Outlines of methods for Georgia teachers for the summer institute for 1896

OUTLINES OF METHODS
FOR
GEORGIA TEACHERS
FOR THE
SUMMER INSTITUTE
FOR
1896.
ATLANTA, GEORGIA: Geo. W. Harrison, State Printer. Franklin Printing and Publishing Companyf
GENERAL LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA
MOORE PURCHASE, 1936

Property of.

Teacher. County,

a. R. QLENN, State School Commissioner.
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OUTLINES OF METHODS
FOR
GEORGIA TEACHERS
FOR THE
SUMMER INSTITUTE
1896.
ATLANTA, GEORGIA: Geo. W. Ha-rrison, State Printer. Franklin Printing and Publishing Company.1

THE TEACHERS' INSTITUTE.
The outlines of methods herewith presented to the teachers of Georgia have been prepared by the following gentlemen :
Lawton B. Evans, Superintendent of Schools, Augusta, Ga.
E. C. Branson, Director of the Normal Department of the Georgia Normal and Industrial College, Milledgeville, Ga.
Otis Ashmore, High Schools, Savannah, Ga. G. G. Bond, Superintendent Schools, Athens, Ga. D. L. Earnest, Natural Science Department, Georgia Normal and Industrial College, Milledgeville, Ga. Euler B. Smith, English Department, State Normal School, Athens, Ga. These gentlemen stand at the front of educational thought and professional advancement in Georgia. The outlines which they have prepared on the subjects assigned to them cover the latest and most improved methods of teaching these branches. I am sure that their work will prove sug gestive and helpful to all of the teachers.
To the County School Commissioners:
Please see that every teacher in your county is provided with a copy of the outlines. I send you herewith a suffi cient number to supply all of your teachers. As you have been previously advised the counties of Georgia will com bine for institute work during the summer. In order to -ecure the best results, your teachers should have the copy

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of the outlines in hand as early as possible, so that the most thorough preparation may be made for the institute work.
After hearing from the commissioners I shall endeavor to make such combinations of the counties as will occasion the least inconvenience to the teachers. I trust that every county school commissioner will join heartily in this move ment to secure better results from the summer institutes. By combining the counties we can secure money enough to employ the very best institute conductors. By bringing a larger number of teachers together in one body we will se cure more enthusiasm, have a larger exchange of school experience, awaken deeper interest in cause of education, invite broader and deeper investigation in all the depart ments of our school work. In selecting experts for these combined institutes the commissioners will find much less trouble in securing good men than we have hitherto ex perienced.
I will send within a few days a list of such counties as will be brought together at some point, and then the com missioners interested can hold a meeting and arrange for the experts and make such other plans for carrying out suc cessfully the work of the institute as may be necessary. Of course I shall endeavor in all cases to secure some central point for the place of meeting where all of the teachers can be supplied with good homes at a low rate of board.
The success of the whole movement, however, will de pend upon the united and hearty co-operation of every county school commissioner. One man's indifference or personal opposition to a movement of this kind will often prove a serious hindrance. With every commissioner ear nestly and enthusiastically determined to make the summer meetings this year more valuable to the teachers than ever before, the success which we all desire will be assured.

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To the Teachers:
Some of you may be disposed to complain of the incon venience to which you may be subjected by going out of your own county to attend a combined institute in another county. Your salary is so small that you cannot afford any extra expense. If there be any class of people whose burdens I desire to be made lighter, that class of people is composed of the teachers of the children. Certainly it is very far from my desire to add a feather's weight to the burdens you are compelled to bear. Indeed my chief aim, in combining the counties this year, is ultimately to secure for the teachers greater recognition and more adequate remuneration for the services which they render to the State.
I sincerely hope that every teacher will make a thorough study of the outlines of methods contained in this little volume. Go up to the institute full of the matter herein discussed. Many of our teachers have the notion that at tendance upon the institute means an absorbing process. The value of the institute to you depends as much upon what you give as upon what you get. You cannot receive returns from investments unless you first make the invest ments. You must put something into the institute before you can get anything out of it.
The conductor of the institute is absolutely dependent upon what you know. He can give to you only in pro portion as you are prepared to receive. It makes a great deal of difference, therefore, with what preparation you go to the institute meeting. I beg you to join heartily with your commissioner and with your fellow teachers and with the institute conductor in a good purpose to make the insti tute meeting this year a season of great educational revival and professional refreshing.

METHODS IN TEACHING SPELLING.
BY L. B. EVANS, SUPT. SCHOOLS, AUGUSTA, GA.
First Year's Work.
1. Teach words from the reading lesson. () By phonic analysis of the simplest words. () By impressing the form upon the sight. (c) By requiring sight spelling of the word. (d) By requiring memory spelling of the word. (e) By requiring the lesson to be printed or written on blackboard, paper, or slate.
2. Phonic analysis. () Take such simple forms as rat and man and teach the values of the five elements r, t, m, n, a and the name of these values (the letters). () From these known values construct other words, such as mat, tan, ran, ram, ant, at, am, an. (c) Practise pupils in discovering and combining phonic values in the printed words. Also in writ ing the forms of letters and words after hearing their sounds.
Note.--The child should be taught from the start to associate sounds with certain word forms. He should see the form as well as give the literal or phonic spelling. Go slowly at first. A hundred simple words is ample work for the first year, but these should be well learned and assimilated.
Oral Method (upper classes).
1. Consists in the orderly naming of the letters that compose the words.
2. Has the advantage of teaching syllabication, proper pronunciation and enunciation.

8
3. Position of pupils.
Pupils may sit or stand in class. When called upon to recite, however, they should rise, stand erect and speak distinctly. There is no objection to having "head and foot" in class.
4. Assignment of words.
(a) Do not always begin with the first word of the lesson. Assign promiscuously.
(b) Do not always begin at the head of the class. Sometimes begin at the end or in the middle. This will prevent the pupils counting the words.
(c) Always pronounce the word before designating the pupil to spell it. Having given out the word, pause long enough for each pupil to mentally spell it, then name the pupil.
(d) As a general rule pronounce the word but once. Do this distinctly, slowly, and iu a moderate voice. This cultivates the attention of the class.
(e) Do not torture the word out of its usual pronun ciation in order to suggest its spelling. Do not say lin-i-ment to indicate the second syllable. Pro nounce words naturally.
(/) Give but one trial in spelling a word. If a pupil misses the first time, he is merely guessing after wards.
(<7) The word should be pronounced by the pupil be fore it is spelled.
(h) Do not require pupils to memorize the order in which the words of the lessons come. It is a waste of energy.
Note.--Beginning with the third or fourth year the pupils may have a special spelling-book. Care should be taken not to assign too many words for each recitation. From 20 to 25 words, most of which the class is familiar

9
with, are sufficient. The meanings of the unfamiliar words should be taught and these should be reviewed from time to time. The spelling-lesson should serve to enlarge the vocabulary.
By all means teach a child first to spell correctly those words he uses daily in speech and composition. Do not seek for prodigies iu spelling long and unfamiliar words. Teach the words of every-day use.
5. Corrections.
In case a pupil spells the word wrong, let the teacher pass it to the next. Another method is known as "trapping." This consists in the teacher taking no notice of an error, but giving out another word to the next pupil. The pupil has the liberty of reject ing the word assigned, spelling the word that has been missed, and "going above" all who failed to notice the mistake. This cultivates the attention of the class to a very lively degree.
The Written Method. 1. Consists of writing on slate, blackboard, or paper the words that compose the spelling-lesson. 2. Has the advantage of more nearly conforming to the needs of life-work. We rarely are called on to orally spell words, but constantly to write words. 3. The sense of sight is appealed to, and the memory for forms is the faculty relied upon. A child with a good sense of form will probably be a good speller.
Suggestions. (a) Pupils may be sent to the blackboard, a space assigned to each. They may be divided into two sections, Nos. 1 and 2, placed alternately. The teacher then dictates the words to be written by each section.

10
(6) Pupils may write from dictation on their slates or in blank books. For correcting, the pupils may exchange work, the teacher either dictates the cor rect form, and the pupils mark errors, or the pupils themselves orally spell the words, errors being noted by class or teacher. Pupils report their own errors and spell the words correctly.
(o) The teacher may dictate a number of words ft om the spelling-lesson, in which case the pupils write the words in column. In this case the proper nouns only are written with capital letters.
(d) The teacher may dictate sentences. In this jase special attention is to be given to the teachitg of capital letters and to punctuation.
(e) The words of the lesson may be written on the board, dictated by the teacher, or viewed from the book, and the pupils required to construct sentences con taining them. This teaches the use of the words and supposes a knowledge of their meaning.
(j) Pupils may be required not only to learn how to spell words orally, but also to ascertain their mean ing and bring written sentences illustrating their use.
(g) In dictation the teacher should pronounce slowly, distinctly, and but once. Give time for pupils to write, but train them to listen and write rapidly.
Note.--The leading principle in both methods of teach ing spelling is that the pupil shall always be required to spell correctly the words he has missed. Otherwise he has gained nothing by the lesson. Correct and impress individual errors. At the close of an oral exercise require each pupil to write the words he missed. At the end of a written ex ercise require him to spell them orally.

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General Suggestions.
1. Use both methods. Have pupils to recite the same lesson one day orally, the next day in writing. Com bine all methods for the sake of variety and for the value there is in each.
2. Syllabication. There are two good methods. The first is for the pupil to indicate by a pause in his voice when he reaches the end of a syllable. The second is for him to pronounce the syllables as he spells them. In no event is it necessary for the pupil to go back and pronounce from the be ginning after spelling each syllable.
3. Spelling by groups. It is valuable to classify words according to their uses and have pupils then learn them. For instance, names of trees, flowers, vege tables, kinds of food, occupations of men, etc. Chil dren could construct their own lessons in this way.
4. Proper names. It is important to teach the spell ing of the names of individuals, of towns, countries, rivers, etc. Teach capital letters at the same time.
5. Teach the rules for spelling, as found iu the text book on grammar. Have exercises on spelling by rule. Apply the rules to simple words until the pupil is familiar with the application of each.
6. Train pupils to consult a dictionary for their defi nitions. For this purpose every schoolroom should have a dictionary placed where it can be used for ready reference.
7. By systematic prepa ration and preservation each pupil can construct his own spelling-book. The words are chosen by the teacher, written on the board, taught to the pupils, copied in a blank book and reviewed. In this way a book of several thou sand words can be made in a few years.

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Spelling games.
The Spelling Match. Occasionally divide me class into sides and have one side spell the other down. Offer some simple prize or reward to the pupil standing up longest.
Anagrams. Select some long word containing several vowels, such as metropolitan, and see how many words each pupil can make out of it, using only the letters in the word given.

METHODS IN TEACHING READING.
BY G. G. BOND, SUPT. SCHOOLS, ATHENS, GA.
Definitions.
1. Silent reading. () The act of getting thought from printed or writ ten matter. () The act of experiencing certain feelings as a re sult of the thought thus gained.
2. Oral reading. () The act of giving proper expression to the thought contained in printed or written matter. () The art of giving such expression to the feeling resulting from the thought thus gained, as to arouse similar feeling in the heart of the listener.
Divisions of the Subject.
1. Primary. First to third year. 2. Intermediate. Third to sixth year. 3. Advanced. Sixth year till death.
Methods. 1. Alphabet. The letters are learned, then combined into syllables and words. 2. Word-building. Beginning with two letters as a and n, the word an is formed; by suffixing d, the word and; by prefixing h, the word hand, and so on. 3. Word. To be illustrated further on. 4. Object. An object or picture is shown and associated with its written and spoken name. 5. Phonic. To be illustrated further on.

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6. Phonetic. Every letter is so modified by a diacritical mark as to always represent a certain sound. Better adapted to the teaching of German than English.
7. Sentence. To be illustrated further on. 8. Group. As the word indicates, the words in a sen
tence are separated into groups, thus: The dog . . . can bite.
Methods in Common Use.
1. Alphabet. 2. Word. 3. Sentence. 4. Word and Phonic combined. 5. Sentence and Phonic combined.
The Method Recommended.
There is no one infallible method. That method is best for any teacher which he can use to the best advantage.
Word, Sentence and Phonic Methods Combined.
1. Present either some object or the picture of some ob ject to the class.
2. Have the pupils examine it carefully. 3. Interest them in it.
() By telling a story about it. () By having some pupil tell a story about it. (c) By relating some experience in connection with
some other object just like it. (cf) By speaking of its use. 4. Give the name of it. 5. Ask how many ways the name may be said. (a) With the tongue. (b) With the crayon. 6. Write the word on the board in your best penmanship.

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7. Ask if the written word resembles the object or picture.
8. Ask what it does resemble.
Note.--In their attempts to tell what the word resem bles, the pupils will be studying the form of the word attentively, and this will impress it on their minds. Sup pose you have taught the word bat according to the above direction, this is the Word Method. If, instead of teaching the word bat, you had gotten from the class some state ment, as I have the bat, you would have been using the Sentence Method.
Psychological Ground.
1. The object or idea. 2. Its sound symbol, or spoken name. 3. Its form symbol, or written name. 4. These are related as sign and thing signified under
the laws of association.
Drill.
1. It is not sufficient to teach the word. 2. Write it on the board several times in your best
handwriting. 3. Require the pupils to pronounce it every time it is
written. 4. Write some other words quite different in shape, as
ox, can. 5. Require pupils to come to the board and point out all
the words that say bat. 6. Vary and prolong five or ten minutes.
The First Six Weeks.
During this time a teacher is expected to teach from thirty to forty words, the letters of the alphabet, and one

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sound of each letter. As the new words and letters are taught, they are written iu a reserved space on the broad, as follows:

a

4b

o

c

d

e

X

f.

bat bag cap lad led fad and so on.

review and add to these words until alphabet has been learned. The words are to be selected from the primer the pupils are to use.

Phonic Work.
As a combination of written letters makes a written word, so a combination of the sounds of letters makes a spoken word. The association of a sound with a letter in such a way that either the letter recalls the sound or the sound the letter, is the unit of work in Phonics.

Illustration.
1. In the word bat the sounds are approximately b6-a-t65.
2. Write the word on the board. 3. Require the pupils to give the sounds bt>8--t5fl
slowly. 4. Have these sounds given more and more rapidly, till
the pupils discover that when combined very rapidly, they make the word bat. 5. Taking the consonants down the alphabet, make phonic lists, as follows:

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bat

bill

bag

bet

cat

fill

cag

get

fat

gill

fag

jet

mat

hill

hag

let

pat

mill

jag

met

rat

pill

lag

net

sat

rill

nag

pet

vat

sill

rag

set

till

sag

wet

will

tag

yet

wag

6. Drill on this work from five to ten minutes a day for the first two years.

The Object of Phonics.
1. To aid pupils in becoming good spellers. 2. To enable them to recognize words readily. 3. To enable them to determine new words by their own
efforts. 4. To make them fluent readers.
Oaution.
1. Enthusiastic teachers are apt to expect too great results.
2. Since twenty-six letters give us over forty sounds, the same letter often has a different sound.
3. All words cannot be associated phouically with other words.

Preparation for Reading Lesson.
1. Teacher's duty. () To teach and drill on the new words. () To explain difficult passages.

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(c) To interest the pupils in the lesson by telling them a story, etc.
2. Pupil's duty. () To learn the new words. () To learn the lesson.
Primary Recitatiok.
1. Teacher's duty. () To have a bright, cheerful, and pleasant manner. () To be interested in the work. (c) Not to scold when pupils read poorly. (d) To inspire the pupil with an enthusiastic desire to excel. (e) To direct the pupil's attention to any special point by means of questions. (/) To see that every pupil has in mind the story and moral of the lesson. (gr) To see that the pupils know every word in the lesson. (K) To interest the pupils. (1) By having before the class, when possible, the object treated in the text. (2) By having pupils act the story. (3) By letting pupils compare their own experiences with those of the characters in the text. (i) To allow no halting, spelling words, etc.
2. Pupil's duty. (a) To stand erect, book in left hand, right hand be hind the back. (b) To announce the number of the page, the number and subject of the lesson. (c) To pronounce the list of new words. (1) From the board. (2) From the columns in the reader.

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(d) To read the first sentence or paragraph with the lips closed.
(e) To read aloud the same just as he would say it if he were the character in the book. (1) Looking on the book. (2) Looking off the book.
(/) To read the succeeding sentences or paragraphs in the same manner.
(gr) To answer the questions the teacher asks. (h) To give the story of the lesson in his own
language. (tj To give his impressions of the story.

Expression.
1. Merely calling words is not reading. 2. The words in the text must convey a meaning to the
mind of the pupil. 3. This meaning will cause him to feel joy, sorrow,
anger, pity, revenge, etc. 4. He must read in such a way as to make a listener
know that he has this feeling, and to share it with him. 5. This is reading with good expression.

An Intermediate Reading Lesson.

1. Object.

(a) To have pupils know the meaning of the words.

(b) To have them get the thought.

(c) To have them feel the sentiment.'

(d) To have them understand the historical references

itr any.

1

(e) To have the sense of any passage given iu pupil's own language.
2. Subject-matter.

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The following poem is used because it is rather more diffi cult to teach than an ordinary prose selection.
GOOD-BYE, VACATION.
BY SUSIE M. BEST.
Vacation is done, And school-time's begun I
Farewell to the hours of loitering ease-- Now welcome again The pencil and pen
And all of the tasks we accomplish with these
Vacation has fled And school-time instead
Confronts us with duties we'll learn to hold dear-- Refreshed from our rest We'll all do our best
And garner new knowledge throughout the new year.
Vacation, farewell I The old school-house hell
Is clamoring loudly, and we must obey. We're eager to learn And so we must turn To the pleasures of work from the pleasures of play 1
3. Questions.
1. What is vacation ? 2. What is said of it? 3. When does our school-time begin ? 4. What are hours of loitering ease ? 5. What is said to them ? 6. What kind of a pupil will leave them gladly? 7. How many things are welcomed again ? 8. Name several tasks we accomplish with pencil and
pen. 9. What month do you think is referred to ? 10. What is the meaning of confront? 11. Do you hold your school duties dear? 12. What is the meaning of refreshed? 13. How can you garner new knowledge?

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14. How does a bell clamor loudly ? 15. Why is the bell clamoring? 16. Why must we obey? 17. Did the person who wrote this poem like to go to
school ? 18. Why do you think so? 19. Can a lazy boy ever feel the pleasures of work ? 20. Which should you like better: The pleasures of
work, or the pleasures of play ?
After discussing and answering these questions, the pupils ought to have a good conception of the spirit of the composition.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
EULER B. SMITH.
Importance.--Among the linguistic sciences grammar is basic and fundamental. It may well be defined as " the science of language." The Committee of Ten in their re port " urge that the admission of a student to college should be made to depend largely on his ability to write English." Besides its practical value as an aid to correct interpretation and expression of thought, English gram mar holds a most important place as a disciplinary study.
Unsatisfactory Results.--As a rule, English gram mar is very poorly taught. Judged by its fruits, it were better defined as the science that does not " teach to speak and write the English language correctly." On account of these results, it has even been suggested that grammar be discarded and that language lessons be used as a sub stitute. The purpose of language lessons is to afford in struction in the art of expression, but language lessons can no more supply the place of grammar than number lessons can afford instruction in the science of arithmetic. Lan guage lessons should precede the study of formal grammar; but, as DeGarmo says, " It is a poor art that does not lead toward and culminate iu corresponding science." To dis card grammar would be foolish; anarchy is a poor substi tute for poor government. The unsatisfactory results in teaching grammar are due mainly to the following causes:
1. Teachers have a misconception of the branch itself. 2. Text-books are often illogical and defective. 3. Methods of teaching are unwise and unnatural. 4. Branch is begun before pupils are mentally prepared for it.

Methods of Teaching.--There are two general methods of teaching grammar, which I shall call the Sen tence Method and the Word Method. The former method begins with the sentence as the unit, and separates it into its elements, which in their last analysis are words. The clas sification, modification, and construction of words are then considered. The latter method, which is the one in gen eral use, considers the word as the unit, and proceeds to study the sentence synthetically through its parts. Too much time is usually devoted to parsing; and analysis, if studied at all, is taken up as being last and least.
Of the two methods the Sentence Method is much to be preferred, since it begins with the true grammatical unit-- the sentence. Words are but fractional units of the in tegral sentence. By the Sentence Method the procedure is analytic and inductive. Principles and rules are learned through a study of language, instead of an attempt to learn language through a study of definitions. Laurie says, " Grammar has to be studied in and through sentences, and to be extracted from sentences by the pupil if it is to be really taught."
In successful teaching both methods should be employed, forming what may be called the Combined Method. By this method the sentence is first separated into its elements; or in other words, speech is reduced to parts of speech. Each part of speech is classified and defined as soon as its nature and use are shown in the analysis of the sentence. Definitions and rules are properly learned by deriving them from the facts to which they refer.
The classification of words should be taken up in con nection with analysis, because some elements of the sentence are named from the parts of speech. For instance an ad jective clause implies a knowledge of the adjective. On the other hand, analysis aids the pupil in better understand ing the parts of speech : a conjunctive adverb is better

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understood after a study of its use in co'nnecting a depend ent clause. After the different kinds of sentences have been analyzed, the modification and construction of the parte of speech are taken up and exercises are had in parsing."
Analysis should precede parsing. Analysis resolves the sentence into its elements, or parts of speech. Parsing (parting) may be called the analysis of the elements of sentences. In parsing, the elements are studied in detail with reference to their classification, modification, and relation. This is the natural order of procedure. Wickersham says: " The botanist analyzes a plant, and then names and describes its several parts. Grammar can be studied successfully in no other way. Parsing without a preceding analysis can lead but to a very imperfect knowl edge of the organic structure of sentences."
I shall not attempt to give a detailed method of teach ing the various topics of grammar, lest this paper be too long; but it is hoped that the plan suggested and the illus tration given may be of service.

General Suggestions.

1. Grammar should not be studied until minds of pupils

are sufficiently matured. Seldom should it be

studied by pupils under thirteen years of age.

2. Do not attempt to teach grammar through definitions,

but rather definitions and principles through lan

guage.

3. Induction should precede deduction. Particular



ideas should precede generalizations. A study of

individual facts should lead to definitions and prin

ciples. " The mind must ever rise from clear in

dividual to distinct general notions."

4. Deduction should follow induction. After principles

and rules have been learned inductively, the pupil

should illustrate them with individual examples.

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5. Do not allow pupils to memorize definitions not understood. Test their knowledge by having them apply principles in constructing and correcting sen tences.
6. Make grammar practical by having pupils criticise their own language as well as the language of others.
7. Grammar is comparatively useless unless applied in practice. Arithmetic is better understood than grammar because more practice is, generally re quired. " Few rules and many exercises."
Purpose of Studying Grammar.
The purpose of studying grammar is to aid the pupil: 1. In understanding language used by others. 2. In expressing his own thoughts correctly. 3. By affording him mental training.
Division of Grammar. The teacher should have a clear conception of the nature and scope of the branch taught. Following are the divisions of grammar, and that of which each di vision treats: I. Orthoepy--Pronunciation of words. II. Orthography--Spelling of words.
III. Lexicology--Meaning, derivation, and forma tion of words.
IV. Etymology--Classification and modification of words.
V. Syntax--Structure of sentences. 1. Analysis--Separation of sentences into ele ments. 2. Parsing--Analysis of elements with reference to classification, modification, and construction. 3. Synthesis--Formation of sentences by combin ing elements.

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1. Construction--Syntactical relation of ele ments.
2. Collocation--Arrangement of elements. 3. Punctuation--Pointing elements and sen
tences.
VI. Prosody--Versification. The first four divisions deal with the word as the unit;
the last two divisions deal with the sentence as the unit. Correct language demands the proper pronunciation, spell ing, and meaning of words; hence to mispronounce a spoken word is as grave an error as to misspell a written word. Orthoepy, orthography, and lexicology are studied incidentally in grammar, since they receive special atten tion in spelling-books and readers. Prosody belongs partly to grammar, partly to rhetoric. The mere form of verse (verse-making) belongs to grammar; the diction of verse belongs to rhetoric.
Grammar is the science of correct language. Practi cally considered, grammar treats of the etymology of words and the syntax of sentences. We talk and write in sen tences. Rules and principles are proved by reference to the sentence. Words are parsed according to their senten tial use. The proper method of teaching grammar is to begin with--
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.
Begin with short declarative sentences. Using sentences like Dogs bark, the pupil is taught the two essential ele ments of the sentence--subject and predicate. As soon as the pupil has learned the use of words in the sentence, the parts of speech should be named and defined. When sub ject and predicate are well understood, the pupil should learn the two principal parts of speech--noun and verb. Substitute they for dogs in the sentence Dogs bark, and the pupil can get an idea of the pronoun. Sentences like Dead

27
leaves fall quietly, introduce modifiers of the subject aud predicate, and pupils are prepared to study adjectives and adverbs. Very large trees grow very slowly, introduces com plex word elemeuts, and gives the remaining uses of the adverb. Mary goes to school illustrates a new element, the phrase, and shows the use of the preposition. He lives in a house near the church contains a complex phrase. Boys and girls study at home and at school illustrates compound word and phrase elements, and gives an idea of the con junction. Ah! I am so glad! contains an interjection.
Other offices of the noun, pronoun, and adjective should be presented, the teacher moving by safe gradations from the simpler to the more difficult. Common and proper nouns should be discriminated in order that the pupil may intelligently capitalize the latter. The subclasses of the other parts of speech should be studied later. After declarative sentences are familiar to the pupil, iuterrogative, imperative, and exclamatory sentences should be introduced and their punctuation taught. Each new prin ciple and definition should have ample practice in its ap plication. In connection with each element, punctuation should be taught in order to aid the pupil in writing his exercises correctly. Synthesis should accompany and fol low analysis: the pupil should learn to build as well as to tear down.
In studying the simple sentence, the pupil has become familiar with two kinds of elements and the three forms of each; and he has obtained a knowledge of the eight parts of speech, classified according to use. He is prepared to understand that a simple sentence is one that contains only word and phrase elements, which may be simple, complex, or compound in form. Beyond naming the parts of speech, no parsing is attempted yet.

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THE COMPLEX SENTENCE.
If the simple sentence is understood, the transition to the complex sentence is not difficult. The third and last element of sentences must now be introduced--the clause. Examining the sentence TEe started when the sun rose, the pupil can see that it has two parts, each having a subject and a predicate. Develop the definition of a clause--a part of a sentence containing a subject and a predicate. Show that the clause when the sun rose modifies started, aud there fore it performs the office of an adverb. Let the pupil see that when modifies rose, and also connects a clause. He is thus prepared to understand the conjunctive adverb. A subordinate conjunction may also connect an adverb clause; as, You can learn if you study. Pupils who study will learn, illustrates the adjective clause, and gives an idea of the relative pronoun. A noun clause is contained in the sen tence, Geography teaches that the earth is round. Call at tention to the fact that a noun clause has no connective. It is generally introduced by the conjunction that; but the conjunction is frequently omitted, and it need not be sup plied in parsing. A clause that performs the office of an adjective, an adverb, or a noun is called a dependent clause ; a clause that does not perform the office of a single part of speech is an independent clause. A sentence that contains one independent clause, and one or more dependent clauses, is a complex sentence. When the underlying facts are understood, a definition becomes intelligible. The in dependent clause of a complex sentence is necessarily sim ple in form; a dependent clause may be simple, complex, or compound, as:
1. Simple noun clause--I believe he is honest. 2. Complex adjective clause--This is the cat that caught the rat that ate the malt. 3. Compound adverb clause--The clock struck when we started and when we returned.

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THE COMPOUND SENTENCE.
The compound sentence contains no new elements, but new combinations of elements already studied. A com pound sentence is one composed of two or more independ ent clauses, aud these clauses are connected by co-ordinate conjunctions. In compound sentences the independent clauses may be simple, complex, or compound in form. The following sentences illustrate the several forms:
1. Both clauses simple--She studies, and she learns. 2. First clause complex--I said that I was going, and I meant it. 3. Both clauses compound--He spake, and it was done; [and] he commanded, and it stood still. The three kinds of elements and the three forms of each have now been studied. It is seen that a compound sen tence consists of two or more simple, complex, or compound independent clauses. The three kinds of sentences can be easily discriminated. If a sentence contains only words and phrases, it is simple. If a sentence contains only one independent clause, it is complex. If a sentence contains two or more independent clauses, it is compound. A com pound sentence may contain dependent clauses. The parts of simple and compound sentences are connected by co ordinate conjunctions; the parts of complex sentences are connected by subordinate connectives. It is important that the elements of sentences should be understood, since intel ligent punctuation is largely dependent upon a knowledge of analysis. In connection with analysis, diagrams should be used but not abused. A strong argument in favor of dia grams is the fact that they show, at the same time, both the analysis and the synthesis of the sentence.
OUTLINE OF THE SENTENCE.
I. Definition.--A sentence is the verbal expression of a thought.

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II. Classes. 1. Meaning. 1. Declarative. 2. Interrogative. 3. Imperative. 4. Exclamatory. 2. Form. 1. Simple. 1. Essential elements--Subject, predicate. 2. Elements connected by co-ordinate conjunc tion. 2. Complex. 1. Essential elements--One independent clause and one dependent clause. 2. Connectives of essential elements--Relative pronouns, conjunctive adverbs, and subordinate conjunctions. 3. A dependent clause may perform the following offices: 1. Noun, with construction of-- 1. Subject. 2. Direct object. 3. Predicate nominative. 4. Factitive object. 5. Object of preposition. 6. In apposition. 7. Independent with participle. 8. Independent by pleonasm. 2. Adjective, necessarily used as a modifier. 3. Adverb, denoting-- 1. Time. 2. Place. 3. Manner. 4. Degree. 5. Cause.

3]
1. Real cause. 2. Reason. 3. Condition. 4. Purpose, 5. Concession.
3. Compound. 1. Essential elements--Two independent clauses. 2. Connective of essential elements--Co-ordinate conjunction. 3. The second independent clause may be-- 1. Copulative. 2. Alternative. 3. Adversative. 4. Illative.
III. Elements.
1. Kind. 1. Word. 2. Phrase. 3. Clause.
2. Form. 1. Simple. 2. Complex. 3. Compound.
3. Rank. 1. Principal. 1. Subject. 2. Predicate. 2. Subordinate. 1. Complementary. 1. Subjective complement. 2. Object complement. 3. Objective complement.

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2. Modifying. 1. Nounal. 2. Adjectival. 3. Adverbial.
3. Connective. 1. Conjunction. 2. Relative pronoun. 3. Conjunctive adverb.
4. Independent.
IV. Processes.
1. Analysis. 1. Kinds. 1. Oral. 2. Written. 3. Diagrammed. 2. Steps. 1. Describe sentence as to (1) form, (2) meaning. 2. If complex or compound, name the clauses and analyze each in order. 3. Give grammatical subject. 4. Describe modifiers of subject as to (1) form, (2) kind. 5. Give modified subject. 6. Give grammatical predicate. 7. If incomplete, give its complement. 8. Describe modifiers of predicate as to (1) form, (2) kind. 9. Give modified predicate. 10. Give connectives and independent elements.
2. Synthesis.
3. Parsing. (The following model, while intended especially for nouns, can be modified so as to serve for the other parts of speech.)

33 MODEL FOR WRITTEN PARSING.

CLASSIFICATION.

MODIFICATION.

SYNTAX.

Class. Sub Class. Kind. Number. Gender Person. Case. Construction. Rule.

OUTLINE OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.
CLASSES.
The parts of speech are classified according to their use in sentences. In addition to its general use, a part of speech has special syntactical uses called its constructions. For instance, a noun is always a name; but it may have various constructions ; as subject, object of verb, etc. Below are given the parts of speech classified according to their sentential use. The terms used in connection with the parts of speech are intended as concise descriptions rather than formal definitions.
Noun.--Name-word. Vueb.--Asserting-word. Pronoun.--Noun-substitute. Adjective.--Noun-modifier (pronoun-modifier). Adverb.--Verb-modifier (adjective-modifier, adverbmodifier). Preposition.--Phrase-introducer. Conjunction.--Element-connector. Interjection.--Feeling-word.
SUB-CLASSES.
All the parts of speech except the preposition and the interjection are subdivided. Below are given the sub classes, kinds, and sub-kinds of the parts of speech.

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THE NOUN.
I. Common. 1. Concrete ; as, tree. 2. Abstract. 1. Attributive; as, goodness. 2. Verbal, as, running, to sleep. 3. Collective ; as, class.
II. Proper. 1. Strictly proper ; as, Atlanta, Rocky Mountains. 2. Used as common nouns; as, a Daniel, a Cicero.

I. Form.

THE VERB.

1. Regular ; as, walk. 2. Irregular; as, see. 3. Reduudant; as, hang. 4. Defective; as, beware.

II. Use.
1. Transitive. 1. Active; as, Farmers raise corn. self (reflexive). 2. Passive ; as, Corn is raised.
2. Intransitive. 1. Complete ; as, Dogs bark. 2. Copulative; as, Snow is white. cold.

I hurt my Marble feels

III. Rank. 1. Principal; as, He has returned. 2. Auxiliary ; as, He has returned.

THE PRONOUN.
I. Personal. 1. Simple ; as, he. 2. Compound; as, himself.

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II. Relative. 1. Simple ; as, who. 2. Compound; as, whoever. 3. The double relative. 1. Simple; as, what. 2. Compound; as, whatever.
III. Interrogative; as, who?
IV. Adjective. 1. Demonstrative; as, That is mine. 2. Indefinite; as Some were lost. 3. Distributive ; as, He gave each an apple. 4. Reciprocal; as, The children love each other.
THE ADJECTIVE.
I. Descriptive. 1. Common ; as, sweet. 2. Proper ; as, Cuban. 3. Participial; as, charming.
II. Definitive. 1. Articles. 1. Indefinite--an (a). 2. Definite--the. 2. Pronominal. 1. Demonstrative; as, This book is mine. 2. Indefinite ; as, Some men are scholars. 3. Distributive; as, He gave each boy an apple. 4. Reciprocal; as, Each child loves the other. 3. Numerical. 1. Cardinal; as, thtwe, ten. 2. Ordinal; as third, tenth. 3. Multiplicative ; as, triple, tenfold. 4. Relative; as, Which things contain an allegory. (Gal. 4: 24.) 5. Interrogative ; as, Which book will you take ?

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I. Simple.

THE ADVERB.

1. Time; as, now. 2. Place; as, here. 3. Manner; as, quietly. 4. Degree; as, very. 5. Cause; as, why, therefore.

II. Modal; as, Man is not perfect. Perhaps he will come.

III. Responsive; as, No. (Always independent.)

IV. Expletive; as, There is a God. Well, let ua go. (Always independent.)

V. Numeral, as, once.

VI. Interrogative; as, IFAen did you come ?

VII. Conjunctive; as, I came when the bell rang.

VIII. Correlative; as, James is as old as John.

THE CONJUNCTION.
I. Co-ordinate.
1. Copulative; as, and. 2. Alternative; as, or. 3. Adversative; as, but. 4. Illative; as, hence. 5. Correlative; as, both .... and.
II. Subordinate.
1. Real cause; as, because. 2. Reason; as,for. 3. Condition ; as, if. 4. Purpose; as, that. 5. Concession; as, although. 6. Correlative; as, though .... yet.

MODIFICATIONS.
Comparatively speaking, English is a non-inflected lan guage. The modifications of English words are oftener

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changes in meaning and use than changes in form. The few inflected forms that do exist, should receive careful study. Following are the names of the five inflected parts of speech, with their modifications:
Nouns and Pronouns--Number, gender, person, case.
Verbs--Voice, mode, tense, number, person.
Adjectives and Adverbs--Comparison.
Number.--The rules for forming the plural of nouns should be well understood, and applied in practice. The plurals of words like the following are often improperly written: lily, money, hero, tobacco, spoonful, court-martial, pair, fish. The pupil should understand the number of col lective nouns in order that the verb may be used properly.
Gender.--Since the gender of nouns denotes the sex of the object, the term "common gender" is a misnomer. A common sex is unthinkable and absurd. With equal pro priety we could say that deer and the pronoun you are com mon number. In the sentence : My pupils are boys and girls, pupils \s mnscnWne and feminine. In the sentence : He called to see a friend, the gender of & friend is unknown.
Person.--It should be impressed on the minds of pupils that person in grammar does not necessarily refer to human beings. In the sentence Fido, come here, Fido is second per son, although it is the name of a dog. Person (from Latin persona, a mask) denotes the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of. The same noun, as John, in different sentences, may personate these three different relations. Personal pronouns and verbs are the ouly classes of words that have person forms.
Case.--Nouns have only two case-forms--oue for the possessive, aud one common to the nominative and objective. As far as form is concerned, errors in the use of nouns are limited to the possessive case; therefore the formation of the possessive singular aud plural should be thoroughly

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understood. The English language has only eight nomi native case-forms, aud ouly six objective case-forms. Er rors in the use of these words are very common. Most of the rules of construction apply practically to these fourteen forms; hence the pupil should be carefully drilled in the use of the following:
Eight Nominative Forms.--I, we, thou, ye, he, she, they, who.
Six Objective Forms.--Me, us, thee, him, them, whom.
Voice.--Voice is that modification of a verb that voices or tells something concerning its subject. The active voice shows that the subject denotes that which performs an act received by an object. The passive voice shows that the subject denotes that which is passive, or receives an act. A transitive verb is not a verb that may have, but a verb that does have, an object. This object in the active voice is the direct object of the verb; in the passive voice it is the passive subject. An intransitive verb is one that does not have an object. A verb may be transitive in one sen tence, and intransitive in another; hence a verb should be parsed according to its use in the particular sentence under consideration. An intransitive verb may be a complete predicate; as, The wind blows. It may be complemented; as, The wind blows cold. Intransitive verbs that have a complement are copulative verbs.
Mode and Tense.--English verbs have very few in flected forms. A regular verb has only seven inflections, all told. The verb to be, the most irregular of all verbs, has only eleven inflected forms--am, art, is, are, wast, were, wert, be, being, been. Most of the verb-modifications are formed by an external change; that is, by auxiliaries. A knowledge of the verb demands a careful study of auxiliary verbs. Pupils should be drilled in the proper use of the past tense aud past participle of irregular verbs. Errors

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like the following are heard too frequently: I seen him, Who done that? The boiler bursted, The man was hung. In the potential mode the auxiliaries are always notional; in the other modes the auxiliaries are not notional, but are signs of -tense. Shall and will, as used iu the indicative mode, are mere signs of future time. When shall and will are notional, they should be considered auxiliaries of the present potential, as illustrated iu the following sentences:
I will go (present determination). He would go (past determination). I say you shall go (present obligation). I said you should go (past obligation).

CONSTRUCTION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.

I. Nominative.

THE NOUN.

1. Subject of finite verb; as, Bii'ds sing.

2. Predicate of finite verb; as, Atlanta is a city.
3. Abstract predicate of infinite verb; as, J To be a penman requires practice. ( No one thought of his being a teacher.

4. Independent. 1. By address; as, Mary, lend me your book.

2. By pleonasm; as, William Trimbletoe, he's a good fisherman.
3. By exclamation; as, Poor man! he is unfortunate. 4. By inscription; as, Bardeen's Rhetoric (title of book). 5. By subscription; as J. W. Brown (used as signature).

6. With participle; as, The sun rising, we started. 7. In apposition; as, John, my boy, come here.

II. Possessive. 1. Modifier; as, The boy's hat was lost. 2. In apposition; as, Longfellow, the poet's, home was at Cambridge. {Longfellow is possessive, used by enallage for Longfellow's).

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3. By enallage for objective; as, That tongue of John's is never still.
III. Objective.
1. Direct object; as, Birds build nests. 2. Indirect object.
1. With transitive verb; as, I lent the boy my knife. 2. With intransitive verb; as, The shoes lasted the
man well. 3. Factitive object; as, They made him president. 4. Cognate object; as, He ran a race. 5. Retained object; as, He was offered a position (with
out governing word). 6. Object of preposition; as, He goes to school. 7. Adverbial objective (without governing word).
1. Time; as, It rained last night. 2. Place; as, We returned home. 3. Distance; as, We walked a mile. 4. Direction; as, The ship sailed west. 5. Value; as, The book is worth a dollar. 6. Weight; as, I paid ten cents a pound. 7. Measure; as, That wine cost a dollar a quart. 8. Extent; as, He is a trifle older than I. 9. Manner; as, The word is pronounced both ways. 10. Specification; as, They bound him hand and foot. 8. In apposition; as, I spoke to Miss Wood, the teacher. 9. Subject of infinitive; as, He wants his son to be a
lawyer. 10. Predicate of infinitive; as, I want him to be a teacher.
THE VERB.
(The finite verb always constitutes the predicate or forms a part of the predicate.)
1. Used alone as predicate; as, Horses run. 2. Used with other word or words.
1. With subjective complement; as, Roses are red.

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2. "With object complement; as, Boys play ball. 3. With objective complement; as, They made him
chairman. 4. With inseparable adverb; as, They put out the fire. 5. With several words, forming an inseparable verb-
phrase ; as, I was taken care of.
THE PRONOUN.
Generally speaking, the constructions of pronouns are similar to those of the noun; there are, however, a few special constructions of the pronoun that deserve attention.
1. Him destroyed, all else will follow. 2. Than whom none sat higher. 3. Poor me! what shall I do? 4. This is a favorite book of mine. 5. This heart of mine will break. 6. Bring such as you have. 7. There is no one but makes mistakes. Him and whom are Miltonic solecisms, being improperly used for he and who. Him is a pronoun independent with a participle. Whom should be nominative subject of sat implied. Some would call than a preposition, but it de notes comparison instead of relation. Me is objective by exclamation, a construction peculiar to the pronoun. Mine is a euphonic form of the possessive case, modify ing the implied partitive objective books. The euphonic form is used when the name of the thing possessed is not expressed. Mine, in No. 5, is object of the preposition of. It is a possessive form, used by enallage for the objective. Posses sion is denoted by the possessive case or by a phrase intro duced by of. The ordinary construction would require ofme: but, iu this case, for the sake of emphasis as well as euphony, the preposition denotiug possession is followed by the pos

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sessive form of the pronoun, thus forming an idiomatic double possessive. This idiom is also used with nouns; as, that tongue of John's. Some authors make a separate class of such words as mine and thine, calling them possessive pronouns. Properly speaking, they are possessive forms of personal pronouns. John's, in the expression just given, is a noun in the possessive case, hardly a possessive noun.
As is used as a relative pronoun after such, same, and many.
But is a negative relative. The expression but makes=z that does not make.

I. Modifier.

THE ADJECTIVE.

1. Attributive; as, Red apples. 2. Appositive; as, A man, old and infirm.

II. Predicate Adjective.

1. Subjective complement; as, Snow is'white. 2. Objective complement; as, The dinner made the
boy sick. 3. Used abstractly after infinite verb; as, To be per
fect is impossible.

I. Modifier.

THE ADVERB.

1. Modifying verb; as, We walked slowly. 2. Modifying adjective; as, It is very cold. 3. Modifying phrase; as, She studies only at home. II. Independent; as, Well, what do you say?

III. Conjunctive.

1. Connecting adverb clause; as, We came when the bell rang.
2. Connecting adjective clause; as, I remember the house where I was born.
3. Correlative; as, John is as old as I am.

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THE PREPOSITION.
1. Showing relation; as, She goes to school. 2. Merely introductory ; as, Out of sight is out of mind.
THE CONJUNCTION.
I. Co-ordinate. 1. Connecting words; as, James and John study. 2. Connecting phrases; as, She studies at home and at school. 3. Connecting clauses; as, Mary reads and Blanch writes. 4. Merely introductory; as, And the Lord spake uuto Moses. 5. Correlative; as, Both Mary and Blanche have gone.
II. Subordinate. 1. Connecting subordinate clause; as, You can learn i/1 you try. 2. Introducing subordinate clause; as, That the earth is round is true.
THE INTERJECTION.
Always iudependent.
THE PARTICIPLE.
I. Definition.--A participle is au assuming form of the verb, having the use of an adjective or a noun.
II. Classes. 1. Present. 1. Active. (Intransitive verbs have same form.) 1. Common form; as, writin'g. 2. Progressive form; as, being writing (rare). 2. Passive; as, being written. 2. Past (active and passive); as, written.
The past participle has the same form in both voices. This parti ciple is never used alone in an active sense: its only use in the active voice is with auxiliaries to form compound tenses ; as, Have, written,
had gone.

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3. Perfect.
1. Active. 1. Common form; as, having written. 2. Progressive form; as, having been writing.
2. Passive; as, having been written.

III. Constructions.

1. Adjective.

1.

Modifier;

as,

J The man, rising, started to leave. \ The sun rising, we started.

2. Predicate adjective. 1. Subjective; as, We stood watching the clouds. 2. Objective; as, He had his watch mended. 3. Used abstractly after infinite verb; as, j To keep complaining is unwise. ( Much depends ou getting started well.

2. Noun.
1. Nominative.
1. Subject of finite verb; as, Picking cotton is hard work.
2. Predicate of finite verb; as, Stealing is taking without permission.
3. In apposition; as, Her task, sweeping the floor, was unpleasant.
4. Independent. 1. Simply independent; as, Considering his ad vantages, he deserves much credit. 2. With a participle; as, Talking having been for bidden, the children remained silent. 3. By pleonasm; as, Raising cotton, will it pay? 4. By exclamation; as, AtWinp his brother! What a crime he has committed! 5. In apposition; as, Delightful t&sk, teaching the young!

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2. Objective. 1. Object of verb; as, She commencedioHiing'a letter. 2. Object of preposition; as, We learn to do by doing. 3. Subject of infinitive; as, I want your reading aloud to be continued. 4. Predicate of infinitive; as, We thought diagram ming sentences to be wasting time. 5. Factitive object (objective complement); as, Some one has called silent reading getting thought. 6. In apposition; as, I consider this exercise, writ ing compositions, to be very profitable. 7. Adverbial objective (without governing word); as, The field is not worth plowing.
The participle, as its name indicates, always participates the nature of two parts of speech. While it retains all the governing power of a verb, it differs, from the finite verb in lacking power to assert. In addition to its verb nature, it has the use of an adjective or a noun.
The dogs, barking loudly, kept me awake. He supported his mother by selling papers on the street. In the first sentence barking shows its verb nature (1) by assuming action, (2) by taking the adverb modifier loudly. It shows its adjective use by modifying dogs. In the second sentence selling shows its verb nature, (1) by assuming action, (2) by taking the direct object papers, (3) in being modified by the adverb phrase on the street. It shows its noun use, (1) by naming the action, (2) in being governed by the preposition by. When a participle loses it verb nature, it ceases to be a participle, aud becomes a participial noun or adjective or adverb or preposition. In the sentence, " The water is boiling hot, boiling is a participial adverb. The sentence, Regarding his conduct we have the same opinion, contains a participial preposition. As an aid in distinguishing

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participles from words that are participial in form, die fol lowing suggestions are given :
A Participle with the Use of an Adjective. 1. Assumes action or being of the word modified. 2. Is complemented in same manner as finite verb. 3. May be modified by an adverb, adverb phrase, or adverb clause. 4. Usually follows the word modified. 5. Is set off by the comma unless restrictive.
A Participial Adjective. 1. Denotes a quality of the word modified. 2. Has lost its verb nature and cannot be complemented. 3. Can be modified by an adverb only. 4. Always precedes the word modified. 6. Is never set off by the comma.
A Participle with the Use of a Noun. 1. Not only names, but assumes action or being. 2. Is complemented in the same manner as finite verb. 3. May be modified by adjective, possessive, adverb, adverb phrase, or adverb clause. 4. Is not preceded by article or followed by preposition.
A Participial Noun. 1. Simply names, without assuming action or being. 2. Does not admit a verb-complement of any kind. 3. Is modified only by adjective or adjective phrase. 4. May be preceded by article and followed by prepo sition. We, starting early, arrived in time (participle used as
adjective). Running fast is tiresome (participle used as noun). Our cradle is the starting place (participial adjective). Life is the running of the race (participial noun).

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THE INFINITIVE PHRASE.
I. Definition.--An infinitive phrase is one composed of the preposition to and an infinitive used as its ob ject. An infinitive is an assuming verb-form, used as the base of au infinitive phrase.
II. Classes. 1. Present. 1 Active/ Common form; as, (to) write. \ Progressive form; as, (to) be writing. 2. Passive; as, (to) be written. 2. Perfect. 1 Active / Common form ; as, (to) have written. \ Progressive form; as, (to) have been writing. 2. Passive ; as, (to) have been written.
{1. Noun. 2. Adjective.
3. Adverb.
IV. Constructions. 1. Noun. 1. Nominative. 1. Subject of finite verb; as, To steal is wrong. 2. Predicate of finite verb; as, To hesitate is to fail. 3. In apposition ; as, It is human to err. 4. Independent. 1. Simply independent; as To tell the truth, I was mistaken. 2. With a participle ; as, To pass through the field being forbidden, we followed the road. 3. By pleonasm; as, 7b hesitate, that would be to fail. 4. By exclamation; as, To drown! what an awful death! 5. In apposition ; as, Delightful task, to teach the young!

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2. Objective. 1. Object of verb; as, He likes to study. 2. Object of preposition; as, They did nothing but (to) talk. 3. In apposition ; as, The boy liked his task, to bring the mail. 4. Factitive object; as, I regard to hesitate as to fail. 5. Objective subject of infinitive ; as To analyze sentences he considers to be useless. 6. Objective predicate of infinitive; as, He thinks to steal to be to take without permis sion.
2. Adjective. 11. aMtodji-fcier {f(TItheisrei mispaostsi-imbuilee tctoorlaftuogrhm. e ^to go. 2. Predicate adjective. 1. Subjective; as These apples are to be sold. 2. Objective; as, They made me (to) stay. 3. Used abstractly after infinitive verb; as, J His seeming to be innocent was of no avail. \ To appear to know is not sufficient.
3. Adverb. 1. Modifying verb ; as, Strive to excel. 2. Modifying adjective; as, .Apples are good to eat. 3. Modifying adverb ; as, He is old enough to vote.
An infinitive phrase is commonly called an infinitive,--a form of synecdoche in which a part is used for the whole. The infinitive proper is a verbal noun in the objective case, governed by the preposition to. This inseparable preposition is, however, no part of the verb. The con junction tYmay be called a sign of the subjunctive mode, yet in no sense is it a part of the verb. When the iiifini-

49
tive pbrase is used as a modifier, the preposition shows re lation; when the infinitive phrase is used otherwise, to merely introduces without showing relation. In the sen tence, It is time to plant (for planting) corn, corn is the object of plant, and to shows the relation between time and plant.
In Anglo-Saxon, to was not used before any infinitive except a dative form called the gerundial infinitive. This form, which had the ending ne, usually denoted purpose and was always preceded by to; I have meat to eat (to etanne). When the gerundial infinitive lost its ending ne, it did not differ in form from other infinitives; hence to was placed before all infinitives, whether expressing pur pose or not.

METHODS IN TEACHING HISTORY
BY L. B. EVANS, SUPT. SCHOOLS, AUGUSTA, GA.
WHY WE TEACH HISTORY.
1. For the better understanding of our rights and duties as citizens. To know how our government was made, what it has endured, by what forces it was wrought, is to know our duty to our neighbor and our rights to ourselves.
2. To stimulate love for our country and devotion to its institutions. Patriotism lights its fire at the altar of history.
3. To create ideals of noble character and of what is truly great, that each one may apply himself to at tain to the highest manhood of which he is capable.
4. To stimulate our ambitions to be like the great men of history, that we may serve our country or our community or our neighbor, according to our ability.
5. To teach us wisdom. " History is philosophy teaching by example." To show that truth aud right will ultimately prevail over falsehood and wrong.
6. To cultivate our memory, stimulate our imagination, broaden and deepen the current of our lives by add ing to our culture in the contemplation of great men and great events.

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HOW TO INTRODUCE THE SUBJECT.
1. For the first two or three years simple stories from history should be read or told, one or two every day.
2. These stories should illustrate heroism, bravery, kindness, and other traits of good character. Avoid tales of horror, bloodshed, or those with bad moral.
3. Stories need not be encumbered with dates.
4. These stories may be repeated by the pupils-- orally by the young children, or in writing by the older ones.
5. To illustrate the kind of story, take for example: Columbus and the egg; William Tell and the apple; Putnam aud the stone steps; Washington and the cherry tree; Story of De Soto ; John Smith and his adventures; How the cotton gin was invented; How the Atlantic cable was laid, etc., etc.
6. Teachers should have such desk copies as Dodge's Stories from American History; Pratt's American History Stories; Johonnot's Stories from History; Higginson's Yoiiug Folks' History of the United States.
HOW TO USE ANY TEXT-BOOK ON HISTORY.
WHAT NOT TO DO.
1. Do not assign the lesson by page or by paragraph, regardless of the contents. Every lesson should have some unity.
2. Do not allow pupils to memorize the words of the text without understanding their meaning. Do not discourage the use of the text words if the pupil is giving an intelligible statement.
3. Do not depend entirely on the printed questions in the text-book. These are mere guides. It is best not to use them at all. Make your own questions.
4. Avoid useless detail of dates, numbers, etc.

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WHAT TO DO.
1. Assign the lesson by topic. Use what Bain calls " a text-hook-in chief," hut refer the class to certain other collateral texts.
2. Anticipate each topical study by explanation, direction, sugges tion for reference, story, etc,
8. Require each pupil to use words he understands, and to make in telligible statements. If he gets his words from the text, it is necessary he should know their import.
i. Require as full statements, complete narratives as possible. 6. Besides the text-books in use by the class, the teacher should have
three or four books to read from, and six or seven reference books for use by the class. Pupils should be trained to investigate differ ent authorities.
Note.--Emphasize those forces that build up nations and make them great. Show why ours is a great people, the necessities, the policies, the struggles, the principles of government, the growth; in other words teach the great foundation principles aud the causes that have prevailed in the crises of our history to determine our actions, give character to our institutions, and to control the making of further history.
1. Teach hy topic, the class to use the main text, and others for reference. Each pupil should contribute to the recitation all that he has been able to discover. The truth of history cannot be found in any single text. Have a definite list of reference books, easily available for the class.
2. Outline these topics on the blackboard. () Before the recitation as a suggestion for study and investigation, mention the references to be consulted. () For purpose of review (oral or written). (c) To aid in oral narration and recitation.
(d) For written exercises, compositions, etc. (For outlines in United States History, see W. J. King's Normal School Outlines, published by W. D. Kerr, N. Y.)

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As a model of outline for blackboard studv the follow
ing is given :

CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS.

...........

( education.

Boyhood .........1 traits of character.

( occupations and adventures,

f popular opinion as to earth's shape.

Ro];Qf

J his own opinion of its roundness.

e .............. I advantage to commerce in sailing around the

I. earth.

.

(various applications and refusals.

Assistance...... ^Ferdinand and Isabella.

(when, from where, and with what. incidents o? Uie to'yage.

the discOTery
(how many and to where. Other Voyages -! what discovered.
(incidents. treatment,
1 imprisonment, death, burial.
Note.--The teacher will find it a tax to prepare these outlines at first, but once done well, and preserved in a
notebook, with full references, suggestions, anecdotes, etc., the work becomes easier each year. Every teacher should
have a commonplace book divided into subjects in which are preserved all suggestions, experiences, observations, etc.
At the foot of the above outline should be noted for the
teacher's use:

References.
" Story of Columbus," by Maria L. Pratt. Higginson's " Young Folks' History of the United
States." " Stories of American History," Dodge. " Stories of our Country," Johonnot.

Suggestions. Show map of the world to class. Require pupils to trace voyages on the map.

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Show pupils pictures of Columbus, his vessels, etc. Tell story of the egg, the jewels. Emphasize the independence of the thought, the per
sistence, and the courage that made Columbus great.
HOW TO SUPPLEMENT THE TEXT.
1. Encourage the use of collateral texts, used by pupils and by teacher to ascertain further facts, cor rect errors, and note differences of opinion.
2. In United States history, texts from both Northern and Southern writers should be used for compari son.
3. Every pupil may have a different text if the study is pursued by topic, and not by paragiaph or page. It is better, however, to have a standard text, and use the others for comparison.
4. Require pupils to consult biographies, encyclo pedias and works of reference by asking " search questions," the answers to which are not to be found in the ordinary school text. This plan is especially feasible in city schools, where public libraries are available.
5. Encourage the reading of historical books, such as " Scottish Chiefs," Thaddeus of Warsaw," " Surry of Eagle's Nest," " Grandfather's Chair," " Tales of a Grandfather," "Plutarch's Lives," etc.
6. Every school should have a circulating library con tributed by friends or bought by pupils; a few good books can stimulate a love for history and good lit erature. The books should be kept in locked case and distributed at stated time.
BIOGRAPHY (THE STUDY OF INDIVIDUALS).
Things to be taught under this head.
1. Place aud date of birth, with facts about parentage.

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2. Incidents about boyhood showing how education was obtained; also anecdotes illustrating his char acter as a boy, disposition, bent of mind, and other things.
3. Incidents of young manhood, showing how life was started, obstacles overcome, etc.
4. Facts about his middle life, showing what he did and what traits of mind and character made him great.
5. Incidents in life to show such traits of char acter as persistence, punctuality, personal and moral courage, etc.
6. Utterances furnishing epigrams or bits of philoso phy worthy of remembering.
7. Effect of his life upon the age in which he lived, whether good or bad, and why. Was he truly great, or not, and why ?
8. Facts about private life and character, whether up right, moral, Christian, gentle, generous, etc.
9. Facts of old age and death, where buried, how honored in history, etc.
Note.--Select only those leading characters whose lives have been instrumental in shaping the thought and conduct of the nation. There are men around whom history cen ters, and who represent forces and ideas that mould the age in which they live. Such men should be studied.
GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY.
1. Always use a map in teaching history. Connect events and localities. The map should be a wall map, in absence of which the teacher should have a map sketched on board in colored crayon.
2. Require pupils to point out historical localities, to trace routes of travel, to show boundaries, etc.

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3. War maps should be drawn on blackboard, using colored crayon (red for one side, blue for the other) to show the movement of the armies. (a) A war map of the Revolution showing in red the landing, advance, and retreat of the British, and in blue the movement of the American forces. (5) A war map of the Civil war, showing Federal lines in red, Confederate lines in blue, etc. (c) In case a State is overrun and conquered, it may be given the color of the conquering forces. A city may be treated in like way.
Note.--The influence that geographical situation has upon the history of a people is significant. The climate, the topography, the coast line, the products of the soil, the situation, have in all ages and with all people greatly modi fied national character. The reciprocal influence of man and nature is worthy of consideration. It is well for the teacher to explain the advantages or disadvantages of phys ical environment, and how it has affected the history of the world.
The Emphasis of History.
1. War, battles, etc. (a) The causes that brought on the war, and made it necessary to decide certain questions. (b) The famous leaders on both sides, and their rela tive capacity. (Few only.) (c) The main campaigns, the names of the principal battles, with results of each. (Locate on map--avoid detail.) (d) Instances of heroism, sacrifice, etc. (e) The result of the war, what was gained and what was decided.

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2. Crises of national history. () Such as Declaration of United States Independ ence. () Making the Constitution. (c) War with the French. (d) Disputes over Nullification. (e) Slavery disputes and the Civil War, etc., etc.
3. Manners and customs. () How the colonists lived, dressed, ate, looked, etc. () The occupations of the people of former times. (c) The condition of the schools, churches, peculiar laws, etc. (d) How people traveled, traded, amused themselves, etc.
4. Inventions and discoveries.
(a) The influence of the cotton gin, the steamboat, the railroad, the printing-press, the sewing-machine, the telegraph, the telephone, etc.
(b) Gold in California, etc.
5. The history of our native State. Teach the story of the foundation, progress, and pres ent condition of the native State. Use separate text for this if possible. Let each pupil know the deeds of his immediate ancestors on his own neigh borhood soil.
Some Tests of Progress.
1. Rapid writing, composition exercise condensed into ten minutes offast work, without notice.
() Of facts discovered by each individual. () Of facts taught in the recitation. (c) Of moral lessons deduced from events and conduct. (d) Of estimates of character of men.

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2. Reproduction (oral or written) to test attention and memory of stories, etc., read or told by the teacher.
(a) Short anecdotes of character. (h) Descriptions of places, events or men.
3. Unexpected examinations, two or three times a month. () In writing (about one hour of time). () Orally, for review of general important events.
The teacher should record the results of this test for purpose of report and gradation.
4. Opinions of pupils should be asked of: () The characters of the men, whether good or evil. () The causes that produce certain events. (c) The wisdom or folly of certain policies. (d) The truth or error of political opinions and posi tions.
Note.--History should furnish a child with his ideals of character, his civic wisdom and virtue, aud examples for his emulation. These ideas should be created and devel oped in the child's mind by the teacher. The child's opin ions of men and events must be guided until he has correct estimates of what is upright in conduct, really great and enterprising in character, and of what is right aud gener ous in the dealings of men. The young child should not be left to his own judgment until his habits of thinking give him these correct estimates. If history fails in this it fails in all.
Historical Recreations. 1. Impersonations. (a) A pupil imagines himself a certain character in history. He narrates to the class the various facts of his life. The other pupils guess who he is by the description. The first one guessing correctly has the privilege of assuming a character.

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(6) A pupil assumes a character in history and an nounces to the class who he is. The other pupils then ask him questions about himself that he is bound to answer or take his seat. The pupil who asks a question unanswered, takes up the game, provided he is able to answer his own question.
(c) A pupil is sent from the room, and a character is assigned to him. He returns and the other pupils make remarks about him until he guesses who he is.
(d) A pupil assumes a character in history. The other pupils seek by questions to find out who he is. They ask such questions as " Where were you born ? " How did you get your education ?" " Are you a soldier or a statesman ?" etc.
2. A game of twenty questions. A pupil, or the teacher, thinks of a historical char acter, or a historical object. The others seek by questions to ascertain the object of his thought. All questions must be asked to admit of only yes or no answers. This is a good game to teach classification.
3. The class may be divided into opposite sides by leaders. The teacher reads a question from a card, and the pupils guess in order what event is referred to. The successful pupil gets the card. Another question is asked from another card, and so on. At the end of the game the cards are counted, the side having the greater number being the winner.
4. Organize the class into a debating society. Pro pound such questions as the right of Great Britain to tax the colonies; the treatment of the Indians; tariff for revenue or for protection ; the exclusion of the Chinese; the abolition of slavery ; right of nul lification ; right of secession, etc. Let the teacher act as the judge. Record the arguments on the board briefly.

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6. The symposium. The pupils are seated at their desks. Have as many cards as pupils, each card numbered. Ou each card is a question, and before each pupil a paper. The cards are distributed, one to each pupil, and at a given signal each one writes an answer on the paper before him, and numbers it. At a signal the cards are passed in order to the next pupil, until each pupil has had every card. The answers are then read out by the teacher. The pupil answering the most questions wins the game.
Miscellaneous Suggestions.
1. Celebrate certain anniversaries. () Select the birthdays of ten or twelve men, the an niversaries of as many more famous events, and on those days during the year have short, pointed, but spirited exercises. It impresses the occasion and the man. () Have a place on the blackboard headed " This Date in History," and require the pupils to keep the record of each day as an anniversary.
2. Memory gems.
Write on the blackboard once or twice a week a fa mous saying from some great man. (Such as, " I would rather be right than President.-- Henry Clay.) Require the pupils to copy and memorize. Review them on this.
3. Make frequent use of pictures illustrating old cus toms, habits, laws, etc.' Gather these from all sources, and after using, preserve.
4. Teach patriotic poetry, orations, for special decla mation. Poetry inspires like martial music in time of battle.

METHODS IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY.
BY OTIS ASHMORE, HIGH SCHOOL., SAVANNAH, GA.
CHAPTER I.
The study of primary geography is specially adapted to the comprehension and mental development of very young children, and oral instruction in this branch should be given to them early in the school course. A skillful teacher can make this the most interesting of all primary work, for no other branch affords such a variety of sub jects in which young children take the keenest delight.
WORK FOR SECOND AND THIRD GRADES.
Objects to be Attained.
1. To train the perceptive faculties of the children by teaching them to observe accurately the things around them.
2. To teach the names and meaning of simple geo graphical forms.
3. To interest them intensely, and inspire a love for nature.
Principles to be Observed.
1. Concepts of the unknown are built out of the ma terials of the known. How does a mountain look ? An angel ?
2. Correct concepts, the child's vocabulary of thought, are best formed by vivid presentations of the objects themselves to as many of the senses as possible.

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3. The power to retain and recall what we have learned depends upon, (1) the depth, vividness, and distinctiveness of the impression made upon the mind, (2) the formation of proper associations or connec tions between the new knowledge and something pre viously learned, and (3) frequent reviews and use of cur new acquisition.
No text-book is needed, but the teacher must be thor oughly prepared, full of the subject, and in lively sym pathy with the children.
Observation Lessons.
1. Children have already seen something of nature, but it is very important for them at this stage to call their attention specially to certain type forms in nature w'hich must form the basis of their future knowledge in geography. Therefore take a walk with the children and show them the hills, valleys, brooks, rocks, ponds, rivers, trees, flowers, birds, animals, insects, etc., talk with them about these things, encourage them to ask questions, aud have them describe orally or in simple written state ments what they have seen. This trains to accurate observation.
2. Collect specimens of minerals, rocks, vegetable and animal products, etc., for illustrations in future lessons.
3. Collect a large number of pictures, such as photo graphs, striking engravings from old geographies, magazines, etc., illustrating geographical topics, paste them on cardboard and classify for use.
4. Take advantage of the circus and the street parade, and by all'means let the children see the animals. This is a most valuable lesson.

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Relief Forms.
Teach all Relief Forms:
1. By field work and observation of natural type forms as far as possible.
2. By modeling in sand what has been seen in nature. 3. By pictures and good blackboard drawings. 4. By large relief maps. It must be remembered that sand modeling and all min iature relief forms are valuable not so much for any new concepts which they originate in the mind of the child, as for the mental drill which they afford inform reproduction and form expression. The original ideas should be obtained from nature as far as possible. Good pictures of geo graphical type forms have a very great value because they are like nature.

Forms to be Taught:
Hill, Mountain, Base, Summit, Peak, Slope, Range,

Volcano, Crater, Plain, Plateau, Valley, Basin, Water-shed.

Class Methods :
1. Produce these forms clearly and boldly upon the sand-table in the full presence of the children, talk to them in a familiar manner while doing this, name the forms and describe them, having the children re peat the names while looking at the forms, and con nect this valuable picture in as many features as pos sible with the real natural forms seen by the children in the observation lessons.

64

2. Spoil out these forms and have the children in turn reproduce them, in the meantime asking such ques tions aud relating such stories about them as to in terest intensely the whole class.
3. Produce vivid pictures of these forms upon the sandtable or the blackboard in full view of the class, arouse a lively interest in them by appropriate stories, secure a willing attention, and proceed as follows :
(a) Point to the form, ask for its name, lead pupils to its definition aud adopt a clear aud concise one, and have class repeat the name and definition in concert.
(b) Repeat these steps with the pupils individually. (c) Send a pupil to the board or table, ask for form, and
have the pupil point it out and define it. (d) Distribute card-board pictures of these forms to the
pupils and have them point and name the forms shown in the pictures.

Suggestions.

1. Do not let the lesson be too long; 20 or 30 minutes is long enough.
2. Do not undertake to teach too much at one lesson. 3. Teach no definition apart from the visible form and
the clear concept of that form previously produced in the mind. Remember that mere abstract definitions cannot possibly be of any value to young children. One of the most common faults of teaching is the fruitless attempt to force children to think of con cepts hot in their minds.

4. Visualize, visualize ; Review, review.

HOKIZONTAL FORMS.

Land Forms: Continent, Island, Peninsular,
Isthmus, Cape, Promontory.

Corresponding Water Forms: Ocean, Lake, Gulf or Bay, Strait,
Inlet.

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RIVERS

Source, Mouth,
Banks, Bed, Channel,
Falls, Cascade, Cataract,
Branches, Tributaries, k System.

It is not advisable to undertake to teach too many of these forms to young children, but there is no reason why those here mentioned
may not be profitably taught by a skillful teacher.

Teach all horizontal forms:
1. From nature itself whenever this is practicable. 2. From good pictures. 3 From forms modeled in sand or putty on a blue
ground. 4. From large outline maps on the board or on ma-
nilla paper.

Class Methods.
Use the same class methods as in the study of Relief Forms, with such variations as will naturally suggest them selves to the teacher, keeping always steadily iu view this one great leading thought: The chief purpose in teaching primary geography is to develop in the mind of children con cepts corresponding to the earth's surface. All methods, all verbal descriptions, all visible illustrations, are but devices for the accomplishment of this important purpose.
Permit no vagueness iu subject presentation. This is a most serious, as it is the most common, characteristic of poor teaching. No photographic plate, however sensitive, can receive an image unless the subject be properly illu minated.
First mental impressions, like slight indentations upon the skin, are apt to fade away soon; frequent repetition will make the impressions permanent. Therefore, review the work daily until the form, the name, and the definition can recall one another promptly and without effort.

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Illustrative Forms.
Upon a smooth stout sheet of manilla paper, 40 x 48 inches, draw in bold outline with black crayon an ideal map embracing the forms above mentioned, and appropri ately color them with colored crayons or with solutions of " diamond dyes." A little skill and practice will enable the teacher to represent upon this map also the relief forms, rivers, lakes, etc., in a bold and striking mappicture. Write no names upon the map. Keep this be fore the class constantly and use it as a drill and review chart. Every teacher should learn how to draw. It is one of the most valuable qualifications which a teacher can possess.

HOW TO TEACH DIRECTION AND THE POINTS OF THE
COMPASS.

1. Have pupils point with the right hand to where the sun rises. This is East. The lelt is West; the front is North ; and the back, South.

2. Draw on the board a square _____N0BTH-

figure and mark it thus :

(a) Point out and name the

points and have class repeat jS

|

them. Do this several times. (b) Erase all the letters except
N.E.S.W. aud repeat the ------ |0DTH-------process. (c) Erase all letters aud once more repeat.

3. Send pupils in turn to the board and have them point out as the teacher names the points.

4. Have all pupils in concert point to corresponding positions on their slates or books.

5. In like manner teach Northeast, Southeast, South west, Northwest.

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6. Teach direction by dots and lines on the board, by position of objects in the room, aud by having pupils point in the required direction with their hands.
7. A magnetic needle, the direction of the shadows at noon, etc., are suggestive. Is the top of a map always north? In what direction is San Francisco from the north pole? Which way is east from the north pole?
MAP DRAWING AND MAP MEANING.
It is just as well at this stage to teach pupils how to draw simple maps and how to understand their meaning. Children do not really know what a map means, and the map idea should be gradually developed from the simplest forms. Do you know what a weather-map means when you see one? Every line and figure upon it is full of meaning to one who has learned to interpret it. So chil dren must be taught to interpret the real meaning of a map. The following is a good method :
Draw upon the blackboard in the presence of the class the simple outlines of the yard, the park, or some other small but very familiar portion of the earth's surface. In this draw the roads, paths, streets, trees, etc., which are well known to the pupils, taking care that the map is not made too complex. While doing this ask questions about the objects and have the pupils help by suggesting what to' put upon the map and where to locate the objects. Now have the children themselves draw the map upon paper and write the names of the objects upon it. These simple maps at first will be very crude, they need never be very accurate, but they will serve to lay the foundation of future map-drawing, and a rational understanding of the printed maps which they must use in their geographies.

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Measurements.
As a basis for further map-drawing the use of the footrule and its divisions should be taught. Without instruc tion young children can have no idea of how much a foot, or an inch, or a mile is. Do you know how much a meter is? A kilometer ? A parasang? Why ? Show a foot-rule to the class, explain its divisions and what it is used for. Draw a line on the board and show the class how to measure it. Have pupils in turn measure similar lines. Have them measure their books, desks, the room, etc., and gradually extend this plan until all short distances can be comprehended. Draw a line upon the board, have pupils judge of its length by the eye only, then have them measure it. Repeat this with various objects until fair accuracy of judgment is attained.

Simple Mathematical Forms.
Circle, Diameter, Circumference, Surface,

Sphere, Hemisphere, Axis, Poles.

Methods.
Clear and vivid conceptions of these forms must be developed in the child's mind by apt aud striking visible illustrations, such as blackboard drawings, a globe or an orange with a wire thrust through it to represent the axis. Lead up to a concise definition of each and drill upon these definitions always in the presence of the visible form itself until they can be given without effort.

People, Animals, Products, Etc.
These topics must be taught to young children by relat ing or reading lively stories to them, and by showing pic tures and objects illustrating the topics in an interesting

GO
manner. All this kind of teaching should be strongly centered in child-life. Ou pages 55 and 72 of Frye's Pri mary Geography are fine illustrations of the methods here referred to. These stories may be gleaned from the read ing books, geographies, and from the excellent supple mentary Geographical Readers now issued by several of the large publishing houses. It is the duty of every teacher to become familiar with a large fund of such inter esting story information. The range of topics here is very wide, and it should include the following:
People of different countries, their appearance, manner of living, dress, amusements, food, employments, children, schools, etc.
Animals. Show pictures of them. Tell where they live. Recall a visit to the circus or menagerie. Tell how they live, their food, habits, dens, nests, young, use or danger to man, adaptation to their mode of life, climate, etc. Why has the camel a large broad foot and a hump ou its back ? Why has the elephant a short neck and no hair? Why do some animals hibernate? Show the adaptation of feet, claws, teeth, eyes, ears, means of loco motion, etc., to the physical and climatic environment.
Plants. Tell interesting stories about food-producing plants, such as those producing corn, wheat, potatoes, rice, oranges, apples, cocoanuts, etc.; medicinal plants, such as those producing opium, quinine, castor-oil, etc.; plants producing clothing, such as cotton, hemp, flax, jute, etc.
The secret of success in teaching primary geography lies almost wholly in the following suggestions :
1. Let the teacher prepare every lesson thoroughly, even to the minutest detail, and have a definite purpose to accomplish every day.
2. To form the mental picture, visualize with vivid illustrations the things to be taught.

70
3. Fix this mental picture by logical association, clear definitions, aud frequent reviews.
4. Enliven the recitation by interesting stories, and when possible let the children see what you wish them to learn.
5. Be patient. Education is a slow growth. The eye is the broadest road to the brain. With children "seeing is believing."
CHAPTER II.
GEOGRAPHY WITH A TEXT-BOOK.
When pupils have been taught to read without difficulty, a text-book on geography should be placed in their hands to be used first, not so much as a text-book to be studied, but rather as a reading-book.
The teacher at this stage, as in the previous one, must be the chief inspiration of the class, and upon her skill de pend the interest and the progress of the pupils. As text books most of the geographies contain too much detail. It is the work of the teacher to select the bold framework of the science as a basis for thorough work and to subordi nate the minor details as mere side lights upon the whole. Teach only such things as the pupil, taking his age into consideration, can understand and reasonably remember.
VISIBLE ILLUSTRATIONS.
No teacher can succeed in teaching geography without using visible illustrations, and no child will be long inter ested in anything which it cannot see. Therefore the teacher must have maps, globes, relief forms, pictures, illustrated story books, etc., to do satisfactory work.
A globe costing only fifty cents is better in some respects than a large one, as it can be handled more conveniently before the class.

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An orange or a large toy rubber ball with a wire run ning through it makes an excellent illustration. A croquet ball sawed in two will represent the hemispheres. A good small paper globe may be purchased for twenty-five cents.
Outline maps are very important, and any teacher with a little enterprise and care can construct a set of such maps that will answer every purpose, and in some respects they are better than many of those sold. Use sheets of stout manilla paper 40 by 48 inches (costing about two cents a sheet). Draw the outline at first with a pencil, then color them with colored crayons or " diamond dyes." Now deepen the outline boldly with artist's black crayon (No. 2 is best), draw in the mountains, rivers, countries, cities, etc., bind the sheets together between two wooden strips with small nails or screws, and the set is complete.
Write no names on outline maps, and carefully avoid too much detail. Remember that an outline map is a very dif ferent thing from a map for reference. Use the same class methods as have been indicated in the study of land and water divisions with such variations as will readily suggest themselves to the skillful teacher. The chief use of out line maps is in drill aud review work to deepen the im pressions obtained from the text-book.
'Lhe sand table. Make a table top three by four feet with a rim two inches high. Paint the bottom blue to represent water. Place this upon a table aud arrange it so that it may be slightly tilted. With a piece of chalk draw the outline of the country to be studied, and fill it in with clean dry or moist sand. The other steps will readily suggest themselve.
Relief Maps in permanent form are easily made of putty upon a board similar to the sand boards. For details of the process see " King's Methods and Aids in Geography." Good relief maps are now sold at a very moderate cost and are very valuable.

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Draw an outline of a country ou paper and cover the en closed area with mucilage. Sprinkle sand over it, then shake off the superfluous sand. Let it dry and repeat to form the elevations. This is an interesting exercise for young children.
Yard Maps in Relief. Lay off in the yard the outline of a country, as Georgia or South America, thirty or forty feet long. Have the children to build up the relief forms in sand. Draw the principal rivers and locate the impor tant cities with little pegs. Boats, products, occupations, etc., will suggest themselves.
The principles and methods already described apply with equal force throughout the entire course in descriptive ge ography. Each new step is but the lengthening of the ra dius in the circle of knowledge, and as a matter of review it is well that it sweep over anew the ground already trav ersed. At first details and reasons must be subordinated to the development of simple concepts through the perceptive fac ulties in bold outline only ; later, when the rational faculties develop more, aud the mind has acquired a sufficient thought vocabulary, more of the details and reasons for things should be taught.
The best method in teaching geography is the topical one; that is, in the study of a country each set of related subjects should be taught together. By this means the memory is greatly aided by the well-known laws of mental association as expressed in cause and effect, similarity and contrast. Space will not be taken in these brief pages to give a list of such topics. Any teacher can make one. In " King's Methods and Aids," and in "Nichols' Topics in Geography," excellent lists may be found.
MAP-DKAWING.
1. The real object oi map-drawing is to form in the mind of the child a menial picture of the country taught.

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2. At first, aim only at the general outline and the most prominent features.
3. Always avoid details. Put upon a map only what the pupil may reasonably be expected to remember.
4. Map-drawing is not an art lesson. If maps are to be colored, use colored crayons or " diamond dyes," and let the shades be delicate. The tendency is to daub on too much color. 'Shade more deeply near the borders, gradually thinning out the color towards the center.
5. Produce before the class an outline or relief map of a country with but few details, as Georgia, or South Amer ica. Have pupils with their pencils sweep over its out lines in the air several times. Now let them put this picture upon their slates. Erase and repeat several times. Pay no attention to small details--sweep right over them. Five such maps drawn in five minutes have more educational value than one map drawn in ten. Re move the model map and have it reproduced from mem ory. Use no guide lines: remember that great accuracy is not necessary. The results will be crude at first; they will improve with practice. Continue this until the pu pils can shut their eyes and see, as it were, the mental picture with reasonable accuracy.
6. Draw in only the principal rivers, cities, etc. Teach children to draw mountains in relief. It is the best form and is easy to learn.
7. Progressive maps built up day by day by placing upon them the rivers, countries, productions, etc., as they are studied, are very useful. Such skeleton maps for progres sive work are for sale at only a few cents a dozen.
8. Do not make map-drawing a hobby.- It is very useful, but often misunderstood and abused. Keep in view its real object.

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MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS.
1. Always study each country in the presence of a large outline map, and, if possible, of a relief map also.
2. Draw a diagram of the solar system upon the blackboard and explain the relation of the earth to the stars.
3. Teach Mathematical Geography by means of a large globe. Give much practice first on. the globe, then upon a map on the Mercator projection. Give a list of cities, and have pupils find their latitudes and longitudes. Give latitudes and longitudes of a number of places, and have pupils find the places. Mathematical Geography is too much neglected.
4. Teach areas by comparison, using some known area Georgia for instance, as a unit. Draw squares represent ing the areas of different countries, and superimpose them oue upon the other. Compare thus Georgia and Eng land ; Texas with the German Empire, France, Spain, the New England States. Compare Rhode Island with Burke county ; the United States with Brazil, Russia, China; Palestiue with Georgia; Ii'eland with Lake Su perior, etc.
5. Compare in the same manner the population and prod ucts. Compare the populations of Loudon, Paris, New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, Atlanta. Thus compare five States that lead in the production of Cotton, Corn, Wheat, Iron, etc. Interesting maps representing graph ically the population, products, etc., of the United States, are issued by the Department of the Interior.
6. Have pupils compare the lengths of ten of the largest rivers in the world by drawing with pen and ink to a convenient scale the rivers side by side on paper, al ways including some known river, as the Savannah, as the unit of comparison.

75
7. Compare in the same manner ten of the highest moun tains in the world. Make several of these comparison maps on large paper and place them on the walls.
8. Use cross-sectional drawings to teach slopes and drain age.
9. Use Imaginary Trips for composition and language work.
10. Connect the History and the Geography lessons when practicable. Always use maps with history teaching. His tory without localization is "a castle in the air." This is to-day the greatest fault in teaching history--no mental picture.
11. Have the children locate on the map places mentioned in the newspapers.
12. Encourage children to read books of travel, geograph ical descriptions, etc. A list of such books may be found in "King's Methods and Aids," "Parker's How to Study Geography," and "Frye's Child and Nature."
13. Study the people and productions of related sections in groups. For instance take the New England States all together, not separately.
14. Teach much of the detail of your own State.
15. Do not crowd the minds of children with unimportant facts.
16. Several excellent sets of geographical readers are now published and specially adapted to the comprehension of children of different grades, and the value of their apt and beautiful illustrations together with their interesting stories cannot be overestimated in investing the subject of geography with a real life and interest for children.

76
CHAPTER III.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
The limited scope of this little book will permit only a few brief suggestions concerning the teaching of this most interesting branch of geography. The essential condition above all others is that the teacher himself clearly under stands what he undertakes to teach. Here more than any where else does the teacher need his intellectual voltage, so to speak, increased by an all-round knowledge of many sciences, especially of Physics, Chemistry, Geology, and Meteorology.
For this purpose he should supply himself with some good books upon these subjects as well as with several dif ferent text-books on Physical Geography. These should be studied, not only for the information which they contain, but also for the valuable class illustrations which they afford. With the level of his knowledge thus sufficiently raised, and inspired and freshened by recent contact with the best thought of other teachers, he will have but little difficulty in interesting the class.
The power of illustration is of special value here, and the teacher who can place before his class apt and forcible figures, diagrams, etc., will soon find the effort productive of clearer concepts and increased interest on the part of the class, besides reacting in a most desirable manner upon his own.
A neat and valuable set of illustrations may be easily prepared for permanent use upon large sheets of mauilla paper with colored crayons. Many simple experiments in physics can be easily made, illustrating interesting phe nomena, and collections of rocks, corals, mineral products, pictures, photographs, etc., will give material aid.
Parallel readings from books on geology, ethnology, nat

77
ural history, travel, magazines, etc., are very useful and interesting.
Physical geography addresses itself more to the reason than does descriptive geography, and the teacher should see to it that pupils understand not only the effects observed in the study of the subject, but also their causes as far as pos sible.
The age at which children should study physical geogra phy should be between thirteen and sixteen years, and the last year in the Grammar School or the first year in the High School is its legitimate place.
The topical method is the most successful in teaching physical geography, and the teacher can construct a con venient series of topics covering the whole subject and specially adapted to his class work and to the text-book used. As illustrating in part what is here meant two such topics selected from the writer's note book on normal methods are herewith presented:

{(a) Show how and why.
Latitude...........\ lb) Difference in length of day and night. (c) Why sometimes warmer in New York than in Savannah ?

TEMPERATURE.

{(a) How the earth and atmosphere are heated.
Elevatioi..........-j (b) Snow-capped peaks in tropics. (c) The snow-line.

3. Slope.

( (a) Melting snow upon a roof. ' \ (b) Compare United States with British America.

f (a) Equatorial winds are hot. Why?

a Wnio

) (b) Polar winds are cold. Why?

4. vvrnas..............1 (c) Our east winds are moist. Why?

1(d) Our northwest winds are dry. Wyh?

'(a) Specific heat of water. Illustrate.

CLIMATE. MOISTURE...

5.

Ocean Currents

(b) Effect of Gulf Stream on Europe. (c) Compare Chili with South Brazil.

co

(d) Climate of Alaska. California.

6. Mountains .

' (a) Account for rains, rivers, and forests of Brazil, and the
rainless coast of Peru. (b) Why are these conditions reversed father south ? ic) Account for our dry western plains.
(d) Compare Italy with Switzerland.

t SALUBRITY.

7.

Land and Water Masses-{ (a)

Compare climate of Atlanta.

the Bermudas

with that of

(b) Norfolk with St. Louis.

188.. Cunhaarraacctteerr oofi tmhee ssooinl aannda Vveeggeeitaautioonn., ^j ` ant*> c'a-y> Deserts, forests.

Show the effects of climate upon the distribution of animal and vepetable life, and upon the different races of the human family.

79
CORAL FORMATION'S.
1. The coral polyp. () Varieties, size, structure, manner of life, death. () Show specimens and large drawings. (See LeConte's Geology.)
2. Conditions of coral life. (a) Corals cannot live in fresh water. No corals in rivers. (b) Corals cannot live in deep water. Not more than 200 feet. (c) Corals cannot live in cold water. Not colder than 68. (d) Corals cannot live in muddy water. No corals on muddy coast. (e) Corals flourish best amid breakers. Why? Why are.there no corals on the Georgia coast?
3. Kinds. () Fringing reef. Necessary conditions of the coast. () Barrier reef. Why not fringing? Cause of gaps. (c) Atoll. Why no visible central island? Inference. Illustrate each kind by large sectional drawings.
4. Geographical applications. () Evidence of ocean-bed subsidence. Ten thousand feet the maximum depth of coral for mations. One-fourth to one-half inch per annum a liberal allowance for subsidence. Calculate atre of Pacific coral formations. Inference. () Change local specific gravity of water; hence cur rents. (e) Tend to maintain uniformity of specific gravity of water. (d) Build up land areas. Everglades of Florida. Pacific islands.

80
(e) Dangers to navigation. (f) Evidence of crust movements and climatic changes
in geological history. Coral formations are found in Michigan and in Green
land. What does this mean?
HELPFUL BOOKS.
As water will not rise above its fountain head, so the in terest of children is not likely to exceed that of their teacher. Educational results rarely excel the teacher's ideal. For instruction and inspiration the teacher should read the following books:
Methods and Aids in Geography, by King. Child and Nature, by Frye. How to Study Geography, by Parker. How to Teach Geography, by Carver. Topics in Geography, by Nichols. Prince's Courses and Methods. LeConte's Compend of Geology. Younge's General Astronomy. Maury's Physical Geography of the Sea. Appleton's Physical Geography. Eclectic Physical Geography. Elements of Meteorology, by Davis. Nature Study, by Jackman. The Continent of North America, by Shaler. Warren's Physical Geography. Teaching of Geography, by Geikie. Geographical Readers, by King.

METHODS IN TEACHING ARITHMETIC
FOR COMMON SCHOOLS.

E. C. BRANSON,
Director Normal Department Georgia Normal and Industrial College.

CHAPTER I,
A BIRD'S-EYE VIEW.
I. What a Teacher ought to know about Arithmetic.
1. All he possibly can know. 2. Brooks's " Philosophy of Arithmetic," and a full school
text, say Harper's "Advanced Arithmetic," ought to be on hand for constant reference.

II. What a Teacher ought--

TO TEACH.

TO OMIT OR ADJOURN.

1. What is fundamental and nec 1. The subjects put into the book

essary, say,--

merely to make it a complete

1. The Fundamental Processes

scientific cyclopedia of the

with whole numbers.

subject, say,--

2. Common Fractions.

1. The Metric System.

3. Decimals.
4. Compound Quantities.
5. Percentage.

2. The Progressions. 3. Foreign Exchange. 4. Alligation and the like.

6. Proportion.

7. Common Measurements. 2. What only a few pupils may

2. What every pupil is certain to have an immediate working need for every day.

chance to have only an occa sional need for,--say, Troy Weight, stocks and bonds,

and the like.

82

II.--[Continued.) What a Teach :r ought--

TO TEACH.

TO OMIT OR ADJOURN.

3. Sensible, practical, work-a- 3. Foolish, imaginary, unbusi

day problems only. There is

ness-like problems, like

always sufficient occasion for

ninety per cent, of the prob

disciplinary drills in these.

lems in Compound Propor

tion.

4. Quick business processes,-- 4. 1. Rapid column adding.
2. Quick multiplications and divisions.

The long and confusing anal yses in the special percent age subjects, Compound Pro portion, and the like.

3. Cancellations. 4. Percentage and interest
processes.
5. Common measurements.

5. Problems mostly; that is, pro 5. Solutions of naked equations,

cesses should always start in

the performance of processes

and centre about problems.

aside from the problems they

Process and problem should

concern,--as the long in

be wedded, never to be di

volved solutions of complex

vorced, in the minds of pu

fractions, for example.

pils.

6. Some further details, as fol G. Such items or subjects as fol

lows;

lows:

1. Oral work in aliquot parts of 100 and $1.
2. Oral work with the larger fractional units,--J's to tVs.
3. Specially lOths, lOOths, and lOOOths in Decimals,--to be taught mostly with U. S. money.

1. The properties of numbers, or only as needed in other work,--L. C. M. with frac tions, say.
2. Work with the very small fractional units, vis's, etc., and most of the frac tion-work unassociated with problems.
3. The smaller decimal units, as billionths, trillionths, etc.

83

II.--(Continued.) What a Teacher ought--

TO TEACH.
( Reduction of--
Dry and Liquid Pleasure.
Long Measure (in., ft., yd., mi.).
Surveyors' Measure (omit4 ting rods and roods).
Square Measure (sq. in., sq. ft., sq. yd., sq. A., sq. mi.).
Cubic Measure (cu. in., cu. ft., cu. yd., cord).
(Time Measure.

TO OMIT OR ADJOURN.
( English Money; Troy Wt.; Apothecaries' Wts.; rods, perches, poles, furlongs.
Circular Measure (except circumference and de grees).
4. ( Cloth Measure. Also omit yjr of the work laid down in books in addition, subtraction, multiplication, and di vision of Compound I Quantities.

6. Practical problems in wood and lumber, plastering, papering, carpeting, ma sonry. Caution: the pro cesses in the books are usually misleading. Con sult business men when you treat these topics.

5. You can safely omit at least 75% of the work ordinarily laid down in the arithmetics in Com pound Quantities.

6. Common Quantities: , shilling,franc, span, pace, hand, dozen, gross, score, quire, ream, bbl. flour, load (earth), 1 hr. = 15 long., 1 gal. = 231 cu. in., 1 bbl. = 31J gal.
7. Accounts, bills, and receipts are a necessary part of a ; common-school course in . arithmetic.
8. Percentage as involved in Profit and Loss, Taxes, Commissions, and Interest.

6. The following special forms of Percentage:
Stocks and Bonds, Insur ance, Exchange, Partial Payments, Equation of Payments, Compound In terest, Banking, Time Discount and Partner ship. If the pupil be well grounded in Per centage in the other forms, a business situa tion or transaction will, later on, teach the man in five minutes clearly what you could not now teach the boy in five months.

84

II.--{Continued.) What a Teacher ought--

TO TEACH.
9. Simple Proportion, and the measurement of rectangles, triangles, circles, cylinders, and rectangular solids.
10. Every subject to be prefaced, reviewed, and finished in oral arithmetic exercises.

TO OMIT OR ADJOURN.
7. Most of Compound Propor tion and other forms of work in Mensuration.

III. Why?

--------------

1. Because, with all the time spent on arithmetic in our schools, the practical results are commonly admitted to be little short of disgraceful.

2. Because it seems wise to select a brief, practical course out of all the mass of subjects and matter in the arithmetics, and to teach that course thoroughly.

3. Because we thus save time for things essential and necessary, and concentrate attention upon a few things instead of wasting it upon many.

4. Because the subjects listed "omitted or adjourned" can be taught after we guarantee the public that a brief practical course has been thoroughly mastered.

5. Because, if time be not left for them in the school-life of the pupil, the business aflairs of life will teach them to mature minds quickly and easily, if the other sub jects have been well taught them in school.

IV. Notes.
1. There is nothing new in this scheme. General Francis A. Walker's attack on arithmetic teaching and results, several years ago, aroused great interest at the time-- an interest that deserved to accomplish the reform intended.
2. Publishers are beginning to issue books to suit such de mands. Atwood's "Complete Graded Arithmetic" and " The New Arithmetic" are such books.

85

CHAPTER H.

FIRST TWO YEARS OF PRIMARY NUMBER.--SYLLABUS.

First Year's Work. (First Reader Pupils.)
I. Extent.--The numbers in order to ten, inclusive. II. Details.--What the pupils are to learn :--
1. What makes each number (number contents). a. All tbe complementary contents (what two numbers make the number). b. The measure contents (how many 1's, 2's, 3's, etc., make the number). Only the exact measurements at first.
2. The two number operations (actual operations). a. Taking apart (what can be done with a number). b. Putting together (what can be done with numbers).
3. The five characteristic story-like problems and drawings for them. a. The additive story. I had two apples. I bought two more. I had 4 then; because 2 and 2 are 4.
and (5(5 are 4 (5's-
b. The subtractive story. I had 4 apples. I ate two. 1 then had two left; because 4 less 2 is 2.
66-6-(5- is2 (5c5's-
c. The multiplicative story. I had two dishes with 2 apples in each dish. I then had 4 apples; because 2 twos are 4.

(5 6 6

4 6'S-

d. The division story. I had 4 apples. I put two apiece into some dishes. It took two dishes ; because 4 separated into twos is 2.
6 cf 6 (5 = 2

86
e. The partitive story. I had 4 apples, and put them into two dishes equally. There were two in each dish; because J of 4 is 2.
2 c)'s.
Here you have the alphabet of arithmetical relations. The pupil may know the figures, counting, tables, and processes, and yet may be helpless in arithmetic in this fundamental particlar. I have seen college students helpless because they had never mastered these mathematical ideas of relation.
4. The complementary contents of numbers from 2 to 12 in clusive, to be memorized by use and oral reviews.
III. Tests.
1st Set. To be used for every fact of number studied until the relation-forms are taken,--say with the number 6.
a. Give operations with objects (for all the contents with each number in its five relations) :
. Ask for equation-statements in common language. . Ask for story-problems. c. Ask for picture-equations (drawings).
b. Give the story-problems.
a. Ask for answers and statements in common language. b. Ask for object solutions. c. Ask for picture-equations.
c. Give picture-equations : a. Ask for the story-problems (oral).
b. Ask for statements in oral language. . Ask for objective solutions.
d. Discard objects; ask for complementary and measure contents, pupils give results. Begin simple rapid combination drills orally, using the number facts in all the numbers studied.
Sid Set. To be used after the equation forms are taken. a. Give operations with objects as before:
a. Ask for equation-statements (oral). b. Ask for written equations. c. Ask for story-problems. d. Ask for picture-equations.

87
b. Give written equations:
a. Ask for oral reading, and results. b. Ask for quick answers at sight.
c. Ask for picture-equations.
d. Ask for story-problems.
c. Give story-problems:
. Ask for objective solutions. . Ask for picture-equations. c. Ask for written equations. d. Ask for quick answers without aids.
d. Give picture-equations:
a. Ask for oral, and, later, written, problem-stories. t>. Written equations.
These tests suggest the logical order of the teaching exer cises, and a great variety of busy-work for the pupils.
IV. What Pupils are not to Know.
1. Useless terms, such as Addition, Multiplication, Division, etc., or these are to be learned by use merely.
2. Definitions; not now, later. 3. Any rules whatsoever. 4. How to count to 100, 1000, and the like, by 1's, 2's, 3's,
etc. B. Roman numbers, or Arabic beyond the use of those in the
readers. 6. The figure processes; not now, later.
V. Purposes.
1. To unlock the meaning of Problems for the child. (Do not mistake this ultimate meaning in simple primary numbers.) How ? a. Through sense-experiences with actual numbers, act ual operations with them, and language for these actual operations. b. Through suggestions which arise in the child's mind from these sense-experiences, suggestions of the five fundamental problem-stories, embodying the five problem-relations of arithmetic.

88
2. To develop invention and to train in orderly statement. How? a. By telling the child nothing beyond arbitrary terms. h. By leading him into discoveries for himself. c. By leading him into orderliness of observation. d. By insisting on his seeing, seeing in order, telling, and telling in order, exactly what he sees in the order in which he sees it.
VI. Final Test.
Your pupil must see an equation in any problem-form he has had, and, on the other hand, a problem in every equation studied. If so, you have a basis for a further advance later into the mysteries of problems,--into problems in which not one, but a complication, of the five relations occur. You will note an approach to the problem through all the necessary details of fact, and in the second set of exercises (p. 9), a variety of solutions that thoroughly test the child's appreciation of the pictures in the problem. " Seeing the picture," " getting the thought," in a reading-lesson, has been abundantly stressed; but seeing the picture and getting the thought in a problem in arithmetic has been very little emphasized As in readers, so in arithmetics, good pupils will not read beyond the limits of their experiences. What is needed is to supply the necessary primary experiences and their special forms of language,--materials for making pictures out of problems. Of course a final test of a pupil's understanding of a problem is his ability to translate it into its equation (one or more.) He can be trained from the start to see a problem in every equation and an equation in every problem. A standing requirement in this department is to permit no pupil to attempt the figure-pro cesses until he has stated the problem in equation form. It will be seen that here we regard problems to be the staple of work in arithmetic, to be kept in sight from the very start; the exercises in number measurements, operations, equations, tables, figure-processes, and what not, having to do with prob lems from first to last.

89
For instance, no pupil-teacher is permitted to say to her class, "Divide 675 by 75." Rather, "8675 buys Shetland ponies at $75 apiece. How many ponies ? " Pupils are obliged to picture the situation, and see in it the necessary operation and process.

CHAPTER HI.

SECOND YEAR'S WORK IN NUMBERS. (SECOND READER PUPILS.)

I. Extent. The numbers in order to 20 inclusive.

II. Details.

1. Review. The numbers to 10, as follows:--

a. Regarding them as compound number units.

j 1 quart (2 pints), as 11 dime (2 nickels).
3, as 1 yard (3 feet).
j 1 bushel (4 pecks), 4> as \ 1 gallon (4 quarts),

r 1 nickel (5 cents), as \ 1 hand (5 fingers). 6, as 1 working-week (6 days). 7, as 1 week (7 days).
r 1 gallon (8 pints), as 11 peck (8 quarts).

10, as 1 dime (10 cents).
b. Actual objects and measures to be used. Problems the staple of the work. Problems to be freely turned into equations, and vice versa, as busy work.
2. The numbers in order from 10 to 20, compared in each case with all the smaller, included numbers. For ex ample :--

a. 12 compared with 1.

-- = 12

1

11

+ = 11

1

12

- 12 h 1 =12

12 compared with 2.

-- = 12

2

10

+ = 10

2

12

12-f-2= 6

12 compared with 3. 12 -- 3= 9 9 + 3 = 12 12-5-3= 4

(M
II <N
X
CO

12 X

= 1

12

*ofl2= 1

1 of 12 = 2

4 X 3 = 12 } of 12 = 3

And so on, 12 compared with 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12.

b.Problem-stories and picture-equations for all the facts treated.

oc
3. Complex equations. You can gradually make the equations more and more complex; that is, involving two or more relations in one equation. This is delicate work. Indicate some of the simpler combinations. a. The additive and subtractive relations,-- 5+3--2=? b. The multiplicative and additive relations,-- 4 X 2+2=? c. The multiplicative and subtractive relations,-- 5x2--3=? d. The multiplicative relations doubled,-- 3X2+2X2=? e. The partitive and additive relations,-- 5 + of 8 = ? These combinations to be tested thoroughly in all the ways indicated in the Tests in Chapter II.
4. The pupils by the end of the year ought to know per fectly, automatically, the following 36 combinations nec essary to the figure-processes of addition and subtrac tion :--
556 566
4444507 4567777
3333 3345 6 7 8 34567888888 222222223456789
r 2 3 4 5 6 57 6 8 9 o 9 9 9 9 9 9
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
5. Begin short single-column additions. 6. Teach numeration and notation of numbers to 100. Use
numeration-box.
7. Teach carrying of units in short additions.

91
8. Teach subtraction,--number under 100. a. Objectively, with analysis story. b. Written work, with analysis story. c. Written work, without analysis story.
9. Teach multiplication tables through 5's . Objectively in table buildings. . Without aids.
These subjects are all treated in detail later.
III. Notes.
1. No equation and no figure-process to be divorced in sense from the problem. Thus, it is as easy to say to a class at the board, "I bought a cow for $17, another for $35, and a calf for 812. How much in all?" as to say, "Now, class, put down 17, 35, and 12. Add them."
2. No problem to be worked until it has been turned by the pupil into its equation form.
3. Details of these first two years of number teaching--out lines of lessons, purposes, principles, methods, and busywork--are given fully in Branson's "Grube Number Text for Teachers," D. C. Heath & Co., Boston, Mass.
4. For busy-work in abundance, see White's "First Two Years with Number" and "Junior
Arithmetic," D. C. Heath & Co., Boston. Bacon's "First Four Years in Number," Ginn & Co.,
Boston. Atwood's " Graded Arithmetic" (a complete course),
D. C. Heath & Co., Boston.

92
CHAPTER IV.
METHODS IN THE FUNDAMENTAL RULES.
Numeration and Notation.
I. Materials.
1. Toothpicks or straws bundled by tbe pupils into lO's and 100's (of 10, 10's.) Held by small rubber bands or cotton thread.
2. Also a numeration box, made of three shallow cigarboxes held together end to end by eight matting tacks (two-pronged).

The numbers to be read are to be taken out of the boxes, and arranged along the lower part of the lids, the 100's, 10's, and 1's, each on their own lids.

II. Order of Teaching.

1st. Numbers of one period. Kinds of numbers to be treated specially,--356, 306, 300, 360, 060, and 006.
2d. Numbers of two periods (then three periods, and so on).
Teach the second period with drawings instead of the objects, thus,--

The teacher draws the two box es in the board,and writes in the num bers, one in the boxes, the others below. Require the decimal point and the separatrix from the start.

Thousands. IPO's 10's. I'a.
I3I7|6|

IPO's. IQ's. I's.
15|8|9|

3 8 5,4 7 6 3 0 0, 0 6 0
3 5 0,0 0 8 7 6,0 6 5 etc.

The pupils nu merate 1's, 10`s, 100's; 1's, 10's, 100's of thousands, and read the num bers in periods, as the device natu rally inclines them to do.

93
III. Steps in Teaching.
1. Build the numbers on the box-lids; ask pupils to read them.
2. Call out numbers; ask pupils to build on box-lids. 3. Draw the box, write in a number; ask pupils to dupli
cate it on the box-lids. 4. Build numbers on the box-lids; ask pupils to write the
numbers on the board. 5. Write numbers on the board; ask pupils to read them. 6. Call out numbers; ask pupils to write them.
Addition.
I. What the Pupils must Know.
The thirty-six combinations listed in Chapter III.
II. How taught.
1. By discovery (in course of the work already planned). 2. By drill.
a. Quiz rapidly (8-1-7 = ? or what -}- 7 = 15 ? and the like, for all the 36 combinations.)
b. Sight additions.
. Use combination-cards, containing (1) The 36 com binations ; (2) all the addends, 3 in number, that make 10; (3) all the addends, 3 in number, that make 15; (4) all the addends, 3 in number, that make 20; and (5) all the addends, 4 in number, that make 20. Make these cards yourself. Expose to sight an instant; call for sums.
. Use blackboards; write columns, erase quickly, call for sums.
c. Call out addends rapidly; ask for sums.
c. Cat-and-rat games may well preface these sight addi tions.
Put on the blackboard any device, say a star--one number in the center, the others outside. Pupils conduct the game; the one at the blackboard the cat, the others the rats. The cat

94

points to the outside numbers, and a

rat calls the sum made with the inside

8

number in each case. If the cat ac

cepts a wrong answer, and some rat

detects her, then the rat has caught

the cat.

Some teachers easily get' a great

deal out of this simple game.

Vary the sign relations before the

inside number (make it --, +, or

make the inside number , J, etc.), and the same device and

game serve to drill upon all the fundamental tables.

d. Write columns of 2's, 3's, 4's, etc ; write different

numbers below ; pupils add orally, quickly.

e. Graduated columns.

These are columns of figures in which the 36

combinations are involved gradually according to

difficulty, the hardest introduced later, and being

involved oftenest. Sold by Kidd & Co., Milledge-

ville. 5 cents each, $4.00 per 100.

III. How to Add a Column.

1. Stupidly, as follows: 5 and 3 are 8 ; and 8 and 5 5

4 are 12; and 12 and 3 are 15; and so on, 3'

slowly and drawlingly to the top.

4

2. Poorly, as follows: 8, 16, 20, 23, 30, etc., to 5

the top.

8.

This may be called spelling up a column. ? 1 i r>

3. Expertly, as follows: 20, 30, 50, 55.

3)

This may be called reading up a column. 4'j

This column was put down at random. The 8 ! ^

pupil ought to be drilled to see that the first 3 .

four figures spell 20, just as s-h-i-p, spells 5 J

" ship"; the next two spell 10 ; the next four,

20; and so on. In short, he ought to be drilled to

pick out the 10's, 15's, and 20's at a glance in adding

columns.

95

IV. Notes.
1. I would very rarely give pupils sums to add at their seats. They do so slowly, and usually learn to add on their fingers,--which is not adding, but only counting by ones.
2. Ginn's " Addition Manual" (10 cents) is the best thing on column adding I know. Ginn & Co., Boston.

Subtraction.

I. Steps in Teaching.

1. Objective subtraction. (Use the numeration-box. Shut the box, and arrange the minuend on top of the lids.)
2. Written forms with analysis. 3. Written forms without analysis.

II. Ideas and Terms to be kept in mind as the teacher draws

from the child by questions the subtraction story (analy

sis).

1. Visitiug.

10

)

2. Borrowing. 2 4 10 I

3. Changing.

2

4. Placing.

78

5. Subtraction. 2 7 4 _

III. The Subtraction Story.
1. "I want to take 8 ones from 2 ones. I can't do it, so I go visiting to the tens place. I borrow 1 ten from the 5 tens, which leaves 4 tens. I change the 1 ten to 10 ones, and place them with the 2 ones, making 12 ones. I then subtract 8 ones from 12 ones, which leaves 4 ones." And so on for the next step. This story is to be developed by questions. The ideas being clear, then the story may settle finally into some such form as that given above.
2. The last step--written work without analysis. "8 from 12 leaves 4; 7 from 14 (not 8 from 15) leaves 7; noth ing from 2 (not 1 from 3) leaves 2. Answer, 274."

96

IV. Notes.
1. The child that has thoroughly learned the 36 combinations as given in Chapter III.,--has learned them as comple mentary contents,--has in mind already all the numberfacts necessary to subtraction.
2. This method to be used with beginners only. If the pupil has already learned the old way of subtraction, do not make it distraction by having him learn the new way also. Both methods are mathematical and right. This, however, is the simpler for beginners, and easily grounds memory upon understanding.
3. Give the subtraction example in form of a problem always. Or, if not, have the pupil to make a problem for the ex ample, orally or in writing.
4. Practice pupils in making change, by addition, as all clerks do.

Multiplication.

I. Busy-work.--The tables from 2 to 12 inclusive.

FIRST FORM.
11 \ 2 = 2 11 II | 2X2 = 4 ////// 12X2X2 = 6 11 11 11 11 | 2X2X2X2 = 8

SECOND FORM.
2 j 1X2 -- 2 2 + 212X2 = 4 2 + 2 + 213X2 = 6 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 | 4X2 = 8

Pupils finish.

THIRD FORM.

Pupils finish.

22 I 24

97

Let this form stay on the blackboard. Erase the numbers, and substitute 3's, 4's, etc., as the drill progresses.
Pupils also construct this table on their slates.
FOURTH FORM

23

\ 2

6

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

\ 3 6

12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36

\ 4 8 12

20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48

\ 5 10 15 20

30 35 40 45 50 55 60

V 6 12 18 24 30

42 48 54 60 66 72

\ 7 14 21 28 35 42

56 63 70 77 84

V 8 16 24 32 40 48 56

72 80 88 96

\ 9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72

90 99 108

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 ^80 110 120

\ 11 22 33 44 55 66 77 88 99 110

132

12 24 36 48 60 72 96 106 120 132
1. Teacher finally constructs the table on the board, and drills upon it in a great variety of ways, until the pupils dis cover all its properties, and at last what the diagonal means. Let them discover it. Don't tell them.
2. Make them pick out each table-entire on the left-hand side of the diagonal, say.
3. There are 77 products in all. The 2's, 5's, 9's, 10's, andll's are easy; 20 are hard for children (they are dotted). Drill upon these most, and be sure they are known finally.
4. Let the children construct this table.

II. Drills.
1. Cat-and-rat games. 2. Rapid oral quiz. 3. Put the 77 sets of factors on cards. Give each member
of the class one. Give each pupil another as soon as he can answer the one he has. The number in each pupil's hand sets a value upon his recitation. The last cards obtained by each pupil indicate the weak points.

98

4. Practice upon each table as learned, in slate-work, with long multiplicands.
6. Grade your multipliers as follows: 2, 12; 3, 13, 23,123; 4, 14, 24, 34, 134, 1234, etc. Thus you constantly re view all the old tables to date.
6. Matches upon the tables (like spelling-matches).

III. The Multiplication Idea.

Remember that the pupil is not completely in possession of multiplication till the following ideas are lastingly assosociated in his mind :--

1. The actual operation, 'i

2. The oral statement for it, I

3. The equation form,

! Constantly test this associa-

4. The problem,

j tion of ideas ia the P11?11'*

5. The problem-picture,

| m'nd'

6. The figure-processes. J

IV. Business Processes.

1 When the multiplier ends in a naught.

2. When the multiplier is an aliquot part of 100 or $1.00.

3. By grouping units as you multiply. a. This last covers all the special multiplications noted in the business arithmetics, and renders such classifica tions useless.
b. It means simply that you perform mentally all the multiplications that produce units, all that produce tens, all that produce 100's, and write down the re sults, so as to make one product. Thus you avoid writing down all the partial products, and taking their sum as usual. Thus:--

32. X 43. 1376.

2x3 gives the 6 units.
3 times 3 tens and 2 times 4 tens give 17 tens.
4 tens X 3 tens gives 12 hundreds; plus the 1 hundred to carry = 13 hundreds.

99

The multiplication may be pictured thus:-- 3d 2d 1st The eye quickly gets accustomed to 1, X, 1. adding these products as it goes.
The principle applies to any number of figures in either factor. It is especially easy and serviceable when the multiplier contains 2 or 3 figures,
c. Note that the drill prepares the way for double column adding.

Division.

I. The Division Idea.--Associate firmly and lastingly as be

fore :--

1. The actual operation,

2. The oral statement for it,

TEST.

3. The equation form for it, Given any one of these ideas,

4. The problem,

call upon the pupil for any

5. The picture-problem,

of the others.

6. The figure-process

II. Outline of Work.
1. Teach short division first, a. Short division for all divisors from 2 to 12, in clusive. b. Division by factors of a divisor. Illustrate, prove, and derive rule for the whole remainder. c. Division by aliquot parts of 100 or $1.00. Oral arithmetic freely.
2. Long Division. a. Divisors.
a. Grade them (13, 14, 15, 16, and so on, in orderj. b. Construct multiplication tables for each divisor in
order to 20, inclusive. Leave these on the board for reference by pupils
in using these divisors.
b. Dividends. Grade them in difficulty.
. One period, then two, etc. . Multiples, at first. c. Then dividends requiring remainders.
1. Write remainders as whole numbers. 2. Have them written as part of the quotient.

100
c. Quotients.
o. Write them above the dividend, the first figure over the last figure of the partial dividend. 1. It brings the quotient nearer the divisors in multiplying, and 2. It keeps the pupil out of confusion when there are naughts freely in the dividend. 1445. 26)87570. 26 115 104 117 104 130 130
III.Note.--Long Division is distinctly hard for the average child. It can be rendered easy only by carefully grading the steps in teaching. The notes above have this special purpose in view.
CHAPTER Y.
FRACTIONS.
I. Objective and Oral Treatment.
1. Course of study. a. ^'s with a 2-pane window (or drawing). b. ^'s with a 3-pane window (or drawing). c. ^'s and J's with a 4-pane window (or drawing). d. 's with a 5-pane window (or drawing). e. -^'s, ^'s, and 's with a 6-paue window (or drawing). /. j-'s with a 7-pane window (or drawing). a. 's, J's, and 's with an 8-pane window (or draw
ing)h. |'s and 's with a 9-paue window (or drawing). i. 's, 's, and J^'s with a 10-pane window (or draw
ing)j. 's, Vs, i's, and -^'b with a 12-pane window
(or drawing). 2. Use strips of paper, drawings of pies, etc., for a varia
tion.

101
3. This course can easily be given--ought to be given--in the work of the first two years, with first and second reader pupils.
4. Aids. a. Davis's " Suggestions for Teaching Fractions," Bar deen & Co., Syracuse, N. Y. b. Sloane's " Lessons in Fractions," D. C. Heath & Co., Boston. c. For oral exercises, see Colborn's " Mental Arithme tic," Houghton, Miflin & Co., Boston.
J6j" You cannot have too much simple oral work in this course.
II. Illustrations. Some details of work in -Jr's, 's, and 's with a six-pane window.
1. Reduction.

Pupils draw windows for these equations. Or show with strips of paper, folded and torn. Always keep one strip untorn, to show the unit.
2. Addition.

is + a = ?

J+4=?

i + $=? U+i=? li + $=?etc.
Pupils illustrate as in the first two equations. Call for Problems from the children.
3. Subtraction.
r~i i i-w-j

l-3=P

H--i=4

-}=? 4 --i=? 4- $=? H_g=?

LIBRARIES
sff'GEORG'L

102

1IT

Illustrates { -- i Vary, using

strips of paper or drawings. Pupils make problems for

each equation.

4. Multiplication.

2x=? 3 X | = ? 2X1^=? 2 X If = ? etc.
You may easily make multiplication too difficult at the start. Multipliers now to be whole numbers. After Partitioning, they may be fractions and mixed numbers.
6. Division.

11 - J = 4J

l-i = ?

=?

f-i=?

I = ? etc-

The same caution here as before. Go from easy to difficult

gradually. Call for problems, especially for these forms in

multiplication and division.

6. Partitioning.

--^ r~ 1 1 1 1 ---- 1---- 1 . "T

-- o
II

lof :
1 of | = ? 1 of If = ? 1 of If = ? etc.
Note the form of the Partition Story in Chapter II., and how it differs from the Division Story.

III. Busy Work.
1. Give the drawings; children give the equations. 2. Give the equations; children illustrate them with draw
ings. 3. Give the equations; children write problems for them.

103

4. Give a variety of equations; children complete them. Illustrations:--

i+ ?= i 1 - ? = 4 J of ? = | I ? + J = 3

li- ?= % ? of i = i ? X 1J = 2$ 5 X ?= 1$

? X H = 2i I h- ? = 2

= j|?-j=

etc.
IV. Purposes.

1. To ground the understandings of pupils safely in the facts of fractions.

2. To preface the formal course in definitions, rules and figure processes.
3. To drill them into an easy and certain mastery of the larger fractional units, the fractions they will most need in every-day life.

V. What next ?
1. The book-course in fraction forms in any good text. 2. Special attention to cancellations. 3. Fractions to be worked in perpendicular arrangements,
wherever possible.

X 3
2 14
' 16|

for instance, instead of: 4SX3* = ?|X^=^ = 16J.

CHAPTER VI.
DECIMALS.
I. Objective and Oral Treatment.
1. Illustrations. a. A silver dollar, 10 dimes, and 10 cents. b. A drawing of a large cube containing 1,000 small cubes.
Outline the top layer in colored chalk; the left-hand upper row front in another color of chalk; and the upper cube in the nearest corner in another color.

104

II. Development Questions.
1. How many layers? 2. 1 layer =? part of
the cube. 3. How many rows in
each layer? 4. How many rows in
the cube? 5. 1 row =? part of
the cube. 6. How many little
cubes in 1 rowf in 1 layer ? in the big cube?

7. 1 little cube = ? part of the big cube.

8. Sam may go to the board, and fill out these statements: 1 layer = i of the cube.

1 row

= I of the cube.

1 little cube = 1 of the cube.

9. I will show you another way of writing t\'b, Tlv'e, ^W8-

Thus,

1 cube = 1.

-j-^ cube = .01

T1!rcube = .l.

cube = .001.

10. Class may go to the board. The decimal forms are taught as follows:--

Write

' 4 big cubes.

4.

11. Test.

3 layers.

.3

1 big cube and 2

layers.

1.2

Show me

8 layers.

.8 these in the

3 rows.

.03 cube.

1 big cube, 2 layers,

How many

and 3 rows.

1.23 layers? rows?

2 little cubes.

.002 little cubes?

3 layers and 2 rows. .32

1 big cube, 2 layers, 5

. rows, 8 little cubes. 1.258

1. .8 .02 1.35 .003 .032 .250 t.87&

105
12. You write one dollar thus, SI- Show the coins in the following:
18. This (1 dime) is what part of a dollar? Write it. These (3 dimes) are what part of a dollar? Write. This (1 cent) is what part of a dollar? AVrite. These (9 cents) are what part of a dollar? AVrite. AVrite these (3 dimes and 5 cents). Read. AVrite these ($1, 8 dimes, and 3 cents). Read.
14. Explain that the last decimal unit to the right gives the name to the whole decimal. Read these as money; as decimals. S3.85 SI.10 S .056 S .005 $ .03 S .05 S3.083 SI.853.
III. Tests.--The exercises in any good arithmetic involving lOths, lOOths, lOOOths; say Cook & Cropsey's, pp. 252, 253, 's 8, 9, 10, 11.
IV. What next?
1. Take up the book-course in decimals in any good text book.
2. Stress lOths, lOOths, and lOOOths. Teach all the diffi culties of decimals--reading and figure processes-- with these. Later you can treat the smaller decimal units.
3. Teach decimals very largely with U. S. money problems.
CHAPTER VII.
PERCENTAGE.
I. Objective and Oral Treatment.
1. Course of study. The following %'s pictured and treated in the order indicated in abundant and varied oral exercises:--

106 a.

b. Beginning with 100%, and at last ending with 1%. c. Vary illustrations. Use squares occasionally.
Draw square with 100 little squares in it for the 1%.

II. Development Questions and Drills.

Tell that % means per cent. Write per cent, on the board. Explain nothing else now. The meaning of the term is to be taught, not defined or explained.
1. Here is a blackberry pie.

2. How have I marked it?

3. How much of that pie is 100 % of it?

4. All of the pie is what % of it?

6. All of my hat is what % of it ?

6. All of these desks are what % of them? All of anything ?

7. 100%of4=? Of 6 = ? Of 1 = ? Of 100 = ? Of 200 -- ?

8. Bought =hoes at $1.50, and sold for $3.00. % of gain?

a. An invariable order of quiz.

1. Cost what ? 2. Sold for what ? 3. Made how much? 4. What part of the cost ? 5. Made what % ?

107

9. Bought readers at 25#; sold for 50?. % of gain? Quiz as above ; and so on till the facts are easily trans lated by pupils into terms of 100 %.

10. Sold candy at 20?, and made 10?; cost %"!

a. Quiz form.

1. Sold for what? 2. Made what? 3. Cost what? 4. Made what part of the cost? 5. Made what % ?

11. My cloth cost 16? per yard ; want to make 100 %; sell ing price ?

1. Cost what? a. Quiz 2. Want to make what % ?
form. 3. Want to make what part of the cost ? 4. Want to make how much ? v 5. Sell at what then ?
and so on with a great variety of examples.

1. What is it ? A blackberry pie
2. How many equal slices? 50# 50^j 3. The whole pie is what % ?
4. Each slice is what % ?
5. How many 50 %'b in a pie ? 6. 50 % is what part of the pie? 7. J of the pie is what % of it ? 8. 4 of this class is what per cent, of it ? 9. of anything is what % of it ? 10. 50 % of anything is what part of it?
11. 50 % of 100 = ? Of 25 = ? Of 4 = ? Of 2 = ?
12. Then go right into the three cases, and employ the three forms of quiz, always asking the questions of the quiz
in the same order.
13. B" Don't memorize the questions ; master the order of them.
14. Then treat the other %'s given in the order in which they are given, ending with 1 %.

"

108

15. Quiz rapidly ; call for a show of hands ; watch the weak pupils ; address most of your teaching to them.
16. Treat the four forms of Percentage noted as fundament ally important in Chapter I. Then the others, if you have time.

III. What next.
1. The book-course in Profit and Loss, Commission-Taxes, Interest in any good text. Terms, definitions, pro cesses, and rules in Wentworth's "Grammar School Arithmetic" are specially good. The problems in the " New Arithmetic" (D. C. Heath & Co., Boston,) are much better than usual.

IV. Two Methods in Interest.

1st Method. (By courtesy of D. L. Earnest, Georgia Normal and Industrial College.) a. Explanation. Interest $1., 12 mos., at 6% = .06; for 2 mos. = .01. Pointing off two decimal places in the principal gives interest for 2 mos. Take half of that, and multiply by the time in mos (Reduce days to decimal of a mo. Point off 1 decimal, and divide by 3.) Example: Int. on $840. for 2 yrs., 6 mos., 18 da., at 6% ?

$8.40 $4.20 X 30.6 2520 1260 $ 128.52 0

InUt. fUor 2-| mnos.
The time in mos.

For 5%, subtract J. For 7%, add i, etc.

2d Method. State the process in full; employ cancellation. Illustration: Int. on $400., 63 da., 5%.

50 .01 $;lpp. X .00
JT2 3

7 ' X $! = $3.50.

CHAPTER VIII.

PROPORTION.

SCHEME.

NOTES.

I. The Ratio. 1. What ?
2. Written? 3. Read ?
11. Numerator, 4. Terms | g. Denominator.

1. An indicated division of one number by another of the same kind.
2. 8: 2; 3: 12. 3. 8 divided by 2. 3 divided
by 12. 4. 8 is numerator; 2, denomi
nator.

5. Reduction of 10

5. Same as any fraction.

II. The Proportion. 1. What? 2. Read ?
n Numerators and
denominatbrs. 3. Terms 2. Means and ex
tremes.
4. Properties { 1.
2.
C1-
Reduction of < 2. (.3.

1. An equality of ratios. 2. 2: 6 = 4: 12. 2 divided by
6 = 4 divided by 12.
f 1. Equality of ratios. 4 -{ 2. Equality of products of
l extremes and means. (1. By reduction of the ratios, j 2. By multiplying or divid
ing both numerators by 5. -{ the same number.
| 3. By multiplying or divid ing both denominators
[ by the same number.

III. Statement of the Problem.

1. General statement.
2. Special statement. 3. Test.

1. 1st cause: 2d cause = 1st effect: 2d effect.
2. Of the particular problems. 3. (1) Drill pupils thoroughly in
statements first. (2) Indi cate the unknown quantity by (?). (3) Name each quantity in the proportion.

110

IV. Solution.

1. Reduction of proportion.
2. Reduction to an equation.
3. Reduction of the equation.
V. Additional Notes.

1. Apply the three laws of cancel lation in the proportion just as it stands.
2. Write product of extremes = to product of the means.
3. Divide one product by the fac tor associated with the (?).

1. Here are the necessary facts stripped of unessentials.

2. Ideas, terms, and signs are related to what the pupil al ready knows. Note the changes.

3. Have pupils to put down as first cause the very first quan tity in the problem always.

4. Cause and effect is not arithmetical proportion per se; but it is the very simplest approach to the subject, and serves all practical purposes.

5. Illustration of the only kind of puzzle to children. If 5 men can do a job of work*in 5 days, how long will it take 3 men to do it ?
1st cause : 2d cause = 1st effect: 2d effect.
5 men . 3 men 5 da. . ? da.
3? = 25 ? = j3i _ 8i da.

Ill
CHAPTER IX.
SQUARE ROOT. I. Ideas and Terms.
1. A square root is the root (= side) of a square. 2. 8649 is a perfect square. It may be pictured thus: 3. If the area of the square is 8649, how
find its root; that is, its side ?
II. An Objective Solution.

8100
8649 = -- 8100

Wanted the line AC.

-549 =

or 2

's

Now, 1 side of

= 90;

which is the line AB. The line

NCisthe end of the
and the side of the little
Therefore:
f 2 X 90 X ? + By substitution.
_'49 = J180 ?'s +?1 r549 ~ about 180 ?'8> or>'
| 180 X 3 + S'1 -j 1 ? = 3. Substitute 3 for [ 540 + 9 = 549 l. the ? and test equality.

III. Process.
1. Take out the largest known square. 2. The remainder equals 2 3. Multiply the long side of
the and use it for a trial divisor.

's A by 2,

112
4. Substitute the quotient for the (?), and test the equality. If it satisfy the equality,--
5. Add the two lines thus found, and the result is the side, or root, wanted.
IV. Notes.
1. Practice the pupils in this form of solution till they are completely in possession of all the ideas involved.
2. Or till they can extract roots of two places by inspection readily.
3. Then take up the subject in the books, and have them master the definitions, and explain every step in the rule there.

METHODS IN TEACHING PRIMARY SCIENCE.
6Y D. L. EARNEST, GEORGIA NORMAL AND INDUSTRIAL
COLLEGE.
Books Alone.
There is a college where science is taught from books ; Botany is studied, but neither eye nor hand is laid upon plant or flower; Physics is learned, but the lightning flash and thunder roll comprise the experi mental work; Chemistry is memorized, but aside from being bathed in God's pure air and put to sleep in stuffy class-rooms the pupils know not even gases; Astronomy is taught with the eye of the pupil fastened upon the book, and there is no uplift of the soul toward the "forget-me-nots of the angels" that adorn the arching blue of heaven !
God has built of the world a laboratory so full that the mind must in a measure use right methods. Informa tion from books, interesting, valuable.
Oral Teaching.
The fault of telling--talking not teaching. Talking dogmatically about what one doesn't know. Oral teaching versus books--storehouse of civilization. Book teaching, oral teaching, good but not scientific ; literary training.
Things Alone.
Object excites interest. Danger--Don't be a show. Don't neglect what has been done. Valuable training from books. Acquire self-reliance and modesty. Avoid hasty inferences. Patience; learn to labor and wait.

114
Ends.
1. Train observing powers. Habit of mental seeing. What we get through the senses. Senses and sense.
2. Get basis for other work. Tendency is now to co ordinate with other branches. Why language, draw ing, etc., co-ordinate profitably with science.
3. Develop love of nature. Pleasures of life--simple are best. Loneliness of the self-centered ; watch God's workmen. Unseen beauty. Learn the language of life; open the heart.
Principles.
1. Original observation. 2. Suggestive questions. 3. Formal plan. 4. Common objects--typical. 5. Handle objects when possible. 6. Sight reviews in identifying. 7. Be a learner yourself. 8. See beauty and perfec tion in all possible structures. 9. Learn best condi tions for development of life. 10. Teach Ethics. Bead Buskin's " Ethics of the Dust." Get lessons from group of quartz crystals, as (1) Adapted to each other. (2) Changed by impurity. (3) True to des tiny. Crystals are the lowest forms of organization (of life). Life-force of crystals and animals gives typi cal form. (4) Have a life-time.
Brief plan for the study of a
Mineral.
(1) Density. (2) Color. (3) Texture. (4) Crystals, if any; form and number sides. (5) Degree of hard ness. (6) Transparency. (7) Use. 8. Location. (9) Name. (10) Original notes.
Convenient Minerals. Chalk, mica, quartz, amethyst, coral, lava, plumbago, petrified wood or bone, feldspar, etc.

115
Pebbles. Examine outside, inside; why round. Experiment with bits of marble, sand and water in bottle (shake). What became of parts of pebble worn off? Sizes of pebbles in stream? Where are largest ones found? Where from ; how they travel ; effect of travel. Les sons from a pebble: (1) Use for little things. (2) Motion--action. (3) Friction with the world makes smooth. (4) A limit--too great a strain.
Don't punch a pupil in the head with a moral!
Plants.
I. Identify trees, flowers, weeds, seeds, leaves, roots, woods.
II. Record observations of growth and habits of plants--spring, fall, and winter.
III. Observe modes of reproduction. How pollen is distributed; evidence of design. Travel of seeds. Fruits tempt animals to carry seeds; odor, beauty, and nectar to fertilize. Grafts, slips, roots and branches exchanged.
IV. Compare animals and plants ; plants with others. Meaning of fruit, berry, melon, drupe ?
V. Experiments with seeds and roots. VI. Observe facts about common plants--onion, po
tato, cabbage, cane, blackberry, turnip. Have they seed? Will these seed grow if planted? What is the fruit? Have all plants fruit? Have all plants flowers? Do all flowers become fruits? Do all fruits come from flowers ? (Teach pupil, to say, "As far as I know.") VII. Make collections; decorate and beautify house and premises. Plant flowers; collect leaves, woods, flowers.

116
VIII. Interest pupils in curiosities of plant-life, Austra lian trees, cow tree, butter tree, bread fruit, fly trap, sensitive, etc.
IX. Observe Arbor Day; teach pupils that trees are friends; plants grow for those who love them.
X. Inquire why. Effect of mystery. Instinct of plants--seeking water or light. Direction of bean and hop vines.
XI. Study specially most valuable products--wheat, corn, fuel, lumber, sugar, cotton, paper, charcoal, turpentine, linen, coffee, medicine, etc.
XII. Have a plan. Illustration :
Corn.
1. Examine ear--rows of grains, even or odd ? 2. Examine single grain. 3. When planted. 4. How planted. 5. Replanting--how, why. 6. Examine small plant. 7. How the baby plant gets its food. (Moral lesson--dependence on parents.) 8. Direction of roots, stem, why. Can it be made to grow otherwise? How? 9. Devise means of showing effect of light, heat, moisture, on sprouting of seed, on growth of plant. Don't tell; prove. 10. How cultivated, and why. What are "weeds"? Tassel-- structure ; pollen, use of. 12. Maturity--time, appearance, how gathered. 13. Uses--stalk and blades, grain. 14. Where it grows. Remarks:--Pupils in advance plant seeds at home or at recess. Use results of investigation as exercise in composition. Advantages of writ ing what one knows. How to use as a reading lesson. Read Page on " Waking up Mind." Try other grains, fruits, melons, flowers. Change to suit your case. And you can find time. Take

117
it--reaction on all the studies; the living, alert mind does better work. Nature has stocked the world with specimens. XIII. Teach Ethics. Many life lessons from plants-- modesty, growth, leaning to light--die in beau teous, resplendent glory beneath the blight of chilling frost--the life beautiful.
Animal Life.
I. Make friends with animals. Cruelty a form of selfishness; remove and establish respect for all forms of life; develop reason and sympathy, using stories and incidents.
II. Give reason for present acrangement, structure, position of eyes, nose, mouth ; reason for forms of feet, divided and undivided hoofs.
III. Butterflies and Moths.
Catch with a net made of cheese cloth. Kill by put ting in poison jar, which make thus: Put a few small pieces of potassium cyanide in bottom of widemouthed bottle, to be covered and held in position by a batter of plaster of paris which is allowed to harden. Remove them from the jar as soon as they die. Keep bottle tightly stopped ; avoid inhaling the fumes. To dry:
Arrange a drying frame by making of laths a V-shaped trough opening 160 or more with a space between the two laths large enough to admit the bodies of butterflies. Use bits of glass for weights.
Mount in boxes; keep out insects by use of to bacco, camphor, or carbolic acid.
Gather some cocoons to hatch in the spring; meta morphosis.

118
IV. Bugs and Beetles Cau be preserved by painting with a solution dr` of corrosive sublimate and 5 grs. arsenic in J pint of alcohol. Kill in poison jar; mount as before. Alcohol can be used for small animals and physi ological specimens; try mixing one part kerosene with two parts alcohol; immerse in the mixture.
V. Human Body. 1. Importance of knowledge. Baby and watch-- ignorant engineer. The body an engine--fuel-- water--oil--ashes--polish--repair--rest.
2. Bones. Means of teaching--use skeleton, human or ani mals; some kind. Uses--like umbrella frame, house, watch-case; compare movement of worm and man. Framework is a wall--animal matter the mortar and the mineral matter the bricks. Animal mat ter, how shown--in young and old ; inference. How to straighten a bent bush. How to treat the bones.
3. Muscles. How we move. Illustration, men working with pulley and ropes, tendons are the ropes, the mus cles are the men. They are raising a flag-stafif. What weights do our muscles raise? Like a wire rope. Pupil stands and bends arm rapidly for five minutes, or less time, and notes effect of tempera ture of muscles; inferences. Feel blacksmith's arm ; get him to tell about its development. Get other experiences if possible. Are your muscles under your control? Test, "Can the class sit
r

perfectly still two minutes?" "Can you keep your face perfectly composed? How long?" How shall we treat our muscles ?
4. Digestion.
Fuel and water. Can you eat a nail? Irou in the body. How the cow aud the corn become boy.
Osmosis--passage of liquids through membrane shown by taking the shell from the large end of an egg which is then put into water and left for some hours. What causes the egg to swell? Use colored brine; tie bladder around end of lamp chimney and fill with the brine; put it in pure water as deep as the brine and wait--note the ex change.
Teeth our mill. Why a mill is used in grind ing rags for paper--or coffee. Helpers :--fire, water, saliva, mill, knife. Swallowing, like milking.
5. Lungs--Breathing. Insert a tube in the little rubber bag used for child's whistle; insert the tube in a cork which place in a lamp chimney with the bag inside. This cork should be pierced by another open tube. Over the other end of chimney tie sheet rubber to represent diaphragm. (1) Blow into bag, tube open. (2) Elevate and depress " dia phragm," closing open tube with finger. Show effects of impure air by putting a mouse into a bottle; as soon as mouse becomes unconscious remove and resuscitate. Hard on mouse? Yes, but may save a life.
6. Remarks. These are but hints; enlarge upon each point, of course. Have pupils experiment upon themselves

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and others. Count pulse of boy lying down, sit ting, standing, and after a run ; inference? How many can you count in a low, audible tone ? Lungs are weak if no more than thirty. Drill in concert action ; consult manual of calisthenics for exercises.
Advantages of hygiene over remedy, medicine. Look up case of Cornaro to see effect of diet and care. Get interested in the human form divine. Children easily interested in study of self. Any good physiology will direct you in making dissec tions of lower animals for purpose of illustration. Why not prepare skeleton of a cat ? Convenient size. Mount on board, or articulate aud mount as in nature. Get the boys to do this for you. "Never do for yourself what you can induce an other to do for you," safe guide in experimenting.
Physics. (Apply to Chemistry.)
I. Why not well taught; apparatus, knowledge, skill. II. Knowledge ; living--first hand; from observation,
experience. Dead--second hand; lectures and books. Important but more so is scientific spirit-- see, think.
III. An Experiment--Mind your P's and Q's.
1. P's.--(1) Purpose. Have a plan--an object in view.
(2) Process. Know how--previous prac tice--skill--pupil sees and describes.
(3) Presumption--a modest inference-- the pupil's explanation. N. B.--Science is knowledge of things in their relations.
2. Q's.--(1) Quiet--reverence--Holy ground--in dividual thought.
(2) Quick--Don't waste time--Be ready.

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IV. Suggestions. 1. Do some kind of scientific work thoroughly. 2. Learn art of illustration, not explanation. 3. Acquire skill in questioning. 4. Presume that pupils have brains; prove that they have knowledge. 5. Master the subject. 6. Read Payne's Art and Science of Education on " Science." 7. Bring work close to life of student; don't take all illustrations from lile of man--female physics. 8. Visit mill, water-wheel, gin, engine--any place where force is used. 9. Apparatus to be drawn by pupils--written use of the " P's." 10. Inspire a desire to investigate.
Astronomy.
Constellations--teach principal ones; draw on board-- pupils copy--teacher gives location. Teach impor tant, interesting stars in connection. Motion about Polaris, diurnal, annual. Drawings of Dip per, made different hours same night, same hour different nights for a few months; What is seen? Cause ?
Moon--observe phases, face. Time and the moon. Sun--course through heavens traced by reference to stars
and constellations. N. and S. motion. Apparent daily motion.
Observation Work.
1. The leaves of what trees have fallen? 2. What leaves remain longest? 3. Leaves of what trees are most beautifully colored? 4. What colors can you find in autumn leaves?

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5. Why are the leaves failing ? Is the sleep of the bear and tree alike? Give reason for answer.
6. Make a note of the first frost. 7. What vegetables yet grow in the garden ? 8. What seeds for next year are sown in the fall? 9. Name the plants whose seeds are the most valuable
part; bark; flower; fruit; root; stem ; leaves. 10. Can you find any birds? Insects? Flowers? Name
them. Color of winter birds ? Why ? 11. What birds come first in the spring? Leaves?
Flowers? Note the date. 12. What time does the sun rise and set (loth of each
mouth) ? 13. Why is it cooler at night--in the morning--than at
noon? At noon than at 2 o'clock? In June than in July? 14. Note changing position of sun as school continues-- at noon by measuring shadow or marking its end; at sunset by drawing sunset points on horizon. 15. Locate aud give direction of springs of this locality; the streams. 16. Where does the water go that falls at the following places :--------- ? 17. Draw map showing our drainage. 18. Account for the gullies. Note nearest stream after a rain ; changes. 19. Where does the water of a spring come from? 20. What zodiacal constellation is on the east horizon at 8 o'clock? 21. What is the position of the Dipper? (Keep a draw ing made same time each night, different months.) 22. What colors are seen in the sky ? Near the sun ? 23. How long from one new moon to another? 24. Which way do the horns of the new moon point ? The waning moon ?

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25. Note the pebbles in a stream and record what you see--and the cause.
26. What kind of rock has sharp corners? Why? 27. Is there any difference between the north and south
sides of a tree ? Note leaves, limbs, bark. Ex plain. 28. In what direction do rainbow and sun appear from you? 29. What animals live near you? 30. Name the kinds of these animals which you have seen :--dog, cat, cow, man, horse, man, hog, bird, goose, duck, turkey, etc. What is their young called ? Their voice ? 31. Weather observations. (Pupils fill blanks daily.)

WEATHER OBSERVATIONS.

Date.

Sky.

Wind.

Temperature. Barometer.

Rain.

3:
E

32. A note on geography.
Many teachers omit an important part of proper geo graphic study--the observation of the changes which the earth is constantly undergoing under the action of various quiet but powerful forces.
The sun at work making vapor--how the pot boils dry-- where the pond goes; compare evaporation in sun and shade --winter and summer--tropics and higher latitudes.
How the sun stirs up winds--and scatters vapor. An engine gets cool and stops ; so does vapor--breath on a cold morning (a little cloud). When should experiments be

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placed before the class to illustrate evaporation and con densation ? The sun a great water-carrier--the winds his water wagon on which ride the clouds. Study all the forms of water--vapor, snow, ice, rain, etc.
The sun is a sculptor--how he chisels out scenery--every rain drop a bullet from the battery of the skies (the war against permanency). Teach erosion, transportation, and deposit after a rain ; open the eyes of the blind! Running water a freight train on which our fathers ship their farms to the sea; mud banks, sand-beds, etc., stations along the way. What sized particles are through freight? Running water a mill, grinding rocks, sand into soil. (See Pebbles.)
The breaker-down and beautifier of mountains, also a builder of fertile fields in far away alluvial plains. The sun fees all the performers--robs the mountain to enrich the plain.
Conclusion'.
1. Notes are condensed, therefore obscure; try to trans late and suit to your needs.
2. Don't get discouraged because you have no apparatus; invent.
3. Books:--Woodhull's Simple Experiments for the School-room and Manual of Home-Made Apparatus, Horne's Easy Experiments, Lind's Easy Experiments in Chemistry and Natural Philosophy, Jackman's Nature Studies, Howe's Science Teaching.
4. Child should be brought face to face with God-- nature the best field. Don't be a pantheist, but He is everywhere, everything!
5. If your opportunity has been poor, go to work; science is not confined to the schools nor books--love her and she will promote thee.
6. Most modern progress along this line; keep up I Show your love for the Father by studying his works.

METHODS IN SCHOOL GOVERNMENT.
BY OTIS ASHMORE, HIGH SCHOOL, SAVANNAH, GA.
Government is the exercise of authority in the admin istration of law. It involves control, direction, restraint, regulation, and punishment. In its relation to the general subject of school management it forms but a single chapter in that important branch, but its eminently practical char acter as applied in the daily work of the school entitles it to the highest rank. Out of the questions of school govern ment nearly all the troubles of young teachers arise, and upon the principles of this vital subject, too, more than upon any others, do young teachers enter upon the responsible duties of the schoolroom the least prepared, little thinking of the worry, vexation, mortification, and failure which so often follow as a natural consequence of such ignorance. Poor scholarship and unphilosophical methods are productive enough of untold mischief in educational work, but who can estimate the baneful effects of bad school govern ment upon the individual character and upon the national life itself? Too little attention is paid to this important subject even by our normal schools and teachers' institutes.
It is not the purpose of this chapter to treat the subject of school government exhaustively, or even with a moderate degree of fullness--that would require a large volume; but in keeping with the plan of this book, the aim shall be to present in a brief and lucid form the elements and princi ples upon which the subject rests, and to make such sugges tions upon them as will lead the reader to a thoughtful analysis of the reasons involved and a more careful elabora tion of the practical details.

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Objects.
1. To secure the necessary conditions for school work. Without quiet aud a prompt compliance with the reasonable regulations of the school, the legitimate work cannot be accomplished. Even Congress and Parliament must he governed.
2. To train to the habit of self-control. The State needs good citizens. The stern duties of life must be met. Bad habits must be broken up and good ones established.
Elements of Governing Power.
1. System. Promptness. No important work can be well done without system. Have a time for everything, a place for everything, and everything done in its proper time. Prompt ness expedites business and inspires respect. In stances: Railroads, banks, merchants, etc.
2. Will-power. Resoluteness of purpose and force of character will be needed in opposing wrong. The world's greatest leaders have been men of iron will: Napoleon. Csesar, Jackson. Will-power should not stoop to tyranny, it must aim at good.
3. Self-confidence. Self-confidence should be based upon scholarship, a profound knowledge of child-nature, and a thorough acquaintance with the principles of school manage ment. A teacher should know much more than he teaches. In a leader nothing inspires respect so much us reserved force. We respect it alike in the individual and in the nation's navy; in the locomo tive's work, and in the cash account of the creditor. Self-confidence should not rest upon egotism.

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4. Self-control. He who cannot control himself need not expect to con trol others. Great pro%rocatious will arise, but the captain must be calm amid the storm. Outbursts of anger always weaken the teacher's control. Anger is a wild horse, to which no wise teacher will give loose rein.
5. Decision and firmness. Decide in wisdom, not hastily, but with due delibera tion, then execute with firmness. "Be sure you are right, and then go ahead." You will need to say NO, and mean it; do this, and see that it is done. There must be no temporizing with wrong, no hesitancy or vacillation in executing a policy that is obviously correct. Obstinacy is uot firmness.
G. Energy. Energy is opposed to laziness. In the teacher it im plies spirit, activity, power. The energetic teacher is alert, progressive, efficient. He ascertains and uses the best methods, inspires the pupils with his own spirit, and accomplishes much work. Energy may be cultivated, and depends much upon the health.
7. Vigilance. " Eternal vigilance is the price of victory." " An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure." "Nip the evil in the bud," if you would save a world of trouble. " The eye of the master will do more work than both his hands." Great evils gener ally have small beginnings; crush them in the be ginning. Avoid a captious, fault-finding spirit. Don't see too much.

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8. Justice.
The teacher must be just to all the pupils in every instance. No favoritism or partiality must be shown. Justice begets respect; perversion of it, contempt. Let the teacher remember that he is legislator, judge, aud jury. Let there be no abuse of power. Hear both sides, aud decide in favor of the right. All pupils have equal rights, aud the teacher must see that no injustice is done to any one. The teacher may make mistakes--who does not?--but when mistakes of judgment do occur, let him promptly correct them.
9. Uniformity.
It is a very common but fatal mistake to indulge a vacillating policy. Do not prohibit one thing to day and permit it to-morrow. The habit of selfcontrol, the great aim of school government, cannot be formed in this way. Adopt wise regulations and stick to them. If a regulation is wrong, change or abolish it.
10. Tact.
Tact is that peculiar combination of wisdom and skill which enables one to adjust the delicate relations of conflicting circumstances into harmony. It implies nice perception, and ready power of doing just the right thing at the right time. Diffident pupils need encouragement, quarrels must be adjusted, coopera tion of school authorities secured, unreasonable re quests refused, irate parents met and conciliated, and happy will be that teacher who possesses the rare aud valuable quality of tact which will enable him, like Ulysses aud Orpheus of old, to sail with safety between Scylla and Charybdis.

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11. Culture, dignity, courtesy.
Culture,as expressed in scholarship, manner, voice, and dress, is a power in commanding respect. Be dignified without being stiff, courteous without being familiar. Bays Baldwin, "Don't talk much. Eternal talkers are a fearful nuisance, and, as teachers, are usually great failures. Use the right word and right tone. Loud, harsh, monotonous talking incites to disorder. Remember that ` words fitly spoken are like apples of geld in pictures of silver.' Never scold. Noth ing else so tends to sour you and render you hateful to your pupils."
12. Good humor. The schoolroom should be a cheerful place. Life is too short to fret it out on trifles. "Laugh, and the world laughs with you; weep, and you weep alone." An occasional good laugh in the schoolroom, pro vided it does not partake of the nature of disorder, is not a hanging crime in school ethics. Many a mischievous trick of some "Smart Aleck" may be most successfully parried by the keen edge of goodhumored repartee alone. The wise teacher will avoid antagonism, and cultivate a spirit of cheerful ness and good humor in himself and in the class.
ORDER.
Its Essential, Conditions.
"Order is Heaven's first law"; it should not be the second in school. Good order must be secured at any cost, for without it no effective work can be done. On account of the essential character of this element of school government, it is all important that the conditions for securing it be carefully studied and thoroughly uuderstood.

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Conditioxs of Good Order.
1. The teacher must himself be orderly.
A disorderly teacher will have a disorderly school. Loud talking, silly remarks, scolding, etc., have a very demoralizing effect upon a school. A quiet, dignified bearing, neat dress, and polished manners constitute a powerful factor in securing good order through the most worthy of all motives, that of re spect. A pompous demeanor, boorish manners, and an overbearing, domineering spirit are as out of place in the schoolroom as they are unworthy and contemptible.
2. Plan and forethought.
One half of the confusion which arises in school may be traced to the failure on the part of the teacher to think out beforehand all the details of his work, and to provide for every emergency likely to arise. Plan, anticipate, prevent. This implies work and close attention to business, but this is just what you are paid to do. Can you plan for pupils to enter and leave the room in a more orderly manner? Are their hats and cloaks arranged in a systematic order?. Have you a well-prepared program, aud do you fol low it? Are your special exercises so planned and thought out in detail as "to go through without a hitch"? Never allow yourself to be confronted by an emergency that has not been carefully thought out beforehand in all its details. Plan and forethought pay large dividends on the investment.
3. First impressions.
The beginnings of things are always emphatic. The first day at school is the most important. Make no mistake, betray no weakness here; it will not be

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easily remedied. Children are merciless critics, and, upon the whole, very good ones respecting their teacher's character. Be sure that the first impres sions are favorable.
4. Comfortable physical conditions. These refer to a properly heated room, comfortable furniture, etc. It is not always iu the teacher's power to secure these, but he should urge their ne cessity upon the school authorities, arouse public sentiment in their favor, and cooperate in their pro curement. Children will not be orderly when un comfortable, and we cannot much blame them.
5. Interesting employment. Interesting employment is a powerful restraint upon evil tendencies. An idle brain is the workshop of mischief. Keep pupils busy. If bright pupils fin ish their work before the rest, let them read some interesting parallel subject. Children like to do something with their hands. This is an opportu nity for written work and for expression in drawing. Short recreations in songs and calisthenics are very appropriate for young children at stated intervals. Did you ever see a book on Busy Work for Chil dren ? Such books contain many valuable sugges tions. The employment of pupils should consist of the legitimate work of the school.
6. Promptness. "Promptness is the politeness of kings," and in no less esteem should it be held iu the empire of the school. It is essential alike in the highest success of the school and in the practical business of life. Train pupils carefully to the habit of promptness. Have a good clock, keep it right, and run the whole

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school by it. Let it be distinctly understood that everything must be done in its proper time, and, above all, let the teacher set the example. Always be on time.
Sources of Disorder.
1. Communication between pupils.
This is a very fruitful source of disorder, and if in dulged will result in utter confusion. There is but little safe middle ground between absolute prohibi tion and complete disorder. The wisest plan is to prohibit it altogether. Remove the necessities and temptations for communicating. Every pupil should have his own desk, books, pencils, etc., and no bor rowing should be permitted. Necessary communi cation should be done through the teacher. Sepa rate pupils who are inclined to talk, and isolate those who persist in it. Let it be understood from the beginning that whispering will not be permitted, and promptly check any attempt at it. Plenty of interesting work is the best antidote for this evil.
2. Communication with the teacher.
This should always be done quietly and at the proper time, aud never by calling to the teacher across the room. The pupil who wishes to communicate with the teacher raises his hand, the teacher calls him to the desk and hears what he has to say, or goes to him. During the study hour the teacher may find it more convenient to move around among the pu pils and help them at their seats. The teacher should always be open to communication,even during recitation, but improper requests and needless inter ruption must not be permitted. Attend to only one request aud one pupil at a time. All must be done quietly.

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3 Coughing, noisy movements of the hands and feet, etc.
When these annoyances proceed from inadvertence or simple carelessness, the remedy lies in the direction of a systematic cultivation of the manners and the removal of the objective circumstances that gave rise to them. Covered slates, strips of carpet in the aisles, well arranged desks, etc., will do much to prevent noise. With young children this class of disorder needs to be treated with much patience aud forbearance. It is a question of education. Pupils should be taught to perform all movements in a quiet and orderly manner. When these noises are made intentionally and for the purpose of annoying the teacher, the offender must be promptly found out and properly punished. The offense is a grave one, as it implies disrespect, and if tolerated at all, it will subvert in the worst manner the entire government of the school. Vigi lance and a quiet manner on the part of the teacher will do much to remedy and prevent this evil.
4. Getting water. This often becomes a nuisance aud the source of much disorder. The remedy is simple--don't permit it. Any child can do without water two hours without inconvenience or harm. Let the recesses occur at such intervals as will not inconvenience them in waiting. See that plenty of water is accessible at these recesses and teach pupils to drink all they want then. Exceptions will occur with sick or del icate children, but the teacher's judgment will let no one suffer.
5. Crowding around the stove in cold weather.
This necessity should never arise, but teachers cannot always control the circumstances that sometimes

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give rise to it. It will not do to let the children sit long in a place where the temperature is much be low 60. About 68 is the proper temperature. If they must go to the stove, let them go in alternate small sections. When a pupil is disorderly at the stove, have him take his seat. Children near the stove need not move, those farthest away need go to the stove oftener. Try to prevent the necessity for this source of disorder.
6. Leaving the room.
This is a very delicate privilege, and one which de mands good judgment and wise discretion. Some teachers have no difficulty in managing it, others have much trouble. The evil consists in the abuse of the privilege, aud the remedy should be applied only to those who abuse it. A very efficient rem edy is to require those who leave the room too often or who stay out too long to make up the lost time after school. There is a perfectly logical connec tion between this puishment and the offense, and the knowledge on the part of the pupil that an abuse of this privilege will be followed by such an obvi ously just punishment is usually sufficient to ren der its actual application but seldom necessary. The safe rule is to grant the privilege and punish the abuse of it. If an error is to be made, let it be done in favor of the pupil. Regard with great care the timidity of some children. The fact that the neces sity for granting this privilege may arise at any time is the strongest reason why the teacher should be open to communication at all times.
7.Seating noisy pupils together.
Many pupils otherwise well behaved become disorderly when exposed to the temptations of au improper en-

vironment. Should disorder arise from this source, the obvious and proper remedy is to remove the temptation by changing the seats of offenders. A little tact will usually overcome the difficulty.
8. Quarreling, fighting, improper language, etc.
Keep an eye on the playground. Be with the chil dren as much as possible. The teacher's presence is a great restraint. See the brewing trouble and nip it in the bud. Quarrelsome pupils should be prohibited from playing with the rest until they give evidence of reform. Permit no imposition upon smaller pupils. Create a strong sentiment against rude language and rude conduct by talks to the class.
9. Want of system and promptness. Without system there can be but little order. The neglect of little things tends to confusion. Look after the details. Have system iu entering and leaving the room, system iu class changes, in seat ing, and desk arrangement--in everything. Make promptness a law of the school, and insist upon its ob servance. It is a valuable element in character.

Principles.

PUNISHMENTS.

1. Punishments should be reformatory.

The aim should be to reform the pupil. The door of reclamation should always be invitingly open, and the offender should be made to realize the justice of the punishment that leads to his reformation. Pun ishments should never be vindictive.

2. Punishments should follow as a natural consequence of the offense, and there should be an obvious logical relation between the offense and the punishment.

If a pupil breaks a pane of glass accidentally, have him replace it. If a privilege is abused, withdraw the

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privilege. To whip a pupil for missing a lesson, tardiness, dropping a slate, etc., would be a gross violation of this principle.
3. Punishments should be certain. It is not so much the severity as the certainty of pun ishment that renders it effective. Let the conse quences of wrong-doing follow in the school gov ernment as they do in the divine, with deliberation and certainty. At first let them be mild.
4. Punishments should outweigh the seeming advantage gained by the commission of the offense. The restraining power must overbalance the tempta tion, else yielding to wrong may often occur. Youthful propensities, like water currents, move along lines of least resistance.
5. Punishments should never exceed that which is necessary to prevent a repetition of the offense. Excessive punishment is cowardly, and always has a hardening effect on the one punished. Whenever the stage of true repentance has been reached, it is time to say, " Go, and sin no more."
6. Punishments should be proportioned to the character of the offense. No sensible teacher will hold whispering or the simple dropping of a slate in the same light as open diso bedience or downright disrespect. Punishments should be as varied in grade as the offenses which give rise to them.
7. Regai'd should be paid to the temperament, age, sex, health, etc. Good judgment and wise discretion is necessary here. Harshness is to be avoided on the one hand, and a seeming partiality on the other. Exercise good com mon sense in all questions of school punishments.

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KINDS OF PUNISHMENTS.
1. Reproof. The mildest form of punishment is general reproof. This applies when the offense is slight aud affects, or is likely to affect, the whole school. No name is mentioned, but the character of the offense is spoken of, and warning is given concerning its repetition.
Private reproof is more applicable to offenses which are in their nature limited to the individual. Such reproof should be strictly confidential, accompanied with much earnestness, firmess and kindness, and if properly managed, it is a powerful means of correct ing many difficulties. It has a much wider applica tion with older pupils.
Public reproof, though sometimes necessary, is dan gerous. The case should be a clear one, and the feeling produced by the reproof should be strongly against the offense.
2. Privation. This system is based chiefly upon the abuse of a priv ilege, and it follows obviously and logically such abuse. For this reason it is highly reformatory when properly managed. A boy abuses the privi leges of the playground by quarreling, fighting, or using bad language. He is deprived of the privi leges of associating with his better behaved fellows until lie gives evidence of reformation. He sees the justice of the punishment and is more careful in the future. A girl talks too much to her desk-mate. She loses this privilege by being removed to a posi tion less desirable. In every case of abuse of privileges the teacher should seek to apply the prin ciple here set forth, remembering, however, that privileges may be restored when evidences of refor

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mation are given. The restoration of a privilege is a valuable opportunity for strengthening character.
3. Keeping in after school or at recess.
This punishment, though sometimes justifiable in cer tain cases, is of very doubtful value. Whenever used it should always bear a logical relation to the ofiense, aud the pupil should see it. Willful tardi ness, quarreling, and fighting on the way home, abuse of the privileges of leaving the room, aud some cases of neglect of study in school seem to justify this form of punishment, but the net results are often unsatisfactory, aud skillful teachers usually adopt other means. If this form of punishment is ever used, pupils should not be detained longer than fif teen or twenty minutes after school. For obvious reasons pupils should never be deprived of their recess.
4. Deportment marks.
With many children, especially girls, this form of pun ishment is often very effective; with others it is of but little value. It depends very largely upon the natural sensibilities of the child and the home envi ronment. It has the advantage in some cases of securing the home co-operation, but it is a form of punishment that should be used with much discre tion. The danger lies in the direction of violating the pupil's sense of justice at times, and in overdo ing the thing. No marking at all is better than injudicious marking. Mark but little aud let it mean much.
5. Suspension.
This is a delicate matter, and it should be done with great discretion and after due deliberation. The age and character of the pupil, together with the

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probable effects, must be carefully considered. The causes for suspension are thus enumerated by Baldwin : (a) Insubordination to authority, (b) Gross miscon duct. (c) Chronic irregularity, (d) Little offenses continually repeated, (e) General worthlessness. In regard to the length of time of suspension, short pe riods are usually best, provided the time is not so short as to bring the punishment into contempt. In regard to the restoration of the pupil, I quote from Baldwin: () " Restore a pupil whenever he gives satisfactory evidence of a determination to do right." () "So manage that the conduct of the restored pupil shall be especially exemplary." (c) " In no case should the school board restore a pupil without the approval of the teacher."
6. Expulsion. This strictly is not a school punishment. It looks only to the good of the school. It is a very grave step, and it should not betaken until all other rem edies have failed. Law and public opinion sustain expulsion for " gross immorality or a persistent vio lation of the school regulations."
7. Corporal punishment. Educators are widely at varience upon this form of punishment. Such distinguished educators as Payne, Mann, Wickersham, Page, White, Baldwin, and others advocate its limited use; while other noted writers on educational ethics oppose it altogether. For a forcible discussion of the subject the reader is referred to Payne's excellent work on School Supervision. Many teachers need never use this form of punishment, while with others it seems to

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be a necessity. All would like to dispense with it. The true doctrine seems to be, "Grant the right, but avoid the use." The very fact that the teacher has the power and may use it when necessary is suffi cient to deter many from wrong-doing. It is a silent reserve force that often exerts a very salutary in fluence iu restraining evil.
If corporal punishment is to be used at all, it should be done with the greatest care. There is no other step in school government more likely to in volve the teacher iu serious trouble than this. The present trend of public opinion is strongly against it, and the teacher will do well first to confer with parents. He may thus be able to shift the responsi bility of a very unpleasant duty upon the parents, where, in truth, it more properly belongs, besides securing a strong home cooperation of great future value. Be careful never to punish in anger or to excess, and only in cases where every other means has failed. Corporal punishment should be confined almost exclusively to insubordination and gross dis respect. Learn to get along without it. The best teachers seldom or never use it.
8. Improper punishments.
Unusual, cowardly, cruel, degrading, and vindictive punishments have no place in the schoolroom. Threatening, nagging, striking on the head, scold ing, etc., are improper aud do much harm. A dom ineering spirit over children is contemptible.
MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS.
1. Don't worry about dull pupils. You are not respon sible for their brains. Help them faithfully and be patient. Some fruit ripens late.

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2. In truancy confer with the parent. Hem in the offender on all sides. Know parents, confer with them when necessary, but do not worry them.
3. Have occasional talks with pupils for the purpose of character culture. Cultivate their sense of truthfulness and honor, of politeness and self-respect. Give forcible instances as illustrations.
4. Encourage parents to visit the school. It is an inspi ration to both teacher and pupils, besides it enlists the interest of the parents themselves in the work of the school. It helps at home, too.
5. Have but few school regulations, and let them be gen eral in character, practicable, unarbitrary, and reasonable.
6. "Praise where you can; reprove where you must." There is something good in every pupil. Make him be lieve it and try to bring it out.
7. Make the schoolroom attractive. Pictures, drawings, flowers, etc., are silent powers for good. Keep every thing neat and clean.
8. Endeavor to develop in children a strong moral charac ter ; a love for all that is true, beautiful, aud good, and a hatred for all that is low, mean, aud degrading.
9. Improve your knowledge and skill in your profession by attending teachers' institutes, and by reading and study. The following good books will help you, espe cially in school management: White's School Management. Baldwin's Art of School Management. Wickersham's School Economy. Page's Theory and Practice of Teaching. Payne's School Supervision. Hughes' How to Keep Order.

142
OPENING EXERCISES.
" A good beginning makes a good ending." Certainly the character of the opening exercises at school has a most important bearing upon the entire work of the day. The following suggestions cover the chief points to be observed in opening exercises:
1. They should be short, appropriate, and interesting. Ten minutes is long enough. Always open school promptly on time.
2. Always have children enter and leave the schoolroom in good order. In large schools it is best to have the pupils form in line in the yard and march quietly into the room. The schoolroom is no place for scrambling or loud noise.
3. Pupils should have a suitable place provided for hats, wraps, lunch-baskets, etc., apart from their desks, and easily accessible in passing in and out of the room.
4. Secure perfect order and call the roll, or in large schools have pupils call their roll numbers, and enter the absent and tardy in the record book.
5. A bright school song will tend greatly to unify and har monize the feelings of the children and to place their mindf in a receptive attitude for the work of the day. Good music elevates the thoughts and refines the feelings, and children will soon enter heartily into this delightful ex ercise.
6. Make announcements for the day, and call attention to such regulations as may be deemed proper at the time for the general welfare of the school. This is an excel lent and appropriate occasion for strengthening the moral character of children by placing before them lofty ideals and illustrious examples of honor, patriotism, truth fulness, industry, politeness, courage, perseverance iu the right, etc. Occasional talks upon these topics, and

143
well selected readings from interesting books illustrating high and noble traits of character in thought and action, deserve the highest consideration upon the program of opening exercises. Whatever is done in this direction should be brief, forcibly expressed, and productive of a good aud pleasing impression upon the minds of the children.
THE RECITATION.
The recitation is very naturally the great center of inter est for teacher and pupils. Nearly all other school work is but a preparation for it. Nowhere else are the ability and the skill of the teacher so well tested as in the recita tion. Much blundering may be avoided by observing the principles laid down in the following suggestions:
Objects of the Recitation.
1. To enable the teacher to test the knowledge of the pupils. It is important that the teacher ascertain the exact extent of the pupil's knowledge in order that he may know just how to supplement it. Don't test too much. Some teachers are eternally examiuing; they do but little real teaching.
2. To enable the pupils to tell what they know. This implies thorough preparatiou, attention to details, accurate expression, and practice iu the use of proper language. Children like to tell what they know, and they know it better when they tell it. The school should aim to produce not only good think ers but also good talkers. The recitation affords a fine opportunity for training the mind to correct forms of expression and continuity of thought.
3. To enable the teacher to correct errors. The teacher hears the pupil patiently through. If an error is made the teacher leads tbe pupil to disoover

144
and correct it for himself if possible. Failing in this, the teacher should give such explanations as will make clear the obscure point. Pupils may cor rect tbe errors of other pupils when called upou by the teacher to do so. Errors should always be cor rected kindly.
4. To enable the teacher to broaden and deepen the knowl edge obtained from the text-book. The true teacher will reveal himself at this point by his thorough familiarity with the subject, by his aptness and power of illustration, and his ability to secure and hold the attention of the class. The recitation should be enriched and illuminated from a wealth of kindred knowledge obtained from many other sources besides the text-book.
5. To stimulate, encourage, and help pupils in their work. The dull pupils need stimulating, the bright ones encouragement, and the weak help. This of neces sity must be largely of an individual character, but it constitutes a legitimate part of the teacher's work.
The Eequisites of the Recitation.
1. A thorough preparation on the part of the teacher. The neglect of this duty is the most fruitful source of poor teaching in our schools. No lesson should be considered too insignificant for daily study. Look to the details. " Small leaks may sink a large ship."
2. Study and preparation on the part of the pupil. The program should be so arranged as to give ample time for preparation before recitation. The pupil, too, is entitled to conditions of comfort aud quiet during the study hour. It is usually best to have the recitatiou follow immediately the study period.

145
3. Proper recitation seats, blackboards, maps, op/paratus, etc.
4. Good order in the schoolroom and sufficient and proper employment for those not engaged in the recitation.
5. Sufficient time.
6. Freedom from interruption, except in certain cases, dur ing the recitation.
The Conduct of the Recitation.
1. The movements of pupils to aud from the recitation should be orderly, and controlled by proper signals. No confusion must be permitted.
2. With small children there is no objection to " head and foot" in the class provided it be well managed.
3. The teacher may either sit or stand during recita tion, but the attitude should always be graceful and becoming. Good teaching demands considerable standing, but there is no necessity for a teacher to exhaust the physical energies by remaining upon his feet all day.
4. It is usually best to have pupils' stand during indi vidual recitation. See that they stand erect and in a becoming position. Permit no lounging or lazy movements either in yourself or the pupils.
6. Questions should be clear and concise, expressed iu good language, they should relate to the subject, and they should cover the lesson.
G. Answers should be expressed iu full sentences and in correct language. Insist upon distinct, clear tones, easily audible by the teacher and the whole class, especially in reading. Do not indulge care less aud incomplete forms of expression.
7. Have no particular place iu the class to begin, and skip about frequently with the questions. Inatten tive pupils may be interested by a few well directed questions.

146
8. If possible every pupil should recite at least once at each class recitation, otherwise lessons may not be prepared. Do not neglect dull pupils.
9. Concert recitations may be used to arouse interest at certain intervals, but such recitations should not take the place of the individual recitation. They are easily indulged, but are very misleading.
10. The questions should not be leading or sucli as sug gest the answer. Accustom pupils to tell as much as possible without suggestion from the teacher.
11. Hold each pupil responsible for every question. The question may be asked and then some pupil called upou to answer it.
12. Manage to keep the whole class busy. Children must be doing something. Blackboards, slates, paper and pencils are full of suggestions. Many recitations may be partially or wholly written. Do uot require pupils to write just for the sake of keep ing them busy. Aim at some definite result.
13. Don't talk too much or too loud. It is a great mistake for the teacher to do all the talking.
O
SCHOOL HYGIENE.
Hygiene is the science of health. When we consider that from one-fourth to one-third of the entire time of school children is spent in the schoolroom, and at this critical age the whole physical and intellectual system is iu the most delicate and impressible condition, the respon sibility of the teacher for the hygienic conditions of the schoolroom at once becomes apparent. The teacher owes it to his pupils as well as to himself to become familiar with the general principles of physiology and hygiene as taught in some good modern text-book of considerable scope. Aside from the general conditions of good health, so impor tant to be observed in the care of children, emergeucies

147
often arise, sometimes of a very serious nature, which de mand prompt and intelligent action on the part of the teacher.
The following suggestions cover only the leading points in this important branch of school management, and the teacher is referred to some good work on physiology for underlying principles and further details.
HEATING.
The proper temperature for a schoolroom is 68. Ten degrees variation from this temperature, one way or the other, will render pupils uncomfortable. Children cannot sit long in a room whose temperature is below 60 without harmful results. Should the temperature fall to 55 it is better to dismiss the school. In some cities this is required. Every schoolroom should have a good thermometer hung in an average position. It will cost only about thirty-five cents. It must be remembered that a room heated by a stove or fire-place will often vary ten degrees or more at the same time in different parts of the room. If it becomes necessary for pupils to go to the stove, let them go iu alternate sec tions at stated times and always in good order.
Pupils with damp feet or clothing should be permitted to sit near the stove till they are dry. It is very danger ous for any one to sit with damp clothing or cold feet.
Pupils who are naturally delicate and those who have been recently ill deserve special privileges and care.
In cold weather the room should be warm and cheerful by the time the pupils assemble iu the morning.
VENTILATION.
It may be stated as a fundamental principle that anj system of heating and ventilation of schools that does not provide for a free and complete change of air is radically defective. A fire-place draws a considerable quantity of air

148
up the chimney, while fresh air comes in through the doors, windows and crevices. A stove does this in a less degree, while radiation from steam or hot water heats the same old air over and over again without changing it, unless the windows are arranged with great judgment to meet the vary ing condition of temperature and the force and direction of the wind. In large buildings the ideal method of heating is by the introduction of warm, pure air from a furnace situated in the basement. Indeed, it is the only method that ought to be considered at all for large assembly rooms. The importance of the efficient ventilation of schoolrooms becomes apparent when we consider the following facts :
1. Normal air contains about four volumes of carbon diox ide in 10,000 of air, or 0.04 per cent.
2. The total amount of carbon dioxide evolved by the lungs and skin of a grown person is about 0.7 cubic feet per hour, besides a considerable quantity of animal efflu vium dangerous to health.
3. Air exhaled from the lungs contains about 4 per cent, of carbon dioxide.
4. It is not advisable to breathe for any length of time air containing more than 0.1 per cent, of carbon dioxide, while air containing 0.5 per cent, will produce headache in a short time, and 8 per cent, will produce death in a few minutes.
5. Exhaled air at first rises because it is warmer than the surrounding air, but it soon cools and falls to the floor, because when cold it is heavier than air.
Based upon these facts the following suggestions are made :
1. Knowing the dimensions of your schoolroom and the number of pupils, calculate how long it will take the air of the room to become vitiated to the " headache point " without any ventilation.

149
2. Calculate how many cubic feet of fresh air per minute must be admitted into the room to keep the air below the " headache point."
3. When practicable let the fresh air enter the room in such a manner as to pass over the warm stove before striking the children, aud let it pass out of the room at a point remote from the stove.
4. Fresh air may be admitted by lowering the upper sash a few inches. Cold draughts may be avoided by placing a board or screen in such a position as to deflect the in coming current towards the upper portion of the roomIn this way the fresh air will become warm before reach ing the children.
5. At recess open all the doors and windows, and have all the children go out upon the playground and exercise in the pure fresh air.
6. Fresh air brings good health, rosy cheeks, and vigorous physical and mental activity; the constant breathing of impure air implies impure blood, bad health, and feeble mental action. For his own sake as well as for the sake of the children the teacher should see to it that the schoolroom is abundantly supplied with fresh warm air.
LIGHT.
Plenty of light is essential to good health. A plant in a dark cellar soon turns pale and white, and a prisoner kept for some time in a dark dungeon becomes pale and ashen colored, and soon falls into poor health. A child needs the chemical effects of light just as much as young plants do, and every schoolroom should be flooded with an abundance of light. A sufficient quantity is vastly more important than many of the fastidious fads concerning the precise angle at which the light should enter the room or strike the book. Still the direction is by no means unim portant, and the following suggestions are made:

150
1. It is best to have the light enter from above, and for this reason high windows are the best. High windows contribute much also to proper ventilation.
2. There should be no open windows in front of the pu pils. This would produce a painful, dazzling effect upon the eyes that is very harmful.
3. It is better to have the light enter the room from the sides and rear, and preferably it should fall upon the book from over the left shoulder. In this way the shadows of the hand aud arm will not be projected across the page.
4. Pupils should not read with the direct sunlight falling across the page. Reading with part of the page in the sunlight and part in shadow is very injurious to the eyes.
5. Do not read by a flickering light or in a faint light. Do not strain the eyes after such diseases as measles, scarlet fever, diphtheria, etc.
6. Mauy children are near-sighted, and often the tendency is to aggravate the difficulty by carelessness. From four teen to eighteen inches is the proper distance for the book or paper.
MISCELLANEOUS POINTS.
1. Activity is the law of childhood ; encourage good games and active play.
2. The height of the desk seats should be so adjusted as to permit the feet of the pupils to rest easily upon the floor.
3. Require the children to sit erect and never permit a lounging posture. It is a good plan, especially with young children, to have the class stand occasionally, aud, by singing a bright song, or by taking a short exer cise in light gymnastics, fill the lungs with fresh air. This aids the circulation, rests the body, and relieves the mind.

151
4. Do not permit pupils with contagious diseases to remain in school, nor allow them to return till there is no dan ger of spreading the contagion.
5. In case of fainting, keep the body in a horizontal posi tion, provide plenty of fresh air, keep the crowd away, sprinkle water in the face, and loosen tight clothing. Fainting is caused by a sudden weakening of the action of the heart, and is often brought on by breathing im pure air. Keep the head low.
6. If a bone be broken keep the parts still, to prevent in ternal laceration of the flesh by the fractured ends of the bones, and send for a physician, or send the pupil home as comfortably as possible under the care of some of the older pupils. Prohibit dangerous plays.
7. Occasional talks to the class on bathing, the care of the teeth, proper clothing, eating, the evils of tobacco aud strong drink, etc., will be valuable to them in their home life.

>------------------------------------------------>3 < Contrived for a five months
school of forty pupils; tentalive and suggestive merely ; to be modified and adapted as necessary in any public school.
------------------------------------------------ v <

UHadillluj PrirUnPirIrdalmll fIUnIr da fUipufUinI^riIaq PuUniUinIItluljf/ o^pUhlunUnlli
" Order is the Eye of the School Room."

44-----------------------------------------------It aims at intensive classi-
ficatiou, equable advancement in subjects, and a progressive course of study--at approximate gra: ing. ; <-----------------------------------------------

152

TIME TABLES.

CLASSES-

RECITATIONS.

8:00- 8:10

OPENING EXERCISES

I 1st Reader Class.

PROGRAM OF SEAT-WORK OCCUPATIONS.

II

Ill

IV

2d Reader Class. 3d Reader Class. 4th Reader Class.

V 5th Reader Class.

8: U>- 8:25 I 8:25- 8:40 III ....

READING..............

Seat-work as indicn- Seat work in Readted lor 1st R class... ing...................... Grammar................ Arithmetic.............

READING............... Seat work connected

with Reading. See

Branson's Reading Methods.

<1

Inspection of Seat-

work before recita tion......................

it

it

8:40- 8:55 8:55-- 9:15 9:15-- 9:25

II............. TV I..............

READING..............

<<

GRAMMAR

U

M Seat-work inspect! d

<

before

r<e< citation...

Seat-work, Reading. Spelling...................

ARITH. (oral)........ Seat-work inspected (Teacher usesColb'n) before recitation....

<

it

" Grammar.................

R ading..................

*

9:25- 9:35 Ill.....

SPELLING.............. Seat-work in numbers. Teacher uses

Baldwin, Bacon or

White.................. Seat-work in num-

bers. Reference

books as before for

1st R class............ Sevt-work inspected before recitation.

M

*

9:35--10:0 V

GRAMMAR ........... Recess...................... Rec ss...................... Spelling, Written Sentence Building

It

10:00-10:15

MORNING RECESS

10:15--10:35 10:35--10:45

IV and II

V... RF, ADTN^fr A KITH. (01 al).........

Numbers <as

before... Numbers as before... Arithmetic............. Seat-work Inspected before recitation... Ill is being tested on

Reads with class IN.

slates or boards

while II is reciting

10:45--11:00 III.

ARITHMETIC........

M

in Arithmetic...... Arithmetic............. Spelling.

Seat-work in num

bers...................... Test work inspected and recitation......

SI

11:00-11:15 [..............

ARITH. (oral)........ Seat-work inspected before recitation...

M

Further test folio a-

ingiecitation........ IV and V are being

tested on slates or

blackboards while

11:15-11:35 IV and V... A RTTHMF.TTC

Reviewing Seat-work Seat-work in Read

I is reciting.......... Comes up with class

ing as before........ Reading Scho'l-work Test work inspected IV for test.

11:35--11:45 I.

READING............... Seat-work inspected before recitation...

ii

before recitation. Recites ( Review ) Further test in Arth. with class IV........

following recitation History....................

11:45--12:00 [IT, IV, V.. WHITING DRILL.

Recess

12:00- 1:30

NOON RECESS.

1:30- 1:45 Ill 1:45-- 2:00 II ....

READING............... READING...............

Reading Seat-work..

Seat-work in Reading.......................
Seat-work inspected before recitation...

Seat-work inspected before recitation..
Seat-work reading.

Geography <i

..

History.................... 44

2:00- 2:10 I....

READING

..............

Seat-work inspected before recitation..

2:10-- 2:30 IV............ GEOGRAPHY........

I I1

it

44

Geography............ .

Supplementary read-

ing ...................... Supplementary read-

9-30_ 2-40

ll.............. y

ARITH (Oral)......... GF.OGRA P1IY ...

** Dismissed...............

II

14
**

ing.......................
4144

44

3:00-- 3:15

JT

o:ZD-- 0.40

v v

DISMISS.

RF ADING A RTTHMFTfn. HISTORY SPF.I.T.ING

AFTERNOON RECESS. Drawing................. Spelling.................. Arithmetic..............
Dismissed............... <1I

"If you cannot do the besl,>

" do the best possible.,>

I. School work must goon in phy 1. Arithmetic 1, Writing order or in disorder. Educa Drill 1, total 6; 5TH READER tion is largely growth in order CLASS--Reading lesson (with liness of knowledge and action. the 4th Reader class) 1, Spell Make your day's work orderly ing Book lesson 1, Grammar 1, at all hazards. It will be diffi Arithmetic 1, History 1, Geog

THE SCHOOL BE SMALL, ANY INTERVALS SAVED
FROM RECITATIONS IN ANY PERIODS ARE TO BE LEFT FOR INSPECTION OF SEAT-WORK.

the difficulties of both teaching and discipline are minimized at once.
VIII. Reference Book for seat-work directions: Johnson's

cult at first. It will be easier after awhile.
II. Your daily program (1) must distribute your attention equably among your classes, (2) must allow ample work periods between recitations, (3) must provide proper recess intervals so as not to overtax the pupils' power of attention.
III. Distributions of recita tions in this program: 1ST READER CD ASS--Reading lessons 3, number 2, total 5: 2D READER CLASS--Reading

raphy 1, Writing Drill 1, total 7. Grand total (excluding joint recitations and drills), 25.
IV. Note that the Geography and the Grammar books are not in the hands of pupils in Read ing below the 4th; but if the school be small and time allow it HomeGeography (Geographical forms and forces and processes, say) and the plant, animal, and child life of other countries may supply materials for seat-work in language in the 2d and 3d reader classes without Geog. books.

VI. Seat-work directions are to be ORAL, DEFINITE, IN
TERESTING, PROFITABLE, and PROGRESSIVE; must keep mind and fingers busy, in self-educative instruction in
subjects. There is to be no more than the teacher can in spect, be that much or little. The recitation work will be mostly lesson hearing of neces sity ; but in the seat-work direc tions is a chance for real educa tion, because it is the result of self-discovery, self-determina tion and self-efforts by pupils.

Education by Doing, Moore's Seat-work Directions, Bran
son's Reading and Spei.ung Methods, Baldwin's Industrial Arithmetic, Bacon's Arithme tic, Branson's Arithmetic Methods, Frye's Child and Nature, Crocker's Methods in Geography, Trainer's How to
Teach History, White's History Topics, and South worth and Goddard's Outline of Language
Studies (free, Leach, Shewed and Sanborn, N. Y.). Oral Arith. Drills, Colburn's Mental Arith.; Writing Drills. Spence rian Manual, 20c.

lessons 3, number 2, total 5; 3D

READER CLASS--Reading lessons 2, Spelling Book lesson
1, Arith 1, Writing Drill 1, total
5; 4TH READER CLASS-- Reading lesson 1, Spelling Book
lesson 1, Grammar 1, Geogra

V. It is evident that the teacher's mastery of seat-work
occupations is the only solution of the country school problem.
The pupils have plenty of time, if the teacher does not. IE

VII. Settle the problems of definite and varied seat work directions for the 1st, 2d and 3d Reader class in Reading, Spell ing, Forms of English, Num
bers and Nature Studies, and

A page from the Senior Nor mal Training Class instructions in School Organizations. Geor gia Normal and Industrial Col
lege;______________________

I

A32108057328505B