~A ~~ .~\ ~"l.. ~ ~o"\ MANUAL OF METHODS Georgicl Teachers. I' l CONTENTS. SPELLING -- ~ ---------------------------- 7 PF,NMANSHIP ---------------------------- 17 READING ---------------~---------------- 23 ENGLISH GRAMMAR ----------------------- 45 GEOGRAPHY------------------------------ 81 HISTORY ---- ____________________________ 107 ARITHMETIC -----------------------------139 NATURE STUDY ---------------------------179' ScHooL MANAGEMENT --------------------227 PHYSIOLOGY ------------------- __________ 247 DRAWING --------------------------------271 SYLLABUS -------------------------------281 HoME READING ---------------------------283 EvANs' HISTORY oF GEoRGIA________________285 CIVIL GoVERNMENT _______________________ 289 TERRITORIAL GROWTH OF THE UNITED STATES_295 THE RECITATION ----------------------~--303 1ft~,~~~ ~ ~ I 0 !.c-.-.:.o__"_"_._"_.., SPELLING. BY E. C. BRANSON, STATE NoRMAL SOHooL (Copyrighted.) I. PURPOSES. 1. To teach vocabulary of every-day English. 2. To teach the vocabulary of the common achoo.l texts. 'l'hese two purposea concern about 10,000 words; about one-third the number in the average speller. 1. To teach the use of the dictionary In order to extend his vocabulary, now and later. I. To teach (1) the forme (spelling and pronuncla- Uon) of tJhe words acquired, (2) their meanings and uses, and (3) their forms In writtfln Eng- lish (capitals, hyphens, quotations, etc.) 1. To aim directly at reading from the start. 1. To develop promptly a ready self-determination of words b7 puplls. '1. To lodge a memory of word-forms In the D.ngers. 1. To excite an interest In words: (1) dertva.Uon. (J) composHlon, (3) Mstory, (4) choice. I. To teacll the lmportanrt rules of apelllnc. 10. To eduCSJte the pupil. Teaching spelling and educating the pupll by means of spelling are dltrerent things. Appeals to a:;-bltrary memoJT of woro-forma alOM are not qutckentnc but deadentnc to tn.telltgence. 6.. IL KETHODS. l. Primary Gmdea. (Worde from Readers .mo.tlJ',) .(1)_ CopJ'Inc words In script from dall7 leuou. 8 !" .. ... [(I) lt&'ll.t Qell1ng; on.llJ from bb., ellart, or openboolt. (I) Memory spelling, words in all lessons. .(4) Word-bulldlnc; using letter cards (both .c:ript and Roman text.) -) Phonic word-buildi ng. a. To teach to eye and ear t:he sign- and sound-ll!te nesses of words. b. In order to de Telop ready ~~elf-determination of nt>w words. :(1) Picture spelling. a. Children write words for things seen in pictures. b. Cse of outline drawings. (7) Se~nce bullding. a. Using word-cards . 1n script and Roman text. .(1) Short sentences. a. Dictated by teacher b. From given words. (t) Elliptical sentences. Copied and oompl ted . .(18) Picture stories. Short sentencet au~ge. ted by pictures. .(11) Clualfying words. a. Alph!llbetically. b. According to No. letters. c. According to No. syllables. d. Capitals. e. .Action words or name worda, etc. I. lntermedl~ Grades. (1) Sentence making, for doubtful or difficult words, in all lessons, (1) orally, (2) ln wrltin~t. (I) Dictation exercises. Paragraphs assigned for study from any school book, the readers mostly. Recollection lessons. Observation spelling. (1) Indoor obser- Ta.tlons. (2) Outdoor obser'rll.tlons. SpelUng to be centered lar&"elJ around uture etudiN. 9 ., .... -., '(I) Reproduction llt.Ort (I) Marking worca dlacrttioally-berlutq with 3d Reader cl&Mea. (7) Making word Uata for ginn eoun~. (I) Grammaltical spelling. {1) Plur&ll, (%) Poa&e88ivea, {3) Put tense forma, <) Contraction and abbrevlatlona, lly~ phenated words, etc. (9) Memory versee a.nd maxima. (10) Supplementary llsta, made by the puplla {1) In school, {2) out of school. Thinca .een on the way to school; commoll farm or garden products; household furniture; ta'ble ware and toocla; arti- cles made at clay, Iron, atlver, etc.; garden and farm tools; Bible char&o- tera; amusements and gamea; thlnct found In a boy's pocket; u1mt.la tlLat ea.t grass, fl.esh, that swim, wade, ato. (11) Common misspelled worda. (12) Spelllng matobea. Suggestlona: L Preserve sides throughout the aesaloa It possible. J. Keep pupils In the ranks throughout the exercise. I. Each side notes the mlnpelled words of the opposite side In all exercise.; report.a them to Ita captain, who ilsta them for the teachera to ctn out to the ot.her aide. 4. The teacher tallies tlhe wortt. mluet by each side, and also recoru tht victories by days. I. Hatches once a fortnlg1lt. (111) Trapping In oral ttpelllng. (U) Listing, sounding and spelling 'W'Orfa dta. cult of artlculs.tloa; mist., IUta.~f! ~ rlai!ln~, ..,_ . 10 (11) !l.creM!OU. .L l:lpeUing rh;ruuiL Teacher "vii out word, pupll spells, gives out a rlaymJng word and spells. J. Bulldtng words out of the letters of a given word; "legislature," tor example. I. Teacher gives out the name of a tool, say; pupil spells and calla the name of another tool for the next pupil to spell and so on down a Ust of tools. Each pupil calls out and spells a word beginning with the last letter of the word previously spelled. 6. Pupils point out objects, parts or qualities of objects; class !lpells. S. Pupils describe words, cla..qe sp~>lla. "Whllit gums envelopes!" C!&sa spells, "mucilage," etc. 7. One pupil gives out .a word, the next spells Its opposite. "Stral gb t,.. "crooked." I. Spell1ng synonymL I. Upper Grades. (1) Diotatlona. (2) Common misspelled words. (8) Teach the Important rulee of IJ>ellln& (1) by induction, (2) by use, for ex- <~.mple: Rule for doubling the final consonant. Rule for dropping the final silent e. Rule for changing final 11 Into t '(4) Spell1ng derivatives from primltlvea given. (6) Deftntng derlv8Jt1ves etymolaglcally. ,(I) Forming words from common fo"elp I'OOUI; like graphei.n, ta.cerr., etc. [11 (7) Making word lists for given suffixes or roots; like un-, -ion, -logy. (8) Listing words according to origin-Latin, Greek, Arabic, Celtic, etc. (9) Word studies, as they occur in course of upper class work. "Swinton's Rambles Among Words," a good cue to the teacher. (10) Listing and sounding words commonly mispronounced. III. SUGGESTIONS. 1. Get spelling mostly from the readers the first three years at least, and aim all spelling all the time at intelligent reading and correct written forms. 2. Omit, therefore, infrequent words-mere catch words difficult to spell. Stress the words the pupil needs constantly-the vocabulary of the various school books certainly. 3. Do not have the pupil spelling words from the spelling books, the meaning and uses of which neither he nor the teacher knows. 4. Make sure of meanings and uses, along with forms of words everywhere. Breed in him the habit of using the Dictionary. . 5. Remember that oral spelling teaches (1) the sound values of the letters, (2) syllabication, and (3) pronunciations; and cannot therefore be dispensed with. You can easily have too much of it, and you can easily rob it of its chief value, by neglecting to have pupils for the first three years to pronounce syllables as they are spelled. 6. In oral spelling: (1) Give out the words once, distinctly. (2) Permit no guessing. 12 (I) Han p11pU to ~OWl.. wor4 )le!Me epelllnc 1t. (A le680n In arUcul..tlon and pronuncl &tlon, this). <> Have 'lrlm pronounce each syllable aa spelled. Also to call capital letters, hyphens, &c. wlhen the:r occur. (6) Hane sentences for doubtful words. (6} Do not becin &1ways at the head of the class, nor with the 1lrat Wl>rd tn the ieee on. (7} Vazy the methode only when fta~g!nc interest requlr lt, but do not ran to do so then. (8} ~reserve good linea and postures. T. But remember that spelling Is first an aid to the ready recognition of words (reading) and next to the ready reproduction of words (writing); tha.t we do not need spellin~ In oral speech, but only In written BPeech; that we spell In llfe with our flngTrs; th111t writing words Is the best way to learn to write words; and tha.t at lut we must lodce In the fingers the memory \f word forms. I. Wrlotten spelling. (1) Teaches the forms of English, capitalIzation, punctuaJtlon, use of hyphen, apostrophe, capitals, quota.tlon mar.U, paragraph1ngs, etc. (!) Gives each pup1l more words to spell In each lesson. (3) 'K~ps a.ll tihe pupils engaged. (f) Gives a better chance to criticise and -1 correct mlss,pelled words. (6) But takes more time for the recitation. (6) Tempts pupils Into dlshonetJty. ; 1. Rave no more written work than you have time te correct, be that much or little; much wr~ 13 r * In~ u certainly 11.xet 'ba4 h&blta u oa: hence the a.baolute need of lnepecUoll. Take only a pupll'a be.t work. 10. Develop In pupUa the powc of Mlf-crltlclam &aC \ correction. (1) Have puplle correct th.tr own work wWl open booka. (2) Or cheek up one a.nother'a work almi- la.rly. Eadh pupil correct Ilia owa work. Correction is -.t;he &lm; not 4e- tectlon of errora by teacher, merely. (3) Examine the work yourself olll:r after the correotlone of the puplla. (4) Have misspelled worda r..wrlttell a number of tlmee 'by the pupil. 11. AsPign spelling lessons occaslona.lly from the day'.: lesson In Arithmetic, or Geocraphy, or any of the school booka. 'Y IV. QUIZ REVIEWS. 1. State ten purposes ln teachlnc spelllnr. 2. How teach the UMI of the dictlonar:rT 3. State the three elementa of mastery of a Toe&b& la17. 4. ~db one is usually neglected In teacblnr apeU- lncT 1. How aim spelllng directly at readlncT t. How make spelling aid In the maetery ot all the pupU'a school books T 'f. Sta.te some ways of teachtnc apelllns which are not educa.t!Ye. 1. State and explain live method of ape111ar a4a.- t.d to Primary G!'lPI;!ea. t. 8ta.W the purpoaee of Phonic word-bull41ar. .., ......,. 11. Illustr&~ "hat Ia meant by Phonic wor4bUlltialo u. 8tat.e m TUletl ot wn\wa Qt1Ua1 1 - .eta 14 U. 8tet.e wb.at Ia taught In aentenoe spelllnr and dictation exercises. 11. Outline two klnda of observation apelling leawne, (object spellinc). 14. State the apeclal educa.tloDAl va.luea of obaena.Uon spell1nc. 11. Sta.te four uses ot dlacrltlca. 11. When begin drill& ln dla.crltlcl? I I' 17. Mark tJhe followinc worda:-(To be trelected bJ tea.cher). U. State the valuu of dictating memory verna and mmma. 11. State tlhe wa:r- of ma.king apelll~ m8/tchea valu- able. 10. Cr1Uclae a apelllng ma.tch poorly conductecl. 11. Sta.te five clasae~ ot words usually e.rticula.ted carelessl7. a. Pronounce the foHowing words (worda com- monly mispronounced, &eJected a.nd glvea by the teacher). .. 11. State and explain ftve forms of written epelltq for inJtermedla.te grades. 14. State and explain five forma of oral apelllnr for inJtermediate grades. Ill. State a.nd explain five forms of spe1llng games. 18. State a.nd lllUSitrate the three most important rulea of spelling. J'l. A.bl>Teviate the following words: (to 'be ~elected and &inn by tJhe teacher). II. Write sentences for the fo'llowlng worda: (to oo ~elected a.nd ~ven by the teacher). 11. Gift 1Vorda for the' following sumxe~~ and 4elne \ each: --er, -1st, -ness, -some, -al, -loa, ..J (or othen as teacher chooses). .... 10. Ho1V te&Cib pupil the use of the dictlon&r7f 11. Sta.te the usee of oral spelling. 12. State the u - of 1Vrltten apelllnc. U. What d081 ea.ch teach tlhat the other .... ue t.OT 15 34. State six cautions in giving an oral spelling lesson 35. State six ways of correcting written spelling lessons. 36. State two dangers in written spelling lessons. 37. How avoid each. 38. How decrease the opportunities for cheating in written spelling. 39. How use a spelling book wisely. 40. Give opinion upon the following matters: (1) At what stage in a pupil's course would you put a spelling book into his hands. (2) Should a pupil know the meaning of every word he is called on to spell. (3) Should pupils in writing words in columns begin them all with capitals. (4) Should pupils be allowed to correct each other's work. (5) Should pupils be given incorrectly spelled words to be corrected (6) Should we abolish the spelling book v. REVIEW TEXT-BOOKS IN THE COURSE. 1. Penniman's Common Words Difficult to Spell. D. C. Heath & Co., Boston. 2. Penniman's Prose Dictation Exercises. D. C. Heath & Co., Boston. 3. Abernathy's Academy Orthoepist. Maynard, Merrill & Co., New Yerk. VI. REFERENCE BOOKS. Sweet's Methods of Teaching, Chap. III., Part II. American Book Co., N.Y., $1.00. 2. DeGraff's School Room Guide, p. 60. Bardeen & Co., Syracuse, N.Y., Sl.50. 3. Moore's Suggestions for Seat Work. A. Flanagan, Chicago, Ill., 25 cents. 4. Methods in Reading and Spelling, b;y Branson. D. C. Heath & Co., Bo1ton. I \ PENMANSHIP. BY FRED J. ORR, STATE NoRHAL Scuoo:L, ATHENS, GA. L PURPOSE. The purpose of handwriting Is obl'lous, yet a.n \ UlldUe emphasis on the teaching of certain ot Ita features, to the neglect of others, frequently makes of It an end In Itself, rather than a means to an end. It Is therefore well to remember that Ita service Is rendered, completely, when the writer has been enabled by Ita use to record hi& thought quickly, and In such manner that It may be easily read. The teacher, then, may del'ote himself principally to these two desiderata: legibility and speed, or, as thought of In the class-room-form and mol'e- ment. L IN REGARD TO TEACHING FORM. The two classes of script letter forms taught generally are: "Vertical" and "Slant." Their relative merltll may be adjudged by reference to the following considerations, viz.: that, In general, a system of penmanship should be so planned that Its forms will be t>asy to read. easy to wrth. nnti easy to learn. This generalization Is meant to Include hygienic consldern Uons and a reasoua ble amount of attention to beauty. It Is advisahle to use that system which mo.st nearly conforms to these conditions. Whatever the style or writIn&' adopted, a aeries of "copies" or model In Mme form Is easentlal. 18 GENERAL SUGGESTIONS. 1. Models may be provided in copy-books or supplied by the teacher. In the latter case, either by supplying each student at every writing period with an engraved or written sentence, or series of letter forms, mounted on cardboard, or by models written distinctly and neatly on the black board. The first plan is preferable. 2. Be sure that the pupil is making an effort to reproduce the given models, and is not mechanically copying his own errors. 3. Point out differences between the written work and the models, and lead pupil to see the same. 4. Be specific in all criticisms of faults. 5. Commend progress, but always in such a way as to encourage its continuance. 6. Use the blackboard to illustrate errors an methods of correction; formation of difficult letters; correct and incorrect proportions; points of beauty, essential and non-essential, etc. 7. Stress a proper spacing between letters, and be tween words. (Note the difference). 8. Emphaisze uniformity in the size of letters on a page. 9. Encourage individuality within bounds. That is, don't expect every child to write exactly alike, nor need it be expected that every o! e will write exactly like the models given. However, the modles are ideals and should be constantly the goal toward which the class aspires. 10. Do not permit a student to write only a part of a letter at a time, having to refer to the model before finishing. See the whole-write it. Compare with model, then rewrite, correcting error. Apply this to sentences and words as well as to letters. 19 11. It is unnecessary to emphasize "joinings" (or connecting lines between letters), or in fact, any feature not essential to good form. Plain, well proportioned letters are the essentials to know. 12. Detect the elements that go to make a wellformed letter: proportion (height to width), curves, straight lines, stems, and loops. 13. Require and exemplify neatness, on the blackboard and on paper. 14. Don't teach writing at the writing period only. Discountenance careless work in any written exercise. 15. Large forms are perhaps preferable for beginners (children). After the proportions are learned, the "size" of one's writing is a matter of individuality. 16. From the standpoint of care of the eyes, and illdependent handling of the pen, single line paper would seem to be preferable to pages with spaced interlinings. 17. See that each member of the class is supplied with good writing materials. A long, mediumsoft pencil is preferable to a scratchy pen; and a good pen is rather to be had than a hard stub pencil. Use judgment as to when to begin the use of pen and ink. 18. It is to be remembered always, that ability to visualize the forms of letters being studied, must precede free construction of the same with the pen or pencil. Hence, use methods that will serve to fix these forms in every student's mind. 19. Blackboard work (see above). III. MOVEMENT, OR THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPEED 1. Position. {1) Body-should be free from all strain (shoulders, eyes, fingers, etc). It does not seem wise to re- 20 quire all pupils to sit in exactly the same way. In general, however, the writer should sit far enough from the page upon which he writes, to insure perfect freedom in the use of arm and hand. A line through the two eyes should be parallel to the line of writing. This means that the head is inclined neither to the right nor left, and shoulders same height. (2) Pen-should rest lightly on the side of the second finger at the root of the nail, and be held in position by thumb and first finger, the latter being bent slightly only. Finger tips not less than one inch from the pen point. Third and fourth fingers folded under the palm. Staff crossing knuckle of the first finger and so turned that the nibs of pen point rest equally on the paper. Avoid: gripping of the pen; grasping too near the point; a right angle in the middle joint of the first finger; ink stains on the fingers. (3) Paper-so placed that lines on the page are parallel to a line through the two eyes, thereby insuring equal focal distance. Note.-Teach positions by example if class is not too large. Otherwise, by definite directions. 2. Methods. (1) Kinds of movement-three: a. Whole arm, with shoulder as pivot. b. Muscular, or forearm, with the under muscle just below the elbow, stationary on the desk and acting as a cushion and pivot upon which the arm rests and moves. c. Finger, in which the entire control of the pen . is exercised by movement of the fingers. Note. A combination of these three is perhaps the best form of movement. 21 (2) Movement exercises should be given in concrete form; i. e., letters, and their combinations in words and sentences. Begin with the easiest and advance to more difficult, e. g.: c, e, i, a, o u, v, w, n, m, etc., and combinations. IV. MISCELLANEOUS. 1. The writing period. (1) Devote a part of each period to study and reproduction of correct letter forms, in which form is especially stressed; part to movement exercises, in which movement is especially stressed. Neither form nor movement must be forgotten however, at any time. 2. Grade according to general conformity to corercisesmay be given with pen, pencil and crayon. (3) Writing period should not be more than twenty minutes in length, for primary pupils; about twenty to thirty minutes for advanced students. 2. Grade according to general conformity to correct letter forms, improvement and neatness 3. Blackboard Work. (1) Have your own writing on the board, on horizontal lines (not drawn), distinct always, and never careless. (2) Guard neatness scrupulously. Never erase with fingers. (3) This is a good place to train in full, free, arm movement. 4. A definite understanding of correct positons is essential at the start. It may well precede an1 theught gf letter forms or of movemen~. I READING, BY LAWTON B. EVANS, SuPT. oF ScnooLS, AUGUSTA, GA. (Copyrighted) MATERIAL FOR TEACHER'S USE. 1. Natural objects-flowers, insects, grain, etc. 2. Phenomena-boiling water, growing plant, burst. ing cocoon, etc. 3. Familiar objects-a ball, a cap, a top, a fan, a knife, etc. 4. Toys-a horse, a cow, a cat, a donkey, etc. 5. Pictures cut from story books, magazines, etc. Note.-This material in named is the order of importance, By all means use the natural object itself if it can be done. Children love nature, and objects of nature excite their curiosity and interest. Use the every-day familiar objects, and teach the things about them that a child ordinarily does not see. Train him to observe and count. An ear of corn will give a great deal of work in language, reading and nature study. TEACHING THE WORD. 1. Conversation exercise. The first thing to be done is to show the child the relation between the spoken and written word. Show the object to the class, and induce the pupils to talk about it. Call their attention to the main features. Lead them to talk by asking questions. Arouse their curiosity, gain their attention and awaken their mind1. 24 Note.-When the pupils come forward to recite let them stand around the teacher, or sit down, assuming whatever easy and natural position they prefer. The things to be insisted on in the recitation are attention, animation, enthusiasm, freedom in speech. If these are obtained, the pupils are in order, do what they will. Do not repress any of the natural activity of the child. Merely require all movements to be natural, graceful and spontaneous. B'ooks are not needed for several weeks. Use the blackboards, slates, writing-paper, etc. 2. The Word Symbol. After the pupils have discussed the object, and named its parts, the teacher can write or print the word on the blackboard, making an intimate connection between the object itself and the word as its symbol. At the first lesson only two or three words should be taught. Pupils should practice naming these until they know them without the aid of the object. For seat work they should be required to copy the words they have learned. 3. In the next exercise the pronouns may be taught objectively and such simple verb forms as "see" and "have." Also "a," "an" and ''the,' Depend upon the child's memory to retain and recall these word forms. With this preparation the teacher may proceed at once to teach the reading of simple sentences. Note.-This method is known as the word method, and proceeds on the principle of first the idea, then the spoken word, then the written or printed word. The object is always used in the be,3inning, and each word is illustrated and memorized. N o account is taken of the letters separately until some thirty or forty words have been memorized. Do not toach the alphabet. It will teach itHlf after awhile. Teach tho Worcl, 25 Eutcfae. The folio ing tesf!. fs severe, but developing and helpful. Let the pupils be shown some object, say a hat, and let them name it and watch the teacher as she writes in her best style on the board the word hat. The pupils attentively regard it until they think they know it. Let them memorize the form las best they can. Then let each one, whenever he chooses, turn his back on the copy and write what he remembers of it on the board or on his slate. The reproduction must be from memory and not from sight. This stimulates intense perception and aids the power of recollection. Wonderful results can be obtained by a patient trial of this form of word-making from memory. TEACHING THE SENTENCE. As soon as a few words and phrases have been taught, the teacher should lead the pupils to read written or printed sentences. Get to the simpl~ ,.entence as quickly as possible. "These sentences .should be developed by conversation, and every word previously studied. The teacher should write or print them on the blackboard in the best style. The use of colored crayons adds beauty and Tariety to the exercises. Let the teacher regard the following rules: 1. The pupil is to read silenttyall the way through the sentence, and be sure that he knows every word before he tries to read any part of it. He can then give his entire attention to the manner of expression, and knowing all the words beforehand he can more easily read in a natural tone of voice. 2. The pupil is always to read naturally. He llhould never be allowed to spell his wa7 26 through the sentence, nor read in a singsong, humdrum, monotonous manner. Reading is throught getting and thought giving. The mere calling of words in a sentence is not always reading. 3. In reading a sentence from the blackboard the pupil himself is to use the pointer. The pointer is to move evenly and rapidly along the board under the whole sentence at one impulse of the hand. It is not to tap the board under each word. The pupil reads the sentence after the pointer has designated it. 4. The pupils must be trained to see the sentence as a whole. They must understand it as containing a thought, and speak it as a whole. Note.-The teacher must begin with the first sentence to teach naturalness and to avoid monotone. Have as much care for expression, for an easy flow of the voice, and for proper emphasis, as for correctness in pronouncing the words. In order to accomplish this the eye must be made to go ahead of the voice. We can get this by silent reading of the sentence and calling it out from memory. All the work developed on the blackboard may be left there for the pupils to copy on their slates. Exercise. Let the teacher draw a pretty colored picture on the board of some flower or animal, by using colored crayon, or a blackboard stencil. Better still, use a butterfly, a beetle, an autumn leaf, a bunch of flowers, or any other object of interest to children. Develop by conversation six or seven words new to the class, and write these neatly about the picure or object. Then develop a few sentences and write these below in white crayon. Make the effect artistic and pleasing. Teach the words and 27 sentences thoroughly, and then allow the pupils to draw the object and the words and sentences on slates or paper. This kind of exercise will take the place of charts, and has the advantage of variety and adaptation. Home-made Charts. If you must have a reading chart, make one for yourself. Get :C:4 dheets of stout unglazed manilla paper, about 24 by 36 inches in size. Paste in center of each of two or three sheets some bright colored picture of a familiar object-a dog, a cat, a horse, etc. Print a few names above it and print one or two phrases underneath. Make each sheet progressive, every few pages have one for review, have one with sentences only, one with words only. Use ink and a rubber pen for printing. Use the spare pages for penmanship, colored maps, etc. Bind together at the top between two laths, leaving six inches projecting. Hang up by nails in the wall. This chart will cost you, for the paper, 25 cents, for ink and a rubber pen to do the printing, 15 cents for the pictures, nothing, for the laths and nails, nothing. Total cost of a te.n-dollar chart, 40 cents. PHONIC SYNTHESIS. Exercise in phonic synthesis, that is putting of sounds together into words, should precede phonic analysis. Ask the pupils what words these sounds make, touching the object at first yourself, and afterwards having them touch it, viz: m-ou-th; ch-ee-k; f-a-ce; d-e-s-k; t-ee-th; n-e-ck; b-oo-k; h-a-n-d. Tell the pupils to r-u-n; s-t-a-n-d; s-i-t; j-u-m-p. Point to the b-e-11; c-l-o-ck; b-oa-r-d; ch-al-k; etc., etc. Pronounce the sounds slowly and distinctly; practise beforehand so as to get it right. Reverse the 28 process and have the pupils give the sounds of the word that names some object held in their view, etc. PHONIC ANALYSIS. After the pupil has learned the words, has copied them on his slate and can tell one from another, he naturally observes that the words themselves are composed of several parts. Phonic synthesis has aided him in this. The teacher then is ready to analyze the words into their vocal elements. 1. Let the teacher choose any word that the child knows, as rat, and wri,_te it on the board and have the pupils pronounce it. 2. The teacher will then pronounce the word very slowly and separate it by his voice into the three sound elements, represented by the three letters. As he pronounces each part he touches it with the pointer. 3. The children repeat after him the sounds as nearly as they can. The teacher writes on the board the letter r, and gives the proper phonic value, the children repeat it after him. Then he writes the letter a and gives it the proper sound, the children repeating it after him. He does the same way with the letter t. 4. The word has been separated into its parts by long pronunciation. The first part, the second part and the third part have been shown and sounded. It only remains for the teacher to tell the class the names of the three letters. Let him be careful .to draw a distinction between- (a) The appearance of the letter. (b) The sound or phonic value of_the letter, {c)..a.Th~ name of the lett~r, I. :A& tM Mid. :-em C. t.cller tak the wort man, &Did b:r trea.t1nc It In the I&IIle wa:r u the word ral 'WU treated, introduces two new elements m and n. The pupils now hA~e ftve IOUllda, represeJllted b7 the letters r, e, m, n, &nd CJ. Tihen ftve !etten should be wrlbten on the board In tile best style. The pupil llhould cop:r 1n order to C'et the 11ppeaunce. The teacher ehould drtll 1n -the namee &DAl ID th~ phonic ve:Iues. I. From the known Phonic elements new worda eaJt be d!scovered. From the aibove ftve elementa the tea.eher ea.n construct such new words as ran, mal, tan, cml, ram, by Ieadln~ the pupUa to ~ve tlwl IOilnda of t.h.e letters as he polnta to them and by wrttlnc ~ down aa clve.u until a word Ia made. "" '1. ID th4s way the enUre alphabet 111 ~a.dual1y ac- quired b7 the pupils, according to the use of the letten In the words. It ma.y happen that an entire Y'eM may pass without the pupil learnInc 10me of the lettera. 2\'ote.-It Ia enerall;r qreed that time 11 wasted by teachinc the alphabet ft.nrt. The 9JlUd cannot associate the names of the letters with the pronunciation of the words t.he7 spell. There Is Indeed no connection. On the other hand there 1.s a vlte.l connection between the separat11 .aund values and the united sound value. This phonic &nalym should be continued untU the chlld acqulrea the power and tihe ha.'blt of constructing the sound of a word tor hlmself. Jrlan.y words are not subject to the above anal711la. These mUBt. be memortzed b7 the pupila botll 1n torm and apell1nc. Jrlany tee.cliera compla!DI that they themse1vea are lpona.nt ot tiM eilemfllll.t&r7 ud eompold.t.e 110undil of the 1aa- guage. In order to overcome this difficulty the following directions are given by Mr. E. P. Moses of Raleigh, N. C:. "First, learn to speak accurately the vowel sounds of our language. They are seventeen, and are a as in mate; e as in mete; i as in pine; a as in note; ti as in pure; a as in mat; e as in met; 1 as in pin; a as in not; ti as in bud; a as in far; aw as in law; e as in her; a as in move; 6w as in cow; 6j as in boy; 66 as in foot." Second, learn the consonant sounds, of which there are twenty-four, making with the seventeen vowel sounds, forty-one elementary sounds in the language. The b IpIt IvIz sounds are founded by noting the names of these six letters and dropping the final e sound heard in each. The f, 1, m, n, s, x sounds are found by noting the names of these .six letters .and dropping preceding e sound in each. The j and k sound are found by noting the names of these two letters and dropping the final a sound in each. The r sound is found by noting the name of the letter and dropping the preceding a sound. The c, g, h, qu, w, y sounds are found by uttering the initial sound heard in the spoken words cow, go, ho, quit, we, ye. The ch, sh, th (flat), th (sharp) and wh sounds are found by uttering the initial sounds heard in the words chin, she, the, thin, whip. The ng sound is found by uttering the last sound of the spoken word ring. The zh sound is found in the word azure. PHONIC ANALOGIES. After the children have learned the phonic values of most of the letters, the teacher should arrange an exercise designed for the construction of words by adding a letter to a certain termination. This is the arranging of words according to their vocal analogies. Take such termination as: at, an, am, ag, ad, et, en, eg, etc., and placing each at the head 31 of a column arrange all the monosyllabic words that have that particular termination. Many hun dred words can be found and he drill in phonics is made very definite and valuable. The following are given as examples of this class of work. Each one may be called a. family: "Mrs. at and her children," etc. at ag et en ill ad od bat bag bet cat fag get fat hat fag . ag let net mat nat laa.gg pet set pat mag wet rat nag yet sat rag etc. tat sag vat tag chat wag that etc. etc. den bill bad God fen fill cad hod hen gill fad nod men pen hill mill faadd pod rod then pill lad sod when rill mad shod etc. sill pad etc. till sad will shad chill etc. quill etc. THE USE OF THE BOOK. 1. Teach the new words. Before the pupils are called to read, the teacher should find the new words in the lesson and place them on the blackboard,and have them thoroughly learned. Thes: new words constitute the advance of the pupils in word knowledge. Use the illustrations in the text to devolap interest. 2. All the pupils read each sentence. The teacher should handle a class so that all get the instruction given to each. Every pupil is required to read the sentence silently. Hands show when each has finished. One or more 32 ea.tt be ea.lled oD. to read tJo'IIC!. TM tiMW must have a ca.re thla.t every pupil ID. the ela 1JI reading and t. prepa.red to read &loud II called on. 1. The value of expreulon. Care m'Wit be taltea to insure proper expression of the sentence. Let It be read over a.nd over until the pupils c&n ree.d u they would II>II.Y It. Let tihem read lt without looking at it. A good expreaelon Ill reading le of u much Talue u con"ect pronunela.tion of the words. L Word exercises. It I Gf the utmoet Importance tlha.t the pupils know the word lot 111cht, otherwise they cannot read easily and fluently. All the words are learned the teacher should write or print them ou the blackboard. Every day, uae word calUng, word finding, word matching. It the child be given a small object or drawtq and told to 1lnd the word wh!ch n&'JD.elt lt, It will add Interest to the exercise. L En unclatlon. The pupils should be requlr@d to pronounce every syllable and every letter that ought to be pronounced. Omitting !lna.l letters, slurring syllables, running words together are faults that should be corrected. To Induce correct reading, the pupils should not be allowed to read too rapidly. Time should be taken for enunciation, pronunciation, emphatla and expression. Most pupils read too fuL &. Emphasis. Puptla can be taught emphula b7 2udlcloue questioning better than by imitation. The teacher may write a ~entence on tlile boo.rd euch ae, I haV6 a red top. The pupil are required to ree.d the sentence ao u to gin anewers to such quett.1ons: Who hu a red top! Wh&t 111 the color 311 your top T What Ia tall 33 red thing you have? In the r~ading lesson require the sentences read with a variety of emphasis according to the questions to be answered. 7. Posture. Pupils should stand erect while reading, well in front of the recitation seat or out in the aisle. They should not lean on anything, nor stand up lazily or ungracefully. Let them assume a military posture standing erect on both feet, head up and shoulders back. The book should be held in the left hand unless the book is too heavy, in which case both hands may be used. The book should be held down below the level of the face, fourteen inches from the eye, at right angles to the line of vision. 8. Corrections. Allow no interruptions while the child is reading. Let him finish the sentence or his paragraph. The child's attention should not be distracted by other pupils shaking their fingers or raising their hands. Any criticism that is to be made should be reserved until the pupil has taken his seat. In all cases require the pupil to pronounce correctly the words he has previously missed. Caution.-The teacher must not allow the pupils to come to her desk as individuals to have the lesson pointed out to them as they recite. Each pupil should keep his own place. The pupils must read loud enough for the class to hear, without distracting those not in the class. The teacher must not give too long a lesson. A page or half page well learned is far better than a half dozen pages indifferently learned. Remember that in all teaching it is not how much but how well that counts. Do not allow the bright pupils to answer all the ques~io~s. It is the dull ones t)lat ne11d the teacher's help. 34 The bright ones can teach themselves. The teacher must have a care that the backward pupils be given all the attention possible. Do not allow other pupils to interrupt the teacher during a recitation; time is wasted and attention is distracted. Use a monitor in ungraded schools to answer questions. Use hand signals for permissions. Provide seat work to keep pupils busy who are not busy at the recitation. Exercise. "What I see," "What I think."-Take a slip of writing paper of ordinary size and paste a picture at the top of it and have the pupils write a list of the ob- jects in this picture, or sentences of w p.t they see in the picture. A story can also be m.ide of what the picture suggests to the child. These may afterwards be read in class. SEAT WORK FOR PRIMARY CLASSES. 1. Pupils may print or write the lesson on slates or on paper, copying from the book or from the blackboard. 2. Pupils may be provided with small cards on each of which is a letter of the alphabet. With these they can build upon their desks thelessons for the day. Sentences on the board may be copied in the same way. ITihlel lclolwl lglilvlelsl lmlilllkl.l 3. Small cards with words written or printed on them can be distributed to the pupils, out of which they are to build sentences of their own making. !THE I COW I EATS I GREEN I GRASS.! 35 4. Cards on which the teacher has drawn one or two simple objects and written or printed three or four short sentences can be distributed to the pupils. These they may study at their seats, copy on paper, and may also use in recitation. 5. In the second and third year pupils may be required to write a summary of the story of the lesson in as many sentences as they can remember. 6. Pupils should be allowed to draw simple objects, from drawing cards or from the blackboard, or better still, from the objects themselves, color them with colored crayon and write original stories. In this way should nature and science be brought into the schools and related to the language and to the life of the children. READING IN ADVANCED GRADES. Selecting a text-book.-After the third reader in the course, the pupils are prepared to begin the study of literature proper. By this time they should know how to read, and their instruction should regard information and cultivation. The teacher should select a suitable text which will be 1. Of recognized literary standing. 2. Entertaining to the class. 3. Full or information and culture for the pupils. 4. Easy enough for them to understand. Reading for Information.-In order for the pupils to derive pleasure from the recitation it is best for the teacller to keep the text-books and distribute them when the class is ready to recite. Let the teacher and pupils study together. The following rules are to:_)e observed: 36 1. The pupils stand as they recite. 2. Each pupil reads until the teacher stops him. 3. Corrections must be made by class at end of in dividual recitations. 4. The meaning of new words must be explained. 5. Each paragraph must be read by several pupils until it is read satisfactorily as to elocutionary effect. 6. All allusions of an historical or geographical nature must be explained. 7. Make the lesson short, but let the study be intensive. 8. Question pupils as to the meaning of what they are reading. 9. Let the pupils summari~e the story in their own language. 10. Write the very hard words on the blackboard to be used for spelling exercise and for definitions. Note.-One of the main duties of teachers in higher grades is to create and cultivate a love for good reading among their pupils. For this purpose every school should have a library, large or small, of books adapted for children, and the teacher should see that books are given the pupils to read. When the children are at leisure in school they may be allowed to quietly read the book they have taken from the library. They had b rer be reading than be idle or noisy. The teacher may require of them a written summary of the story, or a composition about some feature of it. Their reading can thus be of profit as well as entertainment. Some child's book or periodical containing stories, descriptions, etc., could be read in the school. The teacher could read it aloud or the pupils could read aloud to one another. The story should be reproduced orally or in writing. Resort to every means to make the pupils fond of reading good books. Show them what good books are. Place them in the hands of the pupils and see that they read them. After 37 having taught the children to read, let us see that the) read to some purpose. Reading for Expression.-The pupils having studied a selection and mastered the story, understood the words and their meaning and had all the allusions explained to them, are prepared to study the same selection from another standpoint. That is the standpoint of elocution or expression. For this purpose they cannot know it too well, nor study it too closely. The best expression is possible only when the words are in the memory. 1. The pupils stand with especial care to posture. 2. The rate of reading should be adapted to the piece, never so slow as to be sluggish, nor so rapid as to be indistinct. 3. Pupils should be taught the value of rhetorical pauses and how to determine their use. 4. The quality of the voice is decided by the sentiment of the piece to be read. Tones must be joyous, light, grand, solemn, reverent, fearful, according to the nature of the piece. 5. Emphasis is the stress of voice on one or more words, with reference to meaning, and must be taught from the beginning. 6. The force of the voice, whether loud or soft, and the pitch, whether high or low, are indispensable parts of good reading. Note.-The teacher can give instruction to the pupil in the use of the voice and in breathing exercises. Every day the pupils should take deep breathing movements. Show them how and when to fill the lungs with air in order to expel it with ease and force in reading. Appropriate gestures are not .to be discouraged. If pupils wish to emphasize their reading by physical movements encourage them to do so. 38 Reading for culture.-After the child has learned to read fairly well, the time has come for him to lay aside the study of the mere form, and begin to study the content of the text. The significance of the words, rather than, their shapes and sounds, should engage his attention. He should learn how to read and to enjoy classical literature. The les- sons should be short and intensive. Thirty '\nes of a great poem is enough for a day's lesson. JLet the meaning of every word be understood; every metaphor and comparison be studied; every ref- erence be explained; every choice expression be memorized. Let it be translated into his thought and language as though it were a Latin selection. The text is no longer to be read, but it is to be studied, and studied intensely, with reference to the beauties of the literature it contains. A whole year can be employed in the study of the three poems-Evangeline, Enoch Arden, and the Deser- ted Village. They then become a part of the child's life, his thoughts are elevated, his character en- nobled, his love for high literature cultivated. He is shown how to study literature properly, and the key is given him wherewith he can unlock the storehouse of the world's literary treasures. "Sweet Auburn! loveliest village of the plain, Where health and plenty cheered the laboring swain, I Where smiling Spring its earliest visit paid, And parting Summer's lingering blooms delay'd; Dear lovely bowers of innocence and ease, Seats of my youth, when every sport could please; How often have I loiter'd o'er thy green, While humble happiness endeared each scene; How often have I paused on every charm, The sheltered cot, the cultivated farm, The never-falling brook, the busy mill, The decent church that topt the neighboring hill; The hawthorne bush, with seate beneath the shade, For talking age and whispering lovers made." 39 Where and what was Auburn? What was its real name? What made it sweet to the poet? What part of his life was spent there? Was it a plain? What is a swain? What !Should health and plenty do for every one? Why is Spring .called smiling? What is meant by parting summer's? what are lingering blooms? What are bowers? Why were they of innocence and ease? What does loitered mean? What does green mean? What is meant by humble happiness? What is the significance of paused on every charm? What is a decent church? Note the spelling topt. Describe a hawthorn bush. Why talking age? Why whispering lovers? etc. SUMMARY OF FAULTS IN ADVANCED GRADES. Teacher to Avoid Teacher to Correct 1. Using too hard a text book. Pupils find no pleasure in severe reading. Err on the side of simplicity. 2. Using an uninteresting text book. It is a great deal easier for pupils to learn when they enjoy learning. It is the same way with grown people. 3. Giving too long a lesson. It is better to give short lessons and have them will prepared. Not how much but how well is the ke;y:note in education., 1. Inattention on the part of the pupils. This is done by calling on them unexpectedly, by using an interesting lesson, by having them watch for errors. 2. Reading too fast and without expression. Pupils are in too great a hurry to finish, and read with no effort for effect. Take time to pronoun~e,, and enunciate every,w;~:r;9,: ~ Do not slur non.. elide... 3. Lazy and ungracefuLj posture. Require the ., pupils to rise promptly. to stand up well, book in one hand, head up, shoulders back. Posture ~ e!'Sential to g.ood efl'11,9t,, 40 4. Giving too much assistance. Make the pupils rely on their labors, and find out things for themselves. Throw the burden of education on the child himself. 4. Monotonous and uninteresting reading. This generally shows the pupil is not interested in the lesson, or that it is too hard for him. 5. Teaching by individuals. Every pupil should get all the teacher's instructions, should read silently or aloud all the lesson, and be ready to answer all the question~. Class work is different from individual work. 5. Faults in articul1tion, enunciation. Lack of knowledge of word meanings, historical al- lusions, etc. 6. Interruptions while pupil is reading. Let the teacher, the class and the pupil be understood during the individual recitation. Cor r e c t i ons made at close. 6. Lack of elocutionary eiTort. Pupils must feel they are reading to somebody and for some purpose. Let them read from the platform if necessary, by competition one with another. Some Helps in Teaching Reading. Cyr's Reading Slips. Ginn & Co.. Atlanta. Pictures of Simple Objects. From any source. Augsburg's Easy Things to Draw. E. L. Kellogg & Co., New York. Word Cards and Alphabet Cards. Milton Bradley Co., Atlanta. Some Books on Teaching Reading. Language and Reading-(Anna Badlam.) D. C. Heath & Co., Atlanta. Primary Reading-How to teach it. (Boston Method.) Educational Publishing Co., Boston. 41 Methods of Teaching Reading. (Branson.) D. C. Heath & Co., Atlanta. How to teach Reading. (LeRow.) Maynard, Merrill & Co., New York. Calkins' "How to Teach Phonics." E. L. Kellogg & Co., New York. How to Tr.mch Reading. (Hall.) D. C. Heath & Co., Atlanta. Preparing to Read. (Spear.) New Eng. Pub. Co., 3 Somerset St., Boston. QUESTIONS ON METHOD OF TEACHING READING 1. Name the material, in order of value, for the teachers' use in a primary reading class. 2. What is the first thing to be taught? 3. How should the word be introduced? 4. What about the conduct of the pupils in the recitation? 5. How is the word taught? 6. What principle underlies the word method? 7. Describe the exercise of word making from memory. 8. How many words should be memorized before any ac- count is taken of the letters? 9. When and how should sentence reading begin? 10. What of reading silently before vocalization? 11. What of naturalness in reading? 12. How should the pointer be used on the blackboard? 13. How can an exercise be made of a drawing, a few words and sentences? 14. Describe the making of a home-made chart. 15. Describe an exercise in phonic synthesis. 16. How should phonic analysis be introduced? 17. How many sounds in the word rat and man, and what other words can a child discover from those sounds? 18. Narne the 17 vowel sounds. 19. How can the consonant sounds be learned? 20. Mention the consonant diphthongs. ~1. What exercises can be arranged in phonic anaiogies1 Construct one. 22. Draw a phonic diagram to illustrate variety in the exercises. 23. What shauld first be taught in the reading lesson? 24. H~tw can evety dne be made to read the entire lesson1 25. What af e'xptession? 26. Haw should word exercises be conducted? 21, What about enunciation? ~8. iiaw should emphasis be taught? ~g. What should be the proper posture in a teading class? tiD, When should cotrections be made? 3L In conducting a recitation what cautions should be observed? 32. What can you say of seat work in reading and lan8uage? Word cards? Alphabet cards? 33, Illustrate the relating of science and language work. 34, What are the points of excellence in a text-book for advanced grades? 35. Mention some of the rules for good reading in advanced grades. 36. How can a love of good reading be"aroused in pupils? 37. What can you say of reading for expression 38. Mention the six rules for expression. 39. What of breathing exercises? 40. What is meant by reading for culture? 41. How long should a culture lesson be? 42. What should be studied? 43. Mention three poems that could take a year to master. 44. What are some of the faults a teacher should avoid in advanced grade teaching? 45. What are 11ome of the pupil's faults the teacher should correct? 46. Mention some helps in teaching reading. 47. Mention some books on Teaching Reading. 43 INSTITUTE PROGRAM ON READING. FIRST DAY-45 Minutes, 1. Material for teacher's use. 2. Introductory conversation exercises. 3. Teaching the word. 4. Teaching the sentence, 5. Home-made charts. SECOND DAY-45 Minutes. 1. Exercises in phonic synthesis. 2. How to introduce phonic analysis. 3. Exercises on the vowel and consonant sounds. How to learn them and how to teach them. THIRD DAY-45 Minutes, 1. Phonic analogies; construct one or more columns of words according to the analogy of termination. 2. The use of the book. Teaching new words, enunciation, emphasis, posture, etc. 3. Certain cautions for the teacher to observe. FOURTH DAY-45 Minutes. 1. Seat work for primary classes. 2. How to relate nature to reading work. 3. Reading in advanced grades. Selecting a text-book. 4. Reading for information. FIFTH DAY-45 Minutes. 1. Reading for expression, posture, tate of reading, rhetorical pauses, quality, emphasis and force of the voice. ~. Reading fot culture, Illustrated by same selections. 3, SUmmary of faults in advanced gtade. What should the teachet avoid and what should the teacher cor- rect. 4, S<>me helps in teaching readibi and toine book oD teaobini teadinj1 I \ I I ENGLISH GRAMMAR. BY EULER B SMITH. DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH, STATE NoRMAL ScHooL, ATHENs, GA. (Copyrighted.) pART !.-GENERAL VIEW OF GRAMMAR. INTRODUCTION.-Language lessons should precede, but. not supersede, the study of formal grammar. Language lessons afford instruction in the art of correct expressjon; grammar is a science as well as an art. In teaching language lessons, the instruction is inductive and synthetic; in teaching grammar, the process is both deductive and inductive, analytic as well as synthetic. Language lessons, then, can no more supply the place of grammar than number lessons can afford instruction in the science of arithmetic. "Practice precedes theory, the art comes before the science;" but, as Dr. DeGarmo says, "It is a poor art that does not lead toward and culminate in corresponding science." It would be unwise to discard grammar because it has been poorly taught? Would it be wise to banish from the schools all the common-school branches that have been unsuccessfully taught Anarchy is a poor substitute for faulty government. Many have argued that technical grammar* should not be taull:ht in the public schools. But it will be noticed that every such person, though his education may have been only such as the public school affords, is always ready to apply the principles of technical grammar in the criticism and correction of errors.-RAun. Grammar does not dictate language; it only records the usage of the best writers and speakers, and states the principles that underli~ their use of language. A child uses language long before he begins the study of grammar, If he has always "heard good English, read good English, / and practiced good English," he does not need to study ~"By t~cbnical grammar is meant that part of grammar which deals stnctly wttb the science itself, including the technicalities and idioms." 46 grammar in order to speak and write correctly. While it is true that there are eminent writers and speakers who have never studied grammar, still it must be remembered that they have devoted a large part of their lives to a careful study of standard English. Is it necessary to travP" e the earth in order to learn the science of geography? 11. favored few have the advantage of association with those who use correct language; the vast majority are not so fortunate. As a rule, pupils cannot acquire right habits of speech from their associates; and, unfortunately, not always from their teachers. Practice, of itself, does not make perfect. Principles should underlie practice. Therefore the science of grammar should be understood, and its principles should be applied in the study and use of language. This paper deals mainly with methods of teaching advanced grammar. PURPOSE OF TEACHING GRAMMAR-The two main objects in teaching grammar should be to aid the pupil (1) in understanding language used by others, (2) in expressing his own thoughts correctly. The immediate aim should be to enable the pupil (1) to recognize the parts of speech, (2) to analyze sentences as to structure and syntax, (3) to construct sentences properly. Besides its practical value as an aid in correct interpretation and expression of thought grammar holds a most important place as a disciplinary study. SCOPE OF GRAMMAR-In order to teach any branch successfully, it is of paramount importance that the teacher should have a clear conception of the nature and scope of that branch. The teacher of grammar should constantly ask himself these questions: What is grammar? How are its parts correlated? What does each part contribute to the whole? Knowledge is of little value unless things are known in their relations. On page 49 is presented a bird's-eye view of grammar, showing its divisions and that of which each division treats. This outline, while intended especially for teachers, will be helpful to advanced pupils. I. ORTHOEPY-Pronunciation!of words. II. ORTHOGRAPHY-Spelling"of words. III. LEXICOLOGY-Meaning and derivation of words Noun. Verb. . Pronoun. Adjectiv Adverb . . Preposition. J Conjunction. l Interjection IV. ETYMOLOGY [Number. IGender. Person. ~ 2. MODIFICATION 01' WORDS 1 ~~~. DGLISB GRAMMAR. 1\lode. 1Tense. Comparison l { ~~ L ANALYBI&-Separation of sentences into elements Phrase. Clause. V. SYNTAX i ~Classification. l r 2. PARSING-Analysis of elements as to Modification Construction. 1. Construction-8yntacticnl relation of element~. 1 3. SYNTHESIS l 2. Collocation-Arrangement of elements. l 3. Punctuation-Pointing elements and sentences. l VI. PROSODY-Versification of sentences. 48 Grammar is the science of correct language. Language is spoken as well as written. Correct language demands, then, not only the right spelling of written words, but also the proper pronunciation of spoken words. To mispro- nounce a spoken word is as grave an error as to misspell a written word. Language, in order to be correct, also re- quires a knowledge of the meaning of ords. Orthoepy, orthography, and lexicology are studied incidentally in grammar; because, long before formal grammar is begun, they have received particular attention in spelling-books and readers. Again, language is expressed in verse as well as prose; hence prosody claims a place as one of the divisions of grammar. Prosody belongs partly to grammar, partly to hetoric. The mere form of verse (verse-making) belongs to grammar; the diction of poetry belongs to rhetoric. Clearing this branch of its externals, so to speak, we have left the two main divisions of grammar-etymology and syntax. In fact, grammar deals almost exclusively with the etymology of words and the syntax of sentences. To make it plainer still, grammar treats of the classification and modification of words, and the structure of sentences. Syntax treats of the structure of sentences. It includes analysis, parsing, and synthesis. Analysis shows the structure of the sentence by separating it into its elements. Parsing continues the analytic process; it is the analysis of the elements of sentences. Parsing deals with words, not as individual words, but as parts of sentences; i. e., in their sentential relation. Synthesis combines elements to form sentences; it views sentence-structure from the constructive standpoint. Referring to the outline, it will be seen that etymology deals with the word as the unit; syntax, with the sentence as the unit. Whether the sentence or the word should be the starting point, is a question still much discussed. We talk and write in sentences. Rules and principles are proved by reference to the sentence. Elements are parsed according to their sentential use. In expressing thought, words are but fractional; the sentence alone is integral. The true grammatical unit is the sentence. The starting point of the instruction should be the sin1ple sentence. Procedure from the whole to its parts takes precedence of that from the parts to the whole.-JOHONMOT. ~I 49 ) METHODS OF TEACHING GRAMMAR-There are two /general methods of teaching grammar, which I shall call the Sentence Method and the Word Method. In the Sen1 'tence Method, the sentence is regarded as the unit; and it is separated into its elements, which, in their last analysis, are words. After a study of analysis, the classification and modification and construction of words are considered. The tendency of this Method is to devote too much time to analysis and diagramming. In the Word Method, which is the one in general use, the word is considered the unit; and the sentence is studied synthetically through its parts. In this method, parsing usually receives undue attention; and analysis, if studied at all, is taken up as being last and east. Of the two methods, the Sentence Method is much to be preferred, since it begins with the true grammatical unit -the sentence. In the Sentence Method, the procedure is analytic and inductive; principles and rules are learned through a study of language; there is no foolish attempt to learn language through a study of definitions. Laurie says, "Grammar has to be studied in and through sentences, and to be extracted from sentences by the pupil if it is to be really taught." In successful teaching, the above-mentioned methods should both be employed, thus forming what may be called the Combined Method. By this method, the sentence is first seperated into its elements; or, in other words, speech is reduced to parts of speech. Then each part of speech is classified and defined as soon as its nature and use are clearly understood in the analysis of the sentence. The classification of words should be taken up in connection with analysis, because some elements of the sentence are named from the parts of speech. For instance, an adjective clause implies a knowledge of the adjective. On the other hand, analysis aids the pupil in better understanding the parts of speech; a conjunctive adverb is more clearly understood after analysis has shown its use in connecting a dependent clause. In the Combined Method, as the pupil 50 proceeds with the study of analysis, he is taught the first step in parsing; namely, to recognize the parts of speech. After the different kinds of sentences have been analyzed, the pupil takes up the modification and construction of the parts of speech; and he is then prepared to parse elements in full. ) pART !I.-SENTENCES. It is not my purpose to give a detailed method of teaching the various topics of grammar, lest this paper be too long; but it is hoped t.hat the general plan suggested and the few illus.trations given, may be of service. As has been already . suggested, the proper method of teaching grammar is to begjn with- I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. Begin with short declarative sentences. Using sentences like DoGS BARK, for example, teach pupils the two essential elements of the sentence-the subject and the predicate. When subject and predicate are well understood, introduce the two principal parts of speech-the noun and the verb. Now, in the sentence Dogs bark, substitute they for dogs; and pupils get an idea of the third part of speech-the pronoun. Sentences like DEAD leaves fall QUIETLY, introduce modifiers of the subject and the predicate; and pupils begin to recognize the fourth and fifth classes of words-adjectives and adverbs. The sentence VERY LARGE trees grow VERY SLOWLY, introduces a new form of word elements-the complex form. A complex word element consists of two or more words joined together without the aid of a conjunction. In the last example given, pupils also see the remaining uses of the adverb; namely, to modify adjectives and adverbs. The book lies ON THE TABLE illustrates a new element, the phrase; and pupils are shown the use of the sixth part of speech-the preposition. Before requiring a definition of a phrase, see that phrases are clearly understood. A phrase* *Theword phrase is often used in a wider sense. Under phrases, some grammarians include participle phrases, verb phrases, and varioua other expressions. The terms used is grammar should be as clear and preelse as PGillbllo' 51 is an element consisting of a preposition and its object. A preposition can never be used alone as a word element: it is an inseparable part of a phrase. The sentence He. lives IN A HOUSE NEAR THE CHURCH, contains a complex phrase. A complex phrase consists of two or more phrases joined together without a conjunction. BoYs and GIRLS study AT HOME and AT SCHOOL illustrates,compound word and phrase elements and gives an idea of the seventh class of words-the conjunction. A compound element consists of two or more elements connected by coordinate conjunctions. AH I I am so glad! contains an interjection-the eighth and last part of speech. The following sentence contains all the parts of speech: Ah I but you speak lightly of sacred things. The three kinds of complements should be carefully discriminated. Teach pupils that a complement completes the predicate, not the verb. A subjective* complement relates to the subject by denoting a class or a quality asserted of it; as, Man is an animal, God is good. Pupils frequently have trouble in distinguishing object complements from objective complements. The former is always a substantivet; it denotes that which receives the act. The latter relates to the object complement; it may be a noun or an adjective. As a noun, the objective complement denotes the class to which the object of the act is made to belong; as an adjecive, it denotes a resultant quality that the object is made to possess. The following sentences illustrate the two lastnamed complements: They elected him PRESIDENT; The snow made the ground WHITE. In parsing, the object complement is called the direct object; the objective complement, the factitive object. Other offices of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives should be taken up, the teacher moving by safe gradations from the simpler to the more difficult. Common noun and proper nouns should be discriminated, and the pupil taught to capitalize the latter in his written work. The subclasses Subjective means relating to the subject. This term is more precise than attribute complement. The objective complement denotes an attribute of the object, just as the so-called attribute complement does of the subject; hence each of these complements has a right to be called an attribute com- pletmAe1nutb. stantive ill aaoun, a pronoun, or any element uaed as a noun. 52 ot the otlher parts of speech should be ~ud!ed later. After the pupll ie familiar with declaraltive &ellltencea, he should analyze interrogative, imperative, and exclama.tory senten cea. Tbe pupil should be ta,ught to classify and generalize in~ &vidual ta.cta. Then, the process being reversed, he should be required to illustrate; that is, KiTe ex81II1plee (particulars) of the generalizations he has made. Knowledge ot ea.ch new principle and definition should be conatan.tl; a.pplled in the construction of s.mtences. Synthesis should elosel;r follow am:a.lysis: the pupil shoul-d learn to bui/4 u well aa tear down. Too lltJt.le attention 1.8 usually given to Mntence-bu!lding. In connection with each element. its punctuation should be taught in order to a.id the pupil in writing hl.a exerctsea correctly. In studying the simple sentence, the pupil haa become fa.mUia.r wlt!b. two kinds of elements; he has learned t.he three forms of each; and he has also obtained a knowledge of the eight parta of speech, claasi.fied according , to their use in the aentence. He is now prepared to understand that a rimp!e sen.rence is one that contains onl7 word and phrase elements; and he knows that these elements may be simple, complex, or compound in form. Beyond namini the parts of speech, no parsing should 7et be attempted. n. THB COMPLEX SENTENCE. It tM atmple sentence Ia 1mderliJitood, the tra.nsltlon to the complex aenteoce Is not dimcult. The th:lrd and last element of sentence., the clauae, must now be introduced. By examining the 11entence Pupil!! wao atudy will learn, the pupil can see that it haa two pa.rta, and that each part contains a subject and a predicate. Develop the de1!.nltlon of a clause: A clause is a part of a sentence containing a subject and a prediOOite. The clauM tcho 1tud11 modifies pupi.Z&; therefore 1t hu the 118'8 of an alljective. It is seen that a relative pronO'Im Ill one used to connect a.n adjective clause. When the underlying !acts are understood, a definition beoomes intelligible. Rul.- U1ld principles are properly 1-.rned 'b7 derlTI.na th.m from tiU \fa.cta to 1t"hich th.e7 nrc. ., Now, ..t..e u t.IIIOI..t t. -.t.aoe Ub tll.llt W attn~~~ 53 WHEK tM wn ra.e. Show that the elanse wheft the sun ro~t modlfiee rtarted, and therefore has the uae of an adverb. Let the pupil aee tha.t when modifiea rose, a.nd also connects an adverb clause. He Ia thus prepared to get an Idea o! the conjunctive adverb. A subordtn.a.te conjunction may also connect an ad verb clause; as You can learn nr yr11.1. Htudy. A. noun clause 1a conta.ined In t'he aentence Geography teache1 THAT the earth il round. Call attention to the facl that a noun elauae, atrictly apeaklng, has no connect! ve. It is lrenerally introduced by the subordinate conjunction that; but the conjunction Ia rrequenrtly omitted, and It need not be auppl1ed In parsing. Require puplla to write exer- cises illustrating the punctuation of complex sentencE'S, and aee thai they understand the ditference between re- atrictll.ve a.nd unrestrictive clauses. Do not accept either of the following definltlone: A de-- pendewt clause 111 one that does not makt> ,;n1se when stand- Ing alone; A dependent clause Is one that depends on some other clause tor itr meaning. The c~'r nbl ""'ion to these statements Ls, tha.t they are not n > tar as noun clauses are concerned. In tbe sen tei~C't llnttm ~a111, "KNOWLEDGE 18 PowER," the d!'pend!'nt no>un cl:ousP makes very good sense; moreover, it does not depend on any- thin&' else tor ita meanln~::. To determine whether a complex sentence Ia declarative, ln.terrogatlve, Imperative, or exclamatory. alway!l examine the 'Jule~ndent clause. Although the lnclependi?nt clau.;;e ot a complex sentence always decides the klod of sentence, a final noun clause generally dictates the terminal mark of punctua.t4on. A period Is not placed at the end of evPry declarative eentence. Examine these sen1ences: Tha teacher uked, "Who will gof" Shakespeare says, "What a u pi~ of work man/" Each of the sentences Is declarative; th~ ftrwt enda with an Interrogative clause; the second, with u excla.ma.tory clause. Let ua sum up the facta that have been lea.rned In study- ins the complex 1entence. A dl'pPndt'rtt clause ls one that )lu the ,.. ot Ul adjecthe, an adverb. or a noun A.o in- . .M4MI .-... Ill oae tha.t doe& not perform t.he o111ee or 54 a trlngle part of speech. A comple~ sentence fa one that contalns one independent clause '8.Illd one or more dependent clauses. Three parts of speech 111re used to connect dependent clauses; namely, relalt.ive pronouns, conjunctive adverbs, and subordinate conjunctions. Ea.Cih of these three connectives is always a part of the dependent clause il' which it is used. The independent clause of a complex sen :ten.ee is necessarily simple In !orm; a. dependent clallSe may be simple, complex, or oom_pound. A simple clause :is a single clause; a complex clause consists of two or more clauses joined by subordinate connectives; a compound Denee in the same ma.n- ner. The model tar wrttten parsing, while tnltended for nouns, may be mod.IL!led eo as to serve for the other parta of sveech. MODEL FOR ORAL ANALYSIS. 1. De8crtbe t he sent ence u to (1) torm, (2) meanlnc. z. It complex or compound, name the clausea and &D&lJH ea.c.h in order. ~ 3. Give grammatical IUbjeet. Name modifiers ot 1ubject and de1cribe them u to (1) form, (2) kind. 6. Give modified subject. 6. Give &Ta mmatical predicate. '1. It incomplete, give itl complement and name the oom plete prediclllte. a. Name modifiers ot predicat. and de.erlbe themu to (1) f.orm, (2) kind. I. Gin modified predicate. 10. Name and describe connectives and independentelementa. MODEL FOR WRITTEN P A.RSING. CLASSIFICATION. MODIFICATION. ITNTi%. Clasa. Subclass. Kind. Number. Gender. Penon. Cue. ConltnlcUon. B'Gie. - - - - - --~---1-- --1-~t----11--- r- 1'101: Sli:NrENCE L D&FlNITION-.A HIIWilce II the nrbal UJireufOil of i tholtP\, 1. Simple. L .A.I to Foax" { 2. 8. Complex. Compound. U. OL.lSSl!:s { 1. Declarative. 1. .A.I to M..ururo { 2. Interrogative. 3. Imperative. 4. Exclamato17, l. !tum: Word, phraae, cla118e. f2. FOil)(: Simple, complex,.compount!. m. ELEMENTS! fl. Principal"{~: ~~~i4 L R.t.N& r I L Complementary SOubJbejecct tcivoemcpolemmpenlet.mqt Ob ective complement. en 00 '""-{f~t:~~~ I. Subordinate 2. Modlfytnc Nouna1. 1s. Connective.,_ { Conjunction. Relative prononn. ConjuncttTe &dverll, 4. Independent. - - - - - - - IV. Pll0C!SSE8{ 1. s2.. PAANRJ.BLYtNSom: :OOraral,l,wwrirtittetenn., SrNTHES18. diagr&mmecL .Verbal meana (n word~, 1poken or 1nitten. M PART m-Wo:B:D8. I. OLASSI~CATION OF WORDS. br studying analysis, the puptl has learned tha.t worda.nr elasslfted according to their U8lll 1n sentences. The I8Jile ~l"d may be one part of speech in on.e sentence, another part ot epeech in another sent'en~ In the following aen.- tencea, the word well h:aa the use or five dUI:eren.t parts of apeech:- The tceR t. deep. (Noun.) Sprlnp wen troan the earth. (l"erll.) Ia your father weZZI (AdjectWe.) She aings tceZZ. (Adverb.) Well, what llball we doT (Indeperurenf Gdverb.) Well/ I am BUrPrised to hear it. (Interjection.) In a.ddlition to irts general use, a part of speech has special 1 synta.ctlca.l usee ea.Iled its constructions. For instance, a . uoun ia always a name; burt lt may have various constnJr.- tdona: aa, subject, Object of verb, etc. Bf'low are given the eight pa.ite of speech, cl'llSSified according to their 9ellten- Ual use. The terma used lin connection with these clus.- : of warda aTe 1DJten.ded u conclee deacrlptlona rather th&IU formal definitlons:NOUN-Name-wol"d. VERB-AI!Bertin~:-word. PRONOUN-Noun-au'bstltute. :ADJECTIVE-Noun- or pronoun-modifier. :ADVERB-Verb- or adjective- or adverb-mod11ler. PREPOSITION-Phrase-introducer. CONJUNCTION-Element-coniJieetor. INTERJECTION-Feeltng-word. While the pupil 11 studying the amalysis of sentencl!'l!, h harrul inddenJtaUy some of tlhe subclasses of ihe parts of l!l)eeCh. Arter simple, complex, and compound senten.cea have been: litud1ed, the pupil should take up arul studW 1n uta.il the 1111'br Implied. A participle or a.n lntlnltlve - r ba.ve a. oo-called subject. but we cannot ay tba.t It mmt bave one. l'her a.re frequently u.oed In a aentence to ex pre.~ r.oUoa or belncta a , _ a.1 .,.,, ao nbJeo' belDJ up~ or lmpU.t. 65 I. The dbjeottve complement 1a ahra,_ 1a tll oJt!CIIw eue, because it relates to the object complemeDit (dlr. . object). 9. The su ...Ject of an intf,nlttve fa tn the obftotlf!e case. 10. The subjective complement of an ln1ln1Uve, whea th indl.nltive has a 11ubject, is tn the objective case. 11. Sometimea tht>< infinitive haa no subject, but baa a aubjeottve comi>lement. 12. The .subjective complement of an tnlfinitlve (or a p&J'oo ttciple) used witlwut a. subject, is in the nomtnath'fl case, used abstractlv; that ia, without any word to which it crammatlcally relates. Voice.-Voice is that modification of a verb that tiOicta or tells somethlng ooncernlng ita subject. The active Toice shows that the subject denotes that which perforiWI an act receit>ed bv an object. The passive voice llhow1 that the subject denotes that which is passive, or receivee an act. A transitive verb is not a verb that mav have, bu\ a verb that doe& have, an object. This ObJect in the active voice Ia the direct object of the verb; in the passive voice it b the passive subject. An in.transttive verb is one that doe~~ not have an object. A verb may be traasitive 1n one 1entence, and intransitive in another; hence a verb ehould be parsed according to Lta use in the particular sentenC41 under consideration. An intransitive verb may be a complete predicate; as, The wind blows. It may be complemented; aa, The wind blows cold. Be careful to teach pupil that a vel'b may assert action, and yet not be used in the ccuve voice. In the sentence Horscs run, the verb run ulert& action; but the ver'b is intransitive, a.nje'?~ !'t'\q ~~~l} ~Wz\eq Obj~~ ltt\"1\'art' II\Odiff~ 70 'J'HE VERB. ftt flntte Ttrll alwa71 constltutea tht predicate, or forme a part of Ult ,.Ucate. 1. Used alone as ~he predicate; as, Horses run. J. Used with other word or words. (1) With subjective complement; as, Roses are red. (2) With object complement; as, Boys play ball. (B) With objective complement; as, They chose him leader. (4) With inseparable adverb; as, They pul out the tl.re (6) With several words, the combination forming an inseparable complex verb; as, 1 wru~ taken care of. THE PRONOUN. Generally speaking, the constructions of the pronoun are llmilar to those of the noun; there are, however, some special conatructions that deserve attention. 1. Him destroyed, all else will follow. 2. Than whom none sat hlgber. Him and whom are Miltonic soleclsmR.f In determinir.r .ease, comtruction takes precedence ofjorm. Him [Lej is nomi ,native independent with dutroyea. Whom [who} is su hjPct of ~eat implied. The sentence in full is, Than who (sat bi~h) nons ,l(lt higher. When the comparative is expressed, the po~itive IIDUBt be eupplied in pai'sing. In order to justify whom, some ;authors call than a preposition; but it is a conjunctive adverb .denoting comparison, instead of a preposition allowing relation. 1. Poor me I what shall I do' Jle is objective by exclamation, a construction peculiar to the pronoun. 4. Thllll a faYOrtte book of mf"" 'The words of tbla group cannot be parsed separately : the eomDlex Yerb mnat be tre&ted as If hyphenated: &1, 10#-taU:n-eart-oJ. This Ia an idlo matfo pualn construction; Tbe aentenee Ht I<>Ok care Q.f me, when ehanged to the regular pasa!Ye, becomes, Care of me IDll4 taken by him. In ~be fdiMMtk pa.a~~ln, which II the form cenerally used , the object of the prep. Olltlon 18 made the subject; and the paMive nrb, the retained object, and the prepoeltlon are throwu tocether to form a complez verb. f.A. IObiM II a de'riatloa .frolll tablllhed uaage 1n the atructure of ....... J)r. BJJ1 ta ~~~~to be "toNtrllctl!IP not bfi!f4" 71 JR"' t. a personal pronoun, posseulve cue, modlfyln1 the partitive objective booA:I implied. Jfim is a euphonic form of war. juat as the article a is a variant of an. The euphonie forma mim, oura, thi m, yours, her, and theira, are uaed w.bea the name of the thing possessed ia not expruwl. &. Tb!A heart of mi .u wlll br ale. Jltne i8 objective case, obj ect of the preposition of. The poa-~lve form ia used by enallage for the objective. The p011888sor is denoted by the post~essive form, or by a phrue introduced by of; as, Solomoo' temple, temple of SolOfii(M, Sometimea the two constru, tions are combined : of and the poase~sive form are both used, and there is formed an Idiomatic douhu prl8&1lssive. This icliom ia used to make the poelessor more emphatic and the expre~:~sion more euphonioua; hance, instead of the regular construction of xz, we have the idiomatic form of HINK . Anoth er reason for using the idiomatlo form is, that it often prevents ambiguity. For instance, picture of MINE dqes not necessarily mean a pk-tur1 qf KL The douole posHes~ive iR usec.l witb nouns aa well as pronouns; U. tllat tongue of John' Some authors make a separate clue of mine, thim, etc., calling them puue31ive pronouns. Properlr ap,.altinll:, they are possessive form of pertonal pronouna. John's, in the expression IZiven above, is the posseaaivefor. of a noun ; WI' would hardly call it a poueuiw (/) noun . 6. ll d ng oucb a1 you haTe. .! is a rel.a ti v.. pronoun, direct object of "- After tuM. l preposition is g..nerally placed at the end of the eentence; as, This is the house that I referred to. That mfy come , . \he preposition provided one or more words inte"ene. ' 'fl:!.t J;Ueapin~ of tbe aentence ia u....: U wu 1 (. .) tr.. 72 ea. (that) 'll.e obta4ned tlhe lnformatlOD. Blnee w Ia Jppa.rently the object ot (rom, the objective torm Ia ue4 lllllte&d of the nominative. We have he%'9 an example of GHrczcf'OIJ u well aa ena.llage. Me is nomlna.ttve cue, pred loate nominative a.tter wa.. Thai Ia objective ca.., objeal or trom. THlll ADJ:S:CTIVlD. , L HoDIJ'rn. 1. A.ttrlbutin: u, ~d applee. J. Appoaltlve; u, .A. man, old an4 'ntfrm. u. PBEDICATJ: ADJECTIVK. 1. Subjectln complement; u, He ts like- hl1 father. J, Objective oomplemeJllt; aa, The dinner ma.de tU to:r rid:. a. Uled abstractly Iotter tnflntte verb; u, To be ,... 1~1 Ia tmpoelli'ble. THE ADVERB. t. MODIJ'l'IIJI, 1. Modltying verb; u, We walked lfwWllf, S. Moditytnc adjective; a.s, It 1s veru cold. I. Modityln& phraae; aa, She studies onlfl at hom& II. INDEPKlllDEli'T; as, WeU, what do you say? lJJ, (:loNJUNCTIV'a. 1. Connecting &dverb clause; u. We came IDIIM tb bell ranc. J, Comlecttng adjective clau'Se; aa, I remember the bouse wher~ I waa born. t. CYrrela.ttve; a.s, John ia IU old a I am. THE PREPOSITION. l . ~how!n~r !"f'lat!on : lUI, ~hP ~roe tn ~f"hnol Z. Merely l llt.rofluMory a.s IJut "' atgbr 111 ""' f mind T'tt Ia lmpliftort ., t Pr ,,,., tt"M 1\.~ &-D e.t11~ t1ve"r an k.1'1vPrb t:i:;d ~~ ......... Uab oondemn.. rh.... u..... t)f ttk/' a oonjuurtt.,. ~tderb .tA >~bonld be a&f'd Init ea In tbe 1\Ctl'l'l' voice. tTbe lliUI' partlet pre baa tbe oame fonn In both '1'010111. Thl.l parttcfpll Ia ne'l'er uoed alone tn an aetlu aenoe : Ita only 11M ID Ule ...ST o1 Ill trltb anx1lie.rt 10 fora oomJtOUD4 se.... ; u, "-"' - .-..,.... DJ. 0olf11UIJC'I'IOJII. L .t4J--. (1) Modi1ler ; u{ The man. ~. stllrted to Th11 au.u ~149, we ~t.an.o.d. lea.-. (2) Predicate adjective. a. l:lubjectiTe ; aa, We stood VICilr.hing th" eloada. l. ObJecttve; aa, He had hia wa.tcb ._,lUG. & Ueed abstract11 atter lnfinlte ferb; u, To keep WflptaSMII-1/ 1a U.UWiae. I. N0t1~a. .(1) NomlDattTe. .. Subj-ect of dntte nr'b; u, Picking cotton 1.1 hard work. a. Precllcate of finite Tet'b; aa, Btealinc 1.1 faklt~l wit:lwut permission. & ID appositl.oD.; aa, Her taak., _,n~ the floor, waa unpleaall41t. & ID4ependent. () BlmplJ independent; aa, C~ntfi.Wi~ hiaadT&JLtagee, he deserTes much credit .(t) With a participle; as, Talldn1 "anne been forbidden, the children remained alent. :(o) By pleonum; aa, Raf.Mng cotton, wlll ~ PUT (41) B7 exclamation; as, Killing his brother! What a crime he has committed! (e) In apposition; as, DeliKhdul task. llcMng the :ronnel II) Objeetln. ., Object of Terb; as, She commenced tcrUinf a letter. t. Objeot of preposition; aa, We learn to do 1t7 tlolng. & Subject of Infinitive; as, I want :your reiJII'~ aloud to be continued. f. Predicate of tnJl.nlrtin; aa, He thought dla- gra.mmdng sentences to be tM.Ifm, tl~ & J'actttln object; as, Some on 11M calW lli*lt nadine get""* Uloup.t. 75 f, In appolfttoa; [ coulder thfa e:~:erelae, .,.,.. ing composition., to be nry profitable. I Adverbial objective (without governing word); aa, The 1leld ia not worth plowing. The participle, u Ita name indicate., always parCicipaltl the nature of two parts of apeech. While It retaina all the goT- I I erning power of a verb, it differe from the tlnite nrb in 'II lacking power to alBert. In addition to ita Terb nature. the P..t..&TICIPU ..t.LWA vs bas the use of an adjective or a noun. The dop, bar.ttng loudiJ, kept me a.w&te. Be 1upported his mother bJ idl(ng p&JM!rl 011 the ltreeL In the first eentence, barking ahowa ita nrb nature (1) by assuming action, (2) by taking the adverb modUlar loudlv. U ahowa Its adjective uae by modifying dogl. In the 18C0nd sentence, telling eho11n ita nrb nature, (1) by assuming action, (2) uy taking the direct object papera, (3) in being mod1fied by the adverb phrl48e Oil tM ltreet. [t ahows ita noun 111e, (1) by naming the action, (2) in being governed by the preposition Z~r When a participle losel itA verb nature, it ceGaU ,. be 11 par- ticiple, and becomea a participial noun or adjective or adverb or prepoHition. ln the eentence The water ia boiling hot, boiling is a participial adverb. The tentence Regarding hia conduc~ we have the same opinion, contaiua a participial preposition. A, an aid in distinguishing participles from wortla that are participial in form, the following suggeetiona are given:- A P..t..aTICIPLa WITH TBI Uu OJ' .... ADI&eTna- L ABSumea act1on or belns ot the word modUI.ed. I. Ia complemen.ted ln same manner u ftnite nrb. I. Ma:y be modl11.ed b:y a.n adverb, adverb phrase, or adverb clau~. Uaually follow. the word modUI.ed. &. Ia aet oft b:y t"he comma un.l88a reatrictin. A PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVal. Denot.ee a quaJlty or the won! modlfted. l . Haa loet tta verb nature Alllld eanoot be comple- mented. 1. CUI be modUied b:r Ul a.dnrb onlr. '- UnleR ueed aa pr,edlca~ adjeetln, alw~ P~tl'rl o till. W'OMS modl11.ed. IJ. Jf ., ..,., Mt 1117 Ul ......, 70 .i PAJI'I'HliPLW wrn' TRW Uaw op NotTW- L Not onlJ namea, but auumea &Ctton 0!' betnc. J. Ia oomplement.ed 1n the ~ manner u llnttt verb. J. Jri&J be modified bJ adjective, poM888lve, adverb , adverb phraae, or adverb elauae . 4. Ie not preceded by article or tollowed bJ prepoai- tion. .A pABTIC'IPIA.L NOlTW- 1. Simply ll&IDe&. without UIIUmlng action or b@lnr;. 2. Dot'4 not admit a verb-complement' of any kind. I. Ia modified only by adjective or adjt'Ctlve phrase. 4. .M.aJ be preceded by article &nd tollowed by prepo attlOD. We, lllarltng early. arrived In time lpa.rtl~lple uMd u adjectlel Jhin.Wag ful 11 tlreoome lP rtlcpl~ u-ed ... o.. un) Our cradl~ Ia tb" ~arlclplal noun) THE INFINITIVE PHRASlll. I. DKFtNtTION .-A n infinitive pt.raflf' is onP that consiat. of an 1nflnitlve preceded by the prepo&itlon eo. II. Cl.Auu. L Pruenl. (1) Active { CProomgm....o~Anivf"orfmor;m u . ,a~(.t o(ltoV)IM~U.wl'itif19. (2) Puaive; a.a, (to) be written. J. Per/eel. . {Common form; u. (to) h.a"' _.;tun. (1) ActJVfl ProJCrt'FIIIiVP form . RR . Ito h""' bun Vl!'thf\0 (2) Passdve; u, (to) lww but~ ""'"""' m. 1. Noun. Ueu. { 2. S. AnjPctive. Adverb. An Infinitive pbr...., Ia commonly called om tntlnltlve.-loriL of ayneo docbe to Wblcb a pari I ulleO'It. ane uselen. g. Objective predicate of tnAn.ltlve; aa He thinks to steal to be lotake without permiBBion. L AdJective. - - - -(1' Mod"1ftert {TItheiar e is a time impOBBible to laugh. for me lo go. t Thl conl!truotlon 111 well&l the precedlnlt one, 11 rarely Notlt'P c&refullv the UIM! of tbf' lnllnltlve pbrue1 ln thf'l!e Dtwieod.. entenee~. f'o latl{lh lor I ugb In!{) Is and mooHflea ti-. To II a. an lnjlnUive preposition, phrallt It II n.,.d ao obowlnlt tbe relation &bnet&wtelejencltwln, &nd lat.~{~h. l.atl{lh 11 an lnflnit!vt. Io 11 uaed ""a noun, objP()t or Co. In the eeoond oe tenoe, to Ia a mere prepoaltlonal tign : It d0<11 not denote relation ; ln fact, It 11 not a notlon&l word. Tbe lnll.nlt!Te fO II D.Md &d,leettnlly to modUy ttl &IIUmed 1nbjec\-. J11 Co,. Ia equtnlut - ,...., (toor fOMII). 78 (I) Predicate adJectiTe. .. 8nbjeetive j u, TheM qrpl'ew 111"1'1 eo ~ .. ObJective; u , He mad~> me (to) ttay. e. U~ed abetraetly after the infinite verb. (a) With participle; u, His seeming lo lN bl- \ nocent waa of no avail. (> With infinitive; u, To appear lo boet il nc.t aufficient. .. .Atlwr6. (1) Modifying verb; lUI, Strive lo e:rcel. (%) ModUying adjective; u, Applea are ~ to .C. (I) Modifying adverb; u, He ill old enough 10 .oil. GENERAL SUGGESTIONS. ., .... a. ....mar lbOukl not be m>dled .antll tba mlnda of pnplla are nlllc!euUy ..wnd. lleldom ~uldlt be ltndlec1 bf puplla llDder thaneen yean 1. De Dot attempt t.e t.eech crammar \laroucll a ~udy at 4aiD1tloDI; t.elcll tetlnuto tllrourll a 1\Uographical . Reader. Leach, Shewell A Sanborn, N. Y. (U) Jobonnot'a Gf!OII'apbieal lteader. .A.mertcu Book 0.. (11) .Uoa.'e Joumey AloaJlcl the WorbL GlaD A 0.. Here ta 1 miilblftr.eit! iorltina library ta Geoaraffht. l oamP them aa the very choicest bookl in my own <:ieogtapb ical library. They can be had frt..m any reneral boclk dt&l in the larier citiea. a.-QUIZ REVIEW. 1. What t. Geo~rraphy? .Heanin~r of the word? lD Heography what ought we to be atudytqf 1. What does the euhjet iuclu.te? How are surface forma to be ftrat atudied T What is a map T What i.e nec.,l!8ary to the reading of a map T What i1 meant by m~rgoln"' and (3) the rehttione of Geographical Form~ and Al!enll! to Plant and Animal Life. (8) It ia teachin~t, also, geographical language for the lmowlo edge gained. {4) ThWI, it rueana, al10, bnt much more than, mappinr the tchoolroom, the echool grounds, and 10 on, and tearbing map locations and directions. (I) It ia Nl\ture-study from a gE>ograpbical standpoint-not a book-study at first. It is meant to be a preparation for the geography-book, and a constant accompani ment of book-study throughout the course. t.-THE METHODS. (1) A teft mlnute quls each day upon an orderly Ht of topiCI i the vnrpoee being (1) to have the Children "-&lly tD- the geographical fa<.tl in their o.-n little world, and (I) Ce l.b.1nil &Ad (3) talk aboo& W &a., d.Uicov~JJ. 87 (t) Page would call these "wa1dn~t--np '1 litudtea. Tht method beat sUited for the work ia completely exhib ited in his chapter upon " Waking Up Mind" (Page' Theory and Practice of Teaching). Study that chap ter thoroughly, and then, in a similar way, give any of the following lessons. (I) The teacher cannot do much field-wort in geography with the children. What he can teach them about geography In the schoolroom is of amall value com pared with what he can stimulate them to dilcover for themselves outdoors. 8.-HO'\IE-STUDY LESSONS IN GEOGRAPHY. (See Frye's Child and Nature, and Frye' Brook1 and Brook Baains.] (1) Ox GBoGRAPHro..u. FoBKI ol' L.llm 411 W.Au.. (1) Slopu. (1) Develop idea of 1lope. (2) Then ehal lenge the cliU!I to tl.nd some land that doe not lope. (S) Have children deacribe their lopes, getting auch terms, meantime, u ~ntle, abrupt, lon!, abort, amooth, rough, bare, rocky, grassy, woody, barren, fertile, blutr, precipice. (4) Thought question: What are the uses of alope1? (I) Hilla and Ridgu. (1) Develop the idea of a pair of slopes meet ing at the top. (2) Ha't'e these located outdoors. (8) Call for the term " hill." Give the idea and term" ridae." (4) Have 1ome ridges located and described. (5) Develop the idP.a of "water-parting.'' (6) Have hills and ridges modeled in a.and (outdoora in the school yard at play time). Expand the ideu of hill and ridae into mountain and raniJ:e. Show pictures abundantly here. lD similar way, introduce the ideas of plateaUI, peaka, Yolcanoea, de1ertl. Thought queltioa 1 1Wha' are the uea ol hilll uul Ada ! ll) ~allet~ (1) llPveloj> the t<"lea of elopee Wt>etlnK Rt tht- botto'Il. (2) G..t or ~iVt! tb.. tt!ru "Wiiter mt'..tinl!'' for tht! lint' of ntert~t~Ction. (4) Havt' ~nell slop..e located in the n"i!'hhorboo pr ferably). Htudy marMhee, meRduwH, swamps. Tlwu)(ht question: How lire tht'llt' formed 1 Study plaint~. prairies, llanos, pliru p118, ~r)(el!, caftun>~, showing pi<-tur..e libll odantly, and challen~ing fre.- qut't!ttont~ from th.. children. Uet~ picture!' freely. Thoullht qUt!t!tlun: What are th .. 118f!M of valleye? (4) Shor,., (coa.IU, bllnA:,). Study the brook or branch in the hrook haRin. Bring out the idea of blink or ehor e. flood, plaine, cape, promontory, bluff, pt>ninsula, isthmus, island, and have these identified and named uutdoore. Have these forma and terma firmly aseoctated. ThP land modeling will help, but it ou~eht always to follow a etudy of the real forme, if p011sible. Treat the idea of llf!acoast, beach, coa..tal plains, marshes, &c., with abunrlant pictnr~>a and atoriea The order al waya is obaervation followed by imagination and thinking. 1 (hY11: S BROOKe Aim BROOJ:: BA.IIINI.) ~) Brook Lu.am. Bring out the Idea of banke, bed, ebaunel, eource, mouth, tributary, pool, pond, lake, waterfall, atrait, bay. Have tbeae found in the neigbborinJl stream, and described. Expand theee ldeaa into river eyetems, st>u, oceana, harbora, using picturea and stories abundantly. Though\ queationa: Where 89 doew the water m broob ud rfnrt come from T What are the uses pf broob T Of lakes T Of waterfalls T Of harbora T Of aeu and oceana T The teacher's O'WD knowledge ought to be rich-richer by far than the children can rive or get for m&aJ yean yet. (2) 0. m Goatu.Parc.u FoBca AND A.GNTI. (1) Water. (Frye'a Child and Nature, Ohap. VL) (1) How water gets into the air. (2) Forma of water in the air (fogs, clouda, inviaible npor). (S) How water gets out of the air. (Condensation lessons.) (4) Forma of water ~tting out of the air (dew, frost, rain, anow lessons). Story of the water drop in f the air. Thought questions : What are the uses of clouds? Of dew T Of frost T rain T What becomes of all the rain T WhJ does water run down hill? (2) &tl Making. (Ga. Experiment Station Bulle& No. 11.) What soil lis. Lesson on a piece of ~tr~nite or gueisa. Story of the grain of aand. StoJ7 of the pebble. Earthworms, ant., and beetles as soil-makers. Frost u a aoil maker. How soil i.e distributed. Story of the muddy streamlet. What are fertilizers. Thought questione: How did the pebble ret rounded? What i.e the moat fertile pana of alopee T Why are pond bottoma rich t Lesso111 in Erosion, Transportation, DeP* itation. ' (8) Drainage. Overland drainage. Underground drainap. Springs and wells. Later, hot aprinp ud ceysera with picturea and deacriptlou. Thoucht qneetio111: What kinda of alopee wuh Ndl7 T Wh7 T WW helpl ..... 90 rronnd drainage ? Why do fannel'l terraee their farms 1 What good does water do un derground? Story of the drop of water UD der~o:round? (4} Heat and Light Lu!om. Why the blacksmith heats the tire befou putting it on the wheel-frame 1 Why epac is between the raile on the railroad? Effect of heat on water? Why the woorlpile amokes some mornings in winter? Where the water-dust in the air comea from 1 Have the pupils observe the water-pan on the etove anrl a saucer of water set out in the sun. Effect of beat on air? Havl" pu pils observe the draft around a stove or fire place. What i1 wind ? What aete air in motion 1 F.ff,..ct oi heat on the baby seeds T When do seeds sprout? Why? Story of the Baby Heeds' Royal Visitors (Light, Heat.and Moistnre). Have children observe aeed germination. Usee of clothing. bark, hair, fur and feathers? How is the earth heated ? The hotteet 1eaeon ? Tbe cold11et 1 The hottest part of the day? The coole1t T Have children obaerve the noonday 1hadow regularly . Quill upon it and mark it every fortnight on the floor with the date. Day and night-how caused? Usee of? Lonr eet day? Shortest? The four seasonsthese to be studied u tbey come on, and comparisons t>licited. (Changes in plant and animal life, appt>arance and disappearance of the birds and insecta, fr()Jla and enakes, and eo on.) DI.ZCTIONI AND MAPS. Teach and drill upon the horizon diredlone (N., E., 8., W., N. E., 8. E., 8. W., N. W.) Dirf'ctione of the Jiaoma from tbe IChoolhouae; of objl'ctl In the .ahool a..._ froa IOQle eeotral objiOt. Map &he ~aboolo- 91 lJOnlle TPach and rlrill upon map dirertione. Map of lht< town nr county . Ordl~ upot ruap dirt>ctlone. lntrt>dun tb ... ~~:l .. be aJ.:&in Tea<"b . be C'ontinents and ot'"'"'a "~tori s of the ~"<..v.,n Little Hi~ters" and "Ea<"b 1111<1 All." Ch Tal'tt'n~tlc alllmale of each contlnt'D ' lUI lull owe. N. Awertca, btson, wolf, bear; B. A.rut'nca, ruonkE>y, boa-co,Hnctor, ant-eater; Europe, wtld boar, rt"todeer; A.sia, tiger, camel, elephant; Afriea, lion, ~eorilla, ostnch ; Australia, kanJ.:aroo, paradiae bids; Sea life, the whale, the coral animal, tht' 11tar dsh. (Sea Life in Stories Mother Nature Told.-A.ndr, ws.) Brio~ out the ideas 01 r;onea and locate on the ~~:loba. ::ltories of A.rctic and Tropical Life. (A.~oonaek. the E"quimau Maiden, and Manenk:o, in "8even L1ttle !:listers.") Why it is so cold around the Poles and so hot around the Equator. Fix the attention of the children upon the continents (on the globe) as these descrtptious of animals and stori811 of child hfe are progressing. PLANT LIFE. (1) How plants ~rrow. (2) What plants eat. (3) What. plants are good for. (4) Lessons on food plants,. medicinal plants, clothing plants, building and! furniture woods. (5) Compare plants with our bodies-identifying their mouths, nosee, feet, bodies, arms, fin)!ers, akin, blood, &c. (6) Plant ing seasons. Harvest seasons. (7) The appearance of the planta during the different seasone. (8) How plants help underground drainage, and prevent washing. (9) Children, study Nature' Treasure boxes (seed pods), collecting and mounting these on boards. (10) How eeeds are dilltributed. (11) Plant enemiee. (12) What planta have to do with occupations. (13) Crope in the county; (14) in the State. Make a product map of the State. Wonderful plants: The Big Tree of California, the mosses of arctic North America; the India-rubber tree of South America; the viAe 92 yards of Europe; the date palm of Africa ; the te. planta of Asia; the peculiaritiea of tree life in Australia. Food lessons on mace, cloves, cinnamon, nut mega, pepper, mustard, olives, currants, orangea, lemona, bananas, coffee, tea, sugar. butternuts (nigger toea), almonds, English walnuts, datea, flga. Where do they come from ? Interesting things about them? The idea ia to invest the continents and countries with interest to the children before they come to study the leas engaging details and features of the countries of the earth. Gray' "How Plante Grow.'' and "Aunt Mal' tha'e Comer Cupboard" will aid the teach~!( lfe&tly. 6. Anr.u. Lrn. (1) .Animall ueful to men: Food animals, clothin' animals, draught animals, scavenger animals. Han these liated and talked about-some one or two in each list studied in detail. Have the chil dren contraat the cow and the horse; other animals also. Have the children to list the grass eaters, the grain-eaters, the flesh-eaters, the treelivers, the ground-livers. Study bow each kind of animal il fitted for the life it leads. The birds: the scratchers, the perchers, the climbers, the awimmere. Compare the feet of these ki~ds of birda. Hibernation : What becomes of the froga, the snakes, the spider111 the flies, the bears, the cray fish, the birds in winter? Useful animals in the different countries. Have pictures and etoriea for these. Have each located on the globe. I. Bvxu LJ:n. Ohild Life in the different zones and countries as already indicated. Frye'e "Primary Geography,'' "Child Life In the Different Countries" (Kt-~ll ugg and Co., N. Y.), and The World by the Fireside (Thos. Nelson Sons, IT. Y.), will flll'nilh mate,.;..U.abunda.!ltly. "Ten Little 93 Bo11," by Jane Andre1r1 Ia tndllpenable tn rfTinta historical view at Geo,raphy for children. Locate! Lotate I I everything. Study, with abundant Pictures. New York, Chicago, Ban Francisco, New Orleans, Atlanta, Sltlta, New .Mexico, Rio Janf'iro, London, Berlin, Parla, Conatan tlnople, St. Peterdburg, Cairo, J ohanneaburK, Calcutta, Damucua, Hong Kong, Peking, Tokio, MelbournetheM twenty-one cities especially; chief induatriM, routee of trade, and why; relieion, mannera and cuetoma. Excite the children to uk question about the picturea. Don't lecture-or no more than ia abaolutely neceasary. By thi1 time, aay in the latter part of the Third Reader year, the children can take a 1;0od Primary GeoKraphy book. REVIEW QUIZ ON CHAPTER ll. 1. What Ia meant by Home Geography? It Ia a aimple atudy of what three thinl(P? Wh&t is meant by GaogrHphical langu >~ gA? Why must thia aleo be raught? What il Hom.. Geography not? What relation haa Home Geolr" raphy to boolt tieogaphy? 2. How ie worlt on Howe Geography to be done? Wbal three purposes are to be lr.apt 1n mind? Dtl&Cribe Pa~~:e'a "Walr.in11 up mind" method? Apply it to aome Geographical topic. Why cannot the teacher do much tleld work with hie clue in Geography? What il more im portant T S. Write out the aix beadings for the main aubjecta in home atudy leseon in Geography, and list the eub-topica. (1) What are the four tbinjZII to be taUJCht about elope a? What i~ thf' main que~tion? Write out ten uaea of the elop... (2) What ie 11 bill or rid!a of con tinenta, oceans, and zones 1 Why so 1 4. State 10me kinds of leesona on plants proper to Geography. Com pare a plant with your own body. Mention five ways in which seeds are distributed. Mention ten plant enemies. What are the chief crops of your county? Ita chief occupations? Chief crop1 in the State 7 Its chief occupations 1 Make a product map of Georgia. How in crease the child's interest in the countries of the globe 1 Mention some wonderful pointa of each continent. Men tion eome interesting iessons on table foods. Tell where the following fooda come from: Mace, cloves, cinna mon, nutmegs, butternuts, almonds, datee, figs 1 6. Mention some lesson ahowin&' the uaefules of annlmal life to man. How give these lessons 1 How develop the child's faculty of comparison? Why? Bow teach the adaptation of animals to the life they lead? State aomele110ns in this 1ubject. Study and draw the foot of a ben, a pigeon, a woodpecker, a duck. How is each foot adapted to the life of the bird? State some inter- eating facta about hibernation. Mention some animals specially serviceable to man in the different countriee. e. Why preeent to children child-life in the different sonea and countriea1 Why locate everything in these elementary Geography lessons 1 Why teach a few great cities fully instead of thousands II! we used to do 1 How teach these citie1 to children? What are some main queations to have in mind in teaching these citie11 Why not lecture on these cities to children ? What ia better? When can children be&'in to ~"d7 a Geo&'faphical ~t prodtablT 1 - 96 CHAPTER m BOW TO TEACH THE GEOGBUBT BOOK. 1-PB.IJ'.A.TOBT, The r.hance1 are that yon are goinr to have to ue an oldtime, irrational Geography book for many yean yet. The 1 only thing to do il to do the best thing possible with it u 1 chance otfera in the Bituation in which you 1lnd your1elf. U will be necessary therefore :- 1. To be a scholar in Geo~aphy m'jlch beyond the book you teach. 2. To know mote about the daily lessons with your book shut than the cll111 does with its book shut. 8. To omit the dead, meanlngleBS, and useless details of the book whenever necesea~;,y; and to do eo wisely. 4. To enlarge, independently, the meager chapten of the book,-111 thoe on relief, reographical forcu and agents, climate, plant life, commerce and trade routes, for instance. 6. To have a familiar acquaintance with 1tandard professional texts in the subject. (See chapter I.) Chapter Ill., Part ill. of Swett's "Method of Teach:olng" i.l especially suggestive to the Common Schoo]! teacher. I. To know that a lesson may be interesting without being educative; but that it cannot be educatin without being intere~~ting. n.-HINTI .ABOUT Mlmlolll. 1. Boo1: muat nol be too hard. Be eure that the geography book is not too dUBeult for the ci&IS to read. The simplest good geography I know il about u ditllcult as the ordinary J'ourtlt Reader. t. The language of lhe book muae be maatn-ed. The geography book ia first of all a reading book to be read by the child Intelligently. Therefoe sec to it ~PI JHm~ (1) the forma CIPlliAI ad.tmllD 97 alattona), (!) the meanin~C~~ and (Sl the oeea o1 the Tocabulary of the book, le1!8on by le><110n ; also (4) bt> mnllt be taught to look at a map and to form from It a good mental picture of the ography book, call up hia outdoor experiences, for illuPtration and explanation. Relate what he already knows to what he reada about. ~ill lD doin~r thia evidencee the true teacher. Read Page' Theory and Practice, p. 296-8 (Phelps'e Ed.). 16. 'fJMlop Imaginaliora.. in order to cultivate the pupil's imagination, and mab liTing knowledge out of dead information. (1) After finishing the etudy of a country or city have the pupil placehimeelf, in fancy, in a particular place, and tell what be sees. Thus, after finishing Ellypt., .l&y, "Yo!l may stand on top of the pyramid of Gizeb 1 .-nd tell me what you see." It ilalwaya an effective end intereatine review. (2) Or have them write up imalrlnary jourue;ya through a eountry that baa been studied. I. l!lt!Mol CaOintU. Have the children to All a cabinet or museum with aU aorta of eeographical objeets,-treasures from nature' lltorehouse, leaTea pressed, mounted and labeled, minerals and rocks, aeed pods, grall88s, bird nests, and 10 on endleesly; articles from the different countrie1 .of the earth,-India-rubber and coffee from Brazil, quinine from Peru, fl.recrackera and tea from China, bory from Africa, ftgs from Asia Minor, lemon from Sicily, and 10 on. Label each article, lhowinr the eountry it ia from. a. Team 1M Pidurea in 1M Bool. Pay 1pecial attention to the picture~ ill the pography hot. Qu1s 11pon them le110n by ltliiiiOJl, till they 98 hne told their full tory. 8uch quizzing pays. OhU dren uuallylook at theM picture without seeing all they have to tell. '1. P~ure &rap-Boob. Engall'e the children Ia ftllinr a Geographical Picture scrap-book. A bu1ine11 man's Pocket Letter File will hold a bushel of acraps. Each pocket can be labeled and devoted to the pictures of eome one or two coun tries. Afterwards, the picture can be winnowed, and the best eelected and posted into a ecrap book. Adnrt!sing cards-especially the Arbuckle coffee card11-the monthly maaazinea, the railway tourists' bookl, book catalogue, etc., furniah picturtlll abun dantly. 8. Orayon &lief Mt~pl. Map and illustrations In crayon relief are euily drawn after a little practice. Augsburg'a " Easy Thinp to Draw in Geography" will help the teacher. The drawing of relief maps il much more important than that of outline mapa. e. Outlim Map Drawing. Outline map drawing ought to accompany Geographical work throughout. A1hmore' notion and instructions about thia are the very beet. See Georgia Outlinea of Methode, 1896, pp. 67, 72. Have the bed work displayed on the walla. 10. Progrt~~itJe Outlint Mapa. Learn the nee of progressive outline map1. You can buy these, or make them yourself eaeily. Draw the country on atiff pasteboard, cut it out along the outline, and then the pupils use it for quickly drawing their own outlinee on sheets of paper. The idea then il to put into the map the geographical features u thee are 1tudied day by day. Preaern aud dilplay the beat of these on the walla- 11. Ban4-Gnd- Mucilage Mu.p~. The e&~~ieat of all relief mapa to mab an the und-aadmacila~re map1. Draw the otlba ell a lace boaN 99 (from the dry-goods atoretJ). Mucilage the eurfact inside the outline. Sprinkle jim eand on it, and leave it to dry. Shake off the loose eand, and put more mucilsee where the highlands are, and again pour on the eand. When it is dry, build up your plateaus, then your mountain ranges, then your peak&. Mean tJme, with your fin2er, you easily correct any milltakes and shape up the forms before they are com pletely dried. It will take the best macilage. Buy your gum-arabic, and mix youreelL {I got this-idea from Supt. Noble, Wilmington, N. 0.) 12. Production Map1. Taking the outline mapa, made 1UJ indicated, ehade in the agricultural crops and mineral productions as these aubjects are being located in course of the lessons. The production maps in Redway' Elementary Gt>ography are good. The children easily and quiekly do this work. Preserve and display on the walls the betJt work 18. Diaect< Mapt. Dillllected maps are easily made-of the U. B., say. Trace upon good pasteboard the.- large U. 8. map in the Geography. Then with a cobbler' knife cut out all the St.atee carefully . The amaller children find aood occupation in putting the pieces together to form the.whole map. 1'- Production Map qf Georgia.. An intereetine production map of Georgia iaeasily made upon a large sheet of drauyhtman's paper. Trace it from a medium size wall map. Mount It &Jtainst a smooth surface. Put in the rivers, mountains, rail roads and cities. Then, with mucila2e, stick on rice, corn, sugar-cane seed, cotton, coal, marble, &c., where these productions are found. In all of theee forme of occupation the teacher will do aa little u pouible himself and arou.. and d.ilwo<;t the ehildren'l eneJ'iiea inltead. 100 1& .An tJuM.oo,. &lief Map ! Gwrgta, In a 'protected place on the school grounds a la~tl f'l!lfef map of the State can be made by the children Rt their play times. The teacher outlines the Htate, directs in building up the slopes, highlands, ridgee and mountains. Then he can safely leave the children to put in the rivers, railroads, citie11 and productions by themst-lve<~, the teaeher merely overlooking and cor retmg errors. N. E. Ware's children did thia at. Hawk.insville interestedly and prufitauly. 16. Weather Ob.,ervativm. Th, se ought to be recordl:'d on the blarkbna.rd re~nlarly twice a day at st..ted tlme:~s. The idea i.e, mind you, to lead the children into noting coiuddencs and causes. At the start the ihe:~rmompter, the direction of the wind and the aBIJecte of the:~ sky (clear, cloudy, foggy, rain, hail, snow) nePd to bl:' recorded, along with dew or frost, or their abftt>nce, Ill' noted 61U'Iier. Th..se records can get to be more 11laburate later. 17. 8r/wol I 'orreJpondencu. The lt>a<'ht>r can, by letter with aome other tesrher in the North, or We:~~t. or Snntb lllet!t1 start up class corrE>spondtlnCt>8 betw.....n their pupi111 upon tht> geographical surroundinlll! of the two clas~ than you ean J.IOBsibly do now. 19 .Attend to ( 'urrmt Geoyraphtcal Newa. For instance, poe' on lhe bulletin-hoard of the echool a nt>w~papPr map of the E.londik.e rejlinne, with brief interestin~~: infnrmanon about the country; or of Cuba. ?X). Deal Sparin.qly tvith Statuttca. Meas, popul11.ttons, hl:'ightl!, latitudAI, lonllitudea, and the like. .A.ccW!tom pupila to tumin1 ~uch detaill . .;..t.-u~~~.~ .-n~ -\, Of)' 101 1 18RAR; bato real knowledge by compariso 'J&,!l11'11"1tDly a little problem in arithmetic to lea ~~&~==~~~ that India iB about as large as the Unite st of the Misai18ippi river, that France is about sa larg~ aa South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama and Missiasippi; that all the people in Georgia would make a city one- third aa large as London. It is only by compariaoa that any kmd of information become definite. 21. Compare I Compare II .AU the time Ill Enry new subject should be studied by itself and then in comparison with what is already known. When the children come to study South America, haTe them compare it with North America; the Nile with the Amazon;\he Japa.ne~e Islands with the British Isles; dry climate countrie1 with moist climate countriel; tropical life with arctic life, and 110 on endlessly. If your pupils are not comparing, you are not teaching. Remember that. See the comparison& in Chapter Ill.. Part ill., of Sweti. 22. Map Quutionl. Usually there are entirely too many map questiona. In a geography book at my ri~~;ht baud there are nearly 6,000 of them; most of them too, entirely des- titute of significant or interesting information for the child. He does not remember all these; be oughl not to do it, if he could. The detaile in geography you have yourself forgotten ought to be a hint that the children will aieo forget them. Why waste time upon matter1 that neither enrich nor discipline the mind profitably T As a rule, it is best to have the map studies directly in connection with the dt-scrip- tive matter, and following it aa a special review. ~~ Topical Study. AI 1100n u possible, the class ahould settle do~ regularly into topical study and recitation upon geo- gt'llphical 11ubjecta; because (1) it throws their knowl edge into orderly systematic form, (2) provokes inde- pendent investigation, (S) brings all the old geogra. phy books about the home into eemce and (4) dev~ If' ~ ~' t:bUd '-' ~llP;' ot ~mfl~~~ 102 h. Bupplmlentary Reading Boou in Gwgra.phy. Hanaae in eome way to have just a few of thePe on your deek for tbe fret- use of your pupils. Any of the book! of Jane Andrews orJohonnot (Ret> Chapter 1. wUI enrich and arousP thf' minds of your class. 16. Quis: Don't ucture too Much, Remember that your class is much mort> intl>re~t.Pd in the knowledge they hav~> ~ained than in tb.. info rna tion you have to give them ; more in their o'il'n reci tation than in yours. Suppression on your part; ex pression on their part; or depression on every body'a part. ill.-DoNT18. 1. Don't forget that the geo~raphy book la usually beyond the maturity of the child. 2. Don't make the lessons too long. Attraction ia better than propulsion-leading tban driving. 8. Don't fail to draw on th11 child's own experiences for illus tration and explanation of the book lessons. 4. Don't overload the child's memory with useless details It doesn't matter much if he doesn't know where Arch angel is, or the'Chuput river. 5. Don't forget to appeal to observation, imagination and thinkii::ti as well as to verbal memory in geography teaching. 6. Don't fail to exhaust the information of your class before you begin to lecture. '1. Don't neglect local and current geography. 8. Don't expect the child to remember what you have for gotten in GeoJtraphy. 9. Don't expect the child to know more about the subjec~ with his book shut than you do with yours shut. 10. Don't forget that you are not teaching at all unleSB you~ pupils are forming the habit of comparison. 11. Don't neglect reviews. Young teachers usually fail jqe~ here. 12. Don't fail to have plenty of map-drawing. ~8. Don't forget that relief map-drawing ill QlOrt hnportg* t4ft oQtlW,' ~p-<4-awinf 103 1-'. Don't fail to han your clau draw a map of the State onoe a year at least. 15. Don't make a bobby of map-drawina, and wute ~im fooli~hly. t6. Don't fail to save all the Geography picturee that fall into your hands. 17. Don't fail to learn bow to teach Geography from picturee. 18. Don't hesitate to buy a good professional book on the aub ject oc:caeioually. 19. Don't forget that when you lrnow tbo much about Geogrc phy for a small place, you'll know just about enough for a bigger place elsewhere. 20. Don't fail to visit the old book store11 in the cities. I bought two good books for my Geography library in them the other day : Captain Cook'11 VoyJ1ie, 5c, and Davia's Two Yeartl before the Mast, JOe. 21. Don't put off private study in physical aciences u an aid to Geography teaching (and to en.arged scholarship u well). 22. Don't forget that when you have come to be a really com petent t1>ach er of Geography, that you have acquired a pretty liberal education. 23. Don't forget that Geography books and Geography teach ing are undergoing the most radical changes. 24. Don't forget that you'll be stranded high and dry on ~ha suhject if you don't wake up. 25. Don't forget that there ia alwaye room at the top in any department of teaching. 26. Don't fail to read the Report of the Committee of Fifteen on Geography-Teaching. Write the United Statee Com missioner of Education, Washington, D. C. Two thin~ in conclusion: 1. My aim bu been to t!Upple- ment and not to supplant Ashmore's notes on Geography teaching In the Georgia Teschere' Outlines for 1897. That ia wholly arlmirable. I would not change a syllable of it. 2. My own notel! have been made up under great hardehips-for love, and not for pay, and I therefore crave, even if I do not cl., !rve, the kindly criticia~ of m'! f~llo"!~h~ ' 104 IV.-QuiZ Rxvnnr, I. What are the faults of the old-time Geography-book? What is necessary in order to use a poor Geography book wisely 1 Instance some of the useless details of a poor Geography-book. What is to be done with them? What are some of the subjects that are usually treated meagerly in ordinary Geography-books T What must the teacher be able to do 1 How is the teacher to get a familiar acquaintance with the best methods in Geog- raphy-teaching? Is an educative exercise necessarily intPresting? Why soT ll. 1. Why must not the Geography-book be too difficult? .Are they usually too difficult for Geography classes 1 Primary Geographies are about as diffi. cult as what No. of Reader? 2. What four things are necessary to understanding the language of the book 1 Which is most difficult? Why? 8. How is the pupil to get firm hold of the meaning of the book 1 State the illustration in Page. 4. State two ways of developing the imagination in Geography-teaching. Why appeal to the imagina- tion? 6. How can school cabinets be filled T Suggest proper objects for a Geographical cabinet. The uses of such a cabinet ? 6. Why set the class to studying closely the pictures in the GeograpHy-books 7 Select a picture and give an exercise upon it. 7. What are the uses of a scrap-book of Geography-pic- tures? How 1ill such a scrap-book 1 Sources of pictures? 8. Why are crayon relief maps more important than outline maps T Draw a relief map of Georgia. ~. How can children come to understand what a map means? (p. 67, Syllabus '97.) The real object of map-drawing T The aim at first? S~te how a claM is to ba drilled in mapdrawing. (p. 73,1S1,l ~bJ11 o1 'J.; 10~ 16. State how a ~&ndand-mucllage mal 11 made T !taU three advantages this form of relief map hae. 11. What i1!J a progressive outline map T How ued f How ~;Dade, easily and abundantlyT 12. What are production mapa T How madeT Why preserve and display the beat ma~ of the claae T Their special value T 18. How make a dissected map of the United StatU f Its uses? 14. How make a production map of Georgia T Why ~ sort to such a device 't 15. How make an outdoor relief map of Georgia T Rea- eon for having the children mainly do the work T 16. How record weather observations 1 WhyT What records might be made? 17. What is meant by school correapondencee? How start them up? 18. How take note of current Geographical news T Men. tion some important Geographical news recently. 19. How teach statistics? Why ? Size of India? France T How ascertained ? 20. How should any subject be studied T Reason for each step? Illustrate. Contrast N. America with 8. America. The Nile and the Amazon, The British and the Japan Isles. 21. What is true of the map questions in most Geography books? What hint does the teacher have? The best way of teaching map questions? 22. When should pupils begin to study topically? The usee of topical study 1 Make out a set of topics for Georgia. 28. The specia:J use of supplementary reading boob in Geography teaching? How use them? 24. State the reasons for teaching by quest1ona instead of by lectures? m. 1. Is it trm that Geographical boob an naually too dif. 1icult for the child? 2, Reasons for short lessons T a. Why must explanatioJI.I be riven In tei'DUI of tlle child' own experience~ 1 iOo 4. What are the dan~rers of overtaxinr the nrbal mem ory ln Geojtl"apby ? 1. Define Observation; Imagination; Thinking. How appeal to each in Geography teaching? 8. When may a teacher properly begin to lecture ? Why'! 7. Reasons for teaching local and current Geography? 8. What may you raasonably expAct the child to forget in Geography? Wtoat conclusion foUows? 9. What rAasonable rlemand may pupils make of the teacher of Ueography ? 10. Wbeo are yon really teaching? When not? 11. Where do young teachere usually fail ? State two qualities of a good revtew in Ueography. 12. Why do teachers omit map-drawing? What do you consider proper woo.ieratlon 10 map-drawing T 18. Justify, If it can btl done, the superior value of relief map-drawing? U. Why have a county and a State map drawn fre quently? How fro::qotently? 16. What indicatee that a teacher ia making a hobby of map-drawing? 16. Tht< use>< of Ueographical picturee ? How nee them 1 17. Select a Geographical !Jicture and ~o:ive an exercise. 18. Why buy a profeSBJOnal book on Geojlraphy teaching? 19. What alvant.tl(e lies in being an expert teacher? 20. Why visit ''Old Book Htores" T 21. How do the physical sciencee help ln modern Geog rapby teaching? How can the teacher be schooled in these? Name thf' physical sciences. 22. What rPward lies in being a competent teacher of Geography 1 Show that this ia so? 23. What r~ dical chan)!'"B are Geographical books undP.r- going? What neglected ~uujecta are being treated more fully? 24. Penalty for neglecting a thorough preparation? 26. Who i~ gPtting poor pay T High pay? 26. What Report is recommended? Where obtained? No'f.-ProfeSBional r,ourses in common school methode (thiJ cour~~e amonr the othera) can be had at the State Normal School. HISTORY. BY J. IIA RRIS CHAPPELL, PRESIDENT GEOBGU NuRMAL AND INDUSTRIAL CoLLEG:s. PREFAOJJ. This article has been prepared by the writer at the reo quest ot Georgia's State School Commissioner, Hon. G. R. Glenn. Its object Is to otrer to the teachers or Georgia some suggestions In regard to teaching United States History. It will be confined strictly to United States History and will not embrace any part ot American History outside ot the United States. History Is one or the most Interesting ot all studies. It Is more Interesting than geography; geography Is a description or the stage on which the drama or human lite Is enacted, but history Is a description or the drama of human Ute Itself. It Is more Interesting than mathematIcs; mathematics appeals to the Intellect only, but hiltory appeals to the whole mind of man. It Is more Inter estlng than psychology; psychology anatomizes and analyzes the human soul and points out Its relation to environment, but history exhibits the human soul as a living creative power In the act ot producing environment. It Ia more Interesting than natural science; natural science deals with physical forces, but history deals with spiritual forces; how the young Napoleon led his army across the Alps Is more Interesting than how glaciers slide down the Alps; how the Puritans established New England Is more Interesting than how corals build Islands In the sea.; how the Boutherne1'11 "wore themselves to a frazzle" ftghtln lor the Loet O&UIIe IJI more tntereat1Dc than how roclul an 101 erumbled to dust by heat and cold, rafn and enow. His tory Is more Interesting than the so-called "nature 1tudles"; the genesis of the American Revolution Is more Interesting than the germination ot a bean stalk; George Washington and Robert E. Lee are more Interesting than bugs and butter1Ues. "The proper study of mankind is man." A number of other studies pursued In our schoola have a greater practical or strictly utilitarian value than history has, and are more important In the narrow sense, but none of them possess so high a culture value. History, properly presented and properly pursued, is perhaps the most liberalizing of all studies. To teach history as It should be taught requires on the part of the teacher a ~eat deal of study, thOUiht. and careful preparation. It is with sincere modesty and without the least dogmatism or cock-sureness that the author otrers to the teachers of Georgia the followlni suggestions: THE TEACHER'S PREPARATION. 1. Master thoroughly the text-book that your class uses. Know the book so well that you will Dftt have to open It in the presence of the class. You require your pupils to recite the lesson with book closed; surely you should be able to hear the lesson with book closed. Know every lesson Ib the book Incomparably better than the best pupil in the class knows lt. 2. In your own study use a number of text-books besides the one that your class uses. Compare their presentation of each subject with Its presentation by your class textbook:- It Is Important that these parallel texts should be the best books obtainable, and some of them should be ot higher grade than your class book. 3. You should know a great deal more about the subject than is contained in any text-book. Text-books on history are necessarily bald and inadequate; especially Ia thl.l 101 the case With UnJted States Histocy, for the extent, iii;. portance and complexity of the subject make it impossible for it to be presented adequately within the limits of a school text-book. The very best text-book needs to be enlarged, enriched and vitalized by the teacher f~om hla fuller, better and more vivid knowledge of the subject. Therefore, parallel with the study of text-books, read on each subject the best masterpieces that you can procure. Don't waste your time, dissipate your powers, and addle your brain by reading Inferior books on United States History. On thiS subject, as on all others, the world in our day Is flooded with inferior works. Beware of them. Concentrate your intellectual energies on a few of the very best obtainable books. Lists of such books will be given further on in this article. THE PUPIL'S PREPARATION. 1. Require your pupils to study thoroughly the lesson in the text-book. You can scarcely be too exacting about this. A foolish notion quite commonly prevails among would-be progressive teachers that pupils must not get the lessons in the book. This iaea has been propa.gwted by certain brilliant pedagogical geniuses who preach the doctrine. that the getting of an education should all be a delightful entertainment, a charming pastime, without labor, without pains, and without the faintest suggestion of drudgery. This is one of the fallacies of the sG-called "new education." Believe not in it. "There is no royal road to learning" is a perennial truth. 2. The text-book Is the- very backbone of the pupll's knowledge-the ridge connecting and holding firm all. that comes to him from other sources. The pupil should be re. required to master the body of facts that It contains so thoroughly that he can stand a rigid examination on them. Be should not be encouraged or even permitted to com mit to memory, as a rule, the exact language of the book, but should be able to give in his own language the subltance or essence of everr p&rail'&Ph in the lesson . . 110 signed. Of course, the paragraphs In the book differ greatly In Importance-some may well be entirely omitted, some lightly passed over, while others must be very thorou~hly studied, and a few perhaps committed to memory verba-tim. These differences ot emphasla should, as far as practicable, be Indicated by the teacher In assigning the lesson. The pupil should be Instructed to examine himself before coming to the recitation by asking himself the questions that In most text-books are put at the end of each lesson or at the bottom of the page. This Is "oldfashioned," but It Is nevertheless right and good. Ot course, the teacher must not use these questions In his examination of the class, but must Invent his own questions; this he can readily and skillfully do It be bas himself thoroughly mastered the lesson. 3. The writer well knows that In giving the above ad- vice In regard to the pupil's use ot the text-book he bas gone directly counter to the doctrine of some s~called "improved methods," but from very cloee and careful personal observation and experience he Is perfectly convinced that the so-called "Improved methods" In this, as In many other matters, are wholly wrong. It the text-book is to be studied at all, It should be thoroughly studied, and not in the loose, sUp-shod, scatter-brained way that some pr~ &Tesslve teachers advise. MEMORIZING. No "Improved method of teaching" can llo away Wfth the necessity of committing to memory certain historical data, such as the names of the presidents In order of succession, with dates of their administration and the political party to which each belonged; the principal wars of the United States, with cause of each concisely expressed, and date; population of the United States at Intervals of about twenty vears, beginning with 1790; the dates of the most Important events In each period, as the founding of the priDclpal one1 of the thirteen colonies, etc., etc. Such data 111 \... ltl the multiplication table of history, so to speak, and, like that, should be at the tongue's end. Some foolish "progressive" teachers oppose even this limited memorizing work In history, just as they oppose committing the multiplication table or the ten commandments to memoryfor no other reason In the world except that It is "oldfashlon.ed." Pay no heed to the voice of these foolish "progressive" teachers! It Is also an excellent practice to require puplls to commit to memory verbatim certain salient passages from state documents and from the utterances of great statesmen and orators on vital issues, such as closing passages of Patrick Henry's Immortal speech; peroration of Webster's great Union oration; opening paragraph of the Declaration of Independence; extracts from the Constitution; the abominable Fifteenth Amendment, etc., etc. THE RECITATION. 1. The recitation Is the teacher's opportunity to enforce, explain, illustrate and amplify the lesson. This he cannot do effectively unless the pupil bas first thoroughly studied the lesson. Therefore, catechise the class closely on the les. son In tbe book, and as this exercise proceeds offer such explanations. Illustrations, corrections and amplifications as in your judgment may best serve to illustrate the lesson, to give it interest and vivacity, and to Impress It upon the minds of your pupils. Be careful, however, not to talk too much. As far as possible, lead your pupils to do tbe talking. By skillful questioning, bring out what they know and what they think on the subject, and then In the most graphic language that you can command give your corrective and Illuminating utterances. 2. The recitation affords a splendld opportunJty for the teacher to lead the pupils Into Impromptu, Informal discusstons ln which they ar6 encouraged to think for them aelves, draw their own conclusions and express their own news on moral and hlatorlcal questlon.a. .ll'or lnst&Dce, &t the close of the French and Indian war period, betn.g tuN that the class thoroughly knows the facts of the condletlng claims, ask some such question as this: "Which do SIOU think bad the best right to the disputed terrltoey, France or England?" A great many such questions might be suggested. Such discussions, properly conducted, arouse the thinking powers and exercise the reason and judgment of pupils beyond almost any other study pursued In school. In these exercises (which should always be sprung upon the class unexpectedly) the teacher should very carefully direct and guide the mental processes of the pupils, but at the same time should avoid being dogmatic and dictatoriaL REVIEWS. 1. At the beginning of each recitation a few moment~ should be devoted to a review of the salient points In the previous lesson, especially when that lesson has any close connection with the lesson In hand. Sometimes this preliminary review should cover several previous lessoua; th11 should be done, as far aa practicable, whenever a number of successive lessons are very vitally and Intimately connected. The review questions should touch only upon vital points. 2. Impromptu topical renews should be given as occasion demands. For instance: Before beginning the lesson on the "Missouri Compromise," review clearly and concisely all previous agitations and decisions of the slavery quest! u in the Constitutional Convention and in Congress. r,Ikewlse whenever In any lesson an Important recurring subject Is treated, give a concise, clearcut topical review of that subject from Its origin up to the lesson In hand. Such vital Issues as the Tarltr, Slavery, States' Rights, etc., etc., should be thus repeatedly reviewed and re-revlewed. S. About once a fortnight gin oral reviews covering the rround ~one over during the two weelta. Ask ahort, aharp 113 question on the most Important points ancl require prompt, brief answers. Vary the questions calllni tor ahort answers with questions that require the pupil to ifve the whole ot a subject; for Instance: "Give an account of the settlement ot VIrginia from 1607 to 1630." 4. Give written reviews about once a month or lese frequently. A good method Is this: After the class Is assembled assign to each pupil a separate aubject to write upon, selected from the lessons gone over during the month; or It the class be too large tor this plan, select ten or twelve subjects. assigning each of them to a number of pupils; make sure that pupils having the same subject do not sit :within communicating distance of each other. Have the subjects and assignments either written on the blackboard or on a slip ot paper placed on the pupll'l desk before the class assembles. Always notify the clasa at least a day In advance ot a formal review, whether oral or written. Always carefully Inspect the written exercises and return the papers to pupils with mlstakea marked and with other criticisms. SELECTION. United States History Is a vast subject, pervaded by complexities and abounding In Important events, Interesting episodes, significant facts, dramatic Incidents and romantic stories. From this enormous mass of material, what to select and what to omit, and how much space to give to each part and subject, is properly the function of the author of the text-book and not the function ot the teacher. Most text-books are very faulty in this particular. In trying to tell too many thln~s they haven't the apace to tell the important things adequately. and they seem to have little regard tor histor:.-al perspective and proportion. This fault In the text-book may be In large measure corrected by a thoughtful and skillful teacher. As to how this way be done. 11owe IUi~elitlona will be of Cered further PD lp Ul!.f liJ"ticle. 114 EMPHASIS. The subject-matter of history varies greatly in importance. In te:,tching history, therefore, some things should be strongly emphasized, some moderately emphasized, some slightly emphasized, and some not emphasized at all. What to emphasize, how to emphasize, what degrea of emphasis to give, is one of the most important considerations in the teaching of history, and it is a matter in which the teacher must depend mainly upon his own judgment and skill. The text-books can give, or do give, but little help in this direction. The following suggestions are offered with the hope that they may prove helpful: HISTORICAL EVENTS. FRUITFUL AND UNFRUITFUL. 1. There are two principal classes of historical events, namely, the fruitful and the unfruitful. (1) Fruitful Events are those which produce and reproduce other events, and which ha:ve a great subsequent inliuence on the history of the country. For Example: The introduction of negro slavery into the American Colonies. If that event had not occurred, the subsequent history of the United States would have been far other than it has been, and the social and industrial conditions of the Southern States would be very different from what we see them to-day. (2) Unfruitful Events are those which do not produce other events and whose influence is transient, having little or no effect on the subsequent history of the country. For Example: The Salem Witchcraft delusion. That event had no lasting consequences on the history of the country or on the civilization of New England. Things are now just as they would have been if the event had never occurred. 2. Distinguish carefully between fruitful events and unfruitful events, and in your teaching lay the greatest em- 115 phasis on the former class. Trace their influence through subsequent history and lead your pupils to do the same. 3. Guard against devoting too much time and giving too much emphasis to magnificent but fruitless performances, while passing by with little notice less showy but infinitely more important deeds. For it frequently happenP. that a wholly unfruitful historical event, like DeSoto's expedition, is full of splendor and intense dramatic interest, while an event of vast and far-reaching influence, like the invention of the cotton gin, by Eli Whitney, makes its appearance as a modest and obscure deed. 4. It does not follow, however, that all unfruitful events are to be lightly regarded. Many of them possess a, rich historic value. Some of the most brilliant episodes in American history are events which had no important eonsequences, but which, nevertheless, are well worth teaching for the heroism and thrilling human interest they contain; for instance, John Smith and Pocahontas, young Washington's journey through the Wilderness, Walter, Raleigh's Lost Colony, etc. Others which had only a transient or ephemeral effect, are invaluable as illustrations of the spirit of the times in which they occurred; such as the Salem Witchcraft heresy, the John Brown Raid, the Ku Klux Klan in Reconstruction days, etc. Select the very best and most significant of such stories and, in their proper place and connection, relate them to your pupils with as mush vivid power as you can command, but don't give them undue emphasis by reiterating them or by calling for them in reviews and examinations. 5. To summarize the foregoing: In regard to every historical event that comes under your consideration ask yourself questions like these: To which class does this event belong, the fruitful or the unfruitful? Is it worth presenting to my pupils? What is its particular educational value? How much emphasis should I place upon it? By what method can I teach it best? 116 Always place l!peclal emphasis on those events tha.t have a. great subsequent lnfiuence on the history ot the country and the life ot the people. Train your puplla to distinguish such events and to follow them closely In their development and lnfiuences. Iterate and reiterate such events, a.nd let reviews, examinations and written exercises be made up mainly of them. HISTORICAL FACTS. JISS:&NTIJ.L J.ND INCID:&NTA.L, 1. lllve17 historical event is composed of two sorts ot facta, namely, Essential Facts and Incidental Facts. E88enUal Facts are those that cav"''t be changed without radically changing the character ot the event itself and its historical significance. In.odent!U Fact8 are those that may be changed without in any wise changln~: the character ot the event or Its his- torical significance. For Example: In that noted event, the FoundJng of Plymouth, the essential facts are these: Plymouth was founded by the Pilgrims, a band of Puritans who fied from England on account of persecutions, and came to the wilds of America in order that they might estabUsh here institutions in which they and their brother Puritans and their posterity might enjoy religious and civil Uberty. They landed, by mere accident, far to the north on a bleak and sterile part of the American coast. They were a hardy, heroic, earnest and devout people, . but narrow- minded, bigotted and fanatical. Not one of these facts could be altered without changliJ,i radically the character of the event Itself and its subse- quent lnfiuence on the history of the country. The Incidental facts are these: There were 102 Pilgrims; they came over In a ship called the Mayftower; they landed at Plymouth on De- cember 21st, 1620; the landing was made alongside a big &TLUlte rock; the Arst person to spring from the ship upo11 11'1 "' the rock u a young girl named Mary Ohllton; befott9 landing the Pilgrims drew up and signed, In the cabin of the Mayllower, a constitution or agreement known aa The Compact. Now, every one ot these facts might be changed without In the least degree atrectlng the character of the event or changing Its lntluence on subsequent history. It there had been 123 Pilgrims, If their ship bad been named the Butterlly, If they had landed on the 19th of January, 1621, It' the landing had been made on a sandy beach, It the first person to spring ashore had been the redoubtable Miles Standish, and It The Oompact had been signed on rerra tfnnia eleven days after the landing, It would have made no difference In the subsequent history of Ne England or ot the United States. 2. DistingUish carefully between the essential facts and the Incidental facts ot every Important historical event that comes under your consideration, and In your teaching put the emphasis on the essential facts. See that your pupils get them very clearly and accurately, and that they understand their significance. Iterate and reiterate them, and let reviews and examinations and written lessons be made up chietly ot them. 3. Incidental facts are, however, not to be sligbted. They constitute the most attractive and Interesting part of history. They make "the story" ot history. Without them history would be a dry and juiceless study. They appeal to the Imagination and enable the mind to visualize historic scenes and persons and to realize historic deeds. With very young pupils the lesson should be made up main- ly of Incidental facts, and with all pupils there should be a rich abundance of them; but they should not be emphasized, they need no emphasis, they are apt to emphasize themselves rather too much. They are th~t easlest of all facts to remember. The knowledge of man;r persons who consider themselves "well up" In history con~ slstll almost entirely In incidental facta. -... 118 4. In your teaching use an abundance, but not a superabundance, ot Incidental facts: Select them carefully, taking those that are graphic, picturesque and characterIstic, rejecting those that are trivial and without significance. Don't emphasize or put too much stress upon them. Don't use them In reviews and written examinations, except to a limited extent. HISTORICAL HEROES. P:&RJ'BCT .A.ND J' AULTY. 1. Every youth should be a hero-worshipper, and most youths are prone to be. One of the most Important uses ot the study ot history Is to give right direction to this renerous tendency and to make it of high educational value. No more powerful formative influence can take bold ot the mind and heart ot youth than a splendid heroic character. There are two kinds or heroes, the Ideal hero ot fiction and the real hero ot history. For Inspiring, and all educative purposes, the real hero ot history is Incomparably more eiiectlve than the Ideal hero ot fiction. Fortunately, American history furnishes some superb models of real heroes. 2. The qualities that the generous soul or youth most admires In men are a commanding presence, physical courage, great Intellect, strong will, and moral grandeur. The man that possesses all ot these In hlgb degree, is your perteet hero. Such was George Washington and such was Robert E. Lee. Every Southern boy and girl should be taught from earliest childhood to admire, love and revere these two peerless Southerners, par twbi~ fratncm! By book lessons and oral lessons, by song and story, puplls should be made familiar with their pure and lofty character and their lllust;r.ious deeds. In every school In our Soutbland Washington's birthday and Lee's birthday, abould be1 observed wltb suitable exercises, and rreat ...na abould be taken to make tbeae occulona lm- 119 presslve and edifying. The most powerful lesson that can possibly be given on pure and exalted patriotism and unselfish devotion to duty Is the close study of the life of George Washington. The most splendid Illustration of perfect and lofty manhood that can possibly be presented to the mind of youth is furnished In the life of Robert E. Lee. Deep, lasting, and of priceless value will be the benefit that you wlll confer upon your puplls If you will make them well acquainted with the character, private life and publlc deeds of these two great men. No other history lesson can be worth as much to them. 3. There are perfect heroes and there are faulty heroes. Compare DeSoto and LaSalle, the two greatest American explorers-note the cruelty, avarice and selfish ambition of the former, and the kind-heartedness and disinterested motives of the latter. Compare hero Sherman, with his motto, "War is hell," devastlng with fire and rapine the defenceless land through which he marched, with hero Lee requiring his soldiers to respect with the utmost strictness all private property in the enemy's country. Compare that great rich Admiral having his head turned with extravagant ovations and eagerly snatching at prof- fered house and lot, with that great poverty-stricken Gen- eral shunning all publicity and, though fortunes were laid at his feet, refusing to accept one penny except what he earned by the sweat of his own brow. Compare Benedict Arnold, brave, able, but In moral character utterly In- famous, selllng his country for a mess of pottage, with young Andre, giving his life without a murmur for the British cause. Lead your pupils to note for themselves these llkenesse1 and differences and these nice distinctions between heroes. Lead them to observe that perfect moral rectitude Is the quality of first consideration in the hero, and that no man Ia truly great who lacks it. Lead them to observe that a certain mora~ gramdeur has been the crowning gloQ" of all the earth's greatest heroes. (, 120 4. t>on-t weaken the talth ot your pupils In human nature by emphasizing too much the selfishness and rascality of men In high public positions. Don't let them get the Idea (which too commonly prevails) that all or nearly all public men are self-seeking demagogues, moved only by personal ambition, for this Is not true. Show them the American demagogue, and hesitate not to give them concrete Illustrations, of which you can find a great abundance; but put the greater emphasis on the American patrW>t, of which there are many shining examples. Show your puplls that personal ambition and patriotism are not Incompatible with each other, and that most men In public Ute are governed by this mixed motive, but that whenever the former prevails over the latter It Indicates a scoundrel. Show that a man may be ardently and unselfishly devoted to what he conceives to be a right cause and yet be a very bad man, like the diabolical fanatic, Thad Stevens; and on the other hand show that a strenuous political partisan may be a true patriot and a generous-hearted, jul!lt-mlnded man, like Abraham Lincoln. Show that our people are constantly exacting a higher and higher standard of morals In men In public otnce, and that the ecoundrel, the drunkard and the libertine, however splendid his talents, stands little chance ot preferment by the votes ot the American people. Show them that no President of the United States bas ever been In the slightest degree tainted with dishonor, either in hit private or in his public lite. HISTORICAL PERIODS. LOGICAL AND CHRONOLOGICAL, In the Ute ot every nation there Is apt to be at all times lome one strong dominant feeling which causes the principal public acts ot the people and produces the principal historic events. For Instance: From 1765 to 1783 the dominant feeling ID America wu desire tor Independence and civil liberty; 121 from 1854 to 1861 the dominant feeling was sectional animosity. Logically, an historical period includes all of the principal events produced by any given dominant feeling. Chronologically, an historical period Includes the time during which any given dominant feeling holds sway or remains dominant. It Is Impossible to make the chronological period coincide exactly with the logical period, because It Is Impossible to say precisely when any popular feeling begins to dominate or when It ceases to dominate; but these dates may be approximated. PRINCIP.A.L PERIODS. In the history of the United States there have been nine principal periods; that is to say, there have been nine dom- inant popular feeling& which in succession have held sway and caused the principal historic events. Below we give these nine periods and underneath each period the dominant feeling that belongs to it: 1. Discovery and Exploration. (Love of Enterprise and .Adventure.) 2. Settlement and Colonization. (Desire for Freedom and Fair Opportunity.) 8. The Revolution. (Desire for Independence and Civil Liberty.) 4. Organization of the Union. (Instinct of Self-preservation.) 5. Development of the Nation. (Love of country, or patriotism.) 6. Sectionalism and Secession. (Bitter Disagreement Between North and South.) 'l. Civil War. (Hostility Between North and South.) 8. Reconstruction. (Northern Malice and Southern adlpatloll.) e. The Re-united Nation. (Desire for Wealth and H&terlal Denlopmellt; CoJDo merc1allamj I 122 WHAT TO EMPHASIZJII. In the following pages we give a brief syllabus of ~hat we conceive to be the most Important events In each historical period. They do not Include, of course, nearly all the things that should be learned, but only those things that seem most vital and upon which therefore the teacher should put the strongest emphasis and the pupil the most careful study. Of these eminently Important things those that are pre-eminently Important are ind4cated ~ taZic.l. L DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION. 1492-1681. o (LOV111 BNTBRPRISB AND A.DVBNTURB.) 1. Columbus's first voyage and discoveries made. DiscoTery of Florida by Ponce de Leon. DeSoto's expedition. 2. TM Cabota'8 d.i8ooverie8 and. ea;plorat~. 8. Cartier's e:cploratiP~ M.oame domvnant amd (}avt: tone to tM cnvili;ro,tLo.n ot the S&utlw:rn oolon4u 1 (VIrginia, the Caro- linas, Maryland and IJeorgla). What class or classes ot people became dominant and gave tone to the civilization ot the Middle colonles1 tNew York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Delaware). Conuast the climate and soil ot New England with that of the Southern colonies. Compare the character, culture, the dominant ldeaa, the occupations and the modes of life of the people ot these two sections. Define the three types of colonial government and name the colonlea Jiving under each at the close ot the period. State the cause ot the French and Indian war and the reault ot the war. DATES TO BE MEMORIZED. Founding ot VIrginia, Massachusetts, New York, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Carolina and Georgia. Introduction ot African slavery. First Immigration of Royalists Into Vir ~Pnla and ot the Huguenots Into South Carolina. Founding ot Harvard College and of William and Mary College. Es tabHshment ot the first printing press. The beglnlng and the end ot the French and Indian war. IIL THE REVOLUTION. (17651783). {DESIRE J'OB INDEPENDENCE AND CIVIL LmERTY.) lat. Prellmtnary.-Political relation ot the colonies to England. Loyalty ot the colonies to England. England's Inconsiderate and oppressive treatment ot the colonies aa illustrated by the revokmg ot charters, appointment ot ty rannlcal governors, the Navigation Act, Writ ot Assistance, Restriction on Manutacturera. Population and resourcea ot colonie in 1765. 2d. Causes ot the Revolution.-Tlie Stamp .A.ct. How r.ceived by the colonists. Protests ot Samuel Adams an4 Patrick Henry. Repeal ot the Act. Tax on teL "B01tolt f'tJCJ ParlJI." Boston Port B111~ iraJ; Co~~!!e~~ '?Onfl',.... ~~ ot~ tell. 126 Sd. Campalll.'ns and Rattles of th~ Revolutlon.-Battles ot Lexington and Rnnker Hill. Gt>neral account of Washington's Campaigns from Battlt> of Long Island. August 22, 1776, to Valley Forge, wlntpr (Decembt>r. 1777). General account of Burgoyne's Campaign. Desperate condition of American cause (1777). Wn.qhi ngto11'8 illfluf'nce. The French Alliance. War In the South. GPneral account of conquest of Georgia and Carolina. Guerilla Warfare In the South. Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown and end of the War. Sketch of some of the greatest heroes of the Revolution. 4th. Politics of the Revolutlon:1. The Constitutional Congresses-thetr ~era am4 1.'011- n itutiollal po8iti0'718. 2. Growth of the desire for separation from England. 3. Declaration of Independence-full acoouf!-t of. 4:. Weakness and Unwisdom of the war-time Congresaea. 5. Finances of the Revolutionary war. 6. Tories. 7. Full account of the French Alliance. 8. The Treat;y of Peace. SUMMARY. State clearly and concisely: ' The polftlcal, or govern mental relations between American colonies and England. Feeling of colonies towards the "Mother Country" at close of French and Indian war (love and loyalty). England's Inconsiderate and oppressive treatment of the colonies prior. to the Stamp Act. History of the Stamp Act and subsequent tax measures. England's defense of right to tax; Colonle8' protest against. Colonies open revolt In "Boston Tea Party," etc. England's punishment of the otrenders. Rapid growth of Insurrectionary spirit among the colonIsts-how inspired, propagated, and spread. Outbreak of the war. Genesia and de-velopment of the Declaration of l>n~endence., Length and result of the war. Other thlnp . besides American valor that contributed to the defeat of ~ llr1tllh. Wa.!MngtoMZer in wMcA ~lch Srote &1wuld be repruente4 in Oongru&. (d) TM ratio of repruentative& in slave populatioM-1wto ~ch of thue quuUom toa& &ettled. 5. Submission of the Constitution to the people; popular discussion ot; differences of opinion; State 801)(!}tt"eigntv id~a; "The Federalist." Ratification. 6. Tlu! Con&titutirm a compact between &overeign State&. 7. Explanation of form ot rovernment under the Constitution. 8. Election of Georre Washington &II ftnt president of the United States. SUMMARY. Gin a clear, concise statement of: Condition of countrt ,Jt clo~e p[. ~evQlQtlo"; iua4equac1 ot 4rt1clel ot CoDte4 128 eratlon; Annapolis Convention; Constitutional ConventionIts work. Principal provisions of Constitution. Ratification of by the States. Different Interpretations of. State Soverela:nty Idea. Plan of a:overnment under the Constitution. First presidental election. DATES TO BE MEMORIZED. Annapolis Convention, Colurtit~tional Convention, Flnt presidential election. V. DEVELOPHE~T OF THE NATION, 1789, 1853. (LOVE OF COUNTRY, OB PATBIOTIS.ll,) 1. Organization of the government under the constltutloa. Extent. population, wealth, natural resources of the United States at this time. Principal cities. Distribution ot population. State of education and religion. 2. Washington's Admlnlstratlon.-Hamllton' dnancl&l plan; the first taritr and revenue tax; trouble with France (Genet); anti-alavery petltion-/ww ~t with ~ OO#{IJ"eU; Invention of cotton gin and Its tar-rf''4.rhing e.trects; surrender ot Land Claims by Virginia and othes States-the Northwest Territory. Hamilton and Jefrerson; their ditrer lng views. First political parties-Feder&llsts and Anti Federalists. John Adams elected president. S. Adams's Admlnistratlon.-Alien and Sedition lawspassed and repealed. Unpopularity of administration. Capital removed to Washington. Death ot George Wash lngton--Bketch of hi& chatracter. Presidential election; triumph ot Anti-Federalists-political meaning. 4. Jetrerson's A.dministration.-The Louisiana Purchase-full account ot. The Embargo Act; N~ Et't{l!ana'l Nullift- oa.tron; New EnqUlln4'8 throeatooed leceBII'iml.. Threatened war with England. Madison elected president-political mean lng. Sketch of Thomaa Jetrerson-hia character, deeds, a.nd political doctrines. Hadison'a Admlnhrtratlon.-War of 1812-brlet account tf lf~ Mllf~'f re~~-.I io f'Q11lltb ~9op1, etc,, ~ 129 PrulUtf.oaUM. Netb l!Jnutana Hartford Clonventloti---ctalnu right of eoou!on and threatens secession. Unanlmoue . election of Monroe for president. 5. Monroe's Adminlstratlon.-"Era of good feeling." Dis- ippearance of the Federalist party. Expansion of the Union-number of States, total population, wealth and reiource, Industrial development, educational conditions. trowth of patriotism. The Monroe doctrine. Preservation Of balance between slave and free States. TluJ Jlluoiui O~fuU acoount of. Election of John Quincy Adams-political meaning. 6. John Quincy Adams's A.dmlnlstratlon.-High Pro~ Tarl.ff-di.verH i.~t and view~ of North and South. Acquisition of territory b;y treaty with Creek Indians. Construction of first railway lines. Election of Andrew Jackson-political meaning. 7. Jackson's Admlnlstratlon.-Establlshment of the "Spoils System" In the distribution of offices. Higher Protective Tarltr. S&Uth Oarob'116'1 Nulltflcattolt-full acOOtmt. Clay's Tarltr Compromise. Abolitionut agitat!oMGarrlson and Phillips. Great material growth and prosperity. Rise of the Whig party-Its doctrines. Sketch of character of Andrew Jackson. Election of Van Buren. 8. Van Buren's A.dmlnlstralon.-Great financial panic. Establishment of the Sub-Treasury System-full explanation of. Presidential election-political meaning of. 9. Tyler's Admlnlstratlon.-Death of President Harrison. Tyler's split with the Whigs. Webster-Ashburton Treat;y. Expulsion of the Mormons. Invention of the electric telegraph. Polk elected president. 10. Polk's A.dmlnlstratlon.-Growlng suspicion and bad feeling between slave and free States; strugg'te to pruervfJ bal.ance of power between the t100 (pu.relv poliUool, oot moral.) Admission of Texas to the Union-political meaning of. (Short account of previous hlstoty of Texas.) Brief aew count;y of Mexican war. The presidential election. Tht Free Soli Part7. 11. Administration of Taylor (and Ffiimore).-Rapfd aetJ tlement of California by gold seekers. Admission of California-bitter ~ootional conf!rover871 ~}vet". Clay's "Omnibus Bill." Rapid Increase of sectional antagonism. Election of Franklin, Pierce as president. SUMMARY. Name the presidents In order with political party to which each belonged and length of administration of each, and mention most important events of each administration. State political doctrines of Federalists and Anti-FederalIsts; Democrats and Whigs; Free Soldiers. Give a summary of most Important Tarltr Legislation-diverse views of North and South In regard to. Concise account of the slavery (purely political) controversies; Missouri Compromise, Wilmot Proviso, Admission of Texas, Admission of California, Omnibus Bill. Sketch expansion of the Union, rapid growth In material prosperity. Universal patriotism or love of the Union. Growth of sectional antagonism. DATES TO BE MEMORIZED. Period of each president's administration. Invention of the cotton gin. Louisiana Purchase. Embargo Act. Battle of New Otleans. Missouri Compromise. New England'& Nullification and secession threat. First Protective Tariff. South Carolina Nullification. Establishment of Sub-Treas ary. Mexican War. Wilmot's Proviso. "Omnibus Bill." VI. SECTIONALISM AND SECESSION, 1853-1861. (BITTER DISAGRE"RMENT BETWEEN NORTR AND SOUTH.) 1. Pierce's Administration-The Kansas-Nebraska BIIJ and struggle-full account of. Nullifl,ration of Fuutive S'UJJv(J Law by NMt1wrn St>ate.ll. Increased bitterness between North and South. 2. Buchanan's Admlnlstratlon.-Dred Scott decision. John Brown Rald-tts glorification by Northern press. pulpit, and platform. Formation of Republlcan party-elements lS1 et which It was composed. Split in Democratic party. Election of Lincoln and overwhelming triumph of Republicans-what it n!RMIJ fo:r tM Sooth. 3. Secesslon.-"State S0t wnconstitutiml4l; the right ropeatedl11 claimed btl No:rthern States. The Oon.8titutiAJn always strictly observed b11 the South, frequently violated by Northern States, and openly defied by Republican leaders. Secession opposed by strong min- ority In the South, but whollv on. tJte_grownd ot ft8 in.~ MOJ,I. SUMM.A.RY. A concise history of negro slavery fn Amerfca:-its adoption by all of the colonies; first protest against came from the South. New EnQl.and Us molft ardent adtvooate and defender; N01"thern Sfiatea cztng to it cu long l8 it vavs them; dies a natural death in the North; obtains a permanent lodgment In the South and becomes a vital and lne.'l:tricable part of Its civilization; ethnological place of the negro; Southern slavery cwiUzed. and Ohri.!ti;a;niood him, infl:nitdr ameUomted hli.! conditiAJn in every way, and made him do th~ only good toork that hi:J raoe has m-er done fin the too.rld. Kindly relations between master and slave. Northern abolition fanatics assail the Institution of slavery with great bitterness and Injustice, nullify acts of Congress, defy the Constitution, and stir up discord between North and South. Statement of the several agitations of the slavery question in Congress, showing that these controversies were only political struggles to preserve balance of power be- tween slave and free States, and did not concern the moral aspects of slavery. Northern politicians combine with Northern abolitionists to form the Republican party, wtilch gains complete control of the country. Southern States being at the mercy of this anti-Southern party exercise !Mat tlw1J bel.WP~J to tie tluM "IOWJN)ign right'' and secede from tbe UDion. ' , _) 182 DATES TO BE MElWRIZl!lD. Plll!leage ot Kansas-Nebraskan Bill; Buchanan's election: Dred Scott decision; John Brown Raid; Lincoln's election; Secession o! first four Southern States. VII. CIVIL WAR, 1861-18~. (HOSTILITY BKTWEEN NORTH AND SOUTH.) 1. Much opposition In the North to coercion o! the seceded States. Lincoln's war proclamation. The Fort Sumter affair. A careful comparison o! the population, wealth, resources, strength, and military advantages o! the North and the South at the beginning or the war. OpenIng scenes o! the war. 2. Campaigns o! the War.-A clear, general account or the great Eastern Campaigns !rom battle o! Bull Run to Appomattox: surrender, including description o! battles of Bull Run, Seven days around Richmond, Second Manassas, Sharpsburg, Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, Gettysburg, Appomattox. General account of the great Western campaigns from Fort Donelson to Johnston's surrender, in eluding desc1iptlon ot battles of Fort Donelson, Shiloh, Chickamauga, Missionary Ridge, Atlanta, Sherman's marh through Georgia and Carolina. S. Naval Warfare.-The blockade-ita effects on the South. Overwhelming superiority ot the Northern Navy. Confederate privateer, "The Alabama." 4. War Heroes.-Sketch of Robert E. Lee and Stonewall Jackson and or the Confederate women's devotion and heroism. 5. Result of the War.-Defeat ot the South~auses. A , l'areful comparison of the size and material equipment of the Northern and the Southern armies during the war; and of the comparative sufferings of the people, North and South. Deplorable condition o! the South at the cloae of the war. .( 133 SUMMARY. The following is a concise statement ot the whole mat :er of the Civil War: From perfectly natural causes there grew up in the Union, side by side, two distinct and irreconcilable clviliza tlon, namely: 1 The cold climate, manufacturing, Puritan dominated, tree labor, purely white civilization of the North, and the warm climate, agricultural, Cavalier dominated, slave labor, negro permeated civilization of the South. In some im- portant respects the Interests of these two civilizations were 8.Jl,tagonistic, and !or this reason each civilization be- came suspicious of the other, and there arose between them a strenuous political struggle to preserve the balance of power. The Northern civilization grew to be physically much the stron:ger of the two, and became very aggressive In Its attacks upon a certain peculiar and vital institution ot the Southern civilization. Aggravated by Northern fan- atic!! and Southern extremists, the difference between the two civilizations grew more and more irreconcilable, and bitter feeling arose between Not'th and South. The Southern States, with an earnest desire to settle the trouble, asserted the right of State Sovereignty, and withdrew from the Union; in taking this step they may have acted rashly and unwisely, but they broke no law, they violated no faith, they committed no crime, they did no moral wrong. The Northern States, denying the right of State Sovereignty, and sincerely believing it to be their duty to preserve the Union at any cost, determined to force the Southern States back into the Union; for this pu.rpoae they got up vast hostile armies, and with fire llnd sword Invaded the Southland. The Southern people <;inrply arose in the majesty of their manhood to repel thla Invasion. JA dreadful war ensued, during which the armiel!! of boih sec tiomfought with great valor and from pure patriotism. The odds against the South w~.-e overwhelming, but !ot. tour years she maintained the unequal contest with a suit~' }le,riQ"~' apd ~en we~~ 49wn 1n lj.t;~r 4~f~!l. 134 VIII. RECONSTRUCTION, 1865-1870. (NORTHERN JlALICJ: AND SOUTHERN INDIGNATION.) 1. Lincoln's generous Ideas of reconstruction. Lincoln's assassination-sketch of his character. President Johnson's plan of reconstruction; his proclamation; action of t"M Southern States. Congress rejects Johnson's plan; passes Fourteenth an.d Fifteenth Amendments, which Southern States refuse to accept. Southern State put under military despotism. Rule of the "Carpet-baggers." "Black and tan" conventions. "Freedman's Bureau." ~nsult!l and outrages heaped upon the South. Southern indignation. Ku Klux Klan-Its good work and Its iniquities. The Fifteenth Amendment-how finally forced upon the Southern people; t"M abomitwbUI iniquit11 of t"M m&Uwre. SUMMARY. The Northerners had, from a high sense of duty, fought heroically for the preservation of the Union, which they earnestly beUeooa to be a righteous cause. The Southerners had, from the fundamental Instincts of manhood, fought heroically to drive from their country and their homes an army of hostile Invaders, which unquestinably was a righteous cause. The Southerners overwhelmed by vastly supe1"1or numbers, were utterly defeated, and at the mercy of their conquerors. The noble-hearted President, Lincoln, who undoubtedly would have dealt generously with them, was dead. The fair-minded President, Johnson, otTered them terms that were somewhat harsh but not unjust, and which were readily accepted by the Southern States; but the United States Congress repudiated the!le terms ang insistet" tlhem. T'heir first attempt will be crude enough, but it will not require much Ume for them to learn to make the fi&Urea. i42 'l'he Number 1.> l'actl in the number 8. Facie to be tattg.ht L .Additive : - + 1. 7 1 = 8 2s.. 6+2=8 5+3=8 + 4. 4 4 = 8 + 5. 3 5 = 8 6. 7. 12++67 ==88 L Additive :- + 1. 7+1-8 2. 6 2-8 3. 5+3-8 4. 4+4-8 II. Subtractive:- 1. 8-8 =0 2. 8-7=1 8. 8-6=2 4. 8-5=3 5. 8-4=4 6r.. 8-3=5 s-2 = 6 8. 8-1=7 II. Subtractive:- 1. 8-8-1 2. 8-6-2 8. 8-5-3 4. 8-4-4 5. 8-3-5 6. 8-2-6 7. 8-1-7 UI. Multiplicative:- 1. 8 X 1 ... 8 2. 7X1+1-S 8. 6X1+2=8 4. 5X1+3=8 5. 4 X 2 = 8 6. 2X4=8 III. Multiplicative:- 1. 8 X 1-8 2. 4 X 2-8 3. 2X4-8 IV. Divisional:- !. 8+8-1 2. 8 + 7 -1(1) 3. 8 + 6 -1(2) 4. 8 + 5 -1(3) 15. 8 + 4-2 6. 8 + 3 - 2(2) 7. 8+2-4 8. 8+1-8 IV. Divisional:- 1. 8+8-1 2. 8+4-2 8. 8+2-4 4. 8+1-8 V. Partitive:- t1. of 8-1 2. of 8 -1(1) 3. of 8 -1(2) I54.. of of 88--21(3) 8. of 8- 2(2) 7. of 8-4 V. Partitive:!. iof8-1 2. l of 8-2 3. iof 8~4 . &Tery fact in the column headed " Facts to be taught" mttst be taught, and the pupil muat be thoroughly drilled on it before he can be said to know the No. 8. In the same way all the other small numbers, probably as far a.s 20, should be resolved Into their contents and taught. A good practice for the teacher w!ll be to take the No. 12 and outline It a.s shown above. The question now Is, How to teach these facts f And by teach Is meant that the pupil must be led to discover every fact for himself under the lntelllgent and sympathetic guidance of the teacher. The signs should be taught the same aa an operation; but as it would make this paper too long t<> teach all of them, It w!ll be taken for granted that they I have already been taught. The Teaching Unit The pupils are to be supplied with In splints, toothpicks, straws, or sticks, Addition. or with any kind of object whatsoever. Splints w!ll be used in these exer- cises. Every pupil Is supplied with a hand!ul. COLLOQUY. Teaoher.-How many sp1tnrt.s In "IIey" right 'hand? (HoldIng up 6 splints.) PupiL-There are 5. Teacher.-How many In my left hand? (Holding up 3.) PupiL-There are 3. Teacher.-What d:ld I do with them? (Putttn~: them together.) PupH.-You purt: tb:em oogether. Teacher.-How many are there In all? PupiL-There are 8. Teacher.-Now tell me the whole story. PupiL-You had 6 splints In your right hand, and 3 In rour left. You put them together and then you had 8. Teacher.-Why7 + Pupil.-Becauee 5 S- 8. Thl..l 11 the unit of work In addition. Br slmplJ repeat- 144 tnr- thl1 unit often enou&"h eTery addition tact can be taught. A little time every day should be devoted to teachIng the tots how to count, 110 that when they go into formal addition they should be &ble to count 100 with ease. Story Work.-Immedlately aner teaching the above fact, It would be wen to have a story drlll on it. Have anywhere from 10 to 20 stories, every one cllnchlng, in the + pupil's mind, _the fact that 5 3- 8. Let the pupils im a11ine the splints to be birds, marbles, topQ, 11pples, pen nies, dons, etc. This Is an class-work, and should be done ~ithln e. ten or fifteen minutes' recitation. The story may be used in four ways, an so simple that t!hey need o~y be euggested to the intenlgent teacher. 1. 'l'he teacher performs the operation with objects and requires the pupil to ten the story. What the tPacber doea. Holds up 5 splints, Puts 3 more with them, Holds np all 8 in one hand, .Asks why. What the pupil say1. I saw 5 birds on a limb, And 3 more fiew to them, + 'rhen there Because 5 were a= 8, 8. J. The teacher tells the story, and the pupil perform the operation with objects. What the teacher ay1. I have 5 marbles, John gave me 3 more, Then I han (pausing). What the pupil d{)U, Holds np 5 splints, Puts 3 more with them, Pupil sees the 8. 11. The teacher performs the operation with 1lgures and require the pupil to tell or write the story. What the teacher writes. 5+ s- 1 What the pupil says or writE-s. I bad 5 apples, and my brother gave me a more. + Then I bad 8, Because 5 3 = 8. '- The teacher tells the ator:r and the pupil performs the operation with figures. What the teacher says. I had 5 dolla, and mother pve me a more, Then I had how many P What the pupil writM. 6+8- 8 ftll ater:r work II baaed t:.. Idea that we mu.t ,. 145 from the ldmple to the complex. The ft.rst and second kl'IIKLI are ID.Jtended for cQasa~ The thdrd &llld ~ are for seat .work. I --'- .;_ _ _ _ _._._.._.. I _.____._~,.. Be4# Dril'll:- - - - ~-~ ., ~ - - . - ....., 1. With Objecu.-For a few months with beginner!! good results can be had from a Uberal use of objects In aeat drUls. Object should not ordinarlly be continued beyond the No. 6 or 6. Any kind of crain or aeed wlll do. The teacher make1 dots on Pupil with seed on hit desk. the board. + + -- or .. + ""' 1 -+- -=- Many teachers get very satisfactory results from pe1 boards. They consist of poplar boards, one-half Inch t'hick a.nd 6 lndhes square. Ho~es large enoug1h tor BlLoe pegs are on one side, one-h41.'lt inch apart. Pup!IB an ~~up plied 'Witlh pep w!Mcll tlhey stick in the holes instead at Pla.ciD: the .eed as 8h:oW1Il. asbove. Probably 1lhe grea.teet gain from objective seat-work is that it affords profit able aiild oorutenlted employment to 11rtJti-e 'fellows who oth:er- wise woud JIJOt be alblle to move a pee te 226. W'iith very stupid pUJplls, the teacher mllgh!t take ten 100 hum.d'les to make one tlb.ousa.nd, tihuplil.-'rhere are 1 ten a.nd a UD:i'!Ait. 154 ~.-om :vou. pdt ltbe 1 teD. UDder the UDita oo11111111.t IPiapU.-You Olllllllot. fl'eacher.-Where muBt lit got PupU.-R must go tmder the tena oolumn. a'eaeher.-Then w:blllt do we put under the un1ta GOllliiiiJlt !flupU.-We put the 3 un1ts. - T-.c'her.-Whalt do w:e do 'With tbe 1 .tent lPupll-We add lit Ito rthe tens ool1JDU1. 'Tea.cher.-'Wbalt Ia the aumt '!Pup11.-lt tB 9. 't.l'eaOher.--J:t Is 9 wfbat! JPupll.-It ts 9 teD& 'r!'ea.cher.....JW'here does Itt got 1Pupll.-:rt I'OeS under the tens etolumn. 'Teacller.-What Ia the total aum? 'Pupll.-lt Is 93. Sometimes bl'JPt pmplls w:Ul understand th1s wtlthwt 1the objects. In ltihatt case they are superfluous. Throw . away Objects just as soon as y carry to 4 makes 6, and 6 from 8 leaves 3." The wbove example really gives the unit 'Of work tin su:l>t:reci:~on. There are, h.'O'Wever, ttwo other kinds o! pro'tJilems: t'he problem that goes i'Il!OO hundreds ; and tlhousandB, and the problem that has naugbit:s in the1 mbtuend. They are illustr&ted as tollowa: {1) 4 5 13 ~~3 -2 7 4 (2) 9 7 J~ 10 ~00 -4 56 n 1.8 not necessary Ito sat anY't111'1lg a;bout the 1li'st. ii1 the second, develO'lJ 'by mea.ru~ o:f questi'ons the following points: You ca'llilJOit take 6 from 0, a.nd Since you have nn tens to change Into units, you must tlake 100 !rom the hundreds column: That will ieave 7 hunup:il-By dllvidinlg by 2. Tea.cher.~But blow dOles four-i!.lxths compare fD ftlue with tw'<>-thirda? IPupil.-It is equal to it. Teaclher.-{HOIW does it afrec!t the value of a fra.ctlbn to d1vtde both numera.toc and detnominaiolr by the samupll.-'lb deniOml\nart'on of the required fracll001.. Teaoher.-How did you get the 1j2] ? Pnpll.-By multiplying h by 3. Teacher.-What is the 8? (Pointing tc. the fraction f.) PupU.--llt 115 the numerator of the given fraction. Tea.er.~How then do Y'OU change one fra.ct.I'On &DIOitlhJer 'W'ltl10ut altering 1ltB value? Puptl.-DiY'I.de 1fue denomlinlatoc of the required fraclllon br thle denk:xmilnllltor of the pven fraction and mll!ltip1y . . QUatii'8D.t by -Uhe nume111ator. fiaoe the result oTer t:U required deniO!ml1n.aitJor. Teadher.-In !Uhe examiple rtven a:blove, wh.at do TOQ no- esc. aboat ~ den'ominaltora! PupN.-They u-e all the me. ~er.-When tra.cti.'Ons are chla.ntged 90 tb.a.'t theT ILl! llaT t!h.e UI!IW denominaltor, Uhey an aa.id tJo be reduced to oommOll denominator. 'lbl& pra.ot!iee of USI:ng !ract1tons 'W'itth enormOW! denoon-ina-- tora is to be severely condemned. If, however, the teacher ~ld ~ torced lt!o handle la.:rge fraebtomr, the best plan HI tlo 1lnd the L. c. K. !ADDITION. '!'he 1lnrt step 1s to reduce the tra.etloDJ! to a common d .amtna.txw. ..U this ha. already been s'hown, it will be ......laaa far ~ hAicre, a.ml tM ! 184 -I 1'o multiply a frac-1 tion by a fraction. fXt- ? COLLOQUY. Teacher.-How many are 1 X i? Pupil.-f. Teacher.-How many are i X f? Pupil.-,'f. Teacher.-How many are t X f ? P u p i l . - l-2 Teadher.-How can yoo take 2 amid 3 a.nJd make 11 Pupil.--By mu1tJ11Ply1Dg them toget:her. Teacher.--IH.low can you take ~ and 3 o.nd make 12T Pupn.~By mulltlpaydng them together. Teacher.-Tell me t!b.en a quick Wtcy to multllply a frac- tion 'by a tra.cbion. Pupil.-tMUlti'PlY the numemltors together aDid puJt their product over the product of the denouilll'8i'tlors. Mixed numbers can be reduced to improper fmctions, and mu1rtiplied by the rul just given. Cance1181til.on, tWihich 1s just a short pl'Oee6S of simplifying fr&ctiona, should 'be erpla!lned. and used whenever possible. I To divide a fraction DIVISION. by a fraction. f+t-T COLLOQUY. Teacher.-How many times is i contined in 1T Pupdl.-4 times. Teacher.-How many times are t contained in 1T Pupil.-l of 4 or i times. Teacher.-How many times are t contained in f1 Pupil.-i oft times, J. Teacher.-What did you do with the f ' hpil.-Kade it t. 165 Tea.cher.-Thll.t ts, TOll lnverteel It, l.m1 ldt.nr thla mv s10n whast was done? ) Pupil.-The frac!Jtons were mult1plled.. Teacher.-Jiow then can you divide one tra.et:l'on 1tt ano1fher? Pupil.-IDJVert the diV'is01r and proceed 11.1 1n multipl1ca.- tlliQD. DEOIMALS. Draw a square on tb!e board. Divide each side tnto 10 equal parts and conn_oot. This wiU give 1 Large square diTided lntlo 100 small ones. COLLOQUY. Tea<:her.--4How many squares ln the large one? Pupll.-100. Teacher.-one square Is what part of the whole 1igure7 Pupil. ---.h. (The teachf:'r writes J1 11 on the board.) Tea<:her.-What pal't are 4 little sqU'ares? Pupil.-,-alf (The teacher writeR rh un the board.) Teacher.-(POI!nting to 1 row of the small squares): How many squares in 1fhis raw? Pupll.-10. Teacher.-one Is w'hai part? Pnpil.-ro. (The teacher writes 11a- on t.Le board. ) Teacher.-Flve are wha.t part1 Pupil.-fu. (The teacher writes 1\ on the board.) Teacher.-1'11 show you another way to write three fractions. (The teacher writes l ~= l, fo=.OI, f ,;= .5, rfnl-=.04.) Teacher.-What do you notice at>out these denomina;t()I"S' Pupil.-They a.re all eit!her 10 m 100. T~E.'P .-such fractions are oalled declma make a sllllltement. 2. When the number of deci male in the dividend ex- 6.76 + 2.41 T ceed thOle in the divilor. 168 COLLOQUY. Teacber.-V\'1Hlt ls tlhe whole number In tbe rl!v!sO'I'T Pupil.-2. Teacner.-In the dividf'nd? PupJl.-o. Teacher.-U you divide 5 by 2 what d'o you get T Pupil.-:!~. Teacher.-oan lt lYe as much as 37 PupH.-It cannot. Teacher.-Tihen where must we put the decimal podn.t tn tlb.e quotient? Pu1.-Between the 2 and 4. Teach16r.-HOIW many decimals in the d!v1'den.d! Pup!l.-2. Teacher.-In. the divisor! Pupil.-1. Teacher.-By h!O'W much does the number in the dividend exceed uld not take the unit fi~ure in the subtrahend from the r.nlt figure in the -rpinuend? Pupll.-You changed a 10 into units. ..;, Tea.cher.-1 qr. trow 2 qra. leans how manyT Pupll.-1 qr. Tes.cher.-1 qr. Ill h"O"tr 1DJILD.1' lbL T Pup!L-ll6 n..... 110 1'eacb'"'e' t.-H()W' many ThL llaft :roa &ll'e&clyT n.. Pupll.-12. Teacher.-12 lbl. and 25 lba. are how ma.ny T Pupi'l.-37 lbs. Teacher.-18 lb6. from 37 lbs. ~ve hmv many? Pu'I)'l1.-19. Jwrt repeast this unlit wHib. the other columns. MULTIPLICATION. How much oorn in 8 'box~. ea.dh box oontain1n: 6 bu. I pk. 6 qta, 1 pt.? The teacher writes on the board: 482 bu. pk. qt. pt. 5. 8 5 xs1 COLLOQUY. Teacher.-Il ee.c'h !box 'hold11 the amount named, haw lll.IIIJilY times that amount wil[ 8 boxes h'Old? Pupil.-8 times. Teacller.-T'hen. 'blow many pjnu 1n 8 b'Oxe.a? Pupil.-8 pints. Tea.cher.-8 opiDite are lhow many qUia.rta 7 Pu pi!.---4. Teacher.~ pints !em! Pupil-No. Tea.c.her.-5 qts. 1111 1 box, how many 1D 8 'bores? Pupll.-40. Tee..cher.-How IIlla41Y qta. have we a.lrea:dyT 'Pupil.-4. Tea.cher.-flow many 1n a.IlT Pllipi~.-44. And 110 on. It t'he teacher wlsb, 'he ~n put down all 01 tlle81 operaUomr, lbut 1t Ill ~t Ito d.o it a.lwa.ys 1n som.. putkula.r .....;. 171 DIVISION. If 1 doz. BIIVfT SjJO'OnS weigh 1lb. 9 OZ. 17 dwt. 1J Cl'. whaJt is the weight of each one? The teacher writes on the 'board: 12 20 24 lb. oz. dwt. ~r. oz. dwt. gr. 12\1 9 17 ~~ 1 16 11 21 197 13Z 12 -1-2 - -12 9 77 12 - -72 11 0 COLLOQUY. Tela.cher.-can you divide 1 J.lb. 'by 12f Pupil.-No. Teacher.-~How many oo. 1n one lb. T Pupll.-12. Teacher.-How many oz. already? Pupil.-9. Teaeher.~ow many in 8111? IPupll.-21. 'l'ea.cher.-Haw many twelves 1n Zlf Pupil.-1. TeaiCher.-1 w1bat, Sln.ce we are divldinl 011.! Pupll.-1 oz. Tea.ch.er.-H'ow many oz. 'lert? Pupil.-9. . Teacher.-Can you divide 9 by 12 and get a whole num'oel't Pupll.-No. Teacher.-What can: we reduoe t11e t ~to! iE'tu.pll.-To penn~ghts. Teacher.-'How many drwt.. kl. I OS.! ~pJII.-180. Teacller.-And 17 more a.re !low ID&li;J'T Pupn.-1~7. Taeher......JHow IDU7 ~ cu ... llD4., IQL bl. un 172 I'EROENTAGE. The ldea of percentage ts to be taught Ill exacUy the same wayas decimals. The terms are to be taught just as any other definition, t'hat is, by an applimtion ot the !our steps bl in.ductlve teaching. 1. To find a certain perj cent. of a number. Find 5 o/ 70 of 360 m 100 per cent. - 360 1 " "= of 360 ~ 3.6 5 " " = 5 X 3.6 = 18 .'. 5 " " of 360 = 18 COLLOQUY. 'I"eacller.-Wblat per cenlt. ds 360 of !l:tse1f? Pupil.-100. Tea.c'her.-Then. 1 per cent. will be what part of 360? PupiL-do of it. Tea.cher.-Horw much is tha.tr Pupil.-3.6. Teaclher.-5 iper oont. will be how m:an'Y times 1 per cenJt.! I Pupill.-5 times 3.6, 'Wihicll will be 18. 2. To find what .Per cent. one number 18 of an 18 is what per cent. of 360 ? other. m 360 - 100 per cent. 1- of 100 per cent. -= 1~ per cent. 18 18 X fr per cent. = 5 per cent. . 18 - 5 per cent. of 360. COLLOQUY. Teacll9.-860 !I w'h&t per cent. of 2JbHlff PuP!'l.-100 per cenJt. Toacller.-What per 08lllt. 'W'1ll 1 be! jtupil.-n\r of 100 per cent., or h per cent. 'J'eraolltii'.-And 18 W1lil N bow~ t1m41 U m&1117 P.l-n- .,;J Ml Jf -- Y . ._. ,., or 5 per ' ~t, "'"' 173 f1 Given a certain peri cent. of a number to 18 is 5 per cent. of what number? find the number, 100 per cent. = the required number. 5 per cent. = 18. 1 per cent. = t of 18 - 8.6. 100 per cent. = 100 X 3.6 = 860 5 per cent. of 360 - 18. COLLOQUY. Teacller.-W'lulrt per cent. equals the num'berT Pupll.-100 per cent. Teacher.-5 per cenlt. are h'OW many? Pupil.-5 per cent. are 18. Teadher.-Then 1 per cent. 8l1'e how many? Pupil.-1 per cent. are 3.6. Teacher.-100 per cent. wm be 'how ma.nyT Pupll.-100 per cent. wll1 be 360. i. To find a certain num-~ ber when another, a What number increased by 5 certnm p~-"r cent. great- per cent. of itself becomes 378? Pr or 1~. is p:iven. + 100 per cent. = the number. 100 per cent. 5 per cent.= 105. 105 per cent. = 378. 1 per cent.= rh X 378 = tH. 100 per cent. ;;, tH X 100 = 360. . 378 ts 5 per cent. greater than 360. COLLOQUY. Teacher.-Wblit per cenrt.. is the number of ftSel!T PupiL-100 per cent. Tea.dher.-Wlm.t part of t'he number I. 378? Pupii.--'I'he wfbX>le numlber >and 6 per oenJt. mOT"e. Teacher.-Then wb!alt per re:~.t. of the number 'is 1717 Pup.il-105 per cent. Tea<:her.-1Wllast wm be 1 p~er cent. of itT Pupil.--rh of 378. Teacher.-Whart wim 'be 100 per cent. 01. 1tf Pupil.-100 X tH, 1rhich will be 360. 174 !I:NTJJRiaT. ~ termt~ u needed. Let It be required to ftnd tbe I.Jl. tce< on f:t-20 for 1 yr. 7 mo. and li Ga. -.t. 8 per cent. 120 .08 i e mQ. 1" 9.60 int. for 1 Tf 4..s8o0 .". ." . 6 mo. 1 .. 15 da. j .40 .. " 15 da. 15.60 whole interest. COI1LOQUY. Teacher.-Haw do you 11.nd lllhe lntereJ~t tor 1 year! Pupll.-By multiplying the prlnc!pa.'l b7 the rlllte. Tea.cher..-How much is that T Puipll.-9.60. Tea.cller.-6 monthB a.re what part at a yea.rT PuP!1.-()ne-ha1t. Tea.cher.-Th~ 1!11'8 Interest tor I monJtba will be whu j)'ll.rt ot the '1nltereSt tor 1 7earT Pupil,-()ne-halt. Tea.Cher.-Htow much is t'haltf PupU.-$4.80. Teaeher.-The ln'terest for 1 month Is whaJt part of the Interest tor 6 monif!hs? Pupll.-lt is ooe-sixth of $4.80, or SOc. Tea.cher.-15 days are whast part. ot a :mJorithT Pup!l.-()ne-haU. Teacher.-Then the Interest for 16 da)'11 Will be what part of SOc.? Pupfi.-()ne-halt, or 40c. Teacller.-How can you cet tlhe Interest tor the ent!lre tllme! ?upl:.- By a.ddlng these amounts together. ti') Tea.cher.-I.t you boiTOW fl20 from a party, bmr m~ wfll :rau owe hllm aJt t!he end of 1 'f'l',, 7 mo. &nd li li&7llf Pupll.-$120 and $15.60 inltereat. Tescller.-Tllat Ia nlled taw! &mCllllll&. .. 175 ltJATIO AND PROPORTION. Thlfl ratlb ot two numlbers is t!he lindica.ted qootllen.t of one divd.ded by lt:he other. '/ , ~ are ratios. These are also written, 12:3 : 4:1. They are read, 12 divided by 3; 4 divided by 1. Compare the ratio '>f 12 to 3 and 4 to 1. What do you observe? The compariwn mi~~:ht be expressed as follows: 12:3 - 4: 1. This is a provortion, or equality of ratios. There are two kinds of problems under proportion : 1. Prob'lems 1n 'W{hldh tll.ere are onl7 4 quantities (Simple). 2. Problems in which there are more than quantities ( OompiOU!D.d). There is one general law about a proportion. The prodnet of the end terms (extremes) is always equal to the product of the inside terms (mEiallS). Tblat being true, any 3 ot the 4 terms beln.g gJlV'en, the fourt.h can easily be found. lin all probllems ot thUI fJOl'!t, something always causes or produces something else. Because at this tact, arithmet.fc'ia.ns a.r'e generally ~eed tlhalt it 1s a good p1a.n to state a universal proportion in the following manner: Fl.rat cause: Seoocn.d cauae eqUIIIJls First effect: Second effect. When tlhe teacher meets a prOblem In proportion, BJll he has to db fa to ascerta.in whalt ldl the first cause, etc., unlttl he finds 3 terma, putting the blank where it properly belonp, a.nd !then make t!he product ot the extremes equal to the pl"'fd..1ldt ~ the means. ILLUSTRIA.TIONS. 8impu Proportlon.- It Ill cloe.ks can hi! made tram 64 ;rards ot broladcloth, how many yards would it require fCJr 32 cloaks? 1st Cause. 2d Cause. 1st Effect. yd. yd. cloak. 54 :e 12 Product of extremes = product of means. 12 X= 54 X 32 9 16 - -HX-;J-~1 'I 2d Effect. cloak. 32 176 Compound Proportion..- It 7 horses eat 21 bus'bels of OOJts In U days, how many bushels would be required to serve 35 horses 28 days? 1at Cause. 2d Cause. 1st Effect. 2d Effect. h7 3h5 } 201 0 If 14 28 Product of extreme = product of means. 7 X 14 X % = 35 X 28 X 21. By calculation : 52 ~%X~~ X 21 -210. 1XJ~Xz The same by ana1ysls: 7 Lvrses in 14 days eat 21 bushels 1" """ "3" 1 ""1" "h" 8X35 35 .. " " .. " - - " .85 IC 28 II 14 8X35X28 - - - - - U .,. 210 14 -Ihese two eDLmplea &re taken from Sa.nford'a Arithmetlc. 177 METHODS OF LEARNING PRIMARY NUMBERS. 1. TM old Wav. The pupil, after having attended school a while, learns to make figures, and then commits to memory the difrerent tables, having recitations at Irregular intervals. This work is often put into the hands of older pupils. 2. Grube Number&. Part I. of this Manual Is OM presentation of Grube Num- bers. Usually every system of schools has Its own way or handling this subject. For instance: In teaching the num- ber 8, one system will teach all of the multiplicative facts, then all of the divisional facts, or all of the additive fa.ota first. and then .ro on to the number 9. Another sys- tem will teach an additive fact. then a subtractive fact, then a multiplicative tact, and so on. One plan Is just as good as another, provided the teacher follow system- atically whatever plan Is adopted. Here Is the psycholo- gical basis of the work: Nurpber is presented to the child through sen~'l. The perceptive facultie being most acute at this stage, the subject Is presented In the concrete rather than the abstract. The pupils see and handle the objects, and thus get a conception of number that could never be gotten by committing table to memory. Some varia- tion of this plan 11 now used almost exclusively in the best 1chools of the country. This caution should always be borne in mind: Do not use the objecta any longer tban la absolutely nece1sa.ry. A. pup1l'1 development may be bind ered rather than accelerated b7 onrlookiDJ thla cautlor:l. a. TM Bpwr svnwm. Thla 11 a treatment of number from the atandpolnt of relation ot masnltude. One thlnl it 10 manr time l&raer, ,.ctl IJI tr locer, or benler tban another. Tblt 171ttm Ultt o-.. tbe 18 Grube DUmber~, bu$ tllt tb~e~ tre .... 178 80 much to be counted as to be compared. The usual outfit consists of a table covered with blQ,cks of different 'engths and sizes. This work can be extended by using llnes on the board also. For a full treatment of this subject, write Ginn and Company for Speer's Arithmetic, Teachers' Edition. In this book will be found illustrations showing the number and size of blocks to be used, tocether with suggestions, model lessons and so on, much more 1n detail thaD could be expected 1n a ahon DOUce like tbiL NATURE STUDY. BY T. J. WooFTER, PH.D., GEoRGIA NoRMAL AND INDUSTRIAL CoLLEGE. I. WHAT IS IT? WHY HAVE IT? "The study of nature Is the study of. things about us . which we can perceive with our senses."-Packard. "Nature study Is seeing what Is bef.ore us and construing correctly what we see." It Is the study of. God's world about us, placed here for our development. Nature Is the outer world of. educative materials about us. It Is continually and from all direction pressing in on the child, calling forth his activities. The child In turn really hungers and thirsts for contacts with the outer world about him. He asks questions; he has a burning desire to know; he Is every ready and anxious to come in <'ontact with things. Nature and human nature are thus In thorough concord. They mutually Interact. In other words, the child 11 prompted to know and to grow, both by nature about and by human nature within. "Teaching Is aiding the mind to perform Its functions of knowing and growing." Natural education will aid the development of the child In accordance with nature. What are the lesson nature gives the child? How has he been knowIng and growing be!ote he entered school? 011 what has he spent his actlvltlea'! On boolta'J Far from lt. Bow has nature educated the race from prlmlUTe man down to the present? L PrlDlltlve man had to learn early the uae of certain plants for food and shelter. I. He learned to 'outwit, conquer, domeatlc&te pow erful and useful animals. IL He had to fl.nd out how to make of wood, bone, stone, metal, rude weapons, and to QSe these. 4. He gained knowledge of the elementl, of suo. moon and stars as ciocks. Such is the character of the education fl.rst given the race by nature. Has this education been effectIve? To doubt this Is to doubt the wisdom of God's plans. There Is somewhat of a parallel between the development of the child and of the race. From these lessons nature has given the race we CfJP get the cue as to what lesson we should d.~~ give the child. 1. Let us note that In early education there were np books. Man learned from outside nature. Ou~ education has become too bookish, therefore toQ unnatural. fa. Man has divine Instruction to "Subdue the eartlt and have dominion over every living thing." There are two steps In thla: (1) Domestlcatloq of aDbnals; (2) cultivation of soil. ll'bere coald be no effectual cultivation of the 10Q without the ox and the horse. It 11 lnterelt- lnc to note that the doc wu the flnt anima~ domeatlcated, probabl7 .becault of lall oompaa loDihJp, . ftl btlfDDIDI ot loll ODitare WU dt0111Tt for lt&bl~ ' llaltttauou. Kaa atllld to be waadtrtr ac u found ~ 'alae of ~" te~" - . - -~~"~ 111 Hence the t'ollowlng are suggested as the first school steps in Nature study. 1. Sympathetic Interest In animal llt'e, especially anl. mals as related to human Interest. 2. The soli, Its cultivation, plants, etc. Tllis step centers In and around the garden. Competitive growing ot plants and flowers Is good to bring children to observe natural laws, the weather, sunshine, rain, heat, cold, etc. 3. Observation ot the sun, moon, and stars. Shaler says that city people to-day are losing certain stable t'oundations "i:lt' character gotten through contact with domestic animals. And It Is true that anarchists do not come t'rom the country. Prot'. Hodge of Clark University has been inviting passing tramps to work in his garden that he might have the opportunity to ask them this question: "Have you ever planted or cultivated anything?" Only one out ot forty had ever planted a seed or cared for a plant. Are we educating a race of anarchists and tramps? Is Nature Study then worth while? Has It any practical good in it? Again we may r ote that keen perceptive tacultles are needed: 1. For material success, the good observer has the advantage In cotton buying, merchandising, t'arming, blacksmithing, in all pursuits of life. 2. For enjoyment, whether in ttavel, literature, art, or every-day affairs. Who gets most enjoyment out ot' these? Nature Study has a practical value not surpassed by even arithm etic. r Still again, all first hand knowledge must come through the senses. Without the senses we could never know. Sense knowledge is founda- tion knowledge. It is the concrete material that we u11e Inductively. We need It to Interpret 182 tnture knowledge, to apperceive. Yout"h 111 the time to supply this sense knowledge. The activ- Ity of the senses In youth, the plasticity of the growing brain, the Interests of childhood vs. those of later life, all emphasize youth as the time for storing the mind with material from the outer world as foundation material for future development as well as the best material for present development. And lastly, let me urge that Nature Study wlll react not only on the life of the Individual child, but also on the life of the school and of the whole community. It will furnl11h recreation and variety in school work, relieve the monotony of book work and dull routine, wlll Intensity In- terest along all school linea. It will have a tendency to check the movement from country to city, wm Increase capacity to enjoy country surroundlng11, and thus will materially benefit the whole State. Will you have It? Without your decision to have It, fellow teache111, all talk &bout methods will be in valn. You cannot alrord to be without It. Do not be a book murderer of natural development, a slave to past Ideals. On the other hand, aim to dcvek>p the active powers ot tM child a114 to give I or him an ab~ flnterut in the 1001rk8 GOO.. Through Natur" Study, lay a rational foundation for the religious belief. Necessity for a creator may be clearly shown. There Ia evidence of Immeas- urable power, transcendent wisdom, supreme goodness everywhere manifest. Mighty forces come from the sun. But who endowed the sun? Food, air, sunshine, water, are here In propor- tion to our need"' Who ordained It so? Behold the adaptability of structure In plant and ani- mal. Who arranced it? "The heavens declare the clory of God &nd the tirm&ment llhoweth h.1a 183 b11 nd!work." "How manifold are thy worke. In wisdom thou hast made them all; the earth Is full of thy riches." ll. l\IETIIODS. This topic, Miss Arnold, In Waymarks for Teachers, aptly divides Into three, "get," "see," and "say." First stE'p. The getting has to do with thP. selection of the specimens aurl their sequence In a course of study. In selecting specimens for class study, some tnmgs should guide. 1. The specimens should belong to the Immediate surroundings of the child. The best observation work cannot be In the schoolroom. The Indoor lessons should arouse Interest and stimulate outside obserratlon. The pupils should apply the schoolroom lessone. They are to be led to see and to interp1et the out-of-doors, to ap preciate the beauties of their environment. The toad Is a better topic than the starfish. 2. The specimens l!lhonld be typP~ of import:mt groups. Of abom 300.000 species of animals and 200,000 of plants only a few can be studied. It the few are types, a fairly good Idea of all may be obtained. 8. The specimens should, as far as possible, lead to valuable observation and application. The cornfieldpf.'a takes nitro~r<'n out of thf.' air and puts it Into the soil. The Canner pays blgh prices tor nltro{:!"eu in tertlllz!'rs. Certaio eommon insects are deHrucrive. These should ue recognized In any stagE' of developm!'nt. The value of birds, toads, etc.. sra rnp!! thNH? a!l useful topics. Se<>ond step. This Is the sE-eing. First find out whal pnplls ha .-e a.lrendy !I<:<'D. thE'n guide them to sE>e more. Skillful lJUel>"tlonlng will do this. The observation!'< ~hould UE' orderly. There will a& lr.t be the t ..ndency to see tblnJ b&pb&.&an!, 184 without any logical connections. To overcomt> this the teacher's questions should be planned in order. Ha"e a definite plan of procedure. Arrange your questions. Again the observations should be thoughtful. The pupil should interpret properly what he sees. The question should be thought-provoking; fhe why should always be in evidence. The observations should be complete. They should not stop until they bave seen all they ought to see. A definite plan will be needed for this, one which indicates a beginning and an end. Such plans well followed will Induce logical habits of thought. Third step. Observation should lead to expression. All the various !otms ot expression should be cultivated, but especially oral and written language and drawing. Have oral descriptions always and frequent written descriptions and life stories. Encourage drawings of leaves, flowers. animal, trees, anything studied. Have these just as a matter o! course, not as a tegu1ar drawing Jesson. Leaf, flower, and animal forms may be cut in paper or pricked and embroidered. This is good :Ldustrial busy work in connection with Nature Study. Outlines !or embtoidering may be had from any kindergarten supply house, such as Milton Bradley Co.. Atlanta. Pictures and literary gems should be brought in, tlle poet and the artist thus bt>lping t.be child to appreciate the beautiful. Free use of memory gems from literature at appropriate times is valuable. The reading of inspiring books is to be recommended. These books should not be mere eompilatlons of tact, but should be genuine good literature. Suclr are the works of Burroughs, Thoreau, Seton-Thompson. Long, and others. B:y way o! general suggestion let me add. Do not at any time let the lessons dwindle into were 186 knowledge-getting lessons, or Into a mere count lng and naming of parts. Let the life story stand out What can the plant or animal do, then how Is It fitted to do so. About the latter part of November celebrate Arbor Day. Have a program, invite patrons, and plant trees. About April first have a Bird Day. Have as much as possible of the nature work center In the garden. Make suggestions, dlsttibute seeds, do all you can to Interest them In plantIng and tending. Ir at all practicable, have a competitive exhibit of pupils' productions, flowers, plants, vegetables, school work. All of this will help to make the school the community center. III. SUGGESTIVE MATERIAL. Since this is a. new field, It seems best to give here more specific outline showing what material may be used. Nature Study is not fully organized as yet. Oourses of study wlll be found to agree generally In such subjects as arithmetic and geography, but there is no 1uch agreement In Nature Study courses. The following outline course ot study Is a step toward the organization of this material for Georgia. It is therefore suggestive in its alms. It will be too extensive for some, too limited for others. Topic may be taken, othen left according to individual tastes. Some may be abbreviated er added to, brou,ht In earlier or postponed. TboM who feel timid about entering tbi1 nat field are advi1ed to make a beilnnlni a.nywhere. Select a taw toplca ot tntere1t to you, begin with theae, and ;you'll 10011 radiate In all dlrectlonl. Tllo who 1eem Inclined to be oritlcal, please bear ID mind tb&t much bP bMD UtCHMl'll7 l~riACt4 ~ brtnq. 188 To correlate with the general course of study, the following course Is arranged In ftve groups agreeing with the ftve reader grades of the graded course of study for the common schools of Georgia, published by Commissioner Glenn. It is planned for the rural. and vlllage schools, and If put into effect will tend to dignify and elevate country life. Suggestions have been adapted from many sources, but it is hoped that there will be found some pedagogical merit distinctly Its own in the , course. SUGGESTIVE OUTLINE COURSE OF STUDY. TALL. FIRST GROUP. Life histories of dog, cow, cat, chicken, duck. Inatl- tute comparisons. Stress use to man and care of do~DJ!Stlc animals. Bring out habits, adapta- tlona, bodily covering. Properties of hair, fur, . etc. Hickory and pine trees; form, parts, arrangements of buds, fruit. Comparisons. Falling of leaves. Covering of buds with little overcoats. Higratfon of birds. Collect cocoons. From this study of the preparations of plant and ani mal for winter, pass to our protection against the cold of winter. WINTER. Bkln, hair, nalls; their uses and care. Cleanllneaa. Olothlng and related industries. Houses. Primitive houses and dresa; the Indiana. Eaquimau life. Teacher get information from Schwatka' Chll dreD of the Oold. A.lao bring 1n the Hiawatha ao.,, rrimer (BouchtoD, )Jut. tor llld1aD ltOd-. 187 tegends, etc. What were Hiawatha's Brothers? Hiawatha's Chickens? Also study parts of human body, bones and muscles. Fish, oyster, a vertebrate and an !'nvertebrate. SPRING. Nature's preparation for return of warm weather. Familiar seeds and their germination. Opening ot leaf and flower buds. Which open first In the elm? Why? in the dog'~ood? Note others. What are some of the first signs of Spring? Stut':y butterflies and moths. Have individual colle"tlons or lt>aves arranged according to shape and veining. Study the horse; simple structure, habits, food, use, care. Compare with cow. For wild animals, study the squirrel and the rabbit. Contrast habits. Begin an interest in birds. Have som! general weather observations. For some sample lessons worked out in full on the dog, cow, ho1'se, chicken, rabbit, etc., get McMurray's Method in Elementary Science. Thl~ Is a good book on Nature Study for the first three grades; price 50 cents, Public School Publish lng Co., Bloomington, Ill. Read them Thompson's "Raggy !Jug" from "Some Wild Animals I Have Known." in connection with the rabbit. Also Uncle Remus's tales of "Brer Rabbit." Give them many. Interesting stoiies of domestic animals. Encourage them to tell about the doings of animals. SECOND GROUP. FALL. Teach names of months and seasons. Forms of water; vapor, rain, hail, snow, Ice. Simple experiments to show e!'fect ot heat on matter: (:P on air, (2) on water, (3) on Iron, (4) on mercury. The t.hermometeJ." u a mea-1re or heat. Dail: 188 record or thermometer. Weather record kept this year. Sum these records weekly, then monthly. Which the hottest day? Which the coldest? What the average temperature? Which days were about average? On which days did it rain? How much? What the direction of wind these days? The prevailing weather? Prevailing winds, etc.? Flowers. Work or parts ot fiOW'-15. Fa!Ung or flowers. Which parts fall? Which remain? Use or the flowers to the plant. Study ot any r::~t flower !Ike Goldenrod, Chrysanthemum. Study or oak and walnut trees. Recognition by bark, leaf and wood. Properties of their wood. Nut trees In general and nuts. Collection ot autumn leaves. Have some drawn In outllne and colors. Collection ot seeds; morning glory, acorn, pecan, beans, peas, cockle-burs, lettuce, radish, mustard, corn, wheat. Every child should have a seed box. Some of their own collection should be planted next spring. How nature sows her seeds. The storing or rood by animals; by plants In seeds and In roots as In beets, turnips, parsnips, etc. Storing of starch as rood. Identification or starch (iodine test). Is it soluble? Try cold water and hot. Necessity for grinding and cookIng, for conversion of starch Into sugar. Sugar-cane, sorghum, sugar maple. From this t:tudy of the needs and preparation of ani- mals and plants from the standpoint of food, pass to a like study of man. WINTER. Primitive and modern methods of making fire, cookIng, grinding. The teeth. construction. use. carP. Proper way to eat. Food& Digestive 11ystem. Chl'nhtory system. Story 189 of a Mouthful of Bread In "The House I Live In." The sun, our great giver of heat and light. SPRING. (G a rden suggestions.) Germination of seeds. Parts of a plant as developed from seeds. Morning glory, bean, squash, and corn, are good plants to sprout and study. Sheep, pigeon. Further study of butterflies. The ant by way of contrast. The life history of the toad. 1. Cat (tiger, panther, lion). Flesh eaters. { 2. D\g (wolf, fox). Grass eaters. Horse, cow, sheep (reindeer, goat, camel, buffalo, elephant, deer). Study the apple-tree, its peculiarities, flower, fruit, etc. Begin with flowers from the early crabapple. Have these observed, drawn, colored. "Black Beauty" and "Beautiful Joe," may be read to them this year to continue to develop kindness to animals. Beecher's "The Anxious Leaf," Larcom's "When the Leaves Turn Brown," and other suitable gems should be used in proper connection. Tyndall's "Forms of Water" and Needham's "Out-Door Studies" w!ll suggest to the teacher. The latter book has excellent treatment of goldenrod and its inhabitants. Get Hodge's "Outline on the Toad." Read Jane Andrews' "Seven Little Sisters" to them this year. THIRD GROUP. I 'A L L . Leaves studied more systematically. Organs of leaf. Main purpose of leaf. Uses of leaf to plant and to man. Falling of leaves, how, why? Deter- mine bow much is one leaf in clover; In china- berrY'; in walnut; In hickory, thistle, etc. Adapta- tions. Summary of kinds of leaves. Ferns &Dd _,chell.ll u types of dowerless plan~. ,_. 190 Coal, petroleum, carbon, properties in fuels and illuminants. WINTER. Carbon in roods. Lungs, res:~Jlration, bodily heat. Hygiene of breathing. Ventilation, heating. The voice and its organs. Review circulation and digestion. The camel and elephant may be studied as beasts ot burden in other lands. SPRING. (Garden suggestions to be carried out at home.) Mica, quartz, glass, feldspar, marble, granite. Earthworm, bugs and beetles, snail and oyster. Mosquito, dragon fly, and pond life 1n general. The !ollow!ng topics may be divided between Fall and Spring, according to circumstances: 1. Ideas of north, south, east and west. , Observe direction and length o! shadow !rom same point, forenoon, noon, afternoon. Changes why? Shortest when? Shape of sun's path daily? Shadow mid-day points north. Sun-S. Right- E. Left-W. Observe sun's path tall, winter, spring. Compare. Sun's rising where? Setting? Drill in doors and out. Observe at home. In how many ways we find the north and south line? Find north star, big dipper, and observe motion ot stars. Make a weather vane and a sun dial. II. P .A.RTS OF THE EARTH. 1. Land, a solid. Walk on what to school? House rests on what? Compare with water, with air. It is a robid. Give ideas of l!m!tations in all directions. 2. Water, a liquid. @I Do what with water you cannot do with land? (Pour, 1wim in, drink, etc.). Movet freely; 1l.ow1 dOW11 _,!Jli collects q. low placetL 191 8. Air, a gas. Where is air? Can you feel It? See It? How high? Tree tops. birds, clouds. Does air keep stiii ever? What do we call air in motion. Difference between gale and breeze? Color of distant objects, hills, sky. Why blue? Is It warmer at noon or In morn,lng'l Day or night? On which side of house is it coolE-st, and why? Why cooler at nights? What heats the air? Why cooler on top of mountain than at foot? San heats the air how? How does air protect us from cold? How many uses of air can you name? Tell all we have found out about air. liT. WATER IN THE AIR. Boil water and condense. Place a pan of water where It will evaporattt\. Ask what has become of it. Teach vapor, steam, clouds. Is all the moisture in the air in clouds? (Ice pitcher experiments.) How does the air get Its moisture? On what kind of nights does dew collect? Where come from? Does It "fall"? Why collect on plants and flowers? What becomes of the dew-drop? What is its "shining pathway?" What has been called "cloud dust?" What doe& the air do with Its moisture? Uses of water In air? Teach rain, mist, fog, hall, snow. frost. IV. WEATHER. Weather observations and records continued. Get directions for voluntary observers from U. S. Weather Bureau, also their pictures of varloua clouds. Note the amount o:t' rainfall and the prevailing directions of winds before and after raina and during dry season&. U t'Jont1nne observations on the sun a.nd moon. Expla.tn phuea of moon. Our relations to the ama, ~e In lenJi:h ot 4&TL 192 V. WATER ON THE LAND. Slopes, universality of; kinds, gradual, abrupt, long, short, rough, grassy, etc Water-meeting waterparting, divides, creek-beds, rills, branches, creeks, rivers, ponds, lakes, oceans, banks, basins, creek systems, river systems. Uses of Slopes. Suppose no slopes. Suppose all abrupt. (1) Sources of soil. (2) Distributes soil. (3) Variety of plants. (4) Of animals. (5) Of climate. Produce springs, streams, oceans, etc. IV. WATER IN TRE EARTH. What becomes of the water that falls as rain? What of that which soaks in the ground? Through what kind of soil will it sink deepest? What will stop its course? Change its course? Doe any of it ever come out again. All of it? Springs, wells, caverns, streams, mineral springs, etc. Uses of underground water. VII. LAND FORMS. These have already been taught in substance in connection with slopes. Sum up or teach hills, mountains, plateaus, valleys, deserts, swamps. VIII. ANIMALS OF VALLEYS AND SLOPES. Where find muskrats, frogs, turtles, crawfish, tadpoles, snakes, dragon flies, cranes, snipes, wild ducks, etc Where wolves, foxes, chipmunks, squirrels, bears, robins, jaybirds, eagles? How are these adapted to their homes? Long-legged webfooted, sharp bill, etc. Animal life in various regions of the world, 193 t:X. PLANTS OF VALLEYS AND SLOPES. Where do you go for huckleberries? For water lilies? What trees grow in the valleys? On slopes? Where is vegetation the rankest? Why so in valleys? Vegetation in various regions. X. SOIL MAKING. 1. Kinds ot soil and rock. Examine some sand to find out what it is made out ot. Examine clay in a similar way. In Georgia the mica in clay will help to the conclusion that It too is made out of rock particles. Bring in some black soil from the wood-yard or elsewhere. Find all you can In it. It has what, not found in sand? What becomes of all the animals that die? Ot the plants? Thus teach loam as another kind of soil. Which do you think is made out of the harder rocks, sand or clay? Why do you think so? .Sand out ot quartz, clay out of feldspar. Loam out ot what? 2. Weathering. Work ot frost, lee, wind. S. Work ot streams. Wash, transport, deposit. Signa ot these? 4. Work of plants and animals. XI. OUR NEEDS. 1. Food. Make a catalogue of vegetables raised within radius ot one mile. Do the same tor fruits; also grains. What the chief product ot home county. Do you eat many things not raised in the county? Name some. Source. 2. Clothing. Its materials, sources, related trades. Show by an examination that nearly all cloth is put together in the same way. Then If possible get a small toy loom and show how It is woven. 1. Shelter. Its materials and rell!-ted trades. Ideal hom ea. 194 XII. OCCUPATION. (1) Farming. (2) Stock-raising, etc. (3) Lumberltig. (4) Mining. (5) Fishing. (6) Manufacturingflour, clotll, Iron, steel, wood, etc. (7) Trade. commerce. XIII. PEOPLE. Let pupils read "Seven Little Sisters." XIV. GOVERNMENT. Tllis should first be an objective, sense study, to open the eyes and the understanding of the chJld to his surroundings. Do you know any one who holds office? What does he do? Who made him an officer? Who pays him? Did you ever. pay taxes? (How about postage stamps?) Name things that have to be done for the good of the whole community. Roads, schools, etc. Care of public property. XV. WOHLD AS A WHOLE. This topic Is brought In as a proper conclusion to the series above, and not because it Is in itself a Nature Study topic. Payne's Geographical Nature Studies, Tarr and Mc1\'Iurry's Home Geography, Frye's Child and Nature, Stories of Industry, are some valuable aids to teachers. FOURTH GROUP. FALL. Soil. A more complete study than In the preceding group. (See following outline.) Birds. A fall study to be continued In the sprlni. The English sparrow is a handy type. Bees, a colony or animals. The grasshopper by wa1 ot compar.Won. Emphasize thritt. 19~ The cotton plant. Instincts of animal\, Intelligence ot m11n7. How we krnn.o and ful. WINTER. The nervous system. Its control over other organ. the heart, lungs, stoiL tch, muscles, etc. Nervous matter In general, the white and the gray. Th,. brain, spinal cord, ganglia, nerves, and the special sense organs. Adaptations of these organs. What we know through each. Hygiene ot the netvous system in groeral. Care of the special senses. SPRING. Bird study continued. Cra~flsh. The o trn plant. More critical study of trees. Endoge~s, exogens. Life In the woods. Orchard life. (See Comstock's "Insect Life," chapter on Orchard Life.\ Fruit trees. Metals: Iron, tin, lead, copper, zinc, gold, silver, alloys. At any time of year observe moon, its phases, motion among stars, time from moon to moon. Also notice behavior of all visible planets during year, especially motion among stars. "Birds and Bees," "Sharp Eyes," "Fur-Bearing Animals," all by John Burroughs. "Ways of Woodfolk." Long. "Some Wild Animals I have Known," Thompson. "Bird World," Stickney. These are all Interesting and Inspiring books for ( both teachers and pupils. "Our Native Birds," Lang, and U. S. Government Farmer's Bulletins on Bird and Their Relation to Agric:!'ture, are rood tor Information for teachera. 196 SOIL. (A tuner outline.) Man's prosperity, wealth, and life depend upon the earth, atmosphere, and sunlight. Over which of these does man have little control? Which can he treat to advantage? (The soil.) 1. What Is sol!? (That part of crust of E. In which plants grow.) How deep is It? Distinction between land and soil? Land, areas. Soli, the attributes of land. 2. How soil Is made. (1) Basis of soli is rock dust or fragments. Ex amine sand tor rock particles. Examine clay. Which made of harder rocks? How was the rock prepared? (2) By change of temperature, frost, Ice, rain, wind. Weathering. Find some crumbling rock. After It crumbles what becomes of It? Transportation. Signs of the same? (Water muddy, hill-side gullies, sand banks along streams.) Leveling prOly, ripened plstll, together with Intimately related parts. 2. Kinds. (1) Fleshy. (a) Stone: peach. cherry. (b) Gourd: pumpkin, melon. (c) Pome: apple, pear. .. (2) Dry. (a) Grain. (b) Nuts. (c) Akenea: straw berry, sun:tl.ower. 918 KJnds according to dissemination. (1) That roll: pea, bean, nut. Testa smooth. (2} Sail: dandelion. (3} Fly: pine, maple. (4} Stick: burrs. Fill these claeses with others. Tell how each 18 adapted. 8. Agents. Seed carriers. Water, wind, animals, birds, ftsh, beasts, man. 4. Queries. Which fruits have eatable pulps? .Why so many? Why are seeds of pulpy fruits often bitter, ae orange seeds? Why coated as In stone fruits? Why some too small to be chewed, aa flg, banana? Account for raspberries growing 1D forks of trees. IX. GROUPS AND FAKILIJDS. L Trees. Common tree8 of Georata; pecul1ar1tl and uses. 2. Oorn group. 8. Cotton. 4. Legum& 5. Potato and tomato. 6. Weeds and struagle for ulstencl. 7. Wild flowers. 8. Cultivated flowers. 9.. Flowerless plants: mould, yeast, mossee, Ucbeu., mushrooms, ferns. Flowerless plants are of much great61' Importance and. Interest than generally thought to be, and should be fully notlcell ba lower as well a& htaher ,rades. TREES. PINE A.S A. TYPE. 1. Compare pine with other trees. leaves, branches, section, etc. growth from bud. root, seed. 2. Called contter. Other eonltel'l. Flowert 9f the pine tree. Color, trunk. Difference ba l 219 ,, 8. What Is a forked tree? What made It so? Did you ever see a Corked pine? Why scarce? Destroy a terminal bud of young pine and note the results, a race for leadership, one branch winning, others dropping back as branches. Does the pine shed Its leaves? How prove lt7 How many leaves In each bunch? What m&J the number tell you? Uses of pine leaves? '- Kinds of pine. Size, age. G. Uses to man; to other animals. 8. Turpentine farms of Georgia. Where? How up procured? Waste in present methods. WliiiiDS. What Is a weed? Name some. "A plant out ot place." "A plant whose virtues we have not discovered."-Emerson. Burroughs styles weeds ''the most human plants." Why? They cling to man; follow him around the world; crowd btl ~ barn, house, crops. Who seem to be the greatest enemies of weeds? ' Are they? How do they help weeds? Where do ' weeds begin to grow? Why do they grow? To cover bare places; to replenish. From what do they grow? They seem to spring up like magic. How deep do seeds sometimes get In eartb1 How long live? In what ways wlll a weed protect its species! Wild carrots multiply heads; toad flax and Ber- muda travel under ground. Late corn starts otf as usual, but a late weed will hurry up a short stem and go to seed as quickly as possible. e. Weeds have been called the tramps of the vegeta.- ble world. Justify. How do they trave11 Where most easily? How far known to tran11 '~ Why should weeds flourish in our countr;r! 1 ltoom;r, waste. Wb&t weeds are natives ot tM . . , worlcn Kllk, rq, poke, pldenrocL De 220 these In!est crops, or come atter them? Ar~ they hard to keep down? What weeds have come to us from over the seas? How do years of contact with civilization change habits of vermin and weeds? Pugnacious, persistent. Compare wild wood mice with house rats. Have we given, any mean weed to Europe'i Tobacco. What weeds are plants escaped from civilization? Radish, carrot, liveforever. What weeds have pretty flowers? Uses of weeds, especially grass. Have weeds any virtues to be admired? Not easily discouraged; take what they can get; make the most of their opportunities; die game. Study of particular weeds. Dandelion, Cocklebur, etc. Read Burrough's A Bunch of Herbs. For some good suggestions on the dandelion, Balley'1 Lessons with Plants. THE CORN GROUP. L WHAT IS CORN? In the United States we think of maize as corn: In Scotland, oats; in England, wheat. At the beginning of barley harvest, Ruth asked to glean corn. Corn meant hard, dry gmin. Called cereals. Tell the story of Ceres, goddess of agriculture, and Proserpine, her only daughter. Also the Indian legend of corn, Mondamin. II. COMPARE CORN, WHEAT, RYE, AS TO GRAINS, PLANTING, GROWTII, STALKS, FLOWERS, EARS, HARVEST, ETC. 1. Note adaptations to fields, winds, rains, springy stalk, tubular arrangement, long, wavy, springy leaves. Did you ever see a field of grain wavIng? A beautiful sight. Advantages of tubular arrangement. 221 2. Growth. (1) Internodes lengthen. Race for life; 4. rapid grower. How high have you seen corn? (2) Roll within roll as It grows. Movable shea.th protects when wind blows. Rain guards. Brace roots. 3. Drouth. (1) May root deep. Rye as deep as four teet. May stop loss of wat~r; roll leaves. Leaves roll when? Spread why? How arranged to send water to roots? III. LIFE WORK. 1. Food making for self. This the main purpose of early life. (1) Which parts aid in getting raw materials from earth and air? (2) Which serve in bringing materials together? (3) Green parts use sunlight to make over the materials. (4) Some puts carry digested food where needed. Roots, stems, leaves grow rapidly in early life. (5) Branch factories establ!shed. How -many heads from one grain wheat? 2. Provision for olrspring. This the final duty of plant. (1) Floral parts. (a) When made? hen plant ill well under way. (b) Maize ftowers compared with wheat and oats. In maize, pistils, silk. (c) The ear, takeu husks and all, a specialized stem. The flower bud, a specialized leaf bud. (d) Beginning of seed. Why all these parts? "Cross pollination." How guard against "close pollination?" which bettet? (e) .Agent of pollination, wind. Best varieties; how obtained? Examine corn on a solitary stalk. (f) After polllnatlon, how do stigmas and anthers behave? What further work is to be done? Sap must carry sugar to be converted into starch, which in turn must be stored. Where stored? Protection of r1peDIJaf kerneL 222 ...... (2) Scattering of seed. (a) Wild vl!l. cultivated plants. How did nature plan to scatter maize seed. (b) Coyote corn founu in Mexico. Section!!! or ear. (c) Coyotes, wolves, birds, etc. Hair starved Indians rob stores of birds and other animals. Did man first learn from these the value of this food? (d) Badey scattered by grain loving ants. See Proverbs vi., 6-8. HARVESTING ANTS. FARMER ANTS. IV. GERMINATION. The infant plant and its food. "Surely the vege-table kingdom has no greater marvel than a kernel of corn. It represents the joint achieve-ment of man and .nature working together tor untold generations upon this kind of plant to promote the most perfect provision for Its orrspring." 1. Contents of kernel.. Starch, gluten, fatty oil, lite germ. Why these? Chew a handful of wheat. Note change In taste as you chew. Ptyalin in mouth, pepsin in stomach are ferments. Ferments change starch Into sugar. 2. How use this material? (1) Moisture. This wakes up the seed; starts ferment. (2) Ferments. Starch to sugar; proteids to peptones, making liquid food. (3) Main roots sent out. This soon covered with hair roots which ~lp plant to begin to teed itselt. V. A.DVANTAGES OF CEREALS AS FOOD PLANTS. 1. ~avage food; how obtained? Hunt, fish, gather roots, nuts, fruits. Does this make large and strong nations possible?. 2. Superiority of cereals. (1) In yield. (2) In separation of seed. (3) In bulk, c~ndensed. (4) In ~eeplni - .223 8. In.fiuence or cultivation on yield. Pliny tells of Cresinus charged with sorcery 'ror increasing yield. How much wheat sown on an acre? How much reaped? How much corn planted on an acre? How many bills to an acre? Ears to an acre? Advantages or drilling wheat? Food taken from the soil? Effect on soil? L Separation. (1) Plant depended on wind, hence easily shattered. (2) Food stored by germ in grain, hence simply crush. Mills. (3) Plant depended upon liquid food, hence easy digestion. fl. Bulk, compact, light, much condensed. 6. Keeping, dry, hard, like weed. VI. COMPARISON OF CEREALS. 1. Which is king of cereals? Wheat. "Statr of life." White bread. (1) Native home, Mesopotamia, Tigris and Euphrates. (2) Its relations to civilization. In Palestine, Egypt. Prehistoric. In Persia, India, Greece, Rome. (3) Where most cultivated to-day? United States. Vast fields where? (4) Wheat harvesting and threshing. Wheat products. Mills of Minneapolis. 2. Oats. Grain of hardiness. (1) Some advantages. Contains proteids, muscle substance. In fatty material, richest of grains. Thrives north. (2) Home, middle and eastern Europe. (3) Oats products. (1) wm grow on poor son, in climate too hot or dry for others. These conditions met in northern Europe and Asia. (2) Native home. south Europe, middle Asia. Not probably known to early great nations. Cultiva.~Qn spre11-ds abo-qt Ohriati&ll el-'4- 224 (3) Rye products. Straw tough, not good fodder. Good for packing, for hats, paper, boxes, etc. 4. Barley. The brewer's grain. 5. Rice. The corn of the east. 6. Maize. The corn of the west. (1) Native home. (2) Advantages in raising, yield. (3) Kinds. (4) Uses. (5) Relations to history of this country. Benj& min Franklin's method of parching. Why should Georgia raise more cereal crops? Corn Plants, by Sargent, (Houghton-Mifllln Co.,) covers the above. TEACHERS' HELPS. It has been said that teachers need no books to prepare for nature lessons; that God's great book 1s spread out before them. Such advice is not only discouraging-it is folly. It is not the fault of the teachers that their preparation has been unsuitable and inadequate. This is the fault of the schools. The greatest need of the teacher in this work is scientific knowledge. Teachers can get knowledge, stimulus and suggestion from books. Just as the teacher is to guide the children, books can guide the teacher. However, the teacher should always verify book knowl edge by personal observation. There are books of knowledge, of inspiration and of method. The writings of Burroughs, Thoreau, Long, Seton-Thompson are inspiring. Text-books in zoology, botany, physiology, physical geog raphy, etc., may be good tor knowledge, but many of these are unsuitable in method for intruction of children. Some of the late hand books of method contain also valuable informaUon. Such boob are McMU1T1' llllement&rJ 121 lclence, 1!0 cents; Lange'l Handbook of Nature Study, $1.25; Howe's Systematic Science Study, $1.50; Jackman's Nature Study, $1.50; Scott's Nature Study and the Child, $1.50. Any teacher can make a good beginning with McMurry's Method and Lange's , Handbook. McMurry discusses the underlying principles, gives an outline course for first four grades, and works out in full many valuable lessons on domestic animals. Lange is adapted to higher grades, as well, and Is full of good material Another cheap but suggestive little book is Boyden's Nature Study by Months, first four years, 50 cents. Some books have already been suggested in the preceding outlines. Without any attempt at classification or complete list, the following are added as helpful: Nature Study, Wilson. Sealide and Wayside Readers. Lessons on Elementary Science, Longman. How to Know tJie Wildflowers, Dana. A Year With the Birds, Flagg. Birdcratt, Wright. The Great World's Farm, Gaye. Trees of United States, Apgar. About the Weather, Harrington. Story of a Piece of Coal, The Story of the Cotton Plant, The Story of the Earth's Atmosphere, The Story of Electricity, all from D. Appleton Co. Bees, Wasps, and Ants, Lubbock. The Crayfish, Huxley. Butterflies, Scudder. How to Teach Minerals and Rocks, Kellogg & Co. Fam1llar Animals and Their Wild Kindred, Monteith. ene of the most valuable and suggestive of books for teachers of any grade Is Jordan' Animal Ltf~t D. Appleton & Co. b)' books can be bou1ht at diacount throu1h B. 8. Oole, Atlanta, GL I SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. c. BY SUPT. B. GIBSON, COLUMBUS PUBLIC SCHOOLI. ( CopvrlgiiUd.) ExPLANATORT.-Thi.!l ehapttr on School Management ill intended to be suggestive merely. It aims at quickening thought among the common school teachers of Georgia and bringing them to consider and discuss in the county institutes questions of vital importance to the successful management of their schools. It is written with the ungraded ruralschoole in Tiew-the schools that stand most in need of a better management-and for the purpose of aiding especially the large body of young, ambitious, and comparatively inexperienced teachers who constitute so large a part of the teaching force of Georgia. The suggestions are not the direct or indirect result of reading and theorizing alone, but they come from actual and sometimes painful experience in the most rural of rural schools, the semi-graded village school, and the wellgraded or over-graded city 11chool. In one chapter it is impossible to enter into a didactic discussion of the principles laid down or the brief statements ventured. This must be left to the conductor and conducted at the institute. INTRODUCTORY. DEFINITION.-School management is the art of properly eli recting internal and external school affairs. ScoPs.-Broad enough to embrace all the influence~~ and agencies that operate on the school from within or without. That management which aims at only the internal affairs of the echool will fall short of a full measure of succe81. There ill an intimate relation existing and a cordial co-operatioa which 1hould exist between the in1!uencea of the home, where 228 the child apenda sixteen houri a day, and thole of the tchoo11 where he spends leu than eight hours a day. Sound, rational BChool management should aim to reach and manage educa tionally the homes, the parents, and eTen the school officiall. BAsrs.-The soundest educational principles. As an art it is the outgrowth and exponent of the science of education. RELATION TO GooD TEACHING.-The lint qua non; the chief thing needful; absolutely indispensable. Especially is thia true in rural and village schools, where more evils can be traced to a lack of management of the school forces than to any other cause. There are many good instructor~ in these schools, but their measure of success is small because they fail to organize and systematize and manage the educa tional forces of the community-pupils and patrons, material 118 well as mental resources. DxvisroNs.- I. School Facilitiea. II. School Organization. III. School Government. IV. Outline of Work. V. Tests, Records, etc. VI. School Hygiene (sufficiently important to constitute a division of the subject.) In this brief article the first three only ean be considered. L-F.ACILITIES. I. Building and GTounda.-It ia a mistake to suppose that these are facilities with which the teacher bas nothing more to do than to accept them as be finds them, adapt himsell to them, use them under distressing disadvantages, and when he leaves, surrender so much of the grounds as the rains have not washed away, and so much of the building as the pupila, unhindered, have not whittled or torn away. These are thin~ with which the teacher hal to do: 1. .As he finds them. 2. As he uses them. 8. A. he leaves them. "- AI he is instrumental in supplying them. Fir1t. Statistics from the office of the State School Oo .aialioner ahow that Geor~~:ia baa 7i19 common achooll, aa41 229 tbat these are taught in 5207 schoolhoul!es, Problem: Deter mine the schoolhoul!e facilities for each school. After careful investigation the Commissioner gives the fol lowing in his report, 1894: "The average number of school houses, outside of the city, is about sixty. As reported by the county commissioners, the value of all the sixty I!Choolbouses, outside of the towns, is less than $2,000. (Find the average. The average value of decent barns for Georgia mules is $175.) Of those in this number that are ruitab/.e for 1ch.ool purpoaea, the average number is not over jour or five." The natural results are: 1. Nine-tenths of the country schools must be conducted during the hot, sultry summer months. 2. Many of the schools are "kept," and the resnlta are distressing and dil!couraging to teacher and patron alike. 3. Many of the best citizens are moving from the country to the towns and cities, to have the advantages of good schools. '- Conflicting duties on the farm in summer keep many children away from school altogether. With a school population of 604,971 the average attendance ia le111 .than 250,000. The teacMra of :he past and pruent are largelv r~oruibu for lhil condition of things, Second. The teacher should be careful how he uses the school building, grounds, and appliances. It is the teacher's duty 1. To see that the building is provided with means of pro tecting the school property against burglars and vandals, and to keep the building locked when not in use for educational or other good purposes. 2. To replace or repair anything that he may break 01 damage, and require the same to be done by pupil!!, whether the damage be accidental or otherwise. 8. To inspect closely the furniture and premil!el at lean once a week, and cause amendl to be made for u.y thing found to be amin. ~30 ' 4. To keep in order and r~ady for nne all apparatus and appliances belonging to the school. 5. To exercise a business care and vigilant supervision over all the school property-grounds, building, furniture, apparatus, library, appHances. Third. If every teacher were careful to leave the school facilities in at least as good condition as he finds them, and all carefully locked and protected, the schools of Georgi>~ would be far better equipped than they now are. No matter what may be the circumstances attending the teacher's leaving a school a proper regard for his good name will lead him to put everything in order before going away. His successor, whether he ever meets his predecessor or not, will be sure tn form and express an opinion of him. 'Vhen the schoolhouse door is opened one sort of impression will be made if the desks are found in disorder and much damaged; an accumnlation of dirt on the floor, dirt on the desks, dirt on the wall-;. dirt everywhere; window panes out; bucket gone or fallen to pieces; dipper rusted out; teacher's desks full of chaotic con fuRion ; no copy of schedule ; no record; nothing that will help and much that will hinder. Quite a different sort of impression will be formed if every tbing is found to be clean and in order, with as mu.::h at haL d to help the new teacher as can be left by the retiring one. A. duplicate inventory of everything in the building should be left with the county school commissioner. A few suggestions on leaving a school: 1. Pnt the teacher's desk in order. See that it containa a carefully prepared copy of your program, a copy of your rules and regulations, the school record, anrl such information as will enable your successor to carry on your good work. 2. Place in the desk under lock and key such small articles as may be easily lost or misplaced. B. See that no window-panes are out. ' See that the pupils' desks are clean-within and without-and in good condition; that the ink-wells a.n; clean and ready to receive ink, 231 1. See that tb.e school library (if there be one-aad there .o;ilould be) is arranged and secured, and a !itt of the books in the teacher's desk. e. See that the bucket is scoured and left inverted, or on ita larger base, that the hoops may not fall off; the dipper scoured and dried that it may not rust out. 7. See that the locks are provided with key1 properly l11beled, the window-sashes are fastened down, the house securely locked, and the keys left with a proper person, from whom take a receipt. 8. See that the ~rounds are left in such good condition that they will not be badly washed by rains during the vacation. This done, and your successor will bless forever your name ; and, encouraged by the condition of things, will strive dill. gently to carry on your good work. Fourth. Statistics show thll-t a large number of our echool houses are unsightly-crushing to the child's natural love for the beautiful; uncomfortable in summer and winter alike; un healthy, because of the accumulation of filth in and about the building; poorly lighted, poorly ventilated, poorly heated (even to the danger point),-an abomination to the eye of the ~onsecrated teacher. It is the teacher's duty to use his intelligence and enthusiasm and unceasing hard work to sup ply better school facilities to a hitherto indifferent and apathetic community. If he is called a benefactor who cause1 two blades of grass to grow where one grew before, whll.t shall be said of a faithful teacher who causes a neat, substantial schoolhouse to be erected where a miserable, dilapidated, disgraceful shack stood before? The teacher should be authority -the proper teacher is authority--<>n educational matter in his community. He should manage the school-sentiment of that community as one of his educational agencies, and mold it for a better schoolhouse. How long would a live Methodist preacher remain in a community without having a neat, cowfortable0 house in which his people may worship God tw" hours a month? The live (?) teacher continuea to teach school in a miserable bovell60 hours a month. The school building and grounda are often the areateat ol>Jta j I 232 ele that the ambitious teacher meets when he goes to ta.ke charge of a new school. It is a mistake to try to persuade one's aelf that the average country schoolhouse is not a hindrance k> good teaching. It is a mistake for the new teacher to expresa himself in a community as content with the schoolhouse as he finds it, unless it is what it should be. His aims and ideals are at onee rated as low, and he loses a golden opportunity to impress the importance of at least repairing substantially the old ~:louse. Why sh~uld the teacher insist upon improvements to the schoolhouse? 1. Because it is due the people that the teacher place before them and impress upon them higher ideals of education and of the facilities necessary to carry on the work. 2. Because it is due the children to be taught that they should be instructed in the best house and with the besi appliances, as well as by the best teacher, to be had. S. Beca.se it is due the teacher himself that he surround himself with the most helpful aids, the most useful appliances, the best opportunitiee for doing rood work. Bome suggettions on securing means of improving the school property: 1. Be not too quick to accept the 11ehool with dilapidated buildings and corrugated grounds. 2. On going to a community with a view to teaching, make a thorough inspection of the schoolhouse and grounds. B. Study all the school architecture you can get your hands on .f.. Mature and prepare plans for m~J.king the desired im provements. i. Secure a meeting of a few leading citizens. Fire into them all the schoolhouse ammunition with which you are loaded. Insist that they then and there pledge themselvee--their means, or labor, or material, or ~m11 and then fix an early day for the improveme:qf41 233 a. In carrying out your plans be not ahy in asking favon of those good people-from grandsire to grandson. 7. Keep the quesi~on of schoolhouse improvements warm in the community, and on the appointed day, be on hand early and give direction to every detail. Some points of improvement: 1. A substantial plank or picket fence, whitewashed or painted, should inclose a suitable portion of the grounds of every schoolhouse-only so much of the grounds as can be kept in good order. 2. The grounds should be laid off, walks made, trees planted, shrubbery added. 3. The building should be painted. Nothing will add more to the community's respect for the school building and pride in the school than a nicely painted schoolhouse. 4. The roof should be in good condition; the front step! will probably need attention; the window panel should be in place. Don't wait for a bitterly cold day. Outside blinds are not best; good oil shades mounted on strong spring rollers are better for regu lating the light. li. If the desks are not in good condition they should be sandpapered and one or two coati of good hard oil put on them. This can be done at a cost of twelve or thirteen centsper desk. If the desks are beyond satisfactory repair, get new ones. How? Show the Board that they are necessary and that the Board ha1 the right to buy them. Good, new, modern, double desks can be laid down at your schoolhouse at a cost of $2.30 to $2.75 each. If the Board will not furnish all the money get it to furnish part, and get up contributions or some entertainment for the remainder. Country achool3 CAN be well equipped. a. Every schoolroom should have from 50 to 100 lineal feet of blac-kboards. Enameled duck or drilling, tightly stretched, sandpapered and coated with alating, makes one of the best, most durable and cheap eet blackboards to be had. The cost il SO tn 40 ,........ .,....-r vard, 40 or 50 inches wide. 234 7. Have a atove or heater. With loll open fireplace you lose from 70 to 95 per cent. of the heat produced by the combustion of your fuel, and therefore find it almost impossible to heat the room so that it is not necessary for pupils to leave their desks and collect around the fire-a source of perpetual annoyance. Have a ventilating (not radiating) stove; thereby the hot air is kept in circulation and every part of the room is kept comfortably warm. One of the best Tentilating wood stoves for a schoolroom is the "Wonder," made by the Wonder Manufacturing Co., Washington C. H., Ohio. One medium-size ventila.tr ing stove in the corner of the room will heat every part of it. Do not place tht atove in the center of tht room. Other things worthy of consideration are the library-importance, cost, care of, kind of books; apparatus-cost, means of supplying, school-made, ownership ; maps, globes and charts ; weight and measures; blackboard, eraser11, and pointera. 11.-0RGANIZATION. Careful, thorough school organization is e81ential to succe!!ll ful teaching. If a teacher had only one or two children te teach he could afford to regard lightly the matter of school organization; but with thirty or forty or fifty children demanding at the same time a part of his teaching force, there must be systemization of school work or ignominious failure. CLASSIFIOATrox.-Naturally, the first step towards organ ization is the classification of pupils. Unless a large draft is made on the teacher's wisdom and firmness the pupils will make their own classification, and the number of elasses will equal the number of pupils enrolled. Then if the teacher perform the miracle of making a schedule of recitations, what can he do in a five-minutes recitation period? On the other hand, the teacher should guard against the leadings of some rural school reformers, who, holding up the city schools as a model, would have them ,;o to the other extreme of making a loose classiftcatioa wiih one-year or two-year intervala in a}! subjects. 236 In clusl.fyins pupU. a few prlnclpf dlould IO'fmlo 1 L Pupils should be classed and promotelfl apoo tbelr abU." ity to do the work. I. The number of classes, say 15 or 8, should be deter- mined by the length of school day, the ao.ne o1 etudy, and the teacher's ability. a. Cl818e1 should be divided into two sections, about. hl!olfyear apart, in Arithmetic, Language or Grammar, ~nd Geography. Whatever may be said of tbf advantages of the graded City .,hools aver the rural schools fn the matter of classifica- tion or grading, it mast not be forgotten that the rural schoolll han certain advantages over the city schools. 1. The pupils of the several clll8tles are thrown together iD the same room and are not separated by thick walls. :Much information is thus had by the younger pupila that will be useful and helpful in tpeir development. 2. It is not necessary to withhold a pupil's promotion al~ gether because he is deficient in one study. Temporary Olauification.-On taking charge of a school a temporary classification is necessary. It is unwise and dan 1erous to undertake to make a permanent classification on the 1lrst day of the session. The pupils and the patrons should be made to feel that the cluaification is only temporary. Much dissatisfaction and cbmplaining may thus be avoided. To make a satisfactory temporary classification some prepar- atory work should be dQne before the session begins. 1. You should have a personal conference with your prede. ce~sor, or communicate with him by mail, and go to the schoolroom on the first day with the information obtained from him noted down and classified. 2. A. few days should be spent visitin~ your prosp~Te p.bons. It is always well to form their acquaintance before the "SChool opens, but specially should you vfait them if you are 1eeking help in making a JOOd tem- porary classi4cation. Talk with them about what their children have done, what their habitl are, what their ,clilpositiou are, what their wfi&QC!!IIMI art. JUke noord flf data IDformation.. 236 .. aau the aoquaintanoe of the pupi111; will their friend- lhip ; dnd out what they have 1tudied, how they han ltudied it, how they lib it, what books they han ued. Two or three days of visitinr in a community beiore opening the 1chool can be as profitably spent u any week of the school year. It ill profitable to the pupi11 throu~~:hout the year, because it prepares the teacher to make an intelligent, auspicious start. .A.I you will probably not be able to test your pupil1 thor~ oughly in all subjects on the first day, it will be best to take about two 1ubjecta, preferably Arithmetic and Reading, 11 a basis on which to make the temporary classification. Have a carefully prepared plan and abundant fresh, interesting mate rial at hand for testing pupils in theae aubjects. Insist quietly and firmly that everything shall be done in an orderly, sy tematic way from the very beginning on the morning of the 1lr~t day. An illustration may be helpful to the inexperienced. For 1nch the following from Baldwin's School Management il pven: Teacher.-" All who are prepared to read in the Fourth or Fifth Reader may raise their hands." .Pupila.-Fifteen pupils raise their hand11. Teackr.-''Take your Readers. At eignale, take placea u directed. Ready; rise; pass." (Such directions are given u will insure order.) Pupilf.-Tbe pupils pas11 to places at the board. T~kr.-" You may write your namea on the board. Board erase; write; attention." PupiU.-Each pupil writes hill name, and at the si111al, ..U. ~n, turns, facing the teacher. Teacher.-" Turn to page 120; read as called.'' Pupila.-Each one reads a short portion. The teacher, during the readin,, makes out a roll of the cla811 from the name11 on the board, and at the same time notices the readin~. Such aa evidently belong to a lower cliUJI are told to take places in the clau to which they belong. Teacher.-" Turn to page 30 for the next le111on. Ton may prepare the fint and 1econd paraarapha. Notice the 1pellinr 237 f.ni wood han been tarked to add depth. A bottle of htk~ graph-ink can be had for ten centa. Be punctual. See that everything is in order, everything. needful provided. Greet pupils cordially by name, if possible. Any child esteems it an nonor to have the new teacher reco&'nize him by name in the presence of his companions. Awaken in them an interest in the success of their school. Preserve order; prevent jokes, pranks, boisterousness. Be most vigilant; but do not nag. Begin work promptly at the appointed hour, whether there be five or fifty pupils present. Require pup1ls to move by ~i guals and words of command given in a kind but firm tone. Promptness, positivity and precision will do much to create a favorable impression. Announce no rules until afternoon at the close of school; then give as few as possible. Add to them from time to time as they are needed, but always announce them in a formal, dignified way at the close of the school-day. As soon as pupils are seated, somewhat under the tactful direction of the teacher, have a word of earnest prayer or the Lord's prayer in concert, sing a familiar song, give the pupils a brief welcome-not over five minutes, and at once begin work on your program. Have something for every pupil to do and see that every pupil does something under your direction,-test problems 1n Arithmetic, copying ami memorizing ~ems, letter-writing, autobiographical sketches, thought qtestions in Il istory and Geography constitute good busy work for the older ones while yon are testing and classifying pupils For the little ones stencil-drawing, color work with bits of worsted, word-building with letter cards, sentence building wih word cards, stick-laying from copy, are all good. Suitable, busy work must be provided; you might as well have it on the first day. Have a number of short quick recitationa. III.-SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. The best equipped and best organized school will be a failure without good government. School facilities and organization have to do more especially with the beginning; government continn111 all long aa the school continues; indeed the effects of rood "''"IJ'Jlment. b~ on right principle~~, continue~ long, 240 after~the school has ceased and the boys and girls are boys and girls no more. But the good school continues no longer than good government lasts. That government which aims at producing and sustaining order alone, in its generally accepted sense, by the exercise of authority, by the enforcement of rules and regulations, by punishments-in a word, by forcing the child to submit wholly, automatically to the will of another-is vicious and should;he shunned. Proper School Government is such control of school forces as will conduce to the best training of pupils for the duties of life. The best training of pupils for the duties of life is character building; therefore, character-building is the end or aim of proper school government. School government is, however only one of the means to this end. Many of the strongest characters, many of the men and women who have discharged most acceptably the duties of life, have not had the advantage of good school government; many other characters have been good and strong in spite of certain forms of school government. The teacher should have a reason for every means or method employed in school work, a clear aim in every undertaking. In matters of school discipline, which, by the way, is not coextensive with school government, there should be clearly in view the developing and strengthening of character of the individual pupil or of the pupils of the school. Character determines future conduct; condu,ct is guided by directive force within the individual. As it is the province of intellectual training to develop and strengthen the mental faculties, so it is the peculiar office of school government to develop this self-directive and self-controlling force. Order in the schoolroom may be the result of a very bad school government. It is one thing to have order by restraining the physical energies, repressing the spirits, cramping and terrorizing the children; quite another thing to have order by setting up high ideals of conduct, creating a strong school sentiment in favor of conduct in accord with the ideals, developing self-control and self-directive force. Not inconsistent with these latter aims are such means as vigilance, firmness, certain forms of punishment-even corporal punishment. In a certain schoolroom the author has in mind are thirty puplle from the beet homee of the place. Tla room It equipped with good furniture and appliance& for teaching. The teacher ia a cultured lady of experience in teaching. She aima at good order, but she must draw largely on her time and attention from the beginning until the end of the echool day if she haa no more than quiet. The pupila are listleea and indifferent to the recitation, noisy and nagging, ready to drop a book or slate if the teacher's eye be not on them, rebellious in their spirits,-in short, young anarchists. If the teacher leavee the room, pandemonium reigns. At the end of the day the teacher is worn out; at the end of the session she feela like going to h!lr reward. No wonder she despises teaching. In another schoolroom not fa.r away are forty-six pupil from inferior homes. The school furniture is poorer, the appliances more limited. The teacher's methods of conducting the recitation are perhaps not so good, and yet the children get far more good out of it than in the first school. They freely!'and yet courteously and in the most orderly manner ask questions of the teacher and of the pupil reciting or of any other pupil in the class. A beautiful spirit of harmony and consideration and self-control is manifest. If the teacher leaves the room the work goe11 quietly and earnestly on. There i11 not a constant strain on the teacher. At the end of the session she bas energy left with which to work during the vacation. Naturally the teacher loves her work. Why this difference? One has the true elemtntl of governing power; the other has not. What are the elements of governing power? Lon:.-Tbe easy government of most schools means tb~ control of a comparatively few pupils of unhappy dispositions. To these the teacher must give most attention ; why not win their esteem and confidence, bring yourself to take a warm interest in them, and, as an easy, natural consequence, loTe them? It is not impossible to love even the unlovely. They are usually those who have least love at home, and are therefore quite eusceptible to genuine love of a teachel'-not declared but manifeeted. Lon is one of the ltrongea~ incentin1 to aood, u well u reatrainta from evil, that can be ued. 242 Ooli'IIST.II:NOT.- The teacher cannot xonrn prope'tly without the respect of his pupils. He Il:lay have order, but order of a low degree. He cannot have the respect of hil pupils unless his living be consistent with his teachings. Pupils are as quick to discover inconsistencies in a teacher's living and teachin~s as the world is to discover them in the minister of the gospel. Not only will pupils lose their respect for the inconsistent teacher, but the more thoughtful ones will be forced to despise him. A teacher ought to be the embodiment of the high ideals placed before his pupils. Then indeed is it good for a boy if he is allowed only to sit on the end of a Jog with his teac!Jer. Not only should he be consistent in his living and teaching, but he should be consistent in his daily requirements of his pupils. To be rigid one day and lax the next, makes it the more difficult to be rigid on the day following. Consistency in the teacher is a rare jewel. CHARACTER.-Unconscious tuition is stronger than eloquent exhortation. Not only should the teacher's character not be smirched with vice and polluted with corruption, but, in ita purity and nobility, it should stand out boldly, and impress itself on the life of the pupils. A strong moral influence, emanating from a hi~h moral character, will do more to lead pupils into right conduct than all the rods ami rules that can be plied upon their backs and brains. Order may be had by force, but the vitalizing influence of the teacher's inner life is necessary to secure good government. Character me.ms ab&olute truthfulncSB, it means good temper, it means good habita, it means purity of life. GooD JuDGMENT.-This is the child of common sense and the parent of tact, both of which should be found in every school governor. The ability to handle judiciously, tactfully, 1kilfully, special cases of misconduct and real or ima~inary grievances of patrons is the secret of many a teacher's suceess in government. Judgment in dealing with the little everyday affairs of the schoolroom is a good preventive of the greater, more serioWI problems o school government. By find ing the pupil's true motive for the troublesome conduct with which he may be charged. and dealing judiciously with him, he may be aaved from being a rebellious youne anarchiaL. ,.. 243 VIGILANCE.-Alertness with eye and ear Is an ee!lentiat element in governing power. The school in1pressed with the fact that the kind, consistent, faithful teacher sees and hears all that goes on in the schoolroom, even while having his attention centered mainly on the recitation, will be found to be an orderly room. Constant fault-finding and nagging are not necessarily concomitants of vigilance. Nor is it necessary that the pupils should re~ard the teacher as suspicious and distrustful of them. If they feel that the teacher is always looking for mischief they may be obliging enough to see that he is . not disappointed. If the teacher's vigilance is not seasoned with sympathy and love, there is apt to be frequent occasion for fault-finding. Never should a violation of a moral principle be passed unnoticed. The vigilance of the teacher should extend to the little details of the schoolroom-the condition of the furniture, apparatus and appliances, the seat ing of the pupils-all those things that bear on easy control. ScuoLARSHIP.-A broad margin of ripe scholarship, giving th~ teacher confidence in himself and increasing the confidence of pupils in their teacher, will go far towards rendering control an easy matter. If the teacher is able, or undertakes, merely to keep school and incidentally to bear what the children learn from the text-books, control is a burdensome business. Thorough, fresh scholarship and a good store of ready information will awaken in pupils an interest in the plll'Ruit of knowledge; interest begets application; application drives away mischief. A liberal amount of scholarship is not sufficient unless it be fresh and appropriate to the topics of that day. To keep it fresh and appropriate one must study daily. Daily study mealfs not only increased scholarship, but it means ready and appropriate methods of teaching ; and all thie makes school government easy. MINOR MEANS. Sea!.a and &ating. The seats and the seating of the pupila bear a very important relation to control. The seats as they are found by the new teacher will probably need repairing, improving, rearranging, adjusting. If through the neglect of the former teachers the deake have been whittled, scratched 244 oa"ed, 10iled or othenriae abused, it 11 hlll!hly importaDt that you remove the evidencea of grosa uglect on the part of the teacher and gross disrespect for the achool on the part of the pupils. These evidences constantly before the pupil are no& only damagin~ to the esthetical in hia nature but are a atront temptation to be disorderly. A carpenter' plane can remoTe the eTidence1 of the knife ; aand-paper and hard-oil will then put the desk in good condition. The seats should not be 110 high that the pupil'a feet cannot rest tlrmly on the floor and partially support the weight of the le~. The thigh bones, being somewhat flexible in childhood, are often deformed by allowing little children to sit for lon periods of time with feet dangling. Besides, the pressure of the edge of the seat on certain nervea on the back of the thigh cause11 irritation and, U continued, c<,msiderable pain. The effect on the good order of that child ia evident. If school government ia to be successful the physical com fort of pupils while in the schoolroom cannot be overlooked. Care must be taken that neither desks rtor seats are too high or too low. Adjustable desks are the ideal. In the absence of these we must try to adjust the pupils to the desks by using foot rest and mounting the desks on blocks or strip running parallel with the row. The desks should be arranged in rows with an eye to symmetry and the proportione of the room. When once arranged properly they should be fastened to the floor, or four or five desks should be fastened to the same pair of strips. Thia will prevent ahaking or noise or tilting. The pupils should be seated with ~I due regard to the light and heat. To noid intense glare and hurtful shadows the light should be brought chiefly from the left, some from the rear, and all from ae high up aa po18ible. If shades are need they should draw up from below inatead of drawing down from abon. The matter of li!lht in the schoolroom ia of great importance. Certain eye-teats In npreeentative achoola ahow that from 40 to 50 per cent. of the pupils have defectin Tiaion. )Care should be taken to seat pupils with reference to one another, 10 u to reduce to a minimum temptationa to d.IJor.. der. In thil, tact muat be uaed. Let the pupila underatud 245 on the ftrlt day that while they are left to aelect their eeats then, the teacher will from time to time seat pupils u, in hie judgment, he thinkll best. Troublesome pupils should not be left together, nor should they be left far from the ~acher. They need the teacher' special attentioa and help. Esthetic Surroundinga. Nothing is too good for the roughest echoolboy. The more attractive his surroundings the better will be his conduct, other things being equal. If the home should be adorned to develop the better nature of the children who are growing up, why not the schoolroom? The refining influence of beautiful and attractive pictures on the walls of the echool has been felt by teachers who were thoughtful enough to hang them there. Neatness, cleanliness, order, ornaments, all tend to soften the rough schoolboy's nature, lead him to ltigher aspirations and greater efforts, and develop within him a respect for the school and ita surroundings that will prove helpful in government. Where cobwebs are found on the walls, cobwebs are apt to be found somewhere in the inner life of the inhabitant. Mmtc. I am aware that this is not a standard aid to school government, and yet I have seen a bit of simple vocal music work so charmipgly in reducing a chaotic room to order that I am constrained to mention it as one of the valuable minor means. Young children naturally like to sing. If allowed to bawl instead of sinfZ, it may become a source of disorder. After a few elementary lessons, which any ambitious teacher can give, a few songs should be taught the school; and the teacher should insist that they be sung in soft, smooth tones. Where a school is found in which the pupils are taught vocal music well, and where much attention is given to it, there will be found good order, easy control, and iOod school govern ment. Ventilation and Heating. There is no more fruitful source of disorder than poor ventilation. When the atmosphere be comes vitiated to over five-tenths of ;:me per cent., headaches begin, children become indifferent to study or the recitation, they are soon restleBS and disorderly. Just at that time the teacher, because of the eft"ect of the vitiated atmosphere on hlm, is in a poor condition to cope with the dilorder. The 246 atmoephere in a poorly ...antilated schoolroom become! impure by such slow degrtles that it is almost impossible for one abut up in the room to detect it. Whenever a room becoml'll disorderly, slowly but surely, the teacher should at once look to the ventilation. No matter what system of ventilation be adopted it is safe to have the windows and doors opened at recess. The fresh oxygen in the pupils' lungs will more than compensate for the temporary reduction in temperature. Two pupils should be appointed weekly to see that the win dows are raised at recess. However, while the pupils are seated in the room, ventilation should not be secured through open windows. A blast of cold air may bring death within a few days to the strongest. Fresh air may be safely admitted by lowering the sash a few inches at the top, and using a shelving board to deflect the cold current upwa,d. The impure air laden with heavy carbon dioxide falle to the floor and should be drawn off through a ventilating flue or duct operated by the heat from the stove pipe. While the open fireplace is a good means of ventilating, it is a poor means of heating, and is a source of disorder and annoyance on cold days. Every country schoolroom should be heated with a ventilating stove, located in the corner of the room. By such a stove the air is kept in circulation and all parts of the room heated almost eqnally. Then it will not be necessary for the pupils to crowd around the fireplace or radiating stove, which is apt to heat the atmosphere for only a few feet away. All parts of the room, up to a height of five or six feet, should be kept at 70 degrees Fahrenheit. PHYSIOLOGY. BY D. L. EARNEST, STATE NoRMAL Scrroor., ATHENS, GA.. L PURPOSES. 1. General culture-'tis a shame not to know Creation's masterpiece. 2. Increase of personal efficiency-he can best use Nature's forces who obeys her laws. S. To know and respect the laws of lite-miStake and d!sobod!cnce are never overlooked and n'ver forgiven, though the penalty may be delayed, no morcy, no favoritism, no es'ape. nt excellence and the grandeur of Its possibilltles. It To show tlle value and the beauty of a pure, a healthy, and a wholesome, holy life and for It create aspirations and furnish motivell. II. SO~IE TEACHING PRINCIPLES. Proceed from the near to the remote, from the concrete to the abst1act, from the specific to the general, from the practical to the theoretical, from the useful to the omamental, from the living to the non-living, from the actual to the !deal, from the clear to the vague, from the personal to the Impersonal. from the c~olstlc to the altruistic, from the easy to the difficult, from the plca!lant to the disagreeable, from the Interesting, the gay and the changeful to the UD attractive, the serious and the eternaL 2~8 111. INTl:WDUdTORY. A microscope will show In a drop of stagnant water many moving forms, minute animals: what does the scientist mean by calling them one-celled? A cell Is the smallest living thing. the minutest living Individual. It may live alone, as In the case of microscopic animals just mentioned, as very small plant forms called disease germs, or they may be combined In more complex forms; all plants and animals are colonies and communities of cells with some Intervening matter. Not all cells are alike; d!tl'erent parts of animals are composed of cells that are very much unlike. Cells are combined into tissues, tissues Into organs and organs into systems. The function of an O!'gan is the work it does. Ana.te::;:Jy treats of structure, Physiology of action .;;.nd Hygiene tells how to use body and mind eo as to get the most and best out of life. 1. Define cell, tissue, orgai?, system, anatomy, ~byslology and hygiene. oz. Name six tissues, six systemL I.V. FOOD. A food is a substance which nourishes the body. It feeds and furnishes life to the cells, which are injured by a poison. The two uses of food are to build up tissue and to !urnish force and heat when oxidized. The !ood elements are: 1. Protelds, found In tl.esh, eggs, milk, cheese, peas, beans, 'and grains. 2. Starches and sugars, In grain!!, potatoes, fruits, etc. 8. Fats and oils, in m!lk, butter, cheese, grains. .._ Minerals, water, sR.lts o! varlou!!l kinds, !ound Ill all !ood1. Proteid are the t11sue bu!ldera. 249 also furnish force. Sugars and fat!! furnish force and heat; minerals build bone and furnish proper conditions for carrying on life. .A. food Is a combination of food elements; diet is the blending of foods in hygienic ratios and amounts. The average person needs dally not more than 22-24 ounces of solid food, one-third of which should be proteid, vegetable or animal in origin, and at ieast an equal amount of water. The atudy of food values Is the problem of to-day In Georgia homes. The science of cooking Is the legitimate province of woman; cooking and eating have equal dignity-the one requires aptness, the other appetite. The amount and kind of food for each must be learned from experience and sense, not by authority and taste. V. DIGESTION. 1. Mastication and Insalivation. The teeth grind the food Into small bits, preparing for the othel acts of digestion. Saliva softens the food and changes starch into sugar. .A.s the most abundant valuable part of vegetables ln. starch, thor ough mastication Is Important. 2. Deglutition or Swallowing. The food passea through the esophagus into the stomach. s. Gastric Digestion. Pepsin, an active principle of the gastric juice, changes the albuminous portions of the food Into a 1luid called peptone. The acid prevents decomposition and promotes the 1low of the bile. Rennin curdles milk. ~. Intestinal Digestion. The bile makes an emulalon of the fats, promotes Intestinal action and prevents decay; the pancreatic juice digest!! starch, protelds and fats; the Intestinal juice fl.nlshes the work of the other fluids, and, In addition, digests suji;ar. 250 I. Absorption, by either lacteals or minute blood vessels, oCCll"~ in every part of the dlgest1Te tubes. IiYGI:ElNE OF DIGESTION. 1. Fruits, grn.ham bread, oatmeal, green vegetabletJ. ~W-.1 IH-e laxative; highly concentrated foods havt~ opposite tendency. I. Dllnklng at meal time has different effect Upon d!lferent persons. ~o drink should be takeb \Vhli.!2 food is in the mouth. Some wea~ or stomachs require a dr~ diet; the digestion l!ome Is best ptoi:noted by drinking little, only. ll.t meal&. 'water is the only natural drink. Hot tl1.ltl~ are stimulating and would better be re- served for medicinal purpos~s. ' Normal hunger should r'e~Ulate time and amount 'Of eating. Redut lng the meals in number or amount orte\1. has good effect. Fasting is a proper \>l;a,y~ !or a forgiveness of many physical sina. W!~d.. depraved appetite is man's fiercest foe. ~ SoUd foods should not be swallowed; chew every particle until it becomes a liquid-baste In eating Is waste of life. IS. Avoid prescribing medicines for self: laxative are tempting but harmful-diet and exercise promote digestive activity. Let conscience con trol appetite; be regular, be temperate, ~ serene. IS, {)Jean t~e teeth after each meal. QUESTIONS. .i. W,hat is the difference between a food and a ~ food element? 2. Which Is the cheaper, animal or vegetable food! 8. Name the most nutritious and least costly tooda, 6. What Is the use of each food element? ~ 5. What Is the benefit of a pleasan~ davor2 251 6. How much does necessary food cost-least coet! 7. Through what changes does a mouthful of bread and butter pass in becoming blood? 8. Name five causes of Indigestion. 9. Name ten parts of the alimentary canal and tell use of each. 10. Write ten rules for eating, not using "Don't." SIMPLE EXPillRIMENTS are suggested by all good texta. 1. Weigh a day's rations and show to class. 2. Observe sweet taste of any starchy food. WMK well cJwwed.. 8. Show osmosis of absorption by placing In water egg with shell removed from large end. 4. Teach Importance of first and last step In dJ. gestlve process, the only ones under control of will. VI. THill BLOOD AND THill CIRCULATION. Plasma Is the fluid part of the blood, in which float the corpuscles. The red corpuscl'ls carry oxygen to the cells; the white corpuscle~t destroY, disease germs and repair injmies. The minerals and protelds of the food and C02 from the cell~ are carried dissolved in the plasma. One's blood Is one-thirteenth his weight. It is circulated by the heart, arteries, capillaries, veins and lymphatics. It is driven through the arteries and cap lllaries by the contraction of the heart and the elastic action of the arteries; through the veins by this force and by the compression of the muscles in action, by the action of the lungs, which In expanding produce suction, backwnrd flow being prevented by the action of the venal valves. The food eaten is used either in bu!Idlng up the tissues or in furnishing force by oxidation; this material Is obtained from the blood, the liquid F1om Hutchhon'$ Physiolog11 254 portions of which with some white corpuscles ooze through the walls of the capillaries and bathe the cells; the unused materials and the waste products find their way back into the veins through a set of vessels called lymphatics. HYGIENE. 1. Active exercise promotes the circulation and the prompt removal of waste, giving the buoyant feeling of vigorous, healthy life. 2. Clothing should be loose enough to allow unimpeded circulation. Be healthy and happy; let fools seek the beauty of small feet and trim figures by deforming nature and thus mocking God. 3. Select nutritious food, digest it; promptly free system of all waste matter. SUGGESTIONS. 1. Test pulse of pupils as affected by positionlying, sitting, standing-after exercise, after rapid breathing or holding breath; draw inferences. 2. Show how to stop bleeding; have pupils mention familiar remedies and discuss values of same. 3. Pupils will be interested in a graphic account of the battles between the white corpuscles and disease germs. 4. Take a sympathetic interest in the habits of your pupils; correct the bad; fix and exemplify the good. Dare do no wrong which you would not have grow into a habit. QUESTIONS. ~- State uses of the blood; the corpuscles; the plasfUa; the clot; the fibrin. 2. Define pulse, artery, capillary, pericardium, lymphatic, portal, pulmonary and systemic cir culation. B. Compare arterial and venous blood. 4. Trace the course of a drop of blood. 5. Explain the term "good-bea~ted." 6. Explain, "blood will tell." 7. What is "heart failure?" 8. Ask and answer ten questions about each ot. the lllustrations. 8. How does exercise cause more blood to flow to any part? 9. Why does exercise cause the heart to beat faster? 10. Give cause and treatment or fainting, bleeding at the nose. RESPIRATION. The two purposes ot. respiration are to obtain oxygen for carrying on the processes of life and to remove waste. A full study of this work concerns the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and air cells of the lungs as well as their covering and lining. 1'hrough the delicate lining of the ait cells some of the oxygen of the air passes into the blood which gives in exchange heat, vapor, e1Iete organic matter and 00 2 Breathing is at the rate o'l' eighteen per minute. The capacity of the lungs is 330 cubic inches, but only a gallon of this air cap be exhaled. Tlle diaphragm, a muscular partition between lungs and stomach, aids the muscles between ribs in respiration. HYGIE~E. 1. Supply the lungs with an abundance or pure a!r. ' Learn how to ventilate, if necessary wake u.- ;Y From Blaisdell '13 Physiology, community to Importance ot education so that they will build a schoolhouse good enough to need ventilation. 2. The clothing must be loose enough to allow free lung expansion. 8. Learn to keep the mouth shut, at least when breathing. Breathe through the nose. 4. Fill the lungs; practice deep breathing. To expand the lungs, read aloud. Sing. Frequently Inhale and exhale forcibly through a short tube w!th a small bore. Make and use a spirometer. ~. Use diaphragm largely In breathing; this improYes the voice and aids digestion. 6. Food is fuel; the fires of life need oxygen. The burning furnishes all our force, that of plowboy, preacher and poet. If you breathe at night, get fresh air. SUGGESTIONS. 1. Tie a piece of rubber over bottom of a lamp chimney to represent thorax and diaphragm; tie tube in small rubber balloon to represent lunge, pass this tube through a cork which Insert in top of chimney. 2. Test lungs by counting aloud In a low tone; If lungs are weak, the count wlll not exceed forty or fifty. 8. Test breath for C02 by blowing through lime water. Prepare this by putting small piece of unslaked lime In water. 4. Count respirations, normal and after running. ~. Using a tape measure find chest expansion. Do not rest content with two inches. 8. Give exercises In voice culture. The tones ahould be clear, low, pure, smooth and pleasant. A well modulated voice in the teacher Is ~ 1ource of power, ot pleasure, of greatest good. The tone of the voice is the langua~:e of the soul. QUESTIONS, 1. Wpy do we breathe? How touch fresh air do we need per hour? 2. How much air in an ordinary breath? In a full breath? 3. Define pleura, pneumonia, bronchitis, epiglottta, thorax. 4. Explain yawning, sighing, coughing, laughtnr, sobbing. 5. What is the difference between Inspired and eX plred air? 6. How may the strength and volume of the lunr be increased? 7. What is ventilation. How regulated? 8. Why breathe tbrough the nose? VIII. THE SKIN. The cuticle covers and protects; the cutis absorba, excretes waste matter, regulates temperature, Is an organ of sensation, contains persplratol"1 and sebaceous glands, blood vessels and nervOL HYGIENE. The skin can be educated. Too mucb clothing Is a frequent cause ot colds; the skin, by too much protection becomes too sensitive. Cold air and cold water are valuable tonics; frequen1!;r apply both to the skin. H unused to their action, proceed by degrees. A good, clear complexion is the reward of correct living-exercise, fresh air, good digestion, cleanliness. Soap is a great civll!zer; a good bath is a step toward righteousness. A pure heart may be found beneath a dirty skin, but Is out of place. The first step towar~ by the tendons, which are tough, white e-lls ut a material famlllar to all in tough meats. The importance of sound, firm muscular tissue Is rarely realized; heart-power, lung-powtr. atomach-power are forma of muscular enPr~y From Blai8dell'a Phy&ioloqy. ~ and muscular activity and the resultant muscular health are the only rational means ot their preserva tlon. Physical culture, manual training, drawing, penwork, cooking, sewing, sculpture, painting, de- signing, architecture, agriculture, all sorts of mechanical effort, all forms In which Ideas are embodied by muscular activity, make clvlliza tlon both possible and progressive. Some sort of industrial training bas a place In the education of all; It is putting It too mildly to say that every girl should be able to cook and sew and every boy able to handle tools. This much would be a gain on present condl tlons; then we should go further. The education of no one Is complete who has not served aome sort of apprenticeship, upon a farm or In a shop, or If a girl, has not served her apprenticeship In the practical duties about the home. Carefully investigate this subject: Ben~tl.ts of Manual '!'raining, Financial, Physical, Ment:Jl. Moral (Sociological, Political). Give at least an hour daily to exercise, if possible In the open air; not lazily-heartily. Benefits: Strengthens all vital organs, and by furnishing to the nervous system pure, rich blood abundantly supplied with oxygen energizes and vital lzes the powers of thought and feeling. QUESTIONS. 1. What are the uses of the muscles? 2. What are their shapes? 8. How are they macle to contract? 4. Define Physical Culture, Manual Tralnlnr, X.. du11trial Art. ( " Give three re.!lsons wb_y ex:erclse 111 a dut,J. 266 ~ 6. What Is expression? Is It Increased by culture? What Is the effect ot expression upon Impression? What inference? 7. What exercises along manual training lines may properly be provided for In country schools? 8. Give five rules for taking exercise. XI. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. The function of the nervous system Is to control all life processes, voluntary and Involuntary. Nervoue tissue is composed of cell and fibres. Knots of cells are called ganglia; bundles of fibres are nerves. Cells receive Impressions and send out Impulses, both of which are carried by the nerves. Part. . Function. Nervous system .... , VItal control. Cerebro-Spinal Nervous Sy11tem. Brain: Cerebrum .....................Thought, lntelllgence. Cerebellum ....... Coordination of movement!!. Medulla Oblongata } Automatic and reflex action. Spinal column ... Sp. Nerves: "Motor . . . . . . . . . Movement Sensory ........ , .. , .. . . . . . . . . . Sensation Cranial Nerves ... Special sense; digestion, respiration. Sympathetic Nervous System..Coordination and auto- matic action or vital organs, heart, lungs, stomach. Qt1 The sympathetic nerves are bundles ot gray fibres. Gray cells compose the ganglia, the outside ot the brain, and the Inside of the spinal cord )White fibres are founo In the brain, on the out- side of the spinal cora and form the spinal and ranlal nP.rvetl. 266 HYGIENE. A.tter all, the cblet work or education deals with the nervous system, or rather, with the mind, ita noble tenant. How to treat it so that It may be kept healthy and strong is the serious problem. Dear teacher, do you know about the mlnu and Its !a ws of growth? Are you a rational or a.o lmpirical teacher? It Is not wise to give to your pupil a reason for e>erything you do or say but you must honestly give yourself a reason. Will you do this? 1. Every faculty must have active exercise. What are tlle faculties? What studies more especially appeal to each? IIow may each study be used wisely in calling into healthy activity the several faculties? This study Is Methodology. Activity must be Intense but without strain, with- out worry. 2. Learn bow to let go, to rest, to play, to sleep. S. Education develops power by concentration, complete, prolonged at will. ~- Thinking is the mind's search tor truth. Think- log Is Intellectual digestion. Thinking Is the relating ot Ideas. Does each pupil think during each recitation? now do you know? Is biB study thoughtful? Is his observation thoughtful? Is his life thoughtful? Are yours? 15. Power should not only be developed but controlled. Training In self-control begins wrtb controlling muscular movements. Stop here and tllink what this means and make up your mind about physical culture and manual training. Logically follows control of thought; then con. #' trol of feeling. Consider the case of the pugllst, the savage and other illustrations of arreated development. 267 Object tenchlng has Its limitation for the aalne reason. Neglect not the lower, but strive to reach the higher. / 6. 1.'he moral, yea, the religious life, is the normal life, the strong life, tile healthy life. Develop the cardinal virtues, prudence, justice, fortitude and order; train the will in deliberation, decision, doing. 1. Study the effect or the body upon the mind and mind upon the body-the results or hope and ~ith on effort, on health, on life-and train along these lines. 1. Helps. Manikin, charts, photographs, stereopticon, microscope, outlines, skeleton, specimens. Make realistic, objective. Use drawing freely. copy pictures and diagrams from the text, draw from nature. Prepare lists of question relating to the cuts given herewith and in the text; Why? 2. Oonsult several texts for question and experiments; all the newer ones contain valuable suggestions. For younger pupils compare organs and functions to things with which they are well acquainted. 3. Pupils write hygienic rules for different vocations, different conditions. Give rules relating to bathing, clothing, diet, drink, breathing, exercise, position, rest, mental state, narcotics, excretions (skin, lungs, bowels, kidneys), teetht eyes, ears; give reason for each. 4. Study materials and colors of clothing. Bird In bush worth two In hat. Teach love _and respect for living things. Read Spencer's "Education" upon the ornamental. He who needlesaily, cruelly kills a helpless, innocent bird, sutrers more by the act tql!-~ 49f!J tP~ cre!loture alnin. J~J Yllr m~~1 268 15. Tea. and cofree contain no nourishment, and by the young and the sedeJ\tary should not be used. It you can omit your cu.os for a day or two without a feeling of discomfort they are probably doing you no harm. Excessive use Is alwa.y1 harmful, but what Is excess? Why use stimulants? Does tobacco help or binder In the racl! of life? Ask even the conscientious user. 6. Since Prof. Atwater's famous declaration that alcohol Is a food since It Is oxidized In the body and therefore gives force, many are unsettled. Though oxidized It yet may not be called a food because even in, moderate quantities it Injures, as his own figures prove. Other poisons are exldized; they are not, therefore, foods. No amount of scientific theory can stand against hard facts; the railroad companies forbid its use to their employees because even a small amount unfits for grave responsibility, and llfl! Insurance companies have learned that it shortens human life. Wine Is a mocker; the drinker thinks be is stronger and brighter, but be 11 deceived. Alcoholics are narcotic in their action; true wisdom teaches us to leave alone dangerous things. rHE TRUTH ABOUT ALCOHOL. t. A aert&ln quantity wUI produce & cert&ln effect &t ftrst, but U rl'quires more &nd more to produce the same eftect when the drug Is ued h&bltns.lly. 2. When used habitually ltlsllk;ely to Induce &n uncontroll&ble desire for more, In eyer lncre&slni &monnt. 1. After Its habltu&l use & sudden tot&l &biiUnence Is likely to oause &serious derangement of Ule oen,r&l Il8rTOUI aya~m. FOOD. 1, A certain quantity wlllpro. duce a certain eftect &t ftrstj and the s&me quantity wtl always produce the s&me In &healthy body. 2. 'Ihe habitual use of food never Induces an uncon troll &ble desire for lt. In eYer tncre&slng &mounts. 8. After Its h&bltn&l use &sud den tot&! abstinence neyer a&nsea &n:r derangement of ~Jle 0811$~1 JlU't'Olll I7IM'IIJ 269 '- Alcohol Is oxidized rapidly In the body. 6. Alcohol, not being used, 11 not stored in the body. 6. Alcohol Is a product of decomposition of food In the presence of a scarcity of oxygen. .Alcohol is an excretlon, and, In common wlth all excretions, Is poisonous. It may be benetlclal In certain phases of disease, but It Is never beneficial to the healthy body. 8. The use of alcohol, In common wlth narcotics In general, Is followed by a reaction. t. The use of alcohol Is followed ~l~~:~:~r:~:n~h:ndc~~~~~..~ cells. 10. The use of alcohol Is followed by of oaode. crease in the excretion 11. The use of alcohol Is followed by an accumulation of fat through decreased activity. 12. The use of alcohol Is followed by a fall In body temperature. 18. The use of alcohol weakens and unsteadies the muscles. J(, The use of alcohol makes the brain les1 active and accurate. 4. .All foods are oxidized alowl:r In the body. 6. .All foods, being useful, are S\ored In the body. 6. .All foods are the productl of constructive actlvlt:r of pro- toplasm In the presence of abundant oxygen. 7. All foods are formed b:r na- ture for nourlsbmen t and are by nature wholesome and always beneficial to the healthy body, though the;y may Injure the bod;y In cer- a. tain phases of disease. The use of foods 11 followed by no reaction. 11. The use of food Is !ollowed by an lncreaeed activity of the muscle cells and brain cells. 10. The use of food Is followed ~fo~~~n6r6a.se In the excre U. The use of lood ma:r be fol lowed )>y accnmulatlon of fat, notwithstanding ln- 12. ~:~~~ ~~t~6~a~~ followed by a rise In body temperature. 18. The use of food strengthen and steadle1 the musclea. 14. The use of food makea the brain more active and acaarate. WINFIELD 8. HALL, ll.D. Deplorable as are the physical el!'ects, greater ruin Is wrought In man's higher nature; 75 per cent. or both crime and insanity are directly and indirectly due to drink. No one sees his mental or moral shipwreck while playing In the alia]. lows or moderation. '1. Dellght In the care or the body, the temple, and Its nobler tenant bring both to that perfection which their origin and their dignity demand; but not with anxious thought about yourself, your lite, your health, for he that Ioveth his life thu11 ehall lose it. Obey the laws or life In the hopeful spirit or faith, !or God bas made thlt the price which His children pay for the blcu ln&'ll with which He crowns their days. I DRAWING. BY FRED J. ORR, ST.A.TE NoRM.A.L ScHooL, ATHENS, G.A.. In a brief space, a presentation of methods In drawing, to fully meet the present needs of the majority of Georgia teachers, cannot be attempted. What follows, therefore, does not pretend even to outline exhaustively. Ratller is It in the nature of an initiative, hoping for a larger and more definite plan of work in .A.rt Education for the Common Scllools, later. Teacllers may adapt suggestions to local conditions and to ptimary and advanced classes, in accordance with the general principles of procedure outlined. It will be noted that suggestions are given for the cultivation of tcchuical skill on the part of the teacher, as well as how to apply the same hints to class work. .A.lso, that the possibility of a stated period for this subject in the recitation schedule, Is presumed. This is deemed necessary in order to place suggestions in a more systematic form. If a regular period is not to be had, the suggestions given may be applied at such other times as are at disposal, and as a form of busy work. I. PURPOSE. Educative. "The aim of Instruction In drawing Ia culture, through the senses by which we apprehend the forms of things. The ends to be secured are sensitiveness to beauty, an intelligent appreciation of beautiful things, the power to make things beaU\~\ .and to reveal beauty to otbera." 11. KlllTHODS. 1. Of learning. (1) First, gain faclllty In the use of material: (1) by free handling of brush or pencil or crayon: (2) by drawing masses and large outlines, rather than details; (3) by adhering to simple subjects drawn in the easiest manner possible. Illustration: With ink-brush grasped not too near the point, and with handle standing upright, make a silhouette drawing of a flower pot with plant In It; or, with pensil, held with long leverage, make an outline drawing of a spray of simple leaves, as apple; or, an outline drawing on the blackboard, using the human figure. Leave out details, such as facial features, fingers, etc. See only mass. (2)' Accuracy In seeing. Study: (1) The rewtive directions and length of lines by drawing first, a line (In the object before you), whose length is easily determln~, then compare others to it. For direction, compare with that of Imaginary lines (e. g. horizontal and vertical), whose directions are easily determined. . (2) The rewtive size and location of spaces, as above, by first drawing, (or making a mental note of) the outline of a space that is easily decided upon, then comparing others to lt. (3) The dltrerences In tones of light and dark, and of color. Reduce tones of light and dark to lowest terms, e. g.: see in an, object, the lightest portion, the darkest portion, and a mediumthree simple'- tones. (4) The etfect of distance on the apparent aile ot u obj~ct. 278 (5) The dll'rerence between appearances ancl actual facts, as, when horizontal, recedlnl atralght lines, below the eye, &eem to rise, lUI they retreat; or the same abo!J(l the eye, 8CCin to fall lUI they go away; or, clrcle11 In certain positions appear elliptical, etc. (See Cro1s' "Free Hand Drawing"). (6) Make a;n effort w vf8uaUze form a.n4 oolor, or "su it" with the evcJJ clo.!ed. (7) Keep in mind the outline of the whole. Don't become engrossed with d~tails and thereby lose the proportions of the mass. (3) Practice. You must not be discouraged at 11.rst attempts. This is a thing not to be learned without practice and a great deal of it. Persistence In careful observation and in the etrort to execute with a pencil or brush, will yield results after a while. 2. Of teaching. (1) Materials. Water-color box and brushes may be had for about 25 centl!l, from Prang Educational Co., N. Y., or Milton Bradley Co., Atlanta. Send for catalogue. Ink.-Ordin.ary writing Ink, preferably b!a.ck. Ink brush.-Use one of the brushes In color box, or 5 cents Japanese brushes may be procured from Bunkio Matsuki, 380 Boylston St., Boston. Pencll.-Dlxon's Cabinet, No. 2, serviceable. It this cannot be had, use ordinary writing pencil of nwd copy tb into thr.ir topic-books as guides in study. 3. Assign lay a proper number of sub-topics for a lesson; to-mort reassign to-day's lesson for review, with other sub-tOJ as advance; so continue till the general topic 1s conted, thus making the last recitation one of the wholeleral topic. 4. At the recitation of each lesson have e pupil hr the class write upon the blackboard the tlist or the day, from which list let the recita uon 1ade. 6. Review each general topic as a whole, requ: the class to be prepared to give both the topic- list J. anaysis of the lesson, and also the subject-matter. Draw out by proper question.R, aU necessary facts whPe pupils fail to bring out In their independent re<':ns.