is opened one sort of impression will be made if the desks are found in disorder and much damaged; an accumnlation of dirt on the floor, dirt on the desks, dirt on the wall-;. dirt everywhere; window panes out; bucket gone or fallen to pieces; dipper rusted out; teacher's desks full of chaotic con fuRion ; no copy of schedule ; no record; nothing that will help and much that will hinder.
Quite a different sort of impression will be formed if every tbing is found to be clean and in order, with as mu.::h at haL d to help the new teacher as can be left by the retiring one.
A. duplicate inventory of everything in the building should be left with the county school commissioner.
A few suggestions on leaving a school: 1. Pnt the teacher's desk in order. See that it containa a carefully prepared copy of your program, a copy of your rules and regulations, the school record, anrl such information as will enable your successor to carry on your good work. 2. Place in the desk under lock and key such small articles as may be easily lost or misplaced. B. See that no window-panes are out. ' See that the pupils' desks are clean-within and without-and in good condition; that the ink-wells a.n; clean and ready to receive ink,

231
1. See that tb.e school library (if there be one-aad there .o;ilould be) is arranged and secured, and a !itt of the books in the teacher's desk.
e. See that the bucket is scoured and left inverted, or on
ita larger base, that the hoops may not fall off; the dipper scoured and dried that it may not rust out. 7. See that the locks are provided with key1 properly l11beled, the window-sashes are fastened down, the house securely locked, and the keys left with a proper person, from whom take a receipt. 8. See that the ~rounds are left in such good condition that they will not be badly washed by rains during the vacation. This done, and your successor will bless forever your name ; and, encouraged by the condition of things, will strive dill. gently to carry on your good work. Fourth. Statistics show thll-t a large number of our echool houses are unsightly-crushing to the child's natural love for the beautiful; uncomfortable in summer and winter alike; un healthy, because of the accumulation of filth in and about the building; poorly lighted, poorly ventilated, poorly heated (even to the danger point),-an abomination to the eye of the ~onsecrated teacher. It is the teacher's duty to use his intelligence and enthusiasm and unceasing hard work to sup ply better school facilities to a hitherto indifferent and apathetic community. If he is called a benefactor who cause1 two blades of grass to grow where one grew before, whll.t shall be said of a faithful teacher who causes a neat, substantial schoolhouse to be erected where a miserable, dilapidated, disgraceful shack stood before? The teacher should be authority -the proper teacher is authority--<>n educational matter in his community. He should manage the school-sentiment of that community as one of his educational agencies, and mold it for a better schoolhouse. How long would a live Methodist preacher remain in a community without having a neat, cowfortable0 house in which his people may worship God tw" hours a month? The live (?) teacher continuea to teach school in a miserable bovell60 hours a month. The school building and grounda are often the areateat ol>Jta
j
I

232
ele that the ambitious teacher meets when he goes to ta.ke charge of a new school. It is a mistake to try to persuade one's aelf that the average country schoolhouse is not a hindrance k> good teaching. It is a mistake for the new teacher to expresa himself in a community as content with the schoolhouse as he finds it, unless it is what it should be. His aims and ideals are at onee rated as low, and he loses a golden opportunity to impress the importance of at least repairing substantially the old ~:louse.
Why sh~uld the teacher insist upon improvements to the schoolhouse?
1. Because it is due the people that the teacher place before them and impress upon them higher ideals of education and of the facilities necessary to carry on the work.
2. Because it is due the children to be taught that they should be instructed in the best house and with the besi appliances, as well as by the best teacher, to be had.
S. Beca.se it is due the teacher himself that he surround himself with the most helpful aids, the most useful appliances, the best opportunitiee for doing rood work.
Bome suggettions on securing means of improving the school property:
1. Be not too quick to accept the 11ehool with dilapidated buildings and corrugated grounds.
2. On going to a community with a view to teaching, make a thorough inspection of the schoolhouse and grounds.
B. Study all the school architecture you can get your hands on
.f.. Mature and prepare plans for m~J.king the desired im provements.
i. Secure a meeting of a few leading citizens. Fire into them all the schoolhouse ammunition with which you are loaded. Insist that they then and there pledge themselvee--their means, or labor, or material, or ~m11 and then fix an early day for the improveme:qf41

233
a. In carrying out your plans be not ahy in asking favon
of those good people-from grandsire to grandson. 7. Keep the quesi~on of schoolhouse improvements warm
in the community, and on the appointed day, be on hand early and give direction to every detail.
Some points of improvement:
1. A substantial plank or picket fence, whitewashed or painted, should inclose a suitable portion of the grounds of every schoolhouse-only so much of the grounds as can be kept in good order.
2. The grounds should be laid off, walks made, trees planted, shrubbery added.
3. The building should be painted. Nothing will add more to the community's respect for the school building and pride in the school than a nicely painted schoolhouse.
4. The roof should be in good condition; the front step! will probably need attention; the window panel should be in place. Don't wait for a bitterly cold day. Outside blinds are not best; good oil shades mounted on strong spring rollers are better for regu lating the light.
li. If the desks are not in good condition they should be sandpapered and one or two coati of good hard oil put on them. This can be done at a cost of twelve or thirteen centsper desk. If the desks are beyond satisfactory repair, get new ones. How? Show the Board that they are necessary and that the Board ha1 the right to buy them. Good, new, modern, double desks can be laid down at your schoolhouse at a cost of $2.30 to $2.75 each. If the Board will not furnish all the money get it to furnish part, and get up contributions or some entertainment for the remainder. Country achool3 CAN be well equipped.
a. Every schoolroom should have from 50 to 100 lineal
feet of blac-kboards. Enameled duck or drilling, tightly stretched, sandpapered and coated with alating, makes one of the best, most durable and cheap eet blackboards to be had. The cost il SO tn 40 ,........ .,....-r vard, 40 or 50 inches wide.

234
7. Have a atove or heater. With loll open fireplace you lose from 70 to 95 per cent. of the heat produced by the combustion of your fuel, and therefore find it almost impossible to heat the room so that it is not necessary for pupils to leave their desks and collect around the fire-a source of perpetual annoyance. Have a ventilating (not radiating) stove; thereby the hot air is kept in circulation and every part of the room is kept comfortably warm. One of the best Tentilating wood stoves for a schoolroom is the "Wonder," made by the Wonder Manufacturing Co., Washington C. H., Ohio. One medium-size ventila.tr ing stove in the corner of the room will heat every part of it. Do not place tht atove in the center of tht room.
Other things worthy of consideration are the library-importance, cost, care of, kind of books; apparatus-cost, means of supplying, school-made, ownership ; maps, globes and charts ; weight and measures; blackboard, eraser11, and pointera.
11.-0RGANIZATION.
Careful, thorough school organization is e81ential to succe!!ll ful teaching. If a teacher had only one or two children te teach he could afford to regard lightly the matter of school organization; but with thirty or forty or fifty children demanding at the same time a part of his teaching force, there must be systemization of school work or ignominious failure.
CLASSIFIOATrox.-Naturally, the first step towards organ ization is the classification of pupils. Unless a large draft is made on the teacher's wisdom and firmness the pupils will make their own classification, and the number of elasses will equal the number of pupils enrolled. Then if the teacher perform the miracle of making a schedule of recitations, what can he do in a five-minutes recitation period? On the other hand, the teacher should guard against the leadings of some rural school reformers, who, holding up the city schools as a model, would have them ,;o to the other extreme of making a loose classiftcatioa wiih one-year or two-year intervala in a}! subjects.

236

In clusl.fyins pupU. a few prlnclpf dlould IO'fmlo

1

L Pupils should be classed and promotelfl apoo tbelr abU."

ity to do the work.

I. The number of classes, say 15 or 8, should be deter-

mined by the length of school day, the ao.ne o1

etudy, and the teacher's ability.
a. Cl818e1 should be divided into two sections, about.

hl!olfyear apart, in Arithmetic, Language or Grammar,

~nd Geography.

Whatever may be said of tbf advantages of the graded

City .,hools aver the rural schools fn the matter of classifica-

tion or grading, it mast not be forgotten that the rural schoolll

han certain advantages over the city schools.

1. The pupils of the several clll8tles are thrown together iD

the same room and are not separated by thick walls.

:Much information is thus had by the younger pupila

that will be useful and helpful in tpeir development.

2. It is not necessary to withhold a pupil's promotion al~

gether because he is deficient in one study.

Temporary Olauification.-On taking charge of a school a

temporary classification is necessary. It is unwise and dan

1erous to undertake to make a permanent classification on the

1lrst day of the session. The pupils and the patrons should be

made to feel that the cluaification is only temporary. Much

dissatisfaction and cbmplaining may thus be avoided.

To make a satisfactory temporary classification some prepar-

atory work should be dQne before the session begins.

1. You should have a personal conference with your prede.

ce~sor, or communicate with him by mail, and go to

the schoolroom on the first day with the information

obtained from him noted down and classified.

2. A. few days should be spent visitin~ your prosp~Te

p.bons. It is always well to form their acquaintance

before the "SChool opens, but specially should you vfait
them if you are 1eeking help in making a JOOd tem-
porary classi4cation. Talk with them about what their

children have done, what their habitl are, what their

,clilpositiou are, what their wfi&QC!!IIMI art. JUke
noord flf data IDformation..

236
.. aau the aoquaintanoe of the pupi111; will their friend-
lhip ; dnd out what they have 1tudied, how they han ltudied it, how they lib it, what books they han ued. Two or three days of visitinr in a community beiore opening the 1chool can be as profitably spent u any week of the school year. It ill profitable to the pupi11 throu~~:hout the year, because it prepares the teacher to make an intelligent, auspicious start. .A.I you will probably not be able to test your pupil1 thor~ oughly in all subjects on the first day, it will be best to take about two 1ubjecta, preferably Arithmetic and Reading, 11 a basis on which to make the temporary classification. Have a carefully prepared plan and abundant fresh, interesting mate rial at hand for testing pupils in theae aubjects. Insist quietly and firmly that everything shall be done in an orderly, sy tematic way from the very beginning on the morning of the 1lr~t day. An illustration may be helpful to the inexperienced. For 1nch the following from Baldwin's School Management il pven: Teacher.-" All who are prepared to read in the Fourth or Fifth Reader may raise their hands." .Pupila.-Fifteen pupils raise their hand11. Teackr.-''Take your Readers. At eignale, take placea u directed. Ready; rise; pass." (Such directions are given u will insure order.) Pupilf.-Tbe pupils pas11 to places at the board. T~kr.-" You may write your namea on the board. Board erase; write; attention." PupiU.-Each pupil writes hill name, and at the si111al, ..U. ~n, turns, facing the teacher. Teacher.-" Turn to page 120; read as called.'' Pupila.-Each one reads a short portion. The teacher, during the readin,, makes out a roll of the cla811 from the name11 on the board, and at the same time notices the readin~. Such aa evidently belong to a lower cliUJI are told to take places in the clau to which they belong. Teacher.-" Turn to page 30 for the next le111on. Ton may prepare the fint and 1econd paraarapha. Notice the 1pellinr

237
f.n<l meaning of each word. A~ aignall, take 1eat1. .Board;
era.ee ; attention; turn; pass.''
Pupili.-The class pass to seats, and prepare the lesson a-
signed. TeacMI'.-"Those who are prepared to read in the Third
Reader may raise their hands." The same course is pursued with this class as with the class in the Fourth Reader. In the same way the classea in the second and Firat Readers are organized. Now each pupil is at work.
Permanent Claa1ijicaticn.-The pupils should know ln the beginning that while the first classification is temporary, a permanent classification will be made at the end of the 1irat week. Most of the first week should be spent in testing pupilt for the permanent classification, recitations going on all the while under the temporary classification and program, yet recitatioilll that are made largely tests of the pupil's ability to do the work of the class under the permanent classification. Beyond the second class or grade Reading should no longer be considered a basal study in making classifications, promotions, or demotions. By good teaching a pupil's reading can be strengthened in the fourth grade as well as in the third, in the fifth grade as well as in the fourth. To have harmonioWI progress and development effort should be made to have the pupil advance with equal pace in all subjects of his class, and yet if he be up in five studies and behind in one, he should not, and need not, be held back in the country 1chool on account of this one study. He should be required to give extra time to this one study and make himself as proficient in that as in the other studies. For a pupil to be allowed to believe that he cannot learn any one study is a reflection on his former or present teacher, or both.
After the permanent classification ha1 been made irregular promotions should be made from section to section whenever the pupil is able to do the work of the advanced section in such basal studies as Arithmetic, Geography, and Grammar or Language. In the first two grades the basal studies should be Arithmetic and Reading. Regular promotions from section to tection should be made semi-annually, and from crade te rrade annually.

238
Uniformity in the text-books of a school ~honld be rigidly enlorced. There can be no classification unless this is done. The school law of Georgia plainly says: "No teacher shall recein pay for any pupil who is allowed to use any other than the prescribed text-books." There may be liability somewhere for fraudulent reports, and liability for money paid out contrary to law. With five-year county adoptions and books furnished through county boards at publishers' wholesale list price, there can be no ground for reasonable complaint that text-books are too expensive to have uniformity in a school.
Making a daily program is no easy task. It requires earnest thought and careful study. Every teacher should make his own program upon pedagogic principles. Unless the program of another suits your school with its peculiar environments, do not adopt it. A good suggestive program was given in the last Outline of Methods for Georgia Teachers. Several good ones are given in Baldwin's School Management.
THE FIRST DAY.-A large number of teachers are young and comparatively inexperienced; all are itinerant. The first day at a 8chool is an eventful one. If a good beginning is to prepare the way for work that will lead to a good ending, it is highly important that favorable impressions be made upon both patrons and pupils by the end of the first day. Preparatory to the successful work of the first day, ihe teacher should spend a few days visiting his prospective patrons, because (1I he should let the patrons know him, (2) he should have the confidence of the patrons, (3) he should have their willingness to cooperate, (4) he should let them know how to co-operate, (5) he should know as much as possible of the children, (6) he should begin at once to manage the educational forces of the community.
He should have a carefully prepared,definite plan of work for the Jhst day-a temporary program, suitable school tactics, DP.ceesary stationery and appliances, chalk, ink, etc. Leave nothing to the impulse of the moment. A bektograph will be found very useful in preparing busy work. Every teacher lhould have one. To make one, dissolve a box of gelatine in warm wa.ter, Inix eight ounces of glycerine; heat gently, and pour onr a alate around the frame of which 1ome 1mall 1tripe

239
t>i wood han been tarked to add depth. A bottle of htk~ graph-ink can be had for ten centa.
Be punctual. See that everything is in order, everything. needful provided. Greet pupils cordially by name, if possible. Any child esteems it an nonor to have the new teacher reco&'nize him by name in the presence of his companions. Awaken in them an interest in the success of their school. Preserve order; prevent jokes, pranks, boisterousness. Be most vigilant; but do not nag.
Begin work promptly at the appointed hour, whether there be five or fifty pupils present. Require pup1ls to move by ~i guals and words of command given in a kind but firm tone. Promptness, positivity and precision will do much to create a favorable impression. Announce no rules until afternoon at the close of school; then give as few as possible. Add to them from time to time as they are needed, but always announce them in a formal, dignified way at the close of the school-day.
As soon as pupils are seated, somewhat under the tactful direction of the teacher, have a word of earnest prayer or the Lord's prayer in concert, sing a familiar song, give the pupils a brief welcome-not over five minutes, and at once begin work on your program. Have something for every pupil to do and see that every pupil does something under your direction,-test problems 1n Arithmetic, copying ami memorizing ~ems, letter-writing, autobiographical sketches, thought qtestions in Il istory and Geography constitute good busy work for the older ones while yon are testing and classifying pupils For the little ones stencil-drawing, color work with bits of worsted, word-building with letter cards, sentence building wih word cards, stick-laying from copy, are all good. Suitable, busy work must be provided; you might as well have it on the first day. Have a number of short quick recitationa.
III.-SCHOOL GOVERNMENT.
The best equipped and best organized school will be a failure without good government. School facilities and organization have to do more especially with the beginning; government continn111 all long aa the school continues; indeed the effects of
rood "''"IJ'Jlment. b~ on right principle~~, continue~ long,

240
after~the school has ceased and the boys and girls are boys and girls no more. But the good school continues no longer than good government lasts. That government which aims at producing and sustaining order alone, in its generally accepted sense, by the exercise of authority, by the enforcement of rules and regulations, by punishments-in a word, by forcing the child to submit wholly, automatically to the will of another-is vicious and should;he shunned. Proper School Government is such control of school forces as will conduce to the best training of pupils for the duties of life.
The best training of pupils for the duties of life is character building; therefore, character-building is the end or aim of proper school government. School government is, however only one of the means to this end. Many of the strongest characters, many of the men and women who have discharged most acceptably the duties of life, have not had the advantage of good school government; many other characters have been good and strong in spite of certain forms of school government. The teacher should have a reason for every means or method employed in school work, a clear aim in every undertaking. In matters of school discipline, which, by the way, is not coextensive with school government, there should be clearly in view the developing and strengthening of character of the individual pupil or of the pupils of the school. Character determines future conduct; condu,ct is guided by directive force within the individual. As it is the province of intellectual training to develop and strengthen the mental faculties, so it is the peculiar office of school government to develop this self-directive and self-controlling force.
Order in the schoolroom may be the result of a very bad school government. It is one thing to have order by restraining the physical energies, repressing the spirits, cramping and terrorizing the children; quite another thing to have order by setting up high ideals of conduct, creating a strong school sentiment in favor of conduct in accord with the ideals, developing self-control and self-directive force. Not inconsistent with these latter aims are such means as vigilance, firmness, certain forms of punishment-even corporal punishment.
In a certain schoolroom the author has in mind are thirty

puplle from the beet homee of the place. Tla room It equipped with good furniture and appliance& for teaching. The teacher ia a cultured lady of experience in teaching. She aima at good order, but she must draw largely on her time and attention from the beginning until the end of the echool day if she haa no more than quiet. The pupila are listleea and indifferent to the recitation, noisy and nagging, ready to drop a book or slate if the teacher's eye be not on them, rebellious in their spirits,-in short, young anarchists. If the teacher leavee the room, pandemonium reigns. At the end of the day the teacher is worn out; at the end of the session she feela like going to h!lr reward. No wonder she despises teaching.
In another schoolroom not fa.r away are forty-six pupil from inferior homes. The school furniture is poorer, the appliances more limited. The teacher's methods of conducting the recitation are perhaps not so good, and yet the children get far more good out of it than in the first school. They freely!'and yet courteously and in the most orderly manner ask questions of the teacher and of the pupil reciting or of any other pupil in the class. A beautiful spirit of harmony and consideration and self-control is manifest. If the teacher leaves the room the work goe11 quietly and earnestly on. There i11 not a constant strain on the teacher. At the end of the session she bas energy left with which to work during the vacation. Naturally the teacher loves her work.
Why this difference? One has the true elemtntl of governing power; the other has not. What are the elements of governing power?
Lon:.-Tbe easy government of most schools means tb~ control of a comparatively few pupils of unhappy dispositions. To these the teacher must give most attention ; why not win their esteem and confidence, bring yourself to take a warm interest in them, and, as an easy, natural consequence, loTe them? It is not impossible to love even the unlovely. They
are usually those who have least love at home, and are therefore quite eusceptible to genuine love of a teachel'-not declared but manifeeted. Lon is one of the ltrongea~ incentin1 to aood, u well u reatrainta from evil, that can be ued.

242
Ooli'IIST.II:NOT.- The teacher cannot xonrn prope'tly without the respect of his pupils. He Il:lay have order, but order of a low degree. He cannot have the respect of hil pupils unless his living be consistent with his teachings. Pupils are as quick to discover inconsistencies in a teacher's living and teachin~s as the world is to discover them in the minister of the gospel. Not only will pupils lose their respect for the inconsistent teacher, but the more thoughtful ones will be forced to despise him. A teacher ought to be the embodiment of the high ideals placed before his pupils. Then indeed is it good for a boy if he is allowed only to sit on the end of a Jog with his teac!Jer. Not only should he be consistent in his living and teaching, but he should be consistent in his daily requirements of his pupils. To be rigid one day and lax the next, makes it the more difficult to be rigid on the day following. Consistency in the teacher is a rare jewel.
CHARACTER.-Unconscious tuition is stronger than eloquent exhortation. Not only should the teacher's character not be smirched with vice and polluted with corruption, but, in ita purity and nobility, it should stand out boldly, and impress itself on the life of the pupils. A strong moral influence, emanating from a hi~h moral character, will do more to lead pupils into right conduct than all the rods ami rules that can be plied upon their backs and brains. Order may be had by force, but the vitalizing influence of the teacher's inner life is necessary to secure good government. Character me.ms ab&olute truthfulncSB, it means good temper, it means good habita, it means purity of life.
GooD JuDGMENT.-This is the child of common sense and the parent of tact, both of which should be found in every school governor. The ability to handle judiciously, tactfully, 1kilfully, special cases of misconduct and real or ima~inary grievances of patrons is the secret of many a teacher's suceess in government. Judgment in dealing with the little everyday affairs of the schoolroom is a good preventive of the greater, more serioWI problems o school government. By find ing the pupil's true motive for the troublesome conduct with which he may be charged. and dealing judiciously with him, he may be aaved from being a rebellious youne anarchiaL. ,..

243
VIGILANCE.-Alertness with eye and ear Is an ee!lentiat element in governing power. The school in1pressed with the fact that the kind, consistent, faithful teacher sees and hears all that goes on in the schoolroom, even while having his attention centered mainly on the recitation, will be found to be an orderly room. Constant fault-finding and nagging are not necessarily concomitants of vigilance. Nor is it necessary that the pupils should re~ard the teacher as suspicious and distrustful of them. If they feel that the teacher is always looking for mischief they may be obliging enough to see that he is . not disappointed. If the teacher's vigilance is not seasoned with sympathy and love, there is apt to be frequent occasion for fault-finding. Never should a violation of a moral principle be passed unnoticed. The vigilance of the teacher should extend to the little details of the schoolroom-the condition of the furniture, apparatus and appliances, the seat ing of the pupils-all those things that bear on easy control.
ScuoLARSHIP.-A broad margin of ripe scholarship, giving th~ teacher confidence in himself and increasing the confidence of pupils in their teacher, will go far towards rendering control an easy matter. If the teacher is able, or undertakes, merely to keep school and incidentally to bear what the children learn from the text-books, control is a burdensome business. Thorough, fresh scholarship and a good store of ready information will awaken in pupils an interest in the plll'Ruit of knowledge; interest begets application; application drives away mischief. A liberal amount of scholarship is not sufficient unless it be fresh and appropriate to the topics of that day. To keep it fresh and appropriate one must study daily. Daily study mealfs not only increased scholarship, but it means ready and appropriate methods of teaching ; and all thie makes school government easy.
MINOR MEANS.
Sea!.a and &ating. The seats and the seating of the pupila bear a very important relation to control. The seats as they are found by the new teacher will probably need repairing, improving, rearranging, adjusting. If through the neglect of the former teachers the deake have been whittled, scratched

244
oa"ed, 10iled or othenriae abused, it 11 hlll!hly importaDt that you remove the evidencea of grosa uglect on the part of the teacher and gross disrespect for the achool on the part of the pupils. These evidences constantly before the pupil are no& only damagin~ to the esthetical in hia nature but are a atront temptation to be disorderly. A carpenter' plane can remoTe the eTidence1 of the knife ; aand-paper and hard-oil will then put the desk in good condition.
The seats should not be 110 high that the pupil'a feet cannot rest tlrmly on the floor and partially support the weight of the le~. The thigh bones, being somewhat flexible in childhood, are often deformed by allowing little children to sit for lon periods of time with feet dangling. Besides, the pressure of the edge of the seat on certain nervea on the back of the thigh cause11 irritation and, U continued, c<,msiderable pain. The effect on the good order of that child ia evident.
If school government ia to be successful the physical com fort of pupils while in the schoolroom cannot be overlooked. Care must be taken that neither desks rtor seats are too high or too low. Adjustable desks are the ideal. In the absence of these we must try to adjust the pupils to the desks by using foot rest and mounting the desks on blocks or strip running parallel with the row. The desks should be arranged in rows with an eye to symmetry and the proportione of the room. When once arranged properly they should be fastened to the floor, or four or five desks should be fastened to the same pair of strips. Thia will prevent ahaking or noise or tilting.
The pupils should be seated with ~I due regard to the light and heat. To noid intense glare and hurtful shadows the light should be brought chiefly from the left, some from the rear, and all from ae high up aa po18ible. If shades are need they should draw up from below inatead of drawing down from abon. The matter of li!lht in the schoolroom ia of great importance. Certain eye-teats In npreeentative achoola ahow that from 40 to 50 per cent. of the pupils have defectin Tiaion. )Care should be taken to seat pupils with reference to one another, 10 u to reduce to a minimum temptationa to d.IJor.. der. In thil, tact muat be uaed. Let the pupila underatud

245
on the ftrlt day that while they are left to aelect their eeats then, the teacher will from time to time seat pupils u, in hie judgment, he thinkll best. Troublesome pupils should not be left together, nor should they be left far from the
~acher. They need the teacher' special attentioa and help. Esthetic Surroundinga. Nothing is too good for the roughest
echoolboy. The more attractive his surroundings the better will be his conduct, other things being equal. If the home should be adorned to develop the better nature of the children who are growing up, why not the schoolroom? The refining influence of beautiful and attractive pictures on the walls of the echool has been felt by teachers who were thoughtful enough to hang them there. Neatness, cleanliness, order, ornaments, all tend to soften the rough schoolboy's nature, lead him to ltigher aspirations and greater efforts, and develop within him a respect for the school and ita surroundings that will prove helpful in government. Where cobwebs are found on the walls, cobwebs are apt to be found somewhere in the inner life of the inhabitant.
Mmtc. I am aware that this is not a standard aid to school government, and yet I have seen a bit of simple vocal music work so charmipgly in reducing a chaotic room to order that I am constrained to mention it as one of the valuable minor means. Young children naturally like to sing. If allowed to bawl instead of sinfZ, it may become a source of disorder. After a few elementary lessons, which any ambitious teacher can give, a few songs should be taught the school; and the teacher should insist that they be sung in soft, smooth tones. Where a school is found in which the pupils are taught vocal music well, and where much attention is given to it, there will be found good order, easy control, and iOod school govern ment.
Ventilation and Heating. There is no more fruitful source of disorder than poor ventilation. When the atmosphere be comes vitiated to over five-tenths of ;:me per cent., headaches begin, children become indifferent to study or the recitation, they are soon restleBS and disorderly. Just at that time the teacher, because of the eft"ect of the vitiated atmosphere on
hlm, is in a poor condition to cope with the dilorder. The

246
atmoephere in a poorly ...antilated schoolroom become! impure by such slow degrtles that it is almost impossible for one abut up in the room to detect it. Whenever a room becoml'll disorderly, slowly but surely, the teacher should at once look to the ventilation. No matter what system of ventilation be adopted it is safe to have the windows and doors opened at recess. The fresh oxygen in the pupils' lungs will more than compensate for the temporary reduction in temperature. Two pupils should be appointed weekly to see that the win dows are raised at recess.
However, while the pupils are seated in the room, ventilation should not be secured through open windows. A blast of cold air may bring death within a few days to the strongest. Fresh air may be safely admitted by lowering the sash a few inches at the top, and using a shelving board to deflect the cold current upwa,d. The impure air laden with heavy carbon dioxide falle to the floor and should be drawn off through a ventilating flue or duct operated by the heat from the stove pipe.
While the open fireplace is a good means of ventilating, it is a poor means of heating, and is a source of disorder and annoyance on cold days. Every country schoolroom should be heated with a ventilating stove, located in the corner of the room. By such a stove the air is kept in circulation and all parts of the room heated almost eqnally. Then it will not be necessary for the pupils to crowd around the fireplace or radiating stove, which is apt to heat the atmosphere for only a few feet away. All parts of the room, up to a height of five or six feet, should be kept at 70 degrees Fahrenheit.

PHYSIOLOGY.
BY D. L. EARNEST, STATE NoRMAL Scrroor., ATHENS, GA..
L PURPOSES. 1. General culture-'tis a shame not to know Creation's masterpiece. 2. Increase of personal efficiency-he can best use Nature's forces who obeys her laws. S. To know and respect the laws of lite-miStake and d!sobod!cnce are never overlooked and n'ver forgiven, though the penalty may be delayed, no morcy, no favoritism, no es'ape. <t. 'l'o develop admiration for the human body and the human being, thP. whole person In its prest>nt excellence and the grandeur of Its possibilltles. It To show tlle value and the beauty of a pure, a healthy, and a wholesome, holy life and for It create aspirations and furnish motivell.
II. SO~IE TEACHING PRINCIPLES.
Proceed from the near to the remote, from the concrete to the abst1act, from the specific to the general, from the practical to the theoretical, from the useful to the omamental, from the living to the non-living, from the actual to the !deal, from the clear to the vague, from the personal to the Impersonal. from the c~olstlc to the altruistic, from the easy to the difficult, from the plca!lant to the disagreeable, from the Interesting, the gay and the changeful to the UD attractive, the serious and the eternaL

2~8
111. INTl:WDUdTORY.
A microscope will show In a drop of stagnant water many moving forms, minute animals: what does the scientist mean by calling them one-celled? A cell Is the smallest living thing. the minutest living Individual. It may live alone, as In the case of microscopic animals just mentioned, as very small plant forms called disease germs, or they may be combined In more complex forms; all plants and animals are colonies and communities of cells with some Intervening matter.
Not all cells are alike; d!tl'erent parts of animals are composed of cells that are very much unlike. Cells are combined into tissues, tissues Into organs and organs into systems. The function of an O!'gan is the work it does.
Ana.te::;:Jy treats of structure, Physiology of action .;;.nd Hygiene tells how to use body and mind eo as to get the most and best out of life.
1. Define cell, tissue, orgai?, system, anatomy, ~byslology and hygiene.
oz. Name six tissues, six systemL
I.V. FOOD.
A food is a substance which nourishes the body. It feeds and furnishes life to the cells, which are injured by a poison. The two uses of food are to build up tissue and to !urnish force and heat when oxidized. The !ood elements are:
1. Protelds, found In tl.esh, eggs, milk, cheese, peas, beans, 'and grains.
2. Starches and sugars, In grain!!, potatoes, fruits, etc. 8. Fats and oils, in m!lk, butter, cheese, grains. .._ Minerals, water, sR.lts o! varlou!!l kinds, !ound
Ill all !ood1. Proteid are the t11sue bu!ldera.

249
also furnish force. Sugars and fat!! furnish force and heat; minerals build bone and furnish proper conditions for carrying on life. .A. food Is a combination of food elements; diet is the blending of foods in hygienic ratios and amounts. The average person needs dally not more than 22-24 ounces of solid food, one-third of which should be proteid, vegetable or animal in origin, and at ieast an equal amount of water. The atudy of food values Is the problem of to-day In Georgia homes. The science of cooking Is the legitimate province of woman; cooking and eating have equal dignity-the one requires aptness, the other appetite. The amount and kind of food for each must be learned from experience and sense, not by authority and taste.
V. DIGESTION.
1. Mastication and Insalivation. The teeth grind the food Into small bits, preparing for the othel acts of digestion. Saliva softens the food and changes starch into sugar. .A.s the most abundant valuable part of vegetables ln. starch, thor ough mastication Is Important.
2. Deglutition or Swallowing. The food passea through the esophagus into the stomach.
s. Gastric Digestion. Pepsin, an active principle
of the gastric juice, changes the albuminous portions of the food Into a 1luid called peptone. The acid prevents decomposition and promotes the 1low of the bile. Rennin curdles milk. ~. Intestinal Digestion. The bile makes an emulalon of the fats, promotes Intestinal action and prevents decay; the pancreatic juice digest!! starch, protelds and fats; the Intestinal juice fl.nlshes the work of the other fluids, and, In addition, digests suji;ar.

250
I. Absorption, by either lacteals or minute blood vessels, oCCll"~ in every part of the dlgest1Te tubes.
IiYGI:ElNE OF DIGESTION.
1. Fruits, grn.ham bread, oatmeal, green vegetabletJ.
~W-.1 IH-e laxative; highly concentrated foods havt~ opposite tendency.
I. Dllnklng at meal time has different effect Upon
d!lferent persons. ~o drink should be takeb \Vhli.!2 food is in the mouth. Some wea~
or stomachs require a dr~ diet; the digestion
l!ome Is best ptoi:noted by drinking little, only. ll.t meal&. 'water is the only natural drink. Hot
tl1.ltl~ are stimulating and would better be re-
served for medicinal purpos~s. ' Normal hunger should r'e~Ulate time and amount
'Of eating. Redut lng the meals in number or amount orte\1. has good effect. Fasting is a proper \>l;a,y~ !or a forgiveness of many physical sina. W!~d.. depraved appetite is man's fiercest foe. ~ SoUd foods should not be swallowed; chew every particle until it becomes a liquid-baste In eating Is waste of life. IS. Avoid prescribing medicines for self: laxative are tempting but harmful-diet and exercise promote digestive activity. Let conscience con trol appetite; be regular, be temperate, ~ serene. IS, {)Jean t~e teeth after each meal.
QUESTIONS.
.i. W,hat is the difference between a food and a ~ food element? 2. Which Is the cheaper, animal or vegetable food! 8. Name the most nutritious and least costly tooda, 6. What Is the use of each food element? ~ 5. What Is the benefit of a pleasan~ davor2

251
6. How much does necessary food cost-least coet!
7. Through what changes does a mouthful of bread and butter pass in becoming blood?
8. Name five causes of Indigestion. 9. Name ten parts of the alimentary canal and tell
use of each. 10. Write ten rules for eating, not using "Don't."
SIMPLE EXPillRIMENTS are suggested by all good texta.
1. Weigh a day's rations and show to class. 2. Observe sweet taste of any starchy food. WMK
well cJwwed.. 8. Show osmosis of absorption by placing In water
egg with shell removed from large end. 4. Teach Importance of first and last step In dJ.
gestlve process, the only ones under control of will.
VI. THill BLOOD AND THill CIRCULATION.
Plasma Is the fluid part of the blood, in which float the corpuscles. The red corpuscl'ls carry oxygen to the cells; the white corpuscle~t destroY, disease germs and repair injmies. The minerals and protelds of the food and C02 from the cell~ are carried dissolved in the plasma. One's blood Is one-thirteenth his weight. It is circulated by the heart, arteries, capillaries, veins and lymphatics. It is driven through the arteries and cap lllaries by the contraction of the heart and the elastic action of the arteries; through the veins by this force and by the compression of the muscles in action, by the action of the lungs, which In expanding produce suction, backwnrd flow being prevented by the action of the venal valves.
The food eaten is used either in bu!Idlng up the tissues or in furnishing force by oxidation; this material Is obtained from the blood, the liquid

F1om Hutchhon'$ Physiolog11

254
portions of which with some white corpuscles ooze through the walls of the capillaries and bathe the cells; the unused materials and the waste products find their way back into the veins through a set of vessels called lymphatics.
HYGIENE.
1. Active exercise promotes the circulation and the prompt removal of waste, giving the buoyant feeling of vigorous, healthy life.
2. Clothing should be loose enough to allow unimpeded circulation. Be healthy and happy; let fools seek the beauty of small feet and trim figures by deforming nature and thus mocking God.
3. Select nutritious food, digest it; promptly free system of all waste matter.
SUGGESTIONS.
1. Test pulse of pupils as affected by positionlying, sitting, standing-after exercise, after rapid breathing or holding breath; draw inferences.
2. Show how to stop bleeding; have pupils mention familiar remedies and discuss values of same.
3. Pupils will be interested in a graphic account of the battles between the white corpuscles and disease germs.
4. Take a sympathetic interest in the habits of your pupils; correct the bad; fix and exemplify the good. Dare do no wrong which you would not have grow into a habit.
QUESTIONS.
~- State uses of the blood; the corpuscles; the plasfUa; the clot; the fibrin.

2. Define pulse, artery, capillary, pericardium, lymphatic, portal, pulmonary and systemic cir culation.
B. Compare arterial and venous blood. 4. Trace the course of a drop of blood. 5. Explain the term "good-bea~ted." 6. Explain, "blood will tell." 7. What is "heart failure?" 8. Ask and answer ten questions about each ot. the
lllustrations. 8. How does exercise cause more blood to flow to
any part? 9. Why does exercise cause the heart to beat
faster? 10. Give cause and treatment or fainting, bleeding
at the nose.
RESPIRATION.
The two purposes ot. respiration are to obtain oxygen for carrying on the processes of life and to remove waste. A full study of this work concerns the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and air cells of the lungs as well as their covering and lining. 1'hrough the delicate lining of the ait cells some of the oxygen of the air passes into the blood which gives in exchange heat, vapor, e1Iete organic matter and 00 2 Breathing is at the rate o'l' eighteen per minute. The capacity of the lungs is 330 cubic inches, but only a gallon of this air cap be exhaled. Tlle diaphragm, a muscular partition between lungs and stomach, aids the muscles between ribs in respiration.
HYGIE~E.
1. Supply the lungs with an abundance or pure a!r.
' Learn how to ventilate, if necessary wake u.-

;Y
From Blaisdell '13 Physiology,

community to Importance ot education so that they will build a schoolhouse good enough to need ventilation. 2. The clothing must be loose enough to allow free lung expansion. 8. Learn to keep the mouth shut, at least when breathing. Breathe through the nose. 4. Fill the lungs; practice deep breathing. To expand the lungs, read aloud. Sing. Frequently Inhale and exhale forcibly through a short tube w!th a small bore. Make and use a spirometer. ~. Use diaphragm largely In breathing; this improYes the voice and aids digestion. 6. Food is fuel; the fires of life need oxygen. The burning furnishes all our force, that of plowboy, preacher and poet. If you breathe at night, get fresh air.
SUGGESTIONS.
1. Tie a piece of rubber over bottom of a lamp chimney to represent thorax and diaphragm; tie tube in small rubber balloon to represent lunge, pass this tube through a cork which Insert in top of chimney.
2. Test lungs by counting aloud In a low tone; If lungs are weak, the count wlll not exceed forty or fifty.
8. Test breath for C02 by blowing through lime water. Prepare this by putting small piece of unslaked lime In water.
4. Count respirations, normal and after running. ~. Using a tape measure find chest expansion. Do
not rest content with two inches. 8. Give exercises In voice culture. The tones
ahould be clear, low, pure, smooth and pleasant. A well modulated voice in the teacher Is ~ 1ource of power, ot pleasure, of greatest good. The tone of the voice is the langua~:e of the soul.

QUESTIONS,
1. Wpy do we breathe? How touch fresh air do we need per hour?
2. How much air in an ordinary breath? In a full breath?
3. Define pleura, pneumonia, bronchitis, epiglottta, thorax.
4. Explain yawning, sighing, coughing, laughtnr, sobbing.
5. What is the difference between Inspired and eX plred air?
6. How may the strength and volume of the lunr be increased?
7. What is ventilation. How regulated? 8. Why breathe tbrough the nose?
VIII. THE SKIN.
The cuticle covers and protects; the cutis absorba, excretes waste matter, regulates temperature, Is an organ of sensation, contains persplratol"1 and sebaceous glands, blood vessels and nervOL
HYGIENE.
The skin can be educated. Too mucb clothing Is a frequent cause ot colds; the skin, by too much protection becomes too sensitive. Cold air and cold water are valuable tonics; frequen1!;r apply both to the skin. H unused to their action, proceed by degrees.
A good, clear complexion is the reward of correct living-exercise, fresh air, good digestion, cleanliness.
Soap is a great civll!zer; a good bath is a step toward righteousness. A pure heart may be found beneath a dirty skin, but Is out of place. The first step towar<! reforming a tome or a people Is to remove the dirt. Care of the per-

:259
' ~son is- the:J'!'simplest,~strongest show of self-respect. Perfumes are sometimes used by persons who do not need a bath-sometimes are a badge of hypocrisy. The pure in heart--they that shall see God-shall they not have clean hands? Some can keep clean by bathing only twice per week.
Ilair and nails, appendages of the skin, adorn only when kept free from dirt; they show the first signs of distress. As goes the camel through the needle's eye, so in the heart of her pupils do the moral precepts of the untidy teacher find lodgment.
A dog will reC"ognize you by his nose, but this Rhould be possible for no other friend. Train your pupils to be neat and clean; this is not all, but it is the beginning of good things-and your own nai:m shall lead the way.
Teach cleanliness about school and home; filth and fever are firm friends. Be clean, and fear not t,he deadly disease germ.
QUESTIONS.
What arc the two layers of t,he skin? Their uses? 2. What is the relation 'between the skin and ot,he organs of elimination? 3. What is the difference between a secretion and an excretion? 4. What is the normal temperature of the body How is this maintained? 5. Define complexion and tell to what it is due. 6. Write ten rules for taking care of hair, nails and skin.
IX. THE BONES.
The bones, more than 200 in number, properly put together, form ~ _the skeleton. Uses: protection,

Support, motion. Composition: 2 parts ~ animal; 1 part mineral =matter; ratio varies with age.

HYGIENE OF_BONES.

Impress ,the dignity, the beauty, the value of the erect position. Have you ever tried the effect of straightening up on your own spirit? "Keep your head up" is a good life motto. Teach effect of bad position of bones and internal organstrain rather than teach.

2. Clothing must not compress waist, neck or feet.

3. Children must not walk too soon; briefly, do no

distort bones while young.

. - - ....

SUGGESTIONS.
1. Nothing is so easily taught as the skeleton. Ge. one, human, if possible; prepare and use that of the family cat if necessary.
2. Weigh a bone; burn and weigh again to show amount of animal matter which has been burned.
S. Soak bones several days in dilute muriatic acid; show flexible animal matter left. Skeleton of young is much like this; what inference? What are bones of old like? Why?
4. Inquire for tile reason why not only in relation to bones but about every part and function of the body.
Why are there two bones in the forearm? What is the use of the patella, the skull, the carpus? Why are some bones made hollow? Why are there two plates of bone in the skull? What is the use of the marrow? Why is the spine curved! Why is our skeleton internal? etc., etc.

($[Frontal ................................ , ......... 1

);' Occipital ...................................... .. 1

zP l'a.rletal. ........................................ . 2 r empora.l ....................................... . 2

,t.5.

Et11 mold ....................................... .. bpbeaold ....................................... .

1 1

~
A=

Ea.r ............................................. .
Ma.lnr .......... I

P:l

Maxillary, Inf ................................ .. 1

~ ~Laxtlla.ry, Sup ................ I

., Nasa.! . . ........................................ .. 2

~0

Lachrymal .................................... .. 'IP'ua.labta.lI t.e. d....................................... .

I 2

r na. ..................................... . t

Vomer ........................................ .. 1

ec;< [Hyoid .......................................... .. 1 Sternum ........... 1

" loS IUbs ............................................. .
;.; Vertebra.e ...................................... .. ~

~ ~~~~~~ ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::

1 1

Clavicle......................................... . I

Scapula......................................... .. I

Humerus ....................................... . ll

Radius ......................................... . I

Ulna. .......................................... .. Carpus ........................................ ..

1te

Metacarpus .......................... .. ........ .. 10

Phalanges ...................................... Ill

Innomlna.tum ................................ .. 2 Femur .......................................... . i Patella .......................................... 2 Tibia ........................................... . I Fibula ........................................ .. 2 Tarsus . . ....................................... .. 14 Meta.ta.rsus ........ - ........................... . 10 Phalanges ..................................... .. liS

f.. THE MUSCLES.
The 500 muscles, voluntary and involuntary, an composed ot fibres, bound In bundles. TLI' shapes are pinnate, circular, spindle, fiat, ac cording to use. They are attached to the bon~>~ by the tendons, which are tough, white e-lls ut a material famlllar to all in tough meats.
The importance of sound, firm muscular tissue Is rarely realized; heart-power, lung-powtr. atomach-power are forma of muscular enPr~y

From Blai8dell'a Phy&ioloqy.

~
and muscular activity and the resultant muscular health are the only rational means ot their preserva tlon. Physical culture, manual training, drawing, penwork, cooking, sewing, sculpture, painting, de- signing, architecture, agriculture, all sorts of mechanical effort, all forms In which Ideas are embodied by muscular activity, make clvlliza tlon both possible and progressive. Some sort of industrial training bas a place In the education of all; It is putting It too mildly to say that every girl should be able to cook and sew and every boy able to handle tools. This much would be a gain on present condl tlons; then we should go further. The education of no one Is complete who has not served aome sort of apprenticeship, upon a farm or In a shop, or If a girl, has not served her apprenticeship In the practical duties about the home. Carefully investigate this subject: Ben~tl.ts of Manual '!'raining, Financial, Physical, Ment:Jl. Moral (Sociological, Political). Give at least an hour daily to exercise, if possible In the open air; not lazily-heartily. Benefits: Strengthens all vital organs, and by furnishing to the nervous system pure, rich blood abundantly supplied with oxygen energizes and vital lzes the powers of thought and feeling.

QUESTIONS.

1. What are the uses of the muscles?

2. What are their shapes?

8. How are they macle to contract?

4. Define Physical Culture, Manual Tralnlnr, X..

du11trial Art.

(

" Give three re.!lsons wb_y ex:erclse 111 a dut,J.

266

~
6. What Is expression? Is It Increased by culture? What Is the effect ot expression upon Impression? What inference?
7. What exercises along manual training lines may properly be provided for In country schools?
8. Give five rules for taking exercise.

XI. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.

The function of the nervous system Is to control all life

processes, voluntary and Involuntary. Nervoue

tissue is composed of cell and fibres. Knots of

cells are called ganglia; bundles of fibres are

nerves. Cells receive Impressions and send out

Impulses, both of which are carried by the

nerves. Part.

. Function.

Nervous system .... , VItal control.

Cerebro-Spinal Nervous Sy11tem.

Brain: Cerebrum .....................Thought, lntelllgence.

Cerebellum ....... Coordination of movement!!.

Medulla Oblongata } Automatic and reflex action. Spinal column ...

Sp. Nerves: "Motor . . . . . . . . . Movement Sensory ........ , .. , .. . . . . . . . . . Sensation
Cranial Nerves ... Special sense; digestion, respiration.

Sympathetic Nervous System..Coordination and auto-

matic action or vital

organs, heart, lungs,

stomach.

Qt1

The sympathetic nerves are bundles ot gray fibres.

Gray cells compose the ganglia, the outside ot

the brain, and the Inside of the spinal cord

)White fibres are founo In the brain, on the out-

side of the spinal cora and form the spinal and

ranlal nP.rvetl.

266
HYGIENE.
A.tter all, the cblet work or education deals with the nervous system, or rather, with the mind, ita noble tenant. How to treat it so that It may be kept healthy and strong is the serious problem. Dear teacher, do you know about the mlnu and Its !a ws of growth? Are you a rational or a.o lmpirical teacher? It Is not wise to give to your pupil a reason for e>erything you do or say but you must honestly give yourself a reason. Will
you do this? 1. Every faculty must have active exercise. What
are tlle faculties? What studies more especially appeal to each? IIow may each study be used wisely in calling into healthy activity the several faculties? This study Is Methodology.
Activity must be Intense but without strain, with-
out worry. 2. Learn bow to let go, to rest, to play, to sleep. S. Education develops power by concentration,
complete, prolonged at will. ~- Thinking is the mind's search tor truth. Think-
log Is Intellectual digestion. Thinking Is the relating ot Ideas. Does each pupil think during each recitation? now do you know? Is biB study thoughtful? Is his observation thoughtful? Is his life thoughtful? Are yours?
15. Power should not only be developed but controlled. Training In self-control begins wrtb controlling muscular movements. Stop here and tllink what this means and make up your mind about physical culture and manual training. Logically follows control of thought; then con.
#' trol of feeling. Consider the case of the pugllst, the savage and
other illustrations of arreated development.

267
Object tenchlng has Its limitation for the aalne reason. Neglect not the lower, but strive to reach the higher. /
6. 1.'he moral, yea, the religious life, is the normal life, the strong life, tile healthy life. Develop the cardinal virtues, prudence, justice, fortitude and order; train the will in deliberation, decision, doing.
1. Study the effect or the body upon the mind and mind upon the body-the results or hope and ~ith on effort, on health, on life-and train along these lines.
1. Helps. Manikin, charts, photographs, stereopticon, microscope, outlines, skeleton, specimens. Make realistic, objective. Use drawing freely. copy pictures and diagrams from the text, draw from nature. Prepare lists of question relating to the cuts given herewith and in the text; Why?
2. Oonsult several texts for question and experiments; all the newer ones contain valuable suggestions. For younger pupils compare organs and functions to things with which they are well acquainted.
3. Pupils write hygienic rules for different vocations, different conditions. Give rules relating to bathing, clothing, diet, drink, breathing, exercise, position, rest, mental state, narcotics, excretions (skin, lungs, bowels, kidneys), teetht eyes, ears; give reason for each.
4. Study materials and colors of clothing. Bird In bush worth two In hat. Teach love _and respect for living things. Read Spencer's "Education" upon the ornamental. He who needlesaily, cruelly kills a helpless, innocent bird, sutrers more
by the act tql!-~ 49f!J tP~ cre!loture alnin. J~J Yllr
m~~1

268
15. Tea. and cofree contain no nourishment, and by the young and the sedeJ\tary should not be used. It you can omit your cu.os for a day or two without a feeling of discomfort they are probably doing you no harm. Excessive use Is alwa.y1 harmful, but what Is excess? Why use stimulants? Does tobacco help or binder In the racl! of life? Ask even the conscientious user.
6. Since Prof. Atwater's famous declaration that alcohol Is a food since It Is oxidized In the body and therefore gives force, many are unsettled. Though oxidized It yet may not be called a food because even in, moderate quantities it Injures, as his own figures prove. Other poisons are exldized; they are not, therefore, foods. No amount of scientific theory can stand against hard facts; the railroad companies forbid its use to their employees because even a small amount unfits for grave responsibility, and llfl! Insurance companies have learned that it shortens human life. Wine Is a mocker; the drinker thinks be is stronger and brighter, but be 11 deceived. Alcoholics are narcotic in their action; true wisdom teaches us to leave alone dangerous things.

rHE TRUTH ABOUT

ALCOHOL.
t. A aert&ln quantity wUI produce & cert&ln effect &t ftrst, but U rl'quires more &nd more to produce the same eftect when the drug Is ued h&bltns.lly.
2. When used habitually ltlsllk;ely to Induce &n uncontroll&ble desire for more, In eyer lncre&slni &monnt.
1. After Its habltu&l use & sudden tot&l &biiUnence Is likely to oause &serious derangement of Ule oen,r&l Il8rTOUI aya~m.

FOOD. 1, A certain quantity wlllpro.
duce a certain eftect &t ftrstj and the s&me quantity wtl always produce the s&me In &healthy body. 2. 'Ihe habitual use of food never Induces an uncon troll &ble desire for lt. In eYer tncre&slng &mounts. 8. After Its h&bltn&l use &sud den tot&! abstinence neyer a&nsea &n:r derangement of
~Jle 0811$~1 JlU't'Olll I7IM'IIJ

269

'- Alcohol Is oxidized rapidly In the body.

6. Alcohol, not being used, 11 not stored in the body.
6. Alcohol Is a product of decomposition of food In the presence of a scarcity of oxygen.
.Alcohol is an excretlon, and, In common wlth all excretions, Is poisonous. It may be benetlclal In certain phases of disease, but It Is never beneficial to the healthy body.

8. The use of alcohol, In common wlth narcotics In general, Is followed by a reaction.

t. The use of alcohol Is followed
~l~~:~:~r:~:n~h:ndc~~~~~..~
cells.

10. The use of alcohol Is followed

by of

oaode. crease

in

the

excretion

11. The use of alcohol Is followed by an accumulation of fat through decreased activity.
12. The use of alcohol Is followed by a fall In body temperature.
18. The use of alcohol weakens and unsteadies the muscles.
J(, The use of alcohol makes the brain les1 active and accurate.

4. .All foods are oxidized alowl:r In the body.

6. .All foods, being useful, are

S\ored In the body.

6. .All foods are the productl of

constructive actlvlt:r of pro-

toplasm In the presence of

abundant oxygen.

7. All foods are formed b:r na-

ture for nourlsbmen t and

are by nature wholesome and

always beneficial to the

healthy body, though the;y

may Injure the bod;y In cer-

a.

tain phases of disease. The use of foods 11 followed

by no reaction.

11. The use of food Is !ollowed

by an lncreaeed activity of

the muscle cells and brain cells.

10. The use of food Is followed ~fo~~~n6r6a.se In the excre

U. The use of lood ma:r be fol lowed )>y accnmulatlon of fat, notwithstanding ln-
12. ~:~~~ ~~t~6~a~~ followed
by a rise In body temperature. 18. The use of food strengthen and steadle1 the musclea. 14. The use of food makea the brain more active and acaarate.

WINFIELD 8. HALL, ll.D.

Deplorable as are the physical el!'ects, greater ruin Is wrought In man's higher nature; 75 per cent. or both crime and insanity are directly and indirectly due to drink. No one sees his mental or moral shipwreck while playing In the alia]. lows or moderation.
'1. Dellght In the care or the body, the temple, and Its nobler tenant bring both to that perfection which their origin and their dignity demand; but not with anxious thought about yourself, your lite, your health, for he that Ioveth his life thu11 ehall lose it. Obey the laws or life In the hopeful spirit or faith, !or God bas made thlt the price which His children pay for the blcu ln&'ll with which He crowns their days.

I

DRAWING.
BY FRED J. ORR, ST.A.TE NoRM.A.L ScHooL,
ATHENS, G.A..
In a brief space, a presentation of methods In drawing, to fully meet the present needs of the majority of Georgia teachers, cannot be attempted. What follows, therefore, does not pretend even to outline exhaustively. Ratller is It in the nature of an initiative, hoping for a larger and more definite plan of work in .A.rt Education for the Common Scllools, later.
Teacllers may adapt suggestions to local conditions and to ptimary and advanced classes, in accordance with the general principles of procedure outlined. It will be noted that suggestions are given for the cultivation of tcchuical skill on the part of the teacher, as well as how to apply the same hints to class work. .A.lso, that the possibility of a stated period for this subject in the recitation schedule, Is presumed. This is deemed necessary in order to place suggestions in a more systematic form.
If a regular period is not to be had, the suggestions given may be applied at such other times as are at disposal, and as a form of busy work.
I. PURPOSE.
Educative. "The aim of Instruction In drawing Ia culture, through the senses by which we apprehend the forms of things. The ends to be secured are sensitiveness to beauty, an intelligent appreciation of beautiful things, the power to make things beaU\~\ .and to reveal beauty to otbera."

11. KlllTHODS.
1. Of learning.
(1) First, gain faclllty In the use of material: (1) by free handling of brush or pencil or crayon: (2) by drawing masses and large outlines, rather than details; (3) by adhering to simple subjects drawn in the easiest manner possible.
Illustration: With ink-brush grasped not too near the point, and with handle standing upright, make a silhouette drawing of a flower pot with plant In It; or, with pensil, held with long leverage, make an outline drawing of a spray of simple leaves, as apple; or, an outline drawing on the blackboard, using the human figure. Leave out details, such as facial features, fingers, etc. See only mass.
(2)' Accuracy In seeing.
Study: (1) The rewtive directions and length of lines by drawing first, a line (In the object before you), whose length is easily determln~, then compare others to it. For direction, compare with that of Imaginary lines (e. g. horizontal and vertical), whose directions are easily determined. .
(2) The rewtive size and location of spaces, as above, by first drawing, (or making a mental note of) the outline of a space that is easily decided upon, then comparing others to lt.
(3) The dltrerences In tones of light and dark, and of color. Reduce tones of light and dark to lowest terms, e. g.: see in an, object, the lightest portion, the darkest portion, and a mediumthree simple'- tones.
(4) The etfect of distance on the apparent aile ot u obj~ct.

278
(5) The dll'rerence between appearances ancl actual facts, as, when horizontal, recedlnl atralght lines, below the eye, &eem to rise, lUI they retreat; or the same abo!J(l the eye, 8CCin to fall lUI they go away; or, clrcle11 In certain positions appear elliptical, etc. (See Cro1s' "Free Hand Drawing").
(6) Make a;n effort w vf8uaUze form a.n4 oolor, or
"su it" with the evcJJ clo.!ed. (7) Keep in mind the outline of the whole. Don't become engrossed with d~tails and thereby lose the proportions of the mass. (3) Practice.
You must not be discouraged at 11.rst attempts. This is a thing not to be learned without practice and a great deal of it. Persistence In careful observation and in the etrort to execute with a pencil or brush, will yield results after a while.
2. Of teaching.
(1) Materials.
Water-color box and brushes may be had for about 25 centl!l, from Prang Educational Co., N. Y., or Milton Bradley Co., Atlanta. Send for catalogue.
Ink.-Ordin.ary writing Ink, preferably b!a.ck.
Ink brush.-Use one of the brushes In color box, or 5 cents Japanese brushes may be procured from Bunkio Matsuki, 380 Boylston St., Boston.
Pencll.-Dlxon's Cabinet, No. 2, serviceable. It this cannot be had, use ordinary writing pencil of nwd<ium -80(tnu&.
Paper.-See catalogues suggeste4 above, under ll "Color." A good grade of paper may be obtalnecl
at moderate price from Storrs BeiiJe!lt, Boat.L (I) Repir cl~ w~tr~

lfote.-l!'our tlllc'k of Iellicms are IUggested. Tble
Ia thought to be aafllclen~ at the present stage ot
development of the 1ubject In the Common SchooII.
(a) Lessons In the nq of form. Nate carefully the directions clven above, under "accuracy In 1eelng." Appl;r the same to the teaching of form
1. Ink.
84~ of natural objectl, such as 11owers, leava., graue~~, fraltlt, vegetables, butter1Ues birds, treell, Jandllcapes, the h01an form, etc., etc.
(See aliO, leuou Ill Decorative e..p).
2. PenCil or era;roL
OtlfllMI of objeetll uamed above. ABo boxes, hats, plgl, dogs, chlckeu, and other f&mWar thlncs.
t (l)) I..e8aou ID the ltad;r of eolor.
!l'or models, ue nch object8 from D&ture as he
named above. Tr;r to aelect llmple models, e. g.,
It It be a 1Pr&7 of le&vetl, don't have too many, or else leave It optlooal to each chUd to represent aa few or u many as he wlshea. Be sure every chlld gets a good view of the object studied. To thla end l,lave as many models as necessary. Models should have a white or gray background. as e. g., cardboard or a piece of white draw~g paper. Don't dictate the color as t/OU see It, b'tlt elicit an eXpression from the child with tbe brush, as TN 1ee1 lt. Bach pair of eyes may see eolor In a dUferent wa;r. Your etrort Is to
the expresllon conform to the observation
questioning. You are then training an ,.,...,.,.,.,,._,
...,.. .,. ., .... ,.""""' ........ 'Ul to .._.., and "do." JIIDmple of qu,!BtliDDI'
"'II the leaf before ;roa of the ume peen u the peea cake of color In ;roar

276
than your green cake?" "Then, what other color will you mix with the green to get your picture?" etc. \York primarily, not for results In the way of "pictures," but for the training of a perception
of beauty and a. skillfully guided expression of
tile same. 'l'echnique: Mix color In the top of the box. Have plenty of color on the brush. Stir the militure, each time brush is replenished. Wash brush in water pan, when changing from one color to another. Avoid muddy, messy, effects. Keep color pure. Try to get the desired effect with first "going over." c. Illustrative or imaglnastive drawing. Example: Read to the class a few selected lines from Hiawatha, or one of JEsop's Fables, or a rllyme from "Mother Goose" (or other selection). Take plenty of time for the descriptive matter, endeavoring to form a picture in each child's mind. Dwell on parts suggestive of a picture. Class then draws with ink of pencil or crayon or color each draughtsman expressing his own idea of how the picture ought to look. Poses, and incidental objects named in the reading, may be used effectively. It Is better for each child to draw first a rectangle or square ('frame"), to inclose his picture, using the material with which picture is made-ink or crayon, etc. His effort thus takes the form of a composition, being to a greater or a less degree, an arrangement or related parts within a space. (See lessons on Decoration below). t. Lessons in Decorative Design. This work will serve to give application to what might otherwise be abstract drawing. It 11 drawing applied to a definite esthetic purpm~e.
H will 1\14 lpter~~t to 'tqdle hiJ torm, color, etc.

I
(
1. Ink. Pleasing arrangements of a drawing of natu~
forms In square, rectangular, and circular spaces, e. g.: take a branch of persimmon leares and fruit. A space, say two by four lnches1 1s outlined free-hand with the brush. (Pencil fi.Ds't, 1t desired.) Then by a study of the object, ~be 1tems, leaves, and persimmons are arranged Inaide this space, so a.a to give a pleasing etrect. Either, background may be made black, and leaves, etc., white, or vJce versa. Or arrangement may be In Ink lines. (Hold the brush In an upright position always, while working.)
When Is a space arrangement pleasing? This question may be answered In a very general way as follows:
Avoid dividing the sides of a space Into halves, thirds or fourths, or any easily distinguishable parts.
Avoid space divisions which are equal In area or aimllar In form. Avoid a monotonous etrect, I. e., tiresome repetl tion of the same shape (of course this 11 not meant to apply to surface coverings).
Avoid a scattered etrect. Strive for good drawIng, variety, beautiful lines and shapes, and harmony withal.
2. Miscellaneous.
Space arrangements as above, using color, I. e.,
Instead of simply representing the object atudled, In color, do this, and also arrange the same pleaslngty, In a space.
Space arrangements may be use<! to decorate covers for composition work, number work, etc. Decorations for simple Christmas carda, llluter
q.r4t, lpvltatlonl to ~cbwl epttrtalmeu~. '~

8urtace deslgna might be attempted, It the teacher has some knowledge of the subject. Space does not permit of Its treatment here.
3. Busy Work. Illustrate parts of a ReadL.:.g lesson, (Ink, pencil. crayon, or color). See above. Draw maps Illustrating Geography lesson. Make drawing of the object used In tlie Nature Study, of Botany lesson. For Primaries: Simple drawings to Illustrate number work, having an object to study, e. g.: apples, balls, potatoes, leaves, boxes, hats, ete.. etc. Decorative work (see above).
m. GENERAL SUGGESTIONS.
1. The best materials for beginners are those that will permit the freest expression, and largest unstralned movements of fingers and arm. Choose models for primaries with reference to live Interest and simplicity.
2. Tiny drawing should not be tolerated. Avoid anything that tends to cramp freedom.
B. Do not forget that the free expression of child Ideas, under skillful guidance of the teacher, .11 ever Important.
4. In regard to copying: the best use to which this can be put, Is, as a means to an end. Copy, to study thereby, the technique of a master. As, for example, reproduce good pencil sketchea of trees, houses, etc., In order to learn how to make such plctureR yourself, from nature. Models, so used, should suggest, rather than dl~ tate methods, and should be onlV the best. Make It a positive principle, to use no aid or method, tn such a way as to hinder In the least degree, the creative power of the student, or the orlclnaUtJ t hll work.

278
5. Position to be assumed while drawing Is that which will permit of the most perfect freedom In the use of nrm and band, and conform to hygienic considerations.
6. It Is suggested to teachers who tbems\llves have bad little experience In drawing, to go over pmctlcally (1. e. with brush or pencil), just the work to be given the children, before the recitation.
7. In criticizing or judging results, look for good points first. Also, remember that the actual result, as a drawing, does not represent the entire product of the lesson. The child may have been made to see or think a good deal more than he has power to express correctly. Very probnbly, every sttoke means something to him. Estimate work accordingly.
8. Decorate your walls with reproductions of art masterpieces-painting, sculpture, and architecture. Use these same pictures In teaching History, Geography, Rending, etc.
Where to get pictures: J. C. Witter Co., 123 5th Ave., New York; Perry rictures Co., Malden, Mass.; Prang Educational Co., New York; Helman-Taylor Art Co., New York.
Good reproductions can be had for from one to five cents each, and excellent things for twentyfive cents each.
IT. REFERENCE BOOKS.
"Composition," by Arthur W. Dow. J. M. Bowles, Boston. $1.50.
"With Brush and Pen," by Jas. Hall. J. 0. Witter Co., New York. 60 cents.
"Lessons In Pencil Drawing From Nature," by W. N. Bartholomew. Prang Educational Co.. N. Y. (with plates). 75 centa.

279
"Illustrative Blackboard Sketching," by Bertha Hintz. El L. Kellogg & Co., N. Y. uO cell'ts.
"Free-Hand Drawing," by A. K. Cross. Ginn & Co., Atlanta. 80 cents.
"A Catalogue or Works or Art Suitable tor School Room Decoration." Helman-'l'aylor Art Co., N.Y. $1.00.
J.. very helprul magazine: "Art Study," (monthly). J. C. Witter Co., N. Y., Subscription per year
fl.OO.

I

SYLLABUS
FOR YOUNG PEOPLE'S READING CIRCLE DISCUSSION AT THE SUMMER INSTI TUTES FOR 1898.
..umA.NGED BY J. II. STEWART.
(Let two hours be devoted to this subject.) I.-THE PURPOSE OF THE SCHOOL READING CIRCJ,E. 1. To cultivate a taste for good reading. 2. To bring child:-en into contact with beauty and truth u
found in the best books.
a. To counteract the vicions influence of detective heroes by
the positive influence of communing with real heroea ol the race, thus creating higher ideals of life. f. To awaken an interest in good reading in the home. 5. To put a library in every schoolroom in the State.
D.-ITS IMPORTANCE.
1. Notice the lack of reading on the part of the youne. 2. Notice the dearth of school and home libraries. S. Notice the vast increase in sales of cheap detective storie1. f. Notice tha results of the habit of reading upon the moral
life, upon the tastes, upon the social life of a people. To teach a child to read and not to cultivate a taste for
good literature ill dangerous.
Ill.-GOOD RESULTS FROM THIS WORE:. 1. Its etfect upon the regular studiee. S. Its etfect upon the intere1t in school work. I. Its e6ect upon the character of the pupil. '- Its eA'ect upon the home.
J. ltl el'ept upon th!J COmJI!:a~ty,

2R2
IV.-HOW TO CREATE AN INTEREST IN IT.
1. Among teachers: a. By showing the importance and value of the work. b. By discussion in the institutes. c. By the commissioner creating a rivalry among the schools of his county, as to which can make the best report.
t, Among pupils: a, By putting the books within their reach. b. By reading or telling part of the story. c. By using the books in connection with school work, not as additional tasks, but to throw added beauty and life into it. cl. By offering membership cards to all who read tw() books of the course during the year. The State Educational Department will furnish these upon the application of .the commissioner or superiatendent.
a. Among patrons:
G. By interesting the children. b. By having tbe books in the home.
V.-HOW TO SECURE THE BOOKS.
1. By taking small collections from the pupils and pureha ing one or more books.
2. By encouraging individual pupils to buy books. S. By securing subscriptions from enterprising citizens, L By giving entertainments at which take up a collection. 6. By trustees purchasing the books for each school. 4. By donations from the teacher. We hope to see the day when every school will have a good library. Will not the teachers who teach in 1898 make 1 ~ginning and leave behind them, if not a fine library, at least
r . ' a cracker-box, with a part of the liat selected for the ::rr
therein

HOME READINci.
The following books are recommended for home reading. Parents can not overestimate the advantages which their children will derive from reading aloud in the family circle. The children will not only learn to read well, but they will also gain valuable stores of information, and they will be drawn closer in love and sympathy to every member of the family circle.
These books are sele.cted from the list of School Library Books issued from this department in 1905. The Educational Publishing Company, Atlanta, Ga., will fill orders for these library books at prices indicated. On all orders of ten dollars or more the express charges will be prepaid.
FOR PRIMARY PUPILS.
Christmas in Other Lands. Cooley__________________ .05 Story of Longfellow ____ --------------------------- .05 Story of Washington___________ __ ___ __ ___ ________ _ .05 Story of the Telegraph. S. F. B. Morse_-- ----------- .05 Boyhood of Famous Americans__ ______ ___ __ ___ ___ __ .32 Stories of Great Americans. Eggleston_______________ .33 Stories of Great Artists. Horne and Scobey__________ .33
$1.18
FOR INTERMEDIATE PUPILS.
Collect.ion of Most Famous Paintings____ ------------- .04 Album of Authors and Memory Gems_--------------- .04 Life of Gen. Robt. E. Lee ___ ----------------------- .29 Little Flower Folks, Part II. Pratt _________________ .32 Stories of Bird Life. Pearson __ -------------------- .49 Makers of American History. Chandler and Chitwood__ .49

284
Black Beauty. SewelL ____ ------------------~---- .22 Laddie_______ _____ ___ ___ _____________ ___________ .22
$2.11
FOR SIXTH AND SEVENTH GRADE PUPILS. Selections from Irving's Sketch Book __________ ~ ____ ~ .21 Southern Poets. Weber__________________ --------- .21 Fairyland of Science. Buckley________ ------------- .22 Seed Dispersal. Beal_ ___ _________________________ .29 Cheerfulness as a Life Power. Marden_______________ .29 John Ploughman's Talks. Spurgeon_________________ .22 ~tories of Industry. Vol. IL_______________________ .48
$1.92 TotaL _____________________________ -- _________ $5.21 1f the 22 books are ordered at one time they will be supplied for __ ------ _______________ ____ ----- ___ $5.00

EVANS' HISTORY OF GEORGIA.

L. B. EVANS, Supt. of Schools, Richmond County, Ga.

Division of Book into Two Years.-The present text-book

in the history of Georgia is easily divided into two years.

The first year's study should end with Chapter XXXIV.,

which concludes the history of the State in its firm estab-

lishment. The second year's study should begin with

Chapter XXXV., which introduces elements that have af-

fected the State's history ever since.

In those schools whose term is limited to the length pre-

scribed by law, it may be necessary to study two chapters

a week in order to finish each year's work. Where the

term is lengthened to eight or nine months one chapter a

week will be sufficient.

Study of Each Chapter.-The lesson having been assigned

for study the pupils are expected to prepare themselves

for questions upon the chapter. In the class the pupila

should read each chapter aloud. This may be considered the reading lesson for th~ day if the teacher so desires.

The teacher should then question the pupils upon the con-

tents of the chapter, using the questions or the topics at

the end. The pupils may then be required to summarize

the lesson in a short statement. In addition to this each

one may name one fact learned, or express an opinion as

to which fact is the most important, what date had best be

recorded, what questions should be memorized, etc. Each

lesson should add its quota to the general knowledge the

phild has of the State's histor..r.

. ~ .~

286
Quotations.-The selections found at the head of each chapter are to be memorized in whole or in part by the pupils. They afford a splendid collection of the sayings of our great men, poems about our State, or extracts from notable documents worthy of being stored in the mind of our Georgia yot;th. These quotations can be used for public exercises, for exhibition days of all sorts, for visitors' occasion, and can be made the means of beautiful, in teresting and profitable instruction.
Dates to be Remernbered.Oglethorpe landed at Savannah .... February 12, 1733: Oglethorpe inva<led Florida ........ December-, 1739. Spaniards invaded Georgia ............ June -, 1742. Slavery allowed in Georgia . . . . . . . . . . October 26, 1749. Meeting of first Legislature ........ January 15, 1751. Georgia became a royal province . . . . . . . June 23, 1752. Georgians arrest the royal governor .. January-, 1776. First Constitution adopted ....... February 5, 1777. Savannah captured by Britist ........ January-, 1777. Savannah surrendered by British: ....... May-, 1782. Georgia enters the union of States . . . . January 2, 1788. George Washington visits Georgia ........ May-, 1791. Eli Whitney invents cottongin .................. 1792. Burning of Yazoo Fraud papers .... February 15, 1796. Second Constitution adopted ............ May-, 1798. The State University opened ................... 1802. The western territory of Georgia ceded .......... 1802. Longstreet operates first steamboat ........... 1806. Milledgeville becomes capital ................. 1807. First steamship crossed Atlantic . . . . . . . . . . . . .1819. Troup and Clark controversy ................. 1819. Troup defies the general goveniment............1826. Gold discovered in North Georgia ................ 1828. Indians finally removed from Georgia ... , ........ 1838. First chartered woman's college opened ..... . .. 1839. Georgia railroad built... , .18371839.

287

Anesthesia discovered by Dr. Long ... 1842.

Georgia secedes from the Union ...... January 19, 1861.

Georgia enters the Confederate States .... March, 1861.

Fall of Atlanta ...................... September, 1864.

Sherman's march to the sea ........ November, 1864.

Atlanta made the capital ................. April, 1868.

Georgia readmitted to the Union ......... July, 1870.

Great Men to be Studied.-The history of the State is the

history of the great leaders. These should be studied in

detail, biographical sketches written about them, and their

influence upon their times impressed upon the pupils. Let

the pupils study such men as

James E. Oglethorpe,

Charles J. Jenkins,

John M. Berrien,

Crawford W. Long,

Joseph E. Brown,

Alexander H. Stephens,

John Clark,

Robert Toombs,

Elijah Clarlr,

George M. Troup,

George W. Crawford,

George Walton,

William H. Crawford,

George Whitfield,

John Forsyth,

George R. Gilmer,

John B. Gordon,

H. W. Grady,

James Habersham,

Benjamin H. Hill.

James Jackson,

County Stttdy.-The pupils should be required to espe-

cially learn all the history of their own country, when

formed, out of what other counties, for whom named, what

noted men have come from it, what events have transpired

in it, for whom the town was named, and what noted men

have lived in it as lawyers, doctors, farmers, etc. If there

are any historical points of interest where battles were

fought, great men lived, or note!} events of any kind hap-

pened, they should be visited "'nd explained. A chlld

should know all about his own county and his own imme

diate people. A county map should be drawn and studied

In connection with the county history.

Anniversaries to be Celebrated.-Once a month there

288
should be celebrated the anniversary of one of the great events of the State's history. Some suggestions are as follows:
January 19-Georgia secedes from the Union. February 12-0glethorpe landed at Savannah. March 19-Lafayette lands in Georgia. March 30-First operation with ether. April 26-First Memorial Day celebrated, etc. The teacher himself had best decide what anniversaries he. will celebrate. He can choose the birthdays of certain men, the dates of certain great events, and make out tha list of his own celebrations, varying them from year to year. Test Questions.-Much importance ts to be given to the test questions and the search questions at the end of the book. The pupils should be able to answer all the te:at questions rapidly, and should be required to search the book until he has found answers to all the search ques tions. This will give him a good knowledge of the general history of the State in its outline. Topical Studies.-A good way of teaching is by topical studies, using the topics at the end of the chapters or mak ing them to cover periods of history. These topical outlines should be written on the blackboard and made the occasions of oral as well as written exercises. They are a. kind of a skeleton or framework of the recitation, or review, or composition, and are great aids to the pupils In fixing clearly certain definite Information.

CIVIL GOVERNMENT.
BY WILLIAlll M. SLATON, PBINCIPAL BOYS' Hron SCHOOL, ATLANTA, GA.
KAN A. SOCIAL BEU\'G.
By instinct man is a social being. In the companlonshiLJ of his fellows, he finds safety, profit, pleasure and progress. The North American Indian, the Kaffir, the enlightened Anglo-Saxon, each representing his type-by nature seeks the society of those !Ike himself, and in it enjoys his great est happiness. Thus society is formed, complex conditions are produced, dit!erent interests are born, and moral obli gations, laws, and government are created. To live in peace, safety and happiness, man must have a recognized form of government, he must understand its spirit and character, and honestly obey its laws. Thus life, libez:ty, property and the pursuit of happiness are secured to the rich and poor, the ignorant and the intelligent, the strong and the weak.
WHAT HISTOBY TEACHES A.B A. OOVEBNMENT.
Government is a necessity, not an accident. In the evolution of tbe human race, man's greatest work has been to ascertain tbe form of government best adapted to secure the greatest amount of happiness. The deciphering of tbe Rosetta Stone reveals to us the struggles that raged in the early ages in Egypt and Babylonia and other Oriental countries as they tried to establish some form of govern ment to protect, preserve and promote the interests of man

290
kind. In all the world empires as Persia, Greece and Rome. down through our own Revolutionary and Civil and Spanish-American wars, the idea uppermost in the mind of man has been to enforce certain forms of government.
A DEMOCRATIC FORM OF GOVERNllrENT THE BEST.
Oligarchies, monarchies, and despotism are curses to mankind. When a few men get supreme political power, selfis)t i-nterests dictate policies, liberty is destroyed, human life :s despised, property is confiscated, either directly or by taxation, and avarice, cruelty and tyranny reign supreme. supreme.
"A government of the people, by the people, and for the people" is the highest type of government evolved by man under the providence of God. The children should be taught that fact by many illustrations. The youth of the State should know what liberty has cost, how !eng it has taken the world to learn the value of democracy, and ;:o cherish and transmit our government unimpaired to future generations.
FAMILY GOVERNJ'.rENT.
The teaching and training of the fireside underlie all government. What the child believes and does at home he will believe and do through life. Strong, clear impressions of obligations to God and man received from the intelligent, consecrated parent will control the child in all his relations to classmates, teachers and magistrates. Hence, strict, prompt, absolute obedience should be taught with energy and system at h0me as an essential condition to good citizenship, usefulness and happiness.
The vast amount of time and nervous strength spent, wasted, in securing discipline at school is due to the crime of parental neglect, ignorance, and wealmess. If the average parent governed wisely, the percentage of scholarship
would be greatly in:::reased, the burdens of the courts

291
would be reduced, and the cause of civlllzation materia1111 advanced.
These principles should be taught the classes !n civU government because some day the pupils ~11 become headl of families and should impart sound precepts to their children.
OBEDIENCE IS MANLY.
Teachers should instruct the children that obedience 111 manly, not servile. The popular idea among pupils and even with many parents that only the "goody-goody" are obedient should be dynamited. General Lee is said to have graduated at West Point after four years of severe drill and discipline without receiving one demerit. He was not a weak, vacillating, cowardly, ignorant man. In his tory he shlnes as the highest type of character produced by the world's best civlllzation.
Revelation emphasizes the importance that God places upon obedience. Legislatures, congresses, parliaments, and relchstags are useless, and society is perpetual chaos, unless obedience prevails. The idea that every boy must sow wild oats is abominable heresy. The idea that he must sufrer evil to know and appreciate good is rotten to the core. Must a boy blacken his character and name by lying, theft, impunity, drunkenness, to become honest, pure and sober! Must he have smallpox or scarlet fever or diphtheria to enjoy the blessings of health?
Impress upon the pupils that God and man, teaching in history and daily experience, exalt obedience to positions of highest honor and power, but place disobedience under the ban of public contempt, in chains and in the peniten tiary.
THE TEACHERS MUST PREPARE TO TEACH,
To attempt .to teach civil government without special preparation for each recitation is a great injustice against the pupil. the teacher, the home and the tax-payer. Let

292
the teacher know his particular text-book thoroughly and read and study other books for breadth and variety of view. He will soon find his class aflame with a love of civil government, and a=ious for the recitation period. Every teacher has observed that his pupils are fondest of the study of which he knows most. The reason is evident.
THE SOUTH DID NOT REBEL.
Impress upon the children the truth that the South did not rebel, and that such a charge is absurdly false and historically untrue. Teach them that the Constitution was a compact between the States, and was binding only so long . as parties to the contract supported its provisions. The South was true and loyal in obeying the Constitution, but when the North refused to recognize the property rights of the South, our fathers by formal State action seceded. Such a course was the assertion of our Constitutional right and privilege, and he who brands us as rebels is either very ignorant or without regard for the truth.
The victory of the North was the triumph of brute forces and vast resources, over the most patriotic and valiant heroes who ever fought and died for a great cause. General Lee, General Jackson, General Gordon, President Jefferson Davis and many other noble spirits like them were incapable of rebellion. Only bigotry and blind fanaticism could charge rebellion against a people who periled all for honor and Constitutional liberty. The success of the North did not fix a stigma upon the South. The war was revolution, not rebellion.
GEORGIA'S STATE GOVEBNMENT.
It is important to teach th~roughly our own political system, the duties and powers of our civil officers from constable to governor, the function of the organic law, the relation of our State Constitution to the Constitution of the United States. Teach the boys to inform themselves

293
upon current questions and always exercise their right ot suffrage in electing officers and deciding issues.
SOliE AUTHORITIES.
Peterman's Civil Government; Publishers, American Book Company.
Thickinger's Civil GoTernment; Publishers, D. C. Heath & Co.
Government: Its Origin, Growth and Form in the United States, by Lansing & Jones; Publishers, Silver, Burdett & Co.
Boynton's School Civics; Publishers, Ginn & Co. Alexander H. Stephens' War Between the States. J. L. M. Curry's The New South. Jefferson Davis' Rise and Fall of the Confederacy.
SOME DETAILS.
Assign lessons of reasonable length. Do not require them memorized word for word, but exact the recollections of ideas, principles and facts. This suggestion should not be followed in all cases. There are parts of the text which should be carefully committed to memory. The pupils should know the Bill of Rights word for word, and be able to expound its meaning clearly. In the same class are the definition of duties, forms of government, writ of habeas corpus, bill of attainder, e:c post facto law, and the preamble of the Constitution of the United States. There are parts of the Constitution of the State and of the United States that ought to be memorized. Each lesson ought to be reviewed by a series of questions to fix the salient points. Frequent class debates on questions involving civil government would Inspire interest. Monthly written examinations would be stimulatiTe, conduct the recitations with closed book. Return the examination papers to the class with errors pointed out and graded according to their merits. If time can be found it woulc1 be well to go over

294
the papers with individual pupils and designate errors of omission and commission. Incidentally a good opportunity 1s thus offered, to correct faults in spelling, grammar, die tton and sentence and paragraph structure and argumen[tatioa.

TERRITORIAL GROWTH OF THE UNITED STATES.
From Oircular for Teachers' Institutes, Wisconsin.
The true subject-matter of a nation's history is the recora of the deeds of that nation. But deeds are the expression of the thoughts, feelings and motives of those who do them; consequently any study of the deeds must necessarily concern itself with the study of the motives which led to enactment of the deeds. The emotional element in history must receive due emphasis if the backward fiight of the student's imagination enables him to live in the deed. The historical fact in itself is the resultant of various forces, and may be the cause of subsequent events. This causal relation must be appreciated by the pupils largely through this study of motive. As the treatment in the text-book is largely chronological it becomes necessary to present logical units of study, which, taken as a whole, emphasize some large phase of national life.
In tracing this expansion of territory the pupil will note the material development of the country, and realize the enlarged area over which our prized republican institutions find an abiding place.
So much of the outlines as can be well mastered should be presented in the Institute, the knowledge of the subjectmatter and method of presentation there obtained enabling the teachers to present the work as a whole in their schools. I. Original territory of the United States.
1. Boundaries as fixed by Treaty of 1783. !. See map and determfne what parts are naturaL
Political.

296

3. Parts of boundary afterwards likely to be disputed. 4. Original area and population. 6. Population and area to-day. 6. Relative area of original and acquired territory. 7. What advantages were secured to United States by
this treaty? 8. Peoples bordering original territory.

II. Louisiana purchase.

1. Settlements west of mountains at opening of 19th

century.

2. Resources of the territory,

3. Markets for products and the relation of the Mis

sissippi thereto.

4. Nations controlling navigation of the river. Right

of deposit.

6. Louisiana-its transfer from France to Spain and

from Spain to France.

6. Napoleon's motives.

7. Right of deposit under France.

8. Haiti and Toussaint L'Ouverture.

9. Alarm in the West and petition to government.

10. Jefferson sends Monroe to France commissioning

him to purchase West Florida. How would that

aid in settling the problem?

1~. Sale of entire territory negotiated through Liv

ingston. Terms.

-

12. Why Napoleon sells.

13. Opposition to purchase on the part of Federalists.

Why?

14. Constitutionality. Jefferson's attitude. Consult Con

stitution of United States and read sections bear

ing on constitutionality.

16. Area and resources of the territory acquired.

16. The boundaries. Why indefinite?

17. Material development.

18. Name States and Territories included. in lt.

297
19. Density of population at time of purchase as compared with present.
20. The St. Louis Exposition.
III. The purchase of Florida. 1. Exact boundaries of Florida. 2. Resources of Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia: 3. Market and means of transportation. Pupils study map of region. 4. Inhabitants of Florida, 18151820. 5. Jackson and Seminole war. Character of Jackson and importance of this war. 6. Treaty with Spain. a. Amount paid for it. b. Trace on map all of the boundaries concerned. c. What territory did we yield? d. How did it affect our claim to Oregon?
IV. Oregon. 1. Boundaries and resources. 2. Claimants: Russia, Spain, England and United States. 3. Grounds of the American title. 4. Elimination of Spanish Claim. 6. Elimination of Russian Claim. 6. Treaty with England, 1818. 7. Meaning of joint occupation. 8. Campaign of 1844-"54 degrees 40 minutes or fight." 9. Marcus Whitman; Hudson Bay Company.
10. Treaty 1846. Compare boundary of Oregon in 1830 and 1846.
V. Annexation of Texas. 1. Independence of Mexico and other Spanish colonies in America. 2. The Monroe Doctrine.

3. Relation of Texas to boundaries of Louisiana. Did the North give Texas away in 1819?
4. Relation of Texas to Mexico. 6. Abolition of slavery by Mexico; its effect upon slave
holders in Texas, and in Southern United States. 6. Area and resources, and movement of Americans
into Texas. 7. Sam Houston and the Texan war for independence. 8. Application for admission into the Union. Attitude
of Van Buren and Tyler. 9. Campaign of 1844-"The reannexation of Texas." 10. Opposition by Whigs in the North. Why? 11. Annexation by joint resolution. Why? See Con-
stitution of United States as to making of treaties, and note reasons for this process. Constitutionality.
VI. Mexican cession.
L Disputed boundary of Texas. Student note map. Trace disputed boundary. Estimate area. Resources Qf region. Woul~ it be wise to arbitrate? Compare Oregon.
2. Occupation of the disputed territory. 3. Declaration of war and voting supplies by Congress. 4. Leading. military operations. 6. Terms of Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo. Area and
resources of territory. 6. Motive for prosecution of this war. 7. Questions arising therefrom and the Compromise
of 1850. 8. Gadsden Purchase. Location, area, resources, sum
paid.
VII. Purchase of Alaska.
1. Relations of Russia and United States during ClvU. War.

299
2. Questions of its value, area and resources. 3. Would you have favored or opposed its purchase
at that time? Why? 4. The boundaries. Recent settlement of boundaries. 6. The annexation of non-adjacent territory a new
problem in expansion. 6. Present governmental status.
VIII. Hawaii. 1. Location, area, resources. 2. Its strategic importance. Note Its position, dist ance, and direction from San Francisco, Tacoma, Yokohama, Manila. 3. Arguments favoring and opposing annexation. 4. Annexation by Joint Resolution. Compare Texas. 6. Present government.
IX. Spanish cession. 1. Causes of war with Spain. Our relation to Cuba. 2. Declaration of war by Congress. 3. Territory acquired. a. Porto Rico. Location, area, resources, present status of g0vernment. b. The Philippines. 1. Location, area, resources. 2. Provisions in treaty in relation to Spanish subjects. and native inhabitants. 3. How governed now? 4. Was Monroe Doctrine violated? 5. Division of people of United States into Imperiall.sta and Anti-Imperialists.
X. Panama. 1. Our elforts looking forward to col\struction of canaL 2. Two routes in question-Panama and Nicaragua. Advantages of each. See map. 3. Relation of Treaty of 1846 with New Granada. 4. Recent Treaty with Colombia.

soo
li. Panama Resolution. 6. Treaty with Panama-area over which United
States will have jurisdiction. 7. Cost of canal. When is it to be completed? 8. Probable effect of canal on trade between Eastern
United States and the Orient.
!XI. Suggestive questions. 1. Political parties as a rule favoring .expansion; op posing. Would it be natural for Clay to favor expansion? Polk? Cleveland? Webster? Hamil ton? Jefferson? Roosevelt? 2. What law does expansion seem to follow? 3. Our most valuable acquisition in your judgment. Why? 4. Rights granted to inhabitants of territory acquired. 5. In how far was slavery a q11estion in expansion? 6. When United States acquires territory in whom is title to public lands vested? How about Texas? f. Would you favor the newer possessions coming into the Union as States? Why? 8. Compare the government of Arizona, Hawaii, and the Philippines as to (a) Executive; (b) Legislative powers; (c) Qualifications for voting; (dJ Self-government. 9. Should we take more or less part in affairs of the East than formerly? Why? 10. Should the policy of expansion continue? If so, where? Effect on the government. 11. What estSential differences do you note between th< earlier and later annexations? 12. Draw maps showing the territorial growth of the United States.
XII. References. l. Expansion. Pupils wlll use the text-books in United States History.

301
Connor: Uncle Sam Abroad, pp. 159-196. Eggleston: Primary History United States., pp,
186-196. I. The Louisiana purchase.
Brooks: First Across the Continent, pp. 1-5. Coffin: Building the Nation, p. 120. Drake: Making the Great West, pp. 171-183. Gordy: American Leaders and Heroes, pp. 241
244. :Wright: Children's Stories of American ProgreM,
pp. 5558. )lowry: First steps in United States History, pp.
177-183. Eggleston: Household History, pp. 238-242.
8. Florida purchase. Wright: Children's Stories of American Progress, pp. 145-158. Coffin: Building the Nation, p. 243. Eggleston: Household History, p. 269. Bolton: American Statesmen. Andrew Jackson.
4. Oregon. Brooks: First Across the Continent. Drake: Making of the Great West, pp. 212-241. Kingsley: Story of Lewis and Clark. Eggleston: Household History, p. 294. Mowry: First Steps in American History, pp. 228-233.
5. Texas. Wright: Stories of American Progress, pp. 229o U7. Brook, Noah: Abraham Lincoln, pp. 100-108. Drake, S. A.: Making of the Great West, pp. 241 249. Eggleston: Household History of the United States, pp. 284-295. Mowry: First Steps in American Hiato1'1.

302
6. Mexican cession.
Eggleston: Household History of United States, pp. 288-295. Drake, S. A.: Making of the Gre<~.t West, p~ 248-263. 7. Gadsden purchase.
Drake, S. A.: Making of the Great West, p. 289. Eggleston: Household History of United States. Mowry: First Steps in American History, p. 220. 8. Alaska.
Drake, S. A.: Making of the Great West, p. 142. Eggleston: Household History of United State.;;, p. 362. 9. Hawaii.
Greater America, pp. 131-140. Twombly: Hawaii and Its People, pp. 363-384. Krout, M. H.: Alice's Visit to Hawaiian Islands. 10. Spanish cession.
Philippine Islands and Porto Rico in Greater America, pp. 3-120. Spears, John: Our Navy in the War with Spain. 11. Panama. Consult papers and magazines of the current year.

THE RECITATION.
From Institute Manual, Maine. I. ENDs:
1. To secure study. 2. To influence the form or method of study. 3. To ascertain the results of study. To give direct instruction. 6. To fix knowledge in the mind. 6. To train to clear and correct thinking. 7. To train to ready, clear and correct expression
of thought.
II. EssENTIALs: 1. Every member of the class must recite, either orally or mentally, the entire lesson. 2. Every fact in the lesson must be recited in full, accurately and in its proper connectiOn. 3. The interest of every pupil in the class must be enlisted, and his attention held fixed upon. the entire recitation.
III. METHODS: 1. General.-(!) Call upon pupils to recite in no regular order. (2) Indicate the point to be recited, before calling upon any particular pupil to recite it. (3) Hold every pupil in the class to have made the mistakes of every other, unless he notice and correct those mistakes. (4) If any pupil is detected failing in atten tion, call upon him to recite at once. ( 6) Seldom allow books in the hands of pu pBs, except in reading, during the recitation. (6) Have the recitation wade in complete and correct sc.ntences, and, when practicable, in connected discourse. ( 7) Take up all parts of tlie lesson in which pup11s have failed, in immediate and thorough reTiew.

~8) Kate thorough work. Hence: (s) sl'lt
short lesson: (b) give out le880D8 but ODCeJ (c) assfgn to-mol'l'OW"a Ieason with great eare: ( cJ) hear the recitation of the Ieason before gtv. big tnatructlon relatiDg to it; (8) make eve~ .POint; (f) call back all new 1Dstructlon given.
~((1) ft8 OCJtdet~CtJJ.
L Of Ita Characterlstlca:-L It 8S8IgDII a eerta1ll quantity of the text-book to be memorlzed. !. It ~ tatas the popU's knQWJedge b7 the use of set or leacUDa qusttona.
B. Of Ita Defects:-L It makes the text-book tM
master and not the senant of teacher and pupiL I. It
a.48 the pupU to study rather to recite than to know. I. ltnowledp gabled b7 lt is not In its most usable
fclnn--la frlnentary rather than classlfled. 4. It fa118 to form correct habits of Investigation to be cat;J'led inte
after ute. 5. It falls to train to habits of clear, eoJ1.
leCUtlve thtnldug, and expression of thought. 0. Of ita Advantages:-1. It Is pecullarly adapted t.
clas8es of puptls"whose reasoning powers are not tully developed--prlma.ry classes. 2. It Is a powerful agent
for waldDg up classes by brlnging large numbers rapld17
""wnder Ire. 3. It trains to quickness of thought. 4. It J.s a PQtat method of ascertaining the pupU'a Jmowl .age of faeta learned and recited by other methods.
D. Of Ita UMa:-L It 1s the proper general method
for primary clules. J. It should be used for review of
IOM rec1tad b7 other method&.
11. Rai:-L Use the set questions of the f.ut.book as UWe poaaible. J. Guard carefully against so puto :tlng queltlou as to tn~~~reat the answers. 3. Have all auwers made In complete seatencea. 4. In review leaaons taught b7 this methOd. have the puptla tell M
JO\U!Il aa pbsdble about tile nb;lect-matter wf.t)lout tlODIDC.

305

portions of the text-book. 2. It genenlly requires ths

lesson to be memorized verbatim. 3. It requires the

recitation to be made without questioi:ls

B. Its Defects:-!. It leads to th1 memorizing of

words instead of ideas. 2. It confines tlo closely to the

order and method of the text-book, and aquires absolute

uniformity of tet-books. 3. It is a mEhod never used

In after-life in gaining knowledge.
a. Its Advantages:-!. It is an exclent means of

disciplining the memory. 2. It serves tdix in the mind

those formulated parts of knowledge whh are the summaries of processes of reasoning and invt~igation.

D. Its Uses:-1. To teach rules andlefinitions. 2.

For scripture lessons, etc., to be used in o ning and gen

eral exercises. 3. For the propositions oJ.eometry and

stmilar exact statements.

E. Rules:-Supplement all reciutions1ade by thia

method by analysis to prevent "parrotin~ and by test

questions to draw out the pupil's knowled!()f the mean-

ing of the lesson.

'(3) The Concert Method.

A.. Characteristics:-Same as either preceding

modes, with the addition that all the pupil~cite in uni-

son instead ot individually.

B. Special Defects:-!. It gives OPtunlty for-

shirking in study. 2. It allows mere meclical repeti-

tion without attention. 3. It is defective a test of

the pupil's knowledge of the lesson. 4. It \s to beget

a drawling, unseemly habit of expression.
a. Advantar;es:-1. It enables the teac to multi-

ply his force by teaching whole classes at e. 2. It

aids the diffidoot in g!vlng expression to idEII!n telUn&

a what they know.

It helps often to wake ~lasses.

D. Uses:-1. In teaching rules, formu etc., to

whole classes. 2. For drills in arithmeti<:ark, such

as rapid additions, etc.; In Geography, as Dlrork; in
vocal training, etc., and in a!l example teacl 3! In

infant classes in which all teaching IS direct not by

;,

"306

study. 4. Som~tlmes to give variety and wake up slug-

gish classes. E. Rules:-:. Guard carefully against all unnatural

drawling, and mechanical forms of expression. 2. if

anY pupil in tla class fails to take part in the recitation,

call upon thaUJupil to recite alone.

(4} The Topict.

~

i. A.. Characlristics:-1. It sets before the pupil defi-

nite things, aout which to learn. 2. It requires him to

learn them 1 systematic order or sequence. 3. The

pupil must r:ite without questions, and yet not in the exact langua3 of another. j JJ, Its A(antages:-1. It does not require uniformity

of text-bookand saves multiplying classes. 2. It makes

text-books e servants and not the masters of both

teacher anpupils. 3. It imparts knowledge in classified and as~iated form, hence, usable knowledge. 4. It

trains to 1nsecutive, orderly thinking, and to clear,

definite a ready expression of thought. 5. It forms

practical bits of independent investigation to be used

in after-~ 6. It compels the teacher to thorough

da11Y pre:ation.
o. Rr:-1. Have each meml ,er of the class pro-

vided w suitable topic-book. 2. Arrange and write on the :kboard topic-lists as needed, and have pupil!>

copy tb into thr.ir topic-books as guides in study. 3. Assign lay a proper number of sub-topics for a lesson;

to-mort reassign to-day's lesson for review, with other

sub-tOJ as advance; so continue till the general topic

1s conted, thus making the last recitation one of the

wholeleral topic. 4. At the recitation of each lesson

have e pupil hr the class write upon the blackboard

the tlist or the day, from which list let the recita

uon 1ade. 6. Review each general topic as a whole,

requ: the class to be prepared to give both the topic-

list J. anaysis of the lesson, and also the subject-matter. Draw out by proper question.R, aU necessary facts

whPe pupils fail to bring out In their independent

re<':ns.