Publications of the Georgia State Department of Agriculture [1898]

THE LIBRARY OF
THE UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA
a
r
lPUBLICATIONS
OF THE
GEORGIA STATE
Department of Agriculture
For the Year 1898
TOGETHER WITH PORTIONS OF OTHER AGRICULTURAL
BULLETINS OF INTEREST TO FARMERS
Volume XXIV
R T NESBITT
COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE
ATLANTA GA STATC UBARy
Geo W Harrison Statb Printer i
The Franklin Printing and Publishing Co
1898
THE GENERAL LIBRARY
THE UNIVERSITY Of C
THE GENERAL LIBRARY
THE UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA
ATHENS GEORGIALIBRARY
MAR 6 1945PREFACE
In accordance with the custom of the Department of Agricult
ure we have compiled some of the publications of the Department
in this the twentyfourth annual volume of the Department To
make the work more valuable to the farmer as a book of reference
we have added such selections from other sources as we think will
be of real interest and importance to those whom it is intended to
benefit Fruits in Georgia have been treated in a succinct form
so as to render it valuable to the fruitgrower Our aim is to make
it eminently practical and useful The copious index has been ar
ranged with a view of assisting the reader and with the contents
of the book will we have no doubt insure the preservation and ap
preciation of the volume
THE GENERAL LIBRARY
THE UNIVERSITY OF
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THE GENERAL LIBRARY
THE UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA
ATHENS GEORGIAfBE
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JANUARY
TOPICS FOE SOIL TILLERS
AGRICULTURAL SECRETARY NESBITT GIVES SOME ADVICE
PLAN TO SOLVE COTTON PROBLEMCOMMISSIONER TELLS
FARMERS NOT TO LAY SCHEMES FOR THE COMING YEAR ON
THE SUPPOSITION OF HIGH PRICES AND A SHORT CROPSAYS
MATTER SHOULD BE LOOKED AT FROM A PURELY BUSINESS
STANDPOINT
Successful farming comprehends more than the mere planting
cultivating and gathering the crops Nor is it the ability to pro
duce a large yield from a small area This is often done at a heavy
loss The successful farmer looks into all the details of his work
He studies the requirements of his different crops that is the food
elements required and the proper proportions of each He also
studies his different soils and carefully notes their elements of
fertility He ascertains the relations of the proposed crops to the
stored fertility of the soil In selecting his fertilizers he keeps in
mind these three points The needs of the crop the ability of his
land to meet these needs and the elements required in the fertilizer
to supply deficiencies of needed plant food in the different fields
which he expects to cultivate These are questions of as much per
haps of greater importance than the amount of the crops produced
or their value in the market and unlike the rest they can only be
decided by experiment and experience That certain fertilizers
should be used for certain crops no one at the present day doubts
but we will gain an accurate knowledge on these points not by an
analysis of the soil nor by an analysis of the crop but by observa
tion and experiment
REDUCING THE COTTON AREA
Times have materially changed in the last twentyfive or thirty
years for the farmer as well as for the professional man and for
6 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
other men of all trades The farmers constitute perhaps the only
class which has not changed with changed conditions Here and
there we find among them a man who has risen to the demands of
the times but as a rule the great body of farmers are pursuing the
same beaten track which their fathers have always followed re
gardless of the fact that from our exhaustive system of agriculture
the very structure of our soils even has undergone a radical
change and that these soils now require different treatment from
that which they have received in the past These are times
of such fluctuating prices and close margins that it pays the farmer
to do his own planning in these matters and to use his brains and
judgment as to what where and how much he shall plant of dif
ferent crops in order to get the best returns for his investment of
time labor implements stock and land The experience of the
past few years will do much to throw light on these questions It
lias been proven by repeated efforts that farmers are not easily or
ganized they do not folly appreciate the impartance of united
effort for selfprotection Another difficulty in the way of con
trolling the area in cotton is the fact that for generations we have
been studying the habits and peculiarities of this our money crop
and it is the one crop which we know how to grow It has always
been our money crop and we hesitate to engage in experimental
work on other lines
It seems to us however that the solution of this much discussed
problem is a very simple one and the plan if universally followed
will once and for all set at rest the question of how much cotton
the South can afford to raise The answer is as much as she can
produce after she has provided for full barns and smokehouses
for plenty of home supplies from field orchard garden poultry
yard and dairyand has thus learned the oft repeated lesson of
living at home and working on a cash basis to pay as you go and
go as you pay
We must adapt ourselves to the changed conditions which we
meet on every hand and this cannot be done by any very sudden
or very radical reforms Over a very large area cotton must re
main the chief money crop To abandon its culture and trust toANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 7
some other perhaps unfamiliar crop would be the height of folly
but we must not load our agricultural ship to the gunwales with
cotton bales and then expect to escape disaster when unfavorable
conditions arise
THE USE OF FERTILIZERS
We have always maintained that the wonderful power of com
mercial fertilizers is but faintly comprehended by those whose mis
fortune it has been to misapply them A thoughtful man cannot
expect to improve his land with commercial fertilizers alone The
common practice of drilling in 100 or 200 pounds to the acre on
land destitute of humus is a grave mistake and has proven a curse
rather than a blessing But when we fill the land with humus
by turning under vegetable matter by careful rotation of crops by
making and taking proper care of all the home manures possible and
by the use of leguminous crops we will find that the profitable use
of commercial fertilizers will be limited only by the amount of
money we are able to invest in them The intelligent use of
fertilizers enables one to plow deep to plant renovating crops to
raise and improve stock and keep more of it to make 100 per cent
more of home manures and to double the producing capacity of
hibor now our most expensive item Injudicious and careless
methods are worse than useless Unless intelligent forethought
marks our plans the fertilizer fails to feed either the crop or the
land Nothing is more dangerous to the crops or more depleting
to the farmers pocket than heavy amounts of commercial fertilizer
indiscriminately applied to worn and exhausted soils
PLANS FOR THE YEAR
The farmer should lay his plans for the year with careful fore
thought not overrating advantages nor underestimating difficul
ties Having thus mapped out his work he is better prepared to
take advantage of every favorable opportunity to push it forward
to completion Look at the question of8 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
HOW MUCH COTTON TO PLANT
from a purely business standpoint Dont make your plans on the
supposition of a short crop and high pricesboth of which are
subject to a score of deciding influences of which we have no
knowledge and which are also practically beyond our control
Consider what have been your profits or losses in the past and the
causes leading up to such results Calculate as to what with
favorable seasons will be a fair yield set aside an ample area for
all provision crops and then put in just so much cotton as your
experience shows that you can manage successfully Dont bur
den yourself with a cotton crop so heavy that it is a continual
menace not only to your peace of mind but to the successful car
rying through of other farm operations
The importance of
GOOD PLOWING
cannot be overestimated The quality of the land situation en
vironment all should exercise a deciding influence as to the time
to plow the depth to be broken and the kind of plow to use On
ordinary land the plowing may go on as long as the weather per
mits and if a subsoiler follow each turn plow we are taking long
odds against injury from drouth next summer By a subsoiler is
meant not the double turn plow which will throw a quantity of
clay to the surface but the long sharp strictly subsoil plow which
breaks the subsoil in the bottom of the furrow and leaves it there
In turning stubble sod or stiff land turn each furrow only partly
over By this plan the frosts act more directly upon the vegeta
ble matter and other elements and when the subsequent prepara
tions for planting are completed this vegetable mold is thoroughly
mixed with the soil instead of remaining in a layer at the bottom
of the furrow
GATHER AND SAVE HOME MANURES
When the weather does not permit the plows to run the teams
cannot be better employed than in gathering up all fertilizing maANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 189S 9
tcrials which have accumulated around yards and barn If not
convenient to compost it is better to haul and spread directly on
the land rather than allow their valuable elements to be wasted by
alternate freezing and thawing or by the washing of winter rains
Tor many reasons the homemixing of fertilizers is to be greatly
preferred The expense is reduced we know exactly what ele
ments of plant food we are using we can regulate the propor
tionate amounts of each to suit the needs of special crops or indif
ferent soils and during the process we are led to shidy more care
fully the delicate adjustment of such agricultural truths as are
thus brought under our observation
E T NESBITT
Commissioner
EEPLIES TO INQUIRIES
INFORMATION FURNISHED BY THE AGRICULTURAL DEPART
MENTMANY QUESTIONS ARE ANSWEREDBEST VARIETIES
OF COW PEAS FOR HAYBEET SUGAR CULTIVATIONTHE
PROPAGATION OF PEACHTREE3 CAUSE OF DISEASE IN
CHICKENSFERTILIZERS FOR POTATOES AND CABBAGES ETC
VALUE OF LEAVES AS MANURE
QUESTION
In putting leaves in a stable for bedding do they add anything
to the manurial value of the mass or are they simply used as an
absorbent for the liquid and solid animal manures
ANSWER
cs Leaves alone possess considerable manurial value as is shown
in the improvement of the crops on land which has had a heavy
coating of leaves plowed under and as a bedding for stable pur
poses they are not excelled They not only add their own ele
ments of fertility to the manure but hold its valuable constituents
preventing their escape and enabling the farmer to save them to
apply to his crops Nothing pays better than to use the teams on
wet days when other farm work is interrupted to haul up a plenti10
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
ful supply of leaves On farms where this is the rule throughout
the year we hear little complaint of poor crops and high priced
fertilizers Successful farming depends more on good manage
ment and care in such small items as this than on planting large
areas A small farm made rich with all the home manures which
can be saved supplemented with commercial fertilizers and legu
minous crops will not only be more satisfactory but will bring in
more actual cash than a large one cultivated on the plan of taking
off more from the land than we return to it After a while the an
nual decrease in fertility will become painfully apparent and then
the farmer has either to slowly and painfully retrace his steps and
return to his land the elements of which he has robbed it or the
money lender comes in to gradually absorb land house home
everything
LEAVING MANURE IN THE STABLE
QUESTION
I am situated so that it will be very inconvenient for me to either
haul out the manure from my stables or compost it Will it injure
my stock to allow it to remain in the stables for a month or two
provided I am very careful to keep plenty of dry bedding If
this plan is practicable I will avoid one handling and of course
that much trouble and expense
ANSWER
While our experience has been that it is much better to haul the
manure directly to the field or to compost it not allowing it to ac
cumulate in the stables the plan you suggest lias some advantage
and if you arc careful to keep a bountiful supply of good bedding
your animals will not be materially injured
By your plan as you suggest you will save one handling You
will also save all the liquid manure You will make much more
manure because you will be compelled to use a much larger
amount of bedding You will also preserve the manure in good
condition and when you are ready to haul it out which ought to
be done long enough before planting time to get the manure fhorANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 11
oughly incorporated into the soil you will find that its chemical
properties have heen well conserved and that its mechanical con
dition is such that the spring rains will soon wash its strength into
the soil A good plan before beginning to haid is to take a sharp
spade or other suitable implement and cut the manure into blocks
of convenient size to handle This will be found to greatly expe
dite the moving and hauling of the heavy mass
QUESTION
Please give me some idea of the advantages of silage over other
food for stock Is it suited to horses and mules I have never
had any experience in making or using it but if what I hear of it
is true I would like to try some another year Please give me
some directions as to the best way of putting it up and the best
crops to plant for it Do you think it pays for the trouble and
expense
ANSWER
Silage is eaten by all farm animals but is peculiarly fitted for
milk cows It pays because it enables us to put up a green sum
mer crop and keep it in condition for feeding all winter and it pro
duces nearly equal results as if fed green Animals fed on silage
not only relish it but it will produce as much milk and butter or
even more than the same kind of fodder in the dry stage because
the stock will have better appetites than if fed entirely on the dry
food and are consequently more thrifty One acre in corn will
produce as much nutritious food as several acres in hay Thus it
is cheaper than hay and has besides the following advantage It is
a practically certain crop while hay is uncertain As the propec
time to harvest any green crop for ensilage is at maturity before
the leaves turn brown just when the water contents of the plant
begin to diminish it follows that there is very little loss of quan
tity in preserving it as silage while the best part of our dried fod
der is often destroyed by unfavorable weather before we can get
it under shelter Any of the following crops may be used Corn
red clover rye oats wheat sorghum the millets soja beans and12
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
cow peas indeed almost any green crop may be utilized but all
things considered corn pays the best It should be planted very
thick and cut when the ears are well formed The whole plant
is then cut up into short lengths and packed in the silo tramping
down evenly and firmly Unless this precaution is observed that
is should the leaves and bits of stalk be unevenly distributed the
silage will become moldy and unfit for use If there should be
lack of moisture when packing the whole mass will become dry and
moldy This should be remedied by pouring water over the mass
during the process of packing Of course the silo must be abso
lutely water and air tight and the contents after being cured bear
somewhat the same relation to our dry hays and fodders as canned
fruit does to dried fruit
The daily ration is about one cubic foot of silage An experi
enced dairyman says he gives his cows all they will eat from 30
to 50 pounds to each cow and has never experienced any bad re
sults from it A small deep silo is to be preferred Small be
cause a greater depth of silage can be removed each day which is
an advantage in both warm and cold weather In warm weather
there is less loss from spoiling and in cold weather less injury from
freezing The silo should be deep because the greater depth gives
more weight and it is less liable to mold At least 3 inches
should be removed for the daily feeding in order to keep the mass
in good condition On the whole we think the following direc
tions cover the ground for building a well constructed silo and
they are the only kind that pay A carelessly built silo is an ex
travagance a wellmade one is an economy
1 The inside walls should be smooth and as nearly vertical as
possible there should be no uneven edges to prevent the uniform
settling of the contents We have already mentioned that the
silo should be narrow and deep rather than wide and shallow
2 As the moisture from the silage is acid and tends to decay
the wood the inside of the silo should be well protected by a coat
of coal tar applied hot The inside of the silo should be two lay
ers of boards the first horizontal and placed against the studs
Over this place a layer of the tarred paper which can be boughANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893 13
ready prepared and last a layer of smooth dressed boards placed
vertically on close edges
3 The floor may be of stiff clay tramped hard and to make it
smooth close and rat proof a layer of cement is highly recom
mended For ventilation there should be anger holes bored be
tween the studs and openings should be left at the top of the wall
These should be covered with screen wire to keep out rats and mice
4 The studs should be very strong to resist the great pressure
to which they are subjected the foundation should extend below
the first line and should be 18 inches thick the sills should be weli
tarred and should rest on a good foundation bedded in cement or
mortar The roof should be close and should have a dormer win
dow through which to fill the silo
5 The silo should be so constructed and situated as that no
water will fall or drain into it at any time These are the main
points but we would advise that if you are not acquainted with
the principles or practical workings of a silo you examine one
which is properly constructed before attempting to build for your
own use
CAUSE OF DISEASE IN CHICKENS
QUESTION
For several years I have raised comparatively few chickens
though I once prided myself on my success in this line I am
careful as to food and water and my coops are kept clean
but from the several hundred chickens annually hatched out very
few come to maturity most of them dying in the first few weeks
My neighbors are disposed to think that some disease germ has
gained a foothold here and that it is useless for me to attempt td
raise poultry Do you think such can be the case and if so is
there any remedy which I can use to eradicate it
ANSWER
Without a full knowledge of your surroundings and methods it
is difficult to answer your question except on general principles
It is true that disease germs may lurk in poultry houses from year14
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
to year and that thousands of chickens are carried off annually by
these unsuspected agents In such cases the best plan is to tear
down the fowl house and build in an entirely different location as
far removed from the first as possible then give the house a thor
ough whitewashing with lime inside and out in which a consider
able quantity of crude carbolic acid has been mixedsay a teacup
of the acid to each gallon of Kmewash Put in new roosts and
nests and arrange them so that they can be taken out and cleaned
every few weeks In cleaning them a good plan is to carry them
a safe distance from the house brush them over with kerosene and
then apply a lighted match The fire will ran over without injur
ing them and will destroy any lice or mites which may be in
hiding From an experience of several years we have come to the
conclusion that these destructive pests caYry off a greater number
of chickens than actual disease By having movable nests and
roosts which can be taken out in a few moments it is much easier
to give the house a thorough cleaning and one cannot be too careful
to go into every crack and corner A few of these vermin safely
lodged in an unnoticed crack will lay the foundation for millions
of others in a very short time We have found kerosene a splen
did agent for checking them and a common watering pot for
sprinkling into the otherwise inaccessible crevices answers every
purpose The droppings should not be allowed to accumulate and
become a harbor for these myriads of insects which being almost
invisible to the naked eye will accumulate alarmingly before their
presence is even suspected The droppings should be removed
each day and the houses kept scrupulously clean not only to pre
vent vermin but as a sanitary measure Where the droppings are
allowed to accumulate from week to week they give off unwhole
some gases and odors which being inhaled cause many of the
diseases from which our chickens suffer If a layer of plaster or
dry earth is spread on the floor of the coop all the fertilizing prop
erties of the manure are absorbed and fixed and if care is taken to
remove and store it under shelter we have a fertilizer approaching
in composition to guano though not so rich Such manure com
posted with eight or ten times its bulk of rich earth will make a
fertilizer of great value for either field or garden cropsANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 189S 15
Another prolific cause of the fatality among young chickens is
the widespread custom of feeding them on raw cornmeal dough
It should always be cooked Where milk is plentiful we have
found it a good plan to scald the milk and stir into it sufficient meal
to make a soft dough letting it stand on the fire long enough for
the meal to become cooked but not scorched If wheat bran is
convenient it adds very much to the nutriment of the mixture and
this makes a splendid warm feed for the cool spring mornings
when the little chicks often become chilled Besides this they
should be given any table scraps meat fruit or vegetable trim
mings and if sweet milk and clabber can be spared for them they
are of incalculable worth in giving them a vigorous and early
growth A flock of well kept poultry can be made the source of a
steady income and should only enough be raised for home use the
investment pays better than anything else which requires the same
outlay of time and money
TREATMENT OF PEACH ORCHARD WHERE LAST YEARS CROP
FAILED
QUESTION
I gave my peach orchard a moderate fertilizing last year bur
the crop was almost a complete failure I have almost determined
to leave it alone that is without anything further than keeping
down the weeds until I get some return from the fertilizer put on
last year Do you think this would be a good plan
ANSWER
The care of a peach orchard requires the exercise of a good deal
of common sense as well as the judgment gained from experience
and observation and in answering a question like the foregoing
much depends on the condition of the land on which the trees
stand as well as on the age and condition of the trees themselves
If the trees are thrifty and the soil in good condition perhaps you
may another year reap some return from your investment of fertil
izer but the general mistake in fertilizing an orchard is to make the
allowance too small rather than too large And sometimes we16
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
may make a mistake in the kind of fertilizer used For instance
old trees which have been in bearing a number of years do not
need the elements in the same proportions as a young orchard just
coming into bearing The latter will require a larger per cent of
nitrogen while an old orchard which has been well cared for will
require little else than a liberal application of potash with perhaps
a small per cent of phosphoric acid Your orchard should have
been well plowed in the fall turning under all vegetable matter
and it pays better to fertilize at the same time and with a generous
hand The heavier pruning also should have been done in the
fall While careful pruning is absolutely necessary to healthful
and profitable development of the trees it is extremely hazardous
to do any severe cutting after January 1 It is too near the time
for the sap to start and although too much wood is the general mis
take among our orchardists it is too late now to remedy an error
of this kind Severe cutting at this season is not only fatal to the
crop but often to the trees also On the whole we would say if
your orchard is on thin land and is rough and overrun with weeds
and briars and bushes we would certainly clean it off and plow it
if possible giving it a dressing of potash and if the orchard is young
a small application of nitrogen Later on a crop of peas will do
much in the way of humus and nitrogen to encourage a healthy
growth even if the pea crop is harvested and thus you will not
consider that your land is entirely idle though the peach crop
should fail
ARE PEACHE3 REPRODUCED FROM THE SEED
QUESTION
I have had little experience in the propagation of peachtrees
but I can remember when my grandmother always saved and
planted every unusually fine peach which she came across during
the summer Her orchard was mostly from seedlings and I dont
think I ever saw a finer one But I am told now that seedlings
cannot be depended upon to reproduce themselves Is this true
and is there any assigned reason for itANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 189S 17
ANSWER
Formerly in nearly every part of this State there were good
varieties which were kept up from the seed but from neglect and
other causes they have deteriorated and today if we wish to propa
gate a particular variety we must depend on budding and grafting
to produce certainly what we wish The seeds from all cultivated
orchards have a strong tendency to revert to the original wild type
which was very inferior as to size and quality being little more than
a large seed covered with a thin layer of flesh Besides the blos
soms from one tree may be fertilized from those of another and
perhaps different variety and there are always these uncertainties
attending the propagation of a peach from the seed We have
tried the experiment and succeeded in producing a thrifty young
orchard of seedlings from extra fine peaches whose first crop of
fruit proved them without a single exception to be utterly worth
less
DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF COW PEAS FOR DIFFERENT PURPOSES
QUESTION
Please tell me what you consider the best variety of cow peas
for hay also for turning under and for the other uses to whicli
this crop is put Of the 50 odd varieties raised I suppose a good
many possess the same characteristics What I wish to know is the
principal varieties and their uses
ANSWER
The selection of the variety for planting should be determined
by the use for which the crop is designed If a heavy yield of hay
is the principal object the more vigorous and late maturing up
right varieties such as clay unknown and whippnonvill should be
used Of these the unknown is certainly one of the best but if to
be cut for hay shoidd not be planted too early as it finally be
comes so trailing as to be difficult to cut with a machine and it
produces less seed when it has too long a season for growth
If the crop is to be pastured or is to be left to decay through the18
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
winter on the surface of the ground trailing varieties should be
used the unknown black and red ripper being among the best
For this purpose they should be planted as early as possible
For stock peas black clay speckled crowder and unknown have
given us the heaviest yields but if peas are wanted for table use
the large and small lady sugar and buckeye will be among the best
One of the common methods of growing peavines is to plain
them between the rows of corn at the time of giving the last culti
vation In this way a crop is secured which costs absolutely noth
ing except for the seed and sowing and which may be relied upon
for a considerable amount of seed and grazing and at the same
time will make a cheap and effective fertilizer for the succeeding
crop In some cases the peas and corn have been planted at the
same time in alternate hills but we have rarely found the prac
tice economical If running varieties are used they tie cornstalks
together so as to materially reduce the yield of the grain while
if dwarf varieties are used they are so shaded by the corn as to
make but little growth When planted between the rows in June
or July they begin their rapid growth after the corn begins to
ripen and the corn crop is gathered before the vines are large
enough to be troublesome When a crop of peas is grown in
this way it cannot well be cut for hay but will usually make a
good yield of seed and will afford a large amount of most excellent
grazing for either cattle or hogs For such late grazing the black
and the red ripper are among the best varieties as the peas will lie
on the ground a long time without injury
BEET SUGAR
QUESTION
I notice a good deal in the daily papers about the feasibility of
our farmers being successful in the cultivation of beets for sugar
What is your opinion on this subject and would you advise a man
who has suitable land to go into the business of cultivating beets for
marketANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893 19
ANSWER
As suitable land is only one of tlie many requisites for successful
beet culture we would not advise the venture if that is the only
advantage possessed by the owner First and foremost is a suitable
and accessible market then a knowledge of how to prepare for
plant cultivate and sell the crop is absolutely indispensable
Granted these essentials we should be able to produce our own sup
ply of sugar but as with every other new enterprise it is a mistake
to rush in and undertake to carry it through before we are thor
oughly prepared for the work The signs of the times point to
this as a new American industry and as the Louisiana Planter per
tinently says we could reach an immense development of the sugar
industry before we should be compelled by the magnitude of our
home production to accept the price of the world at large At any
rate the American people seem determined to try the experiment
of the beetsugar industry The closeness of the margins in manu
facturing in almost every district leads to the concentration of
much attention in this one industry which seems to promise a
profit to those who engage in it or at least to promise a profit after
the first losses due to bad management shall have been made The
industry is one suited to our soils and climate is legitimate in every
respect and we trust that it will be so encouraged that in time we
will be able to fully supply our home market
DEHORNING
QUESTION
Does dehorning injure the animal very seriously and is it very
painful Would you advise that where a large number of cows
are kept they should be dehorned
ANSWER
It has been conclusively demonstrated that if dehorning is prop
erly done and proper attention given to the animals afterwards
they experience little inconvenience and feel very little pain We
have known whole herds of grown animals dehorned where20
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
scarcely an animal missed a feed and the flow of milk was not per
ceptibly diminished Bnt every precaution was used to give as
little pain as possible and the most approved instruments were used
On the other hand we have seen eattle die from the effects of
cruelty and after neglect The best time for such work is in the
mild weather of spring or fall During hot weather the flies are
troublesome and should be guarded against by smearing tar over
the wounded part In cold weather the cows should be well pro
tected and cared for until they entirely recover from the operation
The best plan of dehorning is to apply a Chemical dehorner to the
button as soon as it appears on the calves which is easily and
cheaply done On no account should one attempt to dehorn u
grown animal until he has previously seen the work properly done
and has the necessary and suitable tools and appliances at hand for
taking off the horns thoroughly and quickly
FERTILIZERS FOR POTATOES
QUESTION
Please give me a good fertilizer for my potatoes and will the
same formula do for my early cabbages
ANSWER
A good fertilizer for potatoes should contain about 12 per cent
of potash 8 per cent of phosphoric acid and 3 per cent of nitro
gen For cabbages 8 per cent of potash 8 per cent of phosphoric
acid and 0 per cent of nitrogen We have here illustrated the
principle that different crops while they require the same ele
ments need these in different proportions Were you to use the
cabbage formula for your potatoes you would perhaps have vig
orous plants with luxuriant foliage and but few tubers The large
amount of ammonia would stimulate a vigorous growth above
ground while the proportion of potash and phosphoric acid is not
sufficient to form any considerable number of potatoes On the
contrary cabbages are gross feeders and require heavy applications
of nitrogen with smaller doses of potash and phosphoric acidANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 21
TIME TO APPLY LIME
QUESTION
Is it too late to apply lime to my land How shall I put it on
and how much to the acre
ANSWER
As a general thing it is best to apply lime in the fall It should
he applied evenly to the surface of the fall plowed land It will
gradually sink into the soil and perform a wonderful work there
To aid in its even distribution on which much of its beneficial
effect depends a harrow should be run lightly over the land
There are exceptional cases in which the application may be made
later For instance if the soil is very sour or if fertilizers without
nitrogen are to be used If nitrogenous fertilizers are to be used
the lime should be applied in the fall The usual rate is from one
to two tons to the acre On very dry sandy soils smaller applica
tions must be made than upon moist ones Other things being
equal the productiveness of the soil is in a measure dependent on
a certain percentage of lime22
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
5558S
FEBRUARY
CORS STALKS FOR CATTLE
FARMERS URGED TO MAKE USE OF THIS VALUABLE FORAGE
MR NESBITT DISCUSSES MATTERTHE COMMISSIONER OF AG
RICULTURE REQUESTS GEORGIA SOIL TILLERS TO GIVE THE
NEW FOOD STUFF A TRIALAS TO THE COTTON ACREAGE
WORK DURING THE PAST MONTH DELAYED BY BAD WEATHER
SHREDDED CORN STALKS
As a matter of much importance to farmers I again call their
attention to the immense value of the corn stalks usually left stand
ing and wasting in the fields when they are shredded and used for
forage I have recently had a conversation with a gentleman who
is now selling all he can make of this forage at 10 a ton in carload
lots and 12 a ton in smaller quantities His experience is that
from li to 2 tons of shredded fodder can he made to the acre ac
cording to the size and number of plants and that a large machine
will cut each day the product from six to twelve acres Of course
in both cases the amount is determined by the quality and yield of
the corn crop It has been ascertained that the larger machines
accomplish more profitable and more satisfactory work than the
smaller ones the stalks being more thoroughly cut and shredded
These machines being portable if one farmer cannot afford the
higher price for the larger machine a combination of farmers can
invest in one and thus by moving from one farm to another the
stalks for a neighborhood may be converted into a wholesome and
nutritive food Or as suggested before one man may own such
a machine and by working all farms in reach during the fall and
winter the entire crop of corn stalks may be shredded without ex
pense to the owners A strange proposition but nevertheless true
because the toll may be paid in kind and is taken from an other
wise worthless product
At the experiment station farm the stripped stalks which had
been left standing on the fields until January were hauled up andANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 189S 23
Bhredded The product was not only readily eaten by the farm
animals but upon analysis was found to contain more nutriment
than an equal amount of the cottonseed hulls now so popular as
stock food The shredded fodder has this additional advantage
over the hulls it is much more relished by horses and mules as
well as cattle and there is not the same precaution necessary in
feeding it It is well known by those who feed cottonseed hulls
that there is danger of its becoming compacted if fed in too large
quantities and that it is always safer to mix it with other more
concentrated food stuffs
The utilization of such a tremendous quantity of forage will
enable us not only to raise more and better cattle and farm stock
for home use but will give an impetus to stock raising for export
There is a growing demand from the west for southern cattle
and with this enormous addition to our food stuffs a comparatively
large number of beeves may be successfully raised to meet this
market without drawing too heavily upon the other resources of
the farm Thus will be opened a new source of income for the
Soxith and also the foundation be laid for a direct exportation to
Europe of thousands of Southern raised beeves We have every
advantage of climate and transportation and once the business gets
a firm foothold we can scarcely compute its benefits to the South
Our superior situation and environment will give us an immense
leverage over our western competitors This plan of shredding
and utilizing the otherwise useless corn stalks is growing in favor
each clay and the time is coming when the shredded fodder will be
as much an article of commerce as the popular cottonseed hulls
once considered equally worthless
THE COT I OX ACREAGE
We have no new arguments to offer on this subject on which
hangs the prosperity not of the farmers only but of the whole
South and we may say of the country at large In the successful
and profitable handling and marketing of our cotton crop by farm
ers buyers manufacturers and others we include a very large per
cent of our national population and therefore the decision of the
farmers as to how much cotton they will undertake to raise in 9824
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
is a matter of almost as much importance to the whole country as
to themselves This decision to some extent affects present con
ditions also for as soon as it becomes known that a large crop is to
be planted the price either continues depressed or falls lower
whereas if a reduced area is decided on prices and the general
cotton trade show a favorable tendency In our inquiry column
are some very pertinent questions as to the cotton situation and the
conditions of supply and demand We have endeavored to answer
them fully and clearly and to emphasize what we have so often
repeated in these columns that the farmers individually must con
trol this matter Xo convention or set of resolutions however in
telligent the former or forcible the latter seems powerful enough
to cope with it Each farmer must study the question for himself
and must decide not how much cottonhe can raise but how
much he can raise profitably When this is done and when each
man sets aside a sufficient area for abundant home supplies it will
be found that a reduction of the cotton area is a foregone conclu
sion Profitable cotton production hinges on home supplies and by
that term we do not mean plain bread and meat but plenty of poul
try eggs milk butter fruit and vegetables as well In our cli
mate all can be produced at little cost and in greatest abundance
But if a man overburdens himself with an expensive cotton crop
lie has no time to attend to these socalled minor crops and when
the cotton is gathered and sold ten chances to one he will have no
money to buy necessary food much less the articles of comfort
and even luxury which he could have produced on his farm at a
scarcely appreciable cost Our past experience has made the
facts plain but the certainty of a cash market for cotton and rl 1
uncertainty of being able to sell a surplus of any other crop has
tempted the large body of farmers to continue to plant big crops
of cotton and to take the chances of selling them for enough to
buy needed supplies implements etc The cheapness at which
we can produce all food crops should forever set at rest tins ques
tion of home supplies Our mistaken policy on this point ami the
crowding of the cotton market has reduced our income from that
source millions and millions of dollars and when to this is added
short food supplies our condition is deplorable indeedANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893 25
WORK FOR THE MONTH
Bad weather has somewhat delayed farm work although in many
sections farmers have taken advantage of the bright days to push
forward preparations for another crop February is the best aver
age month for sowing spring oats If the soil is thin make it rich
by manures or fertilizers Oats will not do well on poor land any
more than other crops but with the same care and plant food that
we give other crops they often make far better returns and there
is no better stock food known to Southern farmers Whenever
the ground is dry enough the regular field plowing should go on
Dont plow when the land is too wet This is a mistake which it
often requires years to repair Use a subsoiler wherever possible
its good effects will be noticeable when our long summer drouth
sets in Clover and grass may be sown Both require thorough
preparation and high manuring In the southern part of the
State all the earlier vegetables may be planted and it is in this
month that the general Irish potato crop is planted For various
reasons the eastern crop was a failure last year Brices are ruling
high and will no doubt continue fair For this reason a Southern
crop which can be forced on the market early would pay It
would be well however to study the markets and not wait until
the crop is ready before making any arrangements to dispose of it
Complete your arrangements before hand dont leave anything to
chance Many of our farmers know how to raise potatoes success
fully but not all of these know how to market them profitably
Jeff Wellborn says we can grow them much cheaper here than
they do at the Worth and if the seed used are from the fallgrown
crop they will come on much earlier He has raised eight crops
fall and spring in four years on the same land without a change
of seed and each year the potatoes have improved in quality and
quantity After the spring crop is taken off he sows the land in
early maturing peas When these are taken off the land is in fine
condition for the fall crop and thus he gets three crops off the
same area The land after the peas is thoroughly prepared and
he gets about 160 bushels of potatoes without any other fertilizer
than the peas If the ground has been well broken and the plant26
DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
ing properly managed a very shallow cultivation is all that is nec
essary In field crops just as the plants begin to break the ground
it is well to run a harrow across the rows to break the crust Do
not run a deep furrow near the rows Keep the patch free from
weeds For the northern markets ship in 11peck potato barrels
instead of sacks they keep better and are more attractive in appear
anceboth of which add to the price
R T NESBITT
Commissioner
SOME COTTON STATISTICS
YIELD AND PRICES DURING THE PAST FEW YEARSFIGURES
FOR FARMERS
QUESTION
What were the total cotton crops for 189596 and 189697 and
their average price and as far as known what has been the crop
and the price for 189798
ANSWER
The cotton crop for 189596 official figures was 7157346
bales and the average price was 809 cents per pound The crop
of 189697 was 8757964 bales and the average price was 742
cents per pound Up to January 1 1898 7260033 bales have
been marketed and the average price was 605 cents per pound
By comparing this with the receipts up to January 1 1897 we find
that there was up to January 1 1898 marketed 861841 bales
more than to January 1 1897 We also find that owing to the
difference in price although there was such a large excess of bales
the farmers of the South have lost 54305046a striking Com
mentary on large crops and low prices It is almost beyond belief
that the cotton crop which is virtually a monopoly and which
should be a means of independence is surely becoming the cause
of general depression and povertyANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893 27
LIOE AND MITES ON POULTRY
QUESTION
I live in the southern part of the State and owing to the climate
I suppose our poultry is much troubled with mites and lice I am
careful about keeping the coops clean but in spite of this these
vermin seem to multiply very rapidly How shall I destroy them
ANSWER
The coops should be thoroughly whitewashed inside and out with
a limcwash in which has been mixed crude carbolic acid Every
part of the roosts should be brushed over with kerosene old nests
removed and all litter burned up An experienced poultry raiser
says the easiest plan to get rid of the pests on the fowls themselves
is the following Fill a five gallon oil can about twothirds full
of warm water and add about one ounce of carbolic acid Select
a clear bright morning and dip each fowl bodily into the bath
covering every part Hold it up to drip a few seconds and then
turn it loose In an hour they will be dry and free from living
lice
THE SUGAR BEET INDUSTRY
QUESTION
Please tell me something about the cultivation of sugar beets
the method cost preparation for market kind of soil snitable etc
How are the factories in this country succeeding Is the sugar
of good quality and is the crop one which can be cultivated at the
South How much do manufacturers pay for them
ANSWER
As yet the sugar beet industry in this country is in its infancy
and we have to depend on the experience of others for enlighten
ment on the points on which you request information The follow
ing is from a man of large experience both in this country and in
Europe and what he says on sugarbeet culture is reliable and valu28
DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
able He says the soil should be good The crop will not pay if
planted on poor ground or on muck land or on land which has not
good drainage or if the soil is not in a good state of cultivation
The cost of raising an acre of beets is too high for them to be grown
on poor land The success of this industry is in the hands of the
farmer and not in the hands of the manufacturers Xo matter
how perfect the machinery or how economically a factory is man
aged if the beets are brought to the factory not in proper condition
the expenses are doubled and the farmer is docked which means
loss of time general discouragement and want of success to both
manufacturer and planter The beets when delivered at the fac
tory should be cut off flat at the root of the leaves so that none of
the green top is left This is absolutely necessary in order to make
a good standard of sugar Every beet of which the green juice o f
the leaves is mixed with the beet juice proper is an obstacle to
crystallizing the sugar and every drop of that green juice must he
eliminated before the white granulated stigar can be manufac
tured All the fertilizing properties of the beets are contained in
the tops and the farmer meets with a double loss if he carries them
to the factory instead of cutting them off and leaving them ou his
land He is docked 8 or 10 per cent at the factory and wastes
the valuable fertilizing properties of the tops which are thrown
away i
METHOD OF CULTIVATING SUGAR BEETS
The rows should he 18 or 20 inches apart the plants thinned
but to stand 5 or 6 inches in the row Do not wait until the young
beets are surrounded by weeds but cultivate with the hoe as soon
as the plants can be seen The thinning should be done as soon as
the plants have two to four leaves After this keep the weeds and
grass down by the horse hoe cultivating often to loosen the earth
around the plants and give air to the roots As the cultivation is
very expensive no chance should be neglected which will help to
make as large a crop as possible If weeds and grass are allowed
to grow they will take up the strength of the soil which should
he used to makethe beets The rows should not be further thanANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893 29
20 inches apart If wider than this the beets will be larger but
will not yield as much in weight per acre and besides what the
sugar manufacturer wants is small beets from 1 to 2J pounds in
weight These are more profitable to handle and have also a higher
percentage of sugar and less water than the larger sizes
COST OF CULTIVATING AN ACRE OF SUGAR BEETS
Preparation of land plowing and harrowing 2 00
Extra harrowing before putting in seed 50
Tilling and rolling 1 50
Gleaning between the rows with hand hoe 3 00
Thinning out and resetting plants to stand 5 or 6 inches
and cleaning between rows 6 00
Cleaning with horse hoe 75
Cleaning with horse hoe and slightly hilling up 75
Taking out weeds near the beets which horse hoe has left 1 25
Pulling up topping putting the beets in small heaps and
covering with leaves 6 00
Loading and hauling to market estimating 12 tons to the
acre at 50 cents per ton a distance of 6 miles 6 00
27 75
The 12 tons at 400 per ton would be48 00
Cost of cultivating as above 27 75
20 25
In this account labor is estimated at 125 a day and no allow
ance is made for fertilizers or cost of seed The United States
Department of Agriculture estimates the cost per acre for the first
few years at from 40 to 50 per acre though in many instances
it will fall below these figures The cost varies so with varying
conditions that it is impossible to give an estimate which will suit
every locality The price paid at the factory is from 4 to 5 per
ton according to quality and the yield is from 10 to 20 tons per
acre The best fertilization for beets is secured by a heavy applica80
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
tion of homemade manure on a previous crop The first run of
beet sugar in Xew York State was made the past month and the
product was smooth grained white and sweet There are other
factories springing up over the country and there are eight already
in successful operation Professor Massey says I was struck
with the identity so far as cultivation is concerned of the sugar
beet culture and that of cotton I fully believe that the negroes
who are accustomed to the cultivation and thinning of cotton
would make the best of hands in the beet field T believe that we
can grow the beets as well as they can in Xcbraska and grow them
more cheaply He says also that our cotton sweep as a cultiva
tor beats all the variety of tools that he saw used for beet cultiva
tion Land for beets should always be prepared very deeply
Subsoiled if possibleANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893
31
MARCH
FARMERS SHOULD NOT BE FOOLED
SUDDEN RISE IN COTTON PRICE IS ONLY A SNARENESBTTTS
WARNING NOTECOMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE EXPOSES
THE OLD GAME THAT IS BEING PLAYED TO INDUCE PLANT
ING OF A BIG CROPAN APPEAL FOR DIVERSIFICATION AND
SMALLER AREA
COTTON
It is to be hoped that no sensible farmer will be misled into the
oft repeated mistake of planting a ruinously heavy cotton crop by
the recent expected and predicted rise in the cotton market Surely
that game has been played often enough and we have learned its
meaning
Concentration should always be the watchword among farmers
that is the aim should be to cultivate only so much land as we can
thoroughly manage and from which we can obtain the largest yield
at the smallest cost But just now it is even more important than
usual that we do not waste our time and money and weaken our
strength by spreading out our farm operations over a larger area
than we can do justice to or than will pay expenses Cotton plant
ing time is fast approaching and the price of cotton has advanced
more than half a cent This is the usual program and at this
hopeful season of the year many an otherwise sensible man who
has resolved on better plans sees in this improved price reason for
breaking his good resolutions Instead of apportioning a fair
amount of his land and time and labor to cotton and the remainder
to the comforts and independences of farm life he resolves to try
the allcotton plan again another year and trust to luck or his time
account with his merchant for the balance By allcotton we
do not mean that he will be so foolish as to actually plant his whole
farm in cotton but that he will give his main energies and his best
lands to this crop How many a man is now taking this step thus
preparing for a hand to hand struggle against desperate odds fm32
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
start to finish In his case the minor crops which mean so much
to family comfort as well as to family income must necessarily be
reduced or altogether abandoned The vegetable garden the or
chard the dairy the smokehouse the poultry yard all must suffer
while the staple provision crops corn wheat oats potatoes cane
all must in a measure give place to the predominating allabsorb
ing daily struggle for an increased number of cotton bales This
course is simply playing into the hands of the spinners The cer
tainty of a big cotton crop will not only prevent any considerable
rise in present prices but will tend to keep the market depressed
while any indication that the farmers are determined on a reduced
area would at once send prices up Cannot farmers realize that
they hold the key to their own prosperity and that success the
coining year lies only in a smaller cotton crop and ample provisions
for man and beast The little experience of the past year and the
alarms now being sounded from one end of the South to the other
should surely warn him of his danger For his own sake and for
the prosperity of the country at large we trust the warning will be
heeded before it is too late
WHAT OUR CROPS NEED
Our crops need three main elements nitrogen phosphoric acid
and potash Different crops take up these elements in different
proportions but there is no crop that we grow which does not re
quire them in greater or less degree
WHAT OUR LANDS NEED
The crying need of most of our lands is humus that is decaying
vegetable matter by which we enable the crops to appropriate the
three needed chemical elements to the best advantage
HOW SHALL WE OBTAIN THESE
The all important humus must be supplied from the farm itself
in the form of stable manures composts by plowing under the
various forms of vegetable and animal matter which accumulate
from year to year and last but not least by leguminous cropsANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 189S
33
These when properly managed perform three important offices
They gather the unused nitrogen from the air deposit it in the
soil and also help to unlock the stores of potash and phosphoric
acid lying dormant in most subsoils They furnish a crop rich in
food constituents When this is taken off the land what is left
of stubble and roots lays a foundation for the humus which every
experienced farmer knows is the factor above all others which
makes successful farming possible Having by such means ob
tained the necessary humus and nitrogen it remains for us to secure
needed potash and phosphoric acid These may be supplied in
part by deep fall plowing bringing up a little of the subsoil going
deeper each year and by the frequent and fine pulverization of the
soil during cultivation both of which enable it to hold moisture
and thus convert its elements to the use of growing crops If
when the leguminous crops are planted they are given the necessary
amount of phosphoric acid and potash for their best development
say 200 to 400 pounds to the acre not only will their nitrogen
powers be increased but when the stubble and roots are plowed in
much of these mineral elements will remain and be just in right
condition to be taken up by the following crop This is the most
economical and at the same time the most profitable plan for our
worn soils Commercial fertilizers when used alone on such lands
act only as a temporary stimulus The rotation which legumi
nous crops require will gradually lead to the diversified farming so
much to be desired Diversified intensive rotating and economical
farming is what Georgia and the South so sorely need
K T NESBITT
Commissioner
INQUIRIES AND ANSWERS
STATE AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT FURNISHES
INFORMATION
QUESTION
I notice what you say in the February report about making use
jf the cornstalks which have been wasted heretofore Please give34
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
us a little more information on this subject After the stalks are
shredded how is the fodder kept and what is its feeding value
Can it be fed to farm stock without using any other roughage
and is there any trouble in getting them to eat it
ANSWER
After the stalks are shredded the fodder may be kept in the
barn or any dry place until needed for use taking care not to dis
turb the mass for no matter how dry it may seem there is at first
sufficient moisture to cause a slight fermentation and if the fodder
is disturbed during this fermentation mold is apt to appear The
feeding value of this fodder has been shown by analysis to be
greater than cottonseed hulls and nearly equal to the best quality
of timothy hay At the Experiment Station farm in this State
this forage has been thoroughly tested It has been used there for
weeks at a time as the only roughage to the manifest benefit of
the farm animals and they eat it readily On the subject of Corn
stalk Hay we copy the following from Bulletin Xo 36 of the
Georgia Experiment Station These bulletins are sent free to
every farmer who applies for them and we would advise you to
address a card to Director R J Redding Experiment Ga re
questing that your name be put on the mailing list You will then
receive all the literature of the station as it is issued Bulletin
No 34 says
In Bulletin No 30 containing the results of Experiments in
Corn Culture made in 1895 the attention of farmers was especially
called to the advantages of the method of utilizing the cornstalks
for stock food It is the almost universal practice in the South
to gather and cure the blades and harvest the ears of corn leaving
the entire stalks in the field to prove an almost unmitigated
nuisance and obstruction in the preparation and cultivation of the
land in the succeeding crop and winter homes and hibernating re
treats for insects that will be ready to attack such crops especially
if it shall be another crop of corn Farmers have habitually con
sidered this large part of the crop as of no practical value Indeed
cornstalks especially of the large types of corn planted in theANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 189S
35
South are of little available food value because of the mechanical
condition Even in the North the old method of feeding the
stalks stover without any mechanical preparation was but little
less wasteful and slovenly than leaving them in the fields But
the use of machinery for preparing the cornstalks shredding them
into a coarse hay is rapidly extending A number of very effect
ive machines may now bs had at moderate prices that will convert
the hard flinty stalks into a soft easily masticated substance very
similar in mechanical condition to coarse hay that is readilyeven
greedilyeaten by horses mules and cattle
In Bulletin No 30 already referred to the whole subject was
discussed at some length showing by experiments made and by
analysis that the value of the naked stalks that are generally left in
the field after harvesting the ears shucks and blades amounts to
fully onesixth of total value of the crop
Bulletin No 36 published last fall says further on this subject
The station has just finished shredding the cornstalks from five
acres of corn The crop was very much injured by the extreme
beat and drouth and the yield of grain was cut off at least 25 per
cent The corn was cut down just above the surface of the ground
August 23 and immediately shocked placing about 150 stalks in
each shock and tying the top of each shock with twine No rain
fell on the shocks and the ears were husked out October 3 and the
stalks immediately run through the shredding machine being ap
parently perfectly dry The yield of the five acres was as follows
Shelled corn 155 bushels
Shredded stalks or stover14000 pounds
This represents a yield per acre of 31 bushels of shelled corn and
2800 pounds of dry corn hay which is believed to be very nearly
equal in feeding value to good timothy hay In the above total
yield of corn hay is included the blades and shucks which are
almost universally saved and utilized by Georgia farmers But
there are also included in the 2800 pounds of corn hay about 1300
pounds of the stalks which are usually permitted to remain on the
ground and nonutilized as food This 1000 pounds represents
the food loss for every 31 bushels of shelled corn The corn crop
THE GENERAL LIBRARY
THI UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA
ATHENS GEORGIA
THE GENERAL LIBRARY
HE UNIVERSITY OF GEOR
STATE LIBRARY GIFT 19336
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA

of Georgia for convenience may be stated at 31000000 bushels
sometimes less often more Then at 1300 pounds of corn hay
heretofore not saved for every 31 bushels of corn the total loss in
the State would be 1300 pounds by 1000000 equals 1300 mil
lion pounds or 650000 tons of corn hay a very good food and
worth at least 10 a ton or a total of 0500000 or about enough
to pay for all the commercial fertilizers used in Georgia in one
year This may be considered a remarkable statement and it will
no doubt surprise many a farmer who has not thought about it
I have replied to your question thus at length because there is
scarcely a subject of more importance to the farmers just now
The universal practice of shredding the cornstalks means a saving
of millions of dollars
FERTILIZER FOR CORN
QUESTION
What are the best proportions in a commercial fertilizer for
corn and how at what time and in what amount would you ap
ply it
ANSWER
All things considered the best fertilizer on our ordinary lands
for corn should be in about the following proportion Cottonseed
meal 1000 lbs acid phosphate 1000 lbs muriate potash 50 lbs
or 200 lbs of kainit may be substituted for the muriate of potash
On lands almost destitute of humus that is which have been culti
vated and recultivated in clean crops we would not venture to use
more than two or three hundred pounds to the acre applied just be
fore or at planting time The corn crop more perhaps than any
other is dependent on a supply of moisture for its best development
and it has been found that the direct application of commercial fer
tilizers does not result as well as where these have been applied to a
previous crop provided the application be sufficiently heavy
If the fertilizer has been broadcast as for oats or peas the succeed
ing com crop is usuallyvery satisfactory although fine crops of
corn are often made after a heavily fertilized cotton crop As aANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893 37
rule any formula which will analyze 700 per cent phosphoric
acid 130 per cent potash and 340 per cent nitrogen is suited to
corn
LATE SPRING OATS
QUESTION
I have a piece of land which I think will make a good crop of
oats but I am in doubt about planting it so late Would the first
of March be too late to sow it down And what kind of seed would
you advise me to use
ANSWER
In southern Georgia the first of March is rather late to sow
oats but in your section North Georgia if a quicklymaturing va
riety like the Burt is planted on rich or well fertilized land the
ohances for a satisfactory crop are good The great drawback to
our oat crop is want of care in preparation and seeding coupled
with the fact that we generally plant our oats on our poorest land
In sowing oats at this season our object should be to force the crop
forward to a quick maturity To do this plant the Ninety Day
or Burt seed on land naturally rich or made so by rotation and
manure If the land has been previously well broken and the
oats are harrowed in so much the better But if time is too press
ing for this then clear off the land sow the oats about a bushel to
the acre and plow the seed in running the furrows close and deep
FERTILIZING COTTON
QUESTION
Please tell me how the elements in a commercial fertilizer affect
cotton I mean what influence do the separate elements nitrogen
phosphoric acid and potash have on the growth of the plant Of
course every man who plants cotton would rather have bolls than
stalks or leaves I know the probable effects of certain qualities
of soil on the cotton plant What I want to know is the separate
effect of each ingredient in the fertilizer so that I may more
clearly understand how to apportion my fertilizer to suit my dif33
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA

ferent kinds of landin other words to induce the development
of wellformed and wellfilled bolls
ANSWER
Nitrogen makes weed or stalk it also has a tendency to prolong
the period of growth If there is an excess of nitrogen it often
causes the plant to form stalk and leaves late in the season when
it should be developing fruit Phosphoric acid tends to force ma
turity and develop fruit Potash will give strength and vigor to
the stalk It enters largely into the lint and if in the form of
kainit tends to lessen liability to rust The fruitforming element
is phosphoric acid Nitrogen makes stalk and foliage Potash
gives strength to the plant and develops the lint
PROPER DISTANCE FOR PLANTING CORtf
QUESTION
Would not a larger yield be realized from the same land if the
corn crop was planted in double rows on wide beds instead of single
rows on narrow beds
ANSWER
Experiments have been carefully conducted to settle this ques
tion and the conclusion arrived at is that the more nearly each
plant occupies the center of a square area of soil the greater the
yieldthat is all conditions being equal single rows 4x3 will
yield more than double rows 2x6 One plant in each hill the
hills equidistant gave better results than two planted to the hill
separated by longer distances
HENS LAYING SOFT OR THIN SHELLED EGGS
QUESTION
Some of my hens are laying eggs with soft or very thin shells
I cannot account for this as they have plenty of lime and grit in
reach and are in splendid condition Please tell me if there is any
remedy for thisANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893
39
ANSWER
Perhaps the trouble is that your hens are in too fine condition
Hens which are too fat often lay such eggs Try softer rations
and a little Epsom salts every other day This may be given in the
drinking water Let them have green food and plenty of lime40
DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
APRIL
NESBITT SOUNDS WARNING NOTE
AGRICULTURAL COMMISSIONER ON UNWIELDLY AREASPLAN
IS NOT PROFITABLETHE DANGER OF PLOWING OVER MORE
LAND THAN YOU CAN CULTIVATE THOROUGHLYDEEP PREP
ARATION ENABLES CROPS TO SUCCESSFULLY RESIST DROUTH
DONT TRY TO CULTIVATE TOO MUCH LAND
Department or Agriculture
Atlanta Ga April 1 1898
The exceptionally dry and open winter lias enabled industrious
farmers in all sections to be well advanced with their work Tor
this reason some may have been tempted to plow over more land
than they will be able to thoroughly cultivate during the coming
season To these we would say repair this error right nowdont
wait until you are overcropped and struggling vainly against gra
and accumulated work and worry to find out your mistake It is
better to abandon part of the land even after it is planted and
bring the remainder to the highest point of cultivation than fco en
danger the entire crop by a too large area which must be hur
riedly and imperfectly cultivated A farmer should be able to
get around his crops at least every ten days or two weeks a longer
interval than this means risk and often irreparable injury April
has become the great cotton planting month in Georgia Of late
years the planting of this crop has been gradually delayed from
a later to a later date Farmers are beginning to more fully
realize the importance of thorough preparation and that any
reasonable delay in planting is more than atoned for by put
ting the land in firstclass condition for the reception of the
seed Of two crops the one planted early and hurriedly on
imperfectly prepared land and the other later on land more
completely and carefully plowed and fertilized it will be found
a the season progresses that the crop on the well prepared land
other conditions being equal will attain to more satisfactory andANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893
41
perfect development and also that its proper cultivation is more
easily managed On the land where the farmer has trusted to sub
sequent cultivation to correct the mistakes and shortcomings of
hasty preparation the conditions will he found far from satisfactory
Of one fact the farmers should he thoroughly convinced and that
is that no amount of after cultivation will ever atone for the plant
ing of a crop on rough ill conditioned land Our lands as a rule
do not receive the careful preparation which will insure their great
est yield and this neglect is the main cause of short crops as well
as of innumerable harassing and retarding experiences during the
period of cultivation
THE LACK OF THE USUAL RAINFALL
furnishes another argument for the thorough preparation of the
land We could cite innumerable instances coming under our ob
servation where thorough and deep plowing and subsoiling before
the crop was planted have enabled it to survive and even develop
during a protracted drouth There is now complaint from almost
all sections of lack of water Some farmers even this early in the
season are compelled to haul from some distance nearly all the
water needed for household and farm uses Fortunate is the man
who has by deep and thorough plowing formed a reservoir to catch
and hold such rains as have fallen to be ready for the demands of
the crops when the usual summer drouth comes on Wot only
does this careful preparation enable him to lay up a supply of
moisture but the condition of his land is such that he can practice
the level surface culture which is conceded to be the culmination
of successful farming This shallow cultivation of well prepared
land never allowing a crust to remain long on the surface not only
keeps down wTeeds and grass but prevents the unnecessary evapo
ration of the moisture which our deep plowing has enabled us to
store up in lower depths David Dickson the most successful of
Southern farmers speaking from his abundant experience main
tained that every inch added to the depth of preparation largely
increased the drouth resisting powers of the crops grown on that
land Farmers who have not exercised the precaution of thorough42
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
preparation must now take the chance of injury from lack of neces
sary moisture They should counteract these difficulties as far as
possible and conserve their limited supply of moisture by such
shallow cultivation as the condition of their land will admit
REDUCTION OF THE COTTON ACREAGE
In another column we call attention to a recent publication front
Latham Alexander Co on this subject and we would emphasize
with all the force at our command what is there so plainly stated
Under present conditions farmers have not the moral right to risk
the wellbeing of themselves their families of the whole South on
an abnormally large cotton crop and a correspondingly short food
supply
In a conversation with one of the largest cotton planters in the
Mississippi valley I was most forcibly impressed with the folly of
our past and present policy This man keeps an accurate account
of all expenditures iises improved implements pays cash for all
needed supplies and though he makes a bale of cotton to the acre
without any fertilizer his crop costs him five cents a pound inde
pendent of the interest on his large investment He makes about
2500 bales At the small margin of profit allowed by ruling
prices he does not clear enough to pay even a moderate interest on
his investment The same conditions apply with even greater force
to the small farmers The man in Georgia who plants 25 acres in
cotton at a cost of five cents a pound though he should make a bale
to each acre will at the prices ruling during the greater part of
this season scarcely clear enough to pay for the fertilizer which
under our present system of farming has become an absolute
necessity Where then is
OUR HOPE FOR BETTER CONDITIONS
We reply in concentrating our forces and thus reducing the cost
of production and in raising on each farm as far as possible every
thing needed to carry on the operations of that farm When these
two principles of reasonable and successful agriculture obtain a
general recognition and farmers everywhere put them into enerANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
43
getic operation a reduction of the cotton area will be successfully
accomplished and our farmers will become once more the bone and
sinew of our land rather than the uncertain dependents of mer
chants and money lenders
We would
STRONGLY URGE
the making and utilizing of every pound of farmyard manure
which our surroundings make possible Not only will this years
crops show the benefit but our lands will be improved and future
crops will be increased Plant every acre possible in peas using
potash and phosphoric acid to produce a more luxuriant growth
and thus to increase their nitrogen gathering power as well as to as
sure an abundant yield
THE MINOR CROPS
of sorghum potatoes ground peas not to mention melons vege
tables and fruits should all have their allottel space and their full
quota of attention Comfort health independence lie along these
lines and may be ours by proper effort In closing we would urge
upon every farmer to
WATCH THE WAR CLOUDS
Should war with Spain become a certainty the probable effect
on the price of cotton would be most disastrous while provisions
would take a corresponding rise
FARMERS SHOULD STUDY CAREFULLY
the following facts presented by two of the best informed cotton
authorities in America and England They are contained in the
latest report of Latham Alexander Co and are reproduced here
in order to give them the widest circulation and to bring them more
directly to the attention of farmers throughout the State
LOSS FROM MAKING TOO MUCH COTTON
In our circular letters of January 19 and February 5 we en
deavored to show the undeniably enormous losses that the South44
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA

lias invariably sustained when more cotton was produced than
necessary to supply the wants of the world
If we should bring the tabulated figures made then up to tins
date the losses to the farmers on this years crop would appear still
more startling and with the condition of affairs now prevailing
throughout the world the necessity for a reduction in acreage this
year should appeal to every farmer with greater force and induce
him to largely increase the production of food crops
THREATENED WAR
The threatened wars in the east and between Spain and the
United States are a serious menace to the cotton planting interests
of the South On this subject the report says
The planters of the South have no encouragement to plant cot
ton largely this year with the AngloEussianChinese complica
tions existing in the east which might before the new crop couhl
be marketed greatly reduce the value of cotton and the strained
relations of our government with Spain which possibly might re
sult in war staring them in the face
Even with permanent peace existing between all the nations of
the globe the consumptive demand for cotton would not be suffi
cient to warrant the production of another such large American
crop as last year An inevitable loss to the whole South in our
opinion would surely follow
THE FUTURE PROSPECTS OF COTTON
From a recent circular of Messrs Ellison Co Liverpool the
highest authority on cotton consumption in the world we make
the following extract as to future prospects
In our annual report issued in January we showed that with
an American crop of 10750000 bales and a consumption of about
t650000 bales the stock of American cotton in the ports of the
United States Europe and the surplus stocks at the American and
European mills would be about 1900000 bales against only 800
00 last year and we remarked that in regard to the future ofANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893
45
prices everything would depend upon the prospects of the new
crop
With as great a reduction in acreage as took place in the spring
of 1895 we should see a repetition of the upward movement in
values witnessed in that year but if planters are satisfied with
present prices and do not reduce the area planted then cotton will
become a greater drug than it ever lias been in the history of the
trade and planters will not get anything like present prices
In their report Messrs Ellison Co based their calculations
upon a crop of only 10750000 bales when 9975418 bales have
already been received and the indications favor 11000000 bales
or more
MERCHANTS SHOULD USE THEIR INFLUENCE FOR REDUCTION
OF COTTON AREA
The present unfavorable outlook for prices of next years crop
should induce every merchant in the South to use his influence
with the planters to cause a marked reduction in acreage which
would be surely followed by better prices and greater confidence
in general business operations throughout the South
E T NESB1TT
Commissioner
QUESTION BOX FOE MONTH
INFORMATION GIVEN BY THE STATE AGRICULTURAL DEPART
MENT
QUESTION
I am a new comer to Georgia and write for information in regard
to watermelons Having never engaged in their culture I would
like to know the soil and exposure best suited to them also the
various details of planting and cultivating I would like also to
be advised as to the best fertilizer to use Should the land be made
very rich46 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
ANSWER
Replying to your last question first we would state that to raise
the best melons it is not necessary to have a very rich soil indeed
a large amount of humus is a positive disadvantage but it is im
portant that the top soil be well drained and that it be underlaid
by a clay subsoil The warm light gray soils of the wire grass
region of Georgia are peculiarly suited to the needs of the water
melon and from this section come the finest melons in the world
The land should be preferably dry but not too dry and the ex
posure should be toward the south as the melon is a typical plant
The preparation need not be deep but the surface soil should be re
duced to as fine a tilth as possible by repeated harrowings and then
checked off 10 feet a way This last will render it easy to cultivate
the patch both ways
If you have the choice of selection land which was planted in
field peas last year and on which no succeeding crop was grown
will furnish best conditions for proper fertilization Stable ma
nure is also a fine fertilizer but should be applied the previous fall
to obtain the best results After the land is checked off run a wide
shovel plow in one set of the checking lines all in the same direc
tion the opposite lines only serve to mark the places where the
seeds are to be planted Into the shovel furrow put the fertilizer
well decomposed stable manure or compost or lacking this a com
mercial fertilizer in the following proportions One part muriate
or sulphate potash two parts nitrate soda four parts high grade
acid phosphate and at the rate of about TOO pounds to the acre
Bed up on this with a turn plow two furrows on each side four fur
rows in all and leave until planting time When the ground has
warmed up sufficiently and all danger of frost has passed put in
the seedsthe cross furrows will indicate the proper places Al
low about 20 seeds to the hill and dont plant deeper than one inch
nor in a bunch but put in each seed separately which can be easily
done by spreading the seed on the surface and piishing in with the
finger When the seed come up thin down gradually to one plant
in the hill and after the first rain break out the middles with aANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
47
turn plow throwing the furrows towards the bed and finishing up
with a water furrow which will serve to drain the beds
Two plowings will generally suffice the first at right angles or
across the beds and the second parallel with them and both should
be very shallow using a cultivator or scrape At the second or
last plowing broadcast about a peck of Whippoorwill or JSFew Era
peas to each acre These will serve to keep down the weeds shade
the melons from the scorching sun and put the land in fine condi
tion for any succeeding crop The above is a summary from a
very interesting bulletin published by the Georgia Experiment
Station In this bulletin No 38 Horticulturist Starnes has given
much more full and explicit directions than can be attempted in
our limited space We would advise you to send for it Address
Director E J Eedding Experiment Ga The bulletins are sent
to all farmers who apply for them
HARLEQUIN BUG
QUESTION
Please find enclosed some bugs which are eating up every green
thing that they can find There were a few on my cabbages last
fall and now there are thousands of them on my turnip greens and
they are sucking and killing the salad If we dont get rid of them
we cannot have any vegetables this year in our neighborhood
There is great complaint of their destructiveness from all sides
ANSWER
The bug sent is the muchdreaded Harlequin Bug the worst
known insect enemy of cruciferous plants They live through
the winter hidden under leaves or trash of any kind All rubbish
under which the bugs can take refuge during the winter should be
carefully burned and infected fields or gardens should have clean
culture These bugs are very difficult to deal with as they can
not be reached by any of the arsenical poisons When the bugs
are young Persian insect powder in decoction or dry will often
prove effectual Handpicking is often resorted to throwing the
bugs as picked into pans or cups containing kerosene Cabbage48
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
growers plant mustard between the rows of cabbages The bugs
prefer the mustard and it attracts them in large numbers They
can then be destroyed with pure kerosene Bather than let them
live and multiply if nothing else can be done apply kerosene
This will of course ruin the turnip salad but better that than to
allow them to continue their ravages
GRAIN LOUSE
QUESTION
We have a small patch of oats in Griffin that is being ruined by
a small green insect we enclose sample of them in letter We
called on Mr Kimbrough at the Experiment Station and lie asked
us to write you in reference to the matter and to send your man
down to investigate same Any information you can give us will
be highly appreciated
ANSWER
The insect sent is the Grain Louse It lives by sucking the
sap of wheat oats etc and thus injuring and frequently killing
the plant It appears that all the individuals of this family are
females and they produce living young beginning as soon as adult
and continuing during life Xo male or egglaying female of the
Grain Louse lias ever been found They multiply with great
rapidity and frequently do much damage From experiments that
have been made it has been found that this pest can be kept under
control by spraying the oats when young with a strong decoction
of tobacco stems or with kerosene emulsion and water Lse about
100 gallons to the acre with a spraying outfit It has also been
recommended to use freshly slaked lime with a little carbolic acid
sown broadcast on the infested oats or wheat Generally this in
sect pest is worse on the field where oats or wheat follow oatsANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1895
49
MAY
DUTY OF FARMERS IY THE PRESENT CRISIS
HEAVY PROVISION CROP SHOULD BE PLANTEDWAR AND COT
TON PRICES COMMISSIONER NESBITT POINTS OUT THAT
THERE WILL BE A BIG DEMAND FOR BREADSTUFFS ETC
WHILE THE FLEECY STAPLE IS LIKELY TO TUMBLEOUR
DUTY IN THE PRESENT CRISIS
Department of Agriculture
Atlanta Ga May 1 1898
Now tlut the war with Spain has been definitely decided on the
gravity of the situation demands that we as farmers give ourselves
to a careful study of its bearings on our agricultural interests both
individual and collective The opinion among competent army and
navy experts seems to be gaining ground that the campaign after
hostilities actually begin will be neither short nor easy and it
may drag along for months Under these apprehensions what is
our plain duty What do we owe to ourselves our families our
country While our army and navy on land and sea are enforcing
a recognition of the great principles of human independence what
are we farmers to do How can we help in the struggle that is to
set Cuba free We are to supply not only the home demands for
provisions but we are to supply the sinews of war to our armies
in the field by a bountiful food crop Besides the usual home de
mand there will be a heavy demand for breadstuffs and provisions
to feed our armies Should peace be declared without hostilities
the demand will still be heavy There will be thousands of home
less helpless people in Cuba to be fed Thus in either event war
or peace all surplus supplies will find a ready and profitable market
Therefore if we have not already done so we should put in an un
usually heavy provision crop even if we have to appropriate for
this purpose some of the acres intended for or already planted in
cotton50 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
EFFECT OF THE WAR ON COTTON
When a farmer sets himself for a hand to hand struggle with an
overwhelming cotton crop he necessarily consigns the provision
cropthe bread and meat supplyto the domain of chance
Under present conditions every consideration of selfinterest every
prompting of patriotism appeals against such a course The gen
erallv accepted idea of war agriculturally speaking is cheap cotton
and high provisions A war with Spain would almost paralyze
our cotton trade while the price of provisions would advance In
view of these facts what will be the fate of the man who produces
a large cotton crop for which he will get a low price and who de
pends on buying the whole or even part of needed provisions for
which he will pay a high price It is scarcely necessary to say
and while he has injured himself he has also to a certain degree
injured his State and country both of which are now looking to
him to do his duty in the struggle which is upon us I know that
some farmers may argue that as the general crop may be much
reduced now is the time to take the chance and put everyavail
able acre in cotton but there was never a graver mistake If
therewas a year to increase the food crops and decrease the cotton
this is the year for the reasons already given
THE FLOOD IN THE MISSISSIPPI
also furnishes another argument with some farmers for planting a
large cotton crop in Georgia They reason that wll he so late
fc the cotton crops in the fertile Mississppt valle are Pte
lt the yield will be very much cnt off En heyiaw
the Tear just past there was an almost unprecedented flood m
v ley and that the crop of 97 waa delayed almost later than was
I rLtvn before certainly much later than the preaen Send can
Several weeks later than the present date they too put m a big cropANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 189S
51
and the consequence was the largest general cotton crop on record
and ruinously low prices At present
THE PRICE OF COJTON IS ADVANCING
and this also may allure the unwary farmer into the error of over
cropping himself I have always maintained that the true policy
is to provide bountifully for every need of the farm and then to
put in just as much cotton as can be well managed And that rule
still holds good The man who does this is safe in any event be
the price of cotton high or low because he is not compelled to sell
bimself to the provision dealer or merchant for bread and meat
He is also in a position to exercise his judgment in the disposal of
his cottonto sell or to hold as circumstances suggest Were
every farmer thus independent the control of the cotton market
would be virtually where it belongsthat is in the hands of the
producersrather than of the men who deal in futures It has
been well said and it has come to be a fact that not supply and
demand for spot cotton affect the price but supply and demand
lor futures establish the price and this future market is con
trolled by professional operators and manipulators which could not
be possible were each individual farmer able to sell or hold his cot
ton at will As things now stand these operators are so sure of
the entire cotton crop being on the market within a certain period
tli at they actually sell the results of the farmers labor twelve
months in advance And so far the farmers have quietly sub
mitted Why Because their shortsighted policy has rendered
them powerless to resist Ninetynine onehundredths of our
farmers are compelled to force their cotton on the markets early
in the season and the speculators thus become masters of the situa
tion Full barns and full storehouses in the South mean inde
pendence to Southern farmers because their cotton crop is thus
released from bondage and they can exercise their judgment as to
when and how to seM it
E T NESBITT
Commissioner52
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
FALSE STATEMENT NAILED
MR NESBITT DID NOT SAY COTTON COULD BE RAISED AT 34
CESTS
It has come to my knowledge that a report is being circulated
over Georgia that the head of this department has said that Georgia
farmers could raise cotton profitably at 3 cents a pound Such
a report being well calculated to injure the usefulness of this de
partment therefore in justice to the department and all concerned
I feel impelled to correct the false statement The following
from The Cherokee Advance fully explains the matter
COLONEL NESBITT WAS UNINTENTIONALLY MISREPRESENTED
In making mention of Martin V Calvin retiring from the race
for Commissioner of Agriculture two weeks ago in which we made
impartial reference to the candidacy of Commissioner Nesbitt and
Colonel 0 B Stevens we said that Colonel Nesbitts mistake of
advocating the raising of H cent cotton at a profit is hurting him
no little
In making this statement we unintentionally did Colonel iNes
bitt an injustice and now gladly make the correction While the
statement was made and published in the reports issued from the
Department of Agriculture volume 18 1892 page 30 it was the
result of an experiment made at the Experiment Station under the
direction of Director Redding which gave the result of several
tests showing that cotton could be raised even at H cents per pound
On one thorough test however the publication referred to above
said
Mr Kimbrough the agriculturist estimates the aggregate cost
of plowing harvesting hoeing picking and fertilizersnothing
being allowed for interest on the land or superintendenceat am
amount which would make the cost of the cotton 3 cents per pound
of lint Colonel Nesbitt did not say that He only published this
experiment with other tests made at the Experiment Station and
we trust that our readers will so rememberANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893 53
INFORMATION FOR FARMERS
STATE AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT REPLIES TO MANY
INQUIRIES
QUESTION
There is a bug eating up my Irish potato plants a specimen of
which I send you Is there any sure remedy for them and if so
what is it What is the name of the bug
ANSWER
The insect you enclosed is called the Colorado potato beetle and
is very destructive to the Irish potato crop They have only ap
peared in Georgia during the last few years but are now thoroughly
domiciled and fortunate is the owner whose patch or field of Irish
potatoes is not attacked by them They should be attacked on
their first appearance as they multiply rapidly and any delay ren
ders it more difficult to get rid of them They may easily be distin
guished from the striped blister beetle also an enemy to the potato
plant but less destructive the latter being much more slender in
body and longer with longer legs greater activity and more ready
to take flight A very effective remedy against the Colorado beetle
especially on first appearance is to pick them off by hand at the
same time destroying their eggs which may be found on the under
side of the potato leaves in masses and are easily recognized by
their orange color The usual remedy is to dust or spray the plants
with either Paris green or London purple If dusting is preferred
use one part of the poison to five parts of flour and two to three
parts of air slaked lime or finely sifted ashes Apply with a sifter
or perforated pan If spraying is preferred use 6 to 7 ounces of
either poison to 50 gallons of water Most persons prefer London
purple because of its cheapness and better mechanical condition
being as a rule more finely powdered than the Paris green These
applications may have to be repeated two or three times during
the season
Remember that Paris green and London purple are both deadly
poisons and should be handled most carefully In dusting apply
in the morning while the dew is on the plant54
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
TO DISTINGUISH THE ENGLISH WALNUT SCALE FROM THE SAN
JOSE SCALE
QUESTION
We have had what is called the English walnut scale on our or
chard How may we distinguish it from the San Jose scale
ANSWER
A tree infested with the San Jose scale presents different ap
pearances according as it is badly infested or only slightly infested
AY hen thoroughly encrusted with this insect the tree takes on a
grayishbrown ashy appearance as though the trunk and limbs had
been painted with dampened ashes By scraping the limb with a
knife the scales may be removed cohering like a mass of wet bran
If the tree is only slightly infested the bark will be found to be
clotted here and there with very dark gray often black scales about
11G of an inch in diameter surrounded by a purplish tinge of the
bark The blackish appearance of this scale is especially notice
able during the winter and spring Later in the season when the
overwintered insect reaches maturity the scale takes on more of the
grayish appearance Aided by a pocket microscope the female
scale will be seen to be circular and conical in outline terminating
at the center by a minute nipple like prominence surrounded by a
distinct ring The male scales are smaller and elongated with the
nipple near the anterior end
The English walnut scale is larger about onetwelfth of an inch
in diameter and more flattened than the San Jose scale It is
circular in outline and of a pale grayishbrown color The nipple
like prominence is at one side of the center and is reddishbrown
By raising the waxy scale the body of the insect is revealed which
is larger and of a paler yellow color than that of the San Jose scale
When one once becomes familiar with these two scales it is not
difficult to distinguish them Left unchecked both will eventually
kill trees which they attack but the San Jose is much more prolific
and less time is required for its destruction of the infested plant
V M SCOTT
EntomologistANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893
55
TO DEVELOP TOMATOES EVENLY AND GIVE THEM UNIFORM
COLOR
QUESTION
Although I have succeeded in raising very large crops of toma
toes I have had great difficulty in ripening them uniformly and
while some are smooth and evenly developed a large per cent are
rough and uneven which of course injures their market qualities
If you can give me some hints to enable me to overcome these draw
backs I will be greatly obliged
ANSWER
While tomatoes will grow and produce abundantly on any me
dium soil there is one essential to their successful cultivation and
that is very thorough preparation If the land is subsoiled so much
the better and it should then be harrowed and reharrowed until
not a lump remains It is not necessary to broadcast the manure
if a complete commercial fertilizer with a preponderance of pot
ash and phosphoric acid is used Use a handful of this a handful
of wood ashes and a tablespoonful of nitrate of soda to each plant
being careful to mix thoroughly with the soil and to prevent any
of these ingredients touching the plant After the plants are set
that is in two or three days give them a thorough working with the
harrow or cultivator and of course the weeds are to be kept
down throughout the growing season When the fruit begins to
set repeat the application of fertilizer By this plan the plants are
strong and stocky and the fruit abundant and evenly developed
Stable manure may be used but it should be thoroughly decom
posed made fine and mixed with the soil If the plants are
troubed with insect enemies they should be sprayed according to
the directions we have frequently given
TO UTILIZE WET LAND
QUESTION
I have some wet land which is very rich but I have never been
able to cultivate it with success Can you advise me as to what
plan I shall pursue to get the best return from it It generally
dries off some time in May56
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
ANSWER
There are two or three plans by which you can make such land
profitable but the foundation of each is thorough preparation As
soon as it is dry enough to be worked plow it that is break it up
deeply and thoroughly and harrow until smooth Now sw it in
peas some upright variety which can be cut for hay AY hen these
are taken off plow and harrow again and set in Bermuda grass It
will make a permanent pasture or royal hay Some of the finest
Bermuda hay is produced on just such lands in this State
Another plan which we have seen highly recommended is the
following
After the preparatory plowing and harrowing keep down the
weeds by harrowing once a week until the middle of June then sow
in millet a bushel to the acre if grown for seed a bushel and a
half if grown for haythe German millet if the seed is to be used
the Hungarian if for hay When this crop is taken off go over the
field two or three times with a cutaway harrow in opposite direc
tions so as to thoroughly break up the surface Repeat this op
eration every week or ten days until the middle of September and
then sow timothy at the rate of a third of a bushel to the acre with
250 pounds of fertilizer harrowing it in lightly By either plan
you will have a permanent meadow which can be grazed or cut as
you prefer
EFFECT OF MINERAL MANURES
QUESTION
Do mineral manures tend to exhaust the nitrogen in the soil 3
ANSWER
The mineral manures enable the plants to make use of the nitric
acid that is in the soil Indeed if they are absent the crops can
not take up this nitric acid no matter how great the amount that
is diffused through the soil Therefore the mineral manures can
not be strictly said to exhaust the nitrogen for although they cause
the plant to take up a larger amount than they otherwise would
this does not increase the exhaustion as the minerals only arrest
and hold for the use of the crops that which would otherwise be
washed awayANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893
57
JUNE
FOEAGE CEOPS THE HOPE OF FARMERS
BEST MEANS OF SUPPLEMENTING FOOD SUPPLIES NESBITT
GIVES POINTERS AGRICULTURAL COMMISSIONER ON THE
COURSE TO PURSUE IN VIEW OF THE HIGH WHEAT PRICES
AND WITH THE PROSPECT OF A CONTINUANCE OF SUCH
MARKET CONDITIONS
Department of Agriculture
Atlanta June 1 1898
With wheat quoted at an almost unprecedented figure and prices
of other food crops advancing and with the prospects of such
market conditions being sustained for at least some months to come
prudent farmers are now casting about for practical means of sup
plementing their food supplies There is no section of the world
in which a greater variety of
FORAGE CROPS
may be grown than in the South and as a measure of safety it
would be well for Georgia farmers to put in such of these crops as
our surroundings and opportunities render possible First and
foremost comes
FORAGE CORN AS A FODDER CROP OR FOR SILAGE
As to the best methods of managing this crop there are somewhat
conflicting opinions but these result from a misapprehension rather
than from any real difference in the proper plans for planting cul
tivating etc It depends upon the purpose for which the crop is
intended as to which method should be adopted If the crop is
intended for fodder that is to be cut and cured the object is to
secure a large yield of small and medium sized stalks having an
abundance of leaves and little grain The plants may therefore
be planted in narrow rows and crowded in the drill In curing
this crop the surplus moisture is dried out and we have a nutritious58
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
forage which supplemented with grain makes a good and com
plete ration But in planting corn for the silo the object is to se
cure a good yield of well developed stalks each one bearing at least
one well grown ear upon it The plants must not be crowded too
closely together The rows should be at least 3 to 4 feet apart
and the plants should stand from 15 to 20 inches in the row If
the plants stand closer than this the stalks do not have room to ma
ture sufficiently and the consequence is watery stalks and the ears
which form are not well filled with grain Silage made from such
corn as this is apt to be very unsatisfactorysour and innutritions
From this explanation we see that fodder corn should be crowded
as close as the strength of the land will admit while a corn crop
intended for the silo should have sufficient distance to produce a
heavy yield of stalks and ears sufficiently matured to be cured into
good sweet silage
THE PEA CROP
Field peas give us another crop for forage of which too much
cannot be said Among the many advantages of this crop is the
fact that it can be sown from May until July and also that it can
be utilized as a threefold food for man for beast and for the land
No matter in what way we decide to use it it will return with in
terest whatever amount we have invested in it
MILLET
Millet also may be seeded at any time from May to August and
though it requires richer land and more thorough preparation than
corn or peas it is a good investment where forage promises to be
short One bushel of German millet sown on an acre of land well
prepared and the seed harrowed in will make a heavy yield and
when cured at the proper time that is before the seeds mature will
make a most acceptable addition to our forage supply
SORGHUM
Sorghum is a crop which should find a place on every Georgia
farm It is not affected by drouth to the ruinous degree that our
ANNUA PUBLICATION FOR 1893
59
corn crop often is and the stalk and the grain are both excellent
food for cattle and hogs besides which there is usually a good de
mand for the syrup With the improved system of evaporating
now in general use the syrup has become a desirable article of food
in most farm households During the hot season the man who is
fortunate enough to have a sorghum patch is assured of green food
for his Stock when every other crop is drying up while the cured
fodder makes a nutritious and appetizing feed for the winter
months
It is not too late to plant any of these four cropsindeed all
may be planted later than this date and under favorable conditions
will be very satisfactory
Though there are other crops which in time may supersede them
we would advise as we have these four forage crops of such well
known value and with the cultivation of which we are so thor
oughly familiar that we do not venture except by way of experi
ment on a small scale on the culture of new and untried crops It
is well for each farmer to give his attention to these new crops and
to thoroughly satisfy himself as to their merits before undertaking
their culture to any large extent
In these days when inquiries are constantly being received at
this department as to the value and efficiency of certain insecticides
raid when Paris green is coming into such general use the follow
ing
CHEAP SUBSTITUTE FOR PARIS GREEN
which has been thoroughly tested at the Ohio Experiment Station
may be of service in reducing the cost in cases where larger quanti
ties are used
White arsenic in a soluble form costs about onethird as much
as Paris green and unlike the latter gives no trouble in the way of
settling Paris green does not dissolve readily and needs constant
agitation to keep it from settling Here is the formula
Dissolve 2 pounds of commercial white arsenic and 4 pounds of
carbonate of soda washing soda in 2 gallons of water and use 1J
pints of this mixture to 50 gallons of Bordeaux mixture This0
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
will be found sufficient for any purpose where a combination mix
ture of fungous and insect pests is required As for instance po
tato blight fungus and potato bugs insect apple scab fun
gus and apple worms insect
The easiest May says the bulletin to make the solution is to put
both the white arsenic and the carbonate of soda in a gallon of
boiling water keep boiling about 15 minutes or until a clear liquid
is formed and then dilute to 2 gallon
This is the season when it is necessary to wage an unceasing war
fare against all kinds of insects and fungous pests and the above
combination of Bordeaux and white arsenic is effective in destroy
ing a large proportion of these most annoying and destructive ene
mies The horticulturist or farmer indeed any man who looks to
the products of the soil as the reward of his labor would do well
to study the disease and insects which are liable to attack his special
crops and at the first indication of their presence use active and
prompt measures to prevent serious injury Sometimes a few days1
delay in using proper remedies is fatal more especially in the rap
idly maturing crops Personal observation in the different sections
of the state confirm the reports of promising crop conditions al
though in some sections the dry weather has retarded the satisfac
tory development of the young plants and cut off the oat crop
E T KESBTTT
Commissioner
COXDITIOX OF THE CEOPS
REDUCED COTTON AREA AND CORN SMALL THROUGHOUT THE
STATE
COTTON
This crop somewhat retarded by high winds and cool nights in
May Acreage less than last year Stands not good in many
counties on account of dry weather Some fields have had to be
replanted Elants small Cultivation good Will improve with
the advent of warm nights and hot sunsANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893
CORN
61
Small throughout the state on account of cool weather in April
and want of rain Stands fairly sood
Some damage from cut
worms
OATS
Have suffered greatly from drouth particularly in South Geor
gia where many fields have been ruined
The crop is so injured by dry weather that the yield will not be
up to the average
WHEAT
Largest acreage planted in years At least twice as much as last
year Prospects fine for the best crops in many years Very
little rust reported and the crop is almost assured The good price
will be a great boon to the farmers of North Georgia
CANE
Acreage greater than last year Stands not good on account of
the unprecedented drouth through South Georgia
RICE
Increased acreage and plants doing well where irrigation is used
Upland rice small and backward
Minor crops such as potatoes hay etc have suffered in many
counties for want of rain
FRUITS
The peach crop promises to be one of the largest ever made All
oilier fruits except apples promise well The strawberry crop
though somewhat injiued by the cold snap in April rallied later
on and an immense crop will be marketed Blackberries and other
small fruits are promising in profusion Melons are doing well62 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
INFORMATION OX FARMING
STATE AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT REPLIES TO A NUMBER
OF INQUIRIES
QUESTIQiN
Please advise me about composting For several years I have
composted my stable manure with cottonseed chemicalsrich earth
etc but it is a heavy job and requires so much extra work in hand
ling that I have been debating in my own mind whether some other
plan would not pay better Recently my attention has been called
to articles in agricultural journals on this subject in which the
writers say this plan will soon become a thing of the past Do you
agree with this view or what would you advise
ANSWER
It is not advisable to handle a heavy article like manure any
more than is absolutely necessary and where it is possible to
haul the manure directly to the land we have found that it pays
better than the more costly plan of composting But often the
hauling cannot be done when in the busy season every mule and
frm hand is engaged in the different crops Under such circum
stances rather than allow the manure to accumulate in the stables
to the manifest injury of the animals or to waste it by throwing
it in loose piles in the stable yards we would select wet days when
it is not possible to work in the fields and put the manure in com
pact compost heaps when its valuable constituents will be held
until such time as we can irtilize them Where a farmer has a
large number of cattle which he is feeding for market which prac
tice is becoming quite extended since cottonseed meal and hulls
afford such a cheap and certain means of fattening beeves
it is a good plan except in severe weather to pen the cattle directly
on the land to be improved Near Atlanta there are 25 acres of
most magnificent oats sown the last of May nearly ready for cut
ting which arc a striking and wonderful object lesson as to the
wisdom of this policy The manure from feeding the hulls and
meal contains elements of fertility in the highest degree beneficial
to both land and crop The following on this subject from ProANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1S9S
63
fessor Massey is both opportune and practical and outlines an
economical plan not only for utilizing farm manures but for ob
taining at a comparative small cost a part at least of that expensive
element nitrogen which is an absolute essential to successful farm
ing Of course we cannot expect to feed cattle enough to enrich
the entire farm each year but by pursuing this plan even on a lim
ited area one will be surprised at the results in the increased yield
of crop
No matter how carefully the manure is handled while in the
stable or barnyard there will be a constant loss and there is less
of loss when it is spread on the land than anywhere else Let one
hauling do for the homemade manure and let that be to get it out
and spread it broadcast on the land where the corn crop is to be
planted Then if the corn is followed by a crop of winter oats as
it should be in the cotton belt there will be found enough to carry
the oat crop through success Then after the oats are cut give all
the land a liberal dose of the mineral plant foods that the pea de
lights inacid phosphate and potash in the form of muriate
of potash Spread this also broadcast for the broadcast use of
manures and fertilizers is what tends to the improvement of the
land and its building up for improved crops Then sow the land
in peas and by the use of the previous dressing of 300 to 400
pounds of the phosphate and potash mixture you should get a crop
of hay that will enable you to feed more stock than ever and thus
raise more manure to put out broadcast
But what we especially wanted to oppose was the laborious
hauling of earth manure cottonseeds and all sorts of rubbish to
make a pile and to turn and mix and pile and repile the mixture
thinking by this process the whole will become stable manure is
a great waste of labor If there are valuable accumulations of
wood and mold handy haul it and spread it on the land and haul
and spread the stable manure and put your cottonseed down in a
furrow deep between the ctton rows where after it has rotted the
cotton roots will find it just wThen they need it mostat fruit time
Acid phosphate and potash spread broadcast on the land for a
big crop of peas will leave nitrogen enough in the land for the cot
ton that is to follow and you will need to buy if anything only64
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
the same mineral fertilizers while the great crop of peavine hay
will enable you to feed more stock and to add a profitable industry
for the winter in selling beeves or milk and butter
WHAT SHOULD FARMERS DO TO RAISE COTTON AT A PROFIT
QUESTION
I have seen the unjust criticisms which have been spread abroad
in regard to the experiment carried on at the Georgia Experiment
Station as to the cost of raising cotton I remember the manner
in which your words were at the time perverted and also the eff irt
which has all along been made to get political capital out of what
was really a most sound piece of advice to farmers This was six
years ago and if this advice had been generally heeded much of
the subsequent hardship consequent on the low price of cotton
would have been avoided indeed I with many others believe that
the price of cotton would have been maintained at a reasonable fig
ure because under your system it would have been impossible to
so overcrowd the markets as to make our staple crop almost value
less as it has been except to cotton buyers and speculators the far
mer not being in it Reviewing the past years and all that has
been said pro and con as to the low price of cotton cost of pro
duction etc what is your present opinion as to how we shall meet
and combat conditions which so far have proven too much for us
ANSWER
My position on this question is the same today that it was six
years ago namely that when a farmer has made ample arrange
ments to raise a full supply of bread and meat for his family and
food for his cattle mules and other farm stuck then lie is at lib
erty and not until then to cultivate in cotton all the land which
he can successfully manage And just here I would emphasize
the fact that at present low prices no cotton crop can be a success
where it takes three acres of land to make one bale of cotton We
must by a vstem of terracing to hold the fertility of our lands
by deep plowing to hold the moisture and to utilize heretofore
unsuspected elements of plant food by planting renovating cropsANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
65
by rotation and by manuring intelligently managed change the
results from acres to the bale to bales to the acre I am aware that
many who have not studied this question will maintain that
this system is not justified by the extremely low prices which have
ruled during the past season but it is just here that the mistake
comes in If by careful and judicious management the yield can
be doubled or trebled I am satisfied from observation and personal
experience that instead of being a loser the farmer will be a gainer
end that instead of being extravagant it is the most economical as
well as the most intelligent method that can be followed The
almost universal practice of forcing a few more pounds of cotton
from our hard run fields by the simple application of 100 or 200
pounds of commercial fertilizers is bringing our lands to poverty
and our farmers to want
5aCO
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
JULY
WOEST DROUTH IN NUMBER OF YEARS
THE SPRING PLANTED OAT CROP SUFFERS GREATLYWHEAT
NOT SO UVIUCKYCOMMISSIONER NESBITT REVIEWS THE
AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS IN AN INTERESTING LETTER TO
GEORGIA FARMERS AND ONCE MORE POINTS OUT THE IM
PORTANCE OF THOROUGH PREPARATIONTHE OAT CROP
Department of Agriculture
Atanta July 1 1898
The drouth which has prevailed for several weeks throughout
the State is said to be the most severe known at this season of the
year for twenty years The wheat crop which is much heavier
than usual escaped with comparatively little injury hut the oat
crop particularly the springplanted fields and more especially
those in which the seed were carelessly put in and imperfectly fer
tilized has suffered severelyin some sections of the State may
be denominated a total failure We need no better illustration of
the importance of thorough preparation and fertilization than is
afforded by the yields of this crop throughout the State The
results of the long continued drouth have most fully confirmed
the oftrepeated assertion that successful cropping depends in
great measure on thorough preparation of the soil before the seed
are put in It has been fully demonstrated that if we take the
precaution of providing a wellstored reservoir in a deeply prepared
seedbed then when the demand for moisture comes and the grow
ing plants begin to droop for lack of necessary rain from above
Mother Nature will come to our rescue and through the power
of capillary action will pump up from the reserve supply which
we have stored in lower depths the lifegiving revivifying moist
ure so necessary for plant growth Here we have beautifully il
lustrated the manner in which the intelligent farmer may on the
erv brink of failure wrestANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 189S
G7
SUCCESS
from adverse circumstances If he lias studied natures laws he
knows that when the upper soil becomes dry if there is a reserve
supply of moisture stored in the subsoil the power of capillary
action will draw it to the surface But his knowledge must not
stop here He must also have learned that it is impossible to keep
this moisture in reach of the growing plants if a crust is allowed
to form and remain on the surface When that crust remains and
is unbroken no power can prevent the evaporation of the moist
ure which comes to the surface through the capillary tubes It is
the farmers province and privilege to so break up these tubes that
the moisture may be held in check and in reach of the growing
plants long enough for them to absorb its lifegiving properties
before they become dissipated into the atmosphere To do this
he must by constant
SHALLOW CULTIVATION
keep a thin mulch of finely pulverized surfacesoil spread over his
fields The man who thoroughly understands the importance of
this principle will never allow a crust to remain on his land longer
than he can run a shallow broad furrow to break it up The need
of this rapid work accentuates the importance of widecutting
plows and expanding cultivators
JULY
has often been called the pivotal month because if the work is
not carefully planned and adjusted much of our previous effort
will count for naught In laying by our crops we should re
member that the network of delicate roots just beneath the surface
permeates the entire field and that we should be as careful to avoid
injuring these as we are to prevent the breaking and tearing of the
leaves and stalks above the ground
DURATION OF CULTIVATION
Plowing at this season should be regulated very much by the
habits and condition of the different crops For instance work in68 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
the latematuring largegrowing varieties of cotton may cease
sooner than in the shorter limbed earlymaturing kinds because
when the growth of these large varieties is thus checked they begin
to take on fruit which they would not do to the same extent if then
luxuriant leaf growth were encouraged by continued cultivation
On the other hand if the smaller and quicker maturing varieties
are developing favorably a shallow center furrow even well into
August will be of benefit We should always keep in mind that
the object of plowing at this season is not to break the soil to any
depthone inch is enoughbnt to keep down any incipient weeds
or grass to check evaporation and to promote the access of air to
the plant roots
OTHER WORK FOR THE MONTH
Peas for forage may be sown until the last of July and if en
couraged by an application of acid phosphate and potash will store
up in the soil for our future use the third and most important as
well as most expensive element of plant foodnitrogen As we
have time and opportunity we should also decide on our fall cam
paign what crops we will plant and what fields apportion to eacn
one Any successful
SYSTEM OF ROTATION
must recognize certain fixed laws The most important of these
is that crops of like growth and habits extracting the same ele
ments of plant food from the soil in similar proportions should
not follow each other but should be succeeded by those which
while demanding the same elements will absorb them under dif
ferent conditions and in different proportions thus in a measure
equalizing the draft upon the resources of the soil In considering
the
FALL CROPS RYE
should be given an important place It not only furnishes first
class green food for the cold months but as a renovator and ac
cumutator of humus cannot be too highly prized It is hardyannual Publication for i89s

and besides performing the above important offices it acts as a stay
to the winter floods which otherwise rush over our bare fields
September is early enough to sow any of these fall grain crops
but July is none too early to plan for our wheat oats and rye fields
A pea stubble is a firstclass beginning for either wheat or oats as
both demand a full supply of nitrogen If rye is sown on the pea
stubble it continues the work of renovation begun by the pea crop
and when turned under in the spring lays the foundation for boun
teous crops of either corn or cotton
R T KESBITT
Commissioner
CONDITION OF THE CROPS
DRY WEATHER INJURES CORN AND COTTON IS SOMEWHAT RE
TARDEDCOTTON
Throughout the State the cotton fields are well worked and free
from grass The stands are fairly good and the plants as a rule
healthy On account of the dry spring the growth has been some
what retarded and the weed is not as large as it should be at this
date No reports of lice or other insect enemies as yet and with
plenty of rain for the next six or eight weeks the crop may turn
out well The cotton plant needs but little rain in the earlier
stages of its growth but as it takes on fruit abundant moisture is
required for its proper growth and development and a further
continuation of the dry weather of the past six weeks would prove
almost ruinous
COHN
This crop has been injured by the dry weather particularly so
in the southern portion of the State The rains have been very
partial some localities being favored with an average fall while
others in the same neighborhood have seriously suffered There
has been no general heavy rainfall covering the entire State dur
ing the year consequently rivers have been low branches and70
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
creeks have dried up wells have failed and in some places it lias
been difficult to get any water for any purpose Of course the
crop has suffered more or less under these circumstances and will
be undoubtedly cut off to a considerable extent The fields how
ever have been well worked and are clean and in good condition
and with abundant and immediate rains Middle and North Geor
gia may still make good crops
OATS
This crop has been a disappointment to those who planted in
the spring the want of rain rendering the crop in many cases
worthless Fallplanted oats did very well as a rule though they
would have turned out better with more rain in April I again
advise farmers to plant at least half of their oat crops in the early
fall The chances of their being winteikilled are less than the
chances of the spring oats being ruined by a dry May
WHEAT
This crop has been harvested threshed and I hope sold In
many years the State has not made a better or more abundant crop
and I trust that the farmers of the wheat section of Georgia will
feel encouraged by this years experience to engage still more
largely in its cultivation Since harvesting commenced the price
has steadily dropped but I trust that the wheat growers of Geor
gia received not less than 1 a bushel for their crops
MINOR CROPS
such as corn sorghum sweet potatoes rice etc have all felt the
bad effects of a hot dry spring General and abundant rains are
required all over the State to bring these crops out so that an aver
age yield may be expected Gardens and pastures have been badly
injured in every county in the State Recent showers have caused
a little improvement in both but general and heavy rains are neces
sary to bring about any marked improvementANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893
71
FRUIl
Peaches and watermelons are being marketed and the prospect
is good for an abundant crop of each Watermelons so far are
small for want of rain Peaches will be small also for the same
reason and because of overbearing The berry crops have all
been injured by dry weather Grapes promise to be abundant
Apple crop poor
LWQUIKY BOX FOE MONTH
THE STATE AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT REPLIES TO
QUESTIONS
QUESTION
I would like to know something more about vetches Some
time ago I read your article on this subject and as I wish to ex
periment a little on this line I write to ask if it is advisable to sow
now or would it be best to wait until fall If we can get a certain
crop that will give us green food in the late winter and early spring
one difficulty that the farmer has to contend against will be over
come and if this can be done with a nitrogen gathering crop which
will at the same time benefit the land farming at the South will
have made a long step forward
ANSWER
In the Southern States vetches should be sown in the late sum
mer or early fall The hairy vetch is preferred for our climate
and should be sown from the middle of August to the middle of
September according to seasons Spring vetches seem more par
ticularly suited to northern latitudes indeed have proved a signal
failure in our climate Hairy vetch will stand a good amount of
cold and drouth but it does not like a damp soil any excess of
water is very injurious to it and it seems to prefer a sandy soil At
the Mississippi Experiment Station heavy annual crops have been
realized from a piece of land sown in 1888 which has never been
reseeded Stock is taken off and cuttings cease in March the
plants mature and scatter their seed over the ground which begin72 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
to germinate with the first fall rains If the crop is intended to
be cut for forage and is sown broadcast about a bushel of winter
oats or rye or wheat should be be sown at the same time
These will furnish a support for the vines and prevent them
from trailing on the ground The difficulty of cutting the
crop properly will thus be obviated When cut for hay the
plants should be in full bloom The kidney vetch is another
variety which is recommended for poor thin calcareous or very
sandy soils which will not support clovers or better forage crops
but from the result of experiments with it it cannot be recom
mended as of much value The hairy vetch however has a high
endorsement Stock are very fond of it It has a high feeding
value It may be cvired for hay or pastured and is a most ex
cellent plant for soiling When once fairly established it with
stands drouths and extremes of temperature Most of the seed
are imported from Europe and as yet are highpriced which is the
chief present difficulty in the way of its general introduction Its
cultivation is however increasing and we hope to see the day
when the muchneeded green crop to fill up the hiatus between
late winter and early spring will be found in the vetches of which
so little is now generally known We would like to know the
result of your experience if you decide to try the experiment this
fall
SORGHUM AS A FORAGE PLANT
QUESTION
Is sorghum a good plant for feeding green and for making hay
If so what variety would you recommend and how to plant and
save
ANSWER
Sorghum is a most excellent forage plant to feed either green
or to save as hay It does best on rich loamy soils but will do well
on any soil that will produce fair crops of corn or cotton Prepare
the land well and bed as you would for cotton in 3 feet rows
using from 300 to 400 pounds of a complete fertilizer AboutANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893
78
cotton planting time open a shallow furrow and drill the seed
from a half bushel to three pecks to the acre Cultivate shallow
and often When grown for forage it is not necessary to thin
out though thinning is very essential when the sorghum is grown
for syrupmaking The Early Amber and Minnesota Early
Amber are excellent varieties as are also the Early Orange and
Kansas Orange
Sorghum will do better on thin soils and will stand drouth
better than corn For making hay cut soon after it begins to
bloom and put up in small shocks until cured For feeding green
cutting should be begun as soon as the plants begin to form heads
Stir the ground with a cultivator or plow immediately after har
vesting a crop and the sorghum will continue to grow and make
a second and third cutting Feed but little at first increasing the
amount day by day until the stock become accustomed to it
ABOUT SUBSOILING
QUESTION
Is it not injurious to land to subsoil at this season 1 am a
young farmer but I have always heard that it was dangerous to
bring the clay to the surface after the late fall or early winter
ANSWER
You are under a misapprehension as to the meaning of subsoil
ing This is not a turning of the clay to the surface but it is the
breaking up of the subsoil at the bottom of the furrow and leaving
it there This may be done by following in the bottom of the fur
row which is made by an ordinary plow with a long narrow
scooter or a bull tongue Or it may be accomplished with
one furrow made by a subsoilplow constructed especially for this
purpose In either case it is simply breaking up the lower soil
which is not reached by an ordinary plow This plan will expose
it to the action of the air will drain it of surplus water or make it
more retentive of necessary moisture and by thus increasing its
porosity or powers of absorption will not only regulate the moisture
74
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
for the use of crop but will bring into service its heretofore locked
up and insoluble elements of plant food
BEAN RUST
QUESTION
Last year my beans were attacked by a disease which my neigh
bors called bean rust When I discovered the trouble it was too
late to prevent the damage It seemed to be more on the pods
than anywhere else although a large per cent of the leaves event
ually became affected The little round spots first appeared on the
pods when about half grown and the pods turned dark and seemed
to shrink up around those spots Sometimes they were pink and
again red If there is any way of preventing this I want to begin
in time this year What is the disease and is there any remedy
ANSWER
The disease which you describe is anthracnose and the best pre
ventive after the beans are planted is Bordeaux mixture with
which the plants should be sprayed But a better preventive still
is to plant only bright plump seed As the disease lives in the
seed from one season to another all seed should be carefully ex
amined and only the perfectly sound ones used All which are
shriveled or imperfect should be rejected
HANDLING LATE POTATOES
Those who have rather late ground on which potatoes are to be
planted will find it worth while to sprout the seed now Merely
set them in a warm light place and let them send out shoots about
three inches long As soon as the ground can be worked plant
the potatoes handling them carefully so as not to break off the
shoots allowing one sprout to each piece of seed In this way
potatoes can be raised on late land as soon as on early and by the
ordinary methodANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893
CHEMICAL WEED DESTROYER
75
Professor Shutt of the experiment farms at Ottawa Canada
recommends the following very simple compound for destroying
weeds and grass Two pounds of sulphate of copper or blue
vitriol and six gallons of hot water Dissolve and apply as a
spray or through an ordinary sprinkling pot76
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
AUGUST
CROPS IN GEORGIA HELPED BY RAINS
HO FURTHER CULTIVATION AFTER THIS DATE REQUIRED
WORK FOR COMING MONTHCOMMISSIONER OF AGRICULT
URE NESBITT URGES CONTINUED ACTIVITY IN CARRYING OUT
ALL PLANS FORMULATED AT THE BEGINNING OF THE YEAR
Department of Agriculture
Atlanta Ga August 1 1898
The widely distributed rains following the longcontinued
drouth have caused some shedding of the cotton and in some in
stances came too late to rescue the corn crop but as a rule crops
throughout the State are in good condition and further cultivation
after this date is not only unnecessary but might prove actually
hurtful The laying by of these standard crops should not mean
a cessation of farm activity nor an entire abandonment of the
plans so carefully formulated in the beginning of the year For
tunately for Georgia the strictly cotton farm except in rare in
stances is a thing of the past
in nearly all sections of the State there is hay to be saved
orchards and vineyards to be looked after cattle and hogs to re
ceive the proper care and lastly fall crops to be prepared for
Another important branch of his work to which the average
farmer lms been so far wofully indifferent is the destruction ot
the various insect enemies which are beginning to infest our fields
and depredate on our crops To keep these in check it has become
necessary that each individual farmer wage an incessant warfare
on them At this season much may be done to destroy their
breeding places In the stubble fields in the fence corners and
in many byplaces they will be found entrenched preparing for
their winter accommodation in order to be ready in the spring to
start out on their destructive work with the first warm days If
neglected now the result will be an astonishing increase in num
bers and in the amount of injury to various cropsANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
77
In Tennessee in 1894 the chinchbug was observed in different
sections of the State but not in numbers sufficient to cause any
alarm and no precautions were taken to prevent their reappearance
In 1895 a territory of nearly 600 square miles was literally cov
ered by these depredators and the farmers in this section not only
sustain great loss by the actual injury to their crops but were
compelled to at considerable expense destroy the hordes of bugs
which infested every part of their fields We need not therefore
lay the flattering unction to our souls that the season of laying
by is a season of entire rest While there may be a compara
tive letup in the driving work necessary to the proper manage
ment of your standard crops there are still various farm operations
just as important which should not be laid by Indeed after
nearly forty years experience on the farm we have come to the
conclusion that for the uptodate farmer layingby time comes
only when life itself ceases
FALL CROPS
Because we have failed in one or even two trials with crimson
clover we should not abandon the attempt to grow it It is cer
tainly a most valuable adjunct to our forage supply besides per
forming for our lands during the winter the work which the pea
crop accomplishes in the summer namely storing up both humus
and nitrogen for future crops
The general mistake in planting fall oats and rye two of our
most important crops is that they are put in too late and the land
is not made rich enough If the seed are put in early and the
crop forced forward by high manuring the result is usually most
satisfactory In verycold weather it is always the rich spots
which escape sometimes when the poor thin spots are entirely
killed out The present year the spring oats were an entire failure
while the fall crop was unusually fine August is none too early
to begin the preparations for all crops to be sown in the fall
After the land is thoroughly broken it should be harrowed and re
harrowed until smooth and fine Time was when the preparation
and cultivation of our lands though of the rudest and most im78 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
perfect character produced phenomenal crops because the virgin
soil abounded in the elements of plant food But today thought
ful farmers realize the fact that even in our incomparable climate
where we can produce two or three crops on the same land each
year the time has passed when muscle can count against brain
All over the State we begin to see the evidence of this
BRAIN WORK
Intelligent energy is taking the place of mere plodding The
farmers who have a welldefined thoroughlystudied plan which
they follow with unfailing pertinacity are the men who are forging
to the front in successful agriculture Science by its discovery
of complete plant foods and by its equally important findings as to
the food requirements of different crops points out the means but
it remains for the farmer to take hold of these means and by judi
cious rotation of crops thorough preparation of the land and
proper cultivation to promote the chemical changes necessary to
the most profitable development of his business Some of the
results of such careful methods are seen in the yields of wheat and
oats reported to this department the present year larger than ever
before in some cases almost phenomenal
STANDARD BALE
Equally important with the careful saving and haling of our
cotton is the necessity of meeting the complaints made by the
various transportation companies and mills against the different
sizes of our American bales The loss of space in storing these
bales and the generally damaged condition in which our cotton
reaches foreign markets have given rise to a general protest and
as about threefourths of our cotton is handled by European buy
ers it is to our interest to meet their demands in this respect
The discriminations which may be made against our cotton on
account of these objections may amount in the aggregate to an in
credible sum Tt has been found after several tests that the best
size for convenience of handling and storing is the bale made from
a press measuring 24 inches in width by 54 inches in length ThisANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 189S
7
is the size advocated by all the cotton growers associations This
size 24x54 has been found to press to a greater density and after
being compressed for final shipment the original bagging will en
tirely cover the compressed bale and thus much of the injury from
the rough handling of our cotton will be prevented
All this redounds to the interest of the farmer because all the
extra expenses from waste of space higher insurance and actual
waste of cotton are charged against his cotton in the general ac
count and any method which will reduce these expenses will add
that much to the price
In a circular addressed to the ginners of the South issued by
J H Sloan of Augusta Ga one of the leading cotton men of
the South he says that our cotton as a rule reaches the European
manufacturers in such badly damaged condition that they refuse
to pay a good price for it He has made a study of this subject
and is in a position which gives him every opportunity of ascer
taining its true status In his address to the ginners he says
We take the liberty of calling your attention to the importance
of exerting all our efforts in favor of the adoption of the standard
size cotton bale which is a bale made in a pressbox measuring on
the inside twentyfour inches wide by fiftyfour inches long and
deep enough to make a bale weighing about 500 pounds
It is well understood that the more cotton that can be stowed in
a steamer the less the freight and consequently the more the cot
ton grower will receive for his crop It naturally seems that a few
inches in the size of bales would make no difference but a few
inches running irregularly through an ocean steamer amounts to
a great loss of space and in stowing bales of irregular sizes they
are so screwed in oddshaped spaces as to often break and nearly
always are torn and twisted out of shape by the time they reach
the foreign ports The lost spaces also form air passages and in
case of a fire the damage is much greater consequently the insur
ance is higher than it should be The same complaints are made
by the railroads and by the mills when they put their cotton in
warehouses
We think we have fully explained the reasons for this change80
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
and that it is to your interest to do all that is in your power to have
every one make this change by next season As a general rule
the press boxes will have to be made smaller either one way or both
This can be done with very little expense by lining the inside with
boards one lining on another where the size is to be reduced
several inches Then the followblock can be sawn off to fit the
box The cost of making this change in most cases will not exceed
500
We have received letters from a majority of the ginners in our
territory and they promise to alter their press boxes to the standard
size We respectfully solicit the cooperation of all growers and
those interested in the cotton crop to urge upon the ginners the
importance of making all bales of the standard size as the success
of this movement and the benefits to be derived from it depend
upon them We are confident that a large majority of the ginners
will make this change but it is necessary that the change be as
near universal as possible
Let farmers interest themselves in this to them vital question
and urge upon their ginners the importance of a uniform size for
press boxes
E T NESBITT
Commissioner
CONDITION OF THE CEOPS
FRESH GROWTH AND VIGOR TAKEN ON SINCE RECENT HEAVY
RAINS
For the past two or three weeks rains have been quite general
over the State and in consequence the growing crops have taken
on fresh growth and vigor
COTTOV
In most of the counties there has been too much rain for this
crop and unless there is very speedily more sunshine and less
moisture the damage will be very serious Complaints are comANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893
81
ing in from various points of rust black rot blight shedding etc
and all these are aggravated by excessive rain particularly on the
light lands of the State The fields are generally too wet to plow
and grass is getting troublesome in some localities The crop is
just at its critical stage and the next few weeks will decide as to
the result At this date I think the outlook poor for a full crop
in Georgia Fair weather with occasional moderate rains is what
the plant needs now but in place of these we are having cloudy
weather with heavy rains
CORN
This crop has improved wonderfully in the past few weeks and
the State is now almost sure of a plentiful supply of this our most
valuable grain crop The very early corn in South and Middle
Georgia has been seriously injured by the dry weather of May and
June and yet in many cases this corn with a dwarfed stalk and
looking as though it would make nothing has been revived has
put out bold shoots and will make threefourths of a good crop
The very early corn is but a small proportion of the crop and the
rest is making all that the land and cultivation given it renders
possible Some reports state that certain counties will make
double the crop made last year and all report excellent prospects
A large crop is now assured in South and Middle Georgia and two
more weeks will make the crop safe in SForth Georgia There
has been some injury to bottom lands from excess of moisture and
inability on that account to work them but in the aggregate this
does not amount to much
FRUIT
The watermelon crop most of which has been shipped has
proved rather disappointing The crop has been abundant and
the shipments probably an average in the number of carloads but
the melons have as a rule been small and the prices therefore
low leaving but little profit for the grower Some fine melons
are now going north on which the growers should realize fair
profits82
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
The peach crop of the State is the largest ever grown within her
borders and the fruit never was so free of worms and other insects
and diseases The mistake made by most of the growers was in
leaving too much fruit on the trees and this with want of rain in
June causes the peaches to be smaller than usual The growers
have in some cases met with much loss by inability to obtain crates
the crate manufacturers being unable to supply the enormous de
mand The growers should be prepared for this and like emer
gencies by having at hand drying and canning plants and when it
is either impossible or unprofitable to ship their fruit they could
then can or dry it There should be no waste of a product for
which the demand is so great
Grapes are fine and abundant all over the State and are beino
largely shipped to the northern markets The pear crop is short
owing chiefly to blight for which there has as yet been found no
remedy Georgia apples will be scarce the crop being very poor
in most of the apple counties only here and there a fair crop being
found
POTATOES CANE PEAS ETC
These minor crops as they are called though of great import
ance and service to the farmers are all doing well now that the
rains have started them to growing and the prospect is excellent
for an abundant yield of each of them The area sowed in peas
is large and it is evident that Georgia farmers have learned that
there is no cheaper or better method for keeping Up the fertility
of their lands than by sowing annually in cow peas every available
acre on their farms Pastures have greatly improved in the past
few weeks and are now very fine Gardens doing well also as re
gards the later vegetables
GRAINWEEVILS AND MOTHS
QUESTION
Please give me some information as to grainweevils and moths
ANSWER
The granary weevil which is probably the one to which you
refer is an indoor insect and on account of having lost the use ofANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893
83
its wings does not venture out into the grain fields The mature
female punctures the grain with its snout and inserts an egg from
which is hatched a white fleshy legless larva which feeds and
develops within the hull The adult weevils also gnaw into the
grain and devour the mealy interior and probably do as much dam
age as the larvae
The Angoumois grain moth is undoubtedly one of the most in
jurious insects that we have in this State infecting the grains It
does not confine itself to the grain stored in cribs and bins but also
attacks standing grain in the fields The first white but soon red
eggs are deposited between the rows of grain of the ears of corn
either singly or in clusters of about two dozen both in the field
and in the granary From these eggs are hatched in four or five
days minute caterpillars which burrow into the kernels and devour
the starchy interior In about three wreeks this caterpillar reaches
maturity enters the chrysalis stage and in a few days emerges as
a winged moth the females of which proceed to deposit eggs for
another brood There are five or six broods during one season
they hibernate in the grain as caterpillars
A cheap and effective remedy for insects injurious to stored
grain is fumigating with bisulphide of carbon The bins should
be made as nearly airtight as possible by the use of boards and
heavy blankets then the liquid should be poured into several small
dishes distributed over the grain using from 1 to pounds for
every 100 biishels of grain The liquid evaporates very rap
idly and the gas being heavier than the air descends and per
meates the whole mass of corn killing all insect life with which it
comes in contact The bin should be kept closed for six hours or
more and then the covering removed and the doors and ventilators
opened Bisulphide of carbon is poisonous and highly inflam
mable and fire in any shape should not be brought near it It
however does not injure the edible or germinating principles of
the grain unless used in great excess
Hoping that this is the information desired I remain
W M SCOTT
EntomologistS4 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
FERTILIZER TERMS IN USE
QUESTION
1 Is the term very handy ash element now in use in the
fertilizer trade and does it mean acid phosphate and kainit or any
form of potash
2 I read about South Carolina rock and dont know if it has
been treated with sulphuric acid or not Am I right in saying
that floats is the finely ground South Carolina rock and acid
phosphate the same floats treated with sulphuric acid not neces
sarily gromd so fine
3 Is acid phosphate practically identical with the old super
phosphate of lime except that burnt bone was used instead of
South Carolina rock
ANSWER
1 The term ash element never has been used in the fertilizer
trade It simply means the ashes left upon burning any plant
Such ashes contain some phosphoric acid some potash and also
other salts that have been taken up by the plant from the soil
There is of course no nitrogen in the ashes that element being
driven off by the heat of combustion
2 The term South Carolina rock implies that it has not been
treated with acid After such treatment it is known as acidulated
South Carolina rock or acid phosphate Floats is the natural
South Carolina rock ground to a fine powder
3 The term acid phosphate simply means acid phosphate of
lime and is identical with the term superphosphate of lime it being
immaterial from what source the phosphoric acid is derivedANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
84n
SEPTEMBER
XESBTTT REVIEWS HIS STEWARDSHIP
THE RETIRING COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE TO FARMERS
GRATEFUL FOR SUPPORT HE GIVES A BRIEF RESUME OF
THE INNOVATIONS AND RETRENCHMENTS INAUGURATED
SINCE HE TOOK CHARGE OF THE DEPARTMENT EIGHT YEARS
AGO
Department of Agriculture
Atlanta Ga September 1 1898
As this will perhaps be my last monthly talk to the farmers
of Georgia before my successor takes charge of the affairs of the
agricultural department I wish through this medium to thank the
people of the state and the farmers more especially for the manner
in which they have held up my hands in my effort to build up
the agricultural interests of the state and to focus public attention
on some of the more important agricultural issues of the day I am
indeed grateful for the consideration and courtesy which I have
received from a large majority of my fellow citizens during my
administration of the affairs of the agricultural department and I
feel that I owe it to myself and to them to give a short review of
my stewardship since they entrusted me with so important work
Notwithstanding the wise and beneficent aims of its founders
some unchecked abuses had found their way into the agricultural
department through the inspection of oils and fertilizers duties
simple enough in themselves requiring integrity of purpose rather
than superior skill and knowledge but which brought dispropor
tionately large emoluments to the fortunate holders of such posi
tions
In justice to my predecessors it should be stated that the condi
tion referred to was the outgrowth of an unforeseen and rapidly
increased consumption of both oils and fertilizers for which no846 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
provision was made in the statute law of the state At leading
central points like Atlanta or Savannah under this system as much
as 8000 or 10000 annually were received hy individual in
spectors of oils and fertilizers these two offices being at that time
consolidated That is one inspector received about as much as
the entire supreme judiciary of the state In 1890 when I took
charge the farmers whose interests were especially to be served
by the department having found a few tares amidst an abundance
of wheat were in the front ranks of those who were willing to tear
down an institution which had been built up mainly for their pro
tection and guidance I dont think I am assuming too much
when I state that in the eight years of my incumbency the depart
ment lias gradually been growing in favor with the farmers and
that my earnest efforts to make it effectively and actively useful
to them are even now bearing fruit
The slate legislature was in session when I took charge in 1890
and I immediately siiggcsted and urged the abolishment of the
system by which oil inspectors were receiving such exhorbitant
fees An act allowing Hiom to retain only 125 per month out of
inspectors receipts and requiring them to make monthly returns to
the state treasury of all sums in excess of this amount was approved
December 20 1890 and since then by this innovation 100000
from oil and 125000 from fertilizers have been saved to the state
and placed in the treasury
In December 1891 following the same line of retrenchment
the fixed salaries of the 12 guano inspectors were reduced from
12500 to 8333 per month and only four of these were kepi on
duty the whole year the others from four to six months Here
was another saving of several thousand dollars The office ex
penses were also reduced by the salary of one clerk 180000
annually and although I he office duties have steadily increased
until they have been more than doubled and trebled the work has
been carried on by the original number of clerks with a slight
increase of salaries
During my administration the whole plan of fertilizer inspec
tion has been revolutionized The old plan was in bulk and before
leaving the factories The new bill which is now the law wasANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
84 c
most carefully planned to give full protection to both buyer and
seller It provides that the inspecting shall be done only after the
fertilizer is shipped to different points and put upon the market in
separate packages The provisions of this bill are such as to place
Georgia in the lead as to the judicious and careful supervision of
her immense fertilizer trade This law as compared with those in
force in other states is superior which is evidenced by the fact
that many inquiries have come on this subject to this department
from different southern states The Georgia fertilizer law has
finally become the basis for similar laws in her sister states
Another important change has been the removal of the state
laboratory from Athens to the capital where the important work
of analyzing every brand put on sale in the state is carried on
under the immediate supervision and inspection of the commis
sioner of agriculture This affords increased advantages and facili
ties to the state chemist in his daily routine work which has in
creased tremendously since 1890
Another innovation which has made the department the medium
of communicating valuable information to the fanners throughout
the state is the substitution of plate matter furnished to the weekly
press in lieu of the circulars and bulletins previously issued The
monthly talks and answers to questions containing practical hints
on topics connected with the farm the garden the dairy the or
chard and kindred subjects carefully arranged as to time and
season of the year are published in the weekly papers of the state
These go to the remotest sections each month and thousands of
farmers who are practically cut off from the usual sources of in
formation are thus reached and placed in touch with the busy
world and kept informed on many subjects most valuable in the
cimduct of their farm operations Besides these publicationsthe
department has issued a handsomely illustrated manual entitled
Georgia a Fair Field For Homeseekers and Investors and in
addition to this another larger volume has been prepared and issued
entitled Georgia Her Resources and Possibilities The latter
volume was intended as a sequel to The Commonwealth of Geor
gia and not only points out the various advances made in the eco
nomic industries of the state but shows by an exhibit of the re8W DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
sources of every comity throughout her length and breadth what
her boundless possibilities are Both of these volumes have been
widely circulated and widely read and 1 believe have been largely
instrumental in advertising the enormous advantages which our
state offers to those seeking homes in a healthy section where wise
laws arc rigidly enforced and where the faithful laborer will in due
time reap the rewards of faithful work
To my record in the agricultural department I can refer with
a feeling of just pride The department has been elevated to
a high plane of usefulness and the farmers throughout the state
are beginning to realize its importance and close relation which it
bears to every line of their business The opposition among them
to the department once so pronounced has subsided and it is with
gratitude that I point to the fact that my staunchest supporters
have come from the ranks of the farmers those who once so bitterly
opposed it I trust that the farmers will extend to my successor
the same cordial support that they have given to me and that he
will rise to the full measure of the vast work yet to be accomplished
through the Georgia department of agriculture
It is the farmers who keep the life blood of our country in fresh
healthy condition The business of farming feeds the whole peo
ple It is the basis of the prosperity of our transportation lines
in railroads and ships as well as of all the money transactions of
the country It pays its own taxes and much besides that should
be paid by the monied powers of the country It sends the life
blood coursing through the arteries of trade and commerce It
lies at the foundation of the moral and political power of the na
tion Without its sturdy support all that is beautiful in literature
and art and even in science would languish and die Statistics
show that but for the infusion of fresh blood from the country into
city families the latter wotdd die out in three generations
It has been said that the success of a nation is measured by the
condition of its agriculture Granting this to be true how all
important that every means agricultural departments experiment
stations farmers institutes agricultural and mechanical colleges
agricultural societies farmers clubs county and state fairs in
other words every educational engine should be used to elevate andANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 84e
broaden our agricultural interests I believe that Georgia is on
the threshold of a wonderful agricultural era May her people
from the governor down to the humblest citizen within her bord
ers work harmoniously and together to secure the advantages which
will accrue to each and every one of them when Georgia becomes
a self sustaining state buying largely perhaps but selling more
E T NESBITT Commissioner
SUGAR BEETS
QUESTION
Can sugar beets be grown successfully in Georgia and can the
sugar from them be manufactured in a small way by the farmers
ANSWER
According to the department of agriculture at Washington
sugar beets cannot be grown profitably in the southern states I
quote you what the department says on the subject
Experience has shown that the sugar beet reaches its highest
development in north temperate latitudes So far as the produc
tion of beets with high tonnage in concerned it is found that this
can be accomplished far to the south but beets grown in such local
ities are upon the whole less rich in sugar and less suitable for the
manufacture of sugar than those grown farther north It must
be remembered however that the expressions north and south do
not refer to any absolute parallels of latitude but rather to isother
mal lines which in many cases run obliquely to the parallels of
latitude and in some cases across them almost at right angles
As a result of many years of careful experimentation it may be
said that as far as temperature alone is concerned the sugar beet
attains its greatest perfection in a zone of varying width through
the center of which passes the isothermal lines of 70 degrees Fah
rciiihek for the months of June July and August
If the agricultural department at Washington is correct in the
above statement and they doubtless are the cotton states are de
barred from growing the sugar beet profitably as the southernW
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
boundary of the belt spoken of as suitable to their cultivation
passes through the central part east and west of Pennsylvania Ohio
Indiana Illinois Iowa and Nebraska and thence dips almost due
south to the boundary of Mexico The same authority however
says There are doubtless many localities lying outside of this
belt both north and south in which the sugar beet will be found
to thrive but this will be due to some exceptional qualities of the
climate or soil and not to any favorable influence of a higher or
lower temperature
My opinion is that the sugar beet would find suitable soil tem
perature and moisture in the valleys of our northern counties and
on the plateaus of our mountain ranges but not elsewhere in the
state The cost of growing sugar beets is variously estimated at
from 3000 to G000 per acre and the value of the crop at from
4000 to 7000 per acre according to yield and percentage of
saccharine matter in the beets
The latter part of your question is fully answered by the Wash
ington department as follows
On account of the elaborateness of the process and the costly
nature of the machinery which is necessary to produce beet sugar
even in a small way it is not believed that it could be profitably
made in the way indicated The department lias no knowledge of
any successful beet sugar factory of this kind There is no country
producing any notable quantity of beet sugar in which home ap
paratus costing only a few thousand dollars has any appreciable in
fluence on the output of sugar Russia has been cited as an ex
ception to this rule but the average annual output of each factory
there is in round numbers 5000000 pounds representing an aver
age consumption of 25000 tons of beets It would not be right
to encourage the attempt to manufacture beet sugar in any such
way nor should the expectation be excited among our farmers
that they will be able to make a crude article of sugar which they
can dispose of to a central factory for refining purposes
The cost of a firstclass beet sugar factory wilJi a capacity of not
less than 300 tons of beets per day will be from 225000 to
250000 In 1896 and 1897 the worlds production of cane sugar
amounted to 2747500 tons while of beet sugar the output wasANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
847
49GO000 tons In that year the beet sugar made in the United
States amounted to 40000 tons
BEST SEASON TO CUT TIMBER
QUESTION
When is the best season of the year to eut timber for durability
There seems to be various opinions on this subject
ANSWER
You are entirely correct in the statement that there are various
opinions on this subject and even in this age of education and
enlightenment men may be found who will consult some out of
date almanac to find whether the moon and the signs are right
before they will cut timber of any description or for any purpose
Of course such guides are worthless and are simply remnants of
past superstitions in which our ancestors believed but which mod
ern science has proved to be false There is however a proper
time to cut timber where durability is desired and the reason for
it is plain and simple Other things being equal timber will
naturally last longest if the tree is felled at a season when the wood
contains the smallest amount of sugar or starch or other matters
fit to feed fungi and worms So says Storer the best authority
that could be quoted on the subject At what time of the year
then is the tree in the condition indicated Why plainly when the
spring and early summer growth is completed and the winters store
of starch sugar etc is exhausted in the making of leaves twigs
fruit new wood etc Consequently the late summer and fall are
the proper seasons in which to cut timber An eminent authority
says that when limber is eut in the spring when the sap is rich
in sugar the fermentative process changes the sugar into an acid
which is the very first stage of decay and thus early started can it
be wondered at that posts and crossties do not last as long as they
would if cut when these conditions could not possibly exist In
1860 in Virginia a fence was set with posts split from an oak cut
when the leaves were of full size and vigor Twentytwo years
afterwards these posts were taken up and reset elsewhere and most
of them are doing duty yet after being used for more than 30 years84A
DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
Had these posts been cut in March or April they would not have
lasted over ten years at the utmost Away back in the time of
Julius Csesar is was found that ships were not durable when built
of timber from trees that had been cut down in the spring And
the Koman architect Vitrurius held that trees should never be
felled in the spring While at that time the want of durability
in springfelled timber was attributed to wrong causes still the
effect was well known and the people were notified of it
Xow as regards cutting timber to be used as fuel doubtless the
winter is the best time for that purpose for as an eminent writer
on the subject says any given number of sticks of cord wood that
have been cut in the winter would naturally weigh more and con
tain more combustible heatproducing matter than the same number
and kinds of sticks cut in the summer after the starch etc had
passed out from them
Another valuable point is that trees cut in the late summer will
send up but few shoots and sprouts as compared with those cut
from December to Iarch This is important to those who wish
to destroy any particular kind of tree or clear land To sum up
1 Timber for posts rails building purposes etc should be cut
in the late summer and early fall
2 For fuel cut in midwinter and up to the putting out of leaves
in the spring
3 Where you wish to prevent shoots and sprouts cut in mid
summer

THE PEACH CROPCANNING FACTORIES
QUESTION
Can you give me some idea of the size of this years peach crop
and its value to the growers I mean its net value
ANSWER
We can only approximate the size of the crop and as the returns
are not yet reported can only form a partially correct idea of its
value Besides the large amount sold at home and the thousands
of bushels wasted from inadequate shipping facilities and the longANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
84i
continued rains there were shipped from Georgia 2200 carloads
of peaches As each car contains 600 crates of 3 pecks each this
represents 450 bushels to the car in round numbers 990000 bush
els in all It is generally agreed that at least onethird of the fruit
was wasted The demand for crates was much larger than the
supply The peach crop matures and is marketed in a very limited
time and the delay in securing crates caused a heavy loss of the
most saleable peaches while thousands of bushels of second qual
ity were either fed to the pigs or suffered to rot on the ground
Had there been canning factories and evaporators conveniently
located much of this loss could have been prevented and instead
of paying larger sums the coming season for canned and evaporated
peaches shipped into the state from outside sources the home de
mand always a steady one could have been supplied by our own
people Canning factories can be so quickly erected that even
after the crop has become set and a fair estimate of its amount is
thus rendered possible enterprising workers may get everything
in readiness for utilizing the surplus fruit should the promise of
the crop justify the outlay Under the conditions surrounding
our peach production Georgia being the largest producer and ship
per in the Union it will certainly pay to gather up the fragments
that nothing be lost We trust that in the future adequate ar
rangements will be made to utilize as nearly as possible every bushel
of Georgias truly wonderful peach crop
SHALLOW AND DEEP PLOWING
QUESTION
Please give me in your Answers to Questions the advanta
ges if any of deep over shallow plowing in preparing land for
crops
ANSWER
If there is any good argument in favor of shallow plowing in
the preparation of land for any crop I have never heard it and
yet the great majority of farmers in Georgia continue plowing
their fields to a depth of three or four inches utterly ignoring the
fact that deeper plowing would in most cases increase their crops84j
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
thirty to fifty and even one hundred per cent Year after year
the three or four inches of top soil is stirred and planted in various
crops diminishing each year in yield until finally the soil is said
to be worn out while in many cases just underneath the exhausted
top soil lies an untouched subsoil rich in plantfood or which
brought gradually to the surface will by exposure to the air and
sunshine become fertile and productive of good crops Surely
there is more in the man than there is in the land In advo
cating deep plowing I do not mean that the plow should be run
so as to bring to the surface two or three inches of the clay subsoil
at once for in most cases this would prove an injury rather than a
benefit but I do mean that each year a little of the subsoil should
be brought to the surface and incorporated with the top soil which
would thus be gradually deepened until in the course of a few
years we would have a top soil eight to ten inches deep capable of
resisting drouths and of producing bountiful crops This is no
imaginary theory but is one that is being put in practice every
year by progressive and successful farmers and if in universal
use would add greatly to the productiveness and therefore to the
value of our farm lands
Every farmer in preparing his garden for planting breaks the
land as deeply as possible and many follow in the turning furrow
with a subsoil plow breaking up the underlying hardpan to a
depth of several inches Experience has taught them that to raise
vegetables successfully the land must be deeply broken and well
prepared In what then do the field crops differ from the garden
crops that the latter should be so much more favored Are they
not both dependent upon the moisture and plantfood that their
roots can obtain from the earth Why then should we expect
rfield crops to obtain a full supply of these essentials under condi
tions that would insure a failure in the garden Try it for your
self on the average upland of Georgia Break up one acre of land
in the usual way viz three to four inches deep on the adjoining
acre break in the same way only following in each furrow of the
turnplow with a subsoil to an additional depth of five or six inches
use the same fertilizer or no fertilizer at all on both acres and I
will venture the assertion that the deeplyplowed acre will produceANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
SU
from fifty to one hundred per cent more than the other except
in the exceptional years of abundant rains through the entire
growing season Try it for yourself and be convinced and stop
scratching over twenty acres of land when ten acres properly pre
pared will make just as much while in the cultivation much labor
will be saved Remember however that in subsoiling more
harm than good will result if the clay subsoil is at all wet In
that event the action of the plow will tend to patch and knead the
clay into a compact mass impervious to both roots and moisture
This danger must be closely watched and guarded against for the
surface soil may be in excellent condition for plowing while the
soil below is entirely too wet
Deep plowing not only affords a greater range for the roots of
plants but it also renders the soil capable of holding a much larger
amount of water Every farmer has seen shallowplowed soil
swept away to the depth of the plowing by a heavy rain whereas
had the land been deeply broken doubtless the water would have
been held by the soil not only without any damage but with abso
lute and great benefit to the growing or prospective crop Many
persons have tried subsoiling and failing to get good results have
denounced the practice as a waste of time and labor They made
the mistake of plowing the subsoil when too wet which simply re
sulted in compacting it and when the surface water dried out it
was harder and more impervious to roots than before the plow
disturbed it We all know how injurious it is to plow the surface
soil when too wet and the very same results hold good when ap
plied to the subsoil
To sum up the advantages
1 Subsoiling permits the roots of plants to penetrate deeper
than they otherwise would and thus enables the plants to resist
drouth
2 It gives practically a larger acreage to the farmer as one acre
properly subsoiled will produce as much as one and a half to two
acres of similar land not subsoiled
3 It brings within the reach of plants additional food supplies
which otherwise would be inaccessible to them841
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
4 It absorbs and holds for the future use of the growing crop
the heavy rainfalls which would otherwise run off and be lost
5 Finally it enables the surface plow to go deeper with lesa
expenditure of strength
Try it and be convincedANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893
85
THE COTTON PLANT
SOMETHING OF ITS HISTORY CULTIVATION
DISEASES AND ENEMIES
MANURING
History tells us that eight hundred years before the coming of
Christ cotton was grown in India and doubtless long before that
time people of that ancient civilization turned out with their rude
machinery such fabrics as have not been equaled in fineness until
very recent times
At a later date the cultivation and manufacture of cotton was
introduced into China and Japan also into Arabia and Asia Minor
and all along the Mediterranean coast of Africa and was carried by
the Moors at a still later period into Spain and some of the Mediter
ranean islands
When Columbus first discovered the New World as it was
called he found cotton growing in the West Indies which the
natives skillfully wove into cloth Pizarro the first white explorer
and conquerer of Peru found cotton growing in that country and
Cortez in his cruel and merciless conquest of Mexico gathered the
growing cotton and with it padded the clothing of his soldiers to
protect them from the arrows of the natives
But while cotton has thus been known and used for hundreds
of years it is only within comparatively recent times that it has
become one of the greatest factors in the commerce of the world
One hundred yearsago this country raised 25000 bales of cotton
Now we raise from 8000000 to 10000000 bales while Egypt
India Brazil and other countries make up the 13000000 hales
which are now required to supply the spindles of the world This
almost magical increase in production is the result of the invention
of the saw gin in 1793 by Eli Whitney Before that date the seed
were separated from the lint by hand a slow and laborious occupa
tion which effectually debarred any decided increase in the crop
There are men in Georgia today who remember when it was the
custom to give each member of the family after supper a pint
measure of seed cotton from which the seed were to be handpicked
before bedtime86
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
In addition to Whitneys invention which made cotton raising
profitable wonderful improvements have been made in spinning
and weaving enabling the mills to handle and convert into a great
variety of goods all the cotton that the world thus far has been able
to produce Improvements in ginning and manufacturing appear
to go hand in hand with the increased population but methods
of production have improved but little in the last fifty years and
the land is still scratched and butchered and exhausted even as
it was in the wasteful and extravagant days of slavery In the
earlier history of cotton culture in this country and indeed up to
thirtyfive years since the seed after being separated from the lint
was considered of no value in the rich sections of the western cot
ton states and were either burned or hauled to the nearest bayou
and clumped into the water to get rid of them In the older and
poorer cotton states they were usually used as a fertilizer under
corn or small grain Now however no seed are thrown away but
whenever they can be reached by river or railway they are being
keenly sought for and purchased by the oil mills at a price ranging
from ten to fifteen cents a bushel to be converted by them into
the valuable commercial products of oil meal and hulls The
mills get from a ton of seed 40 to 45 gallons of oil 685 to 700 lbs
of meal and 715 to 725 lbs of hulls in addition to some 200 lbs
of linters obtained by reginning the seed The greater proportion
of the oil made in this country is used in making food products such
as refined lard cottolene butterine and the salad and cooking oils
Several million gallons go to Italy and other countries of Southern
Europe and come back to us as pure olive oil for salads etc or
as the delicate and palatable oil in the sardine boxes of France and
Spain
The meal obtained from crushing the seed enters very largely
into the manufacture of fertilizers and is yearly growing in favor
as a valuable cattle food The lmlls that a few years ago were
burned or hauled off and thrown away have been found valuable
as a substitute for hay in feeding cattle and at this time readily
command from three to four dollars a ton for that purpose
The oil mills are rapidly multiplying in number and the industry
promises to assume imroBnse proportions in a few yearsANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
87
Should all the seed from a crop of 9000000 bales of cotton be
worked up by the oil mills the result would be 180000000 gallons
of oil 1500000 tons of meal and 1500000 tons of hulls At
present prices these products would be worth 61500000 which
is more than the present value of 2000000 bales of middling cot
ton So rapidly are the oil mills increasing that in all probability
this result will be practically reached in the next quarter of a
century88
DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA

CULTURE OF COTTON
GEOGRAPHY OF THE COTTON BELT
By Harry Hammond
The cotton belt covers 24 degrees of longitude and 10 degrees of
latitude Excluding from the count the greater part of Virginia
more than 100000 square miles of western Texas and the whole of
Kentucky Kansas Missouri Utah California Arizona and Xew
Mexico in all of which cotton has been cultivated and where a
larger demand might cause its culture to be extended the cotton
growing region measures nearly 600000 square miles almost one
tliird of the total area of settlement in 1890 of the United States
The 20000000 acres planted in cotton occupies barely 5 acres in
every 100 of this extensive region Scarcely 50 per cent of this
territory is in farms and not more than onefifth has at any time
been tilled This section contained in 1890 a population of over
8000000 whites and something over 5000000 negroes in all
13651006 every 100 of them producing 53 bales of cotton an
average of 254 pounds of lint per capita
The Mississippi River turned from its southeasterly course to
one south of west by the bluff lands of Tennessee Mississippi and
Louisiana divides the cotton belt into two nearly equal eastern and
western portions Bordering the west of the flood plain of the
great river are the oak and hickory uplands of Arkansas Louis
iana and Texas stretching westward more than 200 miles to the
black Cretaceous prairies of Texas These black prairies descend
from Indian Territory in a broad crescent its concave edge facing
west and enclosing the more elevated redloam prairies until it thins
out into the coast prairies of the southwest in the neighborhood of
Austin To the north the oak and hickory is bounded by the red
lands of Arkansas The counterparts of these regions are found
east of the Mississippi Moving east from the bluff and yellow
loam tablelands that rise from the flood plain of the river we again
meet the oak and hickory lands in Mississippi and Alabama BeANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893
8i
yond these another crescent of black Cretaceous prairies its concave
edge however facing east reaches from northwestern Mississippi
to southeastern Alabama Northeast from the concave border of
these prairies lie the valley lands of Alabama Georgia and Ten
nessee the Coal easure of those States the gravelly hills of Ala
bama and the central basin of Tennessee Near the termination
of these prairies in southeastern Alabama another region is en
countered This is a prolongation of the Alleghanies and passes
from the locality named in a broad belt to the northeast across
the States of Alabama Georgia South Carolina and Worth Caro
lina It is known as the metamorphic or Piedmont region or in
popular parlance as the region of gigantic rocks On the north
eastern border of thisregion in North Carolina the pine hills are
met The pine hill region reaches southwestward along the south
ern border of the Piedmont region and the Alabama and Missis
sippi prairies traversing all the Atlantic and Gulf States inter
rupted only by the delta of the Mississippi until it crosses Louisi
ana and reaches the oak and hickory of Texas South of the pine
hill region is a broad belt of level pine lands coextensive with it and
everywhere touching either the Atlantic or the Gulf coasts until
it reaches the coast prairies of Louisiana and Texas where it ter
minates
In 1801 South Carolina led the other States in the production
of cotton In 1850 Alabama stood first in the amount produced
Mississippi led in 18601880 and Texas stood first in this respect in
1890
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON COTTON CULTURE
The matter of the first consideration in the culture of cotton as
in that of any other crop is to prevent the removal of the soil by
washing Everywhere in the hill country neglect in this regard
has resulted in the denudation of the soil from extensive areas of
cultivated fields rendering them barren and devastating other
fields lying at a lower level Nor does the injury stop here The
public roads become convenient channels along which to their
destruction these muddy floods at last pour into the streams dam90
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
ming them up causing freshets and converting fertile bottoms
into miasmatic marshes The evil is generally recognized and to
some but to a wholly inadequate extent remedies are applied by
terraces and hillside plowing Where this is thoroughly done and
persisted in it has proved eminently successful A very common
error has however attended the practice It is that some fall
should be given the line of the terrace to allow the water to escape
The result is that while one gully may be cured by such a terrace
a larger amount of water is concentrated at its lower terminus and
another and larger gtilly created there The terrace should be on
an exact level and must from time to time be amended on account
of changes occurring in the spaces between the terraces A spirit
level may be used to establish the line of terrace but a simpler
cheaper and more accurate implement is a compass made of light
stuff and strengthened with a crossbar The legs should be 15
feet apart at the ground coming together 7 feet above it At
the apex a cord is suspended with a weight attached to act as a
plumbbob When the feet are on a level the place where the
plumb cord crosses the bar is marked In stepping off the terrace
the level will be exact when the plumb line corresponds with the
mark on the cross bar It would seem proper that legislation
should compel owners on the higher levels to restrain the rains
which falling on their fields issue in destructive floods on their
neighbors at a lower level1
SUBSOILIXG
Subsoiling and deep breaking are open to question There is
no question that a deep mellow soil is to be preferred but the ef
forts to obtain it are limited by the cost by the risk of injury to
some soils through leaching and to others by bringing sterile earth
to the surface Sandy soils may suffer in the first way and heavy
clays in the second Experiments to determine the value of these
operations are conflicting and inconclusive
U S Department of Agriculture Bulletin No 20ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893
91
ROTATION
Rotation of crops opens a wide field of inquiry The usual
practices have been noticed and the value of broadleaved and nar
rowleaved plants or root crops and crops maturing above ground in
rotations might be mentioned but there is an absence of exact
knowledge here which is a cause of much distrust The rotation
of growths observed everywhere in nature shows its necessity but
this rotation differs with every slight variation of soil and nothing
is accurately known about it Such knowledge would have to go
far beyond the theory of the exhaustion of certain fertilizing con
stituents of the soil It would have to deal with hosts of living
animals and vegetable friends and foes who fight for or against
each growing crop and render changes necessary
The farmers mind grows confused over the complicated con
ditions of this great struggle and after vainly attempting to under
stand and conform to them he withdraws turns his fields over to
nature and lets them rest And nature resuming her work of
growing heavier and heavier crops every year restores the fertility
which man has destroyed by his exhaustive culture Even Peter
Henderson the great gardener said rest was necessary to his gar
dens once in five years
Exhaustion of the soil differs in intensity but for the most part
it is only temporary Fields considered utterly used up and
thrown out for years when cultivated again have produced better
than those which have been under a management more or less care
ful Nevertheless this temporary exhaustion must inevitably oc
cur in every soil not treated to restoratives notwithstanding that
full crops of cotton have been grown on some soils for more than
forty successive years
PLANTING AND CULTIVATION
Bedding up land previous to planting is universally practiced
Where manures are drilled in this is indispensable It forms a
warm seedbed in the cool weather of early spring and possesses
other advantages The plants are usually left 2 to 3 inches above
the middle of the row which in 4foot rows give a slope of an inch92
DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
to the foot This causes the plow in cultivating to lean from the
plants to go deepest in the middle of the row and as a conse
quence to cut fewer roots
Tour feet is the usually accepted distance between the rows
The distance between the plants seems of little importance within
the limits of 8 to 14 inches Still as nothing but cotton stalks
will make cotton it is unsafe on average land to risk wider spans
than 1 foot Nothing conclusive has been settled about checked
cotton It may save a hoeing which should cost about 30 cent
an acre and as plowing is done at about the same cost the question
of saving is not determined The skillful use of the hoe does the
most accurate and thorough work Good crops are made with the
hoe without using the plow at all It may be said that cotton
growing was originally established entirely by hoe culture even
the soil for planting being prepared with the hoe
The perfect cotton planter is not yet invented It should drop
five or six seed in a single line at regular intervals say a foot
apart In very dry seasons a narrow and deep coulter furrow the
dirt closing in behind it is run immediately in advance of the
planter It freshens up the bed and assists very much the germi
nation of the seed
Much is said about deep and shallow culture and many believe
that they can affect the plant beneficially by practicing the one or
the other The only certainty is that all grass and weeds must be
vigorously kept down and that the capillary pores through which
the moisture escapes after rains must be broken The first is most
thoroughly effected by a broad sharp sweep which takes every
thing it meets while going shallower than most other plows Har
rows and cultivators are apt to be turned aside by stubborn bunches
of grass which thus escape them But the sweep does not distrib
ute the loose dirt as generally as a light harrow does and therefore
is not as effective in the mulching process The effect of cutting
roots depends entirely upon the season that follows the operation
The following experiments will show how difficult it is to arrive at
results in this matter In the month of June the cotton plants
being about 18 inches high dirt was drawn up 6 inches aroundANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1895
93
some it was drawn away to the depth of 6 inches from others the
roots of others were cut all round close to the stalk to the depth of
6 inches and the next stalks had all the roots cut off below 6
inches These last wilted in a few moments from this heroic treat
ment but seemed to recover in a few days A rainy season ensued
a vigorous growth set in and when the crop matured no difference
could be observed in the fruitfulness of the different series of plants
The date of cotton planting reaches from March 1 to June 10
Cotton is seldom planted at the latter date except when put in after
a crop of oats A good crop is made when the season is especially
favorable but the occurrence of drouth makes it exceedingly un
certain The plants also are more liable to the attacks of cater
pillars which only make their appearance in force late in the
season They prefer to feed on the younger and fresher stalks
and it was thought in some sections that the frequent recurrence
of the cotton worm was in some degree promoted by the late plant
ing of cotton after oats which was much in vogue at one time
At least they were not so bad after it was abandoned or before it
was commenced The last regular planting is May 20 under the
mountains in Georgia The following are the dates in the vari
ous sections
Planting commences March 1 in southern Texas March 15
middle Louisiana Texas coast March 20 southern Mississippi
March 25 South Carolina coast pine hills of South Carolina and
Georgia middle Mississippi April 1 Mississippi bottoms middle
Texas southern Arkansas April 5 northwest Georgia April 7
middle Arkansas April 10 west Tennessee Piedmont North
Carolina South Carolina Georgia upper Alabama north Arkan
sas upper Texas April 20 northern Louisiana May 20 northeast
Georgia
The first blooms appear May 15 in southern Texas May 20
central Louisiana May 25 central Texas southwest Georgia June
1 Mississippi bottoms southern Arkansas middle Georgia June
10 pine hills South Carolina middle Alabama central Georgia
Tennessee June 20 northwest Louisiana middle Arkansas north
west Georgia southern North Carolina July 4 northern Arkan94
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
sas northern Texas July 10 northeast North Carolina July 25
northwest Tennessee
The first bolls open May 15 in southern Texas June 25 middle
Texas July 1 south Louisiana July 10 middle Louisiana July
15 southern Georgia pine hills South Carolina August 1 north
west Louisiana south Arkansas coast North Carolina September
1 Piedmont North Carolina redloam prairies Texas September
15 north Arkansas
Picking commences July 10 in southern Texas August 1 south
ern Louisiana central Texas August 15 pine hills South Caro
lina coast of Georgia and South Carolina Mississippi uplands
August 25 northwest Louiiana Mississippi bottoms September
1 north Texas coast of North Carolina northwest Georgia Octo
ber 1 northwest Texas north Aikansas
PERIOD OF GROWTH
The following data relating to the above and other important
points in the life of the cotton plant are from records carefully
kept in South Carolina near Augusta Ga
Of 100 seed planted 10 in a hill March 29 1887 24 came up
of which 2 died 39 could not be found and were probably eaten
by insects 23 rotted and 14 seemed sound but failed to germinate
The first plant appeared in 14 days after planting the 10 hills
were up to a complete stand in 18 days and no seed came up after
30 days This season was cool and wet but in very dry seasons
seed may lie in the ground from April 1 to June 10 and then come
up to a good stand The third leaf made its appearance in 8 days
after the plant came up and in 22 days after the seed was planted
the fourth leaf appeared the day following The significance of
this observation is that after the true leaves appear the plant
being no longer dependent on the seedleaves for its supply of nour
ishment is not so liable to injury from cold
Other series of seed were put in the ground of later dates and
the following observations recorded from day to day The first
form bud was seen on a plant coming up in April 41 days afterANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893
95
the plant appeared and 53 days after it was planted For all the
other plants coming up in April the average was 40 days to the
form ranging from 34 to 45 days appearing earlier in the warniev
Aveather and later in the cooler weather For plants coming up
in May the average was 29 days from the appearance of the plant
to the first form ranging from 25 to 39 days to which 8 days may
he added to show time from planting to forming Forms appear
ing in May bloomed in 21 to 32 days average 25 days forms ap
pearing in June bloomed in 20 to 27 days average 24 days forms
appearing in July bloomed in 20 to 26 days average 24 days
forms appearing in August bloomed in 21 to 27 days average 25
days Blooms appearing in June made open bolls in 45 to 56
days average 52 days blooms appearing in July made open bolls
in 64 to 71 days average 65 days blooms appearing in August
made open bolls in 46 to 58 days average 52 days Forms on
May 24 made open bolls August 9 forms on June 24 made open
bolls September 21 forms on July 24 made open bolls October 8
forms on August 24 made open bolls November 9 As killing
frosts occur about November 17 it would seem that the latest
blooms that can be counted on would be about September 1 From
this it follows that the minimum period from planting to the first
open boll is 120 days and the maxinmm period is 157 days The
interval of 37 days between these periods is more than sufficient
to fix a full crop of fruit if the condition of the weather is favor
able to the plant at the fruiting stage
SHEDDING OF FORMS BLOOMS AND BOLLS
When the weather is not favorable at the fruiting stage the
otherwise hardy cotton plant displays its greatest weakness It
sheds its forms its blooms and often its halfgrown bolls The
following table condensed from the daily record above referred to
represents to some extent the loss occasioned in this manner The
plants having received very careful attention the loss exhibited
is a good deal below the average sustained in ordinary field cultureDEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
Propoi iion of forms which produc bolls
Number of plants Forms Blooms and bolls dropping Bolls maturing Per cent maturing
Date of coming up Appeared Died Bloomed
7 10 2 1 1700 2586 154 60 1231 1819 1l6 24 469 667 48 36 163 191 12 19 306 468 36 7 18
18
23
Julv 11

The 1580 bolls picked before September 10 weighed 205
pounds or about 77 bolls to the pound 432 bolls picked Septem
ber 19 weighed 575 pounds or 75 bolls to the pound 293 bolls
picked October 5 weighed 3 pounds or 97 bolls to the pound 493
bolls picked October 24 weighed 35 pounds or 140 bolls to the
pound The average for the whole season was 85 bolls to the
pound
These plants were fertilized at the rate of 936 pounds to the
acre onefourth acid phosphate and threefourths cottonseed meal
They were planted in 4foot rows 18 inches between the hills
which would give 9360 plants to the acre If an acre had fruited
as these 20 plants did and every form had stuck and matured into
an average boll the yield would have been 25952 pounds of seed
cotton to the acre a yield undreamed of As it turned out they
actually produced at the rate of 4400 pounds to the acre a yield
that has seldom if ever been attained Such calculations show
how misleading it is to apply estimates on small patches to field
crops but it also shows that much more might be obtained by
greater care and precision
A more thorough study of the cotton plant might discover means
to obviate this great waste At present cotton growers are at a
loss to form a correct idea of the cause or to apply any effectual
remedy A week or two before cotton opens sometimes a month
the crop being clean field work stops Formerly much important
work of repairs and improvement was done during this interval
Sow the hands that were engaged in cultivating the crop are dis
charged and no work except what is absolutely indispensable is
doneANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893
97
PICKING
Cotton picking is the most tedious and expensive operation in
cotton growing The picking of the crop of 1894 is estimated to
have cost not less than 60000000 The most of the picking
was paid for at 50 cents per hundredweight and planters in Texas
who grew as much as 2500 bales said it cost them 9 a bale to
gather their crops It is very light work at the most pleasant
season of the year and it is effectively performed by women and
even by small children as well as by men In the early days of
this culture the amounts of cotton picked were small It is rela
ted in the Southern Cultivator that the report that a young man
had picked 100 pounds in a day created great excitement among
the farmers in Georgia who came from far and near to see it done
and gave a barbecue in honor of the achievement For a long
time this has been a low average for ordinary pickers
As early as 1839 there is a record of 86 handsmen women
and children old and youngaveraging over 133 pounds of seed
cotton apiece a day In October 1894 10 convicts of the Mis
sissippi penitentiary picked in 5 days 18340 pounds of cotton
a daily average of 333 pounds per man The picking season will
average in duration at least 100 days and picking at the above
rate would turn out 22 bales to the hand It has never been as
sumed that one man could cultivate more land than would make
10 bales so that one man is able at average full work to gather as
much as two can make This however is very far from being
the case and in the Mississippi bottoms the same year it was not
unusual to hear of tenants and space workers who did not gather
during the whole season as much as a bale to each picker in their
families Strikes among cotton pickers are not made by combina
tion but they are executed as effectually and destructively by in
dividuals It is very difficult to get them to work until the cotton
is fully open and it is hard to stimulate them to pick over 100
pounds a day The damage resulting from slack work here is
often very serious due in part to the loss of some cotton by falling1
out and to an equal extent to the injury to the quality of that98
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
which is gathered the staple being soiled by dust and stained by
the coloring matter from the bolls It has been thought that the
production of cotton would be limited by the amount that could
be gathered This limit is still remote Excluding the popula
tion of towns and villages who do a considerable share in cotton
picking and deducting onethird for children under 11 years of
age there remains an exclusively rural population in the cotton
States of over 6800000 all more or less occupied in cotton grow
ing and capable at the low average of 100 pounds a day of picking
daily more than 450000 bales or the very large crop of 1894 in 20
or 21 days and if they did the same task during the whole season
they could gather four or five times as much as the largest crop
yet made
Much skill and capital have been expended in efforts to make a
machine that would pick cotton It cannot be said that any has
proved successful in solving a problem that seems about equal to
that of gathering strawberries or raspberries by machinery This
could be done if it were not for the injury to the berries and if
they were to be made into jam perhaps assorting and washing
machines might be invented to utilize a portion of the harvest
Cottonpicking machines gather limbs leaves and bolls and pass
the whole through a cleaning separator that it is claimed leaves
the cotton in the condition of average cotton picked by hand A
cottonpicking machine with a driver and two horses taking a row
at a time would go over about 6 acres a day The cost of the
work of an expensive and complicated machine as this must neces
sarily be would hardly be less than 5 a day and if the cotton were
gathered at the right stage there should not be more than 200
pounds to the acre open Cotton left in the field for a fuller open
ing than that is liable to serious damage and in case of storms to
almost total loss The machine would thus gather at the most
1200 pounds a day at a cost of 416 cents per hundredweight the
present cost being from 40 to 50 cents and so highly paid at that
that there is little doubt it will be reduced to 30 cents or less as
it has been already in some localities and even then expert pickers
will earn from 1 to 150 a day and moreANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
99
In improving shortstaple cotton there is a growing tendency to
develop varieties which take on and open all their fruit at nearly
the same time If such a variety were perfected it would sim
plify the gathering by machinery especially as such varieties at
present shed their leaves about the time the cotton begins to open
thus removing the character of trash which it is more difficult to
separate than either the stems or the bolls
EXPERIMENTS IN COTTON CULTURE BY THE EXPERIMENT
STATION
The agricultural experiment stations in the cotton belt have con
ducted relatively few field experiments on cotton culture their
work in this line having been largely confined to the best distance
between the plants and the effects of topping While the results
of these experiments have not been conclusive some of them afford
suggestions of value to the planter and the experimenter The fol
lowing brief summary prepared by Mr J F Duggar of this office
presents an outline of the work of the stations in this line with
references to the published reports
In a single test at the Alabama Canebrake Station planting on
high beds resulted in a larger yield than was obtained with flat beds
on a black slough bottom a kind of soil which is very retentive of
water There was only a very slight difference in yield between
ridges made on an unbroken center and those formed by bedding
on a center furrow The usual recommendation of the stations
is to plant on low or flattened ridges1
At Camden Ark on a field previously planted in corn a larger
yield was obtained by breaking the land and then forming the beds
than by making the ridges without previous plowing the difference
being 292 pounds of seed cotton per acre On ridges made in Feb
ruary the yield was slightly greater than on those made just before
planting in May2
Subsoiling proved profitable in one test made at Athens Ga
1 Alabama Canebrake Sta Bui 4
2 Arkansas Sta Bui 28100 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
and in the same locality results favored planting later than April
101
At the Alabama Canebrake Station cotton growing on tile
drained land was in most seasons more productive than on un
drained land2
The depth and extent of the root growth of a plant furnish sug
gestions as to methods of preparing and tilling the soil At the
South Carolina Station the taproot of the cotton plant extended to
a depth of more than 3 feet when the plant was grown on a light
sandy soil with subsoil of the same character On a loam with a
more compact subsoil the taproot terminated abruptly as soon as
the hardpan was encountered at a depth of 0 inches below the sur
face At the Alabama College Station the taproot penetrated ver
tically to a depth of 12 inches or 3 inches into the subsoil its course
then becoming horizontal
In South Carolina it was observed that most of the lateral roots
commenced about 3 inches below the surface and never went be
low the upper inches of soil
In a garden soil of sandy drift and pebbles the Alabama Sta
tion found a young cotton plant 3 inches high having one of its
lateral roots 3 feet 4 inches long the end of the root being only 3
inches below the surface Almost identical measurements were
made of the roots of a young cotton plant at the Arkansas Station
In Alabama from a cotton plant 2 feet high and just beginning to
bloom one lateral root extended more than 5 feet Some of the
lateral roots began only 1 or 2 inches below the surface The
position of the roots was such that the experimenter estimated that
the usnal deep cultivation would have destroyed fourfifths of the
lateral roots which extended at right angles to the row
In this we have a strong hint as to the superiority of shallow
over deep cultivation a superiority which was proved by experi
ments extending over several years at the Alabama College Ala
bama Canebrake Georgia and Mississippi stations We find only
1 Proc Georgia State Agl SoC Feb 1874 p 67
2 Alabama College Sta Bui 4 1887 Bui 3 1888 Alabama Canebrake Sta
Buls 11 and 147fe
ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 189S
e
two instances in which shallow culture failed to affor
yield than deep culture1
At the Georgia Station an experiment to determine thebest dis
tance between cotton plants was conducted in five different years
The rows were uniformly 4 feet wide and the attempt was made
to leave single plants either 1 2 3 or 4 feet apart in the drill It
generally happened however that the stand was much more imper
fect on the plats planted close than on the others This is equiva
lent to saying that the least average distance between plants was
somewhat greater than 12 inches The following table gives the
yields obtained each year with different distances on land heavily
fertilized
Y
feSfosi
Yields in pozmds per acre of seed cotton from planting at different distances
Ytar 1 by 4 feet 2 by 4 lett 3 by 4 feet 4 by 4 feet
1891 Pounds 1943 1616 1903 2065 2270 Pounds 2027 1516 1905 1812 2047 Poxtnds 2007 1501 1925 1843 1985 Pounds 1833 1439 1770 1671 1767
1892
193
1891
1895

1900 1861 1852 1696

The figures giving the average yield for five years indicate that
even on land so rich or well fertilized as to produce one and one
third bales of cotton per acre a distance of 4 feet in the row be
tween plants reduces the yield considerably On the whole the
results seem to indicate that with 4foot rows when the date of
planting is rather late there is an advantage in spacing cotton
plants 12 to 16 inches rather than in allowing more room in the
drill
The experimenter however in summing up the results for the
five years expresses a preference for a distance of 2 by 4 feet when
early planting is practicable and when a yield of 1800 to 2000
i Alabama Canebrake Sta Bui 4 Alabama Dept of Agr Bui 6 1886 Ala
bama College Sta Bui 4 1887 Bui 3 1888 Arkansas Sta Kpt 1888 p 117
Georgia Sta Buls 11 and 16 Mississippi Sta Rpt 1889 p 13 Bpt 1890 p 16
South Carolina Sta Rpt 1889 p 81102
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
pounds of seed cotton can be expected In this case early thin
ning and rapid and thorough cultivation are recommended
That close planting favors early maturity and hence is desir
able when the date of planting is late or where the growing season
is short as in the northern part of the cotton belt is indicated by
the following facts noted in the experiment of 1892 The total
yield varied little for plantings at different distances but at the first
picking the yields for distances of 1 2 3 and 4 feet were 593 449
323 and 221 pounds respectively At the second picking the
yield was again greatest with close planting However at the
third picking the yield was greater as the distance was greater and
this was yet more strikingly true at the fourth picking showing
the tendency of wide spacing to delay maturity
The yield of cotton per plant as influenced by distance in the
drill was determined in the same experiments as follows
Yield of seed cotton per plant at different distances in rows 4 feet apart
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
Average of 5 years
1 foot
Pound
0210
169
275
243
275
234
2 feet
Pound
0405
287
417
325
411
3 feet
309
Pound
0565
423
561
483
557
4 feet
Pound
0687
542
690
566
665
626
From this table we see that with plants at a little more than 12
inches apart each plant averaged more than onefifth pound of seed
cotton at 2 feet apart a little more than onethird pound at 3 feet
apart onehalf pound and at 4 feet fiveeighths pound The
yield per plant varied greatly in different years In this connec
tion it should be remembered that the minimum yield in these ex
periments was 1 bale per acre
In 1893 the Georgia Station conducted an experiment to ascer
tain the best distance between the rows Each plant was al
lowed 6 square feet of ground one series of plats bearing plants at
distances of 3 feet by 24 inches another 4 feet by 18 inches
another 5 feet by 144 inches and another 6 feet by 12 inchesANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 189S
103
The yield was greatest1964 pounds of seed cotton per acre
when the distance was 3 feet by 24 inches and the yield per acre
and the product per plant decreased as the rows were widened with
the accompanying closer planting in the drill In other words
the yield increased as the space assigned to each plant approached
a perfect square A repetition of this test in 1895 confirmed the
results of 1893 On land of less capacity than 1 bale per acre it
would probably be well to reduce the width of rows to 3A or even 3
feet It may be safely urged that land which will not produce
the maximum crop of which it is capable with rows not less than 3
feet wide cannot profitably be cultivated in cotton1
In a test made by the University of Georgia at Athens the yield
decreased very slightly and very gradually as the rows widened
from 2 to 4 feet the difference being scarcely sufficient to pay
for the extra expense of cultivating narrow rows In this experi
ment the plants stood close together in the row10 to 15 inches
apart and the yield averaged a little more than half a bale per
acre On the same field single stalks and groups of 2 and 3 plants
were left in a place the interval for all being the same10 to 15
inches The yields were practically identical2 Other experi
ments notably those conducted at the North Louisiana Station
suggest that the cotton plant under some conditions does not suf
fer from the presence of 2 stalks in a place a point of advantage
where planting in checks is desirable
At the North Louisiana Station it was found in 1888 that with
close planting in the drill every increase in the width of the row
beyond 4 feet reduced the yield As between narrower rows the
results were not conclusive3
In 1889 single stalks were left 8 12 16 and 20 inches apart in
the drill 2 stalks in a place were also left at these distances and at
24 inches apart The maximum yield of seed cotton was one and
onethird bales per acre Whenever the distance was greater than
16 inches the yield decreased whether 1 or 2 plants stood in a
1 Georgia Sta Buls 11 16 20 24 and 27
2 Proc Georgia State Agl Soc Feb 1874 p 67
J Louisiana Stas Bui 22 old ser104
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
place Even closer planting seemed to be slightly advantageous1
The abovementioned experiment was repeated in the following
year when the maximum yield of seed cotton1690 pounds
was obtained on the rows in which 2 plants stood together at in
tervals of 16 inches For distances greater than 16 inches the yield
decreased as in the preceding year both for 1 and 2 stalks in a
place With single stalks the yields at 8 12 and 16 inches were
practically identical Planting at a distance of 16 inches has the
advantage of rendering cultivation easier than closer planting2
When again repeated in 1891 the maximum yield1800 pounds
of seed cotton per acrewas obtained on the two plats having 2
stalks in a place at intervals of both 16 and 24 inches For single
stalks distances of 16 and 20 inches proved of equal value and
yielded more than closer planting3 The next year the maximum
yield960 pounds of seed cotton per acrewas obtained from 2
stalks in a place at intervals of 24 inches
Single stalks were most productive at distances of 16 and 20
inches yielding respectively 910 and 920 pounds of seed cotton4
In 1893 the greatest yield1160 pounds of seed cotton per acr
was produced by 2 stalks together at a distance of 24 inches Sin
gle stalks at intervals of 12 inches gave a yielding almost identical
witli the above1140 pounds per acre5
In 1892 early maturity was apparently favored by rather close
planting at the first picking the single stalks of groups of two
growing at intervals of 12 inches had matured a larger proportion
of their total crop than had the plants grown at any other distance
In 1893 however close planting did not notably increase the pro
portion of total yield secured at the first picking
In 1893 at the experiment station at Baton Eouge La 1 and 2
stalks were left at intervals of 12 18 and 24 inches in rows 3 4
and 5 feet apart In rows 3 feet and 4 feet apart a distance of 18
inches between single plants afforded the largest yield in rows 5
1 Louisiana Stas Bui 27 old ser
2 Louisiana Stas Bui 8 2d ser
3 Louisiana Stas Bui 16 2d ser
4 Louisiana Stas Bui 22 2d ser
6 Louisiana Stas Bui 29 2d serANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893
105
feet apart 12 inches between plants in the drill proved best The
greatest yield for single stalks 2037 pounds of seed cotton per acre
was obtained when the distance was 18 inches by 3 feet in other
words when the feeding area of each plant approached nearest a
square When 2 stalks were left in a place the greatest yield on
any plat was obtained by planting at distances of 2 by 3 feet in
4foot rows 18 inches gave the largest yield 1734 pounds in 5
foot rows the yield increased with the distance between the groups
of plants
Taking the average results of all distances with both 1 and 2
stalks in a place the yield of seed cotton per acre was 1821 pound
on the 3foot rows 1557 pounds on the 1foot rows and 1540
pounds on the 5foot rows With single talks 3foot rows and
4foot rows afforded practically identical yields when the distance
between plants was 1 foot at greater distances in the drill 3foot
rows proved superior With 2 stalks in a place 4foot rows proved
most productive except when the distance in the drill was extended
to 2 feet when 3foot rows gave the largest yield obtained on any
plat In this experiment distance of planting did not notably af
fect the earliness of the crop1
The South Carolina Station conducted experiments on the sub
ject extending over several years at three different localities in the
State The average results showed only very slight differences in
yield whether the rows were 3 4 or 44 feet apart
In the South Carolina tests when checking was practiced there
were no constant differences in yield whether the distance was 2 or
4 feet between the hills In comparing drill culture with check
ing the average results of a number of experiments were quite simi
lar indicating no marked difference in yield between the two sys
tems4 At the North Carolina Station in 1886 checks 2 feet by
3 feet and 3 feet by 3 feet afforded practically the same yields
nearly 14 bales per acrebut planting at distances of 4 feet by 4
feet greatly reduced the yield At distances of 2 by 3 feet the
1 Louisiana Stas Bui 28 2d ser
2 South Carolina Sta Rpt 1888 p 274 Rpt 1889 p 324 Bui 2 n ser
see also Georgia Sta Bui 11106
DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
crop matured somewhat earlier than on plats where more space was
allowed each plant1
At the Alabama College Station cotton was planted in 1886 at
intervals of 1 2 3 and 4 feet in 4foot rows The closest plant
ing yielded slightly more the widest spacing somewhat less than
did the intermediate distances The yield at different distances
ranged between 1085 and 12925 pounds of seed cotton per acre2
Distance experiments were also made in 1889 and in 1890 with
out decisive results the figures in the latter year suggesting a slight
superiority of a distance of 2 by 4 feet as against 1 by 4 feet 3 by
4 feet and 4 by 4 feet the yield being at the rate of about two
thirds of a bale per acre Close planting hastened maturity3
In 1891 Welborn Pet a cluster variety planted in rows 4 feet
apart yielding 2519 pounds per acre of seed cotton when the inter
val between plants was 1 foot 2010 pounds when the plants were
2 feet apart 2077 pounds at 3 feet and only 1145 when the dis
tance was increased to 4 feet
Peeler a longlimbed variety in 4foot rows yielded at 2 feet
1983 pounds at 3 feet 1487 pounds at 4 feet 1453 pounds and
at 5 feet 1333 pounds of seed cotton per acre4
At the Alabama Canebrake Station on slough bottom land a
distance of 3 by 4 feet resulted in a yield of 952 pounds of seed
cotton per acre against a crop of S96 pounds obtained on the plats
where the spacing was 1 by 4 feet 2 by 4 feet and 4 by 4 feet
At the same station in the following year the yield per acre of
seed cotton in 4foot rows was as follows Plants 1 foot apart 1216
pounds 2 feet 936 pounds 3 feet 760 pounds 4 feet 880
pounds6
Prom the results just summarized it appears that there has been
found no definite law determining the proper distance applicable
to all conditions The results thus far attained by the stations rel
1 Noth Carolina Sta Rpt 1887 p 127
2 Alabama College Sta Bui 4 1887
3 Alabama College Sta Buls 4 and 22
4 Alabama College Sta Bui 38
5 Alabama Canebrake Sta Bui 8
0 Alabama Canebrake Sta Bui 4ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893
107
ative to distance between cotton plants though not capable of gen
eralization afford useful bints to cotton growers whose soils resem
ble tliose of the different experiment stations Future investiga
tions may result in rules of practice applicable to certain characters
of soil and varieties of cotton At best however variations in
weather which cannot be foreseen will limit the application of
such rules
Eotation experiments have for some years been in progress at the
Arkansas and Louisiana stations but in the nature of the case con
clusive results are not to be expected until many crops have been
grown1
Five hundred bolls of the Peerless variety were selected at the
Arkansas Station from the bottom and from the top of welldevel
oped stalks the seed cotton from 500 bottom bolls weighing 826
pounds from 500 top bolls 646 pounds On planting the seed of
these two lots of cotton the seeds from bottom bolls germinated
much better and more promptly than those from top bolls The
former also matured earlier and afforded a larger yield1043
pounds of seed cotton per acre as against 760 pounds from seed
obtained from top bolls The more complete and earlier sprout
ing of the seed from bottom bolls may have been the cause of the
earlier maturity and greater productiveness of the resulting plants
for two replantings of seed from top bolls were necessary and even
then only about half a stand was obtained while seed from bottom
bolls afforded an excellent stand without replanting But it does
not appear whether the position on the parent plant the greater
size of bottom boll seed or some other condition was the cause of
the earlier and more complete germination of the seed from bottom
bolls Further experiments are needed to fully establish the differ
ence if any in the germination and productiveness of seed from
different parts of the cotton plant2
Experiments intended to ascertain the effect of topping cotton
have been conducted by the Alabama Canebrake Alabama College
Georgia Louisiana Mississippi and South Carolina stations and
1 Arkansas Sta Bui 23 Louisiana Bui 17 n ser
2 Arkansas Sta Bui 23108 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
by the University of Georgia In only one of these experiments
that of the Alabama Canebrake Station were the results decisively
in favor of topping In one year of the test at the Alabama Col
lege Station the figures slightly favored topping though in the
preceding year the slight advantage was with the plants not topped
The Georgia Station in 1890 and 1811 obtained a smaller yield
from topped plants than from those not topped Here as in sev
eral other experiments bearing on this question the effect of top
ping at different dates was studied and the single exception to the
injurious influence of this mutilation occurred in 1891 on the plat
where it took place late August 15 The earlier the topping the
greater was the injury in these experiments At the Mississippi
Station topping as late as September 20 resulted in a large shrink
age in yield
The South Carolina Station conducted experiments in two local
ities in that State during three years without being able to observe
any perceptible variation in yield between plants topped and those
not topped
A single test at the North Louisiana Station in which plants
growing at different distances were topped revealed no marked
effect for good or ill resulting from this practice
Topping has given contradictory results under different con
ditions Differences in soil and climate are probably responsible
for this and it remains for future experiments to determine the
conditions under which topping is beneficial or otherwise
In a single test made by the University of Georgia the yield on
the plats where topping was practiced was 1303 pounds of seed cot
ton and on the untreated area 1387 pounds the loss of 84 pounds
was ascribed to topping The prominent feature of this experi
ment was the probable influence of topping in hastening maturity
the topped plants yielding 4 7 per cent more at the first picking
than did the plants not topped This increased earliness if it
could be fully established might explain the occasional success of
topping and would recommend the practicefor late varieties and
for localities where the growing season is short However two ex
periments on a more extensive scale at the Georgia Station fail to
show any perceptible increase in earliness as the result of toppingANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893
109
In future experiments in topping cotton it is to be hoped that its
possible influence on early maturity of the plant will be observed
The detailed results of experiments in topping cotton may be
found in the following publications
Alabama College Sta Bui 4 1887 Bui 4 18S8 Alabama Canebrake Sta
Bui 4 Proc Georgia State Agl Soc Feb 1874 p 67 Georgia Sta Buls 11
and 16 Louisiana Sta Bui 27 old ser Mississippi Sta Rpt 1889 p 13
Soutli Carolina Exptl Farm Rpt 18831886 p 33 South Carolina Sta Rpts
18S8 p 281 1889 p 332 and Bui 2 n ser
110
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
THE MANURING OF COTTON
By H C White Ph D
President and Professor of Chemistry of the Georgia State College of Agricult
ure and Mechanic Arts and ViceDirector and Chemist of the Georgia
Experiment Station
HISTORICAL
In the early history of cotton culture in the United States the
great bulk of the crop was made with practically no artificial ma
nuring The natural fertility of the soil was depended upon to
furnish the plant food needed by the crop Such attempts as
were made to increase the natural productiveness of the soil were
mainly in the direction of improved mechanical tillage Even
such attempts were however limited in scope and imperfect in
character The large area of virgin land in the cottongrowing
States its cheapness and the peculiar character of the labor em
ployed in cotton culture made it apparently and probably actually
more profitable to cultivate a given area for a few years only and
when it was worn out to abandon it and bring fresh lands into
cultivation The cheapness of the slave labor the peculiar adapta
bility of the negro slave to the climatic conditions of most of the
cottongrowing States and the necessity of providing employment
for the rapidly increasing numbers of slavesfurnishing a labor
which while muscular was relatively unintelligentconspired to
maintain a system of culture in which the necessity for providing
by judicious fertilization against the depletion by continuous cult
Tire of a given body of land was not recognized or if recognized
the process was deemed impracticable or relatively unprofitable
The small demand made by cotton as compared with other crops
upon the plant food of the soil was moreover well known as the
result of experience and the best lands of Southern plantations
those which were naturally most fertilewere as a rule reserved
for corn wheat and other supply crops so far as was necessary and
the residue given over to cotton culture For the same reason andANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
Ill
because moreover of the clean culture necessary for cotton with
which excessive growth of grass and weeds would interfere such
home manures as stable manure etc as were saved upon the plan
tations were when used at all devoted to the corn and grain lands
and practically none applied to cotton The quantity of such ma
nures made was in any event small as the stock and cattle upon
cotton plantations were as a rule limited in numbers to the bare
needs of the plantations and the mildness of the climate rendered
unnecessary such careful housing of farm animals as would conduce
to the saving of manure Cottonseed was produced in large quan
tities as a necessary byproduct of the cotton crop and at the time
the surplus not needed for seeding had no value except for manurial
purposes in the crude form
An examination of the agricultural journals published in the
cottongrowing States previous to say 1845 shows that the manu
rial value of stable manure cottonseed and similar materials was
quite as well known to the cotton planter as to farmers elsewhere
at the time
Under the system of extensive culture found profitable with an
abundance of cheap fresh lands and rapidly increasing possession
of slave labor the economic question presented to the cotton plant
er was the cost of transporting bulky materials of comparatively
small manurial value versus that of clearing new lands as an avenue
of employment for his labor The question was neither ignored
nor untested Numerous instances are recorded of experiments
upon the subject by leading intelligent planters Experience de
termined the policy in favor of fresh lands and stable manure and
cottonseed came to be regarded as not worth the cost of handling
as fertilizers for the cotton crop They were used to considerable
extent upon gardens and under grain crops but only in rare in
stances with cotton Especially was this true of cottonseed which
in addition to its superiority in manurial value over stable manure
was collected in large quantities at the gin houses and thus accu
mulated was more cheaply handled Various methods were used
in applying the cottonseed as a manure Upon small areas the
green seeds were sometimes scattered broadcast and plowed under
More frequently they were applied in drills or furrows in varying
112 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
quantities and at different depths It was generally considered
judicious to kill the seed before using for manure to prevent after
sprouting and to secure material in hotter mechanical condition for
handling This was accomplished in various ways A common
practice was to pile the seeds in large heaps and allow them to stand
for several months exposed more or less to the weather The heat of
partial germination would kill the seed and the mass would under
go a process of rotting The heap was cut down in spring and the
rotted material applied to the land There was of course great
manurial waste in this process Frequently on cutting down such
heaps the odor of escaping ammonia was so strongly developed as
to be noticeable at considerable distance from the heap
While the cotton crop of itself received practically no artificial
fertilization at all the lands designed for grain and supply crops
were manured and otherwise treated in much the same manner as
obtained for similar crops elsewhere so far as the prevailing con
ditions permitted The manurial value of soiling crops especially
clover and peas of fallowing and of rotation was well understood
and such methods of soil improvement were in many instances
practiced As population increased and fresh lands became less
abundant higher in price and more difficult to acquire cotton to
some extent was given a place in the rotation of crops and thus bene
fited by the fertilization applied to previous crops In the main
however the great bulk of the cotton crop previous to I860 may be
said to have been grown without artificial fertilization and mainly
upon virgin soil
As a matter of fact previous to the civil war the best lands of
the plantations were devoted to food crops and they were manured
and tilled as judiciously as the conditions permitted and the then
state of knowledge of scientific agriculture indicated The profit
in the lave depended upon the finding of a market for his labor
and the best market afforded was an extension of the area of cul
tivatable lands devoted in their fresh state to the production of a
crop readily convertible into money peculiarly suited as the slave
himself to the climate and in the cultivation of which muscular
labor should count for much and intelligence and science for but
little Under the circumstances there was no profit discernible inANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
113
the artificial fertilization of a cotton plantation or even in attempted
preservation of its original fertility and as the cotton planter natu
rally planted for present gain with but small consideration for the
prosperity of posterity the cotton crop of the United States pre
vious to 1860 was in the main made by skimming the virgin soil
of the cotton States the production depending upon the natural fer
tility of the land
In 1845 Penman guano was first introduced into the United
States In 1846 Mr David Dickson of Hancock County Ga saw
an advertisement in the American Farmer Baltimore of the won
derful effects of Peruvian guano He procured three sacks and
used it and finding it paid used it in increasing quantities till 1855
or 1856 and then went into it fully This was probably the first
instance of the use of a concentrated fertilizer in the cottongrow
ing States upon crops of any kind and certainly the first instance
of such use with cotton Mr Dicksons first experiments with
Peruvian guano were upon a small and judicious scale He ap
plied it to cotton only upon his best cotton lands in comparatively
small quantities and always in the drill When he went into
it fully the amount he used was rarely as much as 200 pounds per
acre The successful experience of Mr Dickson and other
prominent planters who speedily followed his example led to very
numerous experiments with Peruvian guano as a fertilizer for
cotton The history of this famous stimulant manure as a cotton
fertilizer in the Southern States was similar to that which it had
experienced in connection with other crops elsewhere For a year
or two the results of its use wTere not only satisfactory but surprising
Subsequently the rapid and excessive growTth of weeds with all
the attendant dangers in a region subject to severe drouth was not
attended with a corresponding yield of fruit and the reputation of
the guano suffered accordingly It was suggested that the active
stimulant effect of the manure might be overcome by burying the
guano deep in the soil and for a while this plan was followed quite
extensively It was not found satisfactory however and many
entirely abandoned the use of Peruvian guano as unprofitable
The dangers attending the use of Peruvian guano as a fertilizer
114 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
when applied alone were perhaps more speedily and more striking
ly manifested in the case of cotton than of most other crops with
which it was used because of the initial poverty of the generality
of cotton lands their deficiency in organic matter the clean culture
of the crop and the heat and drouths of the region in which it
was cultivated
In 1860 came the civil war and almost simultaneously the intro
duction into commerce on a large scale of chemical manures as
a result of the investigations and teachings of Liebig the discovery
of phosphate deposits and the opening of the German potashsalt
beds The results of the war the abolition of slavery and the in
troduction of chemical manures completely revolutionized the
methods of cotton culture in the Southern States Up to that date
the principal capital of the cotton planter had been the controll
able labor of his numerous slaves the field of its employment
cheap virgin lands requiring scarcely any other capital for their
profitable cultivation Xow his chief and almost sole possession
was an extensive domain of wornout and abandoned land robbed
of its original fertility by the butchery of previous cultivation and
offering scant promise of productiveness at the hands of the recently
emancipated unskilled and irresponsible frcedman Under these
circumstances the chemical manure furnishing plant food in a
concentrated form at comparatively small cost easy of application
guaranteeing a fairly good crop from even the poorest and most
exhausted soil with a minimum expenditure of labor in cultivation
and requiring no special skill in its manipulation was hailed as an
agent admirably and peculiarly suited to the necessities and the new
conditions of the cotton planter The obligation no longer rested
upon the planter to devote his chief attention and his best lands to
the production of food crops for his labor Cotton was a crop for
which there was great demand at good prices and immediate cash
payments An enormous impetus was in consequence given to
cotton culture in the former slave States Concentrated manures
made such culture possible and profitable and almost immediately
came into wellnigh universal use Since the close of the civil war
to the present time practically all the cotton cultivated in the
United States with the exception of comparatively small quantitiesANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
115
grown upon the alluvial soils of great river bottoms and occasional
areas of newly cleared land has been fertilized with concentrated
manures Probably upon no other crop to which they have been
applied have these manures exercised so great an influence as upon
cotton Not only were profitable crops made with them upon lands
which without them it would not have paid to cultivate and an
immense area of wornout land thus redeemed to culture but the
stimulant effect of the manure so shortened the period of growth
and maturity of the plant that the climatic limit of culture was
extended Cotton soon came to be grown abundantly over large
regions where previous to the introduction of such manures killing
frosts intervened before the maturity and fruitage of the plant
The enormous increase in the cotton production of the United
States since 1860 is undoubtedly to be credited chiefly if not
exclusively to the use of concentrated manures Considering the
condition of the land and the labor system of the cotton States at
the close of the civil war it is difficult to conceive how cotton cul
ture could have been continued or sustained but for the use of such
manures
Undoubtedly all these circumstances and considerations con
spired to invest the commercial fertilizer in the estimation of the
cotton planter with something of the character of a fetish and
this led in turn to two natural errors on his part 1 to attach
hut little importance to difference in chemical composition quality
or character of the various compounds offered in the markets and
2 to rely too exclusively upon the fertilizer for the production of
his crop During the years of the war from 1860 to 1865 when
the Southern farmer was cut off from communication with the rest
of the world immense progress had been made elsewhere in the
study and correct understanding of the value of chemical manures
and research and experiment had indicated approximately the
the proper qualitative and quantitative composition of such ma
nures for general crops The trade was not slow to offer these in
so promising a market as the cottongrowing State Guanos
some genuine and some socalled fertilizers complete ma
nures and innumerable compounds under suggestive appellations
which testified to the vigorous and picturesque imagination of theHC DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
American tradesman were ready in waiting at the restoration of
peace and were soon poured in a rapidly swelling flood upon the
cotton plantations of the South Guano soon came to be and
still is the popular designation for all such manipulated goods
The greater number of these were quite similar in character being
mixtures of dissolved phosphate potash salt and nitrogenous matters
generally organic They differed quite widely in quality however
ranging in soluble phosphoric acid from G to 10 per cent in
soluble actual potash from 1 to 4 per cent and in nitrogen from
1 to 3 per centj as well as differing in the sources of the materials
of which they were composed A small quantity of the soluble
phosphate was obtained from bones much the larger quantity
from phosphate rock The potash salts were mainly the German
kainit and muriate of potash The nitrogen compounds used were
very numerous mineral salts sulphate of ammonia and nitrate of
soda and animal matters dried blood fish scrap tankage etc all
participated in the construction of these socalled complete ma
nures Peruvian and other tree guanos were offered in moderate
quantities both in original condition and profiting by experience
manipulated with dissolved phosphate to PhosphoPeruvian for
instance to safer composition for general use For a number of
years the choice of a guano was determined mainly by the per
suasive representations of the seller of the goods or the personal ex
perience of the buyer or his friends in their actual use and the
relative prices of different goods were fixed more by the reputation
thus gained for the brand than by their relative contents of actual
plant food Indeed even when competition and the agreement of
manufacturers and dealers brought all such manipulated goods to
an approximately uniform price the variation in quality as indi
cated by chemical analysis was still quite great among them and
yet was practically disregarded by the purchaser as a rule
Guano was guano and aside from a slight prejudice irration
al no doubt but comprehensible in favor of the darkcolored and
badsmelling varieties no great importance was attached to its com
position or its variations provided it made cotton which even the
poorest in quality of those offered was quite competent to do To
adopt an oftused expression the use of guano in cotton cultureANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
117
was the result of revolution not of evolution and it is small
wonder therefore that is was neither strictly scientific nor thor
oughly efficient To the cotton planter after the war with sterile
lands and his labor system wrecked guano was offered as the one
sole chance for profitable tillage of his soil It came to him appar
ently fullfledged and perfected He adopted it in his dire extrem
ity It served him admirably and speedily assured a certain meas
ure of prosperity It is not surprising that he should have been
slow to inquire into the rational of its value or indisposed to meddle
with its composition Anything like scientific experimentation
with chemical manures on a large scale in cotton culture was there
fore not undertaken and was very difficult to secure The use of
such manures was largely empirical and necessarily in many cases
more or less injudicious
The ease with which cotton could be produced by the use of such
manures led as has been said to an undue dependence upon them
ior the making of the crop Proper mechanical tillage was neglect
ed and the previously wornout lands were again merely skimmed
this time with the addition of the fertilizer As a consequence
it was not long before the great bulk of the cotton lands began to
show the effects of a continuous clean superficial culture in a re
gion subject to torrential washing rains in winter and hot baking
suns in summer Moreover for reasons above mentioned cotton
raising has become the absorbing agricultural occupation of the
country The production of grain and other crops of live stock
and domestic animals was neglected and even the necessary food
supplies for the family and the labor were purchased of the mer
chant by the very large majority of Southern farmers Payment
for these supplies including the guano that was used was made as a
rule after the crop was gathered and thus began the unfortunate
credit system which by reason of its enormous interest charges
in the form of time prices soon involved the cotton growers not
only in a stupendous burden of debt but also in a fixed and ruinous
system of agriculture from which there seemed no escape Cotton
was the basis of credit no other farm product was acceptable in
payment of debts upon the agreement to produce it credit at fear
ful interest charges could alone be had For the farmer without118 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
capital it was cotton or starvation whether he would or not he was
forced to raise cotton to raise cotton required guano to obtain
guano a debt was incurred payable only in cotton It is evident
that this allcotton system of agricultural operations afforded but
little opportunity for the making and use of farm manures the
growing of soiling crops rotation and the other aids to culture
possible in diversified farming In the course of time the illtreated
soils failed to respond as liberally as at first to the application of the
concentrated fertilizer the rapidly falling price of cotton conse
quent upon the enormous production decreased the purchasing
ability of the individual farmer and a revulsion in public sentiment
on the subject of fertilizers ensued in which guanothe chief
the necessary agent in the making of cottonfell from the high
estate in which it had been held as the cotton planters best friend
and came to be regarded as the cause of all his woes In the news
papers in public assemblies in meetings of granges alliances
and similar organizations denunciations of commercial fertilizers
were frequent and vehement and resolutions galore were unani
mously and enthusiastically adopted recommending and pledging
a restriction of their use Even legislation was invoked to purge
the body politic of the suspected source of current ills and in the
legislatures of a number of the cotton States measures were intro
duced although none so far as can be ascertained were actually
enacted designed to hamper or suppress the guano trade or to
make the legal test of the genuineness of a commercial fertilizer
the actual profit derived from its use
What declamation resolutions and legislation were powerless
to achieve however necessity slowly accomplished a recasting of
the plan of farming operations upon the cotton farms By degrees
the acreage of cotton was relatively decreased Food supplies
stock and cattle were raised The cotton planter endeavored to
live at home and make the cotton his surplus crop Cotton
in many instances was entirely abandoned and replaced by fruit
truck and other crops With the diversification of crops came
better tillage renovating crops home manures and a better under
standing and more judicious use of concentrated fertilizers ToANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
119
this improved condition the major part of the cotton States have
attained at the present time1
In the meanwhile numerous agencies had been at work in the
cotton States looking to the study of the scientific culture of cotton
and a dissemination of a knowledge of the principles of agricultlral
chemistry which at this period exerted so potent an influence in all
the processes of agriculture and particularly in the methods of
manuring crops iSTot a few of the leading and most intelligent
cotton planters speedily informed themselves of the progress the
world had made during the wartime isolation of the cotton States
and began to make intelligent application of this knowledge to
their own conditions Numerous agricultural journals were estab
lished and devoted large portions of their space to the discussion of
the subject of the fertilization of cotton and especially of the use of
chemical manures Landgrant colleges provided for by the act
of Congress in 1862 wTere now established in the cotton States
which during the war had been excluded from the benefits of the
Federal legislation and did much to popularize a knowledge of the
natural sciences pertaining to agriculture and to enlighten the peo
ple on the subject of commercial fertilizers and the nature and
proper mode of use of chemical manures Experiments of a more
or less tentative character were carried on at some of the colleges
plant and other analyses were made and published and the begin
ning was thus made in the study of the scientific fertilization of
cotton Finally when in 1888 agricultural experiment stations
were generally established in connection with the colleges a num
ber of thesenotably those of Alabama Arkansas Georgia Louis
iana Mississippi North Carolina South Carolina and Tennessee
entered upon careful and systematic study of the subject
Following the plan previously adopted in some of the Northern
States legislation was enacted in most of the cotton States provid
ing for the official control of the sale of commercial fertilizers
committed variously to departments bureaus or boards of argicul
ture and in some instances to the colleges of agriculture These
lawsin most cases prescribing minimum contents of valuable
1 See also article on Culture of Cotton p 88120 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
chemical ingredients in the fertilizer admissible to salewere in
tended only to guarantee the genuineness of the manure and to
guard the purchaser against imposition in the composition of the
goods They were educative however in that they made familiar
the chemical terms available phosphoric acid potash nitro
gen ammonia etc and thus aided the popular apprehension of
the functions of the manure
As early as 1858 Mr Dickson hereinbefore referred to treated
bones with acid according as he says to the practice of English
farmers and used the compound either alone or mixed with Peru
vian guano under cotton Later he used commercial dissolved
bone and experimented largely with it and other commercial ma
nures In 1869 he pirblisked a little book Dicksons System of
Farming consisting largely of a collection of his contributions to
current agricultural journals which had at the time wide circula
tion and excited considerable interest In it he strongly recom
mends good tillage renovating crops and rotation and does not
underestimate the value of home manures but attaches prime
importance to the use of chemical manures as fertilizers for cotton
on which subject he says
After twenty years of diligent research and study of the laws of nature as
applied to agriculture with the experimental use of Peruvian guano and
other guanos upon soils and crops I have determined upon the following
combination of commercial manures ag the best and most valuable for all
crops
Formula Dicksons Compound
Pounds
Peruvian guano 100
Dissolved bones 100
Common salt 100
Land plaster 50
Well mixed
This compound I have now been using for many years upon all my farm
crops and unfailingly with satisfactory results In my hands and under my
system of farming this compound has never failed to grow me good crops and
bring me satisfactory dividends It has always paid me and my clear profits
have always been larger in proportion to the amount of the compound ap
pliedup to 1000 pounds per acre I have long since learned not to fear
failure of making paying crops no matter the season
Subsequently Mr Dickson modified this formula somewhat for
cotton as followsANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 121
Pounds
per acre
Dissolved bones 250
Peruvian guano 65
Land plaster 10
This formula was based of course upon no accurate study of the
cotton plant and its requirements but was merely such a fairly well
proportioned mixture of concentrated manures as experience had
shown to be profitable Other writers were inclined to dispute
the importance he attached to Peruvian guano suggested other
combinations of the commercial fertilizers available and the bat
were fought over in the agricultural journals without much if any
ties of the humus mineral and other theories of fertilization
careful and genuine experimentation Nevertheless Dicksons
compound and similar mixtures were used to a considerable ex
tent and no doubt with profit
For a few years subsequently to 1877 composts attained con
siderable celebrity as fertilizers for cotton chiefly through the
practice and writings of Mr Farish Furman of Baldwin County
Ga Recognizing the nitrogenous content of cotton seed and
stable mamires it was recommended to compost these with acid
phosphate and potash salts and thus cheapen the cost of the com
plete fertilizer as compared with that of the ammoniated guanos
sold by the manufacturers The original formula for a compost
recommended by Mr Furman was as follows
Furmans Formula
Pounds
Barnyard manure 50
Cotton seed 750
Acid phosphate 367
Kainit 133
2000
To be used at the rate of from 400 to 800 pounds per acre
These exact proportions were not always followed by those who
adopted Mr Furmans general suggestion
The general plan of making a compost was to put down on an
earthen floor a layer usually of about 20 bushels of stable manure
then a layer 20 bushels of cotton seed then a sack 200 pounds
of acid phosphate with occasional addition of kainit or muriate of122 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
potash then repetition of the layers to any extent desired covering
the whole frequently with a layer of absorbent earth The com
post heap was protected roughly from the weather frequently in
a latticed pen and kept moderately moist It was put up in the
autumn immediately after the close of the ginning season and al
lowed to stand until spring It was then cut down mixed and ap
piled in the drill It was assumed that the partial rotting of the com
post in the heap would improve its quality as a manure Subse
quently it was doubted whether this improvement was sufficient to
compensate for the trouble and cost of making the heap and the
green cotton seed stable manure and acid phosphate were com
posted i e simply mixed together in the drill at the time of ap
plying the fertilizer immediately or a short while before planting
Composting both in the heap and in the drill is still practiced to a
considerable extent although probably not so largely relatively
as when first introduced and large quantities of stable manure and
cotton seed especially are thus used in the fertilization of cotton
Between 1870 and 1880 a large number of cottonseed oil mills
were erected in the cotton States These threw upon the market
at comparatively low prices a large quantity of cottonseed meal
for which the stock and cattle of the country did not furnish a
sufficient market for complete utilization as a feeding stuff
Numerous experiments demonstrated the suitability of cotton
seed meal as an ammoniater in fertilizers for cotton and it was
used in increasing quantities by the manufacturers of ammoniated
fertilizers At the present time it is probably the most largely
used source of nitrogen in the commercial and other concentrated
manures applied to cotton
As popular understanding of the composition and functions of
chemical manures increased greater variety and discrimination
were observed in the purchase of commercial fertilizers The cot
ton planter was fortunate in having immediately at hand the main
constituents of manipulated manures Acid phosphate was made
in large quantities at Charleston from the South Carolina phos
phate rock and subsequently at numerous other points in the South
ern States from both South Carolina and Florida rock Cotton
seed meal was produced at the numerous oil mills in the SouthANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 123
German potash salts were imported direct into Southern ports and
a limited supply of ashes rich in potash 15 to 25 per cent was
furnished by the oilmills which used cottonseed hulls largely for
fuel Many cotton planters began to purchase these raw materials
of chemical manures and use them either separately or more gen
erally mixed in such proportions as experience or perhaps more
truly reference to the average analysis of the commercial ammo
niated fertilizers seemed to indicate as best suited the requirements
of the cotton crop Numerous formulae were used none of
them professing to be based up accurate information furnished by
strictly scientific experimentation but providing the approximate
proportions of available phosphoric acid potash and nitrogen which
research and experiment elsewhere had shown to be adapted to
crops in general The following is a typical example of the mix
tures used
Poundp
Acid phosphate1200
Cottonseed meal 600
Kainit 200
2000
If muriate of potash or cottonhull ashes were used in place of
kainit the amount was usually smaller and the proportion of acid
phosphate correspondingly increased
As the raw material varied somewhat in quality these mix
tures also varied in analysis ranging in general from 7 to 10 per
cent of available phosphoricacid 2 to 4 of nitrogen and 1 to 3 of
potash Such mixtures appeared to give generally satisfactory re
sults with cotton and were and still are used quite extensively in
all the Southern States The cottonoil mills as a rule were will
ing to exchange cottonseed meal for cotton seed generally at the
rate approximately of 1 pound of meal for 2 pounds of seed and
the mixing of chemical manures on the farm wTas thus encouraged
Subsequently to 1885 the relative quantities of acid phosphate
with or without a small content of potash purchased by the cotton
growers as compared with the amount of ammoniated guanos
largely increased indicating an effort to supply the crop with its
nitrogenous nutriment by use of soiling crops stable manure green
and rotted cottonseed and other home manures124
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTS BEARING UPON THE MANURING OF
COTTON
With the establishment of agricultural experiment stations in
1888 systematic experimentation in the fertilization of cotton be
gan mainly at or under the auspices of the stations in the cotton
States These experiments have been diverse in character varied
in conditions and unequal in the attention care and length of time
devoted to them They have added much of great value to our
accurate knowledge on the subject and have indicated certain con
clusions which may be provisionally accepted with some degree of
confidence Upon many points however they have not yet afford
ed positive and definite conclusions The apparent resultsof the
experiments are in many cases contradictory and in many more
inconclusive This is not to be considered surprising inasmuch as
the experiments without exception have been field experiments
subject to all the contingencies inconsistencies and misleading re
sults incident to work of this description STo pot or water culture
of cotton seems to have been undertaken at any rate no results of
such experiments have been published
Eesearch and experiments at the station bearing upon cotton
culture have covered a wide range of investigation
Of these experiments nothing need here be said further than to
note as bearing upon the subject of the fertilization of cotton cer
tain results of the chemical analysis of the plant as follows i1
Fertilizing constituents contained in a crop of cotton yielding 300 pounds of
lint per acre
Amount per acre
Constituent In 300 pounds lint In 654 pounds seed In 404 pounds bolls In 575 pounds leaves In 658 pounds stems In 250 pounds roots In 2841 pounds total crop
Per cent 072 18 222 Per cent 2008 666 763 Per cent 450 114 1220 Per cent 1385 257 657 Per cent 517 122 774 Per cent 162 38 275 Per cent 4594
Phosphoric acid 1215 3911
The average production of cotton per acre is much less than 300 pounds of lintprobably
something less than 200 pounds A calculation accordingly can however easily be made
from the figures given above
1 Tennessee Sta Bui Vol IV No 5ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
125
The station experiments bearing directly upon the fertilization
of cotton may be roughly classified by the end in view as follows
1 To test the yield and profit from the use of fertilizers as com
pared with unfertilized soil
2 To test the comparative values of commercial fertilizers and
home manures
3 To determine the kind of fertilizers chemical manure best
suited to cotton
4 To determine the amount of fertilizer giving best results
5 To determine the best mode of application of the fertilizer
6 To determine the best time of application
7 Miscellaneous
Omitting mention of such experiments as were manifestly unre
liable by reason of accident omissions lack of care and attention
or from other causes a succinct review of the results obtained in
these several lines of experimentation is here presented
YIELD AND PROFIT FROM THE USE OF FERTILIZERS ON COTTON
AS COMPARED WITH YIELD AND PROFIT FROM UNFER
TILIZED SOIL
The results of experiments instituted on this line vary greatly
with the nature of the soil the seasons the culture and the kinds
and amounts of manures employed With the exception of those
iipon one class of soil however they all agree in demonstrating
that large profit attends the judicious manuring of cotton The
exception is in the case of the black prairie or canebrake soils
of the alluvial formation of the Gulf States Experiments upon
such soils at the Alabama stations indicate that no compensating
returns may be expected from the use of manures except crashed
cotton seed and cottonseed meal and even with these the returns
are small Drainage and good mechanical tillage seem to be
the chief need of these soils Upon other soils of Alabama how
ever the percentage of profit from a judicious use of fertilizers
followed by intelligent cultivation is most satisfactory Upon
a poor sandy soil withno retentive clay within 3 feet of the sur
face even with unusual expense for fertilizers the increase result126 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
ing from the use of commercial manures paid 85 per cent profit on
cost
Experiments made under direction of the Arkansas Station in
dicate that fertilizers are generally remunerative the percentage
of profit ranging from 20 to 180 Five hundred pounds per acre
of rotted cotton seed gave a net profit of 393 Five hundred
pounds each of cotton seed at 650 per ton and cottonseed meal
at 20 per ton gave equal financial profit
At the Georgia Station the use of commercial fertilizers was
almost always profitable the percentage of profit ranging from 5 to
250
The stations of Louisiana Mississippi North Carolina and
South Carolina obtain similar results from experiments and indi
cate that the application of fertilizing material to cotton seems
with few exceptions to be profitable
W B Dana1 states that in 1878 the increased productiveness due
to the use of commercial fertilizers is estimated to be 50 per cent
The effect does not all pass off the first season but in about the
proportion of TO per cent the first year 20 per cent the second
year and 10 per cent the third year2
To the teaching of these specific experiments may be added the
general experience of the great bulk of the cotton planters and it
may be accepted as proven that cotton responds favorably to arti
ficial manuring and that upon most of the soils of the cotton
States all kinds of manures including concentrated commercial
fertilizers at the prices at which they are commonly held are profit
able when judiciously used
COMPARATIVE VALUES OF COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS AND
HOME MANURES
Results of experiments on this point also vary considerably with
the soil and season
Cotton from seed to loom
Hammond estimates that in 1889 627899 tons of fertilizers were used on
cotton in the United States and that the use of this amount of fertilizer re
sulted in an increased crop of 728337 bales of seed cotton or a little over 9
per cent of the crop of that yearANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
127
In Alabama green manuring appears to have been most profit
able upon both prairie and sandy soil Peas and melilotus both
gave good results pea vines appeared to be the best fertilizer for
cotton peas were more economical for green manuring for one
season melilotus for two stable manure generally gave good re
sults lasting in effects upon canebrake soils both drained and Tin
drained crushed cotton seed and stable manure each gave small
returns commercial fertilizers none Upon a field with sandy soil
which has not been cultivated for many years stable manure con
trasted with chemical manures of various kinds and in various pro
portions produced the largest increase and the largest profit per
acre but it was noted that the amount applied was at the rate of
nearly 2 tons per acre or onehalf ton more than the amount annu
ally saved from each mule kept There is no question about the
efficacy of good stable manure properly used but the available sup
ply is too small
In Arkansas cottonseed and cottonseed meal gave best results
when tested against acid phosphate and kainit separately On worn
sandy bottom lands almost continuously planted in cotton for thirty
years cottonseed meal and stable manure each gare better results
than chemical manures and better results when used alone than
when mixed with acid phosphate and kainit There is no better fer
tilizer for cotton than stable and barnyard manure Other experi
ments indicate however that stable manure from feeding cotton
seed and peavine hay extended the growing season of the plant
delayed maturity of the crop and hence decreased the possible
yield and profit
In Georgia cotton seed and stable manure alone were found
unprofitable as compared with the same compost with acid phos
phate and gave less profit when used in amounts of equal cost
than chemical manures
In Louisiana cotton seed and stable manure alone were of
doubtful profit as compared with chemical manures Manure
from the farm should be reenforced with cottonseed meal and com
posted with acid phosphate The compost is the best
manure in the world for cotton The formula recommended for
the compost is128 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
Green cotton seedbushels 100
Stable manuredo 100
Acid phosphatepounds 2000
Almost as effective as the compost was a homemade chemical
manure constructed as follows
Pounds
Acid phosphate 1100
Cottonseed meal 700
Kainit 200
In Mississippi commercial fertilizers were more profitable than
stable manure or cotton seed alone but paid best in connection
with an abundance of organic matter Composts variously pro
portioned gave best results
In North Carolina barnyard manure was found to be especially
effective partly on account of its after effects and somewhat the
best of all fertilizers Its first cost 1 per load however detrac
ted from the profit and a combination with acid phosphate was
much more profitable
Home composts gave generally good results and next to these
a home mixture of
Pounds
per acre
Acid phosphate 200
Cottonseed meal 100
Kainit SO
KIND OF FERTILIZER CHEMICAL MANURE REQUIRED BY OR
BEST SUITED TO COTTON
Assuming phosphoric acid potash and nitrogen in suitable com
pounds to be the three chemical substances proper and possible to
be used in the fertilization of cotton the experiments have been
mainly conducted with a view to determine the relative importance
of these the best form of each i e of the compound available
in commerce and the proportions of each in a mixed feitilizer
most suitable to the requirements of the cotton crop regard being
had to the character of the soil to which they were applied and
account being taken of the profit afforded
In Alabama in 1888 experiments were made upon a sandy
drift soil to determine the proper ratio of nitrogen to phosphoric
acid in fertilizers for cotton The amount of phosphoric acid wasANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
129
constant200 pounds of English superphosphate 12 per cent
soluble per acreand the amount of nitrogen in dried blood and
cottonseed meal varied so as to furnish 1 part nitrogen to 1 2 4
6 and 8 parts phosphoric acid The smallest quantity of nitrogen
employed gave as good results as larger quantities No difference
was observed in the two sources of nitrogen In 1889 cooperative
experiments under direction of the College Station were made on 9
farms furnishing typical soils of the State The fertilizers used
and the amounts per acre were For nitrogen sulphate of ammo
nia 80 pounds nitrate of soda 100 pounds cottonseed meal 200
pounds for phosphoric acid dissolved boneblack 200 pounds for
potash kainit 100 pounds Green cotton seed 960 pounds per
acre and stable manure 3000 pounds per acre alone and in com
bination with acid phosphate were also used The fertilizers were
applied singly and in various combinations to fifteenthacre plats
without duplication Some of the experiments proved to be of
little value owing to mistakes and omissions others indicated with
some clearness that phosphoric acid was the ingredient chiefly need
ed in the soil testedsandy and brown loam with clay subsoil
An experiment was also made with cotton on newly cleared land
in which acid phosphate was applied on two plats acid phosphate
and cottonseed meal on two and manure on one The results
indicated that the natural soil did not furnish sufficient nitrogen
and was very deficient in phosphoric acid for the requirements of
the crop In 1890 an experiment was made on fifteen plats in a
field which had not been cultivated for many years The fertil
izers used were sulphate of ammonia dissolved boneblack and
kainit singly two and two and all three together Floats alone
and in combination separately with sulphate of ammonia and
green cotton seed was also used as also stable manure and green
cotton seed singly Contrast was made with plats receiving no
manure The results indicated that this soil needed nitrogen and
potash but was most deficient in phosphoric acid for the production
of the crop This experiment and another on a sandy drift land
long in cultivation indicated that floats in connection with cotton
seed was more profitable than acid phosphate In 1891 cooper
9a130 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
ative experiments were made on 36 farms in various parts of the
State with different fertilizers in different amounts and combina
tions The experiments were not perfectly accurate but indi
cated certain conclusions Potash did not seem to pay phosphates
applied alone did not have much effect nitrogenous fertilizers in
all forms gave an increased yield In 1893 certain experiments
indicated that nitrogenous fertilizers cottonseed meal and nitrate
of soda alone on cotton pay on sandy lands providing there are
good rains following their application
The general indications afforded by the great number and variety
of cooperative experiments made since 1888 under the auspices of
the Alabama Station upon a variety of soils of the State the major
ity of which were sandy are that a complete fertilizer is needed for
cotton Phosphoric acid is often the controlling element and a
sufficiency of nitrogen is frequently lacking in the soil Potash
alone does not pay Phosphate applied alone have some effect but
much less than when combined with nitrogen Nitrogen partic
ularly in organic forms is profitable especially in connection with
phosphates The unfertilized soil of the station needs nitrogen
potash and phosphoric acid It is especially deficient in the latter
In new ground the decomposition of the vegetable matter in the
soil did not furnish all of the nitrogen needed by the cotton the
increase from phosphates alone was satisfactory but the increase
caused by the addition of nitrogen did not justify its use As to
floats the experience of several years indicated that a part of the
phosphoric acid becomes available to the plant the first season but
the solubility is much facilitated by combining the floats with cot
ton seed or cottonseed meal
In Arkansas in 1889 experiments were made on sandy bottom
land which had been almost continuously planted in cotton with
out manuring for thirty years Acid phosphate cottonseed meal
and kainit were used singly and in combination also stable manure
and composts in different amounts Nitrogenous manures alone
were profitable Neither acid phosphate nor kainit alone paid
All of the different plats on which cottonseed meal was used either
singly or in combination gave some profit and this was due not to
the acid phosphate or kainit but to the cottonseed meal TheseANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 131
results were confirmed by similar experiments made in 1891
Cooperative experiments made in 1888 at five points in the State
and repeated in subsequent years indicated that a complete chemi
cal fertilizer is needed for cotton A combination is provisionally
recommended of
Pounds
per acre
Acid phosphate 200
Cottonseed meal 200
Muriate of potash 50
In Georgia a series of excellently arranged and very carefully
conducted experiments have been in progress upon the station farm
since 1890 The soil of the station is somewhat irregular in char
acter but is for the most part a gray sandy loam underlaid by
yellow clay and previous to the institution of the experiments
had been in continuous cultivation for a number of years Fer
tilizing materials in great variety and in many different combina
tions were used The results of the experiments have not been
strictly accordant but the following general conclusions seem to
be provisionally warranted Cotton requires a complete manure
i e one containing soluble phosphoric acid potash and nitrogen
Neither phosphoric acid norpotash give as good results alone as
when combined with each other Phosphoric acid alone largely
surpasses no manure Potash alone is doubtful sometimes it
affects the yield injuriously Nitrogen alone has little or no effect
but lias very decided effects when mixed with phosphoric acid and
potash In some cases nitrogen seems to be the controlling element
in a fertilizer but on the whole phosphoric acid is most effective
in increasing the yield Cottonseed meal and cotton seed and
nitrate of soda seem to be the best forms of nitrogen for cotton and
are about equal in value proportionately to the content of nitrogen
There is little or no difference in the value of kainit and muriate
of potash The phosphoric acid in floats and Florida soft phos
phate is not in a sufficiently soluble and available condition to
answer the needs of the cotton crop The best proportions of the
three elements in a complete fertilizer for cotton are approximately
nitrogen 1 part potash 1 part phosphoric acid 3J parts Of such
a complete fertilizer the quantity to be used per acre should be an132 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
amount furnishing nitrogen 20 pounds potash 20 pounds phos
phoric acid 70 pounds
In Louisiana admirably conceived and carefully conducted series
of field experiments in the fertilization of cotton have been made
both at the State Station at Baton Rouge and at the North Louis
iana Station at Calhoun beginning in 1886 and still in progress
Plats of uniform size were manured with nitrogenous phosphatic
and potash fertilizers of different kinds and in different proportions
separately and in great variety of combination The questions
tested were
1 Do these soils the worn sandy lands and red lands of
Louisiana need nitrogen to grow cotton profitably If so in
what form can it be best presented and in what quantitcs per acre
2 Do these soils need phosphoric acid If so which is the best
f mil and in what quantities per acre
3 Do these soils need potash If so which is the best form and
in what quantities per acre
The results of the experiments were in some instances incon
clusive and in some apparently contradictory as the seasons and
the conditions varied On the whole however the following con
clusions seem justified as the result of the entire series of experi
ments
1 These soils need nitrogen and nitrogenous manures may pro
fitably be used in the fertilization of cotton
la All forms of nitrogenous matters vegetable animal and
mineral are satisfactory and profitable but on the whole they
stand in the following order of excellence a vegetable cotton
seed and cottonseed meal animal dried blood fish scrap
etc and c mineral sulphate of ammonia and nitrate of soda
16 One ration 24 pounds of nitrogen per acre is more profit
able than larger quantities
2 The soils need phosphoric acid Phosphatic manures may be
profitably used in the fertilization of cotton They arc not so neces
sary upon these soils however as nitrogen
2a The soluble forms of phosphoric acid in dissolved bone
black and acid phosphate are emphatically better than the insoluble
forms in floats and similar materialsANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 133
2b One ration 24 pounds per acre of phosphoric acid is more
profitable than larger quantities
3 Potash in no form either alone or combined with other ma
nures is needed for these soils Potash manures are not profitable
in the fertilization of cotton
It is very certain that phosphoric acid is needed to grow cotton
successfully but in small quantities and combined always with
nitrogenous manures
In Mississippi experiments in the fertilization of cotton were
made at the College Station and at Holly Springs in 18881893
The results indicate that on upland soils the fertilizer should be
rich in organic matter and nitrogen and contain more potash than
phosphoric acid On sandy valley lands the phosphoric acid should
predominate Lime soils require large quantities of potash On
soils poor in lime potash was not needed or did not pay On black
prairie lands the value of concentrated fertilizers was not definitely
indicated The results in different years were conflicting Cotton
hull ashes were found to be an excellent form of potash
In North Carolina experiments on representative soils of the
chief geological areas in the State were conducted in 18901894
Stable manure gave best general results in yield but was not always
most profitable on account of initial cost Next to stable manure
a complete fertilizer gave best results and the proportions per
acre recommended are
Pounds
per acre
Acid phosphate 200
Cottonseed meal 100
Kainit 50
Acid phosphate alone was for the most part profitable Cotton
seed meal alone was profitable in the majority of cases Kainit
alone was unprofitable except in the case of the poor sandy lands
of Eastern North Carolina
In South Carolina a very elaborate and most carefully conducted
scries of experiments was made upon the station farms two sit
uated in different sections of the State and extending over three
years18881890 The soils selected were typical of the up
land soils of the cotton States and were very thin being greatly
exhausted by years of improvident culture Applications of134 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
fertilizers phosphoric nitrogenous and potash of various kinds
were made separately and in various combinations and in different
amounts but more particularly in the approximate quantities and
proportions shown by existing analysis of the cotton plant to be
necessary for the requirements of the crop The details of the
experiments and the results have been reported in a bulletin of the
United States Department of Agriculture1 The conclusions
reached are in part as follows
1 Cotton requires nitrogen phosphoric acid and potash
2 Of the three phosphoric acid is relatively the most important
and controls the action of the other two It can be used alone with
some advantage to the crop but much more effectively in connec
tion with potash and nitrogen
3 Nitrogen is relatively more important than potash It can
only be advantageouly used in combination with phosphoric acid or
phosphoric acid and potash
4 Potash like nitrogen is of little value to cotton when applied
separately it must be combined with the other constituents
5 Expressed in terms of the latest analysis of the cotton plant
the proportions and amounts of nitrogen phosphoric acid and pot
ash required are as follows Between threesevenths and four
sevenths nitrogen about four and onefourth phosphoric acid and
between onethird and onehalf potash With proper allowance for
the cost as well as the effect of each application the requirements
may be more exactly given as follows Xitrogen 043 phosphoric
acid 116 potash 038 In other words the required proportions
are Nitrogen 1 phosphoric acid 2J potash f and the amounts
called for by a crop yielding 300 pounds of lint per acre are Xitro
gen 20 pounds phosphoric acid 50 pounds potash 15 pounds
6 The amount of phosphoric acid determines the amount of
nitrogen and potash With a given amount of the first only cer
tain amounts of the last two can be profitably used
7 Potash can be as effectively supplied by muriate of potash or
kainit as it can by sulphate of potash
8 Phosphoric acid is of value to cotton in proportion to its solu
Farmers Bui 14ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
135
bility hence the several kinds of phosphatic manures cannot be
indifferently employed Preference must be given to acid phos
phates containing considerable percentages of soluble phosphoric
acid Insoluble phosphoric acid in slag floats or marl is of little
direct value to the crop upon which it is applied and even granting
that its effects in the soil may be lasting they are not in the long
run sufficiently pronounced to meet the interest on the capital in
vested in the application
9 Inorganic organic and mixed nitrogen are of very nearly
equal value to cotton The slight difference is in favor of the last
two Stable manure containing organic nitrogen is the best fertili
zer of its class and is lasting or cumulative in its effects The or
ganic nitrogen of stable manure to the amount of 50 per cent can
be fully replaced by the inorganic nitrogen of nitrate of soda As
between cotton seed and cottonseed meal there is a slight difference
in favor of the latter Whole cotton seed is as efficacious as ground
cotton seed Inorganic nitrogen in nitrate of soda is about as val
uable to cotton as organic nitrogen in cotton seed or cottonseed meal
The results obtained in Georgia and South Carolina are worthy
of special consideration in this connection as the experiments yield
ing them were conducted specifically for determination of the points
now under discussion
THE AMOUNT OF FERTILIZER PER ACRE GIVING BEST RESULTS
The experiments bearing upon this question are somewhat mea
ger and the results uncertain The amount of fertilizer which may
be judiciously and profitably employed is shown clearly to depend
upon the character condition and previous treatment of the soil
and to some extent upon the season ATery few systematic experi
ments have been made to test this specific question
In Alabama one series of experiments indicated that an applica
tion of 1000 pounds per acre of a complete fertilizer was not as
profitable as one of 500 pounds although the yield was somewhat
increased
In Georgia large doses of fertilizer applied at planting or during
the earlier periods of growth resulted in earlier maturity of the crop
without however sensible increase in profit The results of experi136 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
ments conducted for several years on series of plats of gravelly gray
soil with yellow subsoil in which fertilizers were applied at the
rates of 400 600 and 1200 pounds per acre indicated
1 That while heavy doses of fertilizers do not give a corres
ponding increase in the yield of cotton or so large a percentage
of profit yet such heavy applications within reasonable limits are
judicious provided the land is in good condition
2 That the limit or maximum amount of fertilizers that can be
safely and profitably applied to land in good condition varies con
siderably say from 500 to 1000 pounds per acre according to sea
sons variety of cotton etc In these experiments the maximum
amotmt that was immediately profitable was probably between
500 and 700 pounds per acre
It is concluded that in general the most effective amount of
fertilizer was 6256 pounds per acre compounded as follows
Pounds
Acid phosphate 468
Nitrate of soda 130
Muriate of potash 54 6
652 6
or such an equivalent amount of similar mixtures as will furnish
per acre approximately phosphoric acid 70 pounds nitrogen 20
pounds potash 20 pounds
It has been shown that 8 worth of wellbalanced fertilizer may be ex
pected to increase the yieldof seed cotton on 1 acre 1000 pounds But such
results can only be attained by concentrating the fertilizer on the best land
not by scattering it at the rate of 100 or 200 pounds to the acre over a large
wornout plantation The mistake should not be made of applying large
amounts of concentrated fertilizers on thin worn out land The larger the
application the more important is it that the land be in the best possible con
dition
In North Carolina heavy applications of stable manure while
somewhat proportionately increasing the yield were not profitable
In South Carolina it is concluded that the amount of phosphoric
acid and proportionate amounts of nitrogen and potash cannot be
indefinitely increased with the expectation of obtaining a corres
ponding increase in the crop The gain in crop does not keep pace
with increase of fertilizers and a point is speedily reached beyond
which this gain is not sufficient to meet the additional cost of theANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
137
heavier applications The soil cannot be profitably forced the
application of fertilizers must be regulated by its mechanical as well
as chemical condition The maximum quantity of fertilizer that
can in general be used with advantage is concluded to be an amount
that will furnish per acre phosphoric acid 50 pounds potash 15
pounds nitrogen 20 pounds
BEST MODE OF APPLICATION OF FERTILIZERS TO COTTON
In Alabama experiments in 1887 indicated that broadcasting
compost and stable manure gave better results than application in
the drill
In Georgia the results of general experiments indicate that it
is by no means necessary nor is it desirable to broadcast the fertili
zer when less than 1500 pounds are to be applied to an acre of corn
or cotton or other widerow crop If only 500 pounds are to be
applied distribute it in a deep furrow and mix it by running two
scooter furrows through it If more than 500 pounds then divide
the amount between the center furrow and the two listing furrows
Broadcast manuring should as a rule be confined to crops that are
planted broadcast as small grain grass etc
The experience and the practice at the stations generally substan
tiate the conclusion reached in South Carolina that fertilizers may
bo indifferently drilled or broadcasted where they are liberally ap
plied but drilling is to be preferred where small amounts are em
ployed
BEST TIME OF APPLICATION OF FERTILIZERS TO COTTON
A number of experiments have been made to test the effects of
intercultural applications of fertilizers the results of which how
ever are for the most part discordant and inconclusive
In Alabama one set of experiments in 1888 indicated that one
application of the fertilizer in the drill before planting gave best
results
Another in 1890 was very carefully conducted in order to test the efficacy
of the application of additional fertilizer during the growth of the plant in
prolonging its fruiting period and increasing the yield Two hundred pounds
of cottonseed meal per acre were applied at the second plowing of the cotton138
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
June 18 and covered lightly with the scrape Two hundred more were ap
plied in the same way at the last plowing July 30 These were applied to
two plats to which 200 pounds of cottonseed meal and acid phosphate mixed
in equal parts of each were applied in the drill before planting and were
compared with a third plat to which the same quantity of cottonseed meal
and acid phosphate were applied at planting but to which no subsequent ap
plications were made The average increase caused by the additional appli
cations was 331 pounds of seed cottoijier acre The intercultural applications
had the effect of continuing the growth and fruitfulness of the cotton after
that on plat 3 had ceased to grow
In 1893 however it was found that 200 pounds of mixed nitrate
of soda and cottonseed meal applied to previously fertilized plats
in June was as profitable as 100 pounds in June and 100 pounds in
July The addition of cottonseed meal as late as August 13 was
not profitable
In Georgia it has been found that marked effects result from in
tercultural fertilization or successive applications of fertilizers dur
ing the growing season When a heavy application of a readily
available fertilizer is to be made it would be advisable to divide it
into at least two doses and possibly more
In Louisiana the conclusion is reached that fertilizers for cotton
should all be applied at time of planting A second and third appli
cation is not profitable
MISCELLANEOUS EXPERIMENTS
Incidentally to the main objects for which the experiments in the
fertilization of cotton were instituted certain indications on miscel
laneous and minor points have been afforded
The general experience at the stations and elsewhere is to the
effect that chemical manures generally and especially nitrogenous
and phosphatic manures hasten the maturity of the crop Stable
manure in some instances Arkansas NorthCarolina delayed ma
turity beyond the fruiting period
The cumulative effect of manures in the soil is fairly well evi
denced in several cases Nitrogenous manures increased the yield
the second season without additional fertilization Alabama Arkan
sas but not the third season Alabama Phosphatic manures in
creased the yield without additional fertilization the second and
third season Alabama The cumulative effects of heavy appliANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 139
cations of a complete fertilizer were manifest the second and the
third years Georgia Floats alone gave a greater increase over
no manure the third year after application than in the first or
second year Alabama
Kainit is recommended as a specific for rust and blight in cotton
to be used in connection with cotton seed or cottonseed meal North
Carolina Kainit appears to retard the appearance of blight Ala
bama Kainit retards the opening of the bolls Arkansas
Marl alone or in combination with commercial fertilizers is of
no direct value to cotton Applied upon leguminous crops which
are to be turned under as a preparation for cotton its indirect value
is great South Carolina Air slaked lime mixed in the drill
with acid phosphate and floats had no apparent effect upon the crop
Alabama
Applications of copperas are without effect upon cotton South
Carolina
Xitrate of soda should generally be applied with the other fertili
zers at the time of planting South Carolina but on the other
hand it may be profitably divided into two applications the second
not to be later than June 1 Georgia
The quantity of nitrogen in the fertilizer seems not to affect the
relations between the weight of seed and lint Alabama
Shallow applications of fertilizers i e at depth of 2 or 3 inches
give better results than deeper applications Louisiana
There is no advantage in separating the ingredients of the fertili
zer and applying them at different depths Louisiana
It is highly important that the fertilizer be well mixed with a
considerable portion of soil Georgia
The cowpea is an excellent green manuring crop in preparation
of land for cotton Alabama Arkansas Louisiana Georgia The
most profitable method of application is to gather the peas or cut
the vines for hay and turn under the stubble with addition of the
manure from stock fed with the hay Alabama Arkansas Georgia
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS
In reviewing the results of the experiments conducted at or under
the auspices of the experiment stations and taking into account the140
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
general experience of successful cotton growers certain general con
clusions on the subject of the fertilization of cotton may be accepted
as tentatively established
1 Cotton is a plant which responds promptly liberally and
profitably to judicious fertilization
2 By judicious fertilization the maturity of the crop may be
hastened and the period of growth from germination to fruiting
so shortened as to materially increase the climatic area within which
cotton may be profitably grown
3 As is the case Avith most other crops the profit from manur
ing cotton with concentrated fertilizers is much enhanced by ante
cedent proper preparation of the soil It pays to bring cotton
lands up to a condition of good tilth by mechanical treatment
and especially by incorporating in them liberal quantities of organic
matter Upon lands in such condition fertilizers of all kinds yield
more profit either from small or large applications than upon
lands not so treated
4 Renovating crops and especially the cowpea furnish an effi
cient and economical method of bringing cotton lands into condi
tion to respond most liberally and profitably to the application of
concentrated manures under cotton The most profitable plan of
employing the cowpea for this purpose on cotton is to gather the
peas at maturity cut the vines for hay and turn under the stubble
along with the manures resulting from feeding the hay to stock
and cattle
5 Barnyard manure and similar bulky manures are more effi
cient and profitable as soil renovators than as specific fertilizers for
cotton They should be broadcasted liberally and used rather as soil
improvers than as immediate fertilizers The same is probably
true of cotton seed except whore the price to be had for the seed
at cottonoil mills justifies the exchange of seed for cottonseed meal
to be used as the source of nitrogen in a concentrated manure If
however only small quantities of such manures are to be had and
if is desired to use them as direct fertilizers it is more profitable to
compost them with acid phosphate preferably containing small
percentage of potash than to use them alone It is more profitableANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 141
to compost directly in the drill at time of planting than in heaps
previously
6 Cotton may wisely be assigned a place in a judicious rotation
system Upon lands devoted to staple crops a three years rota
tionsmall grain corn with peas cottonis judicious Each
crop in the rotation should be appropriately fertilized It is in
evidence that the cumulative effects of such manuring upon the
succeeding crop are marked
7 Upon the great majority of the soils of the cottongrowing
States it is advisable and profitable to use as a concentrated fer
tilizer a complete manure i e one containing soluble phos
phoric acid available potash and available nitrogen rather than
a manure containing one or two of these ingredients Nitrogen
however may probably be advantageously omitted from the con
centrated fertilizer in whole or in part when the soil has previously
been liberally supplied with this ingredient through barnyard
manure green manuring etc
8 Soluble phosphates are very much to be preferred in the
fertilizer for cotton to those which are not soluble
9 There is no great difference if any in the agricultural
value and profit when used in the fertilizer for cotton of the
various soluble potash salts to be had in commerce except propor
tionately to the price and content of actual potash
10 Of the nitrogen compounds available for use in fertilizers
the organic forms vegetable and animal are perhaps best suited
to cotton if one form alone be used although nitrate of soda is
probably nearly if not quite of equal value Further experiments
are needed to determine the efficacy of mixing various nitrogen
compounds in different proportions
11 The most judicious proportions of soluble phosphoric acid
potash and nitrogen in a complete fertilizer for cotton cannot be
said to have been as yet determined with entire accuracy Those
suggested by Georgianitrogen 1 potash 1 phosphoric acid 3
and by South Carolinanitrogen 1 potash f phosphoric acid 2
perhaps approximate reasonable accuracy In the light of present
information perhaps nitrogen 1 potash 1 phosphoric acid 2f or
would not be injudicious proportions for general use142 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
12 The amount of concentrated fertilizer which may profitably
be used per acre varies widely with the nature and condition of the
soil the seasons and other circumstances For an average soil in
fairly good condition perhaps the maximum amounts indicated by
Georgia nitrogen 20 pounds potash 20 pounds phosphoric acid
70 pounds or by South Carolina nitrogen 20 pounds potash 15
pounds phosphoric acid 50 pounds or an approximately mean of
the two would be the maximum limit of profitable application
The actual weight of the complete fertilizer furnishing these quan
tities would of course vary with the percentage composition in
nitrogen potash and phosphoric acid of the material used to make
the fertilizer If the commercial ammoniated fertilizer or other
concentrated manure intended for use under cotton should be com
pounded as it might very well be and in some cases is to analyze
approximately
Per cent
Soluble available phosphoric acid 9
Potash 3
Nitrogen 3
then 700 pounds per acre of such a fertilizer would be approxi
mately the maximum amount that could judiciously and profitably
be used under ordinary circumstances upon soil in good condition
13 The concentrated fertilizer should be applied in the drill
not broadcast at a depth of not more than 3 inches and well
mixed with the soil
14 All things considered it is perhaps best in most cases to
apply all the concentrated fertilizer in one application at the time
of planting With lands in superior condition however or where
large quantities of fertilizers are used it is probably profitable to
apply half at planting and half at the second plowing
These conclusions it is believed are justified by the present
state of knowledge on the subject of the fertilization of cotton
They may be accepted provisionally and until modified and cor
rected by the results of further investigation and experiments such
as are now in progress at several of the experiment stations in the
Southern States In view of the importance of the subject and
the unsatisfactory state of knowledge concerning it the writer
ventures to suggest that it would probably be wise for some one ofANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 143
the stations of the cotton States to devote a large part of its time
and resources to an extensive thorough and intimate study of
the nutrition growth and development of the cotton plant It is
perhaps not hazardous to conjecture that the results of such study
might modify materially the apparent conclusions thus far reached
on the subject of the fertilization of cotton
METHOD OF MANURING COTTON AT PRESENT IN GENERAL USE
IN THE UNITED STATES
The method of fertilizing for cotton at present employed by the
Southern cotton grower varies somewhat withdifferences in soil
climate capital etc The greatest variation perhaps is in the
preliminary preparation of the land Some cotton farmers practice
green manuring rotation composting etc with regularity others
irregularly others not at all There is much greater uniformity
observed in the use of concentrated fertilizers although here again
there are wide differences in usage particularly as to the amount
of fertilizer employed From the time of their introduction until
the present the method of applying chemical manures to cotton
has been essentially uniform and the sameviz in the drill They
are very rarely broadcasted Neither indeed as a rule are com
posts stable manure or cotton seed A shallow furrow varying
in depth from 3 to 6 inchesmuch more frequently 3 than 6is
opened with the plow and the manures applied by hand generally
through a tin tube known as the guano horn 3 feet long and 2
inches in diameter or by a mechanical distributer much like a
grain drill planter and capable of being set to deliver fixed and
uniform quantities The manure is then listed oni e covered
with a thin layer of soil to the depth of 1 to 3 inches The seed
are dropped upon this either by hand or from a planter and
covered with soil to a depth usually of 3 inches The seed are
frequently rolled in ashes or sometimes in acid phosphate or other
fertilizer before planting The amount of fertilizer used per acre
varies greatly From as little as 50 pounds to as much as 1000
pounds per acre is used The average amount used by the great
majority of cotton growers is probably between 175 and 200
pounds per acre The fertilizer is for the most part the commer144 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
cial ammoniated article although considerable quantities of acid
phosphate with or without potash and home mixtures of chemicals
are so used In the case of composts suchas that prepared by the
Furman formula for example the amount used is usually about
400 pounds per acre
The commercial ammoniated fertilizer sold in the Southern
States at the present time will average in composition approxi
mately
Per cent
Soluble available phosphoric acid 9
Nitrogen 2
Potash 2
Acid phosphates range in content from 12 to 15 per cent of
available phosphoric acid and are often given a small content of
potash ranging from onehalf of 1 per cent to 2 per cent
The home mixture of chemicals is usually constructed on the
formula approximately
Pounds
Acid phosphate 1200
Cottonseed meal 600
Kainit 200
2000
MANURING OF COTTON IN OTHER COUNTRIES
Elsewhere than in the United States the culture of cotton is
mainly confined to the rich alluvial lands and a large proportion
of the crop is grown without any manuring whatever still in most
countries some use is made of farm manures Even on the fertile
alluvial soils of Egypt which are so abundantly supplied with fer
tilizing materials by the overflowing of the iSTile barnyard manure
is applied to the extent of 10 to 15 tons per acre and generally
speaking except on the richest land it is acknowledged by experi
enced growers that the crop repays the cost of the application
In spite of the fact that clover is very generally grown as a
preparatory crop for cotton in this country nitrogenous manures
as a rule are the most profitable because the nitrogen of the soil is
exhausted by the large crops of cotton and sugar cane which are
grown and which return nothing to the soil and is also dissipatedANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
14
by the rapid nitrification which goes on under the peculiar climatic
conditions of Egypt
The time at which the manure is applied varies considerably
Some spread it over the land and plow it in before making the
ridges Others ridge the land and spread it in the furrows subse
quently covering it by splitting the old ridges Either of these
methods is suitable and preferable to the system of applying it
after planting which is perhaps more common than the other
When the cotton is a few inches above the ground the manure is
either spread in the furrows and hand hoed in or a handful is put
under the roots of the young plants This latter method involves
more labor than any other and has no advantages Fresh ma
nure is not thought so good as that which has been in the heap for
two years and old manure is always used by the best growers For
the production of manure earth is used as litter and the composi
tion of the resulting manure depends therefore to a considerable
extent on that of the earth used It contains but little water 5 or
6 per cent being an average As the results of several analyses
made by Dr Mackenzie the mamire may be said to contain Nitro
gen 04 per cent phosphoric acid 025 per cent and potash 15
per cent
Following clover as cotton almost invariably does it finds ex
cept on very poor land a sufficiency of nitrogen if the fodder crop
has been grazed If cut and removed the case may be different
After a fallow the land is generally manured as the land selected
for this purpose is of poor quality and more benefited by its appli
cation Xo artificial fertilizers are applied in practice and as yet
no experiments of a reliable nature have been made to ascertain
their effect1
x Foaden MS article on cotton culture in Egypt in the possession of this
Office
10146
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
DISEASES OF COTTON
By George F Atkinson M S
Professor of Botany in Cornell University
GENERAL NATURE OF COTTON DISEASES
Investigations continued for several years have brought to
light several quite well characterized maladies of the cotton plant
in the United States Some of these are physiological in their na
ture being due to disturbances of nutrition and assimilation
Other diseases of this plant are due to the action of fungous or
ganisms which live as parasites in various parts of the plant con
suming the nutriment and causing destructive changes which
bring about the death of the part attacked if not of the entire plant
The term rust frequently defined as red rust or black rusty
has become so general in its application as to be utterly valueless
other than in conveying the notion of disease If we accept the
term cotton rust as simply synonymous with cotton disease it
will tend to eliminate much of the confusion which must neces
sarily result should the term be accepted for any single disease
and the great indefiniteness which has clustered around this term
as a name for a single disease will be cleared away By the appli
cation of appropriate names to carefully discriminated conditions
of the plant much progress will be made in the understanding and
treatment of these troubles
The purpose of the present article is to present a resume of the
results of the investigations upon cotton diseases in the United
States some of which have already been published
These diseases may be classed in three general divisions accord
ing to their etiology
Diseases due to physiological causesMosaic disease or yellow
leaf blight red leaf blight shedding of bolls and angular leaf spot
Fungous diseasesTrenching sore shin damping off or seedANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 147
ling rot anthracnose root rot cottonleaf blight areolate mildew
cottonboll rot and ripe decay of bolls
Nematode diseasesBoot galls
MOSAIC DISEASE OR YELLOW LEAF BLIGHT
The later stages of this disease probably form the larger part of
the troubles which are termed black rust The name mosaic
disease or yellow leaf blight is quite characteristic of the early
stages of the trouble as it is here defined and renders it possible to
differentiate it readily from the other troubles which are often
spoken of as black rust but which are in reality quite different in
their nature The term yellow leaf blight was first used by the
author in 18921 Mosaic disease was added to this term or
used synonymously a few months later2 The latter seems the
more appropriate but since the former was first used in differen
tiating this peculiar disease from the others it seems well at least
to continue its use in the literature of the subject for the present
During very rapid progress of the disease also the mosaic character
of the leaf is not so apparent as during the normal development
In 1891 a preliminary investigation of the socalled black rust
was made3 The study was confined entirely to the organisms
present on the leaf and other parts of the plant and it was not pos
sible at that time to do more than to record the presence of certain
fungous organisms to observe their botanical characters and to
note the fact that their presence at least hastened the destruction
of the plant
The followingyear investigations taken up at the beginning of
the season confirmed the view that the organisms hastened the de
struction of the plant and at the same time demonstrated the fact
that the organisms did not initiate the disease but only aggravated
it
The results of the trials of Bordeaux mixture eau celeste and
copper sulphate indicated that this disease could not be prevented
1 Alabama College Sta Bui 36
2 Alabama College Sta Bui 41
3 Alabama College Sta Bui 27 Bot Gaz 16 1891 No 3 pp 6165148 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
by the application of fungicides and confirmed the conclusion
drawn from observations of a different character that it was due
to physiological causes
Experiments conducted under the direction of the author in
several localities in Alabama during two seasons showed a con
siderable reduction of the disease on plats where kainit was the fer
tilizer used
At Auburn an experiment was conducted on three plats Plat
No 1 on which cowpeas had been grown received before plowing
a heavy dressing of kainit and acid phosphate Xo nitrogenous
fertilizer was applied Plat Xo 2 received nitrate of soda in ad
dition to other fertilizers but no kainit Plat Xo 3 received a
complete fertilizer In July there was a perceptible yellowing of
the plants in plat 1 while plats 2 and 3 bore a rich green foliage
The yellow color of the plants in plat 1 was evenly distributed over
the leaf there being no indication of the mosaic arrangement so
characteristic of the disease In September the plants were ma
tured and only a few showed any sign of the disease The yellow
color of the plants was due to the acid phosphate and kainit ripen
ing the plants prematurely acid phosphate being known to produce
this effect along with a suffused yellowing of the plants
Early in August the plants in plats 2 and 3 were badly affected
the leaves showing the checkered appearance of the disease and
were an easy prey for such fungi as Macrosporium nigricantium
and Cercospora gossypina resulting in their curling up drying
and falling off
In a field of cotton of 3 or i acres near the scene of the above
experiment the plants in May and June were very promising but
in August the disease had appeared to such an extent that the
yield fell off at least onehalf of what would have ordinarily been
expected The fertilizer used in this case was stable manure cot
tonseed and acid phosphate
These experiments seem to show what has for some time been
held by a number of intelligent planters who have experimented
with kainit as a fertilizer It has been qnite frequently noted that
with quite large applications of kainit there was no appreciable
increase in the yield of cotton This occurs in those seasons whenANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
149
the rains are quite frequent not long continued and keep the soil
moist and the plant in normal growth On the other hand during
dry seasons as well as seasons of drouth followed by longcon
tinued rains kainit has a perceptible sometimes a remarkable in
fluence in increasing the yield This with the wellknown
effect of such salts in changing the physical condition of the soil
leads to the belief that the increased yield and the comparative
freedom from disease result from the action of the kainit in bind
ing more firmly together the soil particles so that it is more reten
tive of moisture or more able to draw it up from below1 Salt and
wood ashes are known to produce much the same results in the soil2
Rolling the land is frequently resorted to in order to produce the
same effect In the cultivation of cotton the more progressive
planters are careful to prepare the land well before planting and
then to cultivate only the surface soil afterwards in some cases
scraping the surface of the soil with a sweep to a depth of only
a few inches This leaves the underlying soil undisturbed and
there is no break in the continuity of the surface film on the soil
particles below the few inches which have been stirred The few
inches of soil which have been stirred thus act as a mulch
Characters of the diseaseIn the normal and usual progress of
the disease there first appears a peculiar yellowing of the leaf
wdiich gives it a checkered or mosaic appearance The yellow color
appears in small areas and bears a definite relation to the venation
of the leaf being bounded by veinlets which subtend areas more
or less rectangular in outline The green color is found along the
larger and intermediate veins The portions of the mesophyl
lying along the veins being near the channels for the distribution
of the nutriment receive a better supply of moisture and assimila
tive material than the areas farther away and those along the
smaller and terminal ramification of the Vascular channels at a
time when the supply is being cut short because of unfavorable
conditions of the soil They are thus enabled to hold the green
1 Alabama College Sta Bui 36
2 See articles on climatology and soils p 160150 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
color and continue the activities of the leaf for a longer period
while the angular areas most remote from the sources of supply are
the first to feel the loss and the deficient nutrition is manifested
by the yellow color of the parts
During the first stages of the disease this color may become very
pronounced but later it may be marred by the appearance of dis
colored spots produced by the growth of fungous organisms in the
tissues weakened by the failing nutrition of the plant Soon how
ever there appear minute brownish spots in the yellowish areas
which increase in size centrif ugally assuming a circular outline and
marked by concentric rings The concentric rings are probably
due to the periodic growth of the fungous threads within the tissues
the periodicity being produced by variations in the temperature
The first fungus which in most cases appears following the mo
saic condition of the leaf is Macrosporium nigricantium Atk As
the leaf thus becomes in a badly diseased condition the Macro
sporium is likely to be soon followed by an Alternaria The black
hyphffl and spores of these two fungi soon give a black appearance
to nearly the entire leaf from which the disease takes the name of
black rust
EED LEAF BLIGHT
The foliage of cotton frequently presents a red coloration which
is of the same nature as that displayed in wrhat are termed autumn
leaves It is an exceedingly common occurrence toward the ma
turity of the cotton even of quite healthy and rank growth It is
of rarer occurrence however in alluvial and rich soils than on
poor lands It is especially common on what is known as the
upland where the soil is worn and poor Here it occurs quite
early in the season and cotton sometimes makes but little progress
before the leaves become red growth ceases an early maturity sets
in and the leaves drop while the plant bears from one to two or
several bolls The affection if it can be so called is usually de
nominated red rust It results from an impoverished condition
of the soil showing a lack especially of potash and nitrogen and
probably also of phosphoric acid This can be remedied by proper
fertilizing and cultivation
ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
SHEDDING OF BOLL1
151
The shedding of bolls or forms or their death and drying
while still attached to the plant is very frequently a source of great
loss to the cotton crop The trouble has been long known but one
widely prevalent and disastrous form has been misunderstood It
is often confused with the work of the bollworm with punctures
made by some hemipterous insect etc That some of the shed
ding is due to the work of the bollworm is true but the shedding
referred to here is a purely physiological trouble
During three years observation in Alabama the author found
this physiological form of shedding to be very serious It occurs
most frequently in extremes of either dry or wet weather or during
the change from one extreme to another It may occur to some
extent under normal climatic conditions especially if the cotton
plants are too thick or the variety of cotton is one which develops
a very large amount of fruit forms in proportion to the leaf surface
During a normal period of growth the plants put out as many
fruit forms as could be matured should the conditions favorable
to growth continue If a very dry period succeeds this interfer
ing with the supply of nutriment and moisture there will occur a
partial withholding of tissueforming material and moisture at a
very critical period in the life of the young forms and the tis
sues of the young fruit are forced into an unnaturally matured
condition The fruit including the peduncle and often more or
less of the surface tissue of the stem at its point of attachment be
comes first of a paler green color than the adjacent parts of the
plant so that a wellmarked color line delimits the healthy from
the unhealthy portion In many cases the tissue is separated at
this line so that the fruit falls off completely or hangs by a few
fibers to the stem The early growing season may be exceptionally
favorable for the development of a large plant with an abundance
of young fruit and if followed by even ordinarily normal condi
tions will result in a partial loss of this fruit A long rainy season
may also cause the young bolls or forms to fall the soil being so

Alabama College Sta Bui 41152
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA

saturated with water as to interfere with root absorption and the
assimilative activity of the leaves will also be disturbed
The more or less complete separation of the tissues at the line of
division between the healthy and dying portion depends upon the
point of attachment of the fruit to the stem and also to some extent
upon the variety In some cases the line of separation is apt to be
clean cut resembling the scar left by a falling leaf especially when
the peduncle stands at a strong angle from the supporting branch
near its junction with the stem or larger branch If the point of
attachment is at a somewhat greater distance from this junction
and the peduncle much more inclined obliquely the line of separa
tion is apt to include from onehalf to 1 inch of the surface tissue
of the stem below the peduncle and very frequently then the lower
part of the dead surface tissue does not entirely separate and the
boll usually remains clinging to the plant In some varieties es
pecially the cluster varieties of cotton the separation of the tissues
does not take place so frequently and the boll usually remains
firmly fixed in position but the dead part readily indicates the
tissues involved
The matured bolls do not form a separate layer of tissue when
they mature but remain fixed to the plant The falling away of
the dead immature bolls and forms when it does occur is a useful
provision of nature since the plant is left in better condition for the
gathering of fruit which does mature One great objection held
by some to the cluster varieties of cotton is their tendency to hold
the dead immature fruit There is need of careful observations on
this disease in order to throw light upon its treatment
SORESHIN DAMPING OFF SEEDLING ROT
These are names applied to a very common disease which cause
young plants to rot off partially or entirely at or near the surface
of the ground There seem to be several phases of the disease
Sometimes the tissues undergo a soft rot which progresses very
rapidly and the early stages are not marked by any striking color
characteristics Another phase may progress rapidly or slowly
and is usually quite well characterized by a reddish brown colorANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1S98
153
which accompanies it This phase is also characteristic in that
it is usually manifested on one side of the stem in the form of an
Ulcer which gradually deepens until the vascular system is reached
when the life of the plant becomes really endangered Even when
this stage is reached however the plant may and does frequently
recover
This latter phase is characteristic of a very common disease of
seedling cotton It is called by the planters in many places sore
shin Many planters say that sore shin is the result of a me
chanical injury to the plant from a cut by the scrape used in
cultivation The term is sometimes applied to such injuries upon
quite large stalks of cotton but it should not be confused with the
sore shin of seedlings which is caused by the parasitism of a
fungus
The fungus which is almost universally said to be responsible
for the phenomena of damping off is Pythium debaryanum
While all cases of damping off are not by any means due to this
Pythium it is quite likely that many of the cases of what above
is termed a soft rot of seedlings are due to it
The fungus with which we are chiefly concerned here will be
called sore shin fungus for convenience for it is not well known
at present what the species of fungus is or even the genus for
from all of the artificial cidtures yet obtained of it nothing but the
mycelium and sclerotium stage has been obtained
The diseased portion of the plant is just beneath the surface of
the ground and presents an area of shrunken tissue of a dull brown
or reddish color The size of the shrunken area and the depth of
the injury are proportionate to the serious condition of the ulcer
as it may be termed If the injury remains confined to the super
ficial tissues the plant will usually recover It does sometimes re
cover when the injury reaches the vascular tissue but more fre
quently death results when the trouble has progressed thus far
When the study of the trouble was first undertaken an examina
tion of the diseased tissue showed the presence of several fungi
Besides the frequent occurrence of Rhizopus nigricans and sapro
phytic species of Fusarium there were generally present in great
numbers nonfruiting threads of some fungus This led to the154
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
supposition of their causal relation to the disease The threads are
9 to 11 in diameter and the cells 100 to 200 p in length At
first they are colorless and possess numerous vacuoles of varying
sizes in the nearly homogeneous protoplasm Later they become
brown in color The branches extend obliquely from the parent
thread are somewhat narrower at their point of origin and possess
a septum usually 15 to 20 from the parent thread giving it
clavate form to this part of the branch which is continuous with
the parent thread Frequently the hyphse are associated in
strands being woven and twisted together
Pure culturesBy placing affected seedlings on filter paper in
a moist chamber there are developed in twentyfour to fortyeight
hours numerous threads in a horizontal or procumbent position
which extend out for 1 to 3 centimeters over the paper often not
contaminated with other fungi By transplanting a few of these
threads using a flamed platinum needle into nutrient agar ren
dered acid by lactic acid 1 drop concentrated lactic acid to about
10 c c of nutrient agar a pure culture of the fungus was ob
tained A series of experiments was conducted to determine
whether this fungus could really produce the disease and damp off
the young plants
The experiments showed that the fungus used in the inoculations
was the cause of the disease produced at that season in the gardens
and fields examined Numerous cultures were made on Irish pota
toes cotton stalks oak wood cottonseed and horse dung the de
tails of the cultures as well as the experiments mentioned above
being published in Alabama Station Bulletin 41
ROOT ROT OF COTTON OZONIUM
A preliminary account of the root rot of cotton was published by
Pammel in December 18881 A fuller account of the investiga
tions appeared in the following November2 The following ac
count is an extract of the latter supplemented by the results of the
authors own investigations
1 Texas Sta Bui 4
Texas Sta Bui 7ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
Ii5
The disease is a true rot caused by one of the higher fungi but
nothing as yet has been found except the rhizomorphic and a
sclerotialike condition so that the affinities of the fungus are still
unknown The fungus was published by Pammel provisionally
as Ozonium auricomum Link but it is quite likely that it is not
identical with that species Certainly it is not identical with
several specimens which occur in some of the European exsiccatse
It will here be spoken of simply as Ozonium
There is a general belief among planters that certain soils only
harbor the disease The investigations showed however that
nearly all classes of soil are more or less subject to it Planters suf
fer most from the disease in the central black prairie region of
Texas Its northern boundary is the Red River as far east as
Paris Tex extending in southwesterly direction to San Antonio
and thence westward The counties of Montague Wise Parker
and Hamilton are the western boundary in the north A white
rotten limestone often cropping out underlies the entire region
The soil of these black waxy prairie lands is very retentive of moist
ure which is a condition favorable to the development of the fun
gus The moisture is especially abundant when the limestone
comes near the surface of the soil The cotton frequently dies
from the disease on the limestone ridges and slopes when none is1
affected in other parts of the field Tor the discussion of the vari
ous theories which have been advanced to explain the cause of the
disease before it was shown to be due to the parasitism of a fungus
reference should be made to Pammels work
Characters of the diseaseThe first indication manifested by
the cotton plants of the activity of the fungus is the sudden wilting
of one or more plants This is usually first noticed in the latter
part of June and early in July though the time varies with the
locality Planters sometimes associate the dying of cotton with
the appearance of flowers and the bolls but from the condition of
fields early in July it seems that it makes its appearance much
earlier in the season R D Blackshear of Navasota Tex has
reported plants dead from the trouble as early as May 6 and cer
tainly quite young plants are affected with it The fungus has
been seen on plants only 6 inches high The sudden wilting of a156
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
considerable number of plants does not occur however until near
the middle of June or later The wilting of a single plant here or
there in the field might be overlooked or be attributed to some other
cause This explains why from general observation the disease is
thought to appear first at a later period From a single stalk which
dies in May or June the disease may spread so that areas of consid
erable extent will be affected by the close of the season The dead
patches have no definite boundaries but extend in all directions
through the field the black streaks and patches formed by the dead
plants occasionally containing a few green plants In passing
through the belt where the disease is prevalent a striking contrast
is observed between the areas made black by the dead plants every
where so conspicuous in the fields and the interspersed green areas
of apparently healthy plants The suddenness with which plants
die is governed somewhat by the atmospheric and soil conditions
Planters frequently say that dry weather checks the disease Dur
ing the dry weather in August 1888 few plants were dying In
the latter part of August the rains set in and then during intervals
of sunshine large numbers of plants wilted In June and July
1889 it was again noticed that more plants gave the external evi
dence of disease after a rainy day which was followed by warm sun
shine than during several days of dry weather
Healthy plants are frequently found close to diseased ones even
late in the season but it does not follow that such green plants are
not affected with the disease as has been shown to be the case by
examination For example eight plants were found growing in a
cluster two of which had wilted and in each case the taproot was1
covered by the mycelium In two of the green plants the taproot
contained an abundance of the fungus and the plants would prob
ably have wilted in a very few days In two other cases a small
amount of the fungus was found on the roots while only a single
one at that time was apparently exempt
Every plant which presents the pathological conditions above de
scribed possesses the fungus on the roots if we add to the sudden
wilting of the plant the characteristic shrunken areas of the roots
Under the article on frenching it will be seen that sometimes this
disease causes the plants to wilt suddenly under atmospheric condiANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
157
tions similar to those which are most favorable to the sudden wilt
ing of the plants from the Ozonium
rf the roots of plants just dead from the disease be examined
frequently there are small wartlike bodies on the surface which
very often occupy the lenticels of the root These are probably
the same as the sclerotialike bodies which are described farther
on Plants which have not yet succumbed to the disease but
which are affected show the presence of the fungus on the root
sometimes in considerable quantities so that it appears as if the
root or a portion of it were covered with a whitish mold The
white threads gradually assume a brown color beginning in the
older portions The taproot is usually the first to be attacked and
the point which the fungus first invests is somewhere near the sur
face of the ground It does not begin at the tip or near the tip of
the root and in many cases the lower portion of the root is free
from the fungus at least in the early stages In cross sections of
the diseased roots the characteristic threads of the fungus are seen
to extend into the medullary rays and into the vessels The
threads within the tissues of the root do not become brown in color
and there are not the peculiar branching setae but the identity of
the threads with the fungus upon the surface can be determined by
the direct continuation of the superficial threads with the internal
ones
The fungus derives its nourishment from the living substances
of the root and also in its physiological processes sets up certain
fermentations which kill the affected portions causing partial de
composition which results in the shrinking of the tissues and the
formation of quite extensive depressed areas The borders of thesa
depressions show at first a red discoloration which ultimately be
comes brown Near the surface of the soil an enlargement fre
quently is formed in which elaborated materials are apparently
stored during the progress of the disease From these enlarge
ments new roots are frequently developed as the lower roots are
placed under contribution to the parasite These help in favor
able weather to prolong the life of the plant but are usually not
sufficiently developed to prevent the collapse of the plant when the
older roots give way When the roots become seriously injured158 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
root absorption of material from the soil becomes so diminished
that it is not equal to transpiration from the large leaf surface and
the plant wilts
In the affected areas the disease spreads from year to year in a
centrifugal manner the fungus making its way through the soil
from plant to plant
The lint of the diseased cotton is injured the fibers are wider
and the spirals are fewer and more uneven than in lint from
healthy plants Some have supposed that the disease could be
transmitted through the seed but experiments have shown that
this is not the case
Morphology of the fungusThe threads which are found upon
the surface of the roots are usually associated in strands which
course over the surface of the root irregularly and branch quite
frequently The internal threads are sometimes associated in par
allel layers but are not formed into distinct strands like those
upon the surface The cells are hyaline usually short and of a
greater diameter than the separate superficial threads or those upon
the surface of the strands The threads which compose the strands
are usually of a greater diameter in the inside of the strand and
smaller upon the surface From the surface of the strands there
are numerous free threads which stand out at various angles
Many of them are quite peculiar and characteristic of this fungus
They terminate in a long slender point and frequently possess
opposite or verticillate branches of the same character No fruit
ing condition in the form of conidia has as yet been determined
nor any form analogous to the fruit body of any known fungus
The Ozoniurn auricomum Link of Europe is very different
from the above fungus though it is similar in habit in many cases
and produces diseases of the roots of various plants The space is
too limited here for a discussion of the diseases due to this fungus
but mention should be made of the supposed complemental or
fruiting form which has been reported in a number of cases in
Europe The complemental fruiting form is given in many cases
by different authors as a very distinct fungus which is evidence
that very much weight cannot be given to the specific determina
tion of these root fungi by the rhizomorphic form only unlessANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
159
there seems to be some very characteristic features as in the case
of the Texas Ozoniurn which mark it very clearly The European
Ozonium is said by Schroeter1 to be the undeveloped condition of
Coprinus radians Penzig2 of C intermedius Winter3 and Sac
cardo4 of Tramates odorata Holuby5 of Agaricus deliquescent
This would seem to show that the European Ozonium was at least
the rhizomorphic form of one of the Hymenomycetes Pammel is
inclined to think that the Texas Ozonium is the undeveloped form
of some Pyrenomycetous fungus probably being influenced in
forming this opinion by the discovery of the frequent association
of a fungus in the roots of the diseased cotton and sweet potatoes
which possesses blackish rotund bodies that resemble the perithecia
of some Pyrenomycetes and also by a doubtful artificial culture
which he obtained by washing the threads of the Ozonium The
cultures obtained from this were not in any way like those of the
fungus as it appears in its natural habitat but it was suggested that
this might be due to the influence of the artificial medium The
pure cultures obtained by the author later show that this could not
be the case Pammel himself did not place much confidence in
the results from his supposed cultures of the Ozonium But this
makes little difference from the standpoint of the treatment of the
disease
TreatmentThe results of experiments at the Texas Station6
show that the disease cannot be controlled by any application to
the soil at present known Potation of crops seems to be the only
method which will keep the fungus in check There are however
a large number of other plants upon which the fungus can grow
readily If plants which are susceptible to attacks from the Ozo
nium are grown year after year on the same ground the soil be
comes after awhile so thoroughly infected with the fungus that
1 Kryptogamen Flora Von Schesien Bd III 1st Hefte Pilze 1889 p 519
2 Sui rapporti genetici tra Ozonium et Coprinus Nuovo Giorn Bot Ital XII
pp 132143
Die Pilze in Rabenhorsts Kryptogamen Flora von Deutschland I p 105
4 Saccardo Sylloge Fung VI p 345
5 Zur Kryptogamen Flora von Ns Podhrad Oest Bot Ztschr 1874 No 10
6TexasSta Bui 7160
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
the crop will not grow to any extent Corn sorghum millet
wheat oats and other members of the grass family are suggested
as desirable crops to grow in rotation with susceptible plants
Some suggest a rotation which will bring cotton or a susceptible
crop into cultivation on infected soil not oftener than once in three
or four years
Other plants subject to the diseasePammel names the follow
ing plants as subject to attacks from the Ozoniuni and from winch
the disease may be communicated to cotton grown in the same soil
All nursery stock except species of the genus Primus apple trees
Russian and paper mulberry China berry Japanese persimmon
grafted on native persimmon elm basswood and silver maple Of
these the China berry and paper mulberry trees suffer most se
verely In August 1888 the roots of a number of living China
berry trees were observed to bo covered with the fungus and in the
following year they wore found to be dead and the disease had
spread to some young paper mulberry trees in the neighborhood
Old and dying trees frequently develop suckers At Anna a
number of paper mulberry trees nearly dead produced hundreds of
suckers from inches to 2 feet high which covered an area of sev
eral rods The suckers were wilting in large numbers and many
were dead Specimens of the pear from Burnet County had the
fungus on the roots but the trees had been dead for some time and
itwas thought that the fungus worked only as a saprophyte on these
trees When young apple trees are affected with the fungus the
leaves suddenly wilt and turn black and in a short time the trees
perish In older trees death is more gradual They have a sickly
appearance several years prior to death bear a heavy crop of fruit
and then die Ozonium disease of apple trees must not be con
founded with the trouble brought about by the presence of aphides
Schizoneura lanigera on the roots which develop as the result
of injury irregular knots on the roots Sometimes both the
aphides and the Ozonium are found upon the same root
Weeds affected ly the fungusThe common sida Sida spiiiosa
is very commonly attacked by the Ozoniuni in infected fields
Even in fields well cared for by the planter this weed may be found
in limited numbers Frequently in such cases as well as whereANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
101
the weed is more abundant it is found to be attacked by the disease
This would be expected at least since other plants are known to be
subject to the attacks of the fungus because the sida belongs to the
same family as the cotton plant The fact that this weed is subject
to the attacks of the fungus and that it is a very widely distributed
and common weed throughout the cotton belt is one difficulty in
the way of success from the rotation of crops The ragweed and
cocklebur and some other Conrpositse were found to be affected by
the fungus In all cases observed the attack upon these plants
seemed to follow some injury of a mechanical nature There was
no doubt that the fungus caused the death of the plants in question
but it was considered doubtful if they initiated the trouble
In orchards and nurseries all diseased plants should be dug up
and burned Care should be exercised in the purchase of nursery
stock to see that the roots are perfectly healthy In the use of
sweet potatoes for seed great care should also be taken for in the
use of affected potatoes or the planting of affected nursery stock
the fungus may be transplanted to soils in which formerly the fun
gus was not present
To the abovementioned plants which are subject to the Ozo
nium should be added alfalfa1
COTTONBOLL ROT
This disease was first described by J M Stedman2 It affects
the bolls seed and lint Affected bolls were first received from
Baldwin County Ala in August 1893 The bolls were in a rot
ten condition and contained insects which were determined as
Eparm cestiva and Carpophilus mutilatus beetles known in
the Southern States Mexico Central and South America and
having the habit of feeding upon decaying and injured fruit of all
kinds and sometimes found sucking the sap from wounds in trees
They were found common in cotton bolls and in heaps of decaying
cotton seed They were thus regarded as not having any connec
tion with the cause of the disease
1 Texas Sta Bui 22
Alabama College Sta Bui 55162
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
Saprophytic fungi and in some cases the anthracnose of cotton
were found but in bolls that were only slightly diseased no fungus
was observed Pure cultures of the bacteria inside the closed bolls
were made by the plate method and cultivations were started on
gelatin and agar
In gelatin in four days the bacteria clouded the entire mass
giving it a greenish color In agar the growth produced a milky
cloud along the entire track of the needle path and over the surface
of the agar as a more or less white semitransparent glossy growth
Bolls on healthy cotton plants were inoculated with the bacteria
from these pure cultures and in all cases the disease appeared
Other bolls punctured with a sterile needle remained healthy ex
cept in one case where the decay produced was different from that
characteristic of the disease This rot is said to originate within
the boll and is not apparent until the contents of the boll are de
cayed when the carpels show signs of the disease in places It
first begins as a small darkbrown area involving the young seed
at the point near the peduncle If it begins some time before the
maturity of the boll the entire boll will rot and not open but it
may begin so late that only a few seed and a small portion of the
lint are affected while the carpels separate and the lint may be ex
posed and gathered
Stedman discusses the question of the probable means of en
trance of the bacillus into the interior of the boll The suggestion
that the germs may in the ground in some unexplained way make
their entrance in the root and travel up the stem to the boll is made
and also the question of entering the young ovary at flowering time
when the germs may be distributed to the ovaries by the agency
of insects The possibility of the germs being in the seed at the
time of planting is also suggested and plans for experiments to de
termine the manner of infection are proposed The organisms
would not induce pathological conditions when introduced to any
other part of the plant although in some cases they were able to
live for some time The disease is chiefly confined to the middle
and top crop first manifesting itself early in August
The organism is a short straight bacillus truncate at the ends
with slightly rounded corners 15 p to 075 p It is usually soliANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
163
taiy sometimes in pairs and occasionally in chains of three to four
It stains readily with the usual aniline colors is aerobic nonlique
fymg motile and forms spores though the latter are not described
The problem of the entrance of the organism to the bolls should
he investigated together with the relation of the plant to soil and
climatic conditions in connection with the disease also its possible
connection with the disease called frenching should be taken
into account In this disease the organism as we know travels
up the stem through the vascular ducts and aside from the foliage
characteristics which are usually quite marked many of the bolls
are affected and the rot here begins in the interior of the boll at
the same point as in the cottonboll rot It should also be borne in
mind that when the bolls are within a few weeks of maturity they
are in one sense a form of nutrient medium for even saprophytic
fungi and bacteria which are introduced into them so that too
much reliance should not be placed upon the results of the inocu
lation of the bolls through needle punctures
INSECT ENEMIES
Cotton also has a number of insect enemies which sometimes
do a great amount of damage Among these may be mentioned
the cottonworm or caterpillar the bollworm the cutworm lice
etc The cotton caterpillar can be fought successfully by dusting
the plants with either Paris green or London purple and many
bollworms are killed by the same means as they frequently ear
some of the tender leaves of the plant before entering the bolls
Lice and cutworms cannot be conquered as there is no practical
and economical method of waging war against them Frequent
stirring of the soil to encourage rapid growth of the plants is recom
mended in their case164
DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
CORN
ITS HISTORY CULTIVATION FERTILIZING ETC
This the great cereal crop of the United States is a native of
America and was therefore unknown to the rest of the world be
fore Columbus landed on the shores of Hispaniola The natives
of the West Indies cultivated it quite extensively at that time and
later explorers found it in common use among the Indian tribes
from the great lakes southward to the equator From this country
it was carried to the old world where its cultivation has obtained
a firm foothold in southern Europe and to some extent in south
ern Asia and northern Africa Several varieties were cultivated
even then by the aborigines for mention is made where the Pil
grims found corn buried in the earth by the Indians some yellow
and some red and others mixt with blue There is also mention
of white and yellow corn and varieties of which the grain be
big Corn is still found growing wild in some portions of the
continent and in such case each grain of the ear is covered with a
husk which has long since disappeared by continuous cultivation
The United States is now the great cornproducing country of the
world our annual crop reaching in 1896 over 2200000000 bush
els while the balance of the world made 435000000 bushels
The greater part of this enormous production is consumed at
home During the year 1897 there were exported 176916000
bushels as compared with 101000000 bushels in 1896 showing
that foreign nations are learning to appreciate the merits of our
great cereal Doubtless our exports of this grain will reach large
proportions in a few years but our own country will always con
sume the larger portion of our product As an eminent authority
says The value of the corn crops annually produced in this coun
try may perhaps be justly estimated in a financial point of view as
amounting to a certain number of millions of dollars but in
another sense its value to this country is inestimable when we con
sider the effect of its cultivation in hastening its settlement and
the continuance of its prosperity entering as it does into the food
of all classes of people and also greatly cheapening and increasing
the product of beef pork and mutton besides the many other usesANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 i65
to which it is appropriated and the increased wealth of the nation
resulting from the annual exportation of this product
The following table shows the acreage yield per acre total pro
duction value per bushel and total value of the crop by States
and Territiories
Acreage yield per acre production value per bushel and total value of the com
crop of 1897 by States and Territories
States and Territories
Maine
New Hampshire
Vermont
Massachusetts
Rhode Island
Connecticut
New York
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
Delaware
Maryland
Tirginia
North Carolina
South Carolina
Georgia
Florida
Alabama
Mississippi
Louisiana
Texas
Arkansas
Tennessee
West Virginia
Kentucky
Ohio
Michigan
Indiana
Illinois
Wisconsin
Minnesota
Iowa
Missouri
Kansas
Nebraska
South Dakota
North Dakota
Montana
Wyoming
Colorado
New Mexico
Utah
Washington
Oregon
California
Acreage
Acrts
9903
24064
45237
39486
8494
45258
494682
271283
1246281
219773
616774
1752898
2409505
1700881
2924824
476372
2543694
2092824
1269149
3901359
2223785
3032028
694053
2803728
2835864
990511
3660844
7167018
1019551
993880
7589281
6612457
9024596
8042283
993987
25060
1065
2359
176525
24503
8477
6477
13258
60720
Yield
per
Bvshds
37
34
35
325
31
315
31
315
36
29
33
18
13
9
11
8
12
145
17
185
16
21
245
23
325
315
30
325
33
26
29
26
18
30
24
17
18
12
19
27
22
18
25
315
Production
Biish Is
366411
818176
1583295
1283295
263314
1425627
15335142
8545414
44866116
6373417
20353542
31552164
31323565
15307929
32173064
3810976
30524328
30345948
21575533
72175142
35580560
63672588
17004298
64485744
92165580
31201096
109825320
232928085
33645183
25840880
220089149
171923882
162442728
241268490
23855688
426020
19170
28308
3353975
661581
186494
116586
331450
1912680
Price
per
bushl
Total 8009505l 238 ll902967933 26
Cents
47
45
43
47
54
49
40
38
34
30
30
38
43
49
48
55
46
45
45
41
40
36
40
35
25
27
21
21
25
24
17
24
22
17
21
32
65
50
38
58
55
55
53
56
Value
i 172213
368179
680817
603 149
142190
698557
6134057
3247257
15254479
1912025
6106063
11989822
13469133
7500885
15443071
2096037
14041191
13655677
9708990
29591SOS
14282224
22922132
6801719
22570010
23041395
8424296
23063317
48914898
8411296
6201811
37415155
41261732
35737400
41015643
5009694
136326
12460
14154
1274510
383717
102572
64122
175668
1071101
501072952166
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
It will be seen in the above table that Georgia occupies a very
poor position among her sister States in point of yield per acre
surpassing in this respect only Florida and South Carolina This
should not be the case Our lands are capable of producing better
crops of corn and it is our own fault if we do not bring about this
desired result From an excellent address delivered by Hon
Charles Schuler at a Farmers Institution in Louisiana I quote the
following which is as applicable to Georgia as to Louisiana
How many of you can correctly tell me what it costs you to
prepare plant and cultivate one acre in corn On the hill
lands of North Louisiana with the old tools used the prevailing
method is to make it with twelve furrows Any one familiar with
plowing knows that with an average mule or horse the plowman
can make these furrows in one and onehalf days If your labor
ieosts you fifty cents per day it will be seventyfive cents for labor
to do the plowing add twentyfive cents for hoeing and you will
have a total of one dollar per acre cost for labor to prepare plant
and cultivate your acre of corn as you now do it Let your average
crop be ten bushels and the cost for labor to make your corn in the
field will be just ten cents per bushel Dont you think that this
is cheaper than to haul it ten or twenty miles over bad roads as
many of you have been doing But why occupy one and onehalf
days in turning twelve furrows to your corn land when the same
work can be done much better in less than half of the time with
the use of improved farm implements Why confine your yield to
ten bushels of corn per acre when by the use of cotton seed meal
and other fertilizers you can easily build up your land to yield
double
The use of modern laborsaving implements by the hill farmer
has become a necessity He cannot raise cotton at the present
prices without using them If necessary to make cheap cotton
then also use them in your corn That they can be successfully
used there is no doubt Colored labor on my place has used them
for several years cultivating as high as from seventyfive to one
hundred acres to the plowhand
Experiments made at the Experiment Stations and by individual
farmers prove that by the use of fertilizers which in a great measANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
167
lire are produced by ourselves the yield of corn can easily be
doubled
Two of the most frequent objections to the raising of corn in
this State are 1st that the weevil is so destructive 2d that we
have no market for our surplus To the first objection I would say
that science has come to our relief and shown us that by the propel
use of bisulphide of carbon the weevil can be easily destroyed and
to the second objection I want to say that if the Kansas or Ne
braska cornraiser finds it profitable to send his product over a long
line of railway to New Orleans to find a market it seems to me
that the Louisiana farmer might likewise But to my mind the best
market for your surplus corn will be the
HOG
To profitably raise hogs will require 1st the selection of such
stock as may suit your surroundings If you live near an abund
ance of woodland where you can utilize the range you will find
that our muchdespised native hog will be a very good foundation
to build upon Get you a wellbred male from the many reliable
breeders now raising fine stock in our State and you will soon have
a thrifty bunch of pigs Should you not have the advantage of the
range and raise your hogs in pastures then the selection should
be made from a variety which will take on the greatest amount of
flesh and be ready for the market in the shortest possible time
Next to the selection of the kind of hog you must raise it is very
important that you look after their health
I very much doubt whether the hogs in our State and for that
matter all over the South are often suffering from the disease
called hog cholera which creates such a loss among the animals
in the North and West It is true they often die but thats no
reason they have cholera With a climate which permits grazing
nearly the whole year we have greatly the advantage With regu
lar feeding access at all times to clean drinking water and a condi
tion powder composed of salt ashes and charcoal with an occasional
tea made out of pine roots or a small quantity of turpentine in the
slops given them during the summer I think you will succeed in
having a healthy and thrifty lot of hogs On alluvial soil alfalfa168
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
should be grown and Bermuda set on hill lands to furnish the green
food necessary to keep them in a healthy condition While during
the early and late portions of the year corn will furnish the main
food supply The 9th of May will ripen you an oat crop which
will be highly appreciated by all your farm animals June will
furnish you with early or sugar corn July and August with sor
ghum peas and droppings in your orchard September and October
corn and peas with the Spanish peanut sweet potatoes and corn
to round them up on during November and December which will
give you a most excellent lot of live pork for either the smoke
house or the packer With the exception of the sorghum I would
have the hogs do their own gathering
Try it brother farmers You cotton planters who may be com
pelled to sell your products for five cents or less per pound you
sugar planters who may find that the provision favorable to sugar
in the Dingley bill will not bring you lasting prosperity which you
expect you rice planters who also may soon be confronted with
the problem of overproduction or under consumption bring Hog
and Hominy to your assistance and you will be in a beter position
to resist and overcome the evils which may possibly arise and over
which vou may have no controlANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
169
The following experiments as regards fertilizing cultivating
etc of corn will prove of interest and value to the thoughtful
farmers of the State
GEORGIA EXPERIMENT STATION
Bulletin No 34 November 1896
Fertilizer Culture and Variety Experiments on
Corn
THE WEATHER
Of all the crops grown on a Southern farm there is none that is
more dependent on the weather or more influenced by unfavorable
conditions of the weather than Indian corn This is especially true
when the corn is planted on the worn uplands that have been plant
ed in summergrowing crops with shallow culture and without the
intervention of an ameliorating crop for many years in succession
until the soil has been almost entirely deprived of its original stock
of humus and cannot be brought into good mechanical condition
and therein maintainedby the ordinary means of preparation
and culture
The summer of 1896 was peculiarly trying to all crops but par
ticularly to corn A cursory examination of Table 2s o 1 which
gives the total rainfall for each month of the year and in detail
for April May June July August and September will disclose
the fact that the rainfall was exceedingly irregular or badly dis
tributed Commencing with April it appears that only 184 inches
fell during the month and of this amount 114 inches fell on the
first day of the month In May there fell a total of 083 of an inch
and on June 1st 007 of an inch So from April 2d to June 2d
inclusive a period of 62 days the total rainfall was but 153 inches170
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
TABLE No I
Rainfall inches at Experiment Ga 1896
January total 4 96
February total 430
March total 348
April 1 114
94 016
26 047
29 007
May
Total

1
5
21
22
25
26
31
184
Total
June 1
3
9
18
19
21
26
30
028
0 21
005
009
004
008
0 08
007
084
020
071
0 25
072
036
087
083
7 and 8466
10
12
13
15
16
17
19
22
26
27
Total
1196
Aug
July
Total
2
3
4
6
4OS
0 01
044
004
070
1
S
7
16
24
25
Total 218
Sept19 023
22 0 35
28 010
29 076
Total 144
October total 2 70
November total 856
December total 193
Total for the year 4826
Mean Temperature and Rainfall for the months of May June July and
August in each of the years 1890 to 1896 at Experiment Oa
May J une July August
YEARS 3 J H a 3 o5 3 SI H 3 3 3 aj 3 o Si a H 3 9 3 M oj h 3 flg OS g S H 3 a 3
1890 719 697 73 3 704 712 688 670 316 107 394 176 548 802 796 790 761 779 788 183 325 694 567 171 517 802 777 781 830 772 792 619 515 412 351 668 442 767 744 781 760 766 786 577
1891 1892 4 63 718
1893 569
6 60 1312
709 S68 78 6 409 792 501 76 7 716
1896 767 083 772 402 794 1196 810 218

ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
171
This drouth was partially relieved by a rain of 082 of an inch on
Tune 3d and by frequent light rains throughout the month amount
ing in all to 402 inchesvery nearly the normal precipitation for
June but not sufficient to fully recover the crops from the effects of
the severe drouth of April and May The rainfall in July was phe
nomenal both in the number of days on which rain fell and the
total for the month there being 16 rainy days and a total of 1196
inches or nearly seven inches greater than the average for six years
See Table of Mean Temperature and Rainfall for 1890 to 1896
August followed with only 218 inches of rain or five inches less
than the average for six years
But perhaps the most remarkable feature of the weather during
July and August was the unusually high temperature and the great
number of very hot days The mean temperature of July was but
little above the normal as shown in the table but the record shows
that there were 13 days on which the mercury reached 90 degrees
and over In August there were 19 days on which the thermome
ter marked 90 degrees or over including 5 days at 95 and over
and the mean for the month was 810 degrees43 degrees higher
than Hip average for six years
The result of such remarkable abnormalities in the temperature
and rainfall could hardly have been otherwise than unfavorable
if not disastrous to the corn crop
These comments on the weather are not intended as an apology
for the light yields of corn in the experimental plots so much as to
suggest that the results of different fertilizer formulas and different
methods of planting and cultivation as detailed in the accounts of
the experiments may have been and certainly were largely af
fected by those abnormal weather conditions The results readied
and any conclusions drawn therefrom must therefore be consid
ered in the light of these facts and modified accordingly
EXPERIMENT NO lGENERAL FERTILIZER TESTS ON CORN
Ill this and all other experiments which will follow it should
be stated that the practical details of field work were all executed
under the personal supervision of Mr James M Kimbrough Ag
riculturist172
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
TABLE No II
Experiment No 1General Fertilizer Test on Corn
Summary
Formulas per Acre Per Acre
d a
3 a 05 w o o
co QQ OS o 03 2 c o 3 CD
2 S3 13 is a o A 3 Ph o a ts CQ 03 s Ph 60 OS a v cj CD 3 CD o 02 3 QQ a CO 3
fin s O 2h ft O co
1 3 3 4 5 7 8
1 156 1040 156 2340 90 3 07 2810
2 156 1560 156 2340 93 3 18 2829
3 156 1560 234 2340 91 3 86 2744
4 156 1040 234 2340 89 3 75 2872
5 95 96 3 57 2586
6 234 1040 156 2340 2702
7 234 1560 156 2340 93 3 68 2748
8 234 1040 234 23 40 94 4 25 2818
9 156 1040 156 2340 92 3 07 2790
10 156 1560 156 2340 93 3 18 2654
11 156 15 60 234 2340 90 3 86 2748
12 156 1040 234 2340 93 3 75 2682
13 91 93 2462
14 234 1040 156 2340 3 57 2740
15 234 1560 156 2340 93 3 68 2713
16 234 1040 234 2340 90 4 25 25 27
19 156 1040 156 2340 91 307 2800
210 156 1560 156 2340 93 318 2742
311 156 1560 234 23 40 90 386 2746
412 156 1040 234 23 40 91 375 2776
513 2340 93 94 2524
614 234 10 40 156 357 2721
815 234 1560 156 2340 93 3 68 27 30
816 234 10 40 234 2 40 92 425 2672
Tnble No 1 shows the arrangement of the 3row plots and the different
variations of the fertilizer formula The normal ration was as follows
Acid phosphate 156 00 pounds
Muriate of potash 10 40 pounds
Cotton meal 15600 poundsANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
173
This makes the seventh year of field experimental work with the
view to finding out the effect of different forms of the fertilizing
elements different proportions of the same varying qualities and
times of application etc and the end is not yet In other words
the subject has not been exhausted nor has the final conclusion
been reached
The section on which this experiment was located comprised one
acre of the ordinary red soil of Middle Georgia It was cultivated
in cotton in 1895 and with liberal fertilization produced an aver
age of 2079 pounds of seed per acre the experiment of that year
having been a general fertilizer test on cotton The rows how
ever were laid at right angles to the direction they had in 1895
The land was broken flush with a turn shovel March 3d On
March 16th it was laid off in fourfoot rows a large shovel follow
ing an initial scooter furrow the fertilizer distributed in these fur
rows and after running a scooter plow in each in order to more
thoroughly mix the fertilizers with the loose soil the furrows were
listed on with a turn plow The corn Shaws Improved was
planted March 20 afterwards thinned to one stalk every four feet
making a total number of hills to the acre of 2705 The cultiva
tion was frequent and shallow and the ground was in mellow con
ditionthe season being very dryuntil June 15 when it was
sown in peas and laid by
This formula was successively varied as follows 2 By increas
ing the amount of muriate of potash to 1 rations the other ingre
dients remaining normal 3 By increasing bth muriate of pot
ash and cotton meal to 1 rations the acid phosphate remaining as
before 4 By using 1J rations of cotton meal the other ingre
dients remaining normal 5 By withholding all the ingredients
6 By using 1 rations of acid phosphate and 1 ration of each of
the others 7 By using 1J each of acid phosphate and muriate
of potash and one of cotton meal 8 By using 1 rations each of
acid phosphate and cotton meal and 1 ration of muriate of potash
These formulas were repeated in the same order of succession on
the remainder of the section At plowing of the corn 2340 pounds
of nitrate of soda per acre were applied dropping the dose for each
hill of corn within C inches of the seed Column 6 of the table
174
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
shows the percentage or number of matured stalks for each 100
originally planted
It should be remarked that the missing hills were replanted
in Brazilian Flour Corn a very distinct variety in order to take
the due proportion of sunlight fertilizers moisture etc But
these replant stalks were cut out before the main crop was gathered
and their product was not taken into the account The yields given
in column 8 are what the respective yields would have been if a
perfect stand had been secured and maintained until the crop
was harvested This plan was followed in all of the experiments
reported in this bulletin Column 7 gives the actual cost of the
different formulas from which it is easy to estimate the direct loss
or gain from the use of the fertilizers
RESULTS
The main table shows the results in detail by plots The sum
mary groups the corresponding duplicate plots and their resulting
averages A mere glance reveals the fact that the fertilizers ap
peared to affect the yield very little The average yield of the
two unfertilized plots was 2524 bushels The greatest yield
among the fertilized plots was 2800 bushels the plots having re
ceived single ration of the normal formula This was a gain of
276 bushels per acre at a fertilizer cost of 307 The next high
est yield was 2776 bushels from the plots that received a single
ration of acid phosphate and muriate of potash and 1 rations of
cotton meal an increase over the unfertilized plots of 252 bushels
at a fertilizer cost of 375 The next highest yield was 2746
bushels from the plots receiving one ration of acid phosphate and
li rations each of muriate of potash and cotton meal an increase
of 222 bushels of corn at a fertilizer cost of 386
On the whole the differences between the effects of the differ
ently compounded formulas so far as judged by the increased
yields were insignificant
CONCLUSIONS
1 No definite e mcui ins can be drawn from the results of this
experiment The seasons were too unfavorableANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
175
2 The first conclusion appended to the results of a similar ex
periment in 1895 included the suggestion that a commercial fer
tilizer for corn should contain the three valuable elements in
about the following proportions Available phosphoric acid 9
per cent potash 125 per cent nitrogen 275 per cent There
is no reason at present manifest for changing that suggestion
3 Previous conclusions that it is not expedient to rely on com
mercial fertilizers for corn and that corn should follow a liber
ally fertilized cotton crop are at least sustained by the results of
this experiment
EXPERIMENT NO 2RESIDUAL EFFECT OF FERTILIZERS
In 1895 a oneacre section was planted in cotton receiving suc
cessively increasing quantities of fertilizers on successive plots in
creasing from 400 pounds to 1200 pounds per acre two plots re
ceiving no fertilizer In 1896 the same plots were preserved and
carefully prepared and planted in corn each plot receiving the
same amount In breaking the land preparatory to planting care
was used to avoid intermingling the soils from the several plots
Each plot was plowed lengthwise its six rows and not crosswise
A deep shovel furrow was run in each middle March 6 which
was then bedded on leaving a narrow ridge on which the cotton
stalks had stood The ridge was immediately opened out with a
10inch shovel March 15 the fertilizer was uniformly distributed
in this shovel furrow a mixing furrow was run in it and then a
list made with a scooter March 20 the section was planted in
Shaws Improved Corn and each row received 045 pounds of
nitrate of soda dropped near the seed before covering with a hand
hoe
The cultivation was as usual frequent and shallow and very
thorough Missing hills were replanted with Brazilian Corn the
product of which was not included in the final yield
Table ISTo Ill gives the detail of arrangement of the plots the
fertilizer formulas used in 1895 on cotton and in 1896 on corn
the yield of cotton in 1895 and the yield of corn in 1896 The
cost of the fertilizers for each year and the total cost for the two
years are also given in the table176
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
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CANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
17T
In a corresponding similar experiment made last year 1895 the
plots that had been unfertilized in 1894 were also planted without
fertilizer in 1895 In commenting on the experiment of 1895 the
last stated circumstance was noted as a defect in the scheme of the
experiment as it is impossible to say how much the result was
due to the residuum of the fertilizers applied to the cotton in
1894 In planning the present experiment this defect was avoid
ed by fertilizing every plot alike so that any difference in the re
sulting yields of corn might safely be charged to the difference in
the amounts of fertilizers applied to the cotton in 1895
RESULTS
Where 400 pounds of fertilizer were applied per acre in 1895
the yield of corn in 1896aided by 300 worth of fertilizer
was 2926 bushels per acre or only 1 bushel more than the yield
of the plots which received no fertilizer in 1895 The yield of
corn in 1896 from the plots that received 800 pounds of fertilizer
in 1895aided in 1896 by 300 worth of fertilizerwas only
2902 bushels or 024 bushel less while the plots receiving 1200
pounds of fertilizer per acre in 1895 gave a yield of but 3032
These results will doubtless surprise the majority of readers
CONCLUSIONS
It is quite clear so far as this experiment may be trusted that
the effect of the fertilizers applied in 1895 on cotton was hardly
more than none at all It is true the season was unfavorable for
corn but the residual virtue of the fertilizers applied in 1895 if
such virtue really existed should have been more evident and pro
nounced therefore
1 The residual effects on corn of a fertilizer applied to cotton
the previous year are not very pronounced even when the quantity
so applied was liberal
EXPERIMENT NO 3VARIETY TEST OF CORN
Two sections of one acre each were selected for the test the same
being four years cleared and well suited for the experiment The
178 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
soil was well prepared uniformly fertilized as indicated in Table
No IV and planted in twenty varieties of field corn The dose
of nitrate of soda as in most of the other experiments was applied
in the furrows near the seed corn Two rows the length of an
acre were planted in each variety and the series was repeated twice
making six rows of each variety Table No IV gives the results
and is arranged in the order of yield per acre of the several varie
ties
TABLE IV
Experiment No 3 Variety Test of Corn
0 00
CD O
CO
32

o
Fertilizers per Acre
Acid PhosphatenTo
Muriate of Potashifm n
Cotton Meal 1 Aft
Nitrate of Soda li 4U
34580
Cost3 07
Varieties of Corn
ojT3

U
f 0J
a
s XI
ft
d 0

aj X

H o
a fl

bl C CJ
0 o
U
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
18
14
15
16
17
IS
111
20
Cokes Prolific
Higgins
Henry Grady
Shaws
Stegalls
Hoffmans White
Shannons White
Ledbetters White
Delks
Southern White
Sewells White
Jones Pearl
Mammoth Yellow
Jacksons White
Moores Yellow
Donaldsons White
Deep Grain White
Big Tennessee Yellow
Jones Bread and Stock
Hickory King
Average
of all varietiesii
28
27
26
26
25
25
25
25
25
25
24
24
23
23
23
22
22
22
21
19
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
59
It should be stated that a variety test of corn where the width
of row the distance between hills and the number of plants inANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
179
each hill are the same for each variety is not necessarily fair and
just to every variety for obvious reasons For instance one varie
ty may produce large stalks and ears while another may have a
different habit and require a different spacing or a greater number
of plants to the acre in order to give a maximum yield Again
one variety may be earlyanother lateand as a result the
weather or seasons may hit one just right and the other just
wrong These differences between different varieties cannot as a
rule be foreseen and provided against unless the experimenter
had previous knowledge of the facts either from experience in
growing them or from other sources
For these reasons the effort has been for several years past to
exclude from such a test such varieties as were known to differ
materially in height and size of stalk and earliness of maturity
from the ordinary standard field varieties commonly planted in the
South As a matter of fact there appeared no material differences
in these respects between the twenty varieties included in this
test Some of the varieties very probably would have shown better
comparative results than others if less distance had been given
Indeed there is good reason to believe that all would have pro
duced more corn if they had been planted more closely
Five of the varieties in this test have been subjected to the same
test in each of the four preceding years It may therefore be of
interest to compare results of these five during the period of five
years This is done in Table No IVA The yield per acre of
each variety is given for each year and the adjacent column shows
the relative rank of each as to yield for each year of the five
Three of the remaining 20 varieties are also included in this ex
hibit because of their relatively high yield the present year to
witCockes Prolific Henry Grady and StegaWs
It is interesting to remark also that the sections of land cov
ered by this test are the same on which the test of varieties were
made in 1894 two years ago Again the variety test in 1S95 was
made on similar and adjacent soil to that on which the present test
was made Neither of the sections however has been favored with
a crop of coAvpeas since they were clearedTABLE No IVA
Comparison of Eight Varieties of Corn
NAMES OF
VARIETIES OF CORN
1852
2
3
Shaws Improved
Higgins
Shannons White
Shannons Yellow
Southern White
Cockes Prolific
Henry Grady
Stegalls
Averages
Not planted
t 4 years only
2640
2771
2774
2845
3065

2819
33
1893
W
0
K
3246
3058
31 52
3352
3130
31 96
1894
P
3246
3058
3152
33 52
3130
3188
P5
1895
a
M
1896
a
P
Average 5
Years
a
45 55
4555
4246
35 37
35 37
4246
2613
2784
2582

2500
2820
2688
2585
2459
10
1
3
5
3260
3245
3187
133 71
31 53
8212
d
H

S
ta
z
H
o

s
O
d
H
d
W
H
I
Q
H
O
to
OANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
RESULTS
181
These are sufficiently detailed in Table IV In considering the
average rank of the several varieties included in Table IVA
based on the total yield for the five years it should be noted that
Shannons Yellow which shows the highest yield was not in the
contest the present yeara poor year for corn and is not there
fore entitled to rank first The conclusions of the test for 1895
showed in a similar table that Shannons Yellow ranked second
for the period of four years
CONCLUSIONS
Every one can draw his own conclusions in the face of such a
showing Among the new varieties introduced into this test
Cockes Prolific is very promisinggiving the greatest yield of
all
NoteThe Station has no seed corn to sell and refers all in
quiries to the following names and addresses of parties of whom
seed of the several varieties was procured
Higgins Improved
Moores Yellow
Big Tennessee
Shannons Early
H C HigginsLarkinsville Ala
A L Moore Hamilton Ga
11 N ShannonGoodlettsville Tenn
Hoffmans Improved White J E AbernathyBuford Tenn
Hickory King R T WallerClarksville Ga
Delks Improved WhiteM F DelkSenoia Ga
SS16 i jmoo
Shanes ImprovedH H ArringtonSummerville Ga
Cockes Prolific
xSP Deei Mark Co Atlanta Ga
Mammoth YellowJ
JonesBread and Stockl t r TT
Jones Pearl H phllhPs JonesHamilton Ga
Ledbetters White
0 P LedbetterLavonia Ga182 j DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
Henry GradyA H IrwineAustell Ga
Stegalls improved WhiteJ P StegallEmersDD Ga
Sewells Improved WhiteT W Sewell Lavonia Ga
EXPERIMENT NO 4SINGLE VS DOUBLE ROWS
There is a somewhat prevalent belief that Indian corn will yielcF
a larger crop if planted in double rows This is the plan often
practiced by those who enter popular prize contests for the largest
product of corn per acre The first instance of planting a pre
mium acre in this wayso far as we knowwas by Maj R H
Hardaway of Thomas county Ga who secured a yield of 119
bushels of shelled corn from one acre aided by artificial irrigation
With a view to testing the merits of this method of planting
this experiment was projected The land selected was two acres
of rather hard dry clay soil on one of the highest points of the
farm The ground was wellbroken with a twohorse turn plow
in February and well harrowed March 9 March 14 the rows were
laid off and the fertilizers distributed according to the following
arrangementsPlats 1 3 5 6 8 10 and 12 of the first acre
were laid off in five rows each four feet wide and fertilizers dis
tributed in the furrows at the rate of 3458 pounds per acre cost
ing 300 per acre excepting plot jSTo 5 which received no fer
tilizeras a check plot The dose of fertilizers for each row was
distributed in the same mixed by running a scooter furrow in the
furrow and then listed on Plats 2 4 7 9 and 11 were laid
off into 3 rows 6 feet apart the fertilizers at the same rate per
acre 3458 pounds mixed in the same way and listed on In the
4foot row plots the corn was dropped and spaced to one stalk every
4 feet so as to stand 4x4 one stalk in a hill or 2704 stalks per
acre or one stalk to every 16 square feet In the 6foot double
row plots the corn was dropped and spaced in each of the listing
furrows 4 feet apart so as to stand in double rows 6 feet apart
from center to center and the plants 4 feet apart in each row of
the double row the successive plants alternating regularly from
end to end of the double rows This would give one stalk to every
12 square feet or 3605 as we space a single acre stalks to the
acreANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
183
TABLE No V
Experiment No 4Single vs Double RowsCorn
CO Fertilizer Formula Acid Phosphate Mur Potash 15600 lbs 1040 lbs CO 3
Cotton Meal 15600 lbs
v
a Cost per acre f3 07 b
34580 lbs o O T3
m
O How Spaced 2S
1 4x4 single rows First Acre 2200
2 6x4 double rows 2657
3 2327
4 2379
5 19 30
6 2316
7 6x4 double rows 2441
8 2354
9 6x4 double rows 2343
10 2158
11 2358
1 Second Acre 24 43
2 2935
3 2520
4 2838
5 2104
6 2289
7 26 52
8 2197
9 2482
10 2316
11 2484
Averages 2313 25 56
ix4 double rows
4x4 single rows and 2017
Unfertilized
It should be noted that in each of the 4foot single rows there
were distributed 62 pounds of the fertilizer while in the 6foot
double rows the amount of fertilizer required for each row was
930 poundsmaking a total of 3458 pounds per acre in each184
DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
case The usual dose of nitrate of soda was applied to all the plots
excepting the unfertilized plotsamounting to 234 pounds per
acre
In the second acre the plan and arrangement was precisely as in
the first acre
The whole arrangement is shown in Table No V together with
the resulting yields which are consolidated and summarized for the
two acres
RESULTS
The 4x4 single rows yielded at the average rate of 2313 bush
els per acre The 6x4 double rows yielded at the rate of 2556
bushels per acre The unfertilized plots which were planted 4x4
single rows yielded at the rate of 2017 bushels per acre
CONCLUSIONS
STo certain or safe conclusion may bo drawn from this one years
experiment There is strong reason to suspect that the greater
yield of the 6x4 double rows was due altogether to the fact that
there was a larger number of stalks to the acre This suggestion
is strengthened by the results in the next detailed experiment No
5 in which a larger number of stalks to the acre differently ar
ranged gave an increased yield The experiment will be repeated
the coming year with such modification in the details as will elimi
nate the suspected source of error above alluded to
EXPERIMENT NO 6DISTANCE BETWEEN HILLS OF CORN
This experiment was projected for the purpose of testing tin
merits of a method of spacing the stalks of corn long practiced by
Mr H J Dunton of Smyrna Ga and claimed by him to give
better results The method consists essentially in laying off the
corn rows at a moderate width distributing the fertilizers con
tinuous along the rows then spacing the hills at double the usual
distance apart and leaving two or more plants in each hill The
theory of the plan is this The hills being twice the usual dis
tance apart and containing two plants instead of one and the ferANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
185
tilizer being distributed continuously along the row the latter will
not be so readily accessible to the plants and will therefore be
more gradually appropriated along through the growing season
instead of all becoming accessible and being taken up during the
early stages of the crop growth
TABLE No VI
Experiment No 6Distance between Hills EtcCorn
is
o at
12

a

O
51
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
FERTILIZER FORMULAPER ACRE
Acid Phosphate 15600 pounds
Muriate of Potash 1040
Cotton Meal 15500
Nitrate of Soda 2340
34580 pounds
Cost per Acre 3 07
How Spaced
Rows 4 feetHills 6 feet 2 stalks in a hill
Rows 4 feetHills 3 feet 1 stalk in a hill
Rows 4 feetHills G feet 2 stalks in a hill
Rows 4 feetHills 3 feet 1 stalk in a hill
Rows 4 feetHills 6 feet 2 stalks in a hill
Rows 4 feetHills3 feet 1 stalk in a hill
Rows 4 feetHills 6 feet 2 stalks in a hill
Rows 4 feetHills 3 feet 1 stalk in a hill
Rows 4 feetHills 6 feet 2 stalks in a hill
Rows 4 feetHills 3 feet 1 stalk in a hill
Averages
Averages
Fertilized Plots
Unfertilized Plots
M
0 M
GO a W o

ffl 3
a


4 1

per dCo ill
T3 2A

0 i C

r5QH
e
3026
2673
2304
2746
2642
Plots 5 and 6 were not fertilized
2772
2304
o2
Is
a x
i
So

D i 03
52
2922
2907
2654
2797
27 04
2832
2054
One acre of land adjacent to and of the same character and his
tory sections 5 and 10 covered by the preceding Experiment No
5 was selected for the work The land was thoroughly broken
fertilizers distributed and the corn planted in the same way and
on the same dates as in Experiment No 5 with the following ex
ceptions The section was laid off in rows four feet wide and the
same formula in the same amounts was distributed along each openso
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
ing furrow The plots each contained five rows plots Xos 5 and
6 unfertilized The oddnumbered plots were planted in hills six
feet apart and two stalks left in each bill The evennumbered
plots were planted in hills three feet apart and one stalk to each
hill In each series of plots there was one stalk to every 12 scpiare
feet or 3640 stalks to the acre
Table No VI shows the details of the arrangement and the re
sulting yields of each of the two series and the averages
RESULTS
There is not much difference not enough to be considered sig
nificant In but one instance did an oddnumbered plot 4x62
stalks among those that were fertilized return a larger yield than
the adjacent following evennumbered plot The average yield of
the even numbered plots 4x31 stalk was 610 of a bushel
greater than the average yield of the oddnumbered plots 4x62
stalks
Of the two unfertilized plots the one planted 4x31 stalk gave
240 bushels more than the plot that was planted 4x62 stalks
This last result would seem to indicate that that method of planting
is more effective when no fertilizer is used
CONCLUSIONS
As in the previous experiment no satisfactory conclusion can be
drawn from the results of this experiment so far as the question
at issue is concerned It can only be said that the results do not
favor the correctness of the theory involved
NoteComparing the average yield of the fertilized plots
in all of which there were 12 square feet of soil area to each stalk
of corn with the average yield of all the fertilized plots in sections
10 and 15 on which Experiment No 4 was located in which the
corn was planted 6x4 double rows giving also 12 square feet to
each stalk and then comparing these yields with the average of the
4x4 single rows in Experiment No 4 which allows 16 square
feet to each stalk the suggestion occurs that 4x4 was too wide and
that 4x3 would have resulted in a larger yield Possibly the im
proved condition and greater capacity of the soil of the FarmANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
187
which have resulted from the rotation practiced during the past
six years would now justify closer planting of corn This will
be carefully investigated next year
EXPERIMENT NO 7SEED CORN FROM DIFFERENT PARTS OF
THE EAR
This was to determine whether there would he any difference in
the yield of corn taken from different parts of the ear The aver
age length of the seed ears selected was 10 inches The grains
from about one inch of the small ends of the ears were shelled off
and rejected Two inches of the butt ends two inches from the
middles and two inches of the small ends were carefully shelled
and planted in 8 plots of 5 rows each as follows
1st plot seed from the butts 2d plot seed from the middles 3d
plot seed from the small ends 4th plot seed from the butts 5th
plot seed from the middles This covers the 40 available rows
and the plantings from the small ends were not repeated
Experiment No
TABLE No VII
Seed Corn from Different Parts of the Ear
Fertil ZER FORMULA Per AcRi 15600 pounds 1040 pounds 15600 pounds 2340 pounds 34580 pounds 307 o w 3
C S Meal Nitrate of Soda
2 3
T3
Seed From what part of Ear 2 m
1 2
2 inches of middles 2686 26 24
27 37

Table No VII gives the results reduced to average yields of the
respective plots183
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
RESULTS
The one plot of 8 rows planted with grains from the small ends
gave a slightly larger yield than the two plots of 8 rows each plant
ed with grains from the butts and these last gave a little larger
yield than those planted in grains from the middles
CONCLUSIONS
The experiment is by no means conclusiveone experiment
rarely leads to conclusionbut it will probably be a surprise to
most farmers many of whom have been wont to reject the grains
from an inch or so of each end of the eara surprise because the
little difference that resulted was in favor of the small ends rather
than the middles and butts
EXPERIMENT NO SEFFECT OF MURIATE OF POTASH ON CORN
Careful observers have long known that there is some peculiar
property in muriate of potash that produces a deleterious effect on
some crops especially when used in liberal quantity This has long
been noticed in connection with tobacco and potatoes impairing
the burning quality of the former and the mealy and starchy
quality of the latter For seven years past the experiments on this
Station Farm have indicated that when muriate of potash is used
in excess of the ascertained demands of a crop of corn or cotton
the effect is generally not simply negative but positive actually
reducing the yield This has been observed incidentally in study
ing the results of general fertilizer tests without special regard to
positive injurious effects of any particular fertilizing element or
the form in which such element was applied The toxic element
if it may be so called in muriates of potash is understood to be
the gas chlorine a constituent of all muriates or chlorides
A fractional section of area sufficient for 28 rows 4 feet wide
and 209 feet long was prepared and planted in the usual way one
series of plots receiving a double ration of acid phosphate muriate
of potash and cotton meal and another receiving the same minus
the muriate of potash Every row received nitrate of soda atANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
189
the time of planting Plot 4 received no fertilizer except the
nitrate of soda
Table No VIII explains the arrangement and tells the story of
RESULTS
It appears clearly that the plots that received no muriate yielded
better than those that received 208 pounds of muriate to the acre
the difference in favor of the nopotash plots being nearly two bush
els of shelled corn per acre The potash plots received in addi
tion a full ration of acid phosphate and cotton meal and yet pro
duced only 46 of a bushel more corn per acre But it is equally
clear that the value of the increased yield in both sets of plots fell
far short of the cost of the fertilizer
TABLE No VIII
Experiment No 8Efftct of Muriate of Potash
C o
8 Fertilizes Formula
S 1
00 JS
at 73 2 o
Ph w P3
M O o e 03
M2 a Q QJ3 QJ
0 u a OS OQ 0 2S
3 02 g o X
1 3 4 s e
1 312 208 312 26 2335
2 312 312 312 312 26 26 2656
o O 20 8 2582
4 2363
5 312 208 312 26 25 82
6 312 312 312 312 26 26 2548
7 20S 2138
24 uv
2602
2363

CONCLUSIONS
1 That this soil if it needs potash at all for corn objects to it
in the form of muriate190
DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
2 Incidentally that the value of the increased crop from the
use of the fertilizerseither with or without potashfell far short
of the cost of the fertilizers
NoteObserve that in this experiment the ration of fertilizers
was double the usual amount applied in other experiments
EXPERIMENT NO 9COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF SULPHATE AND
MURIATE OF POTASH
This experiment was naturally suggested by Experiment No 8
If muriate of potash does not give satisfactory results when ap
plied to corn on the soil covered by that experiment the question
at once arisesWould potash in some other form be more effective
and satisfactory Hence this experiment which is a direct com
parison of the effect of sulphate of potash with that of muriate of
potash on a soil adjacent and similar in character and history to
the soil covered by Experiment No 8
The section comprised one square acre which was laid off in 52
4foot rows divided into 13 plots of 3 rows each Each of the
fertilizer plots received the same amounts of acid phosphate cottou
meal and nitrate of soda Plots 1 5 and 10 received 208 pounds
of sulphate of potash per acre plots 2 6 and 11 received 101
pounds of muriate of potash per acre plots 3 8 and 12 received
312 pounds of sulphate per acre and plots 4 9 and 13 received
156 pounds of muriate per acre Table No IX gives the ar
rangement and the
RESULTS
It appears at a glance that no very pronounced effect was pro
duced by increasing the amount of sulphate yet there was an in
creased yield of 027 bushel from such increased amount of sul
phate On the other hand where the muriate was increased 50
per cent the product of corn was actually diminished 057 bushel
per acre Moreover it also appears that the average yield of the
plots to which sulphate of potash was applied was 095 bushel per
acre greater than the average yield of the plots to which muriate
was applied Still more striking is the incidental result that the
average yield of all the fertilizer plots including both the sulANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
191
phated and the muriated was only 148 bushels per acre greater
than the yield of the unfertilized plots
TABLE No IX
Experiment No 9Comparative Effects of Sulphate and Muriate of Potash

CO o 6 1 A Fertil zer FormulaPer Acre
CD U CD CO
0 A CO A Ma
CO o 9 A a a o A P4 5 O o CD C8 3 o Ph o CD cd 5 CD n o 03 O o CD C3 m o 1 S go A CD CD CuA
s 3 ft 3 CO 3 o o CO o O 3o
1 3 s 4 5 0 r 8
1 155 2080 156 23403 20 2933
2 156 ioio 156 2340 3 07 2876
3 156 3120 156 2340 3 37 2945
4 156 1560 156 2340 3 18 2727
5 156 2080 156 2340 3 20 2710
a 156 10 40 156 23 40 3 07 2617
7 2571
8 156 3120 156 2340 3 37 2702
0 156 15 60 156 23 40 3 18 25 40
10 156 2080 156 2340 3 20 2594
11 156 1040 156 2340 3 07 2586
12 156 3120 156 2340 8 37 2671
13 155 15 60 156 2340 3 18 2640
Averages
Plots 1 5 10 received 1 ration of Sulpha Plots 3 8 12 received IV rations of Sulr 3 20 3 37 27 46
hate 27 73
S 28 7 59
Plots 2 6 11 received 1 ration of Muriat Plots 4 9 13 received V rations of Mui e 3 07 3 18 26 93
2636
Plot Mean of Muriated Plots 26 64
25 71
CONCLUSIONS
1 That muriate of potash not only did not increase the yield of
corn but actually decreased the yield and hence is not a suitable
form in which to apply potash to corn
192
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
2 Sulphate of potash produced no harmful effect on corn
3 That this soil does not require the addition of potash for corn
NoteIt is evident so far as this experiment goes that the ap
plication of concentrated fertilizers to corn or the character of the
soil covered by this experiment is not profitable except possibly
in very small quantities
EXPERIMENT NO 10EFFECTS OF SULPHATE AND MUEIATE OF
POTASH
This experiment may be well considered in connection with Ex
periment No 9 just considered The difference between this and
the last preceding one is that here the normal ration of 156 pounds
of acid phosphate 1040 pounds of muriate or 2080 pounds of
sulphate and 156 pounds of cotton meal is not changed relatively
but the total is increased by 50 per cent in alternating pairs of
plots as shown in Table No X the ration of nitrate of soda remain
ing constant
RESULTS
The table shows that the normal ration with muriate of potash
produced a yield of 2632 bushels per acre the normal ration with
sulphate of potash produced a yield of 2873 bushels a difference
in favor of the sulphated plots of 241 bushels The H normal
ration with muriate of potash produced a yield of 2804 bushels
per acre the H normal with sulphate of potash produced only
2770 bushels a difference in favor of the muriated plots of 034
The average yield of all the muriated plotsnormal and 1 nor
malwas 2718 bushels the average yield of all the sulphated
pl0tsnormal and 1 normalwas 2821 bushels a difference
in favor of the sulphated plots of 103 bushels per acre The aver
age yield of all the fertilized plots was 2769 bushels the yield
of the unfertilized plot was 2706 bushels a difference in favor of
the fertilized plots of only 063 bushels
CONCLUSIONS
If the results be carefully examined in detail comparing one
plot with another they will be found rather inconsistent and theANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 193
inconsistency cannot be explained but must be ascribed to some
obscure variation in the soil or some unobserved differences of treat
ment It is not an uncommon occurrence that the results of an
experiment are either inconsistent or contradictory in detail and
as a whole insignificant and misleading
TABLE No X
Experiment No 10Comparative Effects of Sulphate and Muriate
Plots 1 5 10
Plots 2 6 11
Plots 3 8 12
Plots 4 9 13
Plot 7
Averages
156
156
234
234
20
3120
1040
1560
156
156
234
234
2340
2340
2340
2340
is o n Fertilizer FormulaPer Acre o
Plot of 4 Rows Each4 feet by 209 feet oi a J3 ft QQ o ja CM 3 1 a 02 C5 3 O Pm o a CO GO cc O Oh O C3 3 03 a o o O 03 O co o 33 U a hi v o a5 o J3 00 3 1 a C w C o p T3
1 3 3 5 6 y 8
1 2 3 156 156 234 234 156 156 234 156 156 234 23 2080 1040 1560 156 156 234 234 156 156 234 234 156 156 234 234 2340 2340 2340 2340 2340 2340 2340 2340 2340 2340 2340 2340 2559 2829

4 3120 2802
5 1040 15 60 2822
6 7 8 9 2080 3120 2702 3007 2706 3061 2818

10 1040
11 2080 2636

12 1560 2783
13 3120 2548 2671
2632
2873
2804
2770
2706
EXPERIMENT NO llKITRATE OF SODA AT PLANTING TIME
The object of this experiment was to make a direct test of the194
DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
effect of a light application of nitrate of soda at the time of plant
ing the seed corn The section fraction was laid off into 40 rows
4 feet wide and 209 feet long The normal ration consisting of
156 pounds of acid phosphate 208 pounds of sulphate of potasli
and 156 pounds of cotton meal per acre was applied to each alter
nate plot of 4 rows each six days before planting The other
plots received at the same time the same amounts of acid phosphate
and sulphate of potash but only 104 pounds cotton meal At
planting time these plots received 234 pounds of nitrate of soda
dropped close to the grain of seed corn This 238 pounds was
approximately the equivalent in nitrogen content of the 52
pounds of eotton meal left out of the formula The theory upon
which the experiment was based was that the young plants of corn
would be permanently benefited if supplied with a portion of the
nitrogen in a more soluble and immediately available form than
that of organic matter as in the cotton meal It will be observed
that the 234 pounds of nitrate of soda cost only 3 cents more than
the 52 pounds of equivalent cotton meal
RESULTS
Notwithstanding the unfavorable season and the general mi
satisfactory or at least unprofitable economic results of fertilizers
on corn the results are consistent and at the same time significant
Observe and compare the yield of plot 1 without nitrate with plot
2 with nitrate plot 3 with plot 4 plot 5 with plot 7 plot 8 witii
plot 9 In every caseexcept plot 7the nitrated plots gave a
larger yield than the immediately preceding aonnitrated plot In
the case of plot 7 there was an intervening plotNo 6which
may explain this divergency from the general tendency
The average yield of all nonnitrated plots was 2829 bushels
of the nitrated plots 2886 bushels a difference of 57 of a bushel
in favor of the nitrated plots at a cost of 3 cents Of course this
appears a very small consideration but it is certainly significant
If the cotton meal had been still further reduced and the nitrate
correspondingly increased the result would probably have been
still more significantANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
TABLE No XL
Experiment No 11Nitrate of Soda at Planting Time
195
o M 1 CD s COM to o 5 Fertilizer FormulaPer Acre 8 CO
03 JS Oh 00 o CM o 0Q 93 O Oh o CD 3 a a O o O sic a a 03 o D o Q Pi 03 u h S O o CD CO 3 a flQ s1 O WO CD CD 3 tiC a OQ 2 CD
1 2 3 4 5 e r
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 156 156 156 156 156 156 156 156 156 2080 2080 2080 2080 20 80 2080 2080 2080 2080 156 104 156 104 156 104 156 104 156 2340 2340 2340 2 72 2 75 2 72 2 75 2 72 2 75 2 72 2 75 2 72 2798 2814 2798 2876 2926 2656 2918 28 41
9 10 2340 2937 27 83

AVERAGES
Plots 1 3 5 8 10 156 156 2080 2080 156 104 2 72 2 75 28 29
Plots 2 4 7 9 Plot 6 2340 2886 2656
CONCLUSION
That it is expedient to apply at least a portion of the nitroge
nous element of the fertilizer in a highly soluble form in order to
promptly supply the immediate needs of the young corn plants
NoteThe experiments on the Farm for seven years past indi
cate that cotton meal dried blood tankage raw bone flour etc
are comparatively slow in action but continuous throughout the
growing season while nitrate of soda nitrate of potash saltpetre
and sulphate of ammonia are quick in action and not so lasting in
effect
196 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
GENERAL REMARKS
Having detailed fairly and fully all the experiments in cornr
culture made during the year 1896 a few concluding remark
seem to he proper
It will have heen observed by the careful reader that in most of
the experiments one or more plots were unfertilized in order to
show the unaided capacity of the soil so that the absolute as well
as the relative effects of different fertilizer formulas and different
methods of culture etc
The cost value of the normal ration of complete fertilizers was
in most cases 300 per acre The increased yield of corn to be
credited to the effect of the fertilizer has in most cases fallen con
siderably short of enough to pay for the fertilizer
It should be considered however 1 That in no case has the
value of the increased yield of corn blades and stalks been credited
to the fertilizer This was because of the inconvenience and in
creased liability to error which would have resulted from cutting
and shocking the corn Moreover as a fact the stalks were so pros
trated and the blades so split and torn by a heavy wind storm and
rainfall that occurred July 7th that it was impracticable to har
vest the crop in that way 2 In every section planted in com
cowpeas were sown broadcast at the last plowing and these have
not been brought into the accounts to the credit of the fertilizers
used 3 A more important consideration than either of the fore
oing is the fact that it has been an unfavorable year for corn be
of badly distributed rainfallexcessive drouths at one
period and excessive wet weather at another together with the un
precedented heat of the sun especially in May July and August
Every farmer knows that an excessively dry season is unfavor
able to the full beneficial effect of fertilizers on the corn crop A
very wet season is hardly less sogiving great promise in the
blade and stalk but poor performance in the ear
causeANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
197
INTERCULTURAL FERTILIZING
EXPERIMENT
The question of intcrculturcd fertilizing or successive applica
tions of fertilizers during the period of cultivation of a crop has
xcited much interest among the farmers of Georgia The idea
prevails to a considerable extent that if all the fertilizer be ap
plied in one dose at or near the time of planting the seed it will
be exhausted or in some way dissipated before the plants have
had time to appropriate all the plant food thus applied Reason
ing from the analogy that exists in many points between animal
life the idea is not unreasonable
The object of this experiment then was to find the effect of
dividing a given amount of fertilizer into two or more portions
and applying these portions successively at stated periods
A plot of gray sandy nearly level soil was selected The sec
tion was divided into five plots of three rows each the rows being
one acre 209 feet long and 497 feet wide
Each row of the fertilizer plots received during the whole sea
son the following amounts of fertilizers
Superphosphate A A
C S Meal Pounds
Muriate of Potash 2
This was at the rate per acre of
cTfcpoud
Muriate Potash 64
Total per acre
On plot No 1 the whole amount was applied March 27 before
planting and well mixed with the soil
On plot 2 onehalf was applied before planting and onehalf at
first plowing April 29 scattering the fertilizer in both siding
furrows
On plot 3 onethird was applied before planting onethird at
first plowing and onethird at the second plowing May 17 in
siding furrows
On plot 4 onethird before planting onethird at second plow
ing and onethird at third plowing in siding furrows

198
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
On plot five no fertilizers were applied
The results are plainly shown in Table IV
Intercultural Fertilizing
Fertilizer
Formula
per acre
g 5b 32

o
6
fc5
How and When Applied
All before planting

Onehalf before planting j 187
Onehalf at first plowing

o
H
Yield per
acre
Bushels
Shelled
Corn
227
Onethird before planting
Onethird first plowing
Onethird second plowing
Onethird before planting
Onethird second plowing
Onethird third plowing
Not fertilized
186
19
135
While not decisive the results indicate that one undivided ap
plication at or before the time of planting will give as large a
final yield as when divided into two or more portions While tins
may be finally shown to be true as a rule when the total amount
of fertilizers applied is moderate say less than 500 pounds per
acre it may not be true when the amount is greater and especially
when a very large quantity is applied per acre The character of the
seasons would also prove a material factor in influencing the result
Cotton Meal vs Cottonseed as a Fertilizer on Corn
Many farmers still insist that the removal of the oil from cotton
seed detracts from or reduces the fertilizing value of the seed
They are not willing to exchange cottonseed for meal even on the
basis of 3000 pounds of meal for 2000 pounds of seed 1 he pur
pose of this experiment was to find out the truth or falsity of this
idea Two acres nearly of cotton land were selected and laid off
into 28 plots of three rows each 209 feet long The oddnumbered
plots were fertilized with 312 pounds of acid phosphate IS pounds
of muriate of potash 289 pounds of cotton meal and 364 pounds
of hulls per acre The evennumbered plots received the sameANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
199
quantity of acid phosphate and muriate of potash hut instead of
the meal and hulls these received 764 pounds of crushed green
seed The 764 pounds of green seed after the oil is expressed
would leave just 289 pounds of meal and 364 pounds of hulls
The difference then between the fertilizersapplied to the odd and
evennumbered plots was simply that the oil had been removed
from the seed in the oddnumbered plots
Table No V gives the arrangement and also the results in de
tail
RESULTS
These are unmistakable The yield of the oddnumbered plots
on which the cotton meal and hulls were used was 3072 bushels
of shelled corn per acre against 2986 bushels produced by the
plots receiving the crushed seeda difference of 086 bushel in
favor of the cotton meal and hulls Hence the following
CONCLUSIONS
1 That cotton meal and its corresponding quantity of hulls
are at least equal in fertilizing quality to an equivalent quantity
of crushed seed
2 It necessarily follows that the oil of cotton seed is of no ap
preciable value as a fertilizing material
3 From the fact of the slightly larger yield from the use of
cotton meal and hulls it is inferred that the cotton meal and hulls
are superior as a fertilizer to the original seed This small in
crease was probably due to the better mechanical condition of the
meal and hulls compared with the crushed seed
NoteIt is not probable that the hulls in either case exerted
any material effect But making due allowance for the small
quantity of plant food in the hulls and basing the estimate on the
analysis of the different parts of the seed the following may be
relied on as of equal fertilizing value
700 pounds of meal equals 2000 pounds of whole or crushed
cottonseed This is calculated on the basis of nitrogen 13 cents
phosphoric 5 cents potash 5 cents per pound
200 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
Cotton Meal and Hulls vs Crushed Cotton Seed
s
xi M o a o FormulasPer Acre o O a
a
CO
S8 a aj
O as Xi CO J3 CO
d a a o a o o o CO XI
OT5 m o OJ a a 3 a
Ph XI 9 3 W S
65 1 2 co d Xi CO 3 h o a cS
1 9 s 5 6 7
1 312 18 289 364 2553
2 312 312 18 18 289 764 2265
3 364 2588
4 312 312 18 18 764 2388
5 289 304 2964
ti 312 312 18 18 764 2607
7 289 364 2618
8 312 18 764 2500
9 312 18 289 364 26 33
10 312 IS 764 2713
11 312 18 289 364 2633
12 312 312 18 18 764 2747
13 289 364 2717
14 312 312 312 312 312 312 18 18 18 18 18 18 764 29 41
15 289 364 27 85
16 764 27 81
17 289 364 3678
18 764 37 01
19 289 364 4218
20 312 312 18 18 764 3914
21 289 364 39 14
22 312 312 312 18 18 18 764 36 25
23 289 364 34 88
24 764 3507
25 312 18 289 364 3272
26 312 312 18 18 364 764 29 84
27 289 3047
28 312 18 764 3154

30 72
Eve Diflffirennfi n Plots 29 86

0 86

ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
201
COKN CULTURE
Com delights in a deep mellow rich and moist loam Any of
the ordinary soils of the country that are either naturally of the
above characters or can be brought into the required condition Im
proper rotation deep and thorough preparation and liberal manur
ing and can be maintained in this condition by frequent and
thorough surface culture will produce satisfactory yields of
corn with a moderate welldistributed rainfall Perhaps the
most essential requirement for an abundant yield of corn
is plenty of moisture in the soil Without this plenty of moisture
such a yield is absolutely impracticable It is not indispensable
that the moisture shall be supplied directly by abundant rains dur
ing the period of the growth of the crop but the requirement must
be met in some way The supply of moisture from rainfalls may
be supplemented or entirely substituted by irrigation as is done
m and and semiarid regions or the farmer may trust to the
clouds for a generous supply but the demand for moisture must
be met or the crop will be more or less a failure
Without resorting to expensive irrigation methods and not will
ing to rely on the rainfall from the heavens the farmer may select
the lowlying naturally moist and deep soils along the watercourses
the bottom lands These soils are moister than the uplands
not solely because of their being lower and near a watercourse but
and perhaps chieflybecause of their greater depth and their
loamy character or large content of humus or decayed vegetable
matter These soils become thoroughly saturated with moisture
during the winter and spring rains and on account of their depth
and quantity of humus they retain the moisture during a much
longer period
In the absence of such soils if the farmer wishes to produce
regularly profitable crops of corn he must bring bis uplands as
nearly as practicable into the condition of the loamy bottom
lands Moisture moisture is the prime essential and moisture he
must provide or he will certainly fail of a crop if the clouds with202 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
hold their accustomed supply Every intelligent farmer under
stands the importance of deep and thorough breaking of the soil
early in the spring or even earlier JSTot so many appreciate the
importance of fining the soil by harrowing until the clods dis
appear into fine soil It is also desirable to keep the soil in this
fine friable condition especially the superficial layer But a
more valuable and only permanently effective means is to fill the
soil as rapidly as possible with vegetable matter or humus This
may be done in two ways 1 By actually transporting from
elsewhere the necessary vegetable matter in the form of stable
manure composts leaves muck etc Under the present system
of farming in the South this method is impracticable except on a
small scale and often it cannot be profitably followed even on i
small scale because of the cost of the labor involved in handling
and hauling of leaves muck and other coarse and crude materials
2 The other and most practicable method and one that is adapt
ed to any scale of operations is regular rotation of crops includ
ing small grain red clover cowpeas or other renovating crop A
judicious wellmanaged rotation may be made profitable at every
stage and every crop as well as profitable in the long ran
An experience of seven years in directing the operations of the
Station Farm has served only to confirm and deepen the convic
tion that the uplands of Georgia do not as a rule produce profit
able crops of corn unless farmed in accordance with the sugges
tions here given Farmers are prone to base their calculations of
the loss and gain in farming almost solely on the cotton crop
probably because it is the crop that actually requires the greatest
outlay of capital and labor and it is the one crop that is always
converted into cash But a careful account of the loss and gain
of other crops would probably reveal the fact that many farmers
lose as large a per cent or secure as small a profit in producing
corn oats potatoes and other provision crops as in the cotton crop
Force of habit and the traditions of the past have brought the
farmers to rely too much on corn as the great provision crop
When the soils were choice and in an almost virgin condition it
was a most convenient satisfying and profitable crop But the
continued clearing up and the wearingout process of continuedANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
20S
cultivation of these soils in cotton and corn have so deprived them
of soluble plant food but above all the original supply of humus
that they no longer respond generously as in the days of our fore
fathers unless the seasons prove to be very favorable or unless a
more rational and restorative system hasbeen adopted
ROTATION SYSTEM
Along with the variety of experiments that have been con
ducted on the Farm for the past seven years a regular system of
rotation has been closely followed in the main Seven years is
entirely too short a period in which to thoroughly test the merits
of different systems of rotation But the plan now to be de
tailed has worked well and conveniently and is recommended for
general adoption each farmer modifying the details according to
the special requirements of his own farm or the character of the
leading crops to be grown
The system covers a period of three years which may be ex
tended to four or even five under some conditions
The following arrangement exhibits the scheme of rotation in
a comprehensive form
PLAN OF ROTATIONTHREE YEARS
Years Division 1 Division 2 Division 3 Division 4
First Year Small Grain and Cowpeas Cotton Corn and Cowpeas Orchards Truck Foraee et
Second Year Cotton Corn and Cowpeas Small Grain and Cowpeas Same
Third Year Corn and Cowpeas Small Grain and Cowpeas Cotton Same
In the above plan the farm for convenience is supposed to be
divided into four approximately equal divisions to commence with
and to be maintained in future
First YearDivision 1 is to be planted in small grain fol
lowed by cowpeas the cowpea vines to be made into hay and the
stubble turned under about November 1 Division 2 is to be204
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA

planted in cotton and liberally fertilized Division 3 in corn and
cowpeas the latter to be picked for seed and pastured with cattle
and hogs Division 4 includes the area near the farm buildings
and may be planted in a variety of crops orchards vineyards
truck patches forage patches potatoes etc and may have a rota
tion of its own and may include some of the leading crops planted
on the other divisions
Second and Third YearsThe table indicates distinctly the
succession of crops for these two years This brings us to the
fourth year which is a repetition of the first year and recom
mencement of the series
It will be observed that after the first year the plan will have
been developed and the further progression will be easy There
after cotton will follow small grain and cowpeas corn and cowpeas
will follow cotton and small grain and cowpeas will follow corn
On many farms the divisions might be extended to five the
fifth to include a more or less permanent pasture
MODIFICATIONS OF THE PLAN
The Modifications alluded to may be 1 The substitution of
other crops than those mentioned Where tobacco is grown it may
substitute in whole or in part cotton Where red clover does well
it may in whole or in part take the place of cowpeas or vetches
crimson clover or other renovating crop may be planted In some
sections buckwheat may to some extent be sown in the cornfields
at last plowing instead of cowpeas and so on 2 On farms hav
ing a good proportion of bottom lands these may be planted every
alternate year in corn or two years in corn one in oats and pea
and one in cotton and so on
Of the above crops it will be found advisable to fertilize each
and every one until the whole farm has been brought up to a de
sirable degree of productivenesssome liberally others lightly
each with a properly balanced fertilizer suited to the particular
requirements of the particular crop and the needs of the particular
soil
A further modification or amendment of the plan may be in
sowing rye or other small grain or crimson clover in the cottonANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 205
fields and on the pea stubble in order to bold the soil from wash
ing and leaching to take up and retain the soluble plant food left
by the crop just harvested and to add to the store of vegetable
ZZ2 soiL Such catch crop may be lf
dry weather in winter and promptly turned under not later than
February 1 for the benefit of the succeeding crop This amend
t7wash 6 aPP WhCTe the SOil is brken and liaW
DEEP VS SHALLOW CULTURE OF CORN
deevlfKV eXperiment was to Pare the results of
deep and shallow culture of corn
five plots of three rows each the rows 497 feet wide and 209
fee long were laid off on a piece of sandy gray soil with hard
betitvr onefoot beneath the surface T1
been m weeds the prev10us year which were well turned under i
September The corn was fertilized with
68 pounds of superphosphate
84 muriate of potash
89 cotton seed meal
per acre March 27 and planted the same day with seed of ordi
nary field corn Bates The entire section was plowed the fit
tame deep and close with scooter plows April 29th Plowed second
tame Kay 17th plots 1 3 and 5 very shallow with PI net J
cu tivator with small sweeps attached plots 2 and 4 very deep
with scooters out and out Plowed third time June 2d plots 1
3 and 5 very shallow as before plots 2 and 4 very deep with
shovel plows Fourth plowing June 24th same as third plowing
August 13th the blades were stripped from all the plots curel
and weighed separately October 17th the corn being perfectly
field dry was pulled shucked and weighed in the field Seventy
pounds of ears were assumed to yield one bushel of shelled corn
of St as MW reSUltS f SMed COm 1 208 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
Shallow f8 Deep CultureCorn
YIELD PER ACRE
a
a
a
o
5
METHOD OF CULTURE
Shelled Cora
Bushels
Cured Fodder
Pounds

SO
570
J2
V
io
Shallow Culture
Deep Culture
Shallow Culture
Deep Culture
Shallow Culture
Bushels
285
Busheis Pounds
39
276
Average yield per acre
Increase per centCorn
Increase per centFodder
280
292
285
92
246
261
470
485
ea
Pounds
479
500
451
489
54
NOTES ON EXPERIMENT
Comment is hardly necessary to a full understanding of the re
sults and their teachings The shallowculture plots received dur
ing the four cultivations seven scooter one plowing and six cul
tivator furrows to each rowthirteen furrows in all The deep
eulture plots received fourteen scooter furrows and eight shovel
furrows to each row or twentytwo furrows in all The shallow
culture plots would probably have done just as well if they had
received only two furrows of the cultivator at the first cultivation
which would have saved five furrows But as it was we have thir
teen furrows to the row in one case and twentytwo furrows in the
other representing the relative cost of cultivation The shallow
culture plots at the rate of 285 bushels and the deepculture plots
at the rate of 261 bushels of shelled corn per acrea difference 111
favor of the much less expensive shallow culture of 24 bushels per
acre
The remarkable and perhaps unexpected feature of the results
is that the deepculture plots gave the larger yield of fodder
Whether this would be a constant result of deep culture it would
be interesting to find outANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
CORNSTALK HAY
207
In Bulletin No 30 containing the results of Experiments in
Corn Culture made in 1895 the attention of farmers was espe
cially called to the advantages of the method of utilizing the corn
stalks for stock food It is the almost universal practice in the
South to gather and cure the blades and harvest the ears of corn
leaving the entire stalks in the field to prove an almost unmiti
gated nuisance and obstruction in the preparation and cultivation
of the land in the succeeding crop and winter homes and hiber
nating retreats for insects that will be ready to attack such crops
especially if it shallbe another crop of corn Farmers have habitu
ally considered this large part of the crop as of no practical value
Indeed corn stalks especially of the large types of corn planted
in the South are of little available food value because of theiv
mechanical condition Even in the North the old method of feed
ing the stalks stover without any mechanical preparation was
but little less wasteful and slovenly than leaving them in the
fields But the use of machinery for preparing the corn stalks
shredding them into a coarse hay is rapidly extending A number
of very effective machines may now be had at moderate prices tbat
will convert the hard flinty stalks into a soft easilymasticated
substance very similar in mechanical condition to coarse hay that
is readilyeven greedilyeaten by horses mules and cattle
In Bulletin No 30 already referred to the whole subject was
discussed at some length showing by experiments made and by
analysis that the value of the naked stalks that are generally left
in the field after harvesting the ears shucks and blades amounts
to fully onesixth of the total value of the crop as shown in the fol
lowing table from Bulletin No 30208
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
Totals of Digestible Matters in Each Part of the Entire Corn Plant in a Yield
of 40 Bushels of Corn per Acre
Constituents BQ 3 pa 3 GO a 0 H 0Q c4 s a 0 0 03 00 V o m 0 0 H m O 3 X m OS QQ 03 H c 5 tO CD O
Lbs 795 48500 917 Lbs 390 9541 186 Lbs 592 10619 208 Lbs 352 6874 134 Lbs 740 19881 383 Lbs 105 2031 40 Lbs 159 1604 3280 Lbs 896 24900 480
Nitrogenfree Extt
The experiments of 1895 were repeated the present winter
All the corn stalks were harvested and shredded and the corn
hay resulting is now and will be for some time to come the only
roughage fed to the horses mules and cattle on the farm
There are a number of shredders on the market but my friend
Mr T B Brady of Marietta who has tried several says that the
Keystone is the best Write to him for information as to prices
capacity etc and he will cheerfully give you informationANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
209
WHEAT
SOMETHING OF ITS HISTORY CULTIVATION DISEASES ETC
Xo crop is more universally grown in the whole world than
wheat Throughout the Temperate zone it is grown successfully
and even in the Torrid zone it grows well in elevated situations It
is a staple crop in Siberia as well as in New Zealand in Texas and
also in Manitoba and in South Africa India and Argentina large
crops are raised Indeed wheat harvesting is going on in some parts
of the world during each month in the year The origin of wheat is
not positively known though it is very generally supposed that
Central Asia is its native home from whence it has spread over
the civilized world furnishing food to the enlightened nations of
the earth from the earliest period of antiquity to the present time
In the Bible mention is made of wheat during the time of Jacob
and Moses tells us that when the plague of hail was sent upon the
land of the Egyptians the wheat and the rye were not smitten
In the worlds history civilization enlightenment and refinement
have followed the introduction of wheat culture As has been
said by an eminent agricultural writer As truly as did flocks of
sheep in the primitive ages lead the shepherds to the threshold of
that truly magnificent science Astronomy just so certainly did
the wheat plant in yet earlier ages induce man to forget his savag
ism abandon his nomadic life to invent and cultivate peaceful arts
and lead a rural and peaceful life
There is not on the vast expanse of the face of the globe a
savage barbarous or semicivilized nation that cultivates the wheat
plant
The ancients who had burst the bonds of savagism and scarcely
more than escaped from the confines of barbarism and through the
magic influence of the fruit of the wheat stalk barely reached the
threshold of civilization retained a grateful memory of the plant
whrch was the prime cause of their amelioration They erected
temples and instituted an appropriate rite for the worship of the
goddess Ceres who was by them regarded not only as the patron210 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
goddess of the crops but the propitiator of sound morals and the
promoter of peace and peaceful avocations The culture of the
wheatbearing plant compelled the cultivator to abandon the wild
or nomadic life which it is not unreasonable to suppose lie mus1
Have led and the time which otherwise would have been spent
in roaming through the forests was now spent in cultivating and
using indispensable implements First and prominent among these
were the plough and harrow rude beyond question in mechanical
structure and uncouth in appearance yet they were the tirst peace
ful and at the same time utilitarian products of civilization
Wheat was unknown in America when Columbus first discovered
the country and now the United States alone produces onefourth
of the worlds crop and about twice as much as any other country
The worlds crop of wheat is about 2500000000 bushels of
which the United States makes 600000000 or over The other
chief wheat growing countries are Kussia France Germany India
and Argentina
The chief exporting countries are the United States Kussia and
Argentina
The largest buyers of wheat are the United Kingdom which
though raising a crop of some sixty million bushels of wheat re
quires to import about two hundred millions more to supply her
wants France Germany Belgium Holland Italy ami Switzer
land
These countries of Western Europe import annually from 350
to 400 million bushels of wheat and furnish the market for the
surplus of this country
Georgia I regret to say raises very little wheat not near enough
to supply the wants of her people and is therefore compelled to
eat flour shipped from the west most of which is largely adulter
ated with corn flour potato starch or soapstone This is absolutely
inexcusable and wrong for fully one half of the lands of Georgia
are capable of producing good wheat and can be made to do so
with more profit to the farmer than can possibly accrue from cent
cotton
Wheat delights in a good clay loam and there is much of thatANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 211
kind of soil in Georgia The time was when this State raised
most of the wheat she consumed and ground it at home too hut
tha tday has passed and now cotton cotton cotton is the crop that
absorbs the energies and labor of our people even though the sad
experience of recent years has demonstrated that too great devotion
to cotton means ruin to the farm Let us return to the only safe
way of farming viz raising all our supplies at home and our
people will then be prosperous and happy North and Middle
Georgia should not only raise wheat enough for their own con
sumption but also enough to supply from their surplus the rest
of the State The continued very low price of cotton is causing
more attention to be paid to wheat raising and I hope the time
is near at hand when Georgia will cease to import wheat or any of
its products
In preparing for this crop the land should be well broken from
four to six inches deep and if possible subsoiled then harrowed
and reharrowed if necessary until the soil is thoroughly pulverized
There is no hope of getting a good crop of wheat from poor or
badly prepared land The soil must be good and the preparation
of the land thorough or the resulting crop will be disappointing
In this State the crop should be planted from the middle of October
to the middle of November and should be put in with a drill as
experience has proved that drilled wheat produces a heavier crop
than that sowed broadcast Cover from an inch to an inch and a
quarter with soil experiments having shown this to be the best
depth at which to place the seed
Where a crop of field peas is followed by wheat sufficient nitro
gen will have been gathered by the roots of the pea vines and
it will only be necessary to furnish phosphoric acid and potash for
the wheat crops
The following fertilizer formulas are good for this crop and may
be used at the rate of 250 to 500 pounds per acre
Acid phosphate 700 lbs
Nitrate of soda 600
Kainit 700212 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
or
Acid phosphate 800 lbs
Cottonseed meal1050
Nitrate of potash I50
There are many varieties of wheat but there is no doubt that
the bearded varieties are best suited to our State as they seem less
liable to rust than the smooth varieties and rust is the chief enemy
to be dreaded in wheat raising here Early manuring is also
an important factor to take into consideration in selecting seed
as there is thus a shorter term of exposure to damage from any
source to which wheat may be liable In sowing broadcast one
bushel of wheat to the acre is quite enough where planted with a
drill half that quantity is sufficientANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
213
OATS
HISTORY PRODUCTION DISEASES ETC
The native country of this grain is not absolutely known though
it probably was first cultivated in Central Asia
No mention of it is made in the Old Testament though wheat
rye and barley are all spoken of there This grain was known to
the Greeks and Romans and was called by the former Bromos
Taut its cultivation in those early times was very limited Now it
is known and grown among all the civilized nations of the earth
and in some of them is the principal grain product Among the
cultivated grains oats are the easiest and surest to make and on
suitable land no other grain can approach them in productiveness
The crop of the world amounts to nearly 3000 millions of bushels
a year exceeding in bulk the wheat crop The United States leads
the world in the production of this grain with Russia not far be
hind her Germany France and Austria also produce large crops
though they each import considerable quantities to supply their
demands Great Britain though producing annually some 200
million bushels is the largest purchaser from foreign countries im
porting from this country and from Russia chiefly from the latter
The crop of this country runs from 800 to 900 million bushels
annually most of which is consumed at home only from 20 to 30
million bushels being exported Iowa produces more oats than
any state in the country followed by Illinois and Wisconsin Geor
gia makes but few oats and is forced to import largely from the
western states This condition comes from our being so wedded to
cotton that we give it our entire attention and make but little proper
effort to raise either oats or wheat There is no feed as good for
horses mules and poultry and if cut at the proper time the straw
will be eaten with relish by horses and cattle Oats can be raised
cheaper than corn and with equal certainty and this State should
produce at least five times as much as she does at present
For this crop a light soil is better than one that is heavy or stiff
though with thorough preparation the latter will produce good214
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
crops Oats will not grow upon wet land and are quickly killed
by standing water Like all the grain family they require good
land to produce heavy crops and there is no crop that will better
repay the farmer for the labor and expense of preparing and fer
tilizing the soil Break the land deeply and pulverize well with
the harrow Before harrowing broadcast from two to four hun
dred pounds of the fertilizer recommended for wheat which by
the harrowing will be thoroughly incorporated with the soil Then
with a graindrill put in from a bushel to a bushel and a peck of
seed to the acre or if preferred broadcast from a bushel and a
half to two bushels of seed to the acre and harrow them in They
should be covered about an inch to an inch and a half deep
If anywhere in Georgia oats are planted from the 1st to the 1 5th
of October on fair land and by the above directions the grower
can reasonably expect a crop of from 20 to 30 bushels to the acre
and if cut at the proper time the straw will be worth for feeding
purposes the entire cost of the crop The objection will at once
be raised that Fall oats are liable to be winterkilled
This is true but do we plant any crop that is not liable to disaster
from some source
Is it any worse to lose the crop from cold than to lose a crop
planted in the spring by dry weather How many farmers in
the State this year made as much as three bushels to the acre from
spring planted oats Very few I think while those who planted
in the fall made fair crops despite the spring drouth
Again where one depends on a spring oat crop a failure leaves
him without remedy as it is too late for him to sow again whereas
if his crop is winterkilled he may till save himself by planting a
spring sowing
If we admit which I do not that two out of five fall sown
crops are killed by the cold and one out of five spring sown crops
is ruined by drouth still the three spared fall sown crops
will far exceed in productiveness the four successful crops that
were sown in the spring Appreciating as 1 do the value of this
crop to the farmers 1 am anxious to see them return to our old
practice of sowing oats in the fall Of course they will he killed
occasionally by the cold ami so will be our corn and our cotton1
ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
215
and our garden vegetables Do we not lose our fruit crop at least
two years out of three by late frosts and shall we on that account
cease to plant out fruit trees Solomon says in the Good Book
He that observeth the wind shall not sow and he that regardeth
the clouds shall not reap This I take to mean that as we can
not look into the future we should take no thought of the weather
probabilities but at the proper time sow our seed and leave the re
sults to that Providence whose immutable laws govern and control
all things For diseases and remedies of both wheat and oats the fol
lowing article will well pay perusal by the farmers216
DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
THE GRAIN SMUTS
THEIR CAUSES AND PREVEN
TION
By Walter T Swingle
Assistant Division of Vegetable Pathology U S Department of Agriculture
To the ordinary observer nothing could seem more unlike a
definitely organized plant than the black dusty mass filling the
kernels of wheat or replacing an entire head of oats Yet as a
matter of fact the black dust is composed of thousands of
germs of a minute parasitic plant These germs or spores
which have the same function as the seeds of higher plants
are blown about by the wind and lodge on the healthy ker
nels of the grain When the kernel sprouts the spores adhering
to it germinate and send a slender thread into the young plant
The slender threads of the parasite follow the growth of the plant
but their presence can scarcely be detected until the head begin
to develop The flower or grain is then filled by a mass of the
threads which absorb the nourishment intended for the grain and
are soon converted into a mass of spores again ready to fly about
and infect next years seed
The enormous amount of damage caused by these parasites has
attracted attention since the time of the Greeks and Romans and
the history of the study of smuts and of the discovery of remedies
for them within the last eight years forms one of the most fasci
nating pages in the records of vegetable pathology
In the few pages at command it is hoped to present in brief out
line the present state of our knowledge of smuts and to give some
account of the latest and best methods of preventing their ravages
There are two classes of smuts which attack our common ce
reals viz the stinking smuts which destroy only the kernel and
which have a pronounced disagreeable odor and the loose smuts
which destroy not only the kernel but also more or less of the chaff
and which are more dusty and loose The stinking smuts occur
on wheat only while the loose smuts are found on wheat oats andANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
217
barley As the different smuts have to be treated differently it
is of advantage to the agriculturist to be able to recognize them
readily Wheat for instance is attacked by three speciestwo
stinking smuts and one loose smut
STINKING SMUTS OF WHEAT
The two species1 are very similar and can usually be distin
guished only by the aid of a microscope The smutted kernels
Fig 1Head of beardless wheat
affected with smut
Fig 2Head of bearded wheat affected
with smut
usually all in the head are affected are slightly larger and more
irregular in shape than healthy grains and are easily broken open
disclosing a darkbrown powder which possesses a disagreeable
1 Tillelia fceteiu B C Schroeter which is the more common in this
country with globose or oval smooth spores and Tillelia tritici Bjerk
Winter having globose spores with netlike ridges on the outer surface of
the wall Harwood states that wheat attacked by the latter species ha8
shorter stalks than healthy grain while that attacked by the former species
grows as tall as unaffected wheat218
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
penetrating odor Even a small per cent of smutted kernel will
give a whole bin of wheat this characteristic odor The stinking
smuts are thus easily recognized if present in any considerable
quantity in the thrashed grain This is not true of any other grain
smuts however Figures 92 and 93 show the appearance of heads
of wheat attacked by the stinking smuts
These smuts occur more or less abundantly in all wheatgrowing
countries They are widely distributed in the United States
though fortunately there are many regions where they are still
unknown
There are no accurate statistics as to the amount of damage
caused by these smuts In many localities the loss is very large
and it cannot be doubted that in the whole United States it amounts
to many millions of dollars annually Sometimes 50 or even 75
per cent of the heads are smutted and besides the sound grain is
so contaminated with the fetid spores as to be nearly worthless for
flour and worse than useless for seed The disease is often spread
from farm to farm by thrashing machines When once intro
duced if left unchecked it increases year by year until a large per
centage of the crop is destroyed Tt can usually however be more
or less held in check by some form of bluestone treatment of the
seed but the treatment very rarely gives entire protection Direc
tions will be given at the close of this article for entirely pre
venting the smuts no matter how bad they may have been in the
crop used for seed
LOOSE SMUT OF WHEAT1
This is very different from the stinking smuts Tt has no fetid
odor attacks both kernel and chaff ripens when the healthy wheat
is just flowering and is composed of a loose dusty mass of spores
These spores are usually entirely blown away by harvest time
leaving only the naked stalk where the head should be Figure
94 shows the appearance of a head of wheat at flowering time
1 Usiilago triiici Pers Jensen A variety of this smut which attacks the
leaves and sheaths as well as the heads has recently been reported from
EgyptANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1S98
219
which has been attacked by this smut while figure 95 shows the
appearance of another head at harvest time
Loose smut is known to occur in Europe North America north
Africa central Asia and the East Indies It occurs in many parts
of the United States though fortunately it is rare or entirely ab
sent in many localities It does not usually destroy so large a pro
portion of the crop as do the stinking smuts still it often causes a

Fig 3Head of wheat affected with
loose smut in the lower half
Fig 4Head of wheat affected with
loose smutharvest time
loss of 10 per cent or more of the crop and has even been reported
as destroying over 50 per cent of a crop in Michigan It may be
present in considerable amount and yet be entirely overlooked
since the smutted heads are reduced to bare stalks at harvest time
and there is no trace of it visible in the thrashed grain The only
way the agriculturist can be sure his crop is free from it is to ex
amine carefully his fields when the wheat is flowering The loose220 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
smut is to be feared not so much on account of the great damage
it causes but because it is very difficult to prevent and if once
introduced into a field it is likely to remain year after year for as
has long been known the old bluestone treatments though often
very effective against stinking smuts do not affect this species
It has also been shown by Kellerman and Arthur that the ordinary
forms of hotwater treatment are not effective against it
From the experiments of Professor Kellerman and the writer
it can however be safely concluded that certain forms of the hot
water treatment are effective against loose smut but injure the
germinative power of the seed Wheat growers should therefore
be on their guard against this enemy and try to secure seed wheat
from fields known by careful examination at flowering time to be
free from loose smut It can however be combated by treating
enough wheat to furnish seed for the following year and this
should be done when any considerable per cent of the crop is af
fected
LOOSE SMUT OF OATS1
This smut is very similar in general appearance to the loose smut
of wheat and like that species it ripens when the grain is in flower
and is blown about by the wind At harvest time the head is often
entirely bare There is however a form2 of this smut which de
stroys only the kernel and leaves the outer chaff unaffected This
is very hard to recognize since the smutted heads look almost like
those of healthy plants and can be detected only by cutting open
the husks when a mass of smut will be found in place of the ker
nel Sometimes more than twothirds of the smut is of this hidden
form This is likely to cause the grower to greatly underestimate
the amount of smut
The appearance of the ordinary form of oat smut at flowering
time is shown in figures 96 and 97 its appearance at harvest time
1 Ustilago aveniv Pers Jensen
2 Ustilago avenx levis Kell and Swing All bidden smuts belong to this
variety but not all levis is hidden smut This variety seems to be what Wille
has called U kiillevi Jensen however infected oats with covered smut
spores and obtained onesixth completely naked smutANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
221

is shown in figure 98 The hidden smut can not be distinguished
from a healthy head in an illustration
Fig 5 Head of oats affected
with smut but having the
chaff only partially de
stroyed
Fig 6Head of oats affected
with smut having the chaff
only partially destroyed
decidedly smutty
Fig 7Final stage of
smut showing con
dition of head at
harvest time
This smut has probably the widest distribution of any of the
thousands of species known to students of the group It is known
on every continent and occurs all over the United States In fact222
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
it is an uncommon thing to find a field of oats entirely free from it
and the amount of damage it causes is very great Xot one in a
thousand of those engaged in growing oats has any adequate idea
of the extent of its ravages Hundreds of examinations have been
made in oat fields in various parts of the United States and as a
result we have very reliable estimates as to the amount of this
smut in various localities Estimates made by Professor Keller
man and the writer put the actual loss from oat smut in Kansas at
1382328 in 1888 850554 in 1889 and 91129 in 1890
Dr Arthur estimates the damage in Indiana at 797526 in 1889
and 605352 in 1890 Harwood estimates the damage in Michi
gan at 800000 in 1891 and 1000000 in 1892 In these
States the average amount of smutted heads varied from 65 per
cent to 15 per cent The only State where decidedly lower per
cents of smutted oats have been reported is Vermont Here Jones
found an average of 16 per cent smutted in 1892 This would
represent a loss of 2i441 It is undoubtedly a conservative es
timate to place the direct loss from oat smut at 8 per cent of the
crop Even at this estimate the loss in the United States is over
18000000 annually averaging 1804140 for the years 1890
to 18932 This however though it represents the amount that
would be saved if every smutted head of oats were replaced with
a sound one does not by any means represent what would be saved
by a universal system of seed treatment It has been conclusively
proved that a much greater increase in yield is obtained by treat
ing the seed than would result from merely replacing the smutted
heads with sound ones This will be explained later
It should be remembered that it costs as much for every farming
operation to raise a badly smutted crop as a clean one The smul
does not thin out the stand and give the healthy plants more soil
and better light a smutted plant takes up as much room and re
quires as much moisture and nourishment from the soil as
1 Using the estimates of this department putting the value of the crop at
l62944 see Annual Report of Secretary of Agriculture for 1892 p 429
2 Using the estimates made by this department putting the average value
of the oat crop for these years at 212797614 see Annual Report of the Sec
retary of Agriculture for 1893 p 483ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 223
does a healthy plant The loss by smut can therefore be
said to be taken directly from the profit on the crop Moreover
the seed from a badly smutted field is likely to produce a badly
smutted crop the following year while that from a clean field will
produce a crop almost if not entirely free from smut
By means of two newlydiscovered treatments of the seed viz
with potassium sulphide and with hot water oat smut can be com
pletely prevented at very little expense The methods will be
explained hereafter Fortunately both the common and hidden
forms of smut can be eradicated with equal ease It is certain
that oat growers could save many millions of dollars annually
above all expenses by treating their seed oats
SMUTS OF BAELEY EYE AND COEN
Barley is attacked by two loose smuts both very similar to the
loose smut of oats In the covered barley smut1 the spores are
often retained till harvest by a thin membrane inclosing the smut
ted kernel and chaff The naked barley smut2 on the other hand
is like the ordinary form of oat smut and is usually all blown away
long before harvest Both kinds of barley smuts can be com
pletely prevented by the treatment recommended further on
Bye smut3 attacks the leaves and stems of this cereal and some
times weakens the plants considerably Jensen thinks it can be
prevented by treating five minutes with hot water at 127 F
Corn smut4 is of widespread occurrence but rarely causes more
than a fraction of 1 per cent loss No method of prevention is as
yet known
PEACTICAL DIRECTIONS FOE TEEATING SEED FOE SMUT
POTASSIUM SULPHIDE TREATMENT FOR OAT SMUT
The potassium sulphide should be of the fused form known as
liver of sulphur It can be obtained of any druggist for from
25 to 50 cents per pound depending on the quantity purchased
Tt should be kept in a tight glass vessel protected from the air
1 Ustilagohordei Pers Kell Swing Orocystis occulla Wallr Eabenh
2 Uslilago nuda Jens Kell Swing Ustitago maydit DC Cda214
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
until ready for use Dissolve 1 pounds in 25 gallons of water in
a wooden vessel a tight barrel is very good for the purpose The
lumps of potassium sulphide dissolve in a few minutes making
the liquid a clear yellowish brown color After thoroughly stir
ring put in about 3 bushels of oats and agitate well to insure wet
ting every grain The solution must completely cover the grain
and be several inches above it as the grain soaks up some of the
liquid Leave the oats in this solution twentyfour hours stirring
several times during the day to be sure every kernel is wetted
Then spread out to dry In treating large quantities of seed a
hogshead or a wooden tank might be used The solution should
not be used more than three times In no case should any metal
be allowed to come in contact with the liquid This treatment is
thoroughly effective for oat smut and is worthy of trial for stink
ing smut of wheat
THE HOTWATER TREATMENT FOR STINKING SMUT OF WHEAT
AND OAT SMUT
Provide two large vessels preferably holding at least 20 gal
lons Two Avash kettles soap kettles wash boilers tubs of even
barrels will do One of the vessels should contain warm water
say at 110 degrees to 120 degrees F and the other scalding water
at 132 degrees to 133 degrees F The first is for the purpose of
warming the seed preparatory to dipping it into the second Un
less this precaution is taken it will be difficult to keep the water in
the second vessel at the proper temperature A pail of cold water
should be at hand and it is also necessary to have a kettle filled
with boiling water from which to add from time to time to keep the
temperature right Where kettles are used a very small fire should
be kept under the kettle of scalding water The seed which is to be
treated must be placed half a bushel or more at a time in a closed
vessel that will allow free entrance and exit of water on all sides
For this purpose there can ho used a bushel basket made of heavy
wire inside of which is spread wire netting say L2 meshes to the
inch or an iron frame can be made at a trifling cost over which
the wire netting can be stretched This will allow the water to
pass freely and yet prevent the passage of the seed A sack madeANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
225
of loosely woven material as gunny sack can be used instead of the
wire basket A perforated tin vessel is in some respects preferable
to any of the above In treating stinking smut of wheat the grain
should first be thrown into a vessel filled with cold water then
after stirring well skim off the smutted grains that float on top
and put the grain into the basket or other vessel for treatment with
hot water This skimming is entirely unnecessary with other
grains and even with wheat when affected only by the loose smut
Xow dip the basket of seed in the first vessel containing water at
110 degrees to 120 degrees F after a moment lift it and when
the water has for the most part escaped plunge it into the water
again repeating the operation several times The object of the
lifting and plunging to which should be added also a rotary mo
tion is to bring every grain in contact with the hot water Less
than a minute is required for this preparatory treatment after
which plunge the basket of seed into the second vessel containing
water at 132 degrees to 133 degrees F If the thermometer indi
cates that the temperature of the water is falling pour in hot
water from the kettle of boiling water until the right degree is at
tained If the temperature should rise higher than 133 degrees
add a little cold water In all cases the water should be well
stirred whenever any of a different temperature is added The
basket of seed should very shortly after its immersion be lifted
and drained and then plunged and agitated in the manner de
scribed above This operation should be repeated six or eight
times during the immersion which should be continued ten min
utes In this way every portion of the seed will be subjected to the
action of the scalding water In practice it will be found best to
have a man or boy devote his whole time to keeping the tempera
ture at the right point adding a little hot water if it falls below
132 degrees and a little cold water if it gets above 133 degrees F
Another man should handle the grain and immerse and drain the
portion being treated as directed above After removing the
grain from the scalding water spread on a clean floor or piece of
1 A good thermometer should be used preferably one having the bulb pro
tected against injury from striking the sides of the vessel The large ther
mometer used in dairy work is very good for this purpose
15 a
226
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
canvas to dry The layer of grain should not be over 3 inches
thick If it cannot be spread out at once dip in cold water and
set to one side until it can be attended to It dries better if spread
while still hot Another portion of grain can then be treated and
so on until all the seed has been disinfected Directions for dry
ing the seed will be given further on
The important precautions to be taken are as follows 1 Main
tain the proper temperature f the water 132 degrees or 133 de
grees P in no case allowing it to rise higher than 135 degrees or
fall below 130 degrees 2 see that the volume of scalding water
is much greater at least six or eight times than that of the see1
treated at any one time 3 never fill the basket or sack containing
the seed entirely full but always leave room for the grain to mov
about freely 4 leave the seed in the second vessel of water ten
minutes
HOTWATER TREATMENT FOR LOOSE SMUT OF WHEAT AND FOR
BARLEY SMUTS
In treating wheat for loose smut the grain must be soaked four
hours in cold water then set away about four hours more in wet
sacks and finally treated as directed above but only for five min
utes at 132 degrees T In planting use onehalf more seed per
acre to compensate for the seed killed by the treatment Tor pre
venting both of the smuts affecting barley the grain should be
soaked as directed above and treated five minutes at 130 degrees
T 2 degrees lower than for wheat
COPPERSULPHATE TREATMENT FOR STINKING SMUT OF WHEAT
This consists in immersing the seed wheat twelve hours in a so
lution made by dissolving 1 pound of commercial copper sulphate
in 24 gallons of water and then putting the seed for five or ten
minutes into limewater made by slaking 1 pound of good lime in
10 gallons of water The treatment is cheap easily applied and
very effective The wheat does not grow quite so well as when
treated with hot water but the difference is inconsiderable This
treatment is only for stinking smuts of wheat and covered barley
smut It should never be used for oat smutANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
DRYING THE TREATED SEED
227
All of the seed treatments leave the seed wet and necessitate
drying before planting The grain should be spread in a layer 2
or 3 inches deep and should be shoveled over twice or three times
a day It will then dry very quickly A clean floor is a good
P ace to dry the grain bnt a better method is to take canvas sheets
about 5 feet by 12 or 15 feet and spread out in the sun Such
sheets with the grain can be taken in at night If spread over
an open lattice work a few feet from the ground drying is greatly
facilitated Such sheets of the heaviest ducking should not cost
over 175 each and can be used for years The grain can be
sown broadcast long before it is thoroughly dry but for drilling it
must be nearly dry The seed can be treated months before being
used and dried and stored ready for planting In case of the
stinking smut of wheat there is danger of the seed being reinfected
by contact with living spores though with other smuts the danger
is almost absent In treating wheat against this smut tools and
sacks should be disinfected and if a floor is used for drving it
should first be washed with a solution of bluestone 1 pound tolO
gallons of water before spreading the grain Canvas sheets and
sacks can be disinfected easily by plunging into boiling water
EXTRA INCREASE IN YIELD AS A RESULT OF SEED TREATMENT
One of the most remarkable and unexpected results of the hot
water and potassiumsulphide seed treatments was an increase in
the yield beyond the amount that would result from merely re
placing every smutted head with a sound one This extra in
crease was first noticed by Professor Kellerman and the writer in
experiments made with oats in 1889 where the hotwater treatment
u71TrrT m yiell mre tImn twice aS Sreat as H be cal
culated from the per cent of smut in adjoining untreated plats
Tins remarkable result was obtained in all subsequent trials and
Tent tb JenS6n and In the de
ments of the investigators named the extra increase in yield ranged
frorn onehalf to six times the amount to be expected fromte
Placing the smutted heads with sound ones and even higher ratios228
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
when the percentage of smut has been small On an average the
increase in yield has been double or treble what would result from
suppressing the visible smut In consequence of this remarkable
benefit comparable with what Mr Galloway has shown to occur in
using Bordeaux mixture on the potato and some other plants it
will undoubtedly be profitable to treat oats for seed when only 1
or 2 per cent is smutted
Potassiumsulphide treatment has given uniformly a large extra
increase in yield when used in treating oats for seed The extra
increase has been very decided almost equal to that resulting from
treatment of seed with hot water The coppersulphate and lime
treatment gives no extra increase whatever with oats
Jensen has found a similar extra increase to resiilt from treating
seed barley with hot water and Professor Kellerman has reported
extra increase in yield in treating wheat for stinking smuts with
hot water and also with several copper compounds There was
however an enormous amount of smut present in many of the
untreated plats reaching 75 to 80 per cent AVhere there is only
a small per cent of smut in the untreated wheat it is probable that
little if any extra increase in yield would result from treating the
seed
As to the cause of the extra increase in yield as a result of seed
treatment opinions are divided It is probably due in part to an
increased germinative power of the seed causing them to sprout
sooner and the young plant to grow faster It has been shown
that oats treated with hot water germinate much more quickly
than do untreated oats even if the grain has been dried Pro
fessor Kellerman has shown that potassium sulphide has the same
effect on both oats and corn and further that even after five and
onehalf months seed which had been treated with hot water or
potassium sulphide germinated quicker than untreated seed Dv
Arthur claims that this hastened germination is due to the libera
tion at once of large quantities of diastase by the action of heat
enabling the young plant to avail itself rapidly of the reserve of
starch stored in the seed This does not however account for the
action of potassium sulphide Another possible explanation of
the observed extra increase in yield has been put forth by JensenANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
229
He suggests that the smut may attack many plants which it sim
ply weakens and stunts without ever developing its spores in the
head Such injury would of course he prevented by any treatment
that killed all the smut adhering to the grain It is highly prob
able that a part of the extra increase is due to the higher germi
native energy of treated seed and a part to the prevention of all in
jury however slight from the smut
DUTY OF SEEDSMEN
It is confidently believed that by the aid of these improved meth
ods of seed treatment the enormous losses from the grain smuts
will eventually be prevented in a great measure Every year more
growers treat the grain intended for planting and others often
profit by purchasing clean seed from the resulting crop for use the
following year
It is to be hoped that all reputable seed firms will treat the grain
they sell for seed Oats purchased at high prices for seed have
been known to yield crops more than half smutted In Kansas in
1890 Professor Kellerman and the writer found that nearly one
fourth of the sorts of oats grown from seed obtained from dealers
was badly smutted onefifth showing over 11 per cent of injury
and onetenth over 20 per cent The danger exists in even greater
degree with other cereals for the wheat smuts for instance do not
occur at all in some regions and can readily be brought in by ob
taining seed from infested fields
SUMMARY
1 Smuts of cereals are caused by minute parasitic fungi the
spores of seeds of which form the black dusty mass which re
places the head of kernels of grain
2 These spores are very minute and blow about and adhere to
the kernel before it is planted When the kernel sprouts the
spores also germinate and send delicate threads into the young
seedling These threads follow the growth of the plant and fill
the head or kernel as soon as formed and there develop a mass of
spores instead of kernels230
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
3 Two stinking smuts attack the kernels of wheat filling them
with a mass of fetid spores These smuts cause great damage but
are easily prevented by treating the seed wheat
4 Loose smut of wheat attacks the whole head and converts it
into a mass of loose and dusty spores It causes considerable dam
age in some localities and is more difficuk to prevent than other
smuts
5 Loose smut of oats is very similar to that of wheat It
causes over 18000000 loss annually in the United States It
can be prevented easily and cheaply
6 Barley is attacked by two smuts and rye by one all of
which can be prevented Corn smut is widespread but fortunately
causes only a very slight loss As yet no effective preventive is
known
7 Oat smut can be most easily prevented by soaking the seed
twentyfour hours in a 1 per cent solution of potassium sulphide
8 Stinking smut of wheat and oat smut can be easily prevented
by treating with hot water at 132 degrees F for ten minutes By
previously soakintr the seed in cold water loose smut of wheat
barley smuts and rye smuts can be prevented by a shorter immer
sion in hot water
9 Stinking smuts of wheat can be prevented by soaking the
seed twelve hours in a 1 per cent solution of copper sulphate and
then dipping the seed in limewater This treatment is useless for
other smuts
10 In treating oats for smut by either potassium sulphide or
hot water an increase in yield is obtained beyond and above the
amount that would result from replacing the smutted heads with
sound ones The increase in yield from seed treatment is usually
Two or three times as much as the apparent loss from smut in un
treated fields
11 Seed dealers should treat all cereals offered for sale both
to increase the yield and to prevent the introduction of smuts into
localities where they are now unknownANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
231
Bulletin of United States Department of Agriculture
PEANUTS CULTURE AXD USE
By R B Handy
DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY
The peanut Arachis hypogwa known also in different localities
as the earthnut groundnut ground pea goober and pindar is a
trailing straggling annual growing from 1 to 2 feet high with
thick angular palegreen hairy stems and spreading branches and
has the peculiar habit of maturing its fruit underground Strictly
speaking it is not a nut at all and should more properly be called
the ground pea Its blossom is at the end of a long pediclelike
calyx tube the ovary being at the base After the fall of the
flower the peduncle or spike elongates and bends downward
pushing several inches into the ground where the ovary at its ex
tremity begins to enlarge and develop into a pale yellowish wrink
led slightly curved pod often contracted in the middle containing
from 1 to 3 seeds Should the spike by accident not be enabled
to thrust its point in the ground within a few hours after the fall
of the flower it withers and dies When fully grown the pods are
from 1 to 2 inches long of a dusky yellowish color with a netted
surface
More or less abundantly scattered over the roots of the peanut
plant as well as those of other members of the same family are
warts of about the size of a pin head or larger
These tubercles as they are usually called play a very important
part in the history of the plant Within them while in a fresh
or growing state may be seen by the aid of a good microscope
myriads of very minute organisms These bacterialike bodies
live partly on the substance supplied from the roots and at the
same time they take from the air and elaborate for the use of the
plant considerable quantities of nitrogen Nitrogen is the most
expensive element that must be supplied to plants in fertilizers232
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA

The orgamsms h thege poroug tuberdes
from the air of winch lt comprises about fivesixths and supply it
to the plant without any cost In this way a total amount of
nitrogen ts often acquired by the plant far in excess of the amount
analyses show to be present and available in the soil For tin
reason were the peanut cultivated as a green crop and turned under
m the ground hke clover and cowpeasspecies of the same family
would unprove the soil rather than exhaust its fertility as under
the present method of culture
notWnTnJ r11 6XtTiVely CllltiVated Pknt8 the Pea has
not been found ln a truly wild state and hence it is difficult to fix
te s that some botanists have attempted to trace its spread from
China to Japan thence through the East India Islands to India
and thence to Africa where in the seventeenth century ir walso
extensively cultivated and had become such an important article
of native food that the slave dealers loaded their vessels with it
using as food for their cargoes of captives But the weight of
author seems to be in favor of accepting it as a native of Brazil
thus addmg the peanut to the four other plants of commercial in
por ance that America has contributed to the agriculture of the
worldnamely cotton Indian corn potato and tobacco Though
may be a native of the Western Continent it early became a
largely cultivated plant in the warmer portions of the Old World
occupying a distinct place in the agriculture of those countries long
before its merits were recognized in the land of its origin While
he peanut has been cultivated in the United States to a limited ex
tent for a number of years it is only since 1866 that the crop has
become of primary importance in the eastern section of this coun
try winch seems peculiarly adapted to its production
Between 1865 and 1870 the rapid spread of the culture of pea
nuts was phenomenal due probably to the knowledge of then ac
qmred the dividual members of the various armies whie t
one time or another occupied the eastern section of Virginia Each
year doubled and at times increased timfo1
of the preceding year so that this country from being a large imANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
233
porter of west African nuts was soon able to supply the domestic
demand with the homeraised article
Virginia North Carolina and Tennessee produce a large part
of the peanut crop of the United States This is due possibly
to the fact that their soil and climate are admirably adapted to the
successful cultivation of this plant and also no doubt because
of the large profits which the farmer was able to secure from the
culture of peanuts at a time when other agricultural industries
were in a very depressed condition Within the last few years
this crop has ceased to be profitable as heretofore The method
of culturethe annual planting of nuts on the same land the lack
of proper rotation of crops the complete removal of all vegetation
from the land and the failure to replenish the soil by means of
fertilizershas been a great factor in reducing the profits of the
crop by reducing the ability of the land to produce such crops as
were previously secured in that section so that now instead of an
average of 50 bushels per acre with frequent yields of over 100
bushels the average in the peanut section is not over 20 bushels
while the cost of cultivation has been but slightly reduced
The composition of the different parts of the peanut plant from
the standpoint both of food and fertilizing value is shown in the
following tables compiled from the most reliable data at hand
The results in the case of food constituents are calculated to a uni
form waterfree basis in order to admit of a fair comparison It
must be kept in mind that all of the substances in their original
condition contained variable but considerable amounts of moisture
and if allowance is made for this moisture the percentage of the
food constituents will be lower than those reported in the tables
The first column shows the percentages of moisture given in the
original reports of analyses234 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
Food constituents in different parts of the peanut plant
Water
In waerfree sub larce
Ash
Pro
tein
Fiber
Peanut kernels
Alabama peanuts
Tennessee crop 1888
Tennessee crop 1889
Georgia peanuts
Spanish peanuts grown in Georgia
Egyptian peanuts
Bombay peanuts
Congo peanuts
Bufbque peanuts West African
Japanese peanuts Nankinmame
Japanese peanuts Tojmmame
Average of all available analyses
Peanut vines with leaves
Japanese green
Spanish rut before blooming
Georgia cut before blooming
Per ct
1088
387
486
125
1315
771
501
459
15 til
750
785
Average of last two
Spanish ent when fruit was ripe
Georgia cut when fruit was ripe
Average
Peanut hay Tennessee crop
Peanut vines without leaves Egyptian
Peanut leaves Egyptian
Peanut roots Egyptian
Peanut roots Spanih Georgia croD
Peanut roots Georgia
Peanut Hulls
Spanish peanuts grown in Georgia
Georgia ppanuts
Tennessee crop 1888
Tennessee crop 1889
Coarse ground German analysis
Pine ground German analysis
Egyptian peanuts
7710
32 6 2
2978
3120
3143
3238
Per ct
426
241
251
218
272
285
332
273
253
193
195
277
705
996
1132
1061
3191
Average
Peanut shucks inner coating of kernel
Peanut meal average of 2786 analyses
2962
2874
1920
20 62
881
781
1050
1070
1294
1124
1291
Per ct
3537
2865
2707
3049
3218
2297
3373
2833
2973
3266
2649
2947
1600
1269
12 57
1263
Per ct
266
237
252
234
350
161
233
155
124
488
432
429
2011
2475
1989
Nitro
gen
free
extct
Fat
Per ct
1933
1723
1980
2186
2043
20 27
1015
1451
1402
599
1264
Per ct
5537
4935
4860
4313
4117
5230
5047
5288
5248
5454
5460
1427
120
17 04
880
1090
665
975
958
463
300
203
363
313
358
370
1171
991
1081
22 32
2846
3610
3228
1175
625
1000
875
878
763
719
499
6 12
794
771
818
812
1080
1074
339
572
548
722
2511
5249
2211
3295
2161
2350
4166
4859
7178
7930
7307
6581
6937
66 64
4506
5001
4630
5038
4377
3586
3981
6729
2096
93
4695
4949
5409
5910
3550
3100
1432
1059
17 14
2045
1622
1790
3981
4920
Nitro
gen
Per rf
EO
458
433
488
515
367
540
453
476
523
424
467
427
630
584
607
482
522
502
184
250
350
200
431
320
256
203
201
2 02
187
158
173
1942
2689
2720
208
212
134
217
357
3 70
381
268
2152
884
188
100
1 111
140
140
122
115
080
103
127
122
131
130
117
400
840
Fertilizing constituents in different parts of the peanut
plant
In fresh or air dry substance
Water
phos
Nitrogen phoric
acil
Potash Lime
Peanut kernels
Peanut vines cured
Peanut hulls
Peanut cake meal
Total ash
Per cent
630
783
1060
1040
Per cent
451
176
114
756
Per cent
124
029
017
131
Per cent
127
098
095
150
Per cent
013
208
081
016
Per cent
320
15 70
300
397
As regards food value these tables show that peanut kernels with
an average 0f 29 per cent of protein 49 per cent of fat and 14ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 235
per cent of carbohydrates in the dry material take a high rank and
should be classed with such concentrated foods as soja beans cotton
seed etc The vines are shown to be superior to timothy hay as
a feeding stuff and but slightly inferior to clover hay The food
value of the hay is of course higher the greater the percentage of
nuts left on the vines in harvesting The hulls also appear to pos
sess considerable value as a feeding stuff being much richer in
valuable food constituents protein fat and carbohydrates than
cotton hulls which are extensively used in some localities in the
South as a coarse fodder and about equal to the poorer grades of
hay The ground hulls are used to a considerable extent as a
coarse fodder in European countries Peanut meal the ground
residue from oil extraction is a valuable feeding stuff highly ap
preciated and extensively used in foreign countries It contains
as the averages of over 2000 analyses show about 52 per cent of
protein 8 per cent of fat and 27 per cent of carbohydrates and
is therefore one of the most concentrated feeding stuffs with which
we are familiar ranking with cottonseed meal linseed meal etc
and in some cases ahead of them
As regards fertilizing constituents the tables show that the pea
nut like other leguminous plants is rich in nitrogen and contains
considerable amounts of phosphoric acid and potash The kernels
are as rich in these constituents as the kernels of cottonseed and
the vines are nearly as valuable as a fertilizer as those of cowpeas
For the sake of completeness the fertilizing constituents of hulls
and meal or cake are reported It will be seen that the former are
comparatively poor while the latter is quite rich being nearly
equal to cottonseed meal as a fertilizer
VARIETIES
The Virginia running variety of the peanut being most widely
known and most popular with the trade may be taken as the typical
American peanut Its vines are large with spreading branches
growing flat on the ground and bearing pods over almost their
entire length The pods are large and white weighing about 22
pounds to the bushel
The Virginia bunch variety grows erect and fruits near the tapm
236
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
root but produces pods very closely resembling those above de
scribed
There are two varieties in Tennessee the white and red the
white closely resembling the Virginia running variety and the red
producing somewhat smaller pods with kernels having a dark red
skin This variety matures earlier than the white yields fewer
pops or imperfect pods has a less spreading habit and on account
of this difference in growth is perhaps somewhat more easily cul
tivated
The North Carolina or African variety grown in the Winning
ton section of the State has much smaller pods than those just de
scribed weighing 28 pounds to the bushel the kernels containing
more oil than those of other varieties
The Spanish variety has a relatively small upright vine forms
small pods near the taproot and can be planted much closer to
gether than any of the others thus producing a very heavy crop to
the acre
The North Louisiana Station found the Spanish a desirable
variety easily harvested all of the peas adhering to the vine It
required a much shorter period to mature and planted as late as
July 1 matured a full crop in that latitude before frost The
pods filled out well forming few if any pops
The Georgia red nut like the similar variety in Tennessee has
mediumsized vines growing up from the ground and fruiting prin
cipally near the taproot with three or four kernels to the pod
These comprise all the varieties cultivated in this country but in
Costa Rica there is a variety with long pods without division con
taining four or five seeds and in the Argentine Republic a large
sized variety with a deep orangecolored shell In the Malay Arch
ipelago there are two varieties called the white and brown resem
bling probably the white and red Tennessee varieties except as to
size
The peanut of India and Africa resembles the North Carolina
variety in size and is raised principally for the oil which is contained
in its kernelsANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
CLIMATE SUITABLE FOR PEANUT CULTURE
237
TJ hile the peanut requires a climate in which there is a season
of five months free from frost it is not necessary that this should
be a period of extreme heat as the seeds form during cool weather
m the latter part of summer and early autumn This fact ha
been developed by experiments with the crop during the past
twentyfive or thirty years It was formerly supposed that being
a native of mtertropical countries and flourishing most luxuriantlv
in the warm moist atmosphere of Brazil India and Africa it would
be impossible to successfully cultivate the peanut in the United
States Contrary to this view the attempt to cultivate it in North
and South Carolina was successful and step bv step it extended
northward until the fortieth parallel of latitude had been reached
It is probable that on suitable soil the peanut will grow in anv
latitude where Indian corn will thrive hut whether it will he a
profitable crop depends upon other considerations than its ability
to withstand the climate The most favorable weather for the pea
nut is an early spring followed by a warm summer of even temper
ature with moderate moisture and free from drouth and an
autumn or harvesting time with very little precipitation as rain
injures the newly gathered vines and nuts These climatic con
ditions are to be found on the Atlantic Seaboard from New Jersey
southward in the Mississippi Valley as far north as southern Wis
consin and on the Pacific Coast south of the Columbia River
Again it is probable that the quality of the nut depends upon
climatic conditions as it is true that the nuts grown in tropical coun
tries contain much more oil than those of the same variety grown
in temperate latitude so that the proposition has been laid down
that the oil content of the nut is in inverse proportion to the dis
tance from the equator The nuts most in demand bv the Ameri
can trade are those raised between the parallels of 36 degrees and
37j degrees north latitude as they contain the least oil therefore
being better for use as human food
SOIL SUITABLE FOR PEANUT CULTURE
A sandy loam neither too dry nor too sandy yet light and238
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
porous produces the most marketable peanuts because it is nearer
the natural color of the peanut shell and the trade for which Amer
ican peanuts are raised demands a lightcolored shell but equally
sound and wellflavored nuts may be produced on other soils In
fact almost any soil that can be put in a friable condition and kept
so will produce peanuts provided it contains a sufficient quantity of
lime
As cultivation of the crop extends and more land is needed
much of this crop will be planted in clayey soil and the result
will be heavier peanuts Indeed more pounds per acre may be
grown upon stiff land than upon light soil the chief objection to
dark and tenacious soils being that they stain the pods
Clayey soil is somewhat colder and more inert and the planting
on such soil would therefore be somewhat delayed in the spring
In more northern latitudes where the season is short this might
cause the crop to be cut off by frost before maturity There is
an abundance of good peanut land all along the Atlantic Seaboard
from New Jersey to Florida and also in the Mississippi Valley not
yet used for the crop
MANURING
It is not necessary that the soil on which peanuts are to be
grown should be naturally calcareous but if it is not it must be
bmed the lime being necessary both for the proper fruiting of
the plant and for its mechanical effect upon the soil Much of
the Virginia and North Carolina land has in times past been
heavily marled and there are parts of Tennessee and other State
where there is already sufficient lime in the soil for the peanut
plant
Besides this addition of lime on soils where it is not naturally
found the peanut needs a dressing 0f potash and phosphoric acid
The potash is best supplied in the form of kainit the phosphoric
acid by fineground phosphatie slag If the soil is heavy instead
of the slag a dressing of superphosphate may be used
The lime and other dressing would be more effective if plowed
under early in the season but they may be spread down the furrowANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
239
in which the seed is planted or applied as a topdressing after plant
ing Any land of hme may be used provided it is finely com
Zlls tnTh S bef01e aPPHCatin TI byster
shells which are very accessible to fanners living along the East
rtheettommon limestoneor mari wm
JvlTTV1 lime or marl t0 use at one application dep
very much on he nature Qf the goil and fhe amount P
uoZ17 r Genera 30 bllshels of lime fe 100 to
150 bushels of marl are safe applications but if the soil is quite
Inn and contazns but little vegetable mold more than this at on
mall annual applications of lime and also of vegetable matter
manure compost woods earth etc continuing this until a suf
oZ rT limhas been applied w
quantizes of marl with perfect safety if kept well stocked with
ome vegetable matter to subdue its caustic effects But mo
ZLezrisoiHs deficient in and the
mTCTT f fertiHzing COnstitue quired bv a crop of
60 bushels of peanuts is shown in the following table calculated
from data reported by the Tennessee Experiment Station
Fertilizing constituents requircdby a crop of 60 bushels of peanuts
Pounds per acre
Nitro
gen
Total crop 3380 pounds per acre
Phos
phoric
acid
Potash Lime
422
4049
8471
908
572
1480
1273
IS57
466
4164
3230 4630
It does not follow that these figures show the exact proportion
of mtrogen phosphoric acid and potash which a fertilizer for
peanuts should contain They are useful only as guides in cal
culating formulas for a fertilizer for this crop and must not be
lollowed too closelv240
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
In the formulas given below the amounts of phosphoric acid
and potash correspond approximately with those given in the last
table but nitrogen is reduced to onefourth for the reason that the
application of nitrogenous manures to leguminous plants does not
make any appreciable return for the outlay since they are able to
obtain a large part of their nitrogen from the atmosphere Each
of the mixtures contains about 21 pounds of nitrogen 15 pounds
of phosphoric acid and 32 pounds of potash in available forms
and will be sufficient for one acre
Fertilizer mixture for peanuts
FORMULA I
Cottonseed meal 300 pou n d s
Cottonhull ashes 130 pounds
FORMULA II
Acid phosphate 80 pounds
Cottonseed meal 300 pounds
Kainit 240 pounds
FORMULA III
Barnyard manure 2 tons
Cottonseed meal 150 pounds
Kainit 100 pounds
Acid phosphate 50 pounds
FORMULA IV
Acid phosphate 100 pounds
Dried blood 185 pounds
Muriate of potash 65 pounds
When phosphatic slag which generally appears in the American
market under the name of Odorless Phosphate can be obtained if
may be substituted with advantage for acid phosphate at the rate
of 120 pounds in Formula II 75 pounds in Formula III and 150
pounds in Formula IV
Few of the peanut planters pay sufficient attention to the rota
tion of their crops but year after year plant peanuts in the same
land or at best change from peanuts to corn and then to peanuts
again with the result that the land rapidly deteriorates Not only
does the crop of nuts become smaller and smaller but the vines
after a year or two of this treatment lose their leaves before ma
turity and thus the hay or forage part of the crop is practically
lost
When the land is kept in a good physical condition by the use
of lime and proper culture and a systematic rotation of crops is
followed it will not only retain its fertility and produce good
crops for many years but it will constantly increase its ability to
produce peanuts in paying quantities A good rotation is sojaANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
241
beans or cowpeas to be followed the succeeding year by peanuts
and the next year by sweet potatoes or the following one that
will keep the land well covered and is perhaps more convenient
for the average peanut planter is recommended Peanuts followed
in the fall by winter rye or oats and the next summer the land sown
to crimson clover or cowpeas to be followed the succeeding year
by peanuts again so that every other year peanuts will be the
crop The advantage of this would be an increased forage crop for
the farmera muchneeded addition in the peanutraising sections
of the United Statesthe covering of the land during nearly the
whole year with a growing crop and the rotation of a cereal with a
leguminous crop Even in this system of rotation fertilizers should
be used until the soil is brought into good condition and no longer
responds profitably to fertilizers
It should be clearly understood that constant cropping without
the use of proper rotations or manures must eventually impoverish
both the soil and the planter
CULTURE
Preparation of the landThere is no mystery connected with
the culture of the peanut crop or any special secret knowledge as
to the preparation of the land Any mode of preparation that
will reduce the soil to a finely pulverized seed bed light and friable
to the depth of 4 or 5 inches will be safe to adopt Peanuts being
planted usually after corn it is necessary to remove from the soil
the butts of the cornstalks together with all other roots clods
etc The ordinary course followed by successful planters in
various sections where peanuts are a prominent crop is to
break up the land with ordinary turn plow as soon in the spring
as the soil is in condition to be worked and then use a harrow and
roller or smoothing hoard in such a way as to leave a level surface
and seed bed such as is above described all roots stumps stones
and clods having been carefully removed
Seed selectionWhile there is among all planters a certain
amount of selection of seeds for planting more or less carefully
16 a242
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
done according to the skill of the farmer and to the nature of the
crop which he is about to plant and in some cases extending to an
elaborate and longcontinued selection from the most prolific
plants vet in the case of peanuts where good seed is of paramount
importance there seems to be but little more than ordinary care
taken in the selection of seednot mere than in the saving of that
portion of the crop which is to be sold on the market
The seed should not only be carefully selected at the time of
planting carefully prepared so as not to break the skin of the ker
nel and all immature shriveled or musty seeds rejected but
especial care should be exercised at the harvesting of the previous
crop so that the seed may be of as great vitality as possible The
slightest frost upon the peanut vines either before digging or after
they have been dug and before they become thoroughly dried will
affect to a greater or less degree the vitality of the kernel Over
heating or mustiness is also detrimental to the kernel as a seed
consequently the seeds should be selected in the field before dig
ging They should be allowed to sun longer than peas intended for
sale that they may be drier and even should the pods lose color
it does not matter as the kernels will not be affected They
should be so stacked as to be kept very dry and should be picked
and allowed to dry thoroughly before being packed away for the
winter The best plan is to put them in bags in a cool dry loft
where they will neither heat nor collect moisture Not more than
two bushels should be placed in one sack and great care should be
taken to have the air circulate freely among them
As it requires 2 bushels of nuts in the pod to give seed enough
for an acre and some farmers plant from 50 to 100 and even more
acres it is necessary to begin to shell the seed nuts several weeks
before the time of planting This requires some skill and care
both in opening the pod to avoid the breaking of the skin of the
kernel and in selecting the sound and rejecting the imperfect ker
nels as they are shelled and the seed thus shelled must be kept
in a dry cool airy place until the time of planting
PlantingThe time of planting depends upon the latitude theANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
243
distance from the sea and the elevation of the section in which
the seed is to be planted In Virginia from May 1 to 20 is prob
ably the time during which the larger part of the crop is planted
danger of killing frosts being past by that time although some
farmers plant the last week of April and others not until early in
June In more southern latitudes planting takes place in April
and farther north not before June In no section should the seed
be planted until all danger of the young plants being injured by a
late frost is over
As soon as the farmer lias satisfied himself that the propitious
time for planting has arrived his land being in fine condition and
his seed already prepared for planting the question for him to de
cide is the distance between the hills which is best suited to the
strength and fertility of his soil and to the variety of peanuts he
intends to plant As a part of this question he has to determine
whether he will plant his seed in checks or in drills both of which
methods are in use in nearly every section where the peanut is
grown The advantages of one method over the other will depend
upon the freedom of the soil from weedseed and upon the cost of
labor In checks the cost of planting is probably greater than in
drills but if the ground is somewhat full of weed seeds the cost of
cultivation in checks would probably be less than in drills be
cause of the ability of the horse implements to more successfully
keep down the weeds as the field can be worked in both directions
very close to the young plants leaving but little for the hoe to do
The distance between the drills or hills is as above stated de
pendent upon the variety to be planted and the fertility of the
soil In very fertile soil and with the running Virginia nut from
3 to 3 feet square each way is the required distance between the
hills with 2 kernels to the hill while with other varieties or on
less fertile land the distance between the hills can be reduced until
on poor land with the Spanish nut the distance will be determined
by convenience in using horse implements between the rows
In drills the causes stated above would affect the choice of dis
tance that most frequently chosen by the planter being 3 feet be
tween the drills and 14 inches between the hills down the drill 2
seeds to the hill244
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
In checking the land for peas a simple and inexpensive marked
is m common use for the first narking out of the field This consists
of a piece of scantling 4 by 4 inches and 6 or more feet long
through winch are inserted at distances equal to the required dil
tance between the hills wooden pegs 2 by 3 inches and 18 inches
long shod at the ends with iron To the main bar are attache a
pair of shafts and handles to be used in drawing and guiding the
implement The cross marking is usually performed with a small
turn plow the droppers following it putting 2 seeds to the hill
covering them over with the hoe or probably more commonly the
foot to the depth of H or 2 inches although some cover the seed
with a small plow
There is in use among peanut fanners a planter planned some
what after the manner of a cottonseed planter It is drawn by
one horse and is fitted with a shoe at the base of which the
kernels are dropped at distances from 8 to 20 inches apart accord
ing as the machine is geared and are covered by a concave wheel
winch passing over the furrow presses the soil firmly down upon
the seed
Tilla9eThe object of all plant cultivation is to keep the soil
in proper condition for the growth of the plant An important
means to that end is the destruction of all weeds Many crops
are injured by the lack of cultivation more by improper cultiva
hon and some undoubtedly by too frequent cultivation The
7Xnni that the st cultivation is that given before a crop is
planted and the next best the one that is not given it at the latter
Part of its growth is perhaps as true of peanuts as of any other
crop If the fanner has prepared his land having it porous pul
verized and free from all weedseeds there will be need of vrv
ittle cultivation It is not so much a matter of how many times
the crop has been worked as in what condition the crop is at an
given time that should determine the farmer in his management of
The implements of cultivation are the plow harrow or cultivator
and hoe all of which are used by some fanners others dispensing
7th U tW0 0f them ere the peanuts are planted in
checks the larger part of the cultivation is done with the harrowANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 945
or cultivator while some cultivate peanuts even when in drills
solely with the aid of the turn plow Hoe work being very ex
pensive the farmer should strive to have his land in such condition
as not to require much of it and to so cultivate his crop in its early
stages as to prevent the growth of grass necessitating the use of
the hoe
One method of weed destruction as practiced by a large number
of peanut planters is just before the plants are coming through
the ground say two weeks after they have been planted to go
over the field with a small turn plow throwing the soil from both
sides over the drill or hill or where the seed was first covered with
a plow throwing the second furrow over them and then blocking
oft these ridges with light wooden scrapers or blocks thus de
stroying the first weed crop with very little or no injury to the
peanut plants Another method is to bar off the soil from the
vines throwing it into the balk and then a few days afterwards
to send the harrow and hoes through the field leveling the ride
m the balk and scraping off the narrow ridge between the plants
as m cotton culture After this use a double shovel every ten
days or two weeks until the field has been gone over five or six
tmies For the first two or three plowings the shovels may lie run
deep and after that very shallow each working being a little far
ther from the plant than the preceding one to avoid disturbing
runners The pods are laid by the middle of July or the first of
August and the cultivation is finished by the latter date liter
the peas begin to spread it is difficult to clean them and therefore
they should be thoroughly cleaned while they are youm
Two methods of peanut culture in vogue may be distinguished
as the level and the ridge methods In level cultivation the
turn plow has no place but the work is done almost entirely with
the cultivator the field when laid by presenting a flat appearance
much resembling a clover field In the ridge method the soil is
by use of either the cultivator or the turn plow gradually worked
rom the balk to the vine so that after the last working the peanut
held very much resembles a sweet potato patch Which of these
two methods is of greater merit is perhaps not definitely decided
or mdeed which may be more advantageous upon certain soils and246
DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
with certain varieties although the level cultivated field will prob
ably stand drouth Letter than the ridged
The Nebraska Experiment Station made an experiment on this
subject Eleven rows were drilled 3 feet apart and seeded 10
jnches apart down the row Every other row was ridged and the
bloom was covered while the alternate rows were left level The
5 ridged rows yielded at the rate of 2944 pounds to the acre the
5 level rows at the rate of 5368 pounds to the acre This would
seem to indicate level culture as best for the peanut and certainly
demonstrates that there is no need of following the old practice
of covering the bloom of the plant The eleventh row was planted
With unshelled seed ridged the bloom covered and yielded at the
rate of 1870 pounds
HARVESTING
The nuts should be out of the ground before the first frost as
it is mpous both to the vines when regarded as fodder and tc
the kernels It may be necessary to dig the crop some time before
frost is feared because early formed nuts when frost is long de
kvedbegm fo tQ K
Mould be greater than the gainfrom the maturing of the later nuts
Besides if peanuts have been cultivated in the same land for sev
7e th es ofte will drop their leaves and are thus greatly
injured for use as hay
cronT IT3 haVP 3 PW f0r htin thb
crop winch has no moldboard and has a bar 3 feet long and an up
right the same as the other plows The foot piece is welded 12
indies from the rear end and extends up 5 inches with a smal
hole through it to which is fastened the hind helve of the plow
The beam is as usual with handles fastened to either side of it
ZlmZ tZ g Wdded t0 the S inches behind th
bill and extending out to the right side diagonally and back
ward so as to run under and cut the taproot of the vine
This plow with two horses attached is passed up each side of the
i deep enough to escape the peas the long win cutting the tapANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
247
roots rendering them easy to remove from the soil Following
this plow laborers with pitchforks remove the plants from the
ground carefully shaking off all loose soil and piling then in wind
rows three rows in one They are usually plowed in the morning
and then in the afternoon are stacked or shocked around poles 7
feet high set in the ground at convenient places in the field In
shocking care is taken to keep the vines from the ground the
usual practice being to lay a couple of fence logs on each side of
the center pole and the plants are so arranged around the pole as
to have the pods inside and also to leave some space next to the
pole for the circulation of air The shocks are usually capped
with corn fodder or hay to keep out the rain
After being thus stacked from fifteen to twenty days the pods
are ready to be picked This operation is usually performed by
women and children who are paid so much per bushel and are
expected to pick only the mature and sound pods It is slow and
tedious work and one of the largest items of expense to the peanut
farmer Some farmers leave their nuts unpicked until spring
but this subjects them to the depredations of birds and animals
many of which readily eat either the nuts or the vines
In the Wilmington section there is some variation from the
above in the method of harvesting thecrop The vines after being
allowed to remain in the ground two days after plowing are then
pulled out and shaken free from soil and stacked around poles 12
to 14 feet high where they are allowed to remain about a week or
ten days and are then removed to large barns and stored away like
clover hay until it is convenient for the planter to have his nuts
picked This peanut being much smaller than the Virginia or
Tennessee nut and also more completely filling the shell is not so
easily injured as the larger varieties and thus can be picked by
machinery of the general nature of a thrashing machine Some
dealers object to machinepicked nuts but the experience of those
who follow that practice in harvesting their crops shows but little
if any difference in the price of hand or machine detached pods of
the North Carolina variety and what difference there may be in
price is offset by the saving in cost and the rapidity with which they
can be put upon the market at any desired time Besides it is248
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
claimed that the hay after passing through the picker or thrashing
machine is in better condition for fodder than the hay from the
handgathered peanuts
After the peanuts are picked they should be cleaned before being
sacked The necessity of cleaning is of course not so great as it
was prior to the establishment of recleaners or factories but still
the cleaning f the nut would not only leave a large number of
pops and saps on the farm for the feeding of stock but would
doubtless cause the nuts to bring a price sufficient to justify the ex
pense of cleaning The sacks used for peanuts are either 56 or
72 inches long and wide enough to hold 4 bushels or 100 pounds
Even should the farmer not intend to sell his nuts at once he
should at least sack them as an attempt to keep them in bulk
might cause them to heat
In filling the sacks care must be taken to fill each corner and the
entire sack should be well distended yet not tight enough to crush
the shells Put away in a dry airy place peanuts will keep in
these sacks several years should it be necessary so to do
FieldAccording to the Eleventh Census Bulletin Xo 378
p 9 the average yield of peanuts in the Tnited States in 1889 was
17fi bushels per acre the average in Virginia being about 20 and
rennessee 32 bushels per acre This appears to be a verv low
average especially as official and semiofficial figures give 50 or 60
bushels as an average crop and 100 bushels is nut an uncommon
yield Jair peanut land properly manured and treated to intelli
gent rotation of crops should produce in an ordinary season a yield
Of 50 bushels to the acre and from 1 to 2 tons of excellenthav
Of course better land with more liberal treatment and a favorable
season will produce heavier crops the reverse being true of lands
wiuch have been frequently planted with peanuts without either
manuring or station of crops Besides the amount of peas gath
ered there are always large quantities left in the ground which have
escaped the gathering and on these the planter turns his herd of
nogs so that there is no waste of any part of the plant
The yearly production of peanuts in this country is about 4
000 000 bushelsrf 22 pounds Virginia Georgia Tennessee and
North arolma being according to the Eleventh Census the larg
IANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 249
est producers in the order named These 4000000 bushels while
fully supplying the present demand in the United States constitute
but a small portion of the peanut crop of the world as the exporta
tion from Africa and India to Europe in 1892 amounted to nearly
400000000 pounds Marseilles taking 222000000 pounds most
of winch were converted into oil The peanut crop of the world
may be safely estimated as at least 600000000 pounds
Preparation for marketSince theestablishment of peanut
factories or recleaners in nearly every community in which
much attention is paid to this crop the planter has ceased to
especially prepare his nuts for market selling them as farmers
stock to those factories or recleaners where they are subjected to
a treatment of fanning polishing and sorting before being put
upon the market This process is simple and inexpensive
The machinery neither costly nor intricate is placed in a four
story bmldmg in such a way that the peanuts are not handled from
the time they are put in their uncleaned condition in the hopper
on the fourth floor until on the first floor they are sewed in bags
branded and marked ready to ship with the exception that in the
course of tins process they have passed over a movable table in the
form of an endless belt between two rows of operators somewhat
ski Jed m the detection of immature and faulty nuts which are
picked out and put into a separate receptacle only the good and
merchantable nuts being allowed to pass into the bag beneath
these are the handpicked factory stock of the trade
USES
In describing the uses of peanuts it is scarcely necessary to more
than refer to that use to which fully threefourths of the American
raised crop is devoted The nut is sorted in the factory into four
grades the first second and third being sold to venders of the
roasted peanut either directly or through jobbing houses The
fourth grade after passing through a seller is sold to confectioners
to be used in the making of burnt almonds peanut candy and
cheaper grades of chocolates The extent of the use of the peanut
by the American people will be more fully appreciated when it is
remembered that they use 4000000 bushels of nuts yearly at a250
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
cost to the consumers of 10000000 which do not form a part
of the regular articles of food but are eaten at odd times
The nut is used by the planter as a fattener for his hogs and ref
erence to the analyses of the plant table p 5 will at once indicate
its value for that purpose The planter also makes use of the vine
under the name of peanut hay which is carefully saved and fed to
all kinds of live stock furnishing the best and cheapest hay to be
found in the peanut section The chief objection to it is that it is
apt to contain considerable dirt which may produce coughs in the
animals eating it It should therefore be fed from low troughs
or managers and never from racks overhead If frosted it may
cause colic but wellcured hay will not do this If many immature
pods are left on the vines stock that is not worked much would
need no other food during the winter Care must be exercised
however when beginning to feed it to horses as there is danger of
the saps or immature pods left on the vines foundering them if too
much is fed at once An analysis of this hay as compared with
hay from clover timothy cowpea and alfalfa is found in the fol
lowing table taken from Bulletin Volume IV Xo 2 of the Ten
nessee Experiment Station
Feeding value of peanut hay as compared with hay of other crops
Moisture Dry Matter
Protein Fats Carbohydrates Crude fibre Crude ash
Per cent 783 625 1430 1350 1029 695 Percent 1175 1348 1284 717 1972 1648 Per cent 1 81 1506 211 197 401 203 Per cent 4695 3628 4831 5294 4515 4262 Per cent 2211 2916 2927 3341 21 99 31 38 Per cent 1704
602
747
1 51
Cowoca Hay Alfalfa 910749

These analyses show peanut vines to be of high feeding value
comparing favorably in this respect with the most highly esteemed
forage plants When some of the nuts are cured and fed with the
hay the feeding value is greatly increased as the second analysis
in this table shows
These are uses to which the peanut crop is commonly put in this
country but it is not improbable that in the course of time theANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
251
peanut may subserve other valuable ends here Millions of bush
els are being used in the countries of the Old World for the pro
duction of oil in which the nuts are very rich This oil is re
garded as equal to olive oil and may be employed for every purpose
to which that is applied This oil forms from 30 to 50 per cent
by weight of the shelled nut it has an agreeable taste and smell
and is more limpid than olive oil which it very much resembles
Examinations of peanut oil manufactured in Tennessee show it to
be very similar in character to cottonseed oil and olive oil It is
sweet palatable and clear and in fact great quantities are used
unknown to the consumer instead of olive oil To quote Consul
Thomas of Marseilles in a report to the Department of Stater
Much of it is usel for eating purposes both as a salad oil and in the com
position of margarin When made from a superior class of nuts not too
finely ground the oil is said to be of fairly good flavor and in the case of
dearth of olives might serve as an excellent substitute for the more popular
though possibly not more widely consumed extraction Indeed the people
of all others best able to give an expert opinion as to the merits of peanut
oil for table purposes and who annually consume considerable quantities
under the name of and perhaps too faintly diluted with olive oil reside in
the United States
i
In India Europe Brazil and this country it is used medicinally
in the place of olive oil and it is also employed by manufacturer
as a substitute for the latter in fulling cloth As a lighting fluid
it lasts a long time but does not give as clear a light as other burn
ing oils It is a durable nondrying oil of a light straw color and
it is for its oil that the nut is imported into Europe many gallons
being used in the manufacture of soap and as a lubricant in ma
chine shops
ConsulGeneral Mason of Erankfort says
Coldpressed oil of the first pressing of African or the best American pea
nuts is used in Germany as salad oil and for various culinary purposes It
ranges in price wholesale from 1475 to 26 per 100 kilograms 220 pounds
or approximately from 56 cents to 1 per gallon which is far cheaper than
any edible quality of olive oil that can be imported and sold in that country
The American peanut is larger sweeter and when roasted better flavored
than any of the others but its oil is of medium quality and ranks below the
African being worth about 1550 per 100 kilograms or 59 cents per gallon252
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
A practical treatise on animal and vegetable fats and oils by W
T Brannt London 1888 says
The kernels yield from 38 to 45 per cent of oil The first cold pressure
yields 1G to 18 per cent of very fine table oil The residue is then broken
up moistened with water and again cold pressed yielding 7 to 8 per cent
more or less valuable oil to be used for table purposes and burning the resi
due from this is heated and then pressed giving 7 to 8 per cent more of oil unfit
for table use but used for soap and lubricating
I mtcd States Consul Trail at Marseilles in a report on manu
factures of vegetable oils dated April 4 1892 says regarding the
process in that city
These nuts are subjected to two pressings the seed firt being triturated
and then heated to between 70 and 80 C The yield of oil from the first
pressing is about 50 per cent of the seed crushed
Whether oil extraction from peanuts will ever beeome an es
tablished industry in this country depends upon 1 whether suffi
cient quantities can be secured to keep the mills at work and 2
whether peanuts can he raised at a price low enough to compete
with the other oil seeds which already have control of this marker
To the average peanut planter who for the past few years has been
told that the market is overstocked and the supply greater than the
demand the intimation that the supply is not large enough for
almost any purpose would meet with small credence but a mo
ments reflection and calculation of the amount of nuts necessary
to supply the demands of a firstclass oil mill would at once show
how comparatively small is the average crop At 50 tons per day
300 tons a week or 15000 tons a year as a requisite amount to
supply one mill we find that nearly the whole American crop
would be consumed by two mills But under present conditions
the mills could not pay the price demanded for primes or extra
fine stock therefore the part of the present crop which could be
utilized in oil making would be limited to the amount of the third
or fourth class stock produced which would not supply one mill
six months
The question of prices is one which can be answered only by fu
ture improvement in the methods of culture an increased proANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 253
duction per acre and the invention of more economical means of
harvesting and handling the crop
The most important secondary product of peanutoil manufac
ture is the oil cake or meal which remains after the oil has been
extracted by pressure This sells for from 30 to 33 per ton in
Germany where it is used for feeding cattle and sheep After all
the oil which can be expressed has been secured there still remain
considerable fatty matter in the cake which together with its other
contents makes a most valuable animal food
An average of over 2000 analyses collated by German authori
ties is shown on page 5 A recent analysis of peanut cake fur
nished by an oil factory in Tennessee gave the following results
V ater 658 per cent ash 421 per cent protein 5319 per cent
faber 315 per cent nitrogenfree extract 2401 per cent and fat
826 per cent This shows a nutritive value for the American
product somewhat superior to the German average
Dtrich and Konig give the average coefficient of digestibility
oi this cake as follows Protein 0024 fats 8566 nitrogenfre
extract 9287 B
An experiment was made at the Woburn Experimental Farm
m England to compare peanut cake at 4072 a ton with bean
meal at 4580 for steers Each was fed iu a grain ration with
equal parts of oats and barley and the animals received beside
45 pounds of roots and 15 pounds of cloverhay chaff per head
The trial lasted 107 day The peanut cake proved to be a useful
feeding material for cattle and to have a feeding value just about
equal to that of beans2
Dr W R Robertson in his experiments with peanut cake as a
food for horses at the India farm of which he was manager found
that 6 pounds of cake per day was sufficient to keep a horse in good
working condition and describes the method of feeding thus
The cake was broken into small pieces and steeped for twentyfour hours
mldwater just sufficient to make a stiffish paste This paste is white and
1 Analysis made by the chemist of the Department of Agriculture
Royal Agricultural Society of England No 3 1892 ser 3 pp 77730
Jour Roy Agr Soc Eng Vol IV Part III 1893 p 650254
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
has a rather agreeable nutlike smell and taste it is readily eaten by most
horses
In reference to its use as feed for other animals Dr Robertson
says
I have used the cake very extensively in feeding working cattle an allow
ance of 4 pounds per head per day with forage kept the animals in perfect
health and condition For fattening cattle I do not know of any better food
in regard alike to its feeding value and to the superior quality of the beef
produced
As a food for dairy cows it is admirable both in increasing the yield of milk
and improving its quality The butter of cows so fed is firmer and keeps
mch better than that of cows fed on any of the ordinary oil cakes A daily
allowance of 4 to 6 pounds of the cake given in the form of paste and mixed
with 2 or 3 pounds of wheat bran constitutes a perfect food for milch cows
1 have had cows so fed for several years yielding well and breeding regularly
For sheep there is no better food than earthnut cake but for these animals I
found it best to give the cake dry and broken into small pieces I had a large
flock fed on the cake for several years and never knew any bad results at
tending its use The ewes so fed bred regularly milked well and reared ex
cellent lambs while the mutton of these cakefed sheep was of superior
quality
Many experiments have proved the value of the cake as a feed for pigs For
these animals it was usually made into a thin gruel and given mixed with
bran The same preparation but in not quite so thin a condition constitutes
a superior food for fattening poultry The flesh of poultry fatted on the cake
is white fine and of superior quality
From the above and as a result of the various analyses it can be
concluded with certainty that the peanut cake is an excellent cattle
food and can be made extremely valuable if judiciously mixed with
other foods less rich in oil and nitrogenous constituents
A grade of food for animals known as peanut meal is made by
grinding the hulls immature peanuts and those of inferior grades
such as pops and saps and a certain proportion of sound nuts
mixed with other ingredients This is carefully prepared having
all the dirt and foreign matter eliminated The fiber is also to a
large extent extracted as well as the fluffy matter and the meal
is probably in a favorable condition for stock The composition
compares favorably with that of many foods now on the market
There is nothing in this preparation which cannot be secured by
the farmer himself without any expense if he will take ordinaryANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 255
care in separating Ins marketable peas from the refuse stock before
selling which latter would be a valuable addition to the somewhat
meager supply of winter fodder ordinarily provided bv the farm
ers m the South for stock other than their work animals
Although the experiment made with peanut meal and biscuits
as food for the German army was not so successful as to induce the
authorities to adopt it as a part of the rations still analvsis has
shown conclusively that it is a most nourishing food for man and
as compared with other wellknown forms of vegetable and animal
food it has a high nutritive value
During the years between 1S61 and 1865 peanut oil was manu
factured by at least four mills in the Southern States and used a
a lubricant by railroads for locomotives by wool and cotton spin
ners for their spindles and by housewives instead of lard as short
ening m bread and pastry The cake was eaten bv many living in
the vicinity of the mills and was very highly spoken of bv those
who used it as a palatable and nutritious food for man
The following is a comparison made bv Professor Konig based
on the price in Germany of the following twelve principal foods
reduced to units of nutrition
Comparison of the nutritive mine and cost of twelve principal foods
Nutritive i Cost per
units j 1000 units
per pound I in cents
Skim milk
Skim milk cheese
Full milk
Kacon
Butter
Veal
Beef
Peas
Potatoes
Rye flour
Rice
Peanut meal
982
8700
1455
12577
11863
5259
5309
7786
1382
6036
5346
14250
104
110
115
155
204
222
260
42
51
60
100
30
It follows therefore that peanut meal is not only the most nutri
tious but by far the cheapest of this whole list of food materials
SUMMARY
1 The peanut is anative of Brazil but early after the discov256
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
ery of that country it was introduced into Africa and other tropical
parts of the Old World where it became a staple article of food
It was only in the second half of this century that it became an im
portant crop in this country
2 The varieties grown are the Virginia running and bunch
the Tennessee and Georgia white and red the North Carolina
and the Spanish The Virginia varieties being most widely known
and popular with the trade are the ones commonly planted
There is little difference between the Virginia and Tennessee nuts
both being sold as Virginia handpicked peanuts
The Spanish nut has a small kernel of fine quality and is in de
mand as confectioners stock being worth several cents per
pound more than any other shelled stock
3 The climate of the Atlantic Seaboard and Mississippi Valley
has proven very congenial to this plant which needs an early and
warm spring followed by a hot and moist summer with but little
rain in the harvesting season to injure the mature crop
4 While an open sandy soil which does not stain the shell i
the ideal one for the peanut it thrives on any friable soil that con
tains a sufficient quantity of lime and humus The presence of
lime is necessary for the development of the nuts as without lime
there may be luxuriant vines bearing nothing but pops If the
soil does not already contain lime in sufficient quantities the defi
ciency must be supplied by the use of some form of commercial
lime such as burnt oyster shells burnt limestone or marl
5 The peanut plant draws a large part of its nitrogen from the
air but it draws a considerable amount of phosphoric acid and pot
ash from the soil If the entire plant is removed from the soil
the crop becomes an exhausting one and the fertility of the soil
must be restored by the use of manures and rotation of crops
0 Peanuts should be planted in wellpulverized soil to a depth
of 4 inches The distance between the rows should be from 28
to 36 inches varying with the fertility of the soil and the variety
Fertilizers should be applied broadcast before planting Care
fully shelled and selected kernels should be used for seed The
seeds should be planted from 12 to 20 inches apart two to the hill
and covered about an inch deep either with a hoe or a small turnANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 257
Plow All grass and weeds must be kept out of the field and the
I kept loose and open that the tender spikes may Let w h
2 stance in penetrating the ground ExperJenT h s o
nd L n t 1 TUltS faVring eithe1the 1el cultu
an the nature of the field selected for the crop will be the best
bg rj ormethod tobe adoptedThe S
h or as soon as the vines have spread sufficiently to keep
down the weeds or to make the passage of the harrow between the
i ows dangerous to the developing pods
sidfof th WtT CrP the PraCtice is to P down each
ut a moMb T aiPlW made eSpecla11 fr PPoee wh
taproot withonTdLI ir S
f i fe poets 1 he vmes are then Hfrd
f m the ground with pitchforks and placed in rows W
P in bags hokling 4 5
11ventlated sheds or at once sold to the factories whe e th
vendersuSIir1011 is SW V
enders but small amounts are used by confectioners chocolate
manu acturers and for the manufacture of oil Peanu oil is use
far nbncatmg and soapmaking and is a good substitute oroHve
ndtotr oti7vniniary purps titi
lard and cottolene and butter in cooking The residue W
8Uffid tlv tet to make
regular article of dW ti t useim as a
8 article ol diet The vmes when dried become a very nutri258
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
Bulletin of Georgia Experiment Station
SWEET POTATOES
BY HUGH N STARNES HORTICULTURIST
CULTURE
Five cent cotton has served at least one good purposeit has
emphasized the importance of those crops presenting a margin be
tween their selling price and cost of production One of the most
noticeable of these is the Sweet PotatoBatatas edulis
In view of the frequent inquiries received by the Station regard
ing its cultivation a few words in explanation of the methods here
pursued may not be amiss Sweet Potato culture is fortunately
extremely simple no great mystery surrounds it and almost every
one measurably succeeds with it There are however degrees of
success and difference in location soil and surroundings must nec
essarily modify all methods and even render the suggestions here
given extremely elastic while the judgment of each individual
must adapt them with more or less change to his own case
DRAMS
The simplest form of bed is found the best Make it of 1x12
plank on edge of the desired size the plank being laid on the sur
face of the ground Inside of the frame thus formed which
though made as long as desired should not be more than four feet
wide for convenience in reaching excavate the top soil down to
the clay throwing it aside Put in eight or ten inches of stable
manure treading down firmly Cover with four or five inches of
top soil and leave for three or four days Place the potatoes on
the layer of top soil after having stirred it up to freshen it as
closely as they can be placed without touching and cover with
three or four inches of good top soil Sand is unnecessary and is
more trouble than it is worth The draws will come so quickly
and so thickly that weeds will stand no chance The bed should
be prepared to plant in sufficient time to have the slips commence
to sprout as soon as danger of frost is over As they will begin toANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
259
appear in from teu days to three weeks after being bedded depend
ing of course on temperature the calculation as to proper time
oan be made to suit each individual
The top soil used should have sufficient humus to prevent bak
ing and hardening at least under the mild sun of early spring
hence watering the beds previous to sprouting is unnecessary
and in fact should be avoided Occasionally after the first draw
ing they require water
It is generally conceded that the size of the bedded tuber in no
wise affects the size of the potatoes produced by its sprouts hence
small potatoes are preferable to large ones in bedding for obvious
reasons
SOIL AND LOCATION
Almost any land will produce
potatoessome potatoes A light
sandy loam is the best soil they
can be given The potato abhors
stiff red soil and proves it by
splitting cracking and roughen
ing up when planted in stiff land
The cracking is of course due to
the suspension of growth tempora
rily during dry weather followed
by a period of rapid growth on
the return of wet weather These
conditions appear to be exagger
ated in clay soilhence the necessity for a loose light soil
Thorough drainage is also necessary Bottom land is not suitable
but what is known as second bottoms composed of light sandy
loam washed from the surrounding slopes make admirable
potato land
FERTILIZER
Commercial fertilizers are preferable to stable manure Recent
investigations have developed the fact that the Sweet Potato
feeds much more grossly on both nitrogen and potash and requires
less phosphoric acid than was formerly supposed Hence any
GEORGIA YAAV260
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
high grade complete fertilizer with a liberal addition of both ammo
nia and potash will do very well The amount that can be used
per acre varies considerably depending directly upon the character
of the soil The richer the land in humus the greater the quantity
that can be safely used Thin soil will of course only stand very
moderate manuring and necessarily produce a proportionally
small yield
The formula found most effective for several years past on the
Station consists of
320 lbs Acid Phosphate
360 lbs Cotton Seed Meal
640 lbs Kainit
1320 lbs in all per acre
This will cost about 1139 and on land that with ordinary
manuring will produce a bale of cotton will produce a yield in
potatoes of from 200 to 400 bushels per acre depending of course
upon the season and the variety of potato planted It will not
pay to waste money on socalled special potato fertilizers It is
best to purchase the materials mentioned above and compound
at home
PREPARATION
This of course should be deep and thorough as should indeed
the preparation of land for any crop The potato however re
sponds abnormally to deep plowing and perfect pulverization
Rows should be normally four feet apart though in extra good soil
they may be reduced to three and a half feet After thorough
breaking and harrowing lay off rows with a long shovel plow two
trips to the row Put in fertilizer and mix with two trips of a
scooterthus again subsoiling the row Bed with a turnplow
four furrows break out middles and level beds with a board Make
a stepper or gauge with three teeth on a crossbar attached to
handle eighteen inches intervening between the teeth This will
mark off the places for the slips 118 to the row 6136 to the acre
if fourfoot rows are used 8556 if the rows are three and a half
feet
PLANTING
It is always best to defer planting until there is a good seasonANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
261
as it is called in the ground This may be easily done as good
results can be secured from plantings ranging all the way from
April 15th to June 1st according to latitude Asa rule it is best
not to plant too early in Lower Georgia as the season is thus made
too long and the tubers reach maturity before frost when they are
liable especially in wet weather to take a second growth which
affects their keeping quality There is not so much danger of this
BUNCH YArA
In North Georgia the season of course being shorter Hence the
earlier potatoes are put out in that part of the State after all danger
of frost is over the better On the contrary it is probably best
in Southern Georgia not to put out slips during the month of April
at all In Middle Georgia the last week in April or the first of
May will be soon enough to begin262
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
No exact rule can be given for setting out slips or draws Much
depends upon the conveniences at hand Slowly and surely is
a good motto and pays in the end therefore it is advised that a
dipper full of water be used to each hill and the grower should
make this an invariable rule as is done here at the Station with a
decided saving of labor in the long run When the soil is wet
enough not to require water it is too wet to tramp over and opera
tions should be suspended until the next afternoon But more im
VINELE55 TfTX
portant by far than water and resulting in a much greater per
centage of living slips is a bucket of
THICK MUD BATTEB
into which the ends of the draws are thrust before setting This
should never be omitted The batter should be kept so thick
that the ends of the draws will barely penetrate without snapping
off in this condition when withdrawn a gob of mud as thick asANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
263
a thumb will adhere Before this dries the slip will have started
rootlets and can shift for itself
CULTIVATION
should be maintained during the season on a level with a Planet Jr
cultivator if this is not obtainable by heel scrapes There is no
need for the hoe to touch the crop For the last plowing it may
VINELE55LA
be necessary to turn the vine This can be done with a light
stick turning rows right and left into alternate middles plowing
the exposed middles and then reversing
It results in no good to keep the vines from rooting in the
middle after laying by In a dry year it will prove a positive
loss
No benefit accrues from the practice of pinching back the
ends of the vines periodically to two feet or so At all times and
in all seasons this is injurious264
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
or is it advantageous to ridge up with the hoe except in
excessively wet seasons and these in Georgia are rare The
added cost is excessive and the increased yield even in wet summers
hardly sufficient to pay the cost of ridging Moreover it is obvious
that no one can foretell at the beginning of the cultivating whether
the season will be wet or dry Therefore it clearly follows that the
safest plan is to stick to level culture
The proper distance of slips in the row depends also upon the
TICOTEA
season Necessarily the wetter the summer the closer they can
bear crowding and inversely the dryer the season the farther apart
must they be placed within certain limits to secure the maximum
yield A good average distance is that already laid downeVhteen
inches
DIGGING
should be effected invariably during dry weather and as soon as the
tubers have reached maturity before they have an opportunity ofANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
265
commencing a second growth independently of frost Frost is
merely an indicator of arrested growth it performs no other func
tion Maturity
in the tuber may
generally be as
ce r ta i ned by
breaking it If
the sap oozes
freely it is of
course i m m a
ture experience
soon teaches bet
ter than precept
Of course many
varieties mature
early in the sea
son while others
are much later
Orleans Red or
NiggerChoker YELLOW YAM
is an instance of the first class Georgia Yam of the second
Where an early and a late variety are planted in the same field it
follows that the one
may be dug safely
weeks before the
other
As a general thing
the last week in Oc
tober if all conditions
are favorable is a
good time to dig in
Middle Georgia Too
much care cannot be
taken in handling the
potato when dug
Sunning while bene
ficial is not essential
SPANISH YAM but careful handling
266
DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
is It must also be remembered that tubers cut by the plow stepped
on by the mule or otherwise broken or bruised must be rigidly
excluded These mutilated potatoes will keep for a while and can
be used first of all or sold at a reduced figure and so be gotten rid
of for they will be the first to succumb to rot as the abraded sur
face furnishes a point of easy lodgment and ready penetration to
the mycelium of the potatorot fungus thereby causing rot among
BARBAPOES
the sound tubers which perhaps would otherwise have resisted
attack
PRESERVATION
This is the most important feature by far in potato raising Al
most every one can make potatoes Few succeed invariably in
keeping them through the winter but to these few they become a
source of great profit as sweet potatoes will usually bring double
the price in March or April that they sell for before Christmas
Many methods of potato keeping have been devised aud pracANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
267
ticedsome effective some ridiculous but after all is said perhaps
the ordinary method of hilling or banking is for the aver
age grower the safest and most economical No other method re
quires less previous outlay but care should be taken in banking to
observe the following precautions
1 The bank should be located under a cheap shed long enough
to accommodate the hills in a row wide enough to keep the rain
ORLEANS rtP
off and high enough at least at the rear to enable a man to move
about It should run east and west and be closed on the north
side Roughedge lumber may be used for side and cover
2 A flue made of sixinch stuff perforated with inch auger holes
on two sides should be used as a standpipe in the center of the
heap and the tubers arranged around it This in cold weather
should be stopped with a wisp of straw268
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
3 The hill should have a foundation of dry sand then a few
inches of dry pinestraw on which the potatoes are hilled from
thirty to forty bushels to the hill Covering should be of pine
straw several inches thick on which should be laid cornstalks to
form a framework to sustain the weight of the dirt on opening the
hill for a portion of its contents later in the season
4 Dry sand should A u
u l De Pied on the
stalks unti h dden t
so X from sight or nearly
5 After this 1
without further cov J V i
wpfl10 iKih enaS until freezing
weather is imminent V LyA uilon A
i r I en a coating of
several inches Ov I c K
Ei r A A 1U0re of any sort of
soilmay be V Hi L At i
added and im
mediately b
the mouth
a s previous
fore every freeze
the flue stopped
indicated Gen
BLACK SPANISH
erally by the first of December the potatoes will have thrown off
all surplus moisture through the flue or gone through their sweat
as it S termed and the flue may then be permanently stopped
without danger This cannot safely be done earlier and while
potatoes often keep perfectly well if banked up hermetically from
the beginning the flue method is unquestionably safer on the
average
When potato raising for market is undertaken as a business andANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 26
not as an incidental to general farming an equally safe and more
economical method though one requiring some special preparation
and a little outlay is recommended as worthy of more extensive
trial This method may be termed
THE BIN SYSTEM
and has been practiced for over eighteen years with uniform success
by Mr H J Dutton of Cobb county who draws from sweet po
tatoes his main income The system is briefly as follows
A close shed with an alley running through double doors at
either end of the alleyway
so vehicles may pass
through On either side
of the alleyway a bin eight
feet interior width and as
long as the alleyway or
shed the bin four feet
high and constructed of
double walls of inch and a
quarter plank the walls
fifteen inches wide between
the boards the iuterstitia
space filled with dry sand
This is the permanent
structure The potatoes
are banked in bulk cross
divisions however being
run for the purpose of pre RE NAN5EM0NP KANSAS
venting the possibility of rot in one portion of the bin extending to
the entire mass Dry pinestraw is placed on the bottom of the bin
which 1S on a level with the natural surface of the groundno ex
cavation The potatoes are piled carefully by hand in the bin
straw keeping them from touching the plank sides They are piled
nearly as high as the side walls of the bin and are heaped in the
center say two feet above the sides A horizontal cleat is tacked
on the sides of the bin just below the top of the side walls on the
inside to afford a resting place for a series of roofboards which
are made of 1x12 plank cut with a bevel at each end and about
270
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
four feet eight inches long One beveled end of each board rests
on the horizontal cleat of the side walls the other bevels make a
mitered joint in the center of the bin touching each other and form
ing solid and substantial though removable raftersor rather
rafters and roof in one After the potatoes are piled up in the
bins straw is placed several inches thick on top and the rafters
put in place as stated The bin is then left until cold weather sets
in the potatoes meanwhile going through their sweat On
permanently cold weather setting in several inches of dry sand are
placed on top of the
roof thus making the
bin airtight though
access can be easily
had at any time to
the interior by scrap
ing away a portion of
the sand and removing
a couple of the boards
The sand once hauled
and the roofboards
once cut only the
straw remains to be
annually renewed
thus reducing the
yearly cost almost to
the interest only on
REP NAN5EMONP LA
the plant A large
quantity of potatoes can thus be safely and economically stored
with reasonable assurance of immunity from rot
This method is being now tested at the Station and if the re
sults prove as favorable as their present promise a more detailed
description with full illustrations of the method will be published
Meautime the system is suggested as worthy of trial
Experiment LFERTILIZER TESTS
These cover the operations of two years For several years prior
to 1893 results had been quite consistent and it had gradually de
ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
271
veloped that probably the most effective fertilizer was a combina
tion of 320 lbs superphosphate 360 lbs cotton seed meal and
G40 lbs kainit1 This was adopted as the normal standard in the
scheme for 1893 and several variations were introduced differing
in quantity but slightly from this formula in order to approximate
if possible still closer the exact proportion of each ingredient
Fourteen different plats in duplicate composed the scheme cov
ering the greater portion of an acre which the previous year had
been in sorghum
The land was broken in March but lay untouched until the sec
ond week in June owing to the death of the former Horticulturist
At this late date the preparation was completed and the slips put
out in fourfoot rows two feet apart in the row on June 14th and
15th Not finding on hand a sufficient number of slips of any
one variety each plat of three rows had two rows set out in South
ern Queen and the middle row in Georgia Yam Twothirds of
the plat was thus in Southern Queen and onethird in Georgia Yam
As the latter is notoriously unproductive its use together with the
late date of planting reduced to a very moderate yield what would
otherwise have been owing to the seasonable weather and abundant
rains an unusually large crop
Notwithstanding the result as an experiment was quite con
sistent and most satisfactory
The following are the tabulated results
1 The chemicals used atlhe Station for compounding fertilizers will analyzeabout as follows
Acm Phosphate high grade 14 per cent of available phosphoric acid
Cotton Seed Meal 7 per cent of nitrogen
Nitrate of Soda 15 per cent of nitrogen
Muriate or Potash 50 per cent of potash
Kainit 12 pfir cent of potash272
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
TABLE I
Experiment 1Fertilizer Tests Sweet PotatoesPart I
Sec 5 Div P 1893
Plat
FERTILIZER
32C
36C
320
i
S
10
II
12
13
Unfertilized
320 lbs Superphosphate
360 lbs Cotton Seed Meal
320 lbs Kainit
320 lbs Superphosphate
I 360 lbs Cotton Seed Meal
i 640 lbs Kainit
I Normal
364 lbs Superphosphate
j 364 lbs Cotton Seed Meal
j 650 lbs Kainit
I Variation on Normal
f 364 lbs Superphosphate
j 338 lbs Cotton Seed Meal
1 650 lbs Kainit
I Variation on Normal
320 lbs Superphosphate
360 lbs Cotton Seed Meal
11280 lbs Kainit
320 lbs Superphosphate
360 lbs Cotton Seed Meal
80 lbs Muriate of Potash
320 lbs Superphosphate
360 lbs Cotton Seed Meal
160 lbs Muriate of Potash
f 364 lbs Superphosphate
j 364 lbs Cotton Seed Meal
156 lbs Muriate of Potash
I Variation on No 8
364 lbs Superphosphate
331 lbs Cotton Seed Meal
1 lo6 lbs Muriate of Potash
L Variation on No 8
320 lbs Superphosphate
j 360 lbs Cotton Seed Meal
I 320 lbs Muriate of Potash
320 lbs Superphosphate
160 lbs Nitrate of Soda
I 640 lbs Kainit
320 lbs Superphosphate
160 lbs Nitrate of Soda
160 lbs Muriate of Potash
Calculated Yield per Acre
in Bushels
Market
able
9576
21437
21663
21613
23351
21058
21894
20574
22262
267 93
19583
Small
3749
4862
5353
Total
133 25
26298
2701ft
47 96 264051
4475
4418
4547
4900
27828
2547ft
26441
25474r
3101 25363
20390 4469
4970
18904 I 4106
24865
25763
23010
4489 24072
Inspecting the foregoing table it is readily seen that all of the
fertilized plats the average of which is given in the tableall
being in duplicate show a decided increase over those unfertilized ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 273
and that while all of the combinations used were of great value
the normal plat No 3 320 lbs Superphosphate 360 lbs Cotton
Seed Meal and 640 lbs Kainit again asserted the superior merits
of this combination only one
other plat producing a greater
yield and that one a slight vari
ation only on the normalPlat
5 364 lbs Superphosphate 338
lbs Cotton Seed Meal and 650
lbs Kainit This variation was
therefore adopted as the normal
formula for the next years ex
periments
Half rations of Potash both in
the form of Kainit and Muriate
produced practically as good re
suits as whole rations the differ WH I NANSEMQNP
ence being very slight while double rations of Potash in either
form fell still farther behind apparently indicating that the limit
of availability in the use of Potash had been reached with one
ration or about 640 lbs of Kainit or 160 of Muriate of Potash
If the economical result is figured
the balance will fall on the side
of the half ration
The superiority of Cotton Seed
Meal over Nitrate of Soda as a
source of Nitrogen is very clearly
manifest due more to its gradual
and steady action through the
season than to the presence of the
slight amounts of Phosphoric
Acid and Potash in addition to
its Nitrogen which it contains
As a source of Potash Kainit
seems to be preferable to Muriate
in nearly every combination
JERSEY SWEET though the difference is not great
18 a
274
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
YELLOW JERSEY
In this connection it may be
stated that for all slow grow
ing crops Kaiuit seems to be
preferable to Muriate as a
source of Potash and Cotton
Seed Meal to Nitrate of Soda
as a source of Nitrogen
When immediate action is
desirable however the re
verse is the case
For the present season
1894 a rather more elabo
rate scheme was devised the
normal formula being
changed as stated from 320
lbs Superphosphate 360 lbs
Cotton Seed Meal and 640
lbs Kainit to 364 lbs Superphosphate 338 lbs Cotton Seed Meal
and 650 lbs Kainit The main purpose of the test however was to
contrast Florida Soft Phosphate unacidulated ground rock directly
with Superphosphate Acid Phosphate Consequently every
formula into which Acid Phosphate entered had its duplicate in
which equal weight of Soft
Phosphate replaced the Acid
Phosphate in the combination
The section consisted of one
acre which the previous year
had been in cow peas followed
by rye and which was rather
above the average soil of this
part of the State in quality
though not sufficiently sandy
for the best results with potatoes
The section was thoroughly
broken in midwinter several
harrowings being necessary to
put it in good condition on ac
ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 275
ount of the heavy growth of rye turned under when the land was
broken
Rows were four feet wide three rows to the plat Draws were
set out eighteen inches in the row commencing May 14th and
continuing for some days until completed Variety used was
Pumpkin Yarn The season was not a very propitious one at the
start too much dry weather in May followed by a phenomenally
cold wind on May 19th which froze the sap in many of the grow
ing slips thus necessitating replanting and materially retarding
those which survived The latter part of the season was all that
could be desired and a very good crop for clay land was har
vested The experiment however was not as satisfactory as it
might have proved had the loss of the 19th of May been avoidable
The following are the tabulated results
Experiment I
TABLE II
Fertilizer Tests Sweet PotatoesPart II
Sec 3 Div P 18941
Calculated Yield per Acre
in Bushels
Small
Total
10
Un
364
338
650
364
338
650
364
158
650
f 364
158
650
364
338
162
364
I 338
162
364
168
1162
364
158
162
364
338
325
fertilized
lbs Superphosphate
lbs Cotton Seed Meal
lbs Kainit
lbs Florida Soft Phosphate
lbs Cotton Seed Meal
lbs KainitJ
lbs Superphosphate
lbs Nitrate of Soda I
lbs Kainit J
lbs Fla Soft Phosphate
lbs Nitrate of Soda
lbs Kainit
lbs Superphosphate
lbs Cotton Seed Meal
lbs Muriate of Potash
lbs Fla Soft Phosphate
lbs Cotton Seed Meal
lbs Muriate of Potash
lbs Superphosphate
lbs Nitrate of Soda
lbs Muriate of Potash
lbs Fla Soft Phosphate
lbs Nitrate of Soda
lbs Muriate of Potash
lbs Superphosphate
lbs Cotton Seed Meal I
lbs KainitJ
1922
2549
3096
2877
2719
335
3161
3110
3315
3489
107
154
201
145
132
182
116
135
113
105
2029
2703
3297
3022
2851
3535
327 7
3245
3428
3594276
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
TABLE II Continued
Plat TTTTTJTTT JVW Calculated Yield per Acre in Bushels
Marketable Small Total
11 364 lbs Fla Soft Phosphate 338 lbs Cotton Seed Meal 325 lbs Kainit 3126 3277 3340 2997 2800 2M9 313 2 3129 3315 2672 2830 3274 2814 94 88 113 132 161 129 98 107 132 157 189 138 211 3220

1 158 lbs Nitrate of Soda 336 8153
13 1 325 lbs Kainit f 364 lbs Fla Soft Phosphate 158 lbs Nitrate of Soda 325 lbs Kainit
f 364 lbs Superphosphate
14 J 338 lbs Cotton Seed Mealj 312
81 lbs Muriate of Potash
364 lbs Fla Soft Phosphate
15 338 lbs Cotton Seed Meal 2961
81 lbs Muriate of Potash
I 364 lbs Superphosphate
16 158 lbs Nitrate of Soda 1 81 lbs Muriate of Potash 2978
17 364 lbs Fla Soft Phosphate 158 lbs Nitrate of Soda 3230
81 lbs Muriate of Potash
IS 676 lbs Cotton Seed Meal 323fr 3447
lit 162 lbs Muriate of Potash 364 lbs Fla Soft Phosphate 676 lbs Cotton Seed Meal 162 lbs Muriate of Potash

20 2829
21 f 364 lbs Fla Soft Phosphate 316 lbs Nitrate of Soda j 162 lbs Muriate of Potash 3019
22 338 lbs Cotton Seed Meal 162 lbs Muriate of Potash 3412
23 728 lbs Fla Soft Phosphate 338 lbs Cotton Seed Meal 162 lbs Muriate of Potash 3025
There is some contradiction in the foregoing table and the con
clusions to be drawn from it do not harmonize altogether with the
results of the experiments of previous years The normal formula
for instance does not assert its superiority as usual The largest
yield 3594 bushels was produced by a formula containing the
same amounts of Acid Phosphate and Cotton Seed Meal but only
half the quantity of Kainit As half rations of Potash have not1
ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
277
HAYMAW
been previously fully
tested it may be that on
the oak and hickory
lands of Middle Geor
gia where there is a
larger supply of Potash
than on the pine lauds
of South Georgia a full
ration of Potash either
in the form of Muriate
of Potash or Kainit
presents an over supply
This is not likely to be
the case however on
the sandy soil of the
lower portion of the
State
BIG STEM JERSEY278
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
BERMUPA REP
An investigation with reference to the main object of the test
the comparison of Florida Soft Phosphate with Acid Phosphate
forces the conclusion that they are about equally balanced in effects
with a slight preponderance if any in favor of Soft Phosphate
though this can only be accounted for by the assumption that the
potato is decidedly indifferent to either Six out of eleven plats
in which the two were pitted against each other in equal quantities
and combined in similar proportions with other elements result in
favor of Soft Phosphate An average of the plats on which Acid
Phosphate was used shows 3186 bushels per acre while an average
of the Soft Phosphate plats shows 320 bushels
Its extremely fine pulverization however renders it very dis
agreeable and inconvenient as well as expensive to handle andANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
279
reduces its practical
value to the farmer in
consequence More
over only one brand of
Phosphate has been
tested by the Station
so we are not prepared
to give Soft Phosphate
our indorsement with
out more extended trial
As in the experiments
for 1893 the results of
this season indicate a
preference for Kainit
compared with Muriate
as a source of Potash
and for Cotton Seed
Meal compared with
BRAZILIAN YAM
Nitrate of Soda as a source of Nitrogen
5PAJSI5H BUNCH280
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
Experiment IIRIDGE VS LEVEL CULTURE
Unquestionably results under this head depend upon the season
In a wet season or in
one with even a full
sufficiency of moisture
Ridging will be found
to pay even taking
into consideration the
extra cost of the hoe
work necessary In a
dry season or in one
with even a slight in
sufficiency of rain
Level Culture will be
found preferable The
experiments for 1893
and 1894 exactly re
verse each other
though carefully con
SOUTHERN QUEEN KANSAS ducted The follow
ing are the tables
TABLE III
Experiment Ridge vs Level CulturePart I
Sec 5 Dir P 1893
Plat
METHOD
Calculated Yield per Acre
in Bushels
Market
able
Small
Ridged 14 inches high
Level Culture
Total
Difference in favor of Ridging
221b3
18474
5092
5234
27175
2370
3507
Variety two rows Southern Queen one row Georgia Yam Fer
tilizer normal
The present season being very dry and unfavorable at the start
with a month or so of wet weather intervening and then dry again
during September almost precisely the reverse is noticeable ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
281
SOUTHERN QUEEN LA
TABLE IV
Experiment IIBidge vs Level CulturePart 11
Sec 3 Div P 18941
Plat METHOD Calculated Yield per Acre in Bushels
Marketable Small Total
1 Ridged 14 inches high 2257 2549 115 154 39 2372
Level Culture 2703

292 331
Variety used Pumpkin Yam Fertilizer normal
Experiment IIIPINCHING BACK TEST
Strangely enough the idea has become quite prevalent even
among certain practical potato growers that the periodical pinching
back of the vine to eighteen inches or two feet is conducive to the282
DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
more rapid growth and development of the tubers While con
trary to all recorded experience and founded on no scientific basis
REP NOSE
this impression has become so general as to warrant the attention
of the Station It is only covered however by one years experi
mentation the result of which is shown below
TABLE V
Experiment IIIPinching or Pruning Test
Sec 3 Div P 1894
Plat METHOD Calculated Yield in Bushels er Acre
Marketable Small Total
1 2 3 Undisturbed for check piat Pinched weekly to two feet through season Pinched weekly to two feet after Sept 1st 1957 851 378 56 198 123 2013 1049 501
Variety used Pumpkin Yam Fertilizer normal
The result of this experiment is definite and unmistakable but
nothing more than was expected since the function of the leavesANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
283
in extracting carbonic acid from the atmosphere is indispensable
By aid of this carbonic acid the various carbohydrates are formed
among them glucose dextrine and starch in which the potato is
rich Therefore the destruction of the leaves or any curtailment
or suspension of their functions must operate in diminishing both
the size and number of the tubers
The fact of Plat 3 upon which the vines were allowed to run
as usual up to September 1st at which date and weekly thereafter
EARLY GOLPEN
they were pinched back having recorded such a wretched yield is
probably due to the fact that the Pumpkin Yamthis variety hav
ing been used in the testis not an early potato and makes its
heaviest growth during the month of September The sudden
call upon the recuperative power of the vine following the severe
amputation then the first time made probably consumed the greater
portion of its vitality at that critical period of tuber making
whereas Plat 2 having been pinched weekly all the summer had284
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
by September 1st adapted itself to a certain extent to this treat
ment and the process of root growth went on more normally
Experiment IVDISTURBANCE TEST
In this experiment a plat of three rows was not suffered to root
along the vines at any period From the time the vines com
menced to run until harvesting the vines were loosened each week
NORTON
where they had rooted in order to test the assertion not quite so
unfounded as that made the subject of the foregoing experiment
that the result would increase the yield The experiment covers
a period of only one year but the result is emphaticit does not
pay to loosen the vinesANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
TABLE VI
Experiment IVDisturbance Test
285
Sec 3 Div P 1891
Plat METHOD Calculated Yield per Acre in Bushels
Marketable Small Total
1 Not allowed to root along vines 1481 2549 82 154 1563
2 Check plat normal treatment 2703
Difference in favor of normal treatment 106 8 72 114 0
Variety used Pumpkin Yarn Fertilizer normal
PEABOPY
Experiment VDISTANCE TEST
This covers a period of two years The experiment for 1893
only included three distances18 24 and 30 inches the fertilizer
being the normal formula The following is the table286
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
TENNESSEE YAM
TABLE VII
Experiment VDistance Test
Sec 5 Div P 1893
Plat
DISTANCE
Calculated Yield per Acre
in Bushels
Market
able
Small
Total
18 inches lft
24 inches 2 ft
30 inches 2 ft
20204
18474
17964
658
5234
5011
26702
23708
22975
This test was made with two rows Southern Queen aud one of
Geogia Yam in each plat and seeming sufficiently definite in favor
of eighteen inches over two feet this distance was adopted for the
entire crop of 1894 with very satisfactory results though the sea
son was much drier than that of 1893
The experiment for 1894 while more elaborate than that for
1893 and covering a greater range of distance was not sufficiently
definite in its results to warrant insertion and it is hence omittedANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
287
Experiment VIDOUBLING SLIPS
This experiment covers a period of only one year and was made
to ascertain if there was any value in the practice of planting two
slips or draws in a hill instead of one The result appears to indi
cate some advantage in it though the test is necessarily inconclu
sive It will be continued the next season merged however in
the Distance tests The following is the table
MR AS BURG
TABLE IX
Experiment VIDouble Sups
Sto 3 Div P 1894
Plat
METHOD AND DISTANCE
Calculated Yield per Acre
in Bushels
Market
able
Small
Total
1 11 slip at 18 inches
2 2 slips at 18 inches
3 11 slip at 9 inches
Variety Pumpkin Yam Fertilizer normal
1097
1560
1191
113
189
178
1210
1749
1369288 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
Experiment VII VARIETY TESTS
In grouping the different varieties of Sweet Potato we have fol
lowed at the Georgia Station the general custom of arrangement
with reference to the leaf in default of a better system Indeed
it can scarcely be called a system at all for the reason that the
same vine will sometimes hold half a dozen different shapes of leaf
and while a distinction appears to exist between the split leaf
varieties and all others it is by no means easy to determine with
SHANGHAI OR CALIFORNIA
some varieties whether the round or shouldered form of leaf
prevails Yet when we endeavor to classify by other forme of re
semblance as shape size color or quality of tuber we are met by
even worse incongruities and are forced to fall back on the leaf
classification clumsy and unsatisfactory as it is
Attempts have been made to erect in addition to the three forms
of leaf generally accepted to wit Split leaf Shouldered and
Round a fourth form Semislwiddered but the difficultiesANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
289
are too great in the way of its adoption and hence the regular
division into Split Leafed Shouldered and Round must
suffice
According to this division the varieties tested were as follows
Split Leafed Georgia Yam Ticotea Yellow Yam Spanish
Yam Barbadoes Vineless Tex Orleans Red Black Spanish
Shouldered Red Nansemond Kansas Red Nansemond
Louisiana Jersey Sweet Yellow Jersey Yellow Nansemond
Bermuda Red Hayman Big Stem Jersey Brazilian Yam Spanish
PUMPKIN YAM
Bunch Southern Queen Kansas Southern Queen Louisiana
Red Nose Early Golden Norton Peabody Tennessee Yam
Strasburg
Rousd Leafed Shanghai or California Pumpkin Yam
Boones White Boones Red White St Domingo Heckler Yam
Two other varieties were added Vineless from Louisiana and
Bunch Yam from Alabama for the purpose of determining their
probable identity but the error of a workman mixed the two plats
after digging and before weighing and thus the comparison was
lost The section was prepared at same time and in same manner
19 a290
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
as the Fertilizer Sectionfertilizer normal that is at the rate of
364 lbs Superphosphate 338 lbs of Cotton Seed Meal 650 lbs
Kainit to the acre The section was planted May 1418 and dug
October 2324 Beneath is a table of the calculated yield per acre
in order of productiveness
TABLE X
Experiment V1LVariety Test of Sweet Potatoes
Sec 7 Dv P 1894
VARIETY
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
It
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
2G
27
28
29
30
31
32
White St Domingo
Shanghai or California
Boones White
Hayman
Early Golden
Tennessee Yam
Boones Red
Norton
Peabody
Red Nose
Red Nansemond La
Southern Queen La
Black Spanish
Red Nansemond Kan
Bermuda Red
Orleans Red Choker
Southern Queen Kan
White Nansemond
Brazilian Yam
Big Stem Jersey
Yellow Yam
Yellow Jersey
Ticotea
Pumpkin Yam
Heckler Yam
Yineless Tex
Yellow Nansemond
Jersey Sweet
Spanish Yam
Spanish Bunch
Barbadoes
Georgia Yam
Strasburg
Calculated Yield per Acre
in Bushels
Market
able
3394
327 1
3120
3139
2448
2315
246 7
2099
2118
1824
2042
2004
2042
1626
1758
203 0
1522
1304
1711
1512
156 9
1049
1172
1607
1286
1446
115 3
1189
1380
1304
907
860
S32
Small
Total
425
472
321
264
643
699
302
435
378
586
32 1
340
246
652
510
22 7
614
784
321
491
340
860
71 8
282
454
29 3
567
454
208
264
37 8
321
198
3819
3743
344 1
3403
3091
3015
2769
2534
2496
2410
2363
2344
2288
22 7 S
2268
2257
2136
2088
2032
2003
1909
1909
189 0
1889
1740
1739
1720
1643
1588
1568
1285
1181
1030
A glance at the above table shows that the Split Leaf vari
eties are among the most unproductive standing 32 31 29 26
23 2116 and 13 respectively on the list They are also gener
ally characterized by bright yellow flesh when cooked finenessANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
291
of fiber and delicacy of flavor They are also as a rule excellent
keepers
The heaviest yielders are generally those whose chief character
istics are unusual size and shape coarse flavorless white flesh
want of saccharine matter and general insipidity An exception
appears to be the Tennessee Yam which stands sixth on the list in
point of productiveness and yet it is a smooth shapely pretty
tuber with bright yellow flesh and in quality almost if not quite
up to the Georgia Yam the standard of quality which it resem
B0ONE5 WHITE
bles in all respects except that it is larger in size has a shouldered
not a split leaf and outyields the Georgia Yam three to one Prof
Price of the Texas Station reports this variety as splitleafed
or lobed If this is the case we have different potatoes under
the same name
The Jersey Strain under which head may be classed most of
the mealy varieties as the different Jerseys and Nansernonds292 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
appears about the middle of the list in productiveness Notwith
standing the fact that Henry Grady used to refer to all potatoes of
this type as New Jersey Punk they are quite agreeable to some
palates even at the South and are the only kind finding a ready
sale in the Northern markets on account of their dry mealy
character
Below is given a brief detailed description of each variety clas
sified by leaf
BOONE5 RFP
1 SPLIT LEAFED
Geokgia Yam Foliage pale green vines light Tubers small
to medium oblong pointed average weight 87 of a pound
color of skin yellow color of cooked flesh bright yellow quality
Outlines of Leaves as shown throughout the Bulletin are twothirds natural
sizeANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
293
estdelicate sweet sugary and delicious Improves on keeping
and slips its jacket readily A good keeper and the standard for
quality at the South but unfortunately a very light producer Late
Vineless Foliage dark green leaf very large for a split
leafed variety Vines vigorous but short Tuber small to me
dium oblong weight 104 color skiu yellowish white color
flesh whitish yellowcoarse fiber taste immature rather poor
cooks hard and harsh Very light yielder Early
WHITE 5TPOMINQO
Ticotea Foliage rather light green not very heavy vines
Tuber very large round and irregular weight 369 an irregular
grower making in places a large number of small tubers in the
row and then averaging quite large ones for some distance color
skin light buff color flesh pure white quality mealy granular
flavorlesssomewhat similar in taste to a mealy Irish potato
poorest in quality of all Light yielder
Yellow Yam Foliage dark green vine moderately vigorous
Tuber small to medium oval weight 118 color skin whitish294
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
yellow color flesh bright yellowsmooth fiber quality excellent
sweet and delicate Rather light yielder Medium early
Spanish Yam Pale green foliage rather light vine Tuber
small to medium round weighl 127 color skin yellow color
flesh rich golden yellow rather delicate hut slightly insipid in
quality Very light producer Late
Barbadoes Foliage pale green vine light Tuber small to
medium round weight 109 color skin yellowish white rich
bright yellow flesh with smooth fiber quality rich delicate and
deliciousalmost as good as
Georgia Yam Very light
yielder Late
Orleans Red Syn t
Nigger Choker Foliage dark
green sagitate vines red and
very light leaves thin and
scattering very long and
slightly indented Tuber
small long and twisted
weight 88 dark purple or
lake colored skin yellowish
gray flesh quality poor dry
and choking though sac
charine Very early and only
a moderate producer
HECKLER YAM t
Black Spanish Vine and foliage almost identical with
Orleans Red Tuber medium long and crooked weight 157
skin dark purple or lake in color flesh whitish gray insipid dry
mealy and choking Moderate producer Early
2 SHOULDERED
Red Nansemond Kansas Foliage pale green vines mod
erately vigorous Tuber medium ovoid weight 147 skin red
or dull pink flesh dull whitish yellow gummy quality harsh
and dry but rather agreeable has the regular Nansemond or Jer
sey flavor and is rather better than same variety from Louisiana
Moderate yielder Late
ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
295
Red Nansemond Louisiana Foliage and growth similar to
Red Nansemond from Kansas Size medium shape ovoid
weight 178 color skiu red or deep pink flesh clear whitish
yellow quality rather harsh but nice Fair producer Late
White Nansemond Foliage light green vine moderately
vigorous Tuber small long weight 80 rich yellow skin
whitish yellow flesh quality dry but delicate sweet and good
Moderate yielder Late
Jersey Sweet Foliage small and light green vine mod
erately vigorous Tuber small to medium ovoid or oblong
weight 108 rich yellow skin dull yellow flesh quality dry
fibrous and tasteless though with the regular Jersey or Nane
mond flavor relished by some Late Poor yielder Very uni
form in size however and worthy of further trial
Yellow Jersey Foliage pale green rather light vine
Tuber small oblong pointed weight 73 rich yellow skin
bright yellow flesh quality gummy and tasteless Poor producer
Medium early
Yellow Nansemond Foliage deep green vines light Tu
ber small long pointed weight 66 color skin rich yellow
color of flesh grayish yellow quality dry hard but sweet and
good Medium early Poor yielder
Bermuda Red Foliage pale green vines vigorous Tuber
very large round and irregular weight 430 color skin deep
pink or light purple color of flesh bright yellow quality very
dry though smooth in fiber and rather delicate but wanting in
flavor Late Produces only moderately
Hayman Light green foliage vigorous vine Tuber quite
large top shape fluted like a poplar root weight 291 creamy
yellow skin flesh deep yellow fibrous very stringy but rather
soft and delicate in quality well flavored and sweet Late
Heavy yielderfourth on the list
Big Stem Jersey Foliage pale green vines vigorous Tu
ber small long weight 87 rich yellow skin flesh dull yellow
quality hard dry and gummy Medium early Moderately pro
ductive
Brazilian Yam Foliage reddish at first afterwards deep
green leaves heavily shouldered almost sagitate vines reddish296
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
vigorous Tubers very large topshape ribbed or fluted weight
315 color skiu purple or deep pink color flesh dull yellowish
white quality gummy and choking but well flavored Mod
erately productive
Spanish Bunch Foliage dark green vines moderately vig
orous Tuber medium to large round weight 207 yellowish
white skin greenish yellow flesh of fairly good qualityslightly
granular Medium early Very poor producer
Southern Queen Kansas Foliage deep green vines quite
vigorous Tuber quite large both round and ovoid weight 278
color skin white color flesh grayish white quality very poor
stringy and fibrous Eather early and moderately productive
Southern Queen Louisiana Foliage and growth similar
to that of the Kansas varietyso also shape weight 116 color
skiu white color flesh grayish yellow quality coarse fibrous
and tasteless Better yielder than Kansas variety
Red Nose Foliage pale green vine vigorous Tuber me
dium long weight 134 skin rich yellow or cream color flesh
dull yellow Dry but rather delicate aud of pleasant flavor Me
dium early Quite productive
Early Golden Foliage pale green vine moderate grower
Tuber medium to large ovoid and roundedpointed weight
194 color skin white color flesh bright yellow dry but of
fairly good flavor Medium in season Very productivestands
fifth on the list
Norton Foliage pale green vine vigorous Tuber large
irregular in shape weight 228 white skin dull yellow flesh
fibrous and coarse grained quality dry and poor Late Quite
productive but rots more readily than any other variety
Peabody Foliage pale green vines very vigorous Tuber
medium to large ovoid weight 160 color skin light purple
color flesh clear yellow quality soft smooth rather delicate but
insipid not sweet enough Late Quite productive
Tennessee Yam Deep green foliage vine vigorous Tuber
medium to large oblong weight 236 yellowish white skin
flesh bright yellowsmooth fiberslips skin readily saccharine
Quality excellent sweet rich delicate aud well flavoreda goodANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
297
second to Georgia Yam Surpasses it in yield however three to
one Late
Strasisueg Foliage deep green vine vigorous Tuber large
roundish weight 197 color skin yellowish white color flesh
yellowish whiteglutinous gummy and hard with a pleasant
though not pronounced flavor Late Least productive of all
3 ROUND
Shanghai or California Foliage pale green vines vig
orous Tuber immense ovoid weight 459 color skin yellow
ish white color flesh grayish yellow quality rather coarse and
gummy but saccharine not badly flavored Late Very pro
ductivesecond on the list
Pumpkin Yam Foliage deep green very vigorous and sappy
Tuber large oblongsometimes rounded and irregular weight
246 color skin creamy pink flesh pumpkin red quality excel
lentrich and sugary with slight pumpkin flavor not relished
by some Improves with keeping Late Productivemore so
normally than the present test would indicate
Boones White Foliage deep green vine vigorous Tuber
large top shape and rounded weight 250 skin yellowish white
flesh whitish yellow with a peculiar greenish tint fibrous and
tasteless though moderately saccharine Late Heavy yielder
Ranks third on the list
Boones Red Leaves deep green or olive with purple veins
vines purple and very vigorous Tuber very large and solid
round or ovoid smooth weight 333 color skin deep lake or
purple color flesh bright yellow smooth dry and pleasant with
pronounced Jersey flavor Medium early Quite productive
though not as much so as Boones White
White St Domingo Foliage large light green vine vig
orous and very sappy Tuber large roundish weight 161 color
skin white color flesh pale yellow quality dry and tasteless
Early Extremely productive standing first on the list
Heckler Yam Foliage small and light green vine rather
weak grower Tuber medium oblong weight 136 color skin
rich yellow color flesh dull buffcoarse grained dry mealy and
choking like Orleans Red Very poor Late and unproductive298
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
Bulletin issued by Florida Experiment Station
But mhich will apply equally well to South Georgia
CAKE SYRUP SUGAR
THE CROP
Sugarcane is more restricted in habitat by climatic condition
than is the case with most farm crops Of East Indian origin it
can be made to thrive only in tropical or semitropical latitudes
ami the two predominating essentials of its growth are warmth and
moisture Its successful cultivation however widely distributed
over the earth has never been carried beyond certain welldefined
limits of variation A mean average temperature of 70 degrees
and a minimum annual rainfall of about 60 inches are essential to
the normal development and satisfactory cultivation of the crop
Both of these requisites are furnished by nearly all parts of the
Florida peninsula The mean annual rainfall for the latitude of
Lake City is 5586 inches and the mean annual temperature is
687S degrees
As Louisiana is recognized as the chief sugarproducing State of
the Union it is interesting and important that a comparison of the
climatic conditions prevailing there be made with those belonging
to our own State This comparison shows that our average annual
rainfall exceeds that of Louisiana that our mean temperature is
higher and that the period of immunity from frosts is longer It
is moreover an accepted fact that ideal weather conditions for cane
developing demand that about 75 per cent of the total rainfall
should be during the growing season This ideal rainfall is 45
inches It is interesting to note that the rainfall of Louisiana for
this period averages 5474 inches while that in Florida is 4358
The adaptation of the climate of Florida to the normal develop
ment and therefore successful production of the crop is estab
lishedANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 299
SOIL CONDITIONS
As might be inferred from the origin of the plant abundance of
moisture and of organic matter are essential conditions in all soils
upon which sugarcane is to be successfully grown Alluvial bot
tom lands and muck soils are preeminently adapted to the require
ments of the crop It must be particularly specified however that
wherever muck soils or bottom lands are utilized for cane growing
thorough drainage is an absolute and indispensable prerequisite to
success since although large quantities of water are needed by so
rankgrowing and foliaceous a plant excess of moisture at its roots
is almost certain destruction There are pine and high hammock
lands in our State which though producing lighter yields of cane
possess a material advantage for its production The cane of the
pine lands is higher in its sugar content and also possesses greater
immunity from frost
PREPARATION OF THE LAND
The first essential toward proper preparation of the land for the
growing of cane is thorough breaking or plowing to the depth of
the arable soil and this is true irrespective of the character of the
soil in question The manner of plowing however must vary
with the nature of the land which fact is also true as to the time
of plowing Bottom lands shoidd be plowed as soon as possible
after the crop has been removed in the fall that the action of the
atmosphere upon the soil for the longest possible period may be
secured Lighter upland soils however need not necessarily be
plowed until the time approaches for actually putting in the crop
Heavier and moister soils must be plowed with particular reference
to winter drainage which is best secured by throwing the soil into
beds about six feet wide the middles of which should be broken
out with a turn plow and the quarter drains cleared sufficiently
deep to assure drainage for the surplus water With upland soils
this precaution is not necessary but simple plowing with a turn
plow to the depth of the arable soil is all that is needed The next
consideration previous to actual planting of the cane is that of sup
plying the plant food necessary for its growth300 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
FERTILTZIXG THE CROP
Cane is a particularly rankgrowing plant and demands liberal
feeding for the most satisfactory results Comparisons of the
composition of cane grown upon upland and bottom soils how
ever abundantly demonstrate that the unquestioned adaptation of
the crop to lower lands results as much from the necessity of
abundant water supply for this foliaeeous crop as upon the demands
of the same for any particular form or quantity of nutriment In
deed the very best results in cane growing have been secured on
upland soils where the demands for moisture were artificially sup
plied by irrigation Observation of the conditions under which
cane best thrives supported by practical experience in all success
ful canegrowing countries and by the experiments conducted upon
the plantfood requirements of this crop demonstrate that nitrogen
preferably from organic sources is the predominating or chief
plantfood requirement to be considered in artificially fertilizing
sugarcane The success of the common practice of cow
penning for this crop upon the light Florida soils and of turning
under heavy crops of cowpeas upon the cane lands of Louisiana
give indisputable evidence of the truth of this assertion The most
satisfactory results of sugarcane culture however demand atten
tion to the other two plantfood ingredients phosphoric acid and
potash the latter particularly having a material influence and bene
ficial effect upon the sugar content of cane If artificial fertilizers
therefore are to be used they should provide the three essentials
phosphoric acid nitrogen and potashand experience shows that
the relative proportions of supply under average normal conditions
should be approximately one part of phosphoric acid to three parts
of nitrogen and two parts of potash The quantity of the appli
cation must depend upon the fertility or previous crop of the soil
and if leguminous crops have been grown and turned under on the
same onehalf of the nitrogen may be omitted from older lands
while newer soils would probably require no other nitrogen than
the turning under of good crops of cowpeas or velvet beans The
time for applying fertilizers must necessarily depend upon localitv
Much sugarcane particularly in the State of Louisiana is plantedANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
301
in the fall in which event a part of the fertilizer may advan
tageously be applied at that time Under prevailing Florida con
ditions the bulk of the crop is and doubtless should be planted in
the spring
Acid phosphate cottonseed meal and muriate of potash are the
most economical and effective forms of supply of plantfood for
cane and these materials are best applied immediately preceding
actual planting of the cane The best method of application is
strewing in the furrow and mixing with the soil with a single trip
of a scooter by which means the fertilizer will be near enough to
the seed cane to supply the immediate demands of the young plant
and yet will be sufficiently diluted by incorporation with the fur
row soil to avoid the danger of killing the buds or tender rootlets
PLANTING CANE
As a rule February and March may be accepted as the cane
planting months for our State The variety of cane which shall
be selected is also open to little question experience having abun
dantly demonstrated that of the many varieties tested red cane
from its sweetness and hardiness stands incontestably at the front
though for syrupmaking the softer and less hardy green cane is
not without advocates while for the purpose to which all children
and many adults naturally prefer to devote the plant its softness
and the ease of mastication give it first place The distance of
planting is an allimportant consideration which experience and
experiment have proved is of vital significance in controlling re
sults The general principle may be stated that the nearer the
rows the greater the yield The cost of seed however is a modify
ing influence which would effectually control practice Xarrow
ing the rows beyond the fivefeet limit does not compensate in ad
ditional yield for the expense of the increase of seed It may be
accepted therefore that the most profitable distance for cane rows
is five to six feet the former distance having preference The
amount of seed cane which shall be used is likewise of material in
fluence upon the economy of practice one row two rows and
three rows of seed canes in the furrow each having advocates302
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
Two rows of seed cane laid parallel and without intervals between
their ends may be accepted as productive of best results upon
moderately fertile soils The canes for planting should not be
tipped but should be used as long as possible without being cut ex
cept where their crooked character necessitates cutting to facili
tate covering with a plow and continuity of row In this connec
tion it is well to recall the fact that the upper third of the cane
stalk which is least desirable for either sugar or syrup is really the
best part of the cane for seed and might with advantage be saved
for this purpose A shovel plow turning a furrow four or five
inches deep is the best means of preparation for the seed cane
which when laid in the furrow is easily covered with a double
trip of the turn plow
Though stubble cane may be used for seed the result is so infe
rior that the practice should only be a last resort in event of acci
dent or dearth of supply of seed cane
CULTIVATION
The depth and frequency of cultivation will largely control re
sults To effect the desired end the plow should be rigorously dis
carded and be exclusively supplemented by the use of some form of
tooth cultivator Two advantages are secured by this change in
implement economy through the increased area which can be
worked by a single implement and conserving moisture at the time
it is indispensable to the proper development of the crop The
twohorse cultivator is preferable where large areas are involved
though the onehorse implement will easily and thoroughly work
five acres of cane per day which is fully double the amount pos
sible from the most successful use of plows When the marked
difference in the amount of available moisture secured to the crop
by the two methods of cultivation is considered the experience of
Dr Stubbs of the Louisiana Station on which he bases the asser
tion that it is almost impossible to estimate correctly the annual
damage to the cane crop of this State by the use of turn plows in its
cultivation seems entirely reasonable The frequency of culti
vation must depend upon the season The rule however shouldANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 303
be to keep the surface soil thoroughly pulverized and friable and
cultivate as often as it becomes compacted at the surface
In June or July the suckering should be finished and the growth
so far advanced and the ground so shaded that further cultivation
is imnecessary and the crop may be laid by
HARVESTING
On small plantations or with small areas which is the condition
which this Bulletin is chiefly intended to meet the actual harvest
ing of the crop should be preceded by stripping the stalks some two
weeks before grinding is to begin This practice has two advan
tages First ripening of the cane and consequent storing up of
sugar is furthered Second as the leaves must inevitably be re
moved before the cane can be ground by performing the labor at
this time economy is effected by reducing the amount of labor
actually required at the time of harvest It is even problematical
if this practice would not be best under all circumstances though
on large plantations stripping of the cane is performed by means of
the cane knife at the time the stalk is actually cut
THE PRESERVATION OF SEED CANE
For the Spring planting advised seed cane must be kept over
Winter This may be easily done by throwing two or more rows
together on the ground so that the foliage of one plant covers the
stalk of the other and protects it The earth is then turned toward
the row on both sides by a plow and the covering completed by hoe
Care must be taken to provide for drainage and on wet soils the
seed cane is best removed to the driest available place The green
tips too low in sweetness for other use make superior seed and
should be preserved for the purpose
EFFECT OF TIME OF HARVEST UPON YIELD OF SUGAR
We come now to the consideration of a most important point
indeed one on which the entire success of canegrowing may not
infrequently depend It is a universally recognized fact that the
longer the period of growth or time during which the cane maySOI DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
be allowed to stand in the field that is up to the time of actual
freezing weather which shall convert sucrose into glucose the bet
ter In this connection therefore it is well to suggest that the
cane need not necessarily be taken to the mill and crushed at the
time of cutting but that it may be allowed to remain standing as
long as serious danger from frost will permit and then be cut and
windrowed in the same way that seed cane is preserved in which
condition it may be kept intact and uninjured long after frost oc
curs and from the windrow be removed to the mill and worked up
at leisure
As bearing upon the point of the effect of longer standing and
continued ripening upon the siigar content an experiment was
made with three varieties of cane at hand stalks being cut and
polarized for sugar at tenday intervals with the following results
Nov 20 Nov 30 Dec 10
Red cane1422 1534 1560
Green cane1010 1141 1515
Ribbon cane 1034 12 36
Comparison of these figures shows that an increase of ten days
in the period of growth is followed by an increase of 12 per cent
and an increase of twenty days in the period of growth results hi
an average increase of 43 per cent in sugar contentthe differ
ence between a possible losing crop and an extremely profitable
one so that the inevitable conclusion is that with the precautions
against frosts suggested cane should be left standing growing and
ripening as long as possible and that for our latitude December
10 is a reasonably safe and the most profitable time for beginning
the harvest
Not only is this fact of vital importance as controlling our own
practice but it sheds great light upon the question of the relative
adaptation of our State to the successful and profitable production
of sugarcane as compared with the prevailing conditions in Louisi
ana the recognized sugarproducing center of the country In
that State conditions are such that most sugar planters actually be
gin harvesting their crop in October while Dr Stubbs in a land
able endeavor to extend the period of ripening and thus increase
the sugar yield advises that Nov 1st would seem from experienceANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
305
to be the best time to begin the harvest There would seem
however to be no question that a period of growth five to six
weeks longer than that advised for Louisiana is available to the
cane grower of Florida even in the latitude of Lake City and
Jacksonville which localities however are far north of the actual
center of probable profitable cane production in Florida In fur
ther support of this assertion I refer to the weather statistics cover
ing a period of ten years of observation at the Louisiana Sugar
Experiment Station whereby it appears that during five years of
the ten included injurious frosts have appeared there during the
month of Xovember while the records of the United States
Weather Service Station at Jacksonville covering a period of
twenty years show no occurrence of killing frosts during this
month the average lowest temperature of which for this period
is 541 degrees1
When it is further remembered that the data for Louisiana are
from the State Sugar Experiment Station the location of which
is in the very center and presumably the most favored portion of
the State for cane development while those for Florida are from
Jacksonville a locality on the very northern confines of the cane
producing portion of Florida and more than 100 miles north of
the real cane area of the State south of which there is an enormous
extent of cane lands below the 28th parallel and recognized as
practically below the frost line there can be no question that Flori
da possesses advantages for cane growing and sugar producing pos
sesses by no other State in the Union
II SYRUP
THE REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD SYRUP
Before proceeding to the particular consideration of the experi
ments undertaken in the making of syrup it is essential that the
characteristics of such syrup as is found in the market be under
stood and that the properties of the syrup that is desired or that
secures most ready sale be compared with the same that the neces
1 The average date of the first frost at Jacksonville is Dec 4
20a306 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
sity for change or improvement and the objects of the same may be
noted
The first essential in any article to be placed upon the market
is that it possess a stable or fixed character composition or quality
without which the uncertainty attendant upon its purchase or use
is so great as to materially diminish the demand for the same if not
to actually ruin its commercial value
The highest grade of syrup must have a density or thickness so
regular or constant that variations are not detected by superficial
or ordinary physical means and which if tested by a saceharometer
shows a density of approximately 33 degrees Beaume In color
it must be entirely devoid of any tinge of green be distinctly am
ber clear and with a perceptibly reddish tint It should not crys
tallize and should be so permanent in composition as to not readily
undergo fermentation
OBSTACLES
That so little syrup possessing the properties here described i
actually on the market is selfevident proof of the fact that obsta
cles to the attainment of the desired results exist to such a degree
as to have been thus far insurmountable in practice Yet syrup
With the characteristics described does actually exist and whenever
found commands a ready premium which fact is sufficient incen
tive toward further striving to an end so unquestionably desirable
Among the causes conducive to the present condition of Florida
syrup may be mentioned as of importance and demanding special
consideration the effects of different soils upon the character of
the cane produced the effects of varying conditions of climate and
season and the fact that practical and efficient means for control
ling results affecting the stability have heretofore been inaccessible
VARIATIONS IN DENSITY OR THICKNESS OF SYRUP
It is a thoroughly accepted fact that syrup varies so greatlv and
constantly in density or thickness as to destroy its character as a
stable market commodity It was not expected that changes or
modifications in method which might be suggested would necesANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
307
warily result in the production of syrup superior to any heretofore
known the object being rather to devise such means of control as
would result in constancy of composition whereby all syrup pro
duced by any individual maker would be the same It is true that
most syrup boilers claim that the product produced by them is al
ways constant Consumers however are well aware of the fact
that a barrel of syrup obtained from any individual grower of cane
today may be wholly unlike that engaged for delivery tomorrow
and that the product of one farm may be as unlike that from a
neighboring place as molasses is unlike honey
To demonstrate the fact that the most skillful sugar boiler could
not judge of the thickness of his product sufficiently accurately to
make two consecutive runs of syrup identical in density when
brought to the test of the saccharometer the best available sugar
boiler a man with long experience who had made syrup annually
on the Station farm for eleven years was put to the test of com
paring his judgment or opinion of the proper density of syrup with
the actual test of the Beaume saccharometer He was cautioned
to make no drawing until to the very best of his judgment the
syrup was ready and that each drawing was to be subjected to a
scientific test to determine the degree of his accuracy He was
therefore placed on his guard with every incentive to care de
liberation and the best possible action Different drawings of
syrup each of which was to the best of his judgment perfect and
in his opinion of the same density as the preceding drawing were
taken and tested with the following results expressed in readings
of the Beaume scale 348 33 335 315 37 325 335 32 335
34 33 342 It thus appears that instead of being as he and most
other syrup boilers would affirm constant in composition that no
two consecutive drawings of syrup were alike in density and that
the variations extended under every possible precaution from 32
to 37 a maximum variation of five degrees It must be borne in
mind in this connection that 33 degrees Beaume is the accepted
proper consistency density or thickness for cane syrup and that in
the most skillful hands when personal judgment is depended on va
riations of five degrees are possible and that in the hands of care308
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
less or unskilled makers the variation must be even greater The
variation in the thickness is demonstrated and the desirability in
deed indispensability of a feasible means for securing evenness or
constancy of quality is established
Recognizing that some simple means for ascertaining the thick
ness of syrup was the first essential toward securing stability of
product and further that the means utilized in the laboratory
was wholly impracticable for common farm use much time and
experimental testing was given to this phase of the subject in the
hope of devising a simple easily available cheap and nondestructi
ble method for determining the density of syrup with scientific
accuracy so that the maker could be assured that every drawing
would be exactly like every other drawing and that the product
should be stable and to be depended on
The thickness of a syrup depends upon its density and density
is controlled by specific gravity or relative weight The thicker
or more dense a fluid is the less deep will a given solid substance
sink therein because the greater the density of the fluid the
greater its supporting power or buoyancy The more salt for in
stance which may be present in water the greater is the floating
power of that water The same fact is true of solutions of sugar
The more sugar present and consequently the less water in a given
sugar solution or syrup the greater is the supporting or floating
power of that syrup This is the principle on which saccharome
ters and other specific gravity or density tests are based and it is
this principle which was utilized as the basis for a simple appara
tus devised to meet the requirements of the case and which is illus
trated in Fig 1 It consists of any common bottle which will hold
a pint or more of syrup a pint beer bottle admirably answering
the purpose In the syrup with which this bottle is to be filled a
stick is made to float having first been so weighted at one end with
lead that it stands upright in the liquid instead of lying down or
resting against the sides of the bottle This is essentially a specific
gravity tube or Beaume saccharometer the only difference being
that the latter instrument consists of a hollow glass tube with a
graduated scale at the bottom of which mercury is introduced as
counterpoise for securing uprightness and equilibriumANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
MAKING A SIMPLE TESTER
309
The abovementioned apparatus see Fig 1 may be constructed
as follows Take any ordinary glass bottle of a capacity not less

6
Fig 1A A point indicating proper density of syrup
than one pint Take a straight dry thoroughlyseasoned hard
wood stick about onequarter of an inch in diameter and from
I310
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
twelve to fifteen inches long Fill the bottle with syrup Roll ft
narrow piece of sheet lead around one end of the stick or intro
duce a few shot into a hollow in the bottom of the same Drop
the stick into the bottle filled with syrup and increase or decrease
the amount of lead used until the stick floats upright in the syrup
with at least two inches of space between its lower end and the
bottom of the bottle The apparatus is now complete except for
supplying its scale or gauge To do this make a run of syrup
carefully and continue the boiling until by cooling a small quantity
you are positive that it has attained the degree of thickness that is
perfectly satisfactory and which you are willing to accept as a
sample or standard for your entire product Then fill the bottle
with this syrup while boiling drop the weighted stick into the
syrup and let it settle carefully until it has reached equilibrium
Mark the place upon the stick at the line reached by the surface of
the syrup preferably by cutting a notch therein or by a black
thread tied about the stick The apparatus is now completed and
is ready for use Test every drawing of syrup or different draw
ings sufficiently often to give a fair sample of the whole continu
ing the boiling until our improvised saccharometer or syrup
tester sinks into the syrup to the mark or notch made By this
means every sample of syrup drawn or thus tested will be of the
same density or thickness as the original sample used as a standard
and there will be no variation in quality so far as density is con
cerned but the entire output will be uniform with scientific exact
ness
EFFECTS OF VARIETY
Among the factors or conditions modifying the composition and
quality of the syrup the variety of cane used exerts great influence
Two varieties only are sufficiently well known and commendable
to demand consideration in this connection A few facts con
cerning their relative characteristics however seem to be impor
tant as furnishing assistance toward governing their selection
These varieties aie the common red cane and the green cane The
former is unquestionably much the more hardy and is thereforeANNUAL PUBLICATION iOR 1898
311
preferable for more northern localities It moreover possesses
the advantage of ripening earlier This latter fact is well demon
strated by the analyses made of our own crop this year Moreover
the red cane contains considerably more sugar than the green but
at the same time because of the greater amount of coloring matter
present in the stalk gives a darker colored syrup The average su
gar content of the red cane tested at four different periods of ripen
ing the present season was 1185 per cent while the green cane
showed but 1194 per centa difference of 291 per cent in favor
of the red cane The first test of the red cane during the season on
Xovember 20th showed 1422 per cent of sugar while the green
cane on the same date contained but 1010 per cent a difference
of 412 per cent in favor of the red cane At the end of the sea
son however the last test made December 10th showed the red
cane to contain 1560 per cent and the green cane 1515 per cent
a difference of but 45 per cent in favor of the red cane These
facts demonstrate that for small areas and the manufacture of
syrup in moderate quantities where the full period of ripening can
be allowed the green cane is preferable inasmuch as the slightly
greater degree of sweetness attained by the red cane does not com
pensate for the darker color of the syrup produced On large
areas however where sugar content hardiness and early ripening
are essential the red cane stands preeminent
THE EFFECTS OF SOIL UPON QUALITY
It is an accepted fact that quality and texture of soil materially
influence the character of the syrup produced this being particu
larly true of the effect of the heavier quality of soils and also of
certain organic constituents sometimes applied as fertilizers which
result in imparting an undesirable flavor to the product The
only fact in this connection however which seems worthy of con
sideration here is the influence of soil upon sugar content
Our analyses show an average of 1660 per cent of sugar in up
land cane and 1499 per cent in bottom cane a difference of 161
per cent in favor of the upland product It should however be
remembered that this decrease in sugar content in the cane grown312
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
upon bottom lands is explained by the greater luxuriance of
growth so that the loss in proportion of sugar is more than compen
sated for by the increase in yield of cane a fact wholly in keeping
with the universal preference of cane growers for bottom lands for
their cane fields
MAKING THE SYRUP
The first step toward making syrup from cane is the freeing of
the juice from the stalk and the means by which this is to be ac
complished is the key to the economy of the process Although
the crudest appliances even wooden rollers are capable of express
ing juice from which syrup or sugar may be made still the more
juice which can be expressed from a given amount of cane the
greater is the success of the operation For domestic and smaller
manufacturing purposes the simple horsepower mill is commend
able This mill however should consist of three rollers the two
roller mill being so imperfect in action and expressing so small a
part of the juice as to be extremely wasteful A good threeroller
mill with the rollers screwed tightly together is capable of express
ing from seventy to seventyfive per cent of the actual juice in the
cane This matter of keeping the rollers screwed tightly together
is one of such importance that it should be regularly looked after
and the screws tightened whenever necessary till the bagasse or
crushed cane comes through in short pieces
The juice having been expressed from the cane the first process
in actual syrupmaking is at an end and the next stop is that of
freeing the juice as largely as possible from foreign substances
In common farm practice this consists simply in straining it through
a gunnysack as it comes from the mill This however although
desirable only suffices to remove from the juice the small particfes
of cane that pass from the rollers There remain many other for
eign substances the presence of which is detrimental to the quality
of the syrup and the removal of which is indispensable to securing
of the best product Chief among these are coloring matters and
the socalled nonsugar carbohydrates and albuminoid compounds
The method which has been universally recommended by the ExANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
313
periment Stations for accomplishing this removal consists of sul
phuring and liming the juice the first process being to subject
the juice as it comes from the mill to the action of sulphurous
acid fumes obtained from the burning of sulphur in a fur
nace constructed for the purpose and then the removal of
sulphurous acid by defecation of the juice with milk of lime in
a separate pan or boiler before the actual process of evaporation
begins That the method accomplishes the object sought and re
sults in a superior quality of syrup there can be no question That
it is comparatively expensive inconvenient and impractical for
general domestic use is however equally true and is abundantly
demonstrated by the fact that though the method has been recom
mended by every publication issued by an Experiment Station
treating of syrupmaking during the past decade the method has
not actually been adopted by one syrupmaker in a hundred
In view of these facts a series of experiments was undertaken
in the hope of devising a simple and practical means so inexpen
sive as to be within reach of all and so easily available that the
means for using the same might be secured without effort on any
Florida farm These experiments were divided into two classes
first the filtering or freeing of the juice from foreign materials by
purely physical means and second the defecation or precipitation
of impurities remaining in the juice after filtering
FILTERING THE JUICE
The experiments in filtering included the use of every material
which has ever been suggested for the purpose by reliable authori
ties and a trial of numerous new materials which it was conceived
might possibly accomplish the end sought
It is not deemed necessary to go into particulars as to the effect
of each material used but to simply give the list of these materials
and the details recommended to be followed with the article having
shown most satisfactory results The filtering materials tried in
cluded straw hay seedcotton cottonlint sand shavings excel
sior sawdust ground excelsior charcoal fullers earth and Spanish
moss The last material was so unquestionably superior to any314
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
other used that it was adopted as the hest and most feasible article
for the purpose and was used exclusively after its advantages were
demonstrated
The method of use was as follows Dry moss such as can be ob
tained anywhere in the State of Florida was carefully picked and
freed from leaves sticks and foreign matter and thoroughly
washed A tub or halfbarrel through the bottom of which a
hole for the outlet pipe was bored was taken and a piece of perfo
rated tin was placed over this outlet on the inside of the bottom of
the tub The tub was then filled with the cleansed moss which
was packed as solidly as it could be crowded in by the weight of a
man until it was filled It was then placed under the outlet gutter
from the mill and the juice was conducted upon the moss in the
center of the tub by a tin trough This juice therefore sank by
gravity through the entire thickness of moss till it found outlet
through the pipehole in the bottom through which by means of a
halfinch iron pipe it was conducted by gravity to the skimming
pan The passage of the juice through the moss not only freed it
of all coarse and floating foreign particles but filtered out a very
large proportion of the nonsugar contents and coloring matter so
that the juice passing through the outlet pipe was nearly as clear
and colorless as water The only precaution necessary in using
this method is that the moss naturally occasionally becomes
clogged and requires renewing once in two or three days of con
stant running but in warm weateher it was found that the juiec
adhering to the moss in the tub was liable to ferment over night
and be sour in the morning under which circumstances it is
necessary to replenish the filter with fresh moss before beginning
work in the morning
The advantages claimed for tins method are its simplicity cheap
ness and effectiveness It accomplishes all that has been claimed
for the sulphuring process and yet is so easily available as to be
accessible to any farmer in Florida practically without either
trouble or expense
CLARIFYING THE JUICE
Satisfactory and effective as the above described method provedANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
315
itself it is not sufficient for securing such results as we aimed at
further clarifying of the juice being still desirable For this pur
pose the usually recommended method is the use of three different
pans or vessels in the first of which after sulphuring the juice is
treated with milk of lime The objections to this method have al
ready been stated in connection with the sulphuring process at a
whole A simpler method was deemed indispensable if the same
was to be recommended for general domestic use The first recom
mendation in this connection which is offered as that securing the
finest product whatever may be the means by which the juice is
finally converted into syrup whether the evaporation be conducted
in an iron kettle or an evaporating pan is that clarifying or skim
ming of the juice should be effected in a different vessel from that
in which the final condensation of the syrup takes place Our expe
riments were made with the use of a common shallow Chattanooga
evaporator The filtered juice as it came from the filter was con
ducted into an open pan of the same size as the evaporator but about
eioht inches deep such as can be made by any tinsmith This was
placed upon a brick furnace side by side with the evaporator with
a space of about six feet between the two so that both pans and fires
could be tended by one man with no material increase in labor It
should be added however that there was very little if any increase
in fuel needed inasmuch as the heat required for raising the juice
to the boiling point in the first pan was not required in the evapora
tor hot juice instead of cold being introduced into the latter there
being a halfinch connecting pipe extending from the bottom of the
first pan to the evaporator This introduction of a second pan is
deemed in every way indispensable to the securing of best results
whatever may be the treatment of the juice or the method of final
evaporation even in the event a common iron kettle is used for
finishing the syrup The advantages of this supplementary pan
lie in the fact that where the boiling skimming evaporating and
condensing all take place in one kettle or evaporator it is abso
lutely impossible except where work is conducted on the smallest
possible scale and with constant personal care to prevent the mix
ing of unskimmed fresh juice with the partially finished syrup or
of imperfectly removed scum with the nearly completed syrup316
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
These contingencies however are wholly avoided when the syrup
is raised to its boiling point in a separate pan in which all of the
skimming is to be done so that only perfectly clear hot juice is
introduced into the finishing pan kettle or evaporator A further
precaution is to be recommended viz that the juice from the mill
instead of being conducted directly into the first pan be reservoired
or held back in a trough or barrel so that the contents of the pan
may be allowed to flow into the evaporator as required in which
uo skimming whatever will be necessary and the syrup produced
will be entirely free from all contamination resulting from the
presence of unremoved coloring matter
PRECIPITATION BY FULLERS EARTH
A modification of the above method was resorted to experiment
ally by the introduction of fullers earth into the first pan at the
rate of one pound of earth to five gallons of juice and bringing the
contents to the boiling point when all the coloring matter and
albuminous impurities ordinarily forming a scum upon the surface
were immediately precipitated to the bottom of the pan leaving n
perfectly clear and almost transparent fluid behind which is easily
drawn off with siphon or through an outlet pipe placed about
one inch above the bottom of the pan The cost of this
method with fullers earth worth 14 per ton is very slight and the
earth exists in large deposits in several parts of the State So far
as actual results are concerned the syrup produced by this modifi
cation compares in every way favorably with that obtained by the
simple skimming of the juice but it does not possess advantages
over the same The method therefore possesses merit but is
hardly yet to be recommended for general use except in cases of
highly colored juices from which inferior syrup is produced by the
other method
FINISHING AND TESTING THE SYRUP
However clear the clarification may have been the quality
of the syrup will be largely controlled by the final boiling to which
it is subjected For this purpose because of the very much greaterANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
317
control possible steam heat is preferred It is however recog
nized that on most farms circumstances will prevent the utilization
of steam for evaporation and that open fires under kettles and
evaporators must continue the chief recourse Care however
must be exercised that the syrup shall be kept boiling at as near as
possible an even temperature and that the supply of syrup in the
evaporator be so constant that scorching is impossible slight scorch
ing being detrimental both to taste and color of the product The
point at which the boiling should cease and the finished product be
removed from the evaporator is the crucial test of the skill of the
operator and the quality of his product As has already been
shown however the best human judgment will frequently fail on
this point and the only safeguard lies in subjecting the syrup to
the actual test of the apparatus or tester already described and illus
trated by means of which all variation in density of product is ren
dered absolutely impossible
It is well to add however that the approximate finishing of the
process may be easily recognized by allowing the syrup to drip
from the edge of the skimmer or paddle and if the drops flow
together and stretching out form a thin film upon the edge of
the skimmer as they fall the time for actual testing with the appa
ratus mentioned has arrived
PRESERVING THE SYRUP
As already mentioned the heretofore nearly insurmountable ob
stacle toward placing the syrup upon the market as a commercial
product has resulted from the fact that as ordinarily made and
marketed it was so unstable as to undergo fermentation deteriora
tion or destruction within a comparatively few weeks or months at
most There have been many methods proposed for overcoming
this difficulty all of which however including the sulphuring and
liming already mentioned have rested upon the introduction of
a foreign substance into the syrup to counteract its natural ten
dency rather than upon the removal of the actual cause of this
tendency Our experiments and methods have been conducted on
the supposition that this fermentation or destruction of the syrup
was due not so much to any inherent property of the syrup itself318
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
as to the presence of imparities the elimination of which would
necessarily be followed by a disappearance of the trouble In
other words that thorough purification and clarification of juice
and syrup would necessarily result in improved keeping qualities
in the product
The methods already described as practised by us have appar
ently demonstrated the correctness of this supposition indeed at
the time of the present writing we have samples of syrup made bv
the method described which have been exposed in open vessels in a
warm room for three months without the slightest fermentation
crystallization or deterioration It is recognized however that the
process of decomposition resulting in the deterioration of the
quality of the syrup depends for existence upon access of air and
that in the absence of air the process is materially checked or abso
lutely prevented The natural suggestion therefore is that syrup
for preservation should be put up in some receptacle in which it
may be hermetically sealed when hot Bottles jugs and similar
articles have been more or less used for the purpose but a careful
consideration of all the facts involved leads to the conclusion that
the ideal syrup receptacle is a tin can of moderate size which may
be sealed airtight and afterwards handled easily with no possibilitv
of injury to contents
This brings us to a matter worthy of special consideration
MARKETING OF SYRUP
Unless preservation of the product is assured it is recognized
that there will be little syrup to market and therefore preservation
and marketing are most intimately associated Moreover except
for domestic consumption upon the farm where produced the mar
keting returns from the product must control the success of the
process This phase of the subject therefore is deemed of special
importance The syrup made by the process described has not
only leon pronounced by exports to be superior to anything here
tofore available but it lias actually been placed on the market for
the express purpose of determining its actual relative commercial
value on which the merits of the process must finally restANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
319

Preservation ease of handling and cost of marketing were the
points considered The different forms of receptacle or package
heretofore utilized were tried and one by one discarded as faulty
Barrels are bulky and imperfect preservers in them fermentation
is probable The common cypress barrel moreover with all its
advantages should be rigorously discarded as the receiver for first
class syrup such as is aimed at If the syrup is turned in while
hot and the barrel as is usually the case is new the contents almost
invariably acquire a foreign easily detected taste very materially
Fig 2
detrimental to the value of the article This is true also of old
barrels and cold syrup it being even then sufficiently perceptible1
to detract from the quality of the syrup Bottles are expensive
destructible inconvenient to fill and difficult of transportation and
though good preservers when tightly stoppered and sealed are
recommended only for home use Some form of tin can therefore
seems to be the only commendable recourse After careful consid
eration of the advantages presented by different forms and sizes320
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
the onegallon square can with a wide orifice closed airtightly by
a cap surrounded by a rubber ring and fastened by the socalled
lever action was adopted by us and is recommended In this the
syrup should be introduced while hot first being strained through
a thickness of cotton flannel to prevent the possible introduction
of specks or accidental impurities These cans are obtained in
boxes or crates containing six cans each in which they should be
shipped and syrup thus put up will maintain its quality uninjured
indefinitely possessing moreover very great convenience for handJ
ling storing and shipping The can and its construction are well
represented in the accompanying illustration Fig 2
As to the commercial value of the method followed a few facts
are important The common syrup of the farm for which the
county in which the Station is located is well known has averaged
during the season in the markets of Lake City 15 cents per gallon
in barrel lots Our syrup in barrels is sold in any quantity we have
been willing to market for 25 cents per gallon net barrels being
returnable to us Shipments of syrup in cans have netted 50 cents
per gallon the cost of the cans being 10 cents each though larger
quantities could have been secured at much lower rates Of the
profits of the process of making and the method of shipping there
fore there can be no question It is only necessary to add further
that the process having been put to the test of actual remunerative
returns can be recommended to others without hesitation or reser
vation
III SUGAR
Although the making of syrup was the chief experimental work
undertaken incidentally some attention tvas given to the process
of sugarmaking with the object of further developing this domestic
industry in the State It is not to be expected that the home
manufacture of sugar can take its place as an important commer
cial undertaking upon many Florida farms the capital and acre
age required making sugar production essentially a manufacturing
rather than an agricultural enterprise It is believed howeverANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
321
that conditions of climate and soil if properly utilized would natu
rally place Florida in the lead as a commercial sugarproducing
State and that capital invested in this business in Florida would
certainly be more remunerative than is possible in any other part
of our country As bearing on this point a comparison of the
sugar content of Florida cane with the average for the State of
Louisiana is important Dr Stubbs Director of the Louisiana
Experiment Station places the average for his State at 12 per
cent1 This amount is somewhat above the average of available
analyses but is adopted as sufficiently high
Our analyses of Florida cane from eighteen different localities
covering the entire State the present season show an average of
1569 per cent of sugar and an average coefficient of purity for
the juice of 8630 per cent The Louisiana comparison is 12 per
cent of sugar and a coefficient of purity of 8050 per cent a
difference of 369 per cent of sugar and 580 per cent of purity
in favor of the Florida product There is no question of equally
heavy crops in our state so the superiority of Florida for sugar
production can hardly be longer questioned
This Bulletin however is devoted essentially to the interests
of the average farmer of Florida rather than to the consideration
of exceptional conditions So far therefore as it can touch upon
the question of sugar production it will deal solely with the domes
tic phase of the industry in the hope of enabling intelligent grow
ers of sugarcane in our State to utilize a portion of the same for
more economically and satisfactorily supplying their own home
and local requirements It must be borne in mind that all that has
thus far been recorded pertaining to the growing of cane and the
making of syrup is equally applicable when the ultimate end in
view is sugar rather than syrup the essential difference being that
the process is continued farther
The Spanish moss doublepan method recommended for syrup
is also equally applicable and commendable for sugar
1 From a very kind personal letter to the Author
21a322
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
BOILING FOR SUGAR
After the syrup stage lias been reached if sugar is desired great
care should be exercised that all danger from scorching or overheat
ing may be avoided Indeed the lower the temperature the less
the actual amount of boiling till the density necessary for sugar
forming is reached the better High temperature and vigorous
boiling having a tendency to invert the sugar and thus prevent crys
tallization should be carefully guarded against Indeed so import
ant is this fact that the crude iron kettle with all its faults posses
ses some advantage as the finishing receptacle in sugar boiling he
cause of the less surface exposed to direct heat and consequently
the diminished danger from over boiling After the syrup stage
has been reached as determined by our improvised syrup tester
the process should be continued according to temperature for
twenty or thirty minutes at which time the density should have
proceeded about onetenth beyond the syi up stage In other words
the volume of the syrup should have been diminished by about one
tenth
The final test for determining when the proper consistency lias
arrived does not rest entirely upon density or thickness and there
fore the saccharometer is useless The test must be the actual
crystallization of the sugar If however a sample of syrup is
found to grain and it then be tested with the syrup tester and an
additional or lower mark be placed upon the stem of the same this
will serve as the safest indicator of the proper time to stop boiling
for future runs
When the syrup has been condensed as mentioned it should be
removed to a barrel tub or trough or where a kettle is used it may
be allowed to remain in the same after withdrawal of the fire
GRAINING
The condensed syrup is now ready for graining or crystallization
whirl process will inevitably take place in ir hut may he advanta
geously hastened by stirring the mass while cooling with a stick or
wooden paddle Not only is the process of crystallizati
ion or suerarANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 303
formation thus hastened but the quality of the product particu
larly its degree of whiteness is very materially improved thereby
The time which will be required for completing this graining pro
cess will depend upon density amount of impurities present and
Hie relative sucrose or sugar content of the syrup With reason
able success in quality the period however should rarely con
tinue over one hour and may be completed in a very few minutes
When the graining or crystallizing has been thus effected the pro
cess is for the time being at an end
PURGING
The soft sugar thus formed is a mixture of sugar and molasses
and the next step in the process is the separation of these two con
stituents This is best and most simply effected by turning the
soft mass the socalled masse citit into flour barrels through the
bottom of each of which three or four oneinch auger holes have
been bored into each of which a stalk of cane as long as the barrel
and from which three peelings have been taken their entire length
should be thrust The barrels filled with the masse cuit should
then be placed on blocks benches or tables so that they are raised
sufficiently from the floor or ground to allow the placing of a pan
tub or crock under each barrel for catching the molasses as it runs
off Time alone will now complete the process the purging going
on by gravity without human assistance It is complete when the
molasses has so drained off as to leave the sugar reasonably dry
and free from all sticky tendency
If the process is successful such sugar will be of a light brown
or yellowish color and thoroughly adapted to most domestic uses
and will find ready sale for local consumption or for refining
WHITENING THE SUGAR
The demand of the market and perhaps unfortunately of most
consumers is for sugar entirely free from all natural cane flavor
or taste and perfectly white in colorin other words the granu
lated form of commerce This product however is the result
of the refining process involving the use of complicated machinery324 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
and great capital There are however simpler means by which
on a small scale with a moderate expense the sugar may be so
materially whitened as to approach the character of granulated
sugar and find more ready sale The simplest of these methods
is one devised by us but based on a modification of an old process
used in the days when loaf sugar was a standard article of com
merce It consists simply in removing the sugar from the purging
barrel and placing it in a tub or halfbarrel with an outlet at the
bottom The sugar is then covered by a single thickness of com
mon cheese cloth on top of which is placed a waterbucketful of
moist clay stirred to a thick paste The result will be that the
sugar will absorb the moisture from the clay and become washed
thereby in a few days time the sugar will have become so ma
terially whitened as to better meet the popular demands indeed
will approach in character and appearance the very best product
of commercial sugar below the grade of granulated
A modification of this method may be advantageously used
based on the practice in many sugar refineries and in all laund
ries viz Blue is optically complementary to yellow and conse
quently where blue and yellow are brought together in opposition
the neutral or white optical effect follows Consequently the
laundress uses bluing with yellow clothing to make it appear white
and the sugar refiner uses ultramarine upon his yellow sugar where
by it appears white Ultramarine is wholly harmless and inex
pensive and can be secured of most druggists If the water there
fore that is used for mixing with the clay is verij slightly blued by
the introduction of a little powdered ultramarine the effect is an
apparently white sugar really no purer or whiter than the yellow
article but which meets the public demand and sells for a better
price
YIELD AND RETURNS FROM SYRUP AND SUGAR
The final value of any crop must rest upon its commercial re
turns whether the same is actually placed upon the market or is
used for home consumption since in the latter case expenditure
is prevented and a penny saved is a penny earned In the parANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
325
ticular case of sugarcane however it lias been as already expressed
my desire to show that the growing of cane for the manufacture
of sugar offered a remunerative crop thoroughly adapted to Florida
conditions and therefore a most valuable substitute in regular
farm practice for other staple crops which have been unremuner
ative The yields and value of the returns from a crop of cane
therefore are of particular interest My own experience and the
various replies received from the letters sent to many cane growers
in the State indicate that 500 gallons of syrup per acre is a reason
able product which may with intelligent management be counted
on as almost certain while exceptional crops are known to some
times return fully twice this quantity of syrup Such syrup as I
have described and have shown can be easily made with certainty
finds constant and ready demand in the market at a net return of
25 cents per gallon or a gross return of 125 per acre of cane
I believe that this acre of cane can be grown and its products can
be manufactured into syrup at an average cost of 75 per acre leav
ing a net profit on a very moderate basis of 50 per acre from the
crop The same syrup if marketed in the condition I suggest
will easily double the returns
If sugar is the product in which the crop is finally marketed an
estimate made on the same basis and from the same data leads me
to place the reasonable yield at 3000 pounds of sugar per acre
with the simple domestic methods described This sugar finds
ready sale at 44 cents per pound net or a gross return of 135 per
acre In addition to this the molasses obtained must be taken into
consideration although its quality does not give it a fixed commer
cial status The expense of producing sugar is nearly onetenth
greater than that of making syrup or 82 per acre leaving a net
profit per acre of cane manufactured into sugar of 42 Although
it therefore appears that the crop is more profitable when con
verted into syrup than when manufactured into sugar still the
combination of the two is commendable at least to the extent of
supplying home demand It will therefore be seen that the sugar
cane crop on a purely commercial basis can be made one of the
most profitable resources of the Florida farmer aside from the
mere advantage of domestic independence326
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
Bulletin of the Georgia Experiment Station
By Hugh N Stabnes
Watermelons
PART lCULTURE
VER the entire area covered by the yellow pine
forests of Georgia known locally as the Wire
grass region and in the main corresponding
geologically with the Tertiary formation the
watermelon Citrullus vulgaris appears to
be always and impressively at home to
its friendsand who has the hardihood
lo admit that he is not ranked amon
them
g WM J 0ther regions may produce certain cala
gjlipr bashes which through courtesy are styled
watermelons but to see and know the gen
uine watermelon arrayed like Solomon in all his
glory one must come to Georgia Here the melon is
indeed king and its empire is the Wiregrass In no other section of the State
m no other State of the South in no other division of the Union does this
luscious cucurbit flourish as it does on the gray Tertiary sands between the
Savannah and the Chattahoocbee
Yet in spite of thisor possibly because of itvery little has ever been
written on the watermelon Its bibliography is strangely barren A small
handbook by W Atlee Burpee Co containing some valuable suggestions
casual mention in a few textbooks and a page or so in each of half a dozen
Station Bulletins cover so far as the writer can ascertain all that has ever
been penned on the subject It cannot be however that no one needs infor
mation thereon The commercial growers of the great melon centers of thi
and other States are doubtless so well posted in every detail of melon culture
that they are practically independent of outside information and this BullANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
327
tin would consequently prove to them of little value But where one man
grows melons for market a hundred plant for home consumption and this
Station is constantly in receipt of letters asking for definite information con
cerning varieties fertilization distance cultivation and other ordinary de
tails Hence it is for the better instruction of the grower on a small scale
for him who plants his halfacre or his square rod in the rear of the kitchen
garden and not for the melon prince who ships by the trainload that this
Bulletin is prepared
But it must be distinctly understood before going further that when in
Georgia a melon is referred to it means a Watermelon not a Cantaloupe or
Muskmelon Whatever may be the proper conception of the term to the
average citizen here there is but one production worthy of either the dignity
or glory of the name Melonto wit the Watermelonand that is the sense
in which the word will be used in this Bulletin We would not wittingly do
violence to the feelings of anyone
1 SOIL AND LOCATION
As previously stated a warm sandy soil is the melons delight but it mus
be light and dry not damp and soggy Like the grape the watermelon is
a veritable cat in its abhorrence of wet feet Yet at the same time the
soil should not be too dry Sufficient capillarity must exist to keep the roots
of the plant well supplied with their proper modicum of moisture during a
drouthy periodyet not enough to evaporate the entire reservoir of water in
the subsoil into the atmosphere Any land wanting in this nice adjustment
of consistency is almost if not quite as badly adapted to melon culture as a
soil that is sodden
For all that the watermelon is extremely cosmopolitan and will readily ac
commodate itself to a variety of soils and particularly in its own native re
gion will stand a great deal of rough and unscientific I had almost said un
sympathetic treatment without rebelling
But a warm lightgray welldrained topsoil with a strong clay subsoil that
will daily give up its moisture little by little when called on affords an
ideal location for a melon plat The latter requisite however it has to fore
go over a considerable portion of the melon belt yet somehow it appears to
dispense with it quite philosophically and will notwithstanding produce
profitable crops
A soil too rich in humus is not desirable Sufficient nitrogen for its use
can be readily supplied artificially when it does not exist naturally A sur
plus may and generally does produce larger melons but at the expense of
quality They will prove soft watery and insipid poor shippers and with a
small per cent of saccharine matter
Rotation is all important too In no case should melons follow melons the
next season and at least four years should intervene before the land is again
planted in this crop By that time insect depredators attracted by the first
melon crop will have probably become exterminated and the drain from the
soil of specific plantfood especially potash will also have been to a certain
extent at least made good328
DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
2 PREPARATION
This should be thorough though not necessarily deep The roots of the
watermelon while sometimes extending quite a distance laterally are always
close to the surface The deeper the land is broken the deeper the roots will
penetrate and this perversion of habit will cause the plant to grow off
slower and while in case of a drouth it might passibly withstand the season
better it would certainly entail a series of complications that could easily be
avoided Deeper breaking would be permissible with red land in Upper
Georgia than on the gray sandy soil of the Wiregrass though the general
consensus of opinion appears to be that shallow preparation is preferable for
any locality
But while the plowing need not be deep for that very reason the pulveri
zation must be thorough and effective What is saved on the subsoiler
should be expended on the harrow After breaking two or even three pul
verizations with a cutaway harrow will leave the plat in excellent condi
tionespecially if a crop of cowpeas has been grown on the land the previous
year as is always advisable In such case the soil is well stocked with nitro
gen and filled with vegetable matter is loose and friable and pulverizes
like an ash bank
3 DISTANCE
The richer the soil or the higher the fertilization the more luxuriant will
be the growth of vines and hence the distance apart at which the hills should
be located must correspond On very rich land twelve feet apart each way is
none too much in fact many growers prefer this distance even on poor land
Each planter must determine for himself in the matter according to circum
stances Probably ten by ten is the distance most frequently employed and
in no case should it be less than eight by eightand this very rarely What
ever the distance the land should be checked in squares so that the hills will
be equidistant in both directions
4 LAYING OFF
After thorough pulverization with the harrow and for the last working a
smoothing harrow is preferable to a cutaway the plat should be checked by
running a light scooter furrow in two directions Then in one direction
with a wide shovel plow a deep furrow should be opened in which the fer
tilizer should be drilled and thoroughly mixed with a scootertwo trips to
the row Next with a turn plow or twister this row is listed onfour
furrows being thrown up The middles should be broken out later This
forms the bed for planting and will warm up sooner than the surrounding
soil
When planting time comes the place for the hills on the bed is indicated
by the cross scooter furrow first run thereby insuring regularity in their
location and enabling the planter to cultivate the plat both ways if he so
desires
Many persons still prefer to the modern plan of bedding on the fertilizer
in the row the oldfashioned method of dragging up the dirt into individualANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1S98
329
A
hills with the hoe as is done in squash culture in the garden and to concen
trate the fertilizer in these hills but the many advantages of the modern plan
are so apparent that it needs no argument to support it
5 FERTILIZATION
The beet fertilizer for melons is a crop of cowpeas on the land the year pre
vious to planting After cutting for hay or ensilage the stubble should be
left to die and turned under in the fall This leaves the soil light and open
stored with a good supply of nitrogen and ready for the harrowing in the
spring
Next to this preparatory cowpea treatmentand indeed supplementary
to itnothing perhaps is better than stable manure applied in the furrow
in the fall and listed on as described under a previous head But stable ma
Dure is always variable in its composition and content of plantfood and the
probability is that used by itself in considerable quantity especially when
following a cowpea crop there will be a disproportion of phosphoric acid and
potuh which must consequently be artificially supplied Therefore an addi
tion per acre of some 400 pounds Acid Phosphate and 400 pounds Kainit or
100 pounds of either Muriate or Sulphate of Potash would in great measure
balance the fertilizer and make a vast deal of difference in the result
In Upper Georgia or anywhere that a retentive clay subsoil is found these
mixed minerals as we may term themmay be drilled in along with the
stable manure in the fall In this way not only will the stable manure have
rotted by spring rendering its content of plant food immediately available
but the phosphoric acid and potash of the commercial fertilizer will also have
become completely soluble and ready for use
But where the soil is light and porous and no subsoil exists within a reason
able distance from the surface as is the case over alarge portion of the Wire
grass the land in consequence leaching badly it has been found best not to
manure in the fall with either stable manure or commercial fertilizers but
to wait until late winter or early spring This of course minimizes the loss
from leaching but the crop also fails to receive the full benefit of the fertilizer
Where slight but not severe leaching takes place it will perhaps prove best
to split the difference and while putting in the stable manure in the fall
in order to have it well rotted by spring even with some loss of its manurial
content to reserve the commercial fertilizer and after reopening the beds
to drill it in just before planting time Pulverization should precede the re
opening of the furrows During this process the beds will not be so torn down
or obliterated as to be indistinguishable and it will generally be found easy
enough to run the furrow in the proper place The labor of opening out twice
will be more than compensated for by the decay the manure will undergo and
its consequent capability for ready assimilation as soon as the rootlets ot the
plants reach it alwavs provided the loss from leaching is not excessive
If stable manure is not available in sufficient quantity and the grower is
forced to depend entirely on commercial fertilizers the following will be
found an excellent formula for Middle and North Georgia
Q 400 lbs
Nitrale of Soda sm h
Acid Phosphate High Grade mibl
Muriate of Potash or Sulphate of Potashjuujds
Total 14001b9330
DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
Apply at the rate of 700 pounds and upward per acre
Tins formula will analyze about
Nitrogen Ammonia equivalent 51 per cent 43 per cent
Phosph me Acid available80 percent
PotashV 71 percent
This is a very high grade fertilizer with a heavy proportion of nitrogen es
pecially when following a leguminous crop Yet it is well suited for big mel
ons as the watermelon needs a good percentage of nitrogen But it wants
the supply of this element in the earlier stages of the growth of the plant
not so much when the fruit is setting Overdosing with nitrogen at
this stage will tend to make the melons soft and watery poor shippers and
insipidnot crisp and sweet as will prove to be the case when the mineral
elements are more in balance with the nitrogen
In addition to the formula given it may also be well to drop a pinch of
nitrate of sodasay a thimbleful on each hill just after the plants are well
up especially just after or in advance of a raincare being taken not to al
low any of the salt to touch the tender leaves of the young plants
For larger but later melonsand it must be confessed melons not so good
in quality though perhaps more showy the following formula may b3 substi
tuted
Cotton Meal 800 lbs
Acid Phosphate High Grade 800 lbs
KainitZVV 800 lbs
TotaI2400 lbs
This forms quite a low grade fertilizer and will analyze approximately
Nitrogen Ammonia equivalent 27 percent23 percent
Phophoiic Acid available53 per cent
PoaSQZsle pr cent
If double the amount of this formula were used pound for pound of that
first given about the same percentages of plantfood would be presented the
difference consisting only in the medium by which they were conveyed
For the Wiregrass region the soil of which is more deficient in potash
than that of Upper Georgia it would be well to slightly change the formula
first given as follows
Nitrate of Soda 525 lbs
Acid Phosphats High Gradej lbs
Muriate of Potash or Sulphate of Potash 450 lbs
To al2000 lbs
This would analyze about as follows
Nitrogen Ammonia equivalent49 percent 39 per cent
Phosphoric Acid available 71 percent
Potah112 per cent
It could be safely used at the rate of 700 pounds and upward per acre
In the proportions given in the foregoing formulas quite a discrepancy ex
ists when compared with the amounts of plantfood ascertained by Dr Geo
F Payne State Chemist to be abstracted by a melon crop per acre on an
analysis of its ash It requires in the first place no argument to prove that
much heavier gross applications of fertilizer must be made for successful reANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 331
suits in the field than any croo yields up on an analysis of its ash since it is
necessarily impossible for the plant to possess itself of and assimilate every
pennyweight of fertilizer presented for its consumption Secondly actual
soil tests which after all are the only ones to be absolutely relied on when
carried sufficiently far to establish a definite conclusion have proved time
and again that the capacity of a plant to assimilate any one of the main food
elementsNitrogen Phosphoric Acid or Potashdoes not parallel by any
means the amount of such element it finally succeeds instoring up in its
structure And thirdly it is equally well established that different plants
though their ash may show precisely or at least approximately the same
chemical analysis yet differ materially in their capacity to assimilate plant
foodsome flourishing under soil and manurial conditions in which others
would perish outright
A plant may for instance to make an ideal growth be found by field tests
to require a minimum application of 75 pounds of Phosphoric Acid and 50
pounds Potash per acre while its ash on analysis mayshow that it has act
ually assimilated 30 pounds of Phosphoric Acid and 40 pounds of Potash
Yet it may be found by repeated experimentation that a smaller amount of
Phosphoric Acid than 75 pouuds per acre represented say by 540 pounds
Acid Phosphate produces very unsatisfactory resultsand the same way in
regard to the Potash The conclusion is inevitable that in such case the
crop in question requires a considerable excess of both of these elements
presented to it over the amount of either it finallv succeeds in appropriating
and that it experiences greater difficulty in assimilating the one than the
otherstoring up finally in its structure more of one element from a smaller
supply and less of another element from a greater supply
Therefore while an analysis of the ash mav be a partial index to the
manurial needs of a plant the true index is and must always remain field ex
perimentation
As a source of Potash for the watermelon Sulphate of Potash is said to be
preferable to either Muriate of Potash or Kainit This Station has as yet
made no experimentation on this line but will do so another year Sulphate
of Potash is certainly coming into favor more and more each yearmainly
perhaps on account of the deleterious action of the chlorides in the two
other Potash salts when applied in large quantities
6 PLANTING
On putting in the seed they should not be spared Field mice crows
pigeons poultry and other depredators frequently prevent a perfect stand
when but few seed are used and the time lost when renlanling is found nec
essary can never be regained Twenty seed to the hill is not too many
thirty would be preferable to less than twenty They should be planted by
hand and the method ordinarily pursued is to push each seed separately
down into the mellow soil with the forefinger The seed is scattered loosely
over an area on the center of the bed as large as the crown of a hat and then
each seed punched in where it lies to the depth of about an inch While
this appears to be from the description a rather slow process it is astonish
ing how rapidly a skilled darkey can operate as he shuffles down the row332
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
This forces the depredating agent to discover and destroy each seed in suc
cession which gives some a chance to escape whereas if planted together as
soon as the pocket was found the seed would all be scattered or devoured at
once
Some growers instead of making one planting of a large number of seed
prefer to put in half a dozen seed only at a time say on the south side of
the hill and in a week or so without waiting for the first seed to come up
making another planting on the west side followed by a third and fourth
planting at intervals on the other two sides until a stand is secured Thus
no time is lost
Be sure to plant shallow Pushing the seed in to too great a depth is a very
common fault even with experienced manipulators It must be remembered
that the ground is comparatively cold at planting time and as the surface of
the soil of course warms up sooner than the lower strata the seed should re
ceive the benefit of the daily increasing temperature as soon as possible
Therefore an inch U abundantly deep this will ensure sufficient moisture
and yet leave the seed close enough to the surface to respond readily to the
suns warmth as the season advances
Frequently after planting a few weeks of drouth follow accompanied by
heavy winds which parch and bake the surface This is more apt to be the
case in Upper Georgia than in the Wiregrass region and in such case to
secure rapid germination it is sometimes necessary to go over the plat and
with a hoe to throw a dab or two of dirt on each hill This presents a new
surface for evaporation and drying out and secures the retention of sufficient
moisture in contact with the seed to induce germination It of couise pre
vents the hill from warming up as soon as it otherwise would but between
two tvils it is advisable to choose the lesser The dab of soil should ol
course be removed after sprouting has taken place and before the young
plants begin to push up through the mounds
7 FORCING FOR EARLINESS AND SIZE
If very early melons are wanted it is necessary
to start the plants under glass Of course this
process is only permissible on a small scale or
where the assurance of a market for a fancy pro
duction of this sort will justify the expense
The simplest method of procedure consists in
emptying a cold frame in which small pots are
sunk after the seed are planted in late winter or
early springsay from January 15th to March
1st according to locality Protected by glass
watering may be frequent and the plants
thinned gradually down to one vigorous vine in
each pot will be ready to transplant as soon
as all danger of frost is over The root sys
Nefonskt Pot tern of each vine will be strongly developed
by this time and a rapid growth will commence as soon as it is set
out Clay pots can of course be used but they are not nearly so inexpensive
or serviceable as a manufacture known as the Neponset pot made of stiff
ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
333
paper or pasteboard with an adjustable side flap or catchas in accompanying
figurewhich may be slipped out readily and the transfer to the hill effected
without the slightest danger of rupturing a rootlet This is their main ad
vantage but they are also cheap light and sufficiently durable to be used for
several seasons
The use of bellglass after transplanting which of course is too expensive
for any thing but the fanciest of w7ork will enable the grower to gain a few
more days in field planting Papiermache covers will do as a substitute for
bellglass and even the crude protection of a newspaper over each hill held
down by a handful of dirt at the corners will be found much better than
nothing
To continue the process of forcing for earliness and in addition to secure
greater size the vine must never be permitted to suffer a suspension of
growth from want of an adequate and regular supply of moisture Of course
in forcing for size it is necessary primarily to thin the fruit downsometimes
even to one melon per vineand for best results it is also necessary to ferti
lize in the hill instead of in the drill When this concentration of manure is
effected it is quite a simple matter though of course one involving some ex
pense to render the concentrated fertilizer available or assimilableand con
tinuously soas well as to prevent the hill from firing by applying water
artificially whenever the rainfall proves insufficient For this purpose a joint
of twoinch terracotta sewerpipe
should be perpendicularly sunk in
the hill before planting to the
depth of six or eight inches bell
upwards as indicated in the figure
The seed should be planted around
the pipe and the stand subse
quently thinned down to one vine
whose roots will eventually sur
round the bottom of the pipe for
quite a distance in all directions
The pipe itself should be filled
with water late in the afternoonevery day if the weather is dry or as often
as may be found necessary The continuous supply of moisture thus afforded
will have a most noticeable effect by rendering every particle of plantfood
within reach capable of assimilation A dilute solution of manure or of
chemical or commercial fertilizers may be made to take the place of pure
water if desired but great care must be observed in its application and it
should be sufficiently diluted not to endanger the vine by firing Ordinary
drain tile may be used in place of sewer pipe and will prove much less costly
8 CULTIVATION
As soon as the sed are well up they should be thinned down to three or
four plants to the hill and a little later to one vigorous plant Some growers
Neponset pots 2Vi inches in diameter may be obtained irom E J Farquhar Co Bos
ton Mass at about 200 per thousandother sizes in proportion
334
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
are in the habit of leaving two vines to the hill but while by this practice
they certainly get more vines and sometimes too more melons the latter
are always smaller and less salable than when one lusty vine has the hill and
the fertilizer all to itself
After the first heavy rain following planting with its compacting effect it
will be well to break out the middles This should be done with a twister
throwing the furrow to the bed on either side and finishing with a water
row which will serve on low level land to thoroughly drain the beds
After this the crop should be worked entirely with the cultivator or scrape
and very lightly The first working may be across or at a right angle to the
rows the next parallel with them These two workings will if the vines
grow rapidly probably be all that can be given for as soon as the vines have
run sufficiently to gat in the way cultivation should cease
Old melon growers never plow their plats while the dew is on the vines
but wait until midday before putting in the plow To what extent the crop
would be injured if at all by early morning cultivation yet remains to be
provedand to search for the cause before the fact is established would be
useless Yet general customs can usually be traced to some logical cause and
it is just as easy to observe this practice of our forefathers as to violate it
until it is proved to be unnecessary or inadvisable
Never under any circumstances turn a vine More will be lost by so doing
than will be gained by giving the plat an extra cultivation This is another
ancestral practice and doubtless arises from the fact that vines when turned
are apt to be carelessly handled If returned gently and deftly to their orig
inal position it is difR ult to realize how they would be injured Any weed
ing that is found necessary after this time should be effected with a scythe
blade lopping off the tops of the weeds above the vines They should not
even be pulled outby hand on account of the danger of mutilating the vines
which generally hold them in a tight embrace with their tendrils Indeed
rather than risk disturbing a vine it would be preferable to leave the weeds
and the melons to have it out between them for a few wellanchored
weeds here and there prove rather a benefit than a detriment since they
prevent the winds from rolling up and matting the vines
But better than weeds is a light sowing of cowpeasa peck to the acre
broadcasted just before the last cultivation and plowed in thereby The best
pea for this purpose is some upright slowgrowing variety as Whippoonoill or
New Era Besides the anchorage which the peas give the vines they also
serve to partially shade the melons from the scorching midsummer suns
and are of great benefit manurially to the ensuing crop whatever it may be
The watermelon bears its fruit directly on the main vinenever on its
laterals as does the muskmelon For this reason some growers make a prac
tice of clipping off the laterals as they form thinking that thereby they
throw the strength of the vine more into the main stem This is of very
doubtful benefit It must not be forgotten that the leaves of a plant are its
lungs and it is highly probable that the practice will be found of no more
value than the now obsolete custom of pinching back sweet potato vinesANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR
335
9 HOW TO TELL A RIPE MELON
vZiihlf thffruitBij indeed the melon ay be termed a fruit and not a
vegetableand it would be treason in this section to doubt it a change of
rSnil 6 aTaCh f rpening Peri0d With Pecie the
ripemng process continues after gathering without detrimen to quality
With the melon it is different Appearance to the uninitiated indicates 111
tie and it cannot be shipped half green like a Le Conte pear for it resembles
vinXV1 nM 1TrVing mUch after PuIia8 U mut be taken from the
confld nee T Jt mu8t b sent to market with absolute
confidence as to its proper state of maturityfor it would never do to risk
the ruin of a shipment and the reputation of the shipper by bungling green
or overripe melons into it 8 B g
Fortunately the knowledge of a ripe melon to a native Georgian appears to
nriaV7VntUiti0n r inSpirain Which is almost infalble He may
Znn y0U iWt hW he kDOWS a melon t0 be IP t he will go
nto a field and pick them out as fast as he comes to them and not miss one
n a thousand It seems to be largely an inherited instinctthis in sober
meThrdTdi0ritiaHdiffi0Utf0r 6Ven Uie ad6pt toputinwordsareliabl
method for dstingushing a properly ripe melon The knowledge is mainly
mTvlT y 6XfHenCe and ob8evation d doubtless through
ThTL T r errrS f Udment and humilig mistakes coupled with
Suit Irk er7rraiSlng melnS at tbeoutset Boys and sometimes an
adult darkey often resort to the nefarious practice of pluggingfeeling
their inability to wrestle successfully with the problem Many persons claim
Sit 7 Tu i6 ln8Pection of tb curl tendril on the stem if
his is dead he melon is ripe if green so is the melon It is needless to say
that this is altogether unreliable
Aside from intuition possibly the simplest advice that could be given
after all would be that of the old negro mauma in the ballad rating he
grandson for stealing a green melon
Be shore
When you thumps em dey allus soun plunk
Unquestionably the flat dead sound emitted by a melon when thumped
is the readest indction of ripeness and the one most universally depended
maturity reSnaaCe T mU8iCa1 tt is a Certaiu Proof of
iarXhfVw meln and eXp08iDg the llnder side tbe gu
ar white blotch formed where the melon has rested on the ground affords an
in ication of maturity When this begins to turn yellowish and become
rough pimply or warty with the surface sufficiently hard to resist the finger
nail when scratched it is usually a fair sign of ripeness
BUt ul13 ne mre t6St that is corroborative After the melon looks
ripe and thumps ripe if on a steady pressure of the upper side or top
by the palm of the hand while the melon lies on the ground instead of re
sisting solidly the interior appears to have a tendency to yielda givey sort
of feeling as it wereaccompanied by a crisp cracklinghalf heard half felt33G
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
as the flesh parts longitudinally in sections under the pressure the melon
may be pulled with absolute confidence It is certainly ripe
This test should never be resorted to with melons intended for shipment
as their carrying quality is necessarily impaired thereby
Yet all this as stated comes largely by instinct to the expert and it is
rarely that one finds it necessary to thump much less to press a melon
before deciding as to its maturity
When overripe there begins to creep over the surface of the melon in
places an unmistakable faint sicklywhite tinge turning later to a bilous
yellow pervading the texture of the skin and mingling with the grays light
greens and dark mottled shadings which characterize a normal condition
This tendency to a change in color may be so faint as to be undiscernible to
the layman but the expert will detect it a rod off
10 GATHERING AND MARKETING
As with the grape so with the melon the length of the wag m haul to the
point of shipment is one of the main factors affecting profits The industry
would be a lucrative one despite high freights glutted markts and unrelia
ble middlemen if this item could be always eliminated Hence the impor
tance of locating the field within easy distance of a station or siding in order
that the haul may be reduced to a minimum Skillful handling in the field
the use of bolster springs careful selection and judiciom loading in the
car often reverse the narrow margin between loss and profit
Undersized melons never pay for shipment No crop responds more emphat
ically to severe culling Uniformity in size or weight is an essential and
should be in all cases strictly enforced
In the second place in loading the smaller melons should be laid down
first on the floor of the carthe larger when there is any noticeable differ
ence racked on topnot for the purpose of deception or the sake of appear
ance but because the smaller sizes better withstand jolting and pressure and
there is also less loss if undue bruising should ensue
But the chief point in shipping is to select an advantageous market Ship
ments cannot be made blindly A glutted market means always that a be
lated shipment will not pay freight The melon is by far the most sensitive
of all perishable horticultural products A cold northeaster over lake Mich
igan has dumped many a tine carload into the Chicago river On a chilly day
in summer the public will not invest largely in watermelonsand hence on
such occasions an insignificant shipment of a few carloads will glut beyond
hope a market that on a hot dry day would swallow them by the trainload
and eagerly call for more In order to secure a sale at all it is absolutely ne
cessary to select the market from day to clay and to divert shipments en route
without hesitation The telegraph is therefore indispensable and many a
melon shippers account with the Western Union runs up to over ten dollars
a day during the seasonand this is the sort of man too who generally
comes out ahead
But much better than attempting to singly wrestle with the problem of se
lecting a market judiciously would be a reliance for this purpose on some
one of the cooperative shippers unions of which the American Fruit Grow
ers Union is decidedly the most prominent and to Georgia growers the mostANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 337
convenient This association which is national in its scope and operation
has recently absorbed the Georgia Fruit Growers Association which has
been in the past of such inestimable value to our fruit men and shippers
The new American Union is doing some excellent work for our people and
section Full information in regard to its methods and operations may be
obtained by addressing its PresidentHon John D Cunningham Marietta
Georgia
11 CHRISTMAS WATERMELONS
Under a previous head forcing for early melons was discussed He who is
successful therein is sure of a good price for his product but it will not com
pare with the fancy figures which the Christmas Watermelon commands
One would think their appearance at this season decidedly out of placethat
they would be in about as much demand as overcoats on the fourth of July
but strange to say the public buys themwith avidity too and at enormous
prices So it seems that late watermelons ought to be an achievement much
more worth striving for than early ones while the cost and labor of their at
tainment are considerably less
Mr David F Verner of Gwinnett county Georgia is noted for the fine
melons which he markets at Christmas and his process is simplicity itself
That it will prove equally easy to all who try it is by no means to be expected
and there will doubtless be many failures and disappointments if others at
tempt to imitate his methods But the fact remains that he does raise and
save late watermelons and on the 23d of last December sold them in quan
tities and at good figures on the streets of Buford
Mr Verner is sufficiently unselfish to be willing to share the knowledge of
his process with the public and his methods are consequently given in his
own words as follows
The variety of watermelon used by me for late keeping is the Georgia RaMemalce The
plan which I pursue is as follows I prepare the ground thoroughly during Maynot in the
usual way by digging holes but by opening deep furrows with a twohorse plow I use
stable manure in the drill but not too much j coyer with two furrows and leaye till planting
Tf 7V aPart8ft drill I leave only one vine to the hill Plant between 18th
and 30th of June cultivate with sweep run very shallow Dont let the plow touch vines
Melons matured before vine begins to die around root are the only ones easily preserved
For preservation place in dry cellar on cotton seed I still have eight fine melons on hand
January 4th perfect condtion chat I intended saving till spring but in neglecting cellar
in which they were stored in order that meat in same cellar should get cold they have frozen
I aim to raise melons this summer that I can save till melons come again
12 SAVING SEED
Notwithstanding the fact that the watermelon is moncecioushaving sepa
rate male and female flowers on the same vineit generally managesafter a
week or so of wasted energy in developing staminate or male flowers to bring
both sexes on together in practically equal numbers although the males
always predominate and as a result of the intermingling of the vines of dif
ferent varieties planted in juxtaposition there is always a considerable
amount of cross fertilization taking place This makes it very difficult to
keep any given strain of seed pure In fact it can only be done by complete
isolation or block planting and this must always be resorted to in order to
avoid deterioration
22 a338 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
Yet no fear need be entertained that the watermelon will cross with other
cucurbits as muskmelons squashes cucumbers or pumpkins Attempts to
artificially hybridize them though carefully made have invariably failed
The various cucurbits can be successfully intergrafted but they resolutely
refuse to respond to interpollination
The Alabama Experiment Station some years since established the fact
that while the seed were practically as good from all parts of the melonthat
is to say the seed from the central portion of the melon gave no better results
than those from either the stem or blossom endsthey were yet more
apt to be fully matured and hence to that extent at least preferable
Therefore in saving seed it is best to follow the oldfashioned plan of cut
ting off a portion of each end of the melon after the proper selection of the
melon itself from the forcing plat has been made
Of course the commercial planter seldom goes to the trouble of specially
preparing a forcing plat for seed melons although there is no doubt but that
it would well pay him so to do and result eventually in the development of
much finer melons than any strains we are now acquainted with Yet for all
ithat the finest melons are generally saved for seed where cupidity does not
overweigh policy and after being truncated as described are cut open and
the interior scouped out into a barrel until it is filled After a few days fer
mentation dissolves and decomposes the pulpthe fibrous matter floating on
top of the liquid The scum is then removed the liquid drawn off and the
eeed are washed and dried
If fancy melons are sought the seed should be carefully handpicked and
all immature and undersized seed rejected Good melon seed possess con
siderable viability and sometimes germinate after the lapse of many years
They are said to be not at all impaired by keeping for five or six years or
even longer
13 OTHER USES OF THE MELON
The Chinese regard the kernels of melon seed as a great delicacy and in
consequence they are valued much more highly than the melon itself which
is frequently offered gratuitously to the wayfarer on the condition that he eat
it then and there and surrender the seed While the flavor of the dried
kernel is rather nutty and quite pleasant so far as it goes an American palate
would consider it not sufficiently pronounced in characterscarcely indeed
escaping insipidity Add to this the trouble of extracting the kernel from
the huska task too tedious and laborious to be voluntarily undertaken by
other than an orientaland it is not difficult to understand why the melon
eeed as a delicacy has never become a commodity on the market Attempts
have been made on a small scale to utilize the kernels in the manufacture
of confectionery but there is little prospect of their ever coming into general
use for this purposeANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 339
While watermelon seed tea has always been recognized as a domestic
specific in kidney troubles pumpkin seed are a much more potent and equally
available diureticand yet it is doubtful if either is given a place in the U S
Dispensatory
Too small a percentage of sugar is found in the juice of the melon to render
it an economical possibility in the manufacture of sugar while the syrup it
produces turns dark in color and readily ferments
Attempts have frequently been made to turn melon juice into a marketable
article of vinegar but with very slight success The trouble seems to be that
complete acetic fermentation does not take place the process is only partial
and is supplemented by a species of putrefactive fermentation which is of
course ruinous to the commodity
As food for cattle and swine the melon while a good digestive and diuretic
contains little in the way of nutriment and appears on the whole to be
oather a luxury than a necessity but for which nevertheless thousands of
households during the scorching weather of the dog days throughout the
length and breadth of the land are most unfeignedly thankful
14 AFFECTIONS AND REMEDIES
After a stand is once obtainedspontaneously and promptlyand this
when all is said is perhaps the main problem underlying the culture of the
watermelonits affections are comparatively few and simple Indeed it may
really be said to be subject to no vital disease and its maladies are almost
entirely confined to those resulting from the attacks of a few insect pests
ome of them however quite troublesome First among them is
a The Melon WormMargaronia hyalinata Linn
This is a small moth the larva of which of a light yellowish green color
and about an inch long nearly transparent and slightly hairy do even more
damage to muskmelons than to watermelons With the latter their point of
attack is confined almost entirely to the leaves which they devour ravenously
and generally web up and ruin those they do not eat With muskmelons
their damage is primarily confined to the fruit which they puncture and
destroyusually from the underside but if the melon is protected from their
ravages by sacking in paper bags mounting on chips or otherwise they
devote themselves at once to the leaves and vine which they destroy in
short order
As the worms belong to the division of chewers and are not suckers
the arsenites prove quite a serviceable remedy as the damage is generally
efftcted while the fruit is young The vines may then be safely sprayed with
Paris Green one pound to 200 gallons of water or four ounces to the barrel
Later spraying if found necessary does not affect the edibility of the melons
but might perhaps injure stock if the rinds are fed to them in considerable
quantity
b The Melon LouseAphis gossppii Glover
While this insect has been honored with only the second place on our list
it is questionable if the damage it does is not fully as great as that inflicted by
the Melon Worm The active member of the community in this instanceis 340
DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
small winged green fly which appears in early springviviparous or giving
birth to living young instead of laying eggs These young are wingless and
strongly resemble other plant lice or aphides They also possess the same
amazing appetite and digestive capacity and secrete the honey dew usually
accompanying this class of insects This honey dew is merely the excrement
of the aphisthat is the extracted juices of the plant on which it feeds after
passing through its digestive system and usually serves as the host of a
fungus which gives the vines a blackened or sooty appearance when the lice
are present in large numbers
The wingless aphids attain maturity in about a week and immediately be
gin to reproduce their kind In this way a very rapid multiplication takes
place and the immense quantity of sap extracted from the plants soon ex
hausts the vines
This insect probably winters both in the winged viviparous form or in that
of eggs deposited by a sexed form developing late in the seasonthus com
pleting the circuit
According to Dr Smith this species in
fests many other common forms of vege
tation as cotton the strawberry pepper
grass dock dandelion plantain chick
weed red clover etc This being the
case it is very difficult to exterminate
the pest by preventive measures so long
as such convenient winter quarters and
propagating grounds exist in every fence
corner It is useless to advise that all
such vegetation be cleaned up This sounds very nicely in theory but is
almost impossible to put thoroughly into practice Rotation of course is of
great assistance in this case as well as in every other instance where either
insects or fungous affections are to be met and battled with and is strenu
ously urged While quite effective however in most cases it becomes less
so when the pest is of such a nature as to be independent of the protection
which the area of the field itself affords and may rest securely through the
winter along every fence row or roadway
The only direct remedies are Carbon bisulphide Kerosene or Whale Oil
Soap Aphids are of course suckers not chewershence the arsenites
are with them of no value
1 Carbon bisulphide This is said to be a swift and certain remedy but re
quires some previous preparation to administer as well as some little outlay
A teaspoonful to the hill is sufficient to exterminate every louse on the vines
the cost is not great it comes in liquid form in bottles or carboys if desired
is not difficult to apply and is entirely harmless to human beings when its
fumes are inhaled though its odor is far from pleasant Any small vessel
the size of a diminutive saucer or even a butterplate is sufficient to hold the
dose for a hillin new Jersey they use clam shells The preparation and
chief cost consists in the covers necessary to confine its vapor for it is ex
tremely volatile As the application has usually to be made while the vines
are small two barrel hoops will make a convenient frameone cut in two
Tbe Melon Louse after SmithANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
341
and the pieces crossed in the shape of a dome or a dish coverthe second used
whole as a rim Cover with 8 oz duck steeped in linseed oil A hundred or
so of these covers will enable a couple of men to go over quite a large area
very rapidly as by the time they have set the last cover the liquid under the
first will have evaporated and it may be removed
This remedy is better adapted perhaps to the use of the large commercial
grower than to the small planter as he can more readily afford the expense
of the preparationespecially when the process is certain to prove effective
and he will probably save his crop thereby
2 Kerosene This may be uaed either in the form of Kerosene Emulsion
though this is now beginning to fall into disuseor pure by the Weed Mix
ing Process
The standard formula for Kerosene Emulsion is as follows
KEROSENE EMULSION
8 ounces hard soap Ivory or Whale Oil
1 gallon boiling water
1 quart kerosene
Dissolve the soap in the water add the kerosene and pump back into itself over and over
again vrith a cheap force pump in a barrel until the mixture emulsifies or thickens to the
consistency of cream Then dilute with zy2 gallons of hot water This gives a M5 proportion
of kerosene and this formula will readily emulsify in ten minutes with either hard or soft
water which will not be the case if a larger proportion of kerosene to water is used than that
given
Better however than the emulsion form because more simply prepared is
a 1 to 15 mixture of Kerosene and water forming a temporary emulsion as it
issues from the nozzle of the sprayer by means of the Weed Kerosene
Tank manufactured by the Deming Co
of Salem Ohio and attached to either a
knapsack sprayer or an ordinary bucket
pump It is such an infinite improvement
over the wearisome churning necessary to
prepare Kerosene Emulsion that it cannot
be too earnestly recommended though a
little more care should be taken with it in
guarding against damage to tender foliage
This method of temporarily emulsifying
Kerosene is the invention of Prof Howard
Evarts Weed formerly of the Mississippi
Experiment Station and is accomplished by
filling the sprayer with pure water and the
tank attachment with Kerosene regulating
the proportion of the latter by the graduated
lever or scale accompanying the attachment
Temporary emulsification or a condition
approaching it is thus effected automatic
ally as the combined flow of oil and water
issues from the nozzle and while pro
ducing practically the same results attained
by the use of the standard emulsion is
much more speedy simple and economical
Bucket Form of Weed Kerosene
Sprayer342
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
and is for these reasons destined to largely if not entirely supersede the
latter This Station has employed it the past two seasons with marked suc
cess against the aphis on apple trees whose leaves appear to stand a mix
ture of even I to 6 without injury
3 Whale Oil Soap This preparation is even less costly than Kerosene and
almost as effective A proportion of 1J lbs soap to a gallon of water is fre
quently found sufficiently strong to clear the plants of the lice Should it not
do so increase to 2 lbs Use hot water in making the solution but do not
spray until cooled down to a temperature below bloodheat
c The Striped Cucumber BeetleDiabroiica vittala Fabr
This is a small beetle about a quarter of an inch long yellow with three
longitudinal stripes The insect appears early in the spring and attacks the
young vines as they come up The larvse also burrow into the roots inflicting
great damage in this way
Tobacco dust and airslaked lime dusted on the young
plants are fairly satisfactory remedies Paris Green is better
either dusted dry with airslaked lime plaster or flour
one part of Paris Green to twenty of the mediumor sprayed
as previously described4 oz of Paris Green to 50 gal
lons of water Mixed with Bordeaux Mixture in the same
proportion as with water Paris Green can be more safely
sprayed than with water alone as the lime by its neutralizingcucuMBER
effect renders the application less injurious to foliage This fterLowe
will not of course affect the larvre while in their burrows and
hence the pinch or so of Nitrate of Soda advised under the head of Fertil
ization will prove of great service as a safeguard against this pest by giving
the young plants a quick send off
d The Flea Beetle Crepidodera cucumeris Harris
This beetle like all of its kind is diminutivefrom jV to TV of an inch in
lengthblack or practically so to the naked eye with very powerful hind
legs rendering it extremely active It feeds on the young plants in the
spring after maturing under rubbish and stones The mature insect eats the
upper surface of the leaves in irregular patches and the larva are said to
burrow their way through the interior of the leaf structure under the surface
Remedies are the same as for the Striped Cucumber Beetle
SCHEDULE OP PRECAUTIONARY OPERATIONS
From the foreging it will be readily inferred that the lot of the commercial
melon grower is not a happy one and that in order to protect himself
with certainty against all insect depredators he must take it for granted that
they will each visit him in turn and will hence find it advisable to put into
operation the following synopsized schedule ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
343
1 Apply a pinch of Nitrate of Soda to each hill as soon as the young plants
are up This to insure full vigor and power of resistance to all enemies as
they arrive on the scene
2 Spray with Paris Green4 oz to 50 gals waterat intervals of a week
for two or three sprayings This for the Melon Worm striped Cucumber
Beetle and Flea Beetle
3 Spray intermediately at intervals of a week midway between the arsen
ite sprayings with a 1 to 15 mixture of kerosene and water Kerosene
Emulsion same strength or Whale Oil Soap 2 lbs to the gallon may be
used instead if the Melon Louse is found to have located on the plants
Carbon bisulphide may be used in obdurate cases or where the planting is
sufficient large to justify it
Should these steps be taken the grower may be reasonably certain of saving
his crop and as they are not very costly it will be found to well rfpay the
effort and outlay
15 VARIETIES
For shipping many different varieties have from time to time contested for
first place Perhaps the melon best known to the markets of the North and
West is the Georgia Rattlesnake and at the head of this strain stands the sub
variety known the country over as the Augusta Rattlesnake This distinction
it has enjoyed for many year and deservedly but of late its popularity has
begun to subside and other famous shippers are coming to the front For a
long time the Kolb Gem seemed destined to to supersede it as a popular ship
per But in its turn it has had to share the market with Jones Jumbo and
Duke Jones followed by Lord Bacon which is unquestionably the most notable
recent introduction and appears to have come to stay It is a solid thick
rined excellent shipper and keeper and of good quality
If forced to list the three best melons for shipping purposes it would be
safe to rank Lord Bacon at the head closely followed by Kolb Gem and Augusta
Rattlesnake with Jones Jumbo a good fourth None of these are of first qual
ity but they will all get thereif its anywhere within a thousand miles
and sell too after they have arrived
It is not so easy a task to decide on what variety is best in quality and
superior for the local market or the home table Taste varies greatly and so
do the characteristics of the different varieties from season to season while
soil local climatology and other conditions present another set of disturbing
factors The following are recommended as from very good to excellent
in quality of good size and sufficiently reliable in productiveness and other
features to warrant a careful test Sibleys Triumph Seminole Dixie Jordans
Gray Monarch Phinneys Early Part III of this Bulletin contains a descrip
tive list of melons which may be consulted for details The Station has this
year no seed for either sale or distribution344
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
SUMMARY
1 Soil and LocationA warm light sandy loam well drained is the
SShetSleS Wat6rmel0n 1S mUCh mre Pelar
2 RoTATioNThis is allimportant Under no circumstances should mel
ons follow melons and at least four seasons should intervene before the land
is again devoted to this crop
3 PREPAEATioNShould be thorough but not necessarily deep as the
onosb P ke rsufacefeederscompete iSLZ
One breaking and two effective harrowings with a cutaway or even a
memal fertilizer u a compound of 400 pounds nitrate of soda 800 pounds
add phosphate and 200 pounds muriate or sulphate of potash ulTh
rate of 700 pounds and upwards per acre AntrapinL of nitrate of soda
to each hill mt after the plants have appeared will give them a good send
6 PiANTiNGShould be done by hand and should be shallow Plentv of
1 tr8 beffe hn gr
thLCnrTA7KfnerthepantSare UP ty should be thinned down to
ion sho Th l d afterwards to one or at most two vines Cultiva
ted nir be8ha7wllh culvator or scrape Vines should never be
turned nor should the crop be plowed during the early forenoon When it
cTeSATTytGtUrnVineS t0g6t tbe Plow through cultivation should
72 i V brtadaStlng of cowpeas at last cultivation is advisable to pre
ent winds from tumbling and rolling the vines
8 Gathering and MarketingPlantings for shipment should be directly
on a line of railroad the melons should always be hauled on springs to the
oTZZZty Cff lhB Prflt d6PendS abS0UteI Q tbe PPerfele on
ZmLT ff r thlS PUrpSe the American Fruit Growers Union
will be found ot inestimable value to the shipper
9 Early MelonsThese may be forced by starting under glass in paper
A rtion oS8H traDSpanting mediately after danger from frost isTer
iuUhl I SeW6r Plpe SUnk PePendiculary into the hill through
10 Late MELONsMelons may be had at Christmas by selecting a thick
rinded vanety planting late in June handling carefulhwhen pulled nl
storing on some dry yielding substance like cottonseed hulls in acoofceilar
here the temperature is uniform and can never drop below f eezingANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
345
12 Economic ValueThe watermelon must be considered essentially a
luxury It has not proved of practical value for anything but table use It
cannot be profitably converted into either syrup sugar or vinegar and is
almost worthless except as a digestive in stock feeding
13 Insect EnemiesThese are mainly four
a The Melon Wormdestroying only the leaves of the watermelon
but both the foliage and fruit of the cantaloupe
b The Melon Louseinjuring the foliage only
c The Striped Cucumber BeetleThe mature insect attacking the
young vines as they come up and the grub attacking the roots
d The Flea Beetleattacking in its mature state the surface of the
leaves while its grub burrows into their interior structure
14 Remedies1 A pinch of Nitrate of Soda at each hill when plants
come up to give them a good send off and put them rapidly beyond reach of
damage
2 Spray with Paris Green4 ounces to 50 gallonsat intervals of a week
for three weeks against the melon worm striped cucumber beetle and flea
beetle or dust with Paris Green one part to 20 of flour or lime
3 Spray intermediately with Kerosene Emulsion or a 1 to 15 mixture of
kerosene and water for the melon louse AVhale Oil Soap may also be used
2 pounds to the gallonor carbon bisulphide in obdurate cases
15 Varietiesa For shipping Lord Bacon is recommended as first
choice followed by Kolb Gem and Augusta Rattlesnake
b For family use Seminole Sibleys Triumph Jordans Gray Monarch and
Ramsay
c For early melons Memphis Augusta Sugarloaf Augusta Rattlesnake
d For late melons Boss Scalybark Sweetheart
HUGH N STARNES
Horticulturist346
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
Bulletin issued by Georgia Experiment Station
By H N Staknes Horticulturist
IRISH POTATOES
PART ICTJLTURK
INTRODUCTORY
North of the Potomac and the Ohio whenever use is made of
the word potato it is universally understood to refer to the Irish
potatoSolatium tuberosumwhiv at the South a very different
meaning is attached Here the word potato always refers to the
Sweet potatoBatatas echriis Speak to a Yermonter or a Michi
gander of potatoes and his mind instantly reverts to Irish pota
toes no suggestion of Sweet potatoes is conveyed unless they are
specifically mentioned To him a potato is a potatoan Irish
potatoand he only attaches the generic term to the Sweet potato
through courtesy
To a Georgian or Louisianaian a potato is also a potatoa Sweeet
potatoand that any reference is intended to the Irish potato does
not occur to him though like his Northern brother he is also ready
on occasion to apply the generic term potato as a matter of court
esy to Sir Walter Raleighs invaluable contribution to the dietary
of the world
Nor is this surprising when we consider causes At the North
Irish potatoes are everywhere a field cropin some sections the
staple money cropwhile Sweet potatoes when grown at all are
merely an incidental At the South exactly the reverse is the
case The Sweet potato is here much more extensively grown than
the Irish potato though seldom rising to the dignity of a staple
except in trucking centers or around the larger cities where its
importance is also contested by the Irish potato Yet through theANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
347
rural districts the latter dwindles always to a small garden plat for
home use while there are few farmers who fail to plant enough
Sweet potatoes to afford a small surplus for market after the family
table is supplied
All general customs are founded on some rational basis At
the North the short summer throws the harvesting of the Irish
potato crop into the fall when the weather is cool and the question
of preservation a simple problem Marketing too at living figures
is also possibleat least by shipping southward for the Southern
crop harvested in early summer and at that time a local drug on
the market has by fall become exhausted
The Sweet potato crop on the contrary like cotton has the
advantage of growing and thriving through the long Southern sum
mer and harvested in the late fall is in such abundance as tc
preclude the possibility of a sale of Northern grown Sweet potatoes
at the South
While this has probably been the cause of the difference of choice
by the two sections in their respective selections a gradual tenden
cy at the South to plant more largely in Irish potatoes has
of late developed This to a great extent is due to the dis
covery in this section of the possibilities of the second or summer
erop An increasing demand from the North for seed tubers of
the summer planting for the spring crop in that section is yearly
becoming more manifest and this has doubtless stimulated effort
in this direction
Formerly it was considered almost an impossibility to secure a
regular and uniform stand for the second crop but the practice of
bedding selected tubers of the spring crop for seed and the intro
duction of the Lookout Mountain potato which will keep in per
fect condition from October to August seem to have entirely re
moved the problem of securing a uniform stand and now bid fair
to render the Southern fall crop a rival of no mean pretensions to
the first and only crop of the North in the winter markets of the
South348 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
PREPARATION
The Irish potato responds abnormally to deep and thorough plow
ing and pulverizationso abnormally as to lead a few years since
to the development by that distinguished agricultural writer and
experimenterElbert S Carman of the Rural New Yorkerof
the trench system which he regarded as destined to completely
solve the problem of successful potato culture To those familiar
with the habits of the potato this appeared quite probable though
many apparently misunderstanding Mr Carmans suggestions
have found fault with his system alleging that it calls for the con
struction of an open trench or ditch from five to seven inches deep
and from twelve to fifteen inches wide the bottom well pulverized
that the seed pieces are to be planted on this bottom and covered
some two inches deep with soil upon which the fertilizer is applied
and the trench filled Such is the popular idea of Mr Carmans
trench and the public so impressed holds and justly were it
true that a ditch of these dimensions could not be constructed
by the plow or any other known implement or machine and the
work would hence have to be done entirely by hand which would
render it absolutely impracticable on account of the enormous ex
pense attached to such an excavation
It is true that the trenches constructed by Mr Carman in his
individual experimentation as detailed in his very comprehensive
work on the Irish potato were made by hand but this was in the
prosecution of an important test and on a comparatively small
scale He is not to be understood however in advising the public
to undertake shovel work in field culture Practical trenching
as advocated by him for large areas appears to be merely a process
of thorough subsoiling and opening out in which the plow alone
figures
With this interpretation the trench system will find no lack of
endorsers Two trips along the row with a turn plow throwing
out the dirt to the right and left followed by three trips with a
subsoiler or long scooter breaking the soil thoroughly for ten
or twelve inches and the row subsequently opened out by two trips
with a wide shovel plow woidd not only prove feasible but intenseANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
34
ly practical and while probably appearing to the average cultivator
a needless waste of good mule power would triumphantly vindi
cate itself in the end and substantially fulfil the requirements of
Jlr Carmans trench1
No land that is not peculiarly adapted to Irish potatoes should
be employed in their culture It will not pay to try to raise them
on a poor thin stiff soil Select a good loose sandy loam with
a stiff clay subsoil Turn this in the fall or early winter thor
oughly subsoilingif possible with two mules It is better to
break with one animal and subsoil with two than to reverse the
process if three animals are available
At planting time harrow and well pulverize the surface soil
Lay off furrows as previously indicated After the second shovel
furrow is run the trench will be about four or five inches deep and
ready for planting soft and mellow to a depth of six or seven inches
more The fertilizer or half of it as described under the next
head should be put in before the subsoiling is commenced in
order to secure thorough mixing during the process
When the seed tubers are placed in position the simplest way
1 The following extract from a letter from Mr Carman to the writer since the
foregoing was penned may throw additional light on the matter
Thanks for the interest you take in our Trench system I would not per
haps subsoil as you state except upon clay or heavy soils About eight
inches is as deep as we spade or plow In field culture a drag may be used to
return an inch or so of the soil to the bottom of the trenches so that the seed
pieces may be about six or even but four inches below the surface when the
trenches are filled I would sow the fertilizer just after trenching and before
the drag is used to return several inches of soil to the bottom Really the
cost of this method when one has suitable implements is little more than
an excellent fitting of the soil for potatoes in the old way The trench seems
to conserve moisture to distribute the fertilizer just where the plant needs
it and to insure in a measure against the pressure and compactness of the
soil after alternate rain and drouth I do not pretend to understand just
why this method gives me from twice to four times as much crop as my neigh
bors get who generally fertilize in the hill hilling up with every cultivation
It is however the truth
Again the tubers raised by the trench method seem to be more shapely
and less affected with scab Many people who try it do not give it a thorough
test A simple trench wide furrow or ditch is not enough
I have often wished that the Experiment Stations would give it careful trial
beside potatoes planted fertilized and cultivated in the usual way With
best wishes Sincerely yours E S Carman350
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
will be to cover by a board on the end of the plowstocka familiar
and effective implement for covering purposes to most Georgia
farmers The board should be run very lightly on one side of the
furrow only sifting in about two inches of soil and just covering
the potatoes On this the remaining fertilizer should be drilled
and the furrows filled with the board by brushing in the undis
turbed dirt on the other side of the row
FERTILIZER
The Irish potato requires a complete fertilizer but one very rich
in Potash The formula succeeding best at this Station has been
found to be
High Grade Acid Phosphate 1200 lbs
Nitrate of Soda 500 lbs
Muriate of Potash 300 lbs
2000 lbs
1ms would analyze
Phosphoric Acid about 80 per cent
Nitrogen about 37 per cent
Potash about 75 per cent
This should be applied at the rate of 1000 lbs per acre costing
per ton about 2340 half in the furrow before planting mixing
thoroughly with the scooter furrows run while subsoiling before
the row is opened up for planting with the shovel plow and the
other half after planting and covering but before the furrow is
quite filled up thus dividing the fertilizer equally above and below
the seed
If the crude ingredients specified are not all obtainable the
same proportions of plant food may be practically supplied by
taking any good highgrade standard commercial fertilizer analyz
ing some S per cent Phosphoric Acid 3 per cent Nitrogen and
1 per cent Potash or more and to each ton adding 250 lbs Muri
ate of Potash If Muriate cannot be obtained conveniently 1 000
lbs Kaimt may supply its place
Stable manure is not advised It has generally been consideredANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 351
conducive to scab and it is probably true the germs of the bacter
ium causing this affection are quite frequently conveyed by it At
any rate it certainly harbors myriads of woodlice which oftentimes
complete the work of the deep scab by increasing the size and
depth of the holes it produces in the tubers
Land already rich in humus or vegetable mold from previous
treatment with cowpeas is much to be preferred Such land with
the commercial fertilizer recommended should produce excellent
results
Dividing the fertilizerhalf under before planting and half over
at the time of coveringappears to give better results than when
applied either all over or all under though under application is pref
erable to over application when all of the fertilizer is put in at one
time
SEED PIECES AND DISTANCE
Rows three feet apart and seed pieces cut to a weight of 1
ounces or an equivalent sizeapproximating quarter medium
tubers or twoeye piecesappear to give the best results
Two and a half foot rows is too close a distance for the drouthy
spring weather of this part of the South and four foot rows is a
waste of ground
As for seed pieces while authorities and experience vary greatly
it is probable that what are generally known as twoeye pieces or
pieces whose weight will approximate an ounce or an ounce and a
halfwill taking into consideration the amount necessary for
seed produce the largest net results
The yield of tubers appears to be within certain limits directly
dependent upon the number of stalks in the hill and the number
of stalks is again dependent upon the size of the seed piece whether
a whole or a divided tuber and not upon the number of eyes con
tained in the seed piece While at the North whole tubers up to
four or five ounces in weight seem to make the heaviest yields at
a distance of two and a half feet in the hill it is found that a closer
distance diminishes the proportion of merchantable tubers to small
tubers while increasing the total yield At the South one foot352
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
in the drill is found preferable to hill culture and hence it will not
pay to use very large seed pieces either whole or divided at this
distance Therefore the use of quarter medium potatoes or pieces
averaging an ounce or an ounce and a half in weight irrespective
of the number of eyes is recommended This would require from
12 to 18 bushels per acre for seeding while whole tubers averaging
six ounces each would require at the same distance 72 bushels
Nevertheless where very early potatoes are desired it may pay
to use whole tubers exclusively of a size ranging from four to six
ounces Such seed at a moderate distancesay 18 to 20 inches
would produce a very heavy crop and a very early one since there
is an abundance of plant food readily available in the starchy mat
ter of the potato which will last the young shoots until their fibrous
rootlets have developed sufficiently to reach out and forage for
themselves in the surrounding soil In this way the crop is pushed
rapidly forward in its infancy On the other hand the smaller
the seed pieces the sooner this natural reservoir of plant food is
exhausted and hence the soil where small seed pieces are used
must be proportionately richer and in better condition than is neces
sary with larger pieces in order to give them a good send off
An appreciation of this fact will be of vital importance to the
trucker
In this connection it is well to state that it is far better to cut to
a uniform weight in ounces or fractions thereof than to use the
old standard of measurement by eyes Experiments have proved
that the number of stalks springing from a seed piece is not depen
dent upon the number of eyes the piece contains but upon its
weightthat is its reservoir of immediately available plant food
If the seed piece is small and there are many eyes only as many
as the piece can sustain will develop surplus eyes will remain dor
mant Therefore weight or size in the seed piece is all important
and eyes become a secondary consideration Nor will the fact
that an eye is bisected while quartering a tuber necessarily destroy
the eye If divided at all evenly both sides of the dissected eye
will grow and each put out about as many shoots separately as the
undivided eye would have done reinforced by the same sized seed
pieceANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
353
This is readily explainable by taking into consideration the fact
that the Irish potato tuber is not an enlarged root as usually sup
posed but a thickened stem of which the eyes are embryo buds
not simple but compound budsin effect a group of buds of
which ordinarily only one or two will grow and develop On divis
ion however if even one perfect embryo is left on either seed
piece as strong a growth will take place as if the eye had been un
touched
Therefore in cutting seed pieces it will be well so sort the me
dium tubers averaging from four to six ounces and divide into
quarters without regard to mutilated eyes or their number or any
thing else except expedition
In sorting to size an effective implement will be found in the
Hoover Potato Sorter whose work of operation is fully indicated
in the subjoined figure It can be obtained from Messrs Hoover
Prout Co of Avery Ohio and costs about 1500
The Hoover Potato Sorter
23 a354
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
CUTTING SEED PIECES
There is a popular fallacy that stalks from the seed end of tha
tuber the end farthest froiu the stalk produce fewer and smaller
potatoes than those from the stem end or end nearest the stalk
though some growers claim precisely the reverse As a matter of
fact it makes not the slightest difference whether the seed piece is
taken from one end or the other or from the middle of the tuber
or even if it is cut longitudinally and contains portions of all three
The only governing factor is weight Therefore all efforts to
divide the tuber in such manner as to throw a portion of the eyes
from either end into each seed piece cut is just so much thrown
away
To fully understand this it may be well to give some idea of the
general construction and formation of tbe potato tuber Phis
according to Prof Jos C Arthur of the Indiana Experiment Sta
tion is found when split sectionally to consist mostly of starchy
material but extending around the edge of the section at a short
distance from it and bending up to meet the eyes at all points is a
WOdy fibrous ring or diaphragm whose principal function is to
serve as an available channel for the transmission or conduction of
water but which also gives strength and support to the tuber
This wood ring extends not only through the structure of the
tuber but through that of the entire plant both inside and out
side the wood ring is the starchbearing part of the tuberthe
reservoir of plant food previously referred to
Extending from the stem end to the terminal eye or bud is a
pithy cellular tract containing little starch but a great deal of
water Eadiating from this central tract to the different eves are
subtracts which Prof Arthus terms pith rays
Now it is quite frequently asserted by unscientific writers posses
sing only a partial knowledge of the structure of the potato here
detailed that in preparing seed pieces the tuber should be cut slant
ingly from the center toward the terminal group of eyes in such
manner that the lateral pith ray leading to each eye shall be
preserved intactANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1S98
355
This theory originated under the mistaken impression that the
pith rays were ducts or conduits for the transmission of nutri
ment from the starchy portions of the seed pieces to the growing
hud This as Prof Arthur states lias led to the invention of a
concave and curved knife for cutting seed potatoes for planting
which is really a convenient and serviceable knife for the purpose
The value of the knife depends upon the fact that it permits the
potato to be cut in such shape that each eye is provided with the
Humphreys Potato Knife1
largest practicable portion of the tuber in the most compact form
and not that there is any special vital tract to be preserved If
any one part beside the eye is more essential to full growth than
another it must be the wood ring which facilitates the passage
of nutrient juices from the seed tuber to the young plant All
the common methods of cutting potatoes preserve this except the
occasional and unsatisfactory one of taking their parings
Therefore the conclusion is obvious and inevitable that sufficient
size is all that it is necessary to consider in cutting seed pieces
Before the tubers are cut however they should be immersed in
a solution of Corrosive Sublimate as described in detail hereafter
for the purpose of preventing scab
1 This illustration was kindly lent by Mr D S Humphrey of 2298 Euclid
Ave Cleveland O the inventor of the Curved and Concave Potato Knife
Tvhich is however now handled by J C Vaughn seedsman Chicago356 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
DEPTH TO PLANT
Tour inches appear to give the best results closely followed by
a depth of three five and six inches in the order named Little
difference however is observable between any of these depths
which is contrary to the long conceived opinion that for the first
crop the deeper the seed were planted the better
With the second crop the conditions are entirely changed It
was formerly deemed necessary to both plant and cover deep under
the impression that only in this way could sufficient moisture be
obtained for germination and growth But experience has proved
that tubers so planted fail in many instances to germinate at all
On the other hand if planted too shallow the tubers sunscald
Hence it is best with the second crop to plant deepsay five inches
but to cover lightly at first with perhaps two inches of soil
gradually working the dirt in around the growing plants as cul
tivation proceeds This will be again referred to under the head
of Summer Planting
TIME TO PLANT
This is a matter for individual determination depending of
course upon climatic conditions as affected by latitude or location
and season It is desirable that potatoes be planted as early as
possible in this latitude not only to secure early tubers but in order
to have the crop matured before the hot weather of early summer
Hence it is well to get them in as soon as possible after all reason
able danger from heavy freezes has passed In lower Georgia the
latter part of February will do on the averageand the time ranges
through the four weeks of March for Middle and Upper Georgia
into the first days of April for the mountains
CULTIVATION
This should be rapid and thorough and on a level The best
implement for the purpose is the Planet Jr Cultivator shown in
the cut below This simple but effective implement has been be
fore recommended by the Station not only for horticultural andANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
357
trucking use but for field crops as well It may be obtained of the
Southern Farm Tool Co of Atlanta
Mulching in the row without cultivation does not with any
material yield a sufficient increase over clean culture to pay for
the extra expense of hauling the material and harvesting the crop
With the fall crop it pays much better than with the spring crop
Ridging is also less profitable than level culture
Mulching with pine straw oak leaves or with stable bedding
in the row after the seed have been covered to the depth of an
inch or so and subsequent cultivation in the ordinary manner
gives a better yield than clean culture but it is doubtful if it will
pay for the extra labor required in accumulating the material un
less in a very dry season Cotton seed hulls as a mulch are not
satisfactory They are not sufficiently absorptive
A common mode of planting garden patches which is of course
not practicable in field culture is what may be termed the broad
cast method and consists in running a furrow after the land is
prepared with a turn plow and dropping the seed therein at 18
inch intervals This is covered with the plow by running another
furrow alongside the first in which seed are also droppedand so
on through the plat which is mulched with pine straw of whatever
material may be most available for the purpose and left unculti
vated through the season The yield by this method is greater
than the same area would produce under ordinary culture owing
In great measure to the conservation of moisture by the mulch
but there is not a very great net difference after deducting the
excess of seed used while the labor of harvesting which must be
done entirely by hand is terrific It is a good plan for the second
crop in gardens but will never prove available for field areas
HARVESTING
Ordinarily in tbis state except in lower Georgia from the first
to the last of June the crop is ready for digging Of course on
the coast and near the Florida line it matures earlier However
if not particularly wanted for early marketing it may be well to
wait until the first of July before diggingor at all events until358
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
the hot weather and the Hacrosporium a fungus which will be
referred to in its proper place combine to put an end to active
growth
Experiments have proved that much loss is entailed by the pre
mature harvesting of the potato crop and that the size of the tubers
increases daily during the last month of this growth which of course
means a daily increase in the amount of the crop up to the period
of arrested growth It has also been shown that where they are
affected by Scab there is little if any increase of the fungus after
growth has ceased Therefore a maximum yield will be realized
by deferring harvesting to full maturity
Planet Jr Cultivator
Necessarily when a planting is made for early sales time is of
vastly more importance than a maximum yield and the tubers
should be dug as soon as marketable
The usual method of harvesting in this section is with the plow
assisted sometimes by pronghoes used by hand This is of
course a crude process and suitable only for small areas Tt will be
found economical to employ a potato harvester if planting is done
on a large scale There are many different patents of potato
harvesters but perhaps the best will be found to be that manufact
ured by Hoover Prout Co of Avery Ohio as shown in theANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
35 91
above figure This implement cannot be used in stumpy or very
rocky ground and is difficult to manipulate in stiff soil but in an
unobstructed deep sandy loamthe only kind of soil naturally
adapted to the potato burrows under the row without difficulty
and sifts the soil through its ribs which arrest and turn the tubers
out behind in a continuous stream clear of dirt vines or other
trash A much cheaper and simpler digger though of course not
so efficient is the Planet Jr manufactured by Messrs S L Allen
Co 1107 Market St Philadelphia
This however will do the work and is within the means of small
growers The former costs about 12500 the latter 1600
Hoovek Potato Digger
In digging one point should be observed the sun should be al
lowed to fall on the tubers as little as possible It is better to
transfer as gathered direct to barrels which should stand in the
shade or be conveyed to a dark cool place If not convenient to
do this the potato piles should be made in the shade and never
heaped in the sun on any account
Instead of baskets which bruise the tubers unmercifully with
the keen edges of the woven whiteoak splits of which they are
formed shallow wooden boxes or trays with handholes should be
used in picking up This holds good for sweet potatoes as well as
for Irish360
DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
Planet Je Potato Digger
SUMMER CROP
As previously stated this crop has recently assumed great prom
inence for several reasons
1 It has been demonstrated that it can be grown successfully
2 A steady demand has sprung up for fall grown seed for the
spring crop from both North and South
3 Its possibility as a competitor with the Northern crop for
consumption in Southern markets is beginning to be realized
Formerly the difficulty was to obtain a perfect stand The
planting of the second crop was generally accomplished by throw
ing back the culls whole into the furrow made at digging time
As many of the tubers so used were immature they failed to sprout
and even matured tubers were usually covered so deep that
stand more or less imperfect was obtained Moreover the first
crop was dug in early summer generally in June and this was
too early for planting in this latitude as the almost inevitable mid
summer drouths were of course prejudicial to vigorous develop
ment Hence the general complaint in regard to the failure of
this crop irrespective of the imperfect stand
Afterwards partial attempts were made to select matured and
perfect tubers for planting by spreading the potatoes from the
first crop on barn or cellar floors under houses or even in the open
air in shady places for some weeks and then choosing such tubers
as appeared sound and viable This while producing an improve
ment in the stand was by no means entirely satisfactory
ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 361
Of late however that distinguished horticulturist W F Massey
of the North Carolina Experiment Station has urged upon the pub
lic the advisability of bedding selected potatoes from the first crop
in a manner somewhat similar to that employed for sweet potatoes in
the spring JSTo hotbed however is prepared the manure used for
this purpose in sweet potato bedding being omitted The tubers are
merely covered with a couple of inches of dirt after drying for a few
weeks in a cool place and about the middle of August are exhausted
arid only those showing a tendency to sprout selected These are
planted whole in the row in the usual way but covered at first with
only two inches of soil The dirt is worked in gradually afterwards
during the process of cultivation In this way a perfect stand may
be obtained and the growing crop set at a time when there is
usually enough moisture to start a vigorous growth besides ena
bling it to escape the Macrosporium or Early Blight which in
variably affects the first crop if untreated and which would prob
ably also fasten on the second if planted earlier than here advised
Prof Massey at first advocated the planting of whole tubers ex
clusively for the second crop but afterward qualified this advice
What his final conclusion was does not appear but experimentation
in this State seems to point to the use of whole tubers only and
this course is unhesitatingly recommended
A peculiar advantage of the fall crop consists in the fact that
the potatoes may be left in this latitude in the rows where they
are grown the greater portion of the winter and marketed at leisure
simply by throwing on each row a heavy list with a turn plow as
many of our farmers are now in the habit of keeping their turnips
and beets
But where planting is conducted on a large scale or where the
time of the trucker is occupied in midsummer by other and exact
ing work rendering the careful preparation and selection neces
sary in the bedding process a matter of serious loss of time and
extreme inconvenience another alternative is presented This is
the use of seed from the fall crop of a local variety known as the
Lookout Mountain and which is attracting much attention in this
State at present This variety will wdien dug in October keep362
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
unsprouted through the entire spring and well into the summer
and if allowed to remain undug in thje listed furrow well into the
winter and then carefully stored in tight barrels in a cool dark
cellar will be almost entirely unsprouted at planting time in
August
The use of this variety is of special value to those who plant a
large fall crop hut find a spring crop unprofitable Such growers
are enabled atsmall cost to secure seed that will produce a perfect
stand without undergoing the expense and annoyance of raising
and bedding them
The Lookout Mountain is a potato said to have originated in
Northwest Georgia as its name indicates and is probably a seedling
from the Hoosier which it much resembles and which shares with
it to some extent its remarkable keeping qualities It is quite large
oblong and of excellent qualitypure white mealy and of unsur
passed flavor and richness If it has a fault it is unproductiveness
though in its native locality this is denied and there are current
stories of its marvelous yields Its peculiarity however is that
it will not do well planted as a spring crop but seems to be espe
cially predestined for its present missionsummer planting Its
growth is extremely upright and vigorous with dark green foliage
almost entirely exempt from the inroads of the Macrosporium fun
gus As stated it is not recommended for spring planting but put
in in the middle of August cut to seed pieces as in the spring plant
ing it germinates freely produces a perfect stand and is in every
way desirable It may be obtained of II II Arrington seedsman
Summerville Chattooga county Qa at prices no greater than
those ruling in season for the different standard varieties
Of course if not kept in a cool dark place it will begin to sprout
by August 1st but if so kept will prove perhaps even more satisfac
tory than bedded seed tubers of the first crop A careful com
parison of the one with the other until the question of their re
spective availability is definitely settled will be a part of the work
of this Station the next and succeeding yearsANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR J898 363
PART IIAFFECTIONS AND REMEDIES
These are of two kinds Fungoid affections and those produced
by insects As is the case with nearly all vegetable life the former
class is by far the most injurious and hence a few of the maladies
arising therefrom will be first discussed
Perhaps the most widespread of all is the
POTATO SCAB OospOra Scabies
For a long time the cause of this maladyas extensive as the
cultivation of the potato itselfwas unknown and various agen
cies were charged with producing it By some it was supposed
to be caused by an excess of lime in the soil or because the land
was too wet too stiff or otherwise unsuitable by others it was as
cribed to the free use of stable manure while from time to time
divers insects have been erroneously saddled with the blame
It is due mainly to the investigations of Prof IT L Bolley of
the North Dakota Experiment Station and of Dr Roland Thaxter
of the Connecticut Station that the origin of the Scab is now under
stood and the means of successfully combating it simplified
Briefly it is found to be due to the inroads of a bacteroid fungus
Oospora scabies This fungus or perhaps more properly bacter
ium is generally conveyed and communicated to the growing crop
by the seed tubers in which it has made a lodgment and this may
be the case even when the tubers are perfectly smooth and apparent
ly free from affection
At first there were supposed to be two distinct kinds of Scab
the Surface and Deep Scab but of late they have been re
garded as merely separate phases of the same malady though pos
sibly in the case of Deep Scab exaggerated by the operations of
wood lice in the pits or holes which the bacteria form Both ap
pear to be identical with a similar affection of the beet Either
if at all advanced serves to render the affected tubers more or
less unfit for market and in many severely contaminated sections
operates as a veritable scourge
Fortunately the remedies though preventive only are quite sim
ple and effective In the first place as the bacteria of Scab may364
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
remain some time in the soil it is necessary to adopt a strict system
of crop rotation Potatoes should never occupy the same plat two
years in succession and it would be better if the rotation could be
so effected as to avoid the necessity for planting the same land in
this crop oftener than every four or five years
Tn the second place only perfectly smooth and apparently un
affected tubers should be selected for seed These should be well
washed If it is not intended to treat them further they should be
lightly scoured with a scrubbingbrush though not bruised or
scratched This alone will doubtless to a great extent diminish
the evil The tubers however when washed if complete immun
ity is intended should be immersed before cutting in a solution of
Corrosive Sublimate Mercuric bichloride Prof Arthur who has
closely investigated the subject advises a strength of 1 to 1000 parts
of water or cz to 7 gallons and immersion therein for If hours
with sound tubersa somewhat shorter time with sprouted ones
that their germinating power may not be destroyed However Prof
Byron D Halstead of the New Jersey Stationhas come to the con
clusion after repeated tests that a weaker solution and a longer im
mersion are productive of better results He recommends a solu
tion of onefourth the strength advised by Prof Arthur or 1 part
of Corrosive Sublimate to 4000 parts of water which is equal to
1 oz Corrosive Sublimate to 30 gallons water and an immersion
of four hours
It must be noted that Corrosive Sublimate is a vio
lent poison when taken internally though harmless
to the skin and should hence be handled with extreme
jcare Only wooden earthen vessels should be used in
the preparation of the solution and these should be
locked up when done with and kept for this purpose
only
To make the solution purchase one ounce of the pul
verized Sublimate or the exact quantity in proportion that is in
tended to be usedno more in order that none may be left over It
will cost at most druggists 15 cents per oz Thoroughly dissolve hi
two gallons of hot water in a cheap wooden bucket Take a 50
gallon barrel and pour into it 28 gallons water into which pour
ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
305
the concentrated solution stirring thoroughly It is then ready
for use and the barrel will have enough empty space 20 gals to
accommodate quite a number of potatoes without overrunning
The seed potatoes may be suspended in gunny sacks in the barrel
and removed after soaking four hours when their place can be sup
plied by others Perhaps a simpler way would be to have two bar
rels each provided with a wooden faucet in order that the solu
tion may be drawn from one to the other when the potatoes have
soaked the requisite time In this case there is no need for sacks
as the tubers can be dumped into the barrel while empty and turned
out when the solution is drawn off into the second barrel
After removal the potatoes should of course be dried before
cutting If desired they may be cut before soaking though the
reverse is usually the practice While all this appears to entail
some trouble it will be found well worth the while to take it since
if persisted in after a few years time the dreaded Scab may be
entirely eradicated on any farm The process cannot be too strong
ly recommended though at the same time the closest care must be
observed while handling the solution in the disposal of the vessels
and liquid when the work is over If any soaked seed remain im
planted they should be buried and care taken that mules do not
nibble at the cut tubers in the field during planting There is no
danger however of the poison affecting the tubers of the resulting
crop
In place of Corrosive Sublimate a much safer and almost as
effective a preparatiqnBordeaux Mixturemay be used The
preparation of this fungicide will be given in detail under the next
head It should be used for steeping potatoes in quite a dilute
formsay onehalf the strength of the normal formula and the
potatoes soaked for three or four hours
EARLY BLIGHTMacrosporium solani
This is the next most important fungoid affection This like
the Scab is very widely distributed over the country It confines
its attacks however to the leaves and stems but never affects the
tubers Prof B T Galloway Chief of the Division of Vegetable
366
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
Pathology at Washington from whose descriptive treatise the
accompanying illustration as well as that of the Late Blight is
copied describes its appearance as follows At first the older leaves
show grayishbrown spots the affected parts becoming hard and
brittle The disease progresses rather slowly the sjots gradually
becoming larger especially along the edges of the leaflets At
the end of ten days or two weeks half of the leaf surface may be
brown withered and brittle while the rest is of a pale yellow color
Three weeks or a month may elapse before all the leaves succumb
the stems in the meantime remaining green until they finally perish
through lack of nourishment The tubers stop growing almost as
soon as the leaves are attacked and as a result the crop is practic
ally worthless
At the Georgia Experiment Station it is found that much less
than a month is required to finish up an untreated plat after the
Macrosporium first makes its appearance especially when the fun
gus is reinforced by a baking drouth nut that dry weather stimu
lates the fungus but because the heat f the sun on the partially
defoliated and enfeebled stalks quickly completes what the disease
has begun When there is also a combination of the Flea Beetle
the work of destruction is speedy indeed
An effective remedy for the Macrosporium is spraying with Bor
deaux Mixture as soon as the plants are well upthat is some sixANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 367
inches highand continuing at intervals of two weeks up to the
first of June Other preparations have been used successfully such
as Modified Eau Celeste but Bordeaux Mixture appears to fee the
universally approved application though sometimes combined with
either a soap solution for the benefit of the Flea Beetle or with
Paris green for other biting insects
Bordeaux Mixture is a combination of Bluestone Copper Sul
phate Quick Lime and water the amount and proportion of each
varying with the haint purpose or experience of the user The
formula here suggested as safest and practically as effective as
stronger combinations is as follows
4 lbs Copper Sulphate Bluestone
5 lbs Quick Lime
50 als water
Dissolve the Bluestone in two gallons of hot water in an ordinary
pine bucket and pour through the copper strainer accompanying
every sprayer into a 50gal barrel Slake the Lime slowly in
another bucket When all ebullition is over fill up the bucket with
water thus diluting to the consistency of a thick whitewash Stir
thoroughly and strain slowly into the Bluestone in the barrel stir
ring the mixture steadily as the Lime is poured in Fill up the
barrel with water and the mixture is ready but must be carefully
stirred whenever used and kept constantly agitated in the spraver
during the process of spraying This formula will cost less than a
cent per gallon
The function of the Lime is to prevent the injury to the foliage
that would ensue if Bluestone alone was used The latter however
is the active fungicide
For small field areas and garden work a knapsack sprayer will be
found sufficient These hold some six gallons Perhaps the Per
fected Galloway Sprayer with Vermorel Nozzle as manufactured
by Albinson Co 1689 Gale street X E Washington D C
Avill be found the most convenient Other well known dealers in
spraying outfits are William Stahl Quincy TIL The Deming Co
Salem O and the Goulds Mfg Co Seneca Falls X Y
For an extensive acreage a larger outfit will be required and any36S
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
one planting on a large scale will do well to correspond with these
or other firms before purchasing since barrel and cart or horse
power sprayers are of many sizes patterns and prices and each
purchaser must decide for himself what will best meet his require
ments
While there can be no question as to the efficacy of spraying for
the Early Blight it must be confessed that the experiments on this
line at the Georgia Station have been disappointingso much so
that those for 1894 were not considered sufficiently encouraging to
warrant publishing The results for 1895 are scarcely more con
clusive as will be noticed further on under the head of Spraying
Tests
LATE BLIGHT Ptiytopthora infestans
Much more serious at the Northespecially in the Eastern States
than the Early Blight is the Late Blight because unlike the
former it does not confine its attack to the tops but affects the tu
bers as well producing rot and widespread loss It is fortunately
almost if not quite unknown at the South and hence of no serious
importance to growers in this section Here the main crop is har
vested in hot weather and it is the Early Blight only that is to be
feared How long this will remain the case it is impossible to say
for with the increased area now gradually being devoted to the
summer crop which matures at about the same time with the
spring crop North and under practically the same climatic condi
tions it is very probable that this fungus may become in the near
future quite a serious factor in our calculations
Prof Galloway says of it Generally the first noticeable effect
upon the leaves is the sudden appearance of brownish or blackish
areas which soon become soft and foul smelling So sudden is the
appearance of the disease in some cases that fields which one day
look green and healthy may within the next day or two become
blackened as though swept by fire The rapid spread of the dis
ease is dependent in large measure upon certain conditions of
moisture and heat A daily mean or normal temperature of from
72 degrees to 74 degrees E for any considerable time accompaniedANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
369
bv moist weather furnishes the best conditions for the spread of
disease On the other hand if the daily mean or normal temper
ature exceeds 77 degrees for a few days the development of the
disease is checked This fact explains why the potato blight fun
gus seldom occurs to any serious extent in sections where the mean
or normal daily temperature exceeds for any length of time 77
degrees And this too explains the present exemption of this
State from the malady The remedy for the Late Blight is the
same as for Early Blightrepeated sprayings with Bordeaux Mix
tureand systematic treatment for the one generally results in
immunity from the other
INSECT PESTS
These are more numerous than fungoid affections though per
haps not so destructive Among the most troublesome may be
ranked in their order
1 The Flea Beetle Ilaltica cucumeris This insect is quite370 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
small its length being about onesixteenth of inchno larger than
a good sized fleawhich it also resembles in the extreme enlarge
ment of its hind legs and its capacity to leap with such agility and
power that like its namesake it is difficult to locate It feeds on
the foliage of other cultivated plants besides the potato notably
cucurbits from which it derives its scientific name Much of the
damage ascribed to the Macrosporium fungus may perhaps be
properly charged to the Flea Beetle which sometimes drills the
leaves so full of holes that they are very nearly all hole and no
leaf Fortunately however it is not so prevalent North as South
For a long while it was found difficult to combat it as neither arse
nites buhach hellebore nor any other common insecticide seemed
to avail
Prof S A Beach of the Xew York Geneva Station first dem
onstrated that the use of hard soap in solution with Bordeaux Mixt
ure would successfully resist their inroads by forming a thin film or
coating over the leaf which would remain for weeks or until re
newed
Six pounds of soap to the barrel 50 gals of Bordeaux is the
proper proportion The soap should be mixed with a sufficiency of
hot water to thoroughly dissolve it and the soap solution so obtained
used to fill up the barrel during the process of Bordeaux manufac
ture detailed under a previous head In this way the sprayings
made for Early Blight will prove with little additional cost a pre
ventive for the Flea Beetle if it chances to be prevalent
2 Blister BeetlesThere are some five different species of these
beetles all belonging to the Lytta family of which the Spanish
Fly well known to the pharmacopoeia is a member Any of these
will blister almost as intensely as tincture of cantharides if similarly
prepared
For all practical purposes the five separate species may be regard
ed as one They feed upon the foliage in the perfect or beetle
state only and are harmless as larvae They are difficult to got rid
of when prevalent to any great extent It has been BUggested that
perhaps the easiest plan is to spread straw between the rows and set
it on fire as in this manner vast numbers of the beetles mav be deANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 371
stroyed while the straw is said to burn off so quickly that there is
little danger of injuring the growing vines This remedy has
never been tried at this Station and we entertain very decided
doubts as to its safety The arsenites are much to be preferred
to it
3 The Colorado BeetleDoryphora decemlineata This
scourge of the West has as yet appeared only sporadicallyat the
South and fortunately for the present at least need not be viewed
with apprehension Very frequently an alarm is created in certain
localities by the announcement that the Colorado Beetle has made
its appearance but in nearly every case it turns out that the scare
originated by mistaking for him his first cousinthe Bogus Colo
Tado Beetle Lema trilineataan insect doing little damage
When prevalent however they can be kept in check by the use
of the arsenites Baris Green and London Burplepreferably the
former either in the form of separate spraying solutions or in con
junction with Bordeaux Mixture when used as a fungicide which
is by far the most economical method of application
Four ounces lb of Baris Green to a barrel 50 gals of Bor
deaux is a full strength solution not only for this particular pur
pose but for a general insecticide and fungicide combined The
Baris Green powder may be either dissolved sepa
rately in hot water and added to the Bordeaux Mixt
ure in a fluid state or the powder can be mixed with
the lime before slaking which is perhaps to be pre
ferred
Let it be noted that Baris Green like all arsenites
is a violent poison and must be handled with the
utmost care
4 Potato Stalk WeevilTrichaboris trinotata Only the
larvas of this beetle are injurious They bore into the potato stalk
and core it out thereby producing premature wilting and death
As from their habits and mode of attack it is evident that they can
not be reached by ordinary insecticides the remedy that naturally
suggests itself is the collection and destruction by fire of the potato
372
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
tops in which the larvae hibernate in vast numbers As they also
infest the Jamestown or Jimpson weed Datura stramonium
and the Horse Nettle Solarium Carolinense these weeds should
be eradicated as far as possible on this account as well as on their
own The Jamestown weed however while harboring and propa
gating one enemy of the potato may be made while living an ef
fective ally in warring against another as will be shown a little
further on Therefore it is well to leave a few bushes standing
in places where they will not be in the way but the dead stalks
after frost should be carefully burned
5 The Potato SphinxSphinx quinque maculata It is the
larva of this moth which does the damage Under the name of
Tomato Worm which is quite frequently confounded with a
closely allied speciesthe Tobacco Wormits fat heavy green
body is a familiar object to all gardeners On account of its large
size and easy detection handpicking is the simplest remedy As
its moth however after sundown haunts the flower of the Stramo
nium Jamestown weed it can be poisoned in great numbers by ft
few drops of a solution of cobalt in sugared water deposited in the
flowers every afternoon
PRESERVATION
Whatever may be the kind or cause of decay and there are
many forms from Dry EndRotFusariumsolanithrough the
various wet rots and molds through Bundle Blackening and Inte
rior Spotting down to the Internal Brown Rot where the outside
is sound while the interior is a mass of putrefaction there seems to
have been discovered no remedy that may be either specifically or
universally applied with any certainty of success If the tubers
through careful spraying have been preserved from the germs of
the Late Blight and also contain no traces of Scab the chances are
that they will if dug subsequent to full maturity keep free from
decay of any kind provided they are handled carefully and stored
where they will enjoy a cool uniform temperature Nothing else
is apparently of avail and in fact any remedial agent employedANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
373
would be used as it were at haphazard since we would be entirely
in the dark as to what specific fungus if any might be lying dor
mant in the tubers until it began to make its presence manifest
when in all probability remedies would be too late
Too much stress cannot be laid on careful handling since a
bruised or abraded surface furnishes a much more convenient place
of lodgment for the spores of any fungus than where it is sound
and unbroken while the mycelium or root is of course enabled
lo penetrate such a surface much more readily Care too should
Tie taken to have the temperature of the place of storage even and
lowas close to 32 degrees as possible provided it does not fall
below it Hence cellars are always to be preferred to receptacles
above ground It is also much better to barrel than to pile the po
tatoes in bulk since subdivision reduces the tendency to overheat
and a closed package lessens the probability of the subsequent lodg
ment of fungus spores if they are not already present Later on
too both the cellar and the closed barrel by shutting off all light
delay the tendency to sprout
Therefore the best advice that can be given on this head is to
sort carefully and then store in barrels in a cool dark cellar
Quite a satisfactory method however of winter preservation is
banking out of doors or under an open shed just as is done with
Sweet potatoes Irish potatoes will keep much more readily than
Sweet potatoes treated in this way Little straw should be used
and a perforated wooden flue should be placed upright in the center
of the bank which should never contain more than thirty bushels
The top of the flue should be stopped in very cold weather with a
wisp of straw Of course when the hills are located out of doors
a rough shielding of refuse plank should be so constructed as to
ward off the rain
SUMMARY
1 PreparationThis should be deep and thorough and the
tows trenched six or seven inches deep by means of a subsoilplow
2 FertilizerSix hundred lbs High Grade Acid Phosphate374
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
250 lbs Nitrate of Soda and 150 lbs Muriate of Potash per acre
in all 1000 lbsapplied either all under and mixed with the
subsoil in trenching or half under and half over after covering
the seed but before the furrow is entirely filled is suggested as the
most reliable formula
3 Seed PiecesThese should be cut to weight not eyes ancf
pieces of from f of an oz to 1 ozs each are to be preferred to
larger or smaller sizes The most expeditious way to prepare seed
is to quarter tubers weighing from 3 to 6 ozs without reference
to eyes
4 DistanceRows three feet apart and pieces twelve inches in
the row is the safest distance
5 Depth to PlantFour inches deep in a thoroughly mellow
subsoiled furrow may be regarded as the standard Three inches
is slightly preferable to five though little difference is observable
between any depth from three to seven inches
6 Time to PlantThe earlier the spring crop is put in the bet
ter provided late killing freezes are avoided The second or sum
mer crop will mature if planted as late as the middle of August in
most parts of the State
7 Cultivation should be rapid thorough and on a level It does
not pay to ridge up with a hoe nor on a large scale to mulch
8 Harvesting should not be effected until full maturity has
been attained by the tubers which continue to grow as long as the
tops are alive For extra early sales the crop should of course be
dug as soon as marketable The sun should not be allowed to fall
on the tubers any longer than can be avoided and wooden trays
not split baskets should be used in handling
9 Surface MulchingThis method of cultivation effected by
planting in the covering furrow with subsequent surface mulching
without cultivation produces a heavier yield than the ordinary
plan but not sufficiently greater to pay for the extra cost of mulch
ing and harvesting and hence only recommended for garden platsANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 375
10 Second CropThis also called the summer or fall
crop may be made a success by either bedding selected whole tubers
of the first or spring crop and using only such as show signs of
sprouting after six weeks burial or else by the use of Lookout
Mountain potatoes of the fall crop of the previous year cutting to
1 oz pieces as for the spring crop With either plan a perfect
stand may be obtained
11 Potato Scabboth Surface and Deep Scab which are
merely phases of the same maladyis due to a bacteroid fungus
conveyed by the seed tubers and may be destroyed by immersing
them before planting in a solution of Corrosive Sublimate1 oz
to 30 gals waterfor four hours Corrosive Sublimate is a deadly
poison taken internally and must be carefully used
12 Early Blight is produced by the Macrosporium fungus and
generally in connection with drouthy weather prematurely de
stroys the tops cutting short the full development of the tubers
It may be controlled by spraying with Bordeaux Mixture
3 3 Late Blight affects both stalk and tuber producing rot in
the latter but is fortunately almost unknown in this State It also
is controlled when prevalent by spraying with Bordeaux Mixture
14 The Flea Beetle sometimes assists the Early Blight and
drouth in prematurely destroying the potato tops It can be con
trolled by a compound of Bordeaux Mixture and Soap6 lbs soap
to 50 gals Bordeaux
15 Other Insects as the Colorado Beetle Potato Stalk Weevil
Potato Sphinx etc are not sufficiently damaging as yet in this
State to prove a serious obstacle to potato growing
16 PreservationDecays and rots of all kinds can best be pre
vented by keeping Scab from the field digging only after full ma
turity handling carefully excluding the sun and storing in a cool
uniform temperaturepreferably in a dark cellar which later on
willalso prevent sprouting For this purpose too it is well to bar
rel The tubers if possible should never be stored in bulk Out
side hilling as with Sweet potatoes is also a most satisfactory
method of winter preservation The foregoing suggestions apply370
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
chiefly to the second or fall crop as the spring crop cannot be in
definitely kept in this latitude with any certainty The second
crop may also be kept well by merely throwing a heavy list with
the plow on the rows in the field and digging only as needed
17 VarietiesThe following list appears to be well adapted to
almost all portions of the State and is given for the spring crop as
first choice in the order of their maturity Pride of the South
Early Rose Beauty of Hebron Carman No 1 and Peerless
As second choice the following may be selected with confidence
E Pride E Washington E Puritan Late Puritan King of the
Roses Tloulton Rose Pride of America American Giant and
Maine Pearl
As quite promising there might be added Early Market
Cream City Bill Nye Thunderbolt German Rose Walls Maggie
Murphy Empire State Lightning Express and White May
Queen
For the second crop Lookout Mountain
18 Starch ContentsFor varieties very rich in starch and
tence especially desirable for stock any of the Rose strain may be
selected as this type is uniformly rich in starch Nearly all Geor
gia grown potatoes show a very high percentage of starchANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
377
FBUIT CULTUEE
Georgia possesses a climate well adapted to the cultivation of
fruits of all kinds She stands among the first in the products of
her orchards The labors of the State Horticultural Society have
been wisely directed towards the elimination of worthless varieties
and the propagation of the best and most profitable varieties for
the different sections of the State This society composed of men
of culture and experience whose presiding officer is a standard
authority on horticultural matters in this country and in Europe
have given their approval to a large variety of the various fruits
that can be and are successfully raised in Georgia We accept
them as the most reliable authority on the subject
In the prosecution of their work the society divided the State
into four sections The section between the 34th and 35th degreed
of latitude north comprising the counties of Banks Bartow Ca
toosa Chattooga Cherokee Dade Dawson Elbert Eloyd Forsyth
Eannin Franklin Gordon Gilmer Hart Hall Habersham Lump
kin Jackson Murray Milton Madison Pickens Babun Towns
Union Walker White and Whitfield is designated as the upper
or mountain region
The section between the 32d and 34th degrees including the
southwestern portion of the 32d degree except the counties named
for the southern regioncomprising the counties of Appling Bald
win Bibb Burke Butts Bulloch Calhoun Clay Coffee Chatta
hoochee Crawford Coweta Columbia Campbell Carroll Clay
ton Clarke Cobb Decatur DeKalb Dougherty Douglas Dooly
Dodge Effingham Emanuel Fayette Fulton Greene Glasscock
Gwinnett Houston Harris Hancock Heard Henry Haralson
Irwin Johnson Jones Jefferson Jasper Lee Laurens Lincoln
Montgomery Marion Macon Muscogee Monroe Meriwether
McDuffie Morgan Newton Oconee Oglethorpe Pike Pulaski
Putnam Paulding Polk Quitman Bandolph Rockdale Eich
mond Sumter Stewart Schley Screven Spalding Tatntll Tel
fair Terrell Twiggs Taylor Talbot Troup Taliaferro Upson378
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
Worth Wayne Wilcox Wilkinson Warren Washington Wilkes
Walton Webster is known as the middle region
The Southern region comprises the counties of Baker Berrien
Brooks Charlton Clinch Colquitt Early Echols Lowndes Mil
ler Mitchell Pierce Thomas Ware
The lower or coast region comprises the counties of Bryan
Chatham Camden Glynn Liberty Mclntosh
This explicit information is given in order that the result of the
labors of the State Horticultural Society may be more readily un
derstood It will be noted that nearly twothirds of the counties
in the State are embraced in the middle region
We will consider the fruits and the sections best adapted to
them
APPLES
The famous Downing remarked that the apple is the world
renowned fruit of temperate climates From its great hardiness
easy cultivation productiveness its long continuance through the
whole twelve months and its various uses it possesses an import
ance not equaled by any other fruit
In the middle region the following varieties have stood the test
of time and bear approval Bed Astrachan Buncombe Black
Warrior Carters Blue Carolina Greening Chattohoochee Early
Harvest Elgin Pippin Equinetelee Etowah Familv FarrarV
Summer Gravenstein Hileys Eureka Homonv Julian Ken
tucky Red Streak Mamma Mangum Mavericks Sweet Moultrie
Mrs Bryan Palmer or Pear Red June Rome Beauty Rhodes
Orange Simmons Red Shockley Summer Cheese Summer
Queen Striped June Sweet Bough Taunton Winesap Yates
Stevensons Winter Yellow Transparent
In the mountain region the following varieties are approved
Red Astrachan Ben Davis Black Warrior Carolina Greening
Cullasaga Disliaroon Early Harvest Equinetelee Etowah Fall
Pippin Farrars Summer Grimes Golden Pippin Homonv Horse
Hocketts Sweet Horn Julian Kinnard Mangum Moultrie Mrs
Bryan Niekajack Romanite Red June Rome Beautv ShockleyANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
37
Stevensons Winter Striped June Sweet Bough Webbs Winter
Whites Winter Pearmain Winesap Yates Yellow Transparent
In the Southern region the following are approved Eed Astra
chan Carolina Greening Horse Mitchells Cider Eed June
Shockley
In the Coast region the following are approved Eed Astrachan
Early Harvest Etowah Family Mitchells Cider Eed June
The Eed Astrachan and Eed June are approved for all sections
For market orchards the following are approved for summer
Astrachan Eed June Early Harvest Gravenstein Family Striped
June Horse Julian Homony for autumn Buncombe Carters
Blue Equinetelee Eome Beauty Fall Pippin Mrs Bryan Taun
ton for winter Black Warrior Ben Davis Chattahoochee Caro
lina Greening Etowah Hocketts Sweet Mangum Wickajack Eo
manite Sauta Shockley Stevensons Winter Yates
The following are good for the uses named DryingHorse
Summer Cheese CookingHorse Simmons Eed Summer
Cheese CiderJulian Mitchells Cider Yates
THE APPLE
DISEASES AND REMEDIES
BlightDistinguished by the blackening of the entire leaf and
the blackening of the entire bark It attacks the flower clusters
It may destroy the branches or the whole tree As soon as the dis
ease is discovered cut off the affected parts a foot below the point
of lowest visible attack and burn them
Bitter Rot Ripe RotApples are often seriously injured by a
rot which causes a softening of the tissues of the fruit and changes
them from their normal color to a brown This rot takes fruit at
any stage of its growth from the time it is about threefourths of
an inch in diameter until it is ripe It appears to be particularly
destructive to the early varieties Early Harvest Sweet Bough
and other varieties are very subject to it Any part of the apple
may first be attacked and when the fungus has once gained a foot380
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
hold it spreads very rapidly The older portions or the part first
attacked soon bear small black pimples and it is said that the
tissue beneath them has an exceedingly bitter taste which has given
the disease its name
TreatmentGarman recommends the use of Bordeaux Mixture
for preventing the development of the disease lie obtained the
greatest benefit from applications made as follows First before
the leaves expanded second soon after the apples had set third
about fourteen days later fourth four weeks after the preceding
In this manner 31 16 per cent of the whole number of apples
borne by the sprayed tree during the season was saved from rot
The disease has also been successfully treated by the use of sulphide
of potassium The ammoniacal carbonate of copper gave similar re
sults The first application was not made until the middle of Au
gust Earlier applications are however advisable
Black RotThe external characters of this disease are practi
cally identical with those of the bitter rot The remedies to be
used are the same
Brown RotThis is a serious fungous disease It causes the
rotting of the fruit about the period ripening begins It increases
rapidly in warm moist weather Apples which touch each other
are first to suffer from the disease This is mainly due to the fact
that a certain amount of moisture is retained at the point of contact
and with such favorable conditions the fungus easily succeeds in
gaining an entrance The affected fruit turns brown and appears
as if decayed it then becomes covered with an ashcolored coating
which consists of myriads of spores each one capable of spreading
the disease The fungus also attacks the small twigs causing their
death This disease should be closely watched and thoroughly
controlled
TreatmentThe first application should be made in badly in
fested districts just before the buds begin to swell at this time
spray with a simple solution of copper sulphate using one pound
of the sulphate to twentyfive gallons oi water While the buds
are swelling spray with Bordeaux Mixture and repeat when the
fruit has set When the fruit is grown spray with the ammoniANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
381
acal carbonate of copper using one ounce of copper carbonate to
twelve gallons of water and repeat at intervals of six or eight days
until the fruit is harvested
Powdery MildewThis fungus attacks the foliage of young
apple seedlings very soon after the unfolding of the leaves and con
tinues its growth throughout the summer weakening the plants
very much and making them unfit for budding purposes The dis
ease is especially serious in the Southern States The affected
leaves have a grayish appearance which is caused by a powdery
substance This gray powder consists of the parts of the fungus
which project beyond the leaf tissue The leaf soon dries up and
is rendered worthless
TreatmentThe trouble has been successfully controlled by
the Section of Vegetable Pathology at Washington D C and the
following are the conclusions reached by them The disease can be
effectually prevented by the application of the ammoniacal solution
of carbonate of copper In the nursery the total cost of treatment
need not exceed twelve cents per one thousand trees The first
application should be made when the leaves are about onethird
grown and should be followed by at least five others at intervals
of ten or twelve days
RustThe fungus which causes the rust of the apple is very
peculiar Unlike many fungi this one lives upon two hostplants
hiring its course of development These hostplants are the apple
or the cedar or juniper There are probably several species of
rust which attack cultivated apples but the histories of all are es
sentially the same The effects of this fungus upon the apple are
first noticeable during the latter part of May or in early June The
leaves are then dotted with bright yellow spots the socalled rust
the fruit is also attacked about the same time Such fruit becomes
worthless as the growth is increased at the diseased point and the
swollen part produces spores which ruin the apples Spores are
also produced on the under side of the leaves They appear during
mid summer They will not germinate and grow upon either the
leaves or fruit of the apple but they will develop the fungus upon
the cedar There the mycelium enters the tissues and as growth382
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
advances enlargements appear upon the branches of the trees
Such swellings or cedar apples as they are called are from half
an inch to almost two inches in diameter they become full
grown early in spring During April and May hornshaped
masses an inch or more in length are produced by the cedar
apple They are of a bright yellow color and can readily
be seem among the green branches of the cedars Upon these soft
yellow bodies the spores are borne these spores will not grow upon
cedars but only upon the leaves or fruit of the apple They ripen
in spring and consequently it is at this season of the year that the
apple tree must be protected Unfortunately when a tree has once
become infected it seems that the mycelium of the rust may re
main in the buds and branches for years and in the spring when
the young leaves have formed the characteristic yellowspots may
again appear although no new infection has taken place The
disease is sometimes so serious that the tree loses all its foliage
and this alone would ruin all the crop although the apples them
selves may not be attacked
TreatmentIt is difficult to control the apple rust successfully
Since apple trees are attacked by spores which are produced upon
cedar trees it naturally follows that by removing all cedars we
may remove the source of the disease Cutting and burning the
cedar apples before the appearance of the yellow horns will an
swer the same purpose The removal of all badly diseased trees in
the orchard as well as the worst branches on the trees which are
not seriously attacked is advised by some Then to prevent fur
ther injury from the fungus spray both large and small trees with
some good fungicide as the Bordeaux Mixture The application
should he made as soon as the first leaves appear Two applications
should be sufficient the second one being made eight or ten days
after the first During rainy seasons it may he well to repeat the
operation a third time The plan of planting resistant varieties
is one of the best methods of escaping the disease
ScabThis fungus attacks the fruit and leaves of the apple
Upon the fruit it forms dark circular spots the largest being about
half an inch in diameter These spots are often close together or
unite to form surfaces which mav extend over a considerable areaANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 383
The centres of the spots are dark brown or black in color but at
the edges there is a light gray or white circle This appearance is
due to the separation of the outer skin or cuticle from the tissue
beneath When the diseased area is large it generally cracks
and then the hard brown tissue within the apple may be seen
Growth is checked in the diseased portions and the fruit is gener
ally onesided sometimes to such an extent that the blossom end
and the stem are close together Isolated spots do not injure the
apple but frequently its market value is thereby considerably re
The appearance of the disease upon the leaves is similar to that
upon the fruit but the light colored edge is wanting The parrs
attacked are circular or oval and when several spots have run to
gether the outline is irregular The first indication of the pres
ence of the fungus on the foliage is the appearance of small light
green areas which are easily distinguished when the leaf is held
up to the light In a few days the central portions of these areas
become razsed causing the leaf to become more or less distorted
I he color at the same time changes to a dull brownish black which
leaf tTcn w UPn the UPPer Skle f thG leaf This the
of he If TaVG r hll0W SidG beinS Un9th edges
of the leaf often becomes brown and torn
The scab is undoubtedly the most serions fungous disease with
v Inch the apple grower has to contend No other disease annually
rums such a large percentage of the crop From the fact that the
fungus also grows upon the leaves it frequently occurs that entire
orchards are defoliated The result is that th
Lc lesuit is mat tne tree receives so
htt e nourishment that itmay not bear a profitable crop for sev
dteasewr11 thUg iS fre the
disease Wherever apples are grown they suffer more or less from
the par site Some years the injury may be so slight that it
and during others ft mav attack a tree
ntens ty that there is scarcely enough fruit or foliage left to tell
the tale of the cause of the destruction
Treatment treatment of applescab should begin early in
the season Tins was forcibly shown at Cornell Station New
ork The first application using Bordeaux Mixture was made381 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
June 13th about one week after the blossoms had fallen from the
trees At the time of the second application June 22d a small
portion affected with the Scab fungus could occasionally be found
upon the apple in places thickly covered with the Bordeaux Mix
ture previously applied These portions were undoubtedly at
tacked before the first application was made as this occurred soon
after the blossoms fell it is clear that the trees were sprayed too
late They should receive at least one application before the blos
soms open The value of this has been demonstrated in another
way D G Failchild observed the growing mycelium upon apple
twigs even before the buds broke and this would indicate that for
very susceptible varieties it may be well to spray with a solution of
the sulphate of copper when the buds are swelling A second
application should be made before the blossoms open and a third
as soon as the blossoms have fallen from the tree but for these as
well as for all later ones it is advisable to use the Bordeaux Mix
ture or some similar preparation Such applications may be made
at intervals of ten or fifteen days depending upon the weather
until from two to six have been made The number necessary
will depend largely upon the variety treated In comparatively
dry seasons two applications will afford almost complete protection
to resistant varieties while those subject to the disease would re
pay as many as four or five When so treated the fruit and foli
age will be practically perfect as regards injury from Scab
The amount of liquid necessary to protect an appletree from
the Scab will vary with the size of the tree and with the season
A well grown appletree twentyfive years old will require from
two to three gallons of liquid when sprayed before the blossoms
open Later in the season when the tree is in full leaf it will be
necessary to use four or perhaps five or even six gallons to cover
the leaves and fruit thoroughly
INJURIOUS INSECTS
There are a number of insects that prey upon the apple The
root is attacked by one the trunk by seven the branches by four
teen the leaves by fortysix and the fruit by nine
ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 385
These will be considered devoid of technical terms and the
remedies for them given as intelligently and succinctly as possible
ATTACKING THE ROOTS
Appleroot PlantlouseThe appleroot plantlouse works
under ground and produces on the roots wartlike swellings and
excrescences of all shapes and sizes These deformities seriously
diminish the normal supply of nourishment for the tree and where
very numerous induce gradual decay of the roots and occasionally
result in the death of the tree Upon close examination the ex
crescences are found to contain in their crevices very minute pale
yellow lice often accompanied by larger winged ones The former
have their bodies covered with a bluishwhite cottony matter hav
ing the appearance of mold the filaments of which are five or
six times as long as the insects themselves and are secreted from the
upper part of the body more particularly from the hinder part of
the back
The appletree plantlouse is nourished by sucking the juices of
the tree piercing the tender roots with its proboscis Their bodies
are covered with a bluishwhite cottony matter having the appear
ance of mold If this covering be forcibly removed it will be re
newed within two or three days Occasionally the appletree plant
louse will crawl up the branches of the trees during the summer
where they form colonies and then are known as the Woolly Aphis
of the apple Where a tree is sickly from an unknown cause and no
borers can be found sapping the vitals the presence of this pest
may be suspected In such case the earth should be removed
from the roots about the surface and these carefully examined
when if warty swellings are discovered no time should be lost in
taking steps to destroy the insidious foe
RemediesThe most successful means yet devised for destroy
ing these rootlice is the use of scalding In it water freely poured
around the roots of the tree If the trees arc to remain in the soil
the roots may be laid hare and the water used nearly boiling with
out injury but where they have been taken up for the purpose
of transplanting and are to be dipped into hot water the tempera
25 a386
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
ture should not exceed 150 degrees F Under these circumstances
from 120 to 150 degrees would suffice for the purpose A
mulch placed around the tree for sometime previous to treatment
has been found useful in bringing the lice to the surface where they
can be more readily reached by the hot water Drenching the
roots with soapsuds has also been recommended to be followed
by a liberal dressing of ashes on the surface
There are several friendly insects which prey upon the rootlouse
which the farmer should become acquainted with and encourage
A minute fourwinged fly is parasitic on it and the larva of a small
beetle belonging to the Ladybird family feeds on it
This friend it is difficult to recognize among the lice from the
fact that its back is covered with little tufts of wooly matter secreted
from its body these larvae are much larger than the lice and
much more active The woolly matter is of an even length and ar
ranged on the back in transverse rows The perfect beetle is very
small being but onetwentieth of an inch long with a darkbrown
body and a lightbrown thorax this beetle has been observed prey
ing upon the lice about the surface of the ground
Another friendly insect and probably the most efficient check
upon the increase of the lice is known as the Eootliee Syrphus
fly which in its larval state feeds upon them It is then in the
form of a footless maggot which when full grown is about a quarter
of an inch long of a dirtyyellow color and usually so covered
with dust and with the woolly matter of the lice that it has de
voiirAl thftt it is not easily discerned The eggs from which the
larvae are produced are laid by the fly in the spring
ATTACKING THE TRUNK
Roundheaded Applefree BorerSeven kind of insects prey
upon the trunk of the appletree The Roundheaded appletree
borer in its perfect state is a very handsome beetle about three
fourths of an inch long cylindrical in form of a palebrown color
above with two broad creamywhite stripes running the whole
length of the body the face and the undersurface are hoarywhite
the antenna and legs grey The females are larger than the malesANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
387
and have shorter antennae The beetle makes its appearance dur
ing the month of June and July usually remaining in conceal
ment during the day and becoming active at dusk The eggs are
deposited late in June during July and most of August one in a
place in an incision made by the female in the bark of the tree
near its base Within two weeks the young larvae are hatched
and at once commence with their sharp mandibles to gnaw their
way to the interior It is generally conceded that the larva is three
years in reaching maturity The young ones lie for the first year in
the sapwood and inner bark excavating flat shallow cavities about
the size of a silver dollar which are filled with their sawdust like
castings The holes by which they enter being small are soon
filled up though not until a few grains of castings have fallen from
them Their presence may however often be detected in young
trees from the bark becoming daikcolored and sometimes dry and
dead enough to crack some of the castings generally protrude and
fall to the ground in a little heap this takes place in the spring of
the year when with the frequent rains the heaps become swollen
by the absorption of moisture On the approach of winter the
larva descends to the lower part of its burrow where it doubtless
remains inactive until the following spring During the next
season it attains about half its growth still living on the sapwood
wdiere it does great damage and when as often happens there are
several of these borers in a single tree they will sometimes cause
its death by completely girdling it After another winters rest
the larva again becomes active and towards the end of the fol
lowing season when approaching maturity it cuts a cylindrical
passage upwards varying in length into the solid wood afterwards
extending it outward to the bark sometimes cutting entirely
through the tree at other times turning back at different angles
The upper part of the cavity is filled with a sawdust like powder
after which the larvae turns round and returns to the part nearest
the heart of the tree which portion it enlarges by tearing off the
fibers with which it carefully and securely closes the lower por
tion of its gallery so as to effectually protect it from the approach
of enemies at either end Having thus perfected its arrangements
it again turns round so as to have its head upwards when it rests388
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
from its labors in the interior of the passage until the following
spring when the mature larva sheds its skin and discloses the
pupa In this condition it remains about two or three weeks
when the perfect beetle escapes
RemediesThe young larvae may be detected by the discolor
ation of the bark In such instances if the outer darkcolored sur
face be scraped with a knife late in August or early in September
so as to expose the clear white bark beneath the lurking enemy
may be discovered and destroyed Later they may be detected by
their castings which have been pushed out of the crevices of the
bark and have fallen in little heaps upon the ground AVhen first
discharged these look as if they had been forced through the bar
rels of a minute doublebarrel gun being arranged together in two
parallel strings Those which have burrowed deeper may some
times be reached by a stout wire thrust into their holes or by cut
ting through the bark at the upper end of the chamber and pour
ing scalding water into the openings so that it may soak through
the castings and penetrate to the insect Among the preventive
measures alkaline washes or solutions are probably the most
efficient since experiments have demonstrated that they are re
pulsive to the insert and that the beetle will not lay her eggs on
trees protected by such washes Soft soap reduced to the con
sistency of a thick paint by the addition of a strong solution of
washing soda in water is perhaps as good a formula as can be sug
gested this if applied to the bark of the tree especially about
the base or collar and also extended upward to the crotches where
the main branches have their origin will cover the whole surface
uable to attack and if applied during the morning of a warm day
will dry in a few hours and form a tenacious coating not easily
dissolved by rain The soap solution should be applied early in
June and a second time during the early part of July
Flatheaded Appletree BorerThe flatheaded appletree borer
also attacks the trunk This borer in its mature state is a beetle
very active courting the light of delighting to bask in the hot
sunshine running up and down the bark of a tree with great ra
pidity but instantly taking wing if an attempt be made to captureANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 389
it It measures from threeeighths to half inch or more in length is
of a flattish oblong form and of a shining greenishblack color
each of its wing cases having three raised lines the outer two inter
rupted by two impressed transverse spots of a brass color dividing
each wing cover into three nearly equal portions The under
side of the body and the legs shine like burnished copper the feet
are shining green It does not confine its attacks to the base of the
tree but affects the trunk more or less throughout and sometimes
the larger branches The eggs yellow and irregularly ribbed
are about onefifteenth of an inch long and are fastened by the
female with a glutinous substance usually under the loose scales
or within the cracks and crevices of the bark sometimes singly at
other times several in a group The young larva soon hatches
and having eaten its way through the bark feeds on the sapwood
within where boring broad and flattish channels a single speci
men will sometimes girdle a small tree As the larva approaches
maturity it usually bores into the more solid wood working up
ward and when about to change to a pupa cuts a passage back
again to the outside eating nearly but not quite through to the
hark Within its retreat it changes to a pupa which is at first
white but gradually approaches in color to that of the future beetle
and in about three weeks the perfect insect emerges and having
eaten through the thin covering of the bark escapes and roams at
large to continue the work of destruction Healthy wellestab
lished trees are not exempt from its attacks sickly trees or trees
newly transplanted are more liable to suffer especially on the
southwest side where the bark is often first injured by exposure
to the sun resulting in sunscald
RemediesCarefully examine all trees early in the fall when
the presence of the larvse may be detected by the discoloration of
the bark or a slight exudation of sap or by the presence of the saw
dustlike castings Whenever such indications are seen the parts
should be at once cut into with a knife and the intruder destroyed
As a preventive measure there is nothing better than coating the
hark of the trunk and larger branches with a mixture of soft soap
and solution of soda as recommended for the Houndheaded borer390
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
The Longhomed BorerThis beetle while distributed over a
wide area is by no means a comftnon insect and seldom appears in
sufficient numbers to cause fruitgrowers uneasiness This borer
is rather elegant in form with long tapering antennae of a gray
color prettily banded with black It is a little more than a third
of an inch long of a brownish gray color with many small
thornlike points upon its wingcovers There is also a Vshaped
band margined with black a little behind the middle of the
wing cases The perfect insect appears about the last of Au
gust when it occasionally deposits its eggs upon the trunk
of appletrees which shortly hatch into small grubs and
these eat their way through and burrow under the bark They are
very similar in appearance to the young larvae of the Roundheaded
Borer but differ in their habits they form long narrow winding
tracks under the bark but upon the outer surface of the wood
which are made broader as the larva increases in size
RemediesShould the insect at any time prove destructive it
ravages may be prevented or controlled by the ue of the alkaline
wash applied to the bark as recommended for the Roundheaded
Borer applying it in the early part of August
The Stag BeetleThis beetle affects only old or decaying trees
The alkaline wash recommended in the case of the Roundheaded
Borer will prevent the Stag Beetle from depositing its eggs on the
trunk and thus injury to the tree will be prevented
Applebark BeetleThis is a small insect about onethird of an
inch long cylindrical in form smooth and slender and varies in
color from dark chestnut brown to nearly black Its legs and
antennae are pale yellowish and its thorax minutely punctated
the posterior end of the body is abruptly notched or excavated
This insect bores under the bark of the appletree sometimes at
tacking young thrifty trees which when badly affected are apt
soon after putting forth their leaves to wither suddenly as if
scorched by fire the bark becomes loosened from the wood and
soon after these small beetles appear crawling through minute per
forations in the bark like large pin holes It usually appears in
July So little is known of its history that it is difficult to say
what would be the best remedy for itANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1S8S
391
The Eyed ElaterThis is the largest spring beetle and is found
with its larvae in the decaying wood of old appletrees It is an
inch and a half or more in length of a black color sprinkled with
numerous whitish dots On the thorax there are two large vel
vety black eyelike spots which have given origin to the name of
the insect The thorax is about onethird the length of the body
and is powdered with whitish atoms or scales The wing cases are
ridged with longitudinal lines and the under side of the body and
legs thickly powdered with white It is found in the perfect state
m June and July It mainly feeds on decaying wood and is not
given as a destructive insect but simply to mention The Rough
Osmoderma also feeds on decaying wood
ATTACKING THE BRANCHES
The Woolly Louse of the AppleThe Woolly Louse of the
apple is the same as the appletree plantlouse In this form it at
tacks the trunk and limbs living in clusters and secreting over
themselves small patches of a cottonlike covering They are
often found about the base of twigs or suckers springing from the
trunk and also about the base of the trunk itself and around recent
wounds in the bark In autumn they commonly affect the axils
of the leafstalks towards the ends of the twigs and sometimes mul
tiply to such an extent as to cover the whole undersurface of the
limbs and also of the trunk the tree looking as though white
washed They are said to affect most those trees which yield
sweet fruit Both young and old derive their nourishment from
the sap of the tree and the constant punctures they make give rise
to warts and excrescences on the bark and openings in it and where
very numerous the limbs attacked become sickly the leaves turn
yellow and drop off and sometimes the tree dies
RemediesThe small fourwinged chalcid fly the Lady Birds
and their larvaealso the larvae of the lacewing flies and Syrphus
flies feed on all species of plant lice The vigorous use of a stiff
brush wet with the alkaline solution of soap will be found very effi
cient or a solution made by mixing five pounds of fresh lime with
one pound of sulphur and two gallons of water and heating until392
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
the sulphur is dissolved After destroying all those on the trunks
and cutting away all suckers the earth should be removed from
about the base of the trunk the parts below the surface cleared and
fresh earth placed about the roots
The Apple LiopusThis is a longhorned borer found in the
larval state in decaying limbs of appletrees It is a rare insect in
America and is not likely to prove a serious trouble
Apple Tree PrinterA longhorned beetle cylindrical in form
with brownish wingcases It chiefly affects the oak but attacks
the apple It is easily disposed of by gathering the branches and
burning them before the insect has time to mature
Parallel Elaphidion in its larval state this insect occasionally
bores into apple and plumtrees It is rather a rare insect and is
not likely to become injurious to any considerable extent
The Appletwig HornThis is a small cylindrical beetle from
onefourth to onethird of an inch in length of a dark chestnut
brown color above black beneath The insect works in the beetle
state boring into branches of the apple just above a bud ami work
ing downwards through the pith in a cylindrical burrow one or two
inches long They work throughout the summer months causing
the twigs operated on to wither ami the leaves to turn brown
Upon examination a perforation about the size of a knitting needle
is found near one of the buds from six inches to a foot from the end
of the twig The only remedy is to search for the bored twigs in
June and July and cut them off and burn them
Imbricated Snout BeetleThis is more of a weevil and is found
mostly in the Western States Very little is known of its history
The only remedy suggested is to jar the trees on which they are
collect them and destroy them
Seventeenyear LocustsThis insect is very well known The
female deposits her eggs in the twig puncturing and sawing small
slits in them Her beak is composed of three portions the two
outer are beset with small teeth like a saw while the center one is
a spearshaped piercer She passes from limb to limb and from
tree to tree until her 400 or 500 eggs are deposited and dies The
punctured limbs are so weakened by the operations of the insectANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 18SS
393
that they frequently break off when swayed by rough winds and
the injury thus caused to fruit trees and orchards is sometimes very
serious In most cases if the trees are vigorous they eventually
recover from their wounds The eggs hatch in about six weeks
or less It is active and rapid in its movements and shortly after
its escape from the egg drops to the ground and by means of its
broad and strong forefeet buries itself in the soil Once under the
surface these larvae attach themselves to the succulent roots of
plants and trees and puncturing them with their beaks imbibe the
vegetable juices which form their sole nourishment They do not
usually descend very deeply into the ground but remain where the
juicy roots are most abundant and the only marked alteration to
which they are subject during the long term of their existence
under ground is a gradual increase in size As the time for their
transformation approaches they ascend towards the surface making
cylindrical burrows about fiveeighths of an inch in diameter often
circuitous seldom exactly perpendicular and these are firmly ce
mented and varnished so as to be watertight As the insect pro
gresses the chamber is filled below with the earthy matter removed
in its progress but the upper portion to the extent of six or eight
inches is empty and serves as a dwellingplace for the insect until
the period for its exit arrives Here it remains for several days
ascending to the top of the hole in fine weather for warmth and
air and occasionally looking out but descending again on the oc
currence of cold or wet weather Finally when fully matured
they issue from the ground crawl up the trunk of a tree or any
other object to which they can attach themselves securely by their
claws and having rested awhile prepare to cast their skins After
some struggling a longitudinal rent is made on the back and
through this the enclosed Cicada pushes its head and gradually
withdraws itself leaving the empty pupa skin The escape gen
erally occurs between the hours of six and nine oclock in the even
ing and about ten minutes are occupied by the insect in entirely
freeing itself from the enclosure Before morning the insects are
ready for flight
RemediesVarious enemies attack them on escaping from the
ground Birds and preclaceous insects devour them hogs and394
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
poultry feed on them greedily in the winged state they are subject
to the attacks of parasites Human agency apparently is ineffect
ual in staying their progress the only time when anything can be
done is early in the morning when the winged insects newly es
caped are comparatively in a feeble and helpless condition they
may be crushed and destroyed When they acquire full power
of wing it is a hopeless task to attempt to arrest their course
The Oystershell BarklouseThis is a very destructive and per
nicious insect prevailing throughout the Northern United States
and Canada and in some of the Southern States It appears in
the form of minute scales about onesixth of an inch long of a
brownish or grayish color closely resembling that of the bark of
the tree and somewhat like the shell of an oyster in shape adhering
to the surface of the bark and placed irregularly most of them
lengthwise of the limb or twig with the smaller end upwards In
some instances the branches of appletrees may be found literally
covered with these scales and where thus so prevalent they seri
ously impair the health and vigor of the tree and sometimes cause
its death Under each of these scales will be found a mass of eggs
varying in number from fifteen or twenty to one hundred or more
these during the winter or early spring will be found to be white
in color but before hatching they change to a yellowish hue soon
after which the young insects appear This usually occurs late in
May or early in June and if the weather be cool the young lice
will remain several days under the scales before dispersing over the
tree As it becomes warmer they leave their shelter and may be
seen running all over the twigs looking for suitable locations to at
tach themselves Their actual length is the onehundredth of an
inch to the unaided eye they appear mere specks A large pro
portion of them soon become fixed around the base of the side
shoots of the terminal twigs where inserting their tiny sharp beaks
they subsist upon the sap of the tree By the middle of August the
female louse becomes little else than a bag of eggs and the process
of depositing them now begins the body of the parent shrinking
day by day until finally when the work is completed it becomes a
mere atom at the narrow end of the scale and is scarcely noticeableANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
395
Only one brood is produced annually at the North the eggs remain
ing unchanged under the scale for about nine months but in some
parts of the South the insect is doublebrooded the first brood
hatching in May the second in September
During the winter the trees should be examined and the scales
scraped off and thus a large proportion of the insects may be de
stroyed Still it is almost impossible to cleanse the tree entirely in
this way especially the smaller branches hence the insects should
be fought also at the time when the eggs are hatching and the
young lice crawling over the limbs as then they are tender and
easily killed With this object in view the time of hatching of
the remnants left after the winter or spring scraping should be
watched and while the young larvas are active the twigs should be
brushed with a strong solution of soft soap and washing soda or
syringed with a solution of washing soda in water made by dis
solving half a pound or more of soda in a pailful of water Paint
ing the twigs or branches with linseed oil has been tried with suc
cess
Scurfy BarklouseThis has long been known under the name
of the Harris barklouse In some respects it resembles the oyster
shell barklouse yet it is sufficiently dissimilar to be readily dis
tinguishable from it The scale of the female is oblong in form
pointed below very flat of a grayishwhite color about onefourth
of an inch long The eggs are purplish red and hatch about the
same date as those of the oystershell barklouse but the larva are
red or reddishbrown in color The eggs are not fully developed
until the middle of September The original home of this louse
is the crabapple In the warmer parts of the South it is more
common than the oystershell barklouse but not so injurious
The remedies are the same as recommended for the oystershell
barklouse
Buffalo TreehopperThe Buffalo Treehopper is an active
jumping creature about onethird of aninch long of a light grass
green color with whitish dots and a pale yellowish streak along
each side On the front there is a sharp process or point jutting
out horizontally on each side reminding one of the horns of the396
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
Buffalo or Bull Its body is threesided not unlike a beechniit
in form and is furnished with a sharppointed beak with which it
punctures the bark and sucks the sap from the trees It is common
on apple and many other trees from July to the end of the season
The eggs are said to be laid in a single row of slits in the hark and
when hatched the young larvae are grassgreen like their parents
feeding also on the sap of the leaves and twigs In the larval
state before the power of flight is acquired the insect is easily
caught and destroyed It cannot be killed by any poisonous appli
cation as it feeds only on sap
Thornbusk TreehopperThis is an insect similar in appear
ance and habits to the Buffalo Treehopper It is a little more
than onethird of an inch long with a threesided body
The PearbUght BeetleFor description and remedy see under
head of Pear
The New York WeevilFor description and remedy see under
head of Peach
The Redshouldered SinoxylonFur description and remedy
see under head of the Grape
ATTACKING THE LEAVES
Appletree Tent CaterpillarThe moth is of a pale didl red
dish or reddishbrown color crossed by two oblique parallel lines
the space between these lines being paler than the general color
although sometimes quite as dark or darker In the male the
antennas are featherlike and slightly so in the female It has no
hollowlike tongue like other moths or butterflies hence has no
power of taking food and lives in the winged state but a few days
yet long enough to deposit eggs and provide for a future genera
tion The moth remains at rest concealed during the day but be
comes very active during the night when it enters lighted rooms
attracted by the glare1 and becomes so dazzled and bewitched that
it darts crazily about here and there thumping itself against the
walls furniture and floors of the room in the most erratic manner
then circles around the lamp or gaslight with great velocity finally
dashing into the flames when with wings and antennse severelyANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 397
singed it retreats into some obscure corner The moths are most
abundant during the first two weeks in July
The eggs are deposited during July upon the smaller twigs of the
tree in ringlike clusters each composed of from fifteen to
twenty rows containing in all from two hundred to three hundred
The eggs are conical and about onetwentieth of an inch long
firmly cemented together and coated with a tough varnish im
pervious to rain The young caterpillars are fully matured in the
egg before winter comes and they remain in this enclosure in a
torpid state throughout cold weather hatching during the first
warm days of spring They usually appear during the last week
of April or early in May depending much on the prevailing tem
perature Their first meal is made of portions of the gauzy mate
rial with which the eggmasses are covered and with the strength
thus gained they proceed at once to work At this time the buds
are bursting thus providing the young larvaa with an abundance
of suitable tender food It sometimes happens however that
after they are hatched cold weather returns and vegetable growth
is temporarily retarded To meet this emergency they have also
the power of sustaining hunger for a considerable time and live
from ten to twelve days when wholly deprived of food but severe
frost is fatal to them in this tender condition and multitudes some
times perish from this cause These larva are tentmakers and
soon after birth they begin to construct for themselves a shelter by
extending the sheets of web across the nearest fork of the twig
upon which they were hatched As soon as they increase in size
they construct also additional layers of silk over those previously
made attaching them to the neighboring twigs and leaving between
the layers space enough for the caterpillars to pass In five or six
weeks they become fullgrown and then measure one and three
quarter inches in length They are wry voracious and devour the
leaves of the trees they are on with great rapidity It is estimated
that each larva when approaching maturity will consume two
leaves in a day so that every day a nest is permitted to remain
there is a sacrifice of about five hundred leaves When there hap
pens to be several nests in one tree or if the tree is small they often398
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
strip every vestige of foliage from it and in neglected orchards the
trees are often seen as bare of leaves in June as they are in mid
winter As the caterpillars arrive at maturity they leave the tree
and wander about in search of suitable places in which to hide dur
ing their chrysalis stage A favorite place is the angle formed by
the projections of the capboards of fences or fence posts
RemediesThe tent caterpillars seldom leave the nest to feed
until after nine oclock a m and usually return before sundown
Hence early and late hours of the day are the best times for de
stroying them With a ladder and a gloved hand the living mass
may be seized and crushed in a moment or the nest may be torn
from the tree and crushed under foot When a ladder is not at
hand the nests may be removed by a pole with a bunch of rags
tied around the end of it This work is most easily done while the
larva are young and should be attended to as soon as the coblike
vebs appear The eggclusters may be sought for and destroyed
during the winter months when the trees being leafless a prac
ticed eye will detect them
Foresttent CaterpillarThis insect closely resembles the com
mon tent caterpillar The moth is of a similar color but paler or
more yellowish The space between the two oblique lines is isuallv
darker than the rest of the wings and the lines themselves are dark
brown instead of whitish The eggs of this species may be dis
tinguished by their almost uniform diameter and by their being cut
off squarely at each end The number of eggs in each cluster
is usually between three hundred and four hundred They are
white about onetwentyfifth of an inch long and onefortieth
of an inch wide rounded at the base gradually enlarging
towards the apex where they are margined by a prominent rim
and have a sunken spot in the center The eggs are deposited in
circles and with each one is secreted a mall quantity of gummy
matter which firmly fastens it to the twig and also to the adjoining
egg and upon becoming dry forms a coating of varnish over the
pale egg Like the tent caterpillar the young become fully formed
in the eggs before winter and remain within them in a torpid conANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
399
dition until spring The larva hatch out about the time of the
bursting of buds and in absence of food are endowed with similar
powers of endurance They are said to have been known to sur
vive a fast of three weeks duration From the time they are half
grown until they approach maturity they seem to have a great
fondness for exercise and delight to travel in rows along fence
boards which they do at a very brisk pace when in search of food
In about six weeks the larva becomes full grown and is then an
inch and a half or more in length of a palebluish color sprinkled
all over with black points and dots On the back is a row of ten
or eleven oval or diamondshaped white spots by which it may be
at once distinguished from the common tent caterpillar while on
the sides there are pale yellowish stripes somewhat broken and
mixed with gray It attains full growth about the middle of June
Occasionally during the latter part of May when about half grown
and extremely voracious these caterpillars will appear in swarms
and attract general attention During the latter part of the day
and frequently also in the morning they collect on the trunks and
larger branches of the trees in large black masses which are so
easily reached that they invite destruction While they attack
the trees of the forest they are particularly injurious to the apple
RemediesThe eggclusters should be sought for and destroyed
luring the winter months When the caterpillars are young they
will drop suspended by a silken thread in midair if the branch on
which they are feeding be suddenly struck advantage may be
taken of this habit and by swinging a stick around the threads
may be gathered in with the larvse attached to them When the
caterpillars have become half grown the trees should be frequently
inspected early in the morning and the congregated masses
crushed and destroyed with a stiff broom or some other equally
suitable implement During the day they are so constantly on the
move that a young tree thoroughly cleansed of them in the morn
ing may be crowded again before evening To avoid the necessity
of constant watching strips of cotton batting three or four inches
wide should be tied about halyway up the trunk these bands
should be tied tightly in the middle Each caterpillar is furnished400
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
with four pairs of fleshy prologs which are fringed with mall
horny hooks and on its trying to pass over the cotton batting these
hooks get so entangled in the fiber that further progress becomes
very difficult and is seldom persisted in A shower of rain will
pack the fibers of the cotton somewhat but where the string fasten
ing it is tied around the middle the upper half washes down and
makes a sort of roof overhanging the lower portion which in a
great measure protects it from the weather These larvae are sel
dom abundant for many years in succession for in times of great
plenty their natural enemies multiply with amazing rapidity
Whitemarked TussockmothThe orchardist walking among
his fruit trees after the leaves have fallen or during the winter
months will frequently find a dead leaf or leaves fastened here and
there to the branches of his trees on examination these will
usually be found to contain a gray cocoon with in most instances
a mass of eggs fastened to it On breaking into the mass which is
brittle it will be found to include from three hundred to five hun
dred eggs about onetwentyfifth of an inch in diameter of a white
color nearly globular and flattened on the upper side They are
placed in three or four layers the interstices being tilled with a
frothy gelatinous matter which makes them adhere securely to
gether and over all is a thick coating id the same material with a
nearly smooth grayishwhite surface of a convex form which ef
fectually prevents the lodgment of any water upon it About the
middle of May the eggs hatch when the young caterpillars at once
proceed to devour the leaves of the tree upon which they are placed
when disturbed letting themselves down by a silken thread remain
ing suspended until danger is past when they climb up the thread
and regain their former position When mature they are more
than an inch long of a bright yellow color There are two broods
during the season the first completing their larval growth and spin
ning their cocoons about the middle of Inly the second hatching
towards the last of July and completing their growth by the end of
August the moths from the latter depositing the eggs which re
main on the trees during the winter Tt is partial to the apple at
times stripping the trees almost hare of leaves and disfiguring the
fruit by gnawing its surfaceANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
401
RemediesThe increase of this insect may be prevented easily
by collecting and destroying the eggsduring the winter months
Yellownecked Appletree CaterpillarAlthough the yellow
necked appletree caterpillar is sometimes very abundant and de
structive this insect is not usually very common
The firstlaid eggs of the moth begin to hatch during the third
week in July while others are three or four weeks later The
young larva eat only the under side and pulpy part of the leaves
leaving the veins and upper side untouched but as they increase in
size and strength they devour the whole of the leaf except the
stem They are found invariably clustered close together on a
limb on which beginning with the tender leaves at the extremity
they gradually devour all before them leaving the branch per
fectly bare
RemediesThe nakedness of the limb they attack soon at
tracts attention when the caterpillars may be easilv destroyed by
crushing them on the tree or by cutting off the branches and
throwing them into the fire
Redhumped Appletree Cater pillarThis insect very much re
sembles the yellownecked appletree caterpillar The female
moth deposits her eggs in a cluster on the under side of a leaf dur
ing the month of July where they shortly hatch into tiny cater
pillars which at first consume only the under side of the leaf leav
ing the upper surface unbroken but as they increase in size thev
eat the entire leaf They come to maturity during August or earlv
m September When full grown it measures about an inch and a
quarter long In the South they are said to be doublebrooded
They are very generally distributed but seldom abundant They
prefer to feed on the apple
RemediesAs theymaintain their gregarious habits during
their entire larval existence they can be easily gathered and de
stroyed either by cutting off the limb and burning it or by dis
Jodgmg them by suddenly jarring the limb when they fall to the
ground and may be trampled under foot
CankerwormsThe eggs of the fall cankerworm are flattened
above have a central puncture and a brown circle near the border402 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
are laid side by side in regular masses often as many as a hundred
together and generally plaqed in exposed situations on the twigs
or branches of the tree They usually hatch about the time when
the young leaves of the apple push from the bud when the little
cankerworms cluster upon and consume the tender leaves and
on the approach of cold or wet weather creep for shelter into
the bosom of the expanding bud or into the opening flower
When full grown it measures about an inch in length These
caterpillars are called loopers because they alternately loop and
extend their bodies in motion and are also known as measuring
worms They vary in color from greenish yellow to dusky or even
dark brown with broad longitudinal yellowish or paler stripes
along each side When not eating they usually assume a stiff
posture either flat and parallel with the twigs on which they rot
or at an angle of fortyfive degrees in either case since they closely
resemble in color the branch on which they rest they usually elude
detection When full grown they leave the tree either by creep
ing down the trunk or by letting themselves down by silken threads
from the branches
The Spring Cankerworm has an ovalshaped egg of a delicate
texture and pearly luster they are laid in masses without any regu
larity or order in their arrangement often as many as a hundred
together usually hidden in crevices of the bark of trees They
hatch at the same time as the fall species They are about an inch
long when full grown They resemble the fall species their habits
are similar and they attain full growth about the same time
RemediesIf the females who are wingless can be prevented
from crawling up the trees to deposit their eggs a great point will
be gained Various measures have been employed to secure this
end all belonging to one or the other of two classes first those
that prevent the ascension of the moth by entangling her feet and
holding her there second those looking to a similar end by pre
venting her from getting a foothold and causing her to fall repeat
edly to the ground until she becomes exhausted and dies In the
first class are included tar mixedwith oil to prevent its drying ami
applied either directly or around the body of the tree or on stripsANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 403
of old canvas or stiff paper about five or six inches wide and tied
m the middle with a string refuse sorghum molasses printing ink
and slowlydrying varnishes are used in a similar manner Tin
lead and rubber troughs to contain oil also belong to this class of
remedies and have all been used with more or less effect In the
use of any of the firstnamed sticky substances it should be borne
in mind that they must be kept sticky by frequent renewal of the
surface in mild weather or the application will be useless They
should also be applied as early as the latter part of October and
kept on until the leaves are expanded in the following spring It
must also be remembered that some of the moths defeated in their
attempts to climb the tree will deposit their eggs near the ground
or anywhere in fact below the barrier and that the tiny young
worms hatched from them will pass without difficulty through a
very small opening Hence whether troughs or bandages are used
care must be taken to fill up all the irregularities of surface in the
bark of the trees so that no openings shall be left through which
they may pass Cotton batting answers well in most cases for this
purpose
The second class of remedies consists of various ingenious de
vices in the way of collars of metal wood or glass fastened around
the tree and sloping downward like an inverted funnel These
although they prevent the moth from ascending the tree offer but
little obstacle to the progress of the young caterpillars unless the
openings between the collar and the tree are carefully packed and
hence they often fail of entire success Those belonging to the
first class are said to be the surest and best and while it must be ad
mitted that it involves much time and labor to renew so often and
for so long a period the tar or other sticky application so as to make
it an effectual barrier to the ascent of the insect still it will pay
where the cankerworm abounds to give the matter the attention
required to insure success Fall plowing is recommended to de
stroy the chrysalids by turning them up to be killed by exposure
or devoured by birds
Fall WebwormAfter the webs of the tent caterpillars have
been carefully removed in the spring towards the end of summer404
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
the orchardist may be mortified to find his trees again adorned with
webs enclosing swarms of hungry caterpillars devouring the foli
age This is the fall webworm an insect totally different in all
its stages from the common tentcaterpillar The moth of this
species deposits her eggs in broad patches on the under side of the
leaves near the end of a branch during the latter part of May or
early in June These hatch in the months of June July or Au
gust during the earlier period in the warmer districts and later in
the cooler ones As soon as the young larvae appear they begin to
eat and to spin a web over themselves for protection They devour
only the pulpy portion of the leaves leaving the veins and skins of
the under surface untouched When full grown they are an inch
or more in length and vary greatly in their markings These
larvae do not wander from their nests to feed until nearly full
grown but extend the web over their whole feeding ground con
stantly enclosing fresh portions of the branch occupied until some
times the web covers a space several feet long the whole enclosed
portion having a scorched or withered look as if it had been
blighted When nearly at their full growth they suddenly aban
don their social habits and scatter far and wide feeding on almost
any green thing they meet with They are very active and run
briskly when disturbed In the South this insect is frequently
doublebrooded the first brood of the larvae appearing in June the
second in August
RemediesAs soon as seen they should be removed by cutting
off the twig or branch and destroying it if beyond ordinary reach
the branch may be cut off by attaching a pair of pruning shears to
a pole and pulling one handle with a string As they remain con
stantly under the web for so long a period the removal of the
branch insures in most instances the destruction of the whole
colony
Cecropia Emperor MothDuring the winter months when
the appletrees are leafless the large cocoons of this insect are fre
quently found firmly attached to the twigs The cocoon is about
three inches long and an inch or more broad in its widest part
formed of two layers ofllk The chrysalis remains uninjured in
it by the variations of temperature during the winter Late inc
c
ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 405
May or early in June after repeated struggles the occupant comes
out and the female commences soon after to deposit her eggstwo
hundred or three hundredand they are usually laid in pairs
The duration of the egg state is usually from a week to ten days
when the young larva eats its way out making its first meal out of
the empty eggshell With a ravenous appetite its growth is very
rapid and from time to time its skin becomes too tight for its com
fort and it is thrown off At each of these changes or moltings
the caterpillar appears in an altered garb until finally a gigantic
creature makes its appearance three to four inches long ana1 nearly
as thick as a mans thumb During its growth from the diminutive
creature as it escapes from the egg to the fullgrown specimen it
consumes an immense amount of vegetable food and especially a
it approaches maturity is this voracious appetite apparent When
one or two have been placed on a young appletree thev mav in a
short time strip it entirely bare the loss of foliage during thegrow
ing period prevents the proper ripening of the wood and often en
dangers the life of the tree
RemediesThe natural increase of this insect is great and wise
provisions have been made to keep it within due bounds There
are numerous birds and insects that prey on it During the winter
their cocoons should be looked for and destroyed the larvae may
also be subdued by handpickingtheir work as well as their ap
pearance being so conspicuous that they are readily detected
Unicorn ProminentThis insect is doublebrooded in the
South the moth of the first brood appearing early in June and those
of the second in August In August and September the larvai
may be found nearly full grown At first eating a notch about
the S1ze of its body in the side of the leaf on which it is feeding
and placing itself in this notch with the humps on its body some
what resembling the irregularities in the margin of the partlyeaten
leaf it is not easily detected Eventually it consumes the entire
leaf except a small portion of the base It is rarelv present in suf
ficient numbers to do any material damage No parasites have
been recorded as preying upon it though doubtless it suffers in this
way m common with most other insects406
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
Turnus SwallowtailThe eggs are deposited singly on the
leaves of the apple they are about onetwentyfourth of an inch ia
diameter nearly round of a dark green color with a smooth sur
face In about ten or twelve days the eggs begin to change
color becoming darker and growing very dark just before
the escape of the larvae When full grown the caterpillar
is an inch and a half to two inches long with a rather large red
dishbrown head and a green body which is thicker towards the
head and tapers posteriorly It feeds on the apple and other trees
As it is always solitary in its habits it is never likely to cause much
injury
The Blindeyed SphinxWhile partial to the appletree this is
comparatively a rare insect and has never been known to cause
any serious injury
The Apple SphinxThis belongs to the same family as the
Blindeyed Sphinx and there is a general resemblance between the
two in all their stages
The American LappetmothWhile this insect feeds on the
apple it is not at all common and will probably never be a source
of much annoyance to the fruitgrower
The Velleda LappetmothThe caterpillar of this species is very
similar in appearance and habits to that of the American Lappet
moth with some slight difference in color and markings It is a
rare insect and one never likely to appear in sufficient numbers to
be troublesome
Obliquebanded LeafrollerSoon after the buds of the apple
tree begin to open the caterpillars of the obliquebanded leafroller
commence their labors They coil up and fasten together the small
and tender leaves which thus furnish them at once with shelter
and food When full grown they are about threefourths of an
inch in length of a pale green or yellowishgreen color sometimes
reddish or brownish Besides consuming the leaves this leafroller
is very fond of gnawing the skin of the young fruit and such
abraded spots soon become brown and rusty and sometimes crack
When mature the larva lines the inner surface of its dwelling
place with a web of silk and then changes to a chrysalis of a darkANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
407
brown color Towards the end of June or early in July the
chrysalis wriggles itself halfway out of the nest and shortly after
the imprisoned moth escapes The caterpillars are found on the
apple pear and other fruit trees
RemediesThe depredations of this foe are sometimes serious
especially when it selects as its abode the terminal branches of the
tree and thus checks its growth Whenever practical the curled
and twisted clusters of leaves should be pinched and the lame
crushed if out of reach syringing with powdered hellebore and
water in the proportion of an ounce of the hellebore to a pailful
of water or with Paris green and water in the proportion of a tea
spoonful of Paris green to a pailful of water will destroy many of
them
Lesser Appletree FolderThe caterpillars of this species some
times occur in great numbers destroying the leaves of appletrees
particularly young trees giving them the appearance of being
scorched by fire Those of the first brood make their appearance
with the opening foliage in spring the opposite edges of the tender
leaves are drawn together upwards and fastened with a silken web
thus forming a roof over the insect which serves the double purpose
of shelter and protection The second brood hatching later in the
season from eggs laid on the surface of the mature and lessyield
ing leaf do not draw its edges together but simply construct a web
over the surface of the leaf When mature the caterpillars eat
off the upper cuticle of part of a leaf and bring the edges together
tying them with silken threads and then line the enclosure with
fine white silk Within this curled leaf the caterpillar changes to
a brown chrysalis about threetenths of an inch long
RemediesWhen it becomes necessary to destroy them the
remedies suggested for destroying the obliquebanded leafroller
should be promptly applied
The Leaf CrumplerThe fruitgrower will frequently find on
examination of his appletrees in winter clusters of curious little
cases partly hidden by portions of crumpled and withered leaves
The cases resemble long miniature horns wide at one end tapering
almost to a point at the other and twisted in a very odd manner408 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
The withered leaves are firmly fastened to the cases and to the
twigs of silken threads and the case itself which is attached to the
bark of the twig on which it is placed is curiously constructed of
silk interwoven with the dried castings of the Leaf Grumpier The
inner surface of the case is whitish and smooth the exterior rougher
and of a yellowishbrown color These odd little cases are the work
of the larvae of the Leaf Grumpier the young of which appear late
in the summer and attain about onethird of their growth before
winter sets in After constructing their places of abode they re
main in them all winter in a torpid state As soon as the warmth
of thespring sm caxises the buds to expand the caterpillar resumes
its activity and leaving its case in search of food for which purpose
it usually takes the night Dime it draws the opening leaves towards
its case so as to secure a safe retreat should clanger threaten and
fastening them by threads of silk enjoys its meals in comparative
safety Its length when full grown is about sixtenths of an inch
the body tapering slightly towards the hinder extremity Its
growth is completed about the early part of June It then shuts
itself up in its case and changes to a reddish brown chrysalis about
fourtenths of an inch long from which in about two weeks the
perfect moth escapes The moths deposit their eggs in July
There is only one brood
RemediesThis insect is not very often very numerous in any
one orchard Where it is abundant it sometimes inflicts a con
siderable amount of damage consuming the young foliage and re
tarding the growth of the trees The only way to destroy them is
to pick the cases with the crumpled leaves off the trees during the
winter and burn or crush them
The Eyespotted BudmothThe caterpillar of the Eyespotted
Budmoth selects the opening bud as its point of attack It is a
small cylindrical naked larva about threefourths of an inch long
of a pale dull brownish color with small warts on its body from
which arise fine short hairs Its tenement consists of a dried
blackened leaf portions of which are drawn together so as to make
a rude case the central part of which is lined with silk It is very
partial to the blossoms of newlyformed fruit thereby causing greatANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR IS
409
disappointment to fruitgrowers who perhaps have waited patiently
for years for the fruit of some new or interesting variety and have
their hopes excited by seeing it may be a single set of blossoms set
well and appear promising when this mischiefmaker commences
its depredations on the young fruit drawing the several portions
together with threads of silk and partly devouring them It some
times contents itself with injuring the leaves only drawing one
after another around its small inside case until there is formed a
little cluster of withered and blackened leaves Another of its
tricks is to gnaw a hole into the top of the branch from which a
bunch of blossoms issue and tunneling it down the center cause
its death These larvae are generally full grown by the middle of
Tune when they change to darkbrown chrysalids within their
nests from which the perfect moth escapes in July
Remedies Small and insignificant as it appears this insect is
capable of much mischief The only remedy suggested is to pull
off and crush the withered clusters of leaves containing the cater
pillars or chrysalids early in the Spring
Applehud FormThe eggs from which the applebud worms
hatch are deposited singly upon the terminal buds The young
larva after devouring the bud fastens the leafstalk of one of the
leaves growing near the tip to the side of the branch and thus
forms for itself a kind of burrow between the leafstalk and the
branch in which it hides during the day issuing from its retreat
at night to feed on the leaf so secured When this is consumed
it is said to feed for a time on the newly formed wood and some
times eats its way a short distance into the twig The caterpillar
about this time deserts its burrow on the branch and constructs a
yellow woolly tube or case upon one of the leaves in which it
lives issuing at night to feed as heretofore and when the leaf on
which it is placed is almost consumed the larva drags the case
to an adjoining leaf When full grown it measures about half
an inch in length it then closes its case with a silken lid and
changes to a chrysalis within it from which the moth appears about
a week or ten days later
The tips of the infested branches of the appletree die back as410 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
far as the base of the first perfect leaf where a new bud forms
which takes the place of the terminal bud As the branch from
this newly formed bud is late in starting and does not grow straight
the injury caused by this insect interferes seriously with the growth
of the tree and also mars its beauty
RemediesWhere these insects are very troublesome they may
be destroyed by syringing the trees with Paris green or London
purple mixed with water in the proportion of one or two teaspoon
fuls of the poison to two gallons of water The numbers may also
be lessened by handpicking gathering them while still in their
burrows near the tops of the twigs
Greenapple LeaftyerThe greenapple leaftyer is a slate
colored variety of the lesser apple leaf folder and the same re
marks and remedies apply
Appleleaf SewerIn the perfect state this insect is a small
moth belonging to the Leaf Rollers It passes the winter in the
larval condition in rolledup appleleaves which lie on the ground
Early in April the larvae change to chrysalids and about ten
days afterwards the moths begin to appear and continue to issue
for several weeks The moth lays its eggs in June and the larva
is found throughout the summer and autumn on appleleaves It
folds the leaves together making the edges meet so that the whole
leaf forms a hollow case within which it lives and feeds on the
softer tissues
RemediesThis caterpillar sometimes prevails to such an extent
as to seriously injure the foliage of appletrees in such cases the
most obvious remedy is to gather carefully in the autumn all the
leaves with the enclosed larvae and burn them
Appleleaf SlceletonizerThis insect occurs in the larval state
in the autumn and sometimes during the summer also and is spe
cially injurious to young orchards giving the foliage a rusty blight
ed appearance caused by the larvae devouring the green pulpy
parts of the upper surface of the leaves and leaving the closely net
ted veins with the under skin untouched It sometimes feeds
singly and sometimes in groups in the latter case a number of
the leaves are drawn together and the caterpillars live and feed
within this shelterANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
411
I
RemediesThis pest may be subdued by handpicking if begun
in good season
Manydotted Apple Worm In June and again in August or
September there is sometimes found on apple leaves in considerable
number a rather thick cylindrical lightgreen larva an inch or
more in length These are the larvae of the manydotted apple
worm They eat irregular notches in the margins and holes in
the middles of the leaves and do not feed in groups but are solitary
in their habits scattered among the foliage They begin to appear
about the last of May and live openly exposed on the under side
of the leaves without furnishing any web or fold in the leaf for
protection on reaching maturity which for the early brood is
about the last of June the larva selects a leaf and draws together
a portion of it with silken threads forming a hollow tube within
which it spins a slight silky cocoon and changes to a brown chrys
alis In this inactive condition it remains for three or four weeks
sometimes longer when the moth appears
RemediesThe larvae are seldom sufficiently numerous to be
troublesome but if at any time a remedy is required they may be
destroyed by syringing the leaves with Paris green or hellebore
mixed with water as recommended for the obliquebanded leaf
roller When the trees on which these caterpillars are feeding are
suddenly jarred the caterpillars drop to the ground and by taking
advantage of this peculiarity they may be captured and destroyed
The Palmer WormThis larva appears in appletrees during
the latter part of June and at times it is excessively numerous and
destructive It lives in societies making its home in a mass of
halfeaten and browned leaves drawn together by silken threads
from which it drops when the tree or branch is jarred suspended
in the air by a thread of silk While young the caterpillars eat
only the green pulpy tissue of the leaves leaving the network of
veins entire later on they consume the whole of the leaf except
the coarse veins They also frequently gnaw holes or irregular
cavities in the young apples When full grown they are about
half an inch long They then change to chrysalids within the
mass of eaten leaves occupied by the larvae and ordinarily spin a412
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
slight cocoon in a fold of the leaf but when they are very abun
dant the foliage is so entirely consumed that they have to look for
shelter elsewhere Their chrysalids are then often found under
dry leaves on the surface of the ground in crevices in the bark of
the tree and in other suitable hidingplaces In ten or twelve days
the perfect insect is produced
There are two other insects found on the appleleaves resembling
the Palmer Worm and having similar habits which are described
by Dr Asa Fitch as distinct but which are probably varieties
only of the common Palmer Worm It is described as the com
rade Palmer Worm It differs from the Palmer Worm only in
color The other insect is described as the tawny striped Palmer
Worm differing in color from the other varieties It appears in
the early part of July which is a little later than the ordinary
Palmer Worm The habits are similar
RemediesShowering the trees with whaleoil soap and water
has been recommended but the use of Paris green and water as
directed for the obliquebanded leaf roller would prove more effect
ual the water would dislodge many of the larvae and the remain
der would be destroyed by eating the poisoned leaves The treat
ment will serve for any of the varieties
Climbing CutwormsThese are the caterpillars of the various
flying moths Most of the species are very destructive to young
cabbage plants and similar young and tender vegetables cutting or
severing the plants when but three or four inches high just above
or below the ground They are active only at night remaining
concealed during the day just under the surface of the earth in
the immediate neighborhood of their feeding grounds Some of
them have the habit of ascending fruit trees at night and com
mitting great havoc among the expanding buds and young foliage
and it is to these that we particularly refer Orchards having
a light sandy soil are much more liable to attack than those with a
stiff and heavy soil When the buds and foliage of trees are being
destroyed without apparent cause climbing cutworms should be
searched for when the lurking foes will usually be found buried in
the soil not far from the base of the trees or vines injured TheANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
413
several species while differing in size color and markings are
much alike being all smooth naked larvae of some shade of gray
green brown or black with grayish or dusky markings The
young larvae of the variegated cutworm when hatched are very
small and of a dull yellowish color with darker spots At first
they do not hide themselves under the ground but acquire this
habit after their first molt which takes place about a week after
they are hatched They become full grown before the middle of
June When mature the larva enters the ground where it forms
an oval smooth cavity within which it changes to a chrysalis of a
deep mahoganybrown color pointed at the extremity
The darksided cutworm is another of the climbing species The
caterpillar is a little over an inch in length of a dingy ashygray
color above much darker along the sides of the body
The larva of the climbing cutworm is a very active climber
and does a great deal of injury to fruit trees When full grown it
is nearly an inch and a half long when it enters the earth and
there changes to a brown chrysalis
The Wmarked cutworm has also been found feeding on apple
buds The family of cutworms is a large one and embraces many
other destructive species but none of them except those above
mentioned are known to have the habit of climbing trees
The Limetree WintermothThe caterpillar of this species is
a span worm not unlike the Cankerworm but large and differ
ently marked When full grown it is about an inch and a quarter
long The head is a dull red with a Vshaped mark on the front
the body yellow above with many longitudinal black lines the
under side is paler The larvae hatch early in the spring and some
times prove very destructive to the foliage They complete their
growth amout the middle of June when letting themselves down
from the tree by a silken thread they burrow into the ground
forming a little oblong cell five or six inches below the surface
within which the change to a chrysalis takes place and from
which the moth usually comes out late in October or early in No
vember but occasionally this latter change does not take place
until spring414 BEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
RemediesThe habits of this insect are similar to those of the
Cankerworm and the remedies recommended for the latter will
prove equally efficient in this instance
The White EugoniaThe White Eugonia has long been known
as destructive to shadetrees In late years it has been discovered
to be injurious to the foliage of appletrees especially in some
parts of Georgia The eggs of the moth are usually deposited on
the under side of the limbs near the top of the trees in patches
consisting often of many hundreds They are smooth irregularly
ovoid slightly flattened on the sides rounded at the bottom while
the top is depressed with a whitish rim or edge forming a perfect
oval ring The egg hatches about the first of May The cater
pillar is dark brown with a large red head it lives in this state
about forty days and then changes to a chrysalis in which con
dition it remains about ten days when the moth escapes
RemediesWhen abundant these insects may be poisoned and
the orchard protected by syringing the trees with Paris green and
water in the proportion of a teaspoonful of the poison to two
gallons of water
Hagmoth CaterpillarThe caterpillar of this moth is a curious
sluglike creature of a darkbrown color flattened oblong or
nearly square in form with singular fleshy appendages protruding
from the sides of its body The three middle ones are longest
measuring about half an inch long and have their ends curved
Hitherto this insect has been rare and is never likely to do mnch
injury
Saddleback CaterpillarThis caterpillar is of a reddishbrown
color rounded above flattened beneath armed with prickly thorns
which are longest on the fourth and tenth segments and with a
bright peagreen patch somewhat resembling a saddle in form
over the middle portions of the body centered with a broad ellip
tical reddish spot the red spot and green patch both being edged
with white
This moth is on the wing from the middle to the end of June but
is a rare insect and seldom captured by collectors It has never
been known to do any material injury
Appletree CasebearerWith the opening of spring there willANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 415
sometimes be found on the twigs of appletrees curious little pistol
shaped cases Each of them on examination will be found to
contain a larva possessing the power of moving from place to place
and carrying its protecting case with it These cases are very
tough almost horny in their texture and seem to be proof against
the attack of insect enemies As the buds begin to swell these
cases will be found here and there sticking on them while the
active little foe within is busily devouring the interior In this
way many of the fruit buds are destroyed nothing but hollowshells
being left As the season advances the caterpillars leave the twigs
and fasten on the leaves on which they also feed sometimes re
ducing them to mere skeletons Late in June the change to a
chrysalis takes place and the moth appears on the wing in July
They fly at night and deposit their eggs on the leaves these eggs
hatch during August and September the larvas living and feeding
on the under side of the leaves until frost comes when before the
leaves fall they migrate to the twigs and fastening their odd little
cases firmly with silken threads remain torpid until the following
spring then aroused to activity by the first warm days they attack
the swelling buds
Resplendent ShieldbearersOccasionally there may be found
on the limbs of appletrees during the winter clusters of little oval
seedlike bodies which on examination will be found to be formed
of minute portions of appleleaves and on opening one of them it
will be found to contain a small yellowish larva or if the season be
advanced perhaps a chrysalis During the month of May a small
but very beautiful moth escapes from each of these enclosures
It is an active little creature running about on the upper surface
of the leaves in the sunshine with its wings closely folded to its
body The eggs are laid on the appleleaves and the young larve
when hatched penetrate to the interior of the leafj mining it
leaving its upper and under surface unbroken but forming after
a time an irregular darkcolored blotch upon the leaf When
mature it forms from the leafy blotch its little case and crawling
with it fastens it securely to a near twig or branch of the tree
There are two broods during the season the moth appearing in
May and again in July and August the first brood of the larvre
being found in June the second at the latter part of the season416 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
RemediesIn the event that these insects prevail to any great
extent the cases might be scraped from the branches and destroyed
during the winter or the limbs brushed with the alkaline wash
or the mixture of sulphur and lime recommended for the woolly
applelouse
The Appletree BucculatrixThe larva of this insect feeds ex
ternally on the leaves of the appletree and is very active letting
himself down from the tree by a silken thread when disturbed
When fill grown it is nearly an inch long with a brown head and
a dark yellowishgreen body When full grown the caterpillar
spins an elongated whitish cocoon attached to the twig on the
leaves of which it has been feeding this cocoon is ribbed longitudi
nally and within this enclosure the larva changes to a brown chrysa
lis The second brood is found late in autumn the insect remain
ing in the chrysalis state during the winter The moths issue the
following spring when they lay eggs for the first brood of cater
pillars which are found injuring the foliage during the month of
June Sometimes this insect appears in immense numbers and
then becomes injurious
RemediesAs the cocoons of the second brood remain attached
to the tree all winter abundant opportunity is afforded to destroy
them Any oily or alkaline liquid brushed over them will usually
penetrate and destroy the enclosed insect
The Apple LyonetiaThe apple lyonetia is a tiny and beauti
ful moth which appears early in the summer The larva which
feeds on appleleaves is small flattened and of a green color It
constructs from the skin of the leaf a flattened oval case in which
it lives the case is open at each end and is drawn about bv the larva
as it moves from place to place The larva becomes full grown
about the end of August and attaches its cocoon to the bark of
the tree on which it is feeding changing there to a chrvsalis in
which condition it remains until the following spring
The Rosy IlispaThe Eosy Hispa is a small flat rough
coarsely punctated beetle its wing covers forming an oblong square
the head small and the antennae short This beetle is found from
the latter part of May until the middle of June and deposits itsANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
417
eggs on the leaves of appletrees These are small rough and of
a blackish color fastened to the surface of the leaves sometimes
singly and sometimes in clusters of four or five The larvse when
hatched eat their way into the interior of the leaf where they feed
upon its green pulpy substance leaving the skin above and below
entire which soon turns brown and dry forming a blisterlike
spot The larva when full grown which is usually during the
month of July is about onefifth of an inch long oblong in form
rather broader before than behind flattened soft and of a yellowish
white color with the head and neck blackish and of a horny con
sistence The larva changes to a pupa within the leaf from which
in about a week the perfect insect escapes Within these blister
like spots the larva pupa or freshly transformed beetle may often
be found This insect never occurs in sufficient numbers to be
a source of much trouble
The Cloaked ChrysomelaThis is another beetle which devours
the foliage of the appletree It is of a thick cylindrical form
about onethird of an inch long with its head sunk into its thorax
and the thorax narrower than the body It is of a pale ashgray
color No remedy is suggested
The Appletree AphisDuring the winter there may often be
found in the crevices and cracks of the bark of the twigs of the
appletree and also about the base of the buds a number of very
minute oval shining black eggs These are the eggs of the apple
tree Aphis known also as the appleleaf Aphis They are depos
ited in the autumn and when first laid are of a liglit yellow or
green color but gradually become darker and finally black As
soon as the buds begin to expand in the spring these eggs hatch
into tiny lice which locate themselves upon the swelling buds and
the small tender leaves and inserting their beaks feed on the
juice All the lice thus hatched at this period of the year are
females and reach maturity in ten or twelve days when they com
mence giving birth to young producing about two daily for two
or three weeks after which the older ones die The young locate
about the parents as closely as they can stow themselves and they
also mature and become mothers in ten or twelve days and are as
27 a418 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
prolific as their predecessors They thus increase so rapidly that
as fast as new leaves expand colonies are ready to occupy them
As the season advances some of the lice acquire wings and dis
persing found new colonies on other trees When cold weather
approaches males as well as females are produced and the season
closes with the deposit of a stock of eggs for the continuance of the
species another year
When newly born the apple Aphis is almost white but soon be
comes of a pale dull greenish yellow Their females are said
to be always wingless The leaves of trees infested by these insects
become distorted and twisted backwards often with their tips press
ing against the twig from which they grow and thus form a cover
ing for the Aphides protecting them from rain It is stated that
the scab on the fruit of the appletree often owes its origin to the
punctures of these plant lice
RemediesScraping the dead bark off the trees during the
winter and washing the trees with a solution of soft soap and soda
as recommended for the roundheaded appletree borer would be
beneficial by destroying the eggs Syringing the trees about the
time the buds are bursting with strong soap suds weak Lye or to
bacco water the latter made by boiling one pound of the rough
stems or leaves of tobacco in a gallon of water will destroy a large
number of the young lice
The Tarnished PlanthugFor description and remedies see
under head of pear
The Peartree Leaf MinerTor description and remedies see
under head of pear
The Gray Bagger MothFor description and remedies see
under head of plum
Waved LagoaFor description and remedies see under head of
plum
The Bluespangled Peachtree CaterpillarFor description and
remedies see under head of peach
The Io Emperor MothFor description and remedies see under
head of cherry
The Ursida ButterflyFor description and remedies see under
head of cherrvANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 419
The Basketworm or BagwormFor description and remedies
see under head of quince
The Whitelined DeilephilaFor description and remedies see
under head of the grape
The Rose BeetleFor description and remedies see under head
of the grape
The Smeared DaggerFor description and remedies see under
head of the strawberry
ATTACKING THE FRUIT
The Codling MothThe codling moth is one of the most
troublesome insects with which fruit growers have to contend
The early brood of moths appear on the wing about the time of the
opening of the appleblossoms when the female deposits her tiny
yellow eggs singly on the calyx or eye just as the young apple is
forming in a few instances they have been observed in the hollow
at the stalk end and occasionally on the smooth surface of the cheek
of the apple In about a week the egg hatches and the tiny worm
at once begins to eat through the apple to the core Usually its
eastings are pushed out through the hole by which it has entered
the passage being enlarged from time to time for this purpose
Some of the castings commonly adhere to the apple hence before
the worm is full grown infested fruit may generally be detected
hy the mass of reddishbrown exuvia protruding from the eye
Sometimes as the larva approaches maturity it eats a passage
through the apple at the side and out of the opening thrusts its
castings and through it the larva when full grown escapes In
three or four weeks after hatching the early brood of larvae attain
full growth when the occupied apples generally fall prematurely
to the ground sometimes with the worm in them but more com
monly after it has escaped The larvae which leave the apples
while still on the trees either crawl down the branches to the trunk
of the tree or let themselves down to the ground by a fine silken
thread which they spin at will In either case whether they
crawl up or down the greater portion of them find their way to
the trunks of the trees where under the rough bark and in cracks420 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
and crevices they spin their cocoons After the cocoon is com
pleted the change to the chrysalis takes place in the early brood
in about three days The insect remains in this condition about
two weeks when the moth escapes Each moth is capable of lay
ing at least fifty eggs but these are not all matured at once they
are deposited successively extending over a period of probably
from one to two weeks or more Sometimes the later specimens
from the first brood will not have escaped from the fruit before
some of the young larvae of the second brood make their appear
ance the broods thus as it wereoverlapping each other and
very much extending the period for the appearance of the winged
insects
RemediesOne of the most effective methods yet devised for
reducing the numbers of the insect is to trap the larvae and chrysa
lids and destroy them This is best done by applying bands around
the trunks of the trees about six inches in width strips of old sack
ing carpets cloth or fabric of any kind will serve the purpose and
although not so durable many usebrown paper Whatever ma
terial is used it should be wound entirely round the tree once or
twice and fastened with a string or tack Within such enclosures
the larva hide and transform The boards should not be applied
later than the first of June and visited every eight or ten days
until the last of August each time taken off and examined and all
the worms and chrysalids found under them destroyed they should
also be visited once after the crop is secured Some persons pre
fer to use narrow bands not more than four inches wide and
fasten them with a tack while others secure them in their place by
merely tucking the ends under Usually the cocoons under the
bandages are partially attached to the tree and partly to the band
age so that when the latter is removed the cocoon is torn asunder
when it often happens that the larva or chrysalis will fall to the
ground and if it escapes notice may there complete its transforma
tions Widemouthed bottles partly filled with sweetened water
and hung in the trees have been recommended as traps for cod
ling moths A large number of moths can be captured in this man
ner but it is rare to find a codling moth among them Another is theANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 421
plan of lighting fires in the orcharclbut it is not of much avail since
codling moths are rarely attracted by light Spraying the trees
soon after the fruit has set and while it is still in an upright con
dition with a mixture of Paris green and water in the proportion
of a teaspoonful of the poison to a pailful of water will deter the
moths from placing their eggs on the apples and thus protect much
of the fruit from injury The fallen fruit should be promptly
gathered and destroyed Where hogs can be kept in orchards
without injury to the trees or other crops they will prove useful
in removing the fallen fruit and the insects
Apple CurculioThe apple curculio is a beetle smaller than the
plum curculio of a dullbrown color having a long thin snout
which sticks out more or less horizontally and cannot be folded
under the body as is the case with many species of curculios In
cluding the snout its length is a quarter of an inch or more It
is single brooded and passes the winter in the beetle state The bee
tle appears quite early and the larvae may often be found hatched
before the middle of June and in variousstages of its growth in
the fruit during June July and August With its long snout
the beetle drills holes into the young apple much like the puncture
of a hot needle the holes being round and surrounded by a blackish
margin Those that are drilled by the insect while feeding are
about onetenth of an inch deep and scooped out broadly at the
bottom those which the female makes for her eggs are scooped out
still more broadly and the egg is placed at the bottom As soon
as the larva hatches it burrows to the heart of the fruit where it
feeds around the core which becomes partly filled with rustred
excrement In about a month it attains full size
RemediesThe habit of the insect living within the fruit
through all its stages renders it difficult to destroy Fortunately it
is not found in such numbers as to do much damage to the fruit
crop
Apple MaggotThis is a footless maggot The fly appears
in July and by means of a sharp ovipositor inserts its eggs into
the substance of the apple It frequently attacks apples which
have been previously perforated by the codlingworm and it pre422
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
fers the thinskinned summer varieties It is frequently found
in apples that have been stored
The Apple MidgeThe apple midge is a small maggot found
devouring the flesh of ripened and stored apples and hastening
their decay It appears to attack chiefly if not wholly those
specimens which have been previously perforated by the codling
moth The larva are long and slender tapering gradually to a
point at the head When present they are generally found in
great numbers and they burrow many channels through the flesh
of the apples converting it into a spongy substance of a dull yel
lowish color The change to a pupa takes place within the fruit
The perfect insect very much resembles the Hessian fly It has
not thus far proved very destructive and from its habits is scarcely
likely to become so
The AppleflyThis is a two winged fly known as the vine
loving pomacefly very similar in its habits to the apple midge
but it usually attacks the earlier varieties showing a preference
for such as are sweet The larva generally enters the apple where
it has been bored by the codlingworm or through the puncture
made by the apple curculio and sometimes through the calyx
when the apple is quite sound In August the fly matures and
deposits eggs for another brood and successive generations follow
until winter begins
Apple ThripsThe apple thrips is a very small insect about
oneeighteenth of an inch long It is slender of a blackishpurple
color with narrow silverywhite wings Occasionally apples are
found early in August small and withered with a cavity near
their tip about the size of a pea and the surface of a blackened
color appearing as if the cavity had been gnawed out Within
this may be found one of these apple thrips which had probably
taken up its residence in the fruit while it was very small and In
frequent puncturing day after day the apple has become stunted
in growth and finally withered While this insect has never yet
proved very injurious its possibilities for mischief are great and
it will be a difficult one to exterminate
The Ashgray PinionThe ashgray pinion is a moth the larva
ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 423
of which has occasionally been found boring into young apples
during June The caterpillar when full grown leaves the fruit
and works its way under the surface of the ground where it forms
a very thin cocoon within which it changes to a reddishbrown
chrysalis The moth escapes in the autumn
The Melancholy CetoniaFor description see under head of the Pear
The Plum CurculioFor description and remedi s see uudir head o Plum
TEACHES

The varieties of peaches approved by the State Horticultural
Society for the mountain region are Alexander Austin Berenice
Bustians October Baldwins Bate Chinese Cling Church Colum
bia Crawfords Early Crawfords Late Darby Early Tillotson
Eatons Golden Elberta Emma Heaths White Indian Blood
Cling Lemon Cling JSTewington Cling Oldmixons Freestone Old
mixons Clingstone Bicquets Late Rivers Sneed Stump the
World Susquehannah Tuskeena
Those tested and approved in the middleregion are Alexander
Amelia Austin Berenice Baldwins Late Chinese Cling Church
Columbia Crawfords Early Darby Duff Yellow Early Tillotson
Early Golden Elberta Emma Eleitas St John Foster Globe
Gen Taylor Heaths White Indian Blood Cling Lady Ingold
Lemon Cling Louise B E Lee Mountain Rose Muscogee Mys
tery Oldmixons Free Oldmixons Cling Oriole Plant Bicquets
Late Rivers Sneed Stump the World Susquehannah Triumph
Thurber Tinsleys October Cling Tuskeena
In the southern section the following varieties have been ap
proved Elberta Mountain Rose Thurber
In the coast region the following have been approved Alex
ander Amelia Hales Early Mountain Rose Rivers
The following are the leading market varieties in order of ma
turity Sneed Alexander Louise Hales Early Early Tillotson
Fleitas St John Tuskeena General Taylor Mountain Rose Lady
Ingold Early Crawford Robert E Lee Chinese Cling Oldmixons
Free Susquehannah Elberta Emma Stump the World Columbia
Lemon Cling Muscogee Indian Blood Cling Picquets Late
421 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
White Heath Cling Eatons Golden Baldwins Austin Darby
Bustians October Stinsons Octoberthe last promising as a
late clingstone
For shipping to northern and western markets the following
are commended Sneed Alexander Fleitas St John Early Tillot
son Crawfords Early Crawfords Late Mountain Rose Stump
the World Susquehannah Elberta Globe
Georgia is adapted to peachgrowing and the area in peach
growing is annually being enlarged It is considered one of the
leading peachgrowing States

DISEASES OP PEACHES AND REMEDIES
Black SpotThis surface fungus is generally more severe upon
late varieties It forms small dusky brown or black spots upon the
side of the fruit and although the spots scarcely exceed oneeighth
of an inch in diameter when several run together large areas of
the peach may be affected In such cases all growth of the dis
eased portion is stopped and frequently the flesh cracks down to
the pit As a rule the disease is not very troublesome
TreatmentSpray the trees with the Bordeaux mixture be
ginning the treatment early in July The mixture should not be
made stronger than one pound copper sulphate to ten gallons of
the liquid and an abundance of lime should be added otherwise
the foliage may be seriously injured Two applications may be
required after the first of August For these a clear fungicide
such as the ammoniacal carbonate of copper should be used but
there is again danger of burning the foliage For this reason
the solution should not be made stronger than one ounce to twelve
gallons of water Some injury may result even from this diluted
preparation but it will be so slight that no serious loss need be
feared Powders have proven unsatisfactory in the treatment of
peaches as the leaves are so smooth that but little of the material
adheres to them Peachtrees should at all times be treated cau
tiously P H Rolfs said in a paper read before an agricultural
society in 1895 that in spraying peach orchards with the resin
wash recommended by the division of Entomology it was found that
the insecticide was excellent when used during drv weather WhenANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 425
the wash was used late in the year and early in the spring it was
liable to destroy the fruit buds In no case did the insecticide
affect the leafbuds Insecticides advised for the winter use should
not be used in winter in Florida but may be used in September
and October
BrownrotThis disease is more severe upon early varieties
and in the Middle Atlantic States the fungus is extremely preva
lent and serious It is probably the most serious fungous disease
peachgrowers have to contend with It causes the rotting of the
fruit about the time the period of ripening begins It increases
rapidly in warm moist weather and peaches which touch each
other are among the first to suffer from the disease This is mainly
due to the fact that a certain amount of moisture is retained at the
point of contact and with such favorable conditions the fungus
easily succeeds in gaining an entrance The affected fruit turns
brown and appears as if decayed it then becomes covered with an
ashcolored coating which consists of myriads of spots each one
capable of spreading the disease The fungus attacks the small
twigs causing their death It is no uncommon sight to see dried
peaches attached to the branches upon which they grew the latter
having been destroyed as well as the fruit by the disease It ap
pears to be certain that the blossoms may be affected and ruined
so that no fruit will set This disease therefore should be closely
watched and strongly controlled
TreatmentThe first application should be made in badly in
fested districts just before the buds begin to swell at this time
spray with a simple solution of copper sulphate using one pound
to twentyrfive gallons of water While the buds are swelling spray
with the Bordeaux mixture Repeat the last when the first has set
When the fruit is grown spray with the ammoniacal carbonate of
copper using one ounce of copper carbonate to twelve gallons of
water and repeat the application at intervals of six or eight days
until the fruit is harvested
Curl Leafcurl FrenchingThe name curl has been given to
this disease on account of the appearance of the affected leaves As
soon as the first leaves have become grown they frequently show
a curled or puckered appearance the ridges may extend across the426 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
leaf or in a longitudinal direction They appear as if puffed up
and the normal green color is replaced by shades of yellow or red
Such foliage generally falls from the trees before July when an
other set of leaves is produced The mycelium of the fungus
appears to live through the winter upon the buds and twigs for
when buds are taken from diseased trees and inserted in nursery
stock the resulting shoots generally show the disease although
there was no apparent infection when the budding was performed
TreatmentSome think to control the disease by spraying
thoroughly with the copper sulphate solution before the buds
break and following this after the trees have blossomed with
applications of the Bordeaux mixture at intervals of about two
weeks until July 1st Burning affected leaves and giving good
cultivation may also decrease the severity of the trouble
LeafrustThe affected areas are dull red upon the upper sur
face of the leaf and yellowish brown on the lower surface but the
spots are small and frequently cause the foliage to drop prema
turely
TreatmentSpray the trees with the Bordeaux mixture as soon
as the leaves appear the application being repeated at intervals of
two or three weeks until about the middle of July Clear fun
gicides should be applied early in the season to avoid staining the
fruit although the Bordeaux mixture can be continued longer with
the crop Four applications should be sufficient even under very
bad seasons Two or three will generally be found sufficient
MildewEarly in the season before the peaches are onehalf
grown they are occasionally attacked by a mildew which produces
white powdery patches upon their surface These may be very
small or they may enlarge until they are fully half an inch in diam
eter As the season advances these parts become brown and hard
sometimes causing the peach to crack The foliage is also attacked
by this fungus here it produces a thick covering of white mycelium
which entirely obscures the green color underneath
TreatmentIt is probable that the disease can be checked by
spraying the trees with the Bordeaux mixture as soon as the fruit
has set and following this at intervals of two weeks by two treat
ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 427
ments of one ounce of the carbonate of copper dissolved in ammo
nia and diluted with twelve gallons of water
RoseUeThis disease causes the growth of affected trees to be
come compressed and bunched in the form of a rosette The dis
ease is found only in the Southern States The causes as well as
the remedies are unknown It is contagious Affected trees
should be destroyed at once
YellowsPeach yellows is a disease which so far has baffled all
researches as to its cause or the methods of curing affected trees
The trees first ripen their fruit prematurely the peaches possessing
distinct red streaks extending from the surface towards the pit
The following years the new growth is generally tufted and
branched shoots are produced from wood that is more than two
years old Such growths have narrow horizontal leaves which are
yellowish in color The disease is contagious and affected trees
should be burned as soon as the disease is discovered No cure is
known
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO PEACHTEEES
ATTACKING THE TRUNK
Peachtree BorerThe peachtree borer is destructive to peach
orchards and is widely disseminated The parent insect belongs
to the family of moths known as the Egerians which have trans
parent wings and slender bodies and fly in the daytime The moth
appears in the Southern States in some localities as early as the lat
ter part of May The female moth deposits her eggs on the bark
of the tree at the surface of the ground They are about onefif
tieth of an inch long with a sculptured surface oval in form
slightly flattened and of a dullyellowish color They are deposited
singly are fastened to the surface of the bark by a gummy secre
tion As soon as the larva is hatched it works downwards in the
bark of the root forming a small winding channel which soon be
comes filled with gum As it increases in size it devours the bark
and sapwood and causes a copious exudation of gum which even428 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
tually forms a thick mass around the base of the tree intermingled
with the castings of the worm When full grown the larva meas
ures over half an inch in length and nearly a quarter of an inch in
diameter The larvae may be found of different sizes all through
the fall and winter months some quite young associated with
others nearly full grown During the winter the larger ones rest
with their heads upwards in smooth longitudinal grooves which
they have excavated the back part being covered with castings
mingled with gum and silken threads forming a kind of cell the
cavity of which is considerably larger than the worm inhabiting
it the smaller ones usually lie in the gum or between it and the
wood of the trunk or roof In badly infested trees the whole of
the bark at the base or collar is sometimes consumed for an inch
or two below the surface or does the insect always confine itself
to the base of the tree occasionally it attacks the trunk further up
and sometimes the fork of the limbs but the exuding gum invari
ably points out the spot where the foe is at work When about
to become a pupa the larva crawls upwards to the surface of the
ground and constructs a podlike case of a leathery structure it is
fastened against the side of the root often sunk into a groove
gnawed for that purpose with its upper end protruding slightly
above the surface of the ground The pupa state lasts some three
weeks or more
Bemediesmien the larvae are present the exudation of gum
affords ready means for their detection Early in Spring the trees
should be carefully examined a little of the earth removed from
above the base and if masses of gum are found the larvae searched
for and destroyed Hot water is said to be very effectual in killing
them it should be used very hot and after the earth has been re
moved so as to insure it reaching the culprits before it cools
Among the preventive measures much has been written in favor of
mounding the tree banking the earth up around the trunk to the
height of a foot or more and pressing it firmly about the tree
borne allow the mounds to remain permanently but the better
plan seems to be to mound up late in the Spring or towards mid
summer and level off the ground again in September afterANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 429
egglaying has ceased and the moths have disappeared This
treatment is said to make the bark very tender and liable to injury
during the winter and it is recommended by some to defer its appli
cation until the fourth year by which time the bark will have be
come sufficiently thickened and hardy to endure the treatment
without injury Placing around the roots a bed of cinders ashes
or lime plastering the base of the trunk with mortar or clay and
covering it with stout paper coating the tree with an application
of soap or tobaccowater have all had their advocates but the
weight of testimony is with the removal of the larvte with the
knife late in the autumn or early in the Spring and subsequently
mounding the trees in the manner already described Another
remedy proposed is to cover the trunk with straw in the following
manner Scrape the earth away from the collar place a handful
of straight straw erect around the trunk fastening it with twine
then return the soil which will keep the ends of the straw in their
place The straw should entirely cover the bark and the twine be
loosened as the trunk increases in size Trees so protected are
said to have remained uninjured while all around them suffered
from the borer
The Elmlark BeetleThis insect while common on elmtrees
only occasionally attacks peachtrees especially when from any
cause it becomes diseased In August or September there appear
small perforations like pinholes in the bark from which issue
minute cylindrical beetles about onetenth of an inch long of a
dark brown color with the wing cases deeply impressed with punc
tated furrows and covered with short hairs the thorax is also
punctated This insect has never occurred on the peach in suffi
cient numbers to attract attention or to require the adoption of
special remedies
The Roundheaded Appletree BorerThis also attacks the
peach For description and remedies see under head of apple
The DiraricMed BuprestisThis insect also attacks the trunk
of the peachtree For description and remedies see under head of
the cherry430 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
ATTACKING THE BRANCHES
Peachtree BarklouseThis is an insect very similar in appear
ance and habits to the peachtree barklouse It is found attached
to the smooth bark of the peach twigs frequently beside a bud or
at the base of a twig appearing as a black hemispherical shell
about the size and shape of a split pea its surface is uneven shin
ing commonly showing a pale margin and a stripe upon the mid
dle It feeds upon the sap piercing the bark with its proboscis
and imbibing the juices When mature the removal of the scale
discloses a multitude of eggs which in due time hatch and the
young larvae scatter over the twigs and fastening themselves to the
bark become permanently located and live the full term of their
lives without changing their position
The New York WeevilThis is a snout beetle or curculio the
largest species we have It appears in May or June and injures
fruit trees by eating the buds and gnawing into the twigs at their
base often causing them to break and fall it also gnaws off the
tender bark early in the season before the buds have expanded and
later eats the leaves off just at their base and devours the tender
shoots It is from four to sixtenths of an inch long of an ashgray
color marked with black The beetle is said to be more active at
night than in the day and seems to show a preference for the tender
succulent shoots of the apple although it makes quite free with
those of the peach pear plum and cherry It is very common in
the Mississippi valley
RemediesThere seems to be no other remedy than to catch
and kill the mischiefmaker This beetle has the habit of falling
to the ground when alarmed and hence may be captured by jarring
the trees in the manner directed for the plum curculio under the
head of plums
The Buffalo TreeHopperFor description and remedy see under head
of apple
The Redshouldered BynoseylonFordescription and remedies see under
head of the grape
The Tree CricketFor description and remedies see under head of
raspberryANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
431
The Strawberry Boot BorerFor description and remedies see under
lead of strawberry
The Stalk BorerFor description and remedies see under head of
strawberry
ATTACKING THE LEAVES
Peachtree LeafrollerEarly in Spring when the young leaves
are expanding a small worm sometimes attacks them and drawing
them together with fine silken threads secretes itself within and
feeds upon them This larva is rather slender of a pale green
color with a pale dull yellowish head and a whitish streak along
each side of its back When full grown it changes to a chrysalis
within its nest where it remains about two weeks and then escapes
as a moth It has never yet been reported as very destructive any
where and is scarcely likely to require the application of any spe
cial remedy
Bluespangled Peachtree CaterpillarVery early in Spring
there may sometimes be found sheltered under the loose bark of
peachtrees small black caterpillars covered with short stiff hairs
and studded with minute blue spots As soon as the leaves begin
to expand these larvae issue from their hidingplaces and feed upon
them They grow rapidly and soon attain their full size when
they are nearly an inch long The fullgrown caterpillar is of a
velvety black color above and pale bluish speckled with black
below The larva selects some sheltered spot and there spins a
slight cocoon of white silk within which it changes to a chrysalis
RemediesWhen these larvae are numerous they sometimes do
considerable damage to the young foliage of the peachtree They
may be subdued by handpicking or by shaking them from the
trees and crushing them under foot or syringing the leaves of the
tree with Paris green and water in the proportion of a teaspoonful
to two gallons of water
Peachtree AphisThis aphis begins to work upon the young
leaves of the peachtree almost as soon as they burst from the bud
and continues throughout the greater part of the season unless
swept off as sometimes happens with surprising rapidity by insect
enemies These lice live together in crowds under the leaves and432
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
suck their juices causing them to become thickened and curled
forming hollows with corresponding reddish swellings above fre
quently the curled leaves fall prematurely to the ground
RemediesThe remedies given for the appletree aphis are ap
plicable in this case
The following also attack the branches
The Obliquelanded Leafroller the Leaf Grumpier the many
dotted ApplewormTor description and remedies see under head
of apple
The Saddled LeafhopperTor description and remedy see
under head of plums
The Basketworm or BagwormTor description and remedy
see under head of quince
The Rose BeetleTor description and remedy see under head
of the grape
The Smeared DaggerTor description and remedy see under
head of the strawberry
ATTACKING THE FRUIT
The Codling MothTor description and remedy see under head
of apple
The Ashgray PinionTor description and remedy see under
head of apple
The Indian CetoniaTor description and remedy see under
head of pear
Plum CurculioTor description and remedy see under head
of plum
NECTARINES
Reports from every section state that Xectarines are unreliable
owing to the attacks of the curculio and unless carefully sprayed
are unproductive
The varieties are Boston Downton Early Xewington Early
Scarlet Early Violet Elruge Golden Cling Hardewick Hunts
Tawny New White Eed Roman Stanwick Victoria The insects
that prey upon them are the same as on the peachANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 433
APRICOTS
Apricot trees are liable to be killed by Spring frost They are
only desirable for city gardens or where protected by surrounding
buildings Breda and Early Golden have not proven entirely satis
factory in the mountain region the same may be said of Breda
Early Golden Moorpark Peach and Boyal in the middle region
The same insects that prey upon the nectarine prey upon the
apricot and to these may be added the Pearblight Beetle
POMEGRANATES
The mountain region is too cold to grow this plant The acid
variety has done well in the middle southern and coast regions
So has the large sweet The dwarf variety is suited only to pot
culture
PEAKS
In the mountain region the following varieties of pears have
been approved Bartlett Belle Lucrative Beurre dAnjou Beurre
Easter Beurre Giffard Buerre Langelier Buerre Superfln
Duchesse dAngouleme Howell Kieffer LeConte Onondaga
Petite Marguerite St Michael Archangel Seckel Wilder
The following varieties have been tested in the middle region
and approved Bartlett Belle Lucrative Beurre dAnjou Beurre
Giffard Buerre Superfin Clapps Favorite Dayenne dEte
Duchesse dAngouleme Flemish Beauty Garber Howell Kieffer
Lawrence LeConte Onondaga Petite Marguerite St Michael
Archangel Seckel Winter ISTelis
In the southern region the following varieties are approved
Howell Kieffer LeConte St Michael Archangel Seckel Smiths
In the coast region the following varieties have been approved
Bartlett Beurre Clairgeau Duchesse dAngouleme Flemish Beau
ty Howell Kieffer LeConte St Michael Archangel Seckel
Best varieties for market in order of maturityon Quince
Buerre Giffard St Michael Archangel Buerre Superfiin How
ell Duchesse dAngouleme Seckel Beurre dAnjou on Standard
Doyenne dEte Clapps Favorite Bartlett Belle Lucrative Le434
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
Conte Flemish Beauty Beurre Clairgeau Lawrence Kiefferr
Beurre Easter and Winter Nelis oriental type Garber
DISEASES OF THE PEAR TREE AND TREATMENT
Leaf Blight Fruit SpotThe leaves stems and fruit of the
pear are subject to the attack of the leafblight fungus The dis
ease appears as soon as the first leaves are developed or if the
weather is dry it may not cause any injury until midsummer The
leaves become dotted with reddishbrown spots which gradually
increase in size coalesce and eventually destroy large areas The
leaves finally fall to the ground and if the fungus is very prevalent
the trees may be entirely defoliated Upon the stems the affected
parts appear black and dead The fruit first shows reddish spots
which later turn dark If the pears are attacked while small the
diseased parts grow but slowly the tissues become hard and corky
and the result is an irregular fruit generally cracked upon the
dwarfed side and more or less marked by isolated spots which ap
pear after the first serious affection
There is a bacterial disease which is frequently mistaken for the
leafblight but is entirely distinct It is commonly known as hig
hlight or twigblight It is very serious upon pears and quinces
It causes the foliage to turn to a uniform brown the change taking
place sometimes in two or three days The leaves do not fall from
the tree but remain upon the branches giving the parts the appear
ance of having been scorched by fire The bark of affected stems
becomes brown and sunken The bacterium enters the tree through
the blossoms and also through the growing tips There is no
known remedy the only method of checking the malady being to
cut out affected parts and to burn them as fast as they appear
TreatmentThe leafspot of pears and quinces may be pro
vented by spraying the trees with the Bordeaux mixture as soon a
the first leaves have developed The application should be re
peated at intervals of two to four weeks more treatments being
made during moist weather until the first of August Later treat
ment will rarely be required In case it should appear to be
necessary the ammoniacal carbonate of copper should be appliedANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 435
Other clear fungicides will answer the same purpose for late treat
ment
RuslFor description and treatment see under head of apple
ScabFor description and treatment see under head of apple
ATTACKING THE ROOT
Broadnecked PrionusFor description and remedy see under
head of grape
ATTACKING THE TRUNK
Peartree BorerThis is a whitish larva resembling that of the
peachtree borer but much smaller which feeds chiefly on the bark
of the peartree Its presence may be detected from its habit of
throwing out its castings resembling fine sawdust which are
readily seen upon the bark of the tree Before the larva changes
to a chrysalis it eats a passage through the bark leaving only the
thinnest possible covering unbroken Eetiring towards the interiorr
it changes to a chrysalis and late in the summer the chrysalis
eventuates into a moth
RemediesThe trees should be examined in the Spring and if
the evidences of the presence of these larva are found they should
be searched for and destroyed As a preventive measure paint
the trees with a mixture of soft soap and solution of soda as recom
mended for the roundheaded borer of the apple or mound the tree
about midsummer with earth as recommended for the peachtree
borer
ThePigeon TremexThe female pigeon tremex is a large
wasplike creature which measures with its wings expanded nearly
two inches across The male is smaller and has no borer The fe
male bores into the wood of the tree with her borer and when the
hole is made deep enough drops an egg into it The larva is soft
yellowish white and of a cylindrical form It bores deeply into the
interior of the wood From its secluded habits this insect is a
difficult one to cope with It is however seldom present in suffi
cient numbers to be very injurious
The Poundheaded Appletree Borer and the Flatheaded Apple
tree BorerBoth injure the pear and are often found under the
bark especially about the base of the trunk For description and
remedies see under head of the apple436
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
ATTACKING THE BRANCHES
The TwiggirdUrThis beetle nearly amputates pear twigs dur
ing the latter half of August and the early part of September The
female makes perforations in the smaller branches of the tree upon
which she lives and in these deposits her eggs She then pro
ceeds to gnaw a groove about onetenth of an inch wide and about
a similar depth all around the branch when the exterior portion
iies and the larva when hatched feeds upon the dead wood The
girdled twigs sooner or later fall to the ground and in them the
insect completes its transformation and finally escapes as a perfect
beetle
RemediesTo subdue this insect the dead and fallen twigs
should be gathered and burned
The Pvarblight BeetleDuring the heat of midsummer twigs
iof the peartree sometimes become suddenly blighted the leave
and fruit wither and a discoloration of the bark takes place fol
lowed by the speedy death of the part affected Most frequently
these effects are the result of fireblight a disease produced by a
species of micrococcus but occasionally they are due to the agency
of the pearblight beetle In these latter instances there will be
found on examination small perforations like pinholes at the
tbase of some of the buds and from those issue small cylindrical
Ibeetles about onetenth of an inch long of a deep or black color
with antennas and legs of a rusty red The beetle deposits her egg
at the base of the bud and when hatched the young larva follows
the course of the eye of the bud towards the pith around which it
passes consuming the tissues in its covirse thus interfering with
the circulation and causing the twig to wither The larva changes
to a pupa and subsequently to a beetle in the bottom of its burrow
and makes its escape from the tree in the latter part of June or the
beginning of July depositing its eggs before August has passed
The hole made by the beetle when it is escaping is a little more
than onetwentieth of an inch in diameter It was formerly sup
posed that these insects infested only such trees as wove unhealthy
or were already dying but it has been stated that sound and healthy
trees are attacked and severely injured by them Neither areANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 437
they limited in their operations to the twigs hut sometimes attack
the trunk also It is said that there are two broods each year the
early one nurtured in the trunk and when these reach maturity
the newlygrown twigs offering a more dainty repast are subse
quently invaded and destroyed The injuries inflicted by this in
sect are not confined wholly to the pear occasionally it is found oq
the apple apricot and plum The fire blight on the pear is a dis
ease totally different in its character and is entirely independent
of insect agency
RemediesThe only remedy which has been suggested is to cut
off the blighted limbs below the injured part and burn them before
the beetle has escaped
The Peartree BarklouseThis insect is found on the under
side of the limbs of young and thrifty peartrees adhering closely
to the bark It appears in the form of a hemispherical scale about
onefifth of an inch in diameter of a chestnut brown color some
times marked with faint blackish streaks and having on its surface
some shallow indentations The outer margin is wrinkled These
scales when mature are the dead bodies of the females covering
and protecting their young some are darker in color than others
and there are some smaller ones which are of a dullyellow hue
Under the scales the young lice are interspersed through a mass of
white cottonlike matter which subsequently increases in volume
and protrudes from under the scale Early in the season they
crawl out and distribute themselves over the smooth bark appear
ing as minute whitish specks The young lice attach themselves
to the bark which they puncture with their beaks living on the
sap and during the season materially increase in size They pass
the winter in a torpid state and in the spring the males enter the
pupa condition and subsequently appear as twowinged flies while
the females gradually grow to the size and form of the scales re
ferred to and after depositing their eggs die when their dried
bodies remain to serve as a shelter for their offspring
RemediesFortunately these insects are of such a size that they
are easily to be seen They should be looked for during the latter
part of June at which time the females will have attained their full438 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
size and when discovered should be promptly removed The
under side of the limbs should also be well scrubbed with a brush
dipped in some alkaline solution L
The Peartree PsyllaDuring the middle of May when growth
is rapid the smaller limbs and twigs of peartrees are sometimes
observed to droop a close examination reveals a copious exudation
of sap from about the axils of the leaves so abundant that it drops
upon the foliage below and sometimes runs down the branches to
the ground Flies and ants gather around in crowds to sip the
sweets and by their busy hustle draw attention to the mischief
progressing This insect known as the peartree psylla is a small
yellow jumping creature flattened in form and provided with
short legs a broad head and a sharp beak With the beak are made
the punctures from which the sap exudes In rare instances they
occur in immense numbers when almost every leaf on the tree wiil
seem to be affected all growth is at once arrested and frequently
the tree loses a considerable portion of its leaves Towards the end
of the summer they attain maturity when they are furnished with
transparent wings They are onetenth of an inch long
RemediesPaint the twigs with a strong solution of soft soap
as recommended for the flatheaded appletree borer or syringe the
trees with strong soapsuds
The Appletwig BorerFor description and remedy see under head of the
Apple
The Oystershell BarkloweFor description and remedy see under head of
the Apple
The Scnrfy BarklouseFor description and remedy see under head of the
Apple
The Netv York WeevilFor description and remedv see under head of the
Peach
ATTACKING THE BUDS
The Tarnished PlantbugThis insect about onefifth of an
Inch long varies in color from a dull dark brown to a greenish or
dirty yellowish brown the males being generally darker than the
females It passes the winter in the perfect state taking shelter
among rubbish or in other convenient hidingplaces and early inANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 439
Hay as soon as vegetation starts it begins its depredations Con
cealing itself within the young leaves of the expanding buds of the
pear it punctures them about their base and along their edges ex
tracting their juices with its beak The puncture of the insect
seems to have a poisonous effect and the result is to disfigure and
sometimes entirely destroy the young leaves causing them to
blacken and wither These insects are also partial to the unopened
buds piercing them from the outside and sucking them nearly
dry when they also become withered and blackened Sometimes
a whole branch will be thus affected being first stunted then with
ering and finally dying Early in the morning these plantbugs
are in a sluggish condition and may be found buried in the expand
ing leaves but as the day advances and the temperature rises they
become active but when approached dodge quickly about from
place to place drop to the ground or else take wing and fly away
When handled they have a disagreeable odor It is stated that
they deposit their eggs on the leaves and that later in the season
the old and the young bugs may be found together
RemediesFirst of all clean culture so as to leave no shelter
for the bug in which to winter over When they appear in spring
shake them from the trees very early in the morning while they are
in a torpid state and destroy them
The Oak PlatycerusThis is an insect belonging to the family
of stagbeetles which has occasionally been found injurious to pear
trees by devouring the buds It matures and appears as a beetle
about the time that the buds of the pear are bursting and con
tinues feeding for many days completely eating out the swelling
buds and the ends of the new shoots Hitherto a rare beetle it is
scarcely likely ever to prove generally troublesome to peargrowers
ATTACKING THE FLOWERS
The Peachtree Blister BeetleThis is a greenishblue or brassy
looking beetle rather more than half an inch long which has been
found injurious to pear blossoms They begin their work by
devouring the corolla then the pistil and calyx and a portion
of440 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
the forming fruit but are said to avoid the stamens They will
occasionally eat small portions of the tender foliage hut are usually
found most abundant on the tops of the trees and about the ex
tremities of the limbs
RemediesThis pest is easily controlled On jarring the trees
they drop at once to the ground and if taken in the cool of the
morning are very sluggish in their movements Later in the day
in the heat of the sun they become much more active and fly
readily
ATTACKING THE LEAVES
The Peartree Leaf MinerThe larva of this insect mines the
leaves of the pear and also those of the apple It is very small
of a paler reddishcolor with a black head and a black patch on
the upper part of the next segment It usually draws two leaves
together and fastens them with silken fibers or else folds one up
and eats the surface making unsightly blotches which disfigure and
injure the leaves About the middle of August the larva changes
to a long slender chrysalis within the mine The moth appears
a few days afterwards As the season advances these insects some
times become very abundant and towards the end of autumn a
large proportion of the pear and appletrees become blotched and
disfigured from their work Since they pass the winter in the larval
or chrysalis condition in their leafy enclosure their numbers may
be materially reduced by gathering the fallen leaves in the autumn
and burning them
Peartree SlugThe peartree slug passes its winter in the pupa
state under ground the flies their progenitors are of a glossyblack
color Most of the females are provided with a sawlike appen
dage at the end of the body by which slits are cut in the leaves of
the trees shrubs or plants on which the larvae feed in which slits
the eggs are deposited In about a fortnight these eggs hatch
The newlyhatched slug is at first white but soon a slimy matter
oozes out of the skin and covers the upper part of the body with an
olivecolored sticky coating After changing its skin four times
it attains the length of half an inch or more and is then nearlv fullANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
441
grown It is a disgusting looking creature with the anterior part
of its body so swollen as to resemble a tadpole in form and having
a disagreeable and sickening odor After the last molt it lose
its slimy appearance and dark color and appears in a clean yellow
skin entirely free from slime its form is also changed being
proportionately longer In a few hours after this change it leaves
the tree and crawls or falls to the ground where it buries itself to
the depth of from one to three or four inches Here it forms a
cell where it changes to a chrysalis and in about a fortnight breaks
open the enclosure and appears in the winged form about the
third week in July the flies are actively engaged in depositing eggs
for a second brood the young slugs appearing early in August
They reach maturity in about four weeks then return under
ground change to pupae and remain in that condition until the
following spring
Pear and cherry growers should be on the lookout for this de
structive pest about the middle of June and again early in August
and if the young larvaj are then abundant they should be promptly
attended to since if neglected they play havoc with the foliage
feeding upon the upper side of the leaves and consuming the tissues
leaving only the veins and under skin The foliage deprived of
its substance withers and becomes dark colored as if scorched by
fire and soon afterwards it drops from the trees In a badly in
fested pear orchard whole rows of trees may sometimes be seen as
bare of foliage during the early days of July as they are in mid
winter In such instances the trees are obliged to throw out new
leaves and this extra effort so exhausts their vigor as to interfere
seriously with their fruitproducing power the following year
RemediesHellebore in powder mixed with water in the pro
portion of an ounce of hellebore to two gallons of water and ap
plied to the foliage with a syringe or a wateringpot promptly des
troys this slug and Paris green applied in the same manner in the
proportions of a teaspoonful of the poison to two gallons of water
would doubtless serve a similar purpose Fresh airslaked lime
dusted on the foliage is said to be an efficient remedy It has been
recommended to dust the foliage with sand ashes and road dust
but these areunsatisfactory measures and of but little value442
DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA

The Green Peartree SlugAnother species of sawfly also at
tacks the peartree The larvae appear from about the first to
the middle of June and eat holes in the leaves or semicircular por
tion from the edge They are about half an inch nearly cylindri
cal in form About the middle of June the larva seeks some
suitable hidingplace such as a crevice in the bark of a tree or
other shelter and there makes and fastens firmly a small brownish
paperylooking cocoon in which it undergoes its transformation
and remains until the following spring when the perfect fly appears
RemediesThese insects are seldom found in abundance but
should they be so found the remedies applicable to the peartree
slug would serve equally well in this instance
The Goldsmith BeetleThis is the most beautiful of the leaf
eating beetles It is nearly an inch in length of a broad oval
form with the wing case of a rich yellow color and pale metallic
luster while the top of the head and the thorax gleam with burn
ished gold of a brilliant reddish cast This insect appears late
in May and during the month of June and is distributed over a
wide area although very seldom abundant rarely does a season
pass without some of them being seen During the day they are
inactive and may be found clinging to the under sides of the leaves
of trees often drawing together two or three leaves and holding
them with their sharp claws for the purpose of concealing them
selves At dusk they issue from their hidingplaces and fly about
with a buzzing sound among the branches of trees the tender leaves
of which they devour Like the common Maybug this beautiful
creature is attracted by light and often flies into lighted rooms in
summer evenings dashing against everything it meets with In
some seasons they are comparatively common and may then be
readily captured by shaking the trees on which they are lodged
in the daytime when they do not attempt to fly but fall at once
to the ground
This beetle is short lived The female deposits her eggs in the
ground at varying depths during the latter part of June and hav
ing thus provided for the continuance of the species dies The
lives of the males are of still shorter duration The eggs are laid
during the night not exceeding twenty in about three weeks theANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
443
young larva is hatched The mature larva is very similar in ap
pearance to the Maybugknown as the White grub It lives in
the ground and feeds on the roots of plants and is sometimes very
destructive to strawberry plants It is said that the larva is three
years reaching its full growth finally it matures in the autumn
and late in the season or early in the following spring changes to a
beetle
The Iridescent SericaThis beetle is injurious to peartrees
devouring the leaves Like the Goldsmith beetle it will drop to
the ground when the trees are jarred or shaken The larva prob
ably dwells under ground and feeds on the roots of plants If it
becomes troublesome it may be collected by jarring or shaking the
trees and destroyed
Peartree AphisAn undetermined species of Aphis sometimes
attacks the leaves of the peartree early in June causing them to
twist and curl up very much
RemediesThe remedies recommended for the appletree Aphis
will be serviceable for this insect also
The Grasshoppers or LocustsSeveral species of grasshoppers
or locusts attack the leaves of the pear and when abundant will
often entirely strip young trees of their foliage The redlegged
locust and the greenfaced serve to illustrate the family all the
members of which are destructive especially during the latter part
of summer When young trees are deprived of their leaves in the
midst of their growth they fail to ripen their wood properly and
their vitality is weakened so that they are more liable to injury
from winter and also more prone to disease Grasshoppers also
devour the leaves of young apple plum and other trees
RemediesTo destroy these pests trees when not fruiting may
be syringed with Paris green and water in the proportion of two
teaspoonfuls of the poison to two gallons of water
The Whitemarked Tutwck MothFor description and remedies see under
head of the Apple
The Redhumped Apple tree Caterpillar For description and remedies see
under head of the Apple
The Fall WebwormFor description and remedies see under head of the
Apple444 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
The Cecropia Emperor MothFor description and remedies see under head
of the Apple
The Obliquebanded LeafRoller For description and remedies see under
head of the Apple
The Eyespotted BudmothFor description and remedies see under head of
the Apple
The Bluespangled Peachtree CaterpillarFor description and remedies see
under head of Peach
The Basketworm or BagwormFor description and remedies see under
head of Quince
ATTACKING THE FRUIT
The Indian CetoniaThis insect appears towards the end of
April or in the beginning of May when it flies about in dry fields
on the borders of woods on sunny days making a loud buzzing
sound like a bee It is little more than half an inch in length
The early brood is fond of sucking the sweet sap which exudes
from wounded trees or freshly cut stumps in September a second
brood appears and these injure fruits burrowing into ripe pears
almost to the middle reveling on their sweets and inducing rapid
decay They also attack peaches and grapes
RemediesThe only remedy suggested is to catch and destroy
them They are seldom very abundant
The Melancholy CetoniaThis insect belongs to the same genus
as the Indian Cetonia is very similar in appearance and habits but
is somewhat smaller This beetle has been found eating into ripe
pears and occasionally in apples It is found in cotton bolls in
the holes left by the bollworm It appears to frequent the boll
for the purpose of consuming the exuding sap
The Codling Moth so destructive to the fruit of the apple is almost
equally injurious to the fruit of the pear For description and remedies see
under head of the Apple
The Plum CurculioFor description and remedies see under head of the
Plum
The Quince CurculioFor description and remedies see under head of Quince
PLUMS
In the mountain region the Damson and Wild Goose plums
have been approved Of the Japanese plums the AbundanceANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
445
Sweet Botart Burbank Cliabot Hatan Kayo Maru Ogon and Red
June or Long Fruit are commended
In the middle region the Cumberland Missouri Newmans
Wild Goose Damson and Red Gage have been approved of the
Japanese plums the Satsuma the Blood Honsmomo Hale Wick
son Abundance Sweet Botan Burbank Chabot Hatan Kayo
Maru Oaon and Red June are commended
In the southern region Harpers is approved and of the Japanese
plums the Georgeson Kerr Kelsey and those enumerated in the
middle region are commended
In the coast region the DeCaradeuc is approved of the Japa
nese plums the Georgeson Kerr and Kelsey are commended
DISEASES OF THE PLUM AND TREATMENT
Brown RotFor description and treatment see under head of
peach
Leafblight Shothole FungusThe foliage of plums and
cherries is often disfigured in early summer by small circular spots
about oneeighth of an inch in diameter The spots are at first
of a purple color but later as the tissue dries the color changes to
brown and the affected areas become loosened and drop out
This causes the leaves to appear as if pierced by shot as they are
frequently full of these round holes In such cases the foliage
turns yellow drops during the summer and the trees are unable
to mature their fruit If unchecked the fungus may cause serious
losses but fortunately the disease is easily controlled
TreatmentThe trees should be sprayed with the Bordeaux
Mixture as soon as the leaves appear the application being re
peated at intervals of two or three weeks until about the middle
of July Clear fungicides should be applied early in the season
to avoid staining the fruit The Bordeaux Mixture may be con
tinued longer with plums Four applications should be sufficient
even in very bad seasons and two or three will generally be found
sufficient
LeafrustIn general appearance leafrust is very similar to
leafblight The affected areas are dullred upon the upper sur446 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
face of the leaf and yellowishbrown upon the lower surface but
the spots are small and frequently cause the foliage to drop pre
maturely
TreatmentGive the same treatment as for the plumleaf
blight
Plum Knot Black Knot Plum WartIt is a common opinion
that the black knots found so generally upon plum and sour cherry
trees are caused by insects but such is not the case These swell
ings are caused by a fungus and the insects find them to be
good breadingplaces which explains their presence in many old
knots Enough is known of the history of this fungus to serve a
a safe guide in the treatment of the disease Early in spring
when growth starts these swellings begin to appear At first they
are yellowish in color but later this changes to a darker shade
During May and June a crop of spores is produced upon the sur
face of the knots causing them to appear as if coated with a thin
layer of velvet This soon disappears and then the knot becomes
darker until winter when it is jet black In November and De
cember the surface of the knot may be seen to be thickly covered
with minute black elevations in which the winter spores are borne
These are distributed during the latter part of winter The spores
generally gain entrance into the trees at the crotches of small limbs
and at the junction of annual growths They cause swellings which
extend along the younger branches to a distance of four to five
inches the first year All the mycelium does not die during the
winter so the following spring the formation of new swellings may
be seen at the edges of the old knots In this manner the disease
may live from year to year or until the limb dies
TreatmentThe general recommendation has been to cut out
the knots and destroy them as soon as discovered It should be
done before a crop of spores is matured In addition to this the
trees are thoroughly sprayed with the Bordeaux Mixture during
the warm days of each spring before the growth starts and again
when the buds are about to burst it is probable that the winter
spores may be rendered harmless If the crop of spores matured
during May and June is similarly disposed of no infection need
be feared Consequently the trees should be sprayed for the thirdANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 447
time with the Bordeaux Mixture during the latter part of May
and again about the middle of June These applications should
be thoroughly made and if this is done the Black Knot fungus
may be practically controlled In case a knot appears upon a
large limb or upon the trunk of a tree where it cannot be easily
removed it should be painted with pure kerosene oil This will
destroy the knot and also the living tissue surrounding it care
should therefore be exercised in the application of the oil that it
is not too freely distributed By mixing some coloring matter
with the kerosene the treated parts may easily be distinguished
Plum Pockets Plum BladdersPlums are frequently attacked
by this fungus soon after they blossom The affected fruit begins
to swell and it is from one to two inches in length At first the
plums are very smooth but they are yellow in color Later
this changes to gray the appearance being caused by a thick cod
ing of the spores of the parasite This color is then replaced by
darkbrown or black and towards the end of June the fruit falls
to the ground It is then nearly hollow and rattles like inflated
bladders The walls of the plum are fairly thick but no stone
or pit exists Wild cherries and plums are also attacked by other
closely related fungi The mycelium of these fungi are peren
nial so that the disease appears year after year on the same tree
It attacks the leaves and stems as well as the fruit and causes the
affected parts to become swollen and distorted
TreatmentNo careful work appears to have been done in con
trolling the fungi that causes plum pockets From the fact that
the mycelium has been found growing upon the twigs and extend
ing to the young leaves and fruit it seems probable that the copper
compounds would prove valuable in controlling the disease The
trees should be sprayed when the buds begin to swell and again
just before the blossoms open The disease may also spread by
means of spores and this would probably necessitate applications
at the time when the affected fruit is of a gray color
Powdery MildewFor descrfption and treatment see under head of Apple
Rot For description and treatment see under head of Peach448 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE PLUM AND REMEDIES
Plumtree SphinxThe Plumtree Sphinx on the wing much
resembles hummingbirds It is a handsome insect appearing as a
moth during the month of June its body is about one and a half
inches long This moth deposits her eggs singly on the leaves of
the plum It hatches in from six to eight days when the young
larva eats its way out through the side of the egg its first meal is
usually made from the eggshell which it partly or wholly devours
The fullgrown caterpillar is about three and a half inches long
of a beautiful applegreen color After satisfying its rapacious
appetite it assumes for a time a peculiar rigid appearance It is
perfectly harmless and may be handled with impunity it may be
found on the trees from the middle of July to the end of August
When mature the caterpillar descends to the ground and having
buried itself under the surface to the depth of several inches pre
pares a convenient chamber which it lines with a gummy water
proof cement and there changes to a chrysalis The insect remains
in the ground in this condition until the following June
The ravages of this insect are never extensive yet in some locali
ties it appears in sufficient numbers to cause annoyance The
denuded twigs promptly attract the attention of the fruitgrower
who will soon search out and exterminate the destroyer
The Gray Dagger MothThe first brood of this pretty silvery
gray moth appears on the wing late in May or early in June The
moths deposit their eggs on the leaves of the plum cherry and
appletrees and the caterpillar becomes full grown during the first
or second week in July It is then about one and a half inches
long AVhen full grown the larva spins a slight cocoon in some
sheltered spot and there changes to a chrysalis seventenths of
an inch long From these the second brood of moths appear late
in July and shortly after eggs arc again deposited from which the
later brood of larvas mature about the middle of September which
then become chrysalids and produce moths the following spring
This insect seldom occurs in sufficient numbers to prove very des
tructive Should it ever do so it may readily be destroyed by
syringing the trees with powdered hellebore or Paris oreen mixedANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 449
with water as recommended for the peartree slug The larvae
are often captured under the bands set as traps for the larvae of
the codling moth
The Mottled Plumtree MothThe caterpillar of this moth also
feeds on the leaves of the plum and is solitary in its habits It ap
pears about the middle of June It is a green caterpillar about
one inch long with its body seeming as if laterally compressed mak
ing it appear higher than it is wide About the middle of July
the moth escapes from the cocoon This species is doublebrooded
The moths that appear in July deposit eggs from which larvae hatch
which reach maturity in September enter the chrysalis state and
remain in this condition until the following spring They are
seldom numerous and will never be likely to prove very trouble
some
The Homed SpanwormThis singular looking caterpillar is
frequently found on plumtrees devouring the leaves It is about
seventenths of an inch long It may be found during the first
half of June and sometimes later During the latter part of the
month it constructs a slight cocoon composed of pieces of leaves
fastened together with silken threads and within this enclosure
changes to a reddishgray or pale brown chrysalis in which state
it continues about ten days when the perfect insect escapes The
moths are on the wing in July and early in August This insect
is never likely to become very injurious
The Disippus ButterflyThe larva of this butterfly is occasion
ally found feeding on the leaves of plumtrees It appears on the
wing during the latter half of June and in July and deposits its
eggs sometimes on the plum but more frequently on the willow
and poplar There are two broods during the year The larvae
from the eggs deposited by the second brood of butterflies hibernate
when less than half grown and complete their growth the following
spring
The Polyphemus MothThe caterpillar of this insect which is
often found feeding on the leaves of plumtrees is also known as
the American Silkworm in consequence of its having been exten
sively reared for the sake of its silk When mature the caterpillar
29 a450
DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
proceeds to spin its cocoon within an enclosure nearly oval in form
and within it the larva changes to an oval chrysalis Usually the
cocoons drop to the ground with the fall of the leaves remaining
there during the winter Late in May or early in June the chrysalis
escapes as a moth Within a few days the female deposits her
eggs Each female will lay from two hundred to three hundred
eggs which hatch in ten or twelve days
RemediesWhile in the larval state this insect falls prey to
insectivorous birds and insect enemies Should it even appear in
numbers sufficient to prove troublesome handpicking will readily
subdue it
The Waved LagoaThe larva of this species reaches maturity
during September when it makes an oval cocoon fastened to
the side of a twig of the plumtree on which it has been feeding
and within this changes to a brown chrysalis The moth escapes
from it the following July
It is comparatively a rare insect and is not likely to ever give
much trouble
The Streaked TheclaThis is a small butterfly which has never
been known to inflict any material damage but as it has been found
feeding on the leaves of the plumtree t is deserving of mention
The Plumtree CatocalaAbout the middle of June when jar
ring the plumtrees for Curculios a very curious leechlike cater
pillar often drops on the sheet spread beneath It is flattened
with its body thick in the middle and tapering towards each end
and of a grayishbrown color About the third week in June this
larva becomes full grown when fastening together a few leaves
with some silken fibers it changes within this enclosure to a brown
chrysalis from which the perfect insect escapes in about three
weeks The moth is on the wing during the greater part of July
and August during which period eggs are deposited for the suc
ceeding brood Two other moths have been observed devouring
plumtrees but not in sufficient numbers to attract attention
77te Leafcutting BeeThis is a four winged fly a species of
bee which curls up the leaves of plumtrees and further disfigures i r
by cutting circular pieces out of other leaves to line the coils andANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
451
form chambers within them in which its eggs are deposited and
where the larvse remain until they reach maturity The larvse
do not feed on the leaves but on pollen or beebread stored up in
their cells by the parent insects This bee is not abundant and
is not likely ever to prove very injurious
The Plumtree AphisThis insect resembles in appearance and
habits the Appletree Aphis but is much less common It infests
the under side of the plumleaves puncturing them and sucking
their juices causing them to become wrinkled and twisted
RemediesThe remedies given for Appletree Aphis are equally
applicable to this species
The Appletree CaterpillarTor description and remedies see
under head of apple
The Forest Tent CaterpillarFor description and remedies see
under head of apple
The Whitemarked TussockmothFor description and remedies
see under head of apple
Canker WormsFor description and remedies see under head
of apple
The Fall WebwormFor description and remedies see under
head of apple
The Cecropia Emperor MothFor description and remedies
see under head of apple
The Unicorn ProminentFor description and remedies see
under head of apple
The Blindeyed SphinxFor description and remedies see
under head of apple
The Obliquebanded LeafrollerFor description and remedies
see under head of apple
The Leaf GrumpierFor description and remedies see under
head of apple
The Eyespotted BudmothFor description and remedies see
under head of apple
The Tarnished PlantbugFor description and remedies see
under head of pear
The Peartree SlugFor description and remedies see under
head of pear
The May BeetleFor description and remedies see under head
of the cherry
The Basket Worm or Bag WormFor description and remedies
see under head of the quince452 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
The Ursula ButterflyFor description and remedies see under
head of the cherry
The Pyramidal Grapevine CaterpillarFor description and
remedies see under head of the grape
The Grapevine Flea BeetleFor description and remedies see
under head of the grape
The Rose BeetleFor description and remedies see under head
of the grape
Peartree Blister BeetleThis eats both leaves and blossoms
For description and remedies see under head of pear
ATTACKING THE FRUIT
The Plum CurculioThis insect is without doubt the greatest
enemy the plumgrower has to contend with for when allowed to
pursue its course unchecked it often destroys the entire crop The
perfect insect is a beetle belonging to a family known under the
several names of Curculios Weevils and Snoutbeetles It is a
small rough grayish or blackish beetle about onefifth of an inch
long with a black shining hump on the middle of each wingcase
The female lays her eggs in the young green fruit shortly after it
is formed proceeding in the following manner alighting on a
plum she makes with her jaws which are at the end of her snout
a small cut through the skin of the fruit then runs the snout ob
liquely under the skin to the depth of about onesixteenth of an
inch and moves it backward and forward until the cavity is smooth
and large enough to receive the egg to be placed in it She then
turns round and dropping an egg into it again turns and pushes it
with her snout up to the end of the passage Subsequently she cuts
a crescentshaped slit in front of the hole so as to undermine the
egg and leave it in a sort of flap her object apparently being to
wilt the piece around the egg and thus prevent the growing fruit
from crushing it The whole operation occupies about five min
utes The stock of eggs is estimated at from five to ten a day her
activity varying with the temperature The egg is of an oblong
oval form of a pearly white color and large enough to be seen with
the naked eye By lifting the flap with the finger nail or with the
point of a knife it can be readily found In warm and genialANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
453
weather it will hatch in three or four days but in cold and chilly
weather it will remain a week or even longer before hatching
The larva a tiny soft footless grub with a hornyhead imme
diately begins to feed on the green flesh of the fruit boring a tor
tuous channel as it proceeds until it reaches the center where it
feeds around the stone It attains its full growth in from three to
five weeks when it is about twofifths of an inch long of a glassy
vellowishwhite color with a lightbrown head The irritation
arising from the wound and the gnawing of the grub causes the
fruit to become diseased and gummy and it falls prematurely to
the ground generally before the larva is quite full grown Within
the fallen plum the growth of the larva is completed when for
saking the fruit it has destroyed it enters the ground burying it
self four to six inches deep where turning round and round it com
presses the earth on all sides until a smooth oval cavity is formed
within which in a few days the larva changes to a pupa and in from
three to six weeks is transformed to a beetle which soon makes its
way through the soil and escapes The insect is singlebrooded
the beetle hibernating under the loose bark of trees and in other
suitable places About the time that plumtrees blossom curculios
are on the alert and as soon as the fruit is formed the work of de
struction begins Both males and females puncture the fruit to
feed on it but only the females make the peculiar crescentshaped
marks described They are much more numerous during the early
part of the season than later on and when the weather is warm
they are active at night and deposit eggs as well then as in the day
time During the middle of the day and also on warm nights the
beetle readily takes wing it is less active during the morning and
evening
RemediesWhen the plumtree curculio is alarmed it suddenly
folds its legs close to its body turns its snout under its breast and
falls to the ground where it remains motionless feigning death
Advantage is taken of this peculiarity to catch and destroy this in
sect a sheet is spread under the tree and the tree and its branches
are suddenly jarred when the beetles fall on the sheets where they
mav be gathered up and destroyed A convenient form of sheet454
DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
may be made with two or four widths of cotton depending on the
size of the tree of the requisite length stitched only halfway
up the middle to allow the trunk of the tree to pass to the center
and having each of the sides tacked to a long strip of wood about
an inch square so that the sheet may be conveniently handled and
spread Small trees may be jarred with the hand larger ones
should have a branch cut off leaving a stump several inches long
which may be struck with a mallet or a hole may be bored in the
trunk and a broadheaded iron spike inserted which is to be struck
with a hammer avoiding as far as possible any bruising of the
bark As it is important to catch as many of the beetles as possible
before any mischief is done jarring should be begun while the
trees are in blossom and continued daily morning and evening if
the insects are abundant for three or four weeks or until they be
come very scarce A form of Curculio catcher known as Dr
Hulls is an excellent contrivance where a large orchard has to be
cared for It consists of a wheelbarrow on which is mounted a
large inverted umbrella split in front to receive the trunk of the
tree against which the machine which is provided with a padded
bumper is driven with force sufficient to jar the Curculios down
into the umbrella where they are collected and destroyed It is
very important that the fallen plums should be promptly gathered
and burned or scalded so as to destroy the larva before it has time
to escape Another remedy which is less laborious and has been
found very effectual is to syringe or spray the plumtrees as soon
as the young fruit has formed with a mixture of Paris green and
water in the proportion of a teaspoonful of the poison to two gal
lons of water and repeating the application after a week or ten days
If the weather is very showery a third spraying may be necessary
The remedy either poisons the Curculios or is obnoxious to them so
as to deter them from working on trees so protected When alter
nate trees in a plum orchard where the Curculio is common are so
treated the protecting influence of the Paris green is very marked
The placing of hogs in plum and peach orchards to destroy the fal
len fruit is said to have proved in some instances a very successful
and inexpensive way of disposing of a large portion of the CurculiosANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 455
Hens with their broods of chickens enclosed within the plum orch
ard will devour a large number of the larvse of the Curculio
Hanging bottles of sweetened water on the trees to attract the bee
tles scattering airslaked lime through the foliage and smoking it
by burning tar occasionally under the trees have also been advised
Plum orchards should not be planted near a wood as the Curculio
finds shelter there and is likely to be more numerous than in more
open ground also avoid giving shelter by removing and burning
all rubbish that may accumulate about the trees
The Plum GougerWhile this insect has some points of re
semblance to the Curculio it is in other respects so different as to
be easily distinguished The beetle is about fivesixteenths of
an inch long It appears in Spring about the same time as the
plum Curculio but instead of making a crescentshaped slit in the
plum it bores a round hole like the puncture of a pin The eggs
are deposited in the following manner with the minute but pow
erful jaws at the tip of the snout of the female a hole is made about
fourfifths as deep as the snout is long which is enlarged at the
end and gouged out somewhat in the shape of a gourd The egg
is placed in the excavation and pushed down with the snout until
it reaches the receptacle prepared for it After being deposited
it swells from absorption of the surrounding moisture and within
a few days the young larva escapes On escaping from the egg it
makes an almost straight course for the kernel of the plum through
the soft shell of which it makes its way and feeds upon the contents
until full grown When nearly mature the larva by a wise in
stinct prepares a way for the escape of the future beetle by cutting
a round hole through the now hard stone The larva enters the
chrysalis state within the plumstone and when mature the beetle
passes through the hole bored by the larva makes its way through
the flesh and escapes While the normal habit of the plum Cur
culio is to feed on the flesh outside the plumstone which latter it
only occasionally penetrates the Plumgouger lives and matures
within both sexes of the Plumgouger bore cylindrical holes in the
fruit for food and where the insect abounds the growing fruit will
be found covered with these punctures from which more or less
gum exudes and the fruit becomes knotty and worthless but does456
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
not readily drop as do those which have been injured by the Plum
Curculio The insect is singlebrooded and requires a longer time
to mature than the Plum Curculio eggs deposited in June do not
produce beetles until the end of August or early in September Ir
is much less common and does far less injury than the Plum Cur
culio Although it does not drop quite so readily it takes wing
quickly and hence is not so easily secured
Saddled LeafhopperThis insect is occasionally injurious to
the plum by puncturing the stems of the fruit and sucking the
fluids which should go to nourish and mature it It is a small leaf
hopper about onefifth of an inch long It is unlikely that this in
sect will ever occur in sufficient numbers to cause much injury
The Codling MothFor description and remedies sec under
head of apple
ATTACKING THE ROOTS
The Peachfire Borerft sometimes burrows about the collar of
the plumtree and into the larger roots adjacent without causing an
exudation of gum as in the peach Young trees are most liable to
injury For description and remedies see under head of peach
ATTACKING THE TRUNK
The Flatheaded Appletree BorerFor description and reme
dies sec under head of apple
ATTACKING THE LIMBS AND BRANCHES
The Parallel ElaphidionFor description and remedies sec
under head of apple
The Pearblight BeetleFor description and remedies see
under head of pear
The New York WeevilFor description and remedies see under
head of peach
The Tree CricketFor description and remedies sec under head
of raspberryANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 457
GEABES
The following varieties of grapes have been approved in the
mountain region Brighton Concord Delaware Ives Niagara
Nortons Virginia Scuppernong Thomas
In the middle region the following varieties have been approved r
Eerckmans Concord Delaware Diana Goethe Hartford Ives
Moores Diamond Missouri Eiesling Niagara Nortons Virginia
Perkins Black July Triumph Thomas Scuppernong Worden
Welcome
The following varieties have been approved for the southern
region Concord Delaware Ives Niagara Scuppernong Thomas
In the coast region the following have been tested and approved
Concord Delaware Ives Nortons Virginia Flowers Scupper
nong Thomas Warren
FUNGOUS DISEASES OF THE GRAPE AND TREATMENT
Anthracnose Scab Birdseye RotAnthracnose is perhaps the
most formidable disease with which the vineyardist has to contend
It does not yield to the same treatment which checks the other fun
gous diseases of the grape and even when applications are made
which are specially designed for its control the results are not in
variably satisfactory The vines should therefore be watched that
the first sign of the disease may lead to its timely treatment The
fungus causing anthracnose attacks the fruit the leaves and the
stems in fact all green parts of the vine It may appear any time
during the growing season of the plant but most commonly affects
the berries during the middle and latter part of summer The
shoots of the grape are very subject to the attacks of the fungus
The first indication of the trouble is a darkening and sinking of
small oval areas which extend lengthwise of the stem These may
be very abundant giving the shoots a speckled appearance The
spots gradually enlarge and the center assumes a gray color the
edges still remaining dark and having more or less a decided tinge
of purple After the disease has progressed some weeks the stem
is very seriously injured and if there have been several points of458
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
attack its growth may be entirely checked and the shoot destroyed
Upon the leaf the disease causes changes very similar to those of
the stem but there is a reddishbrown color in the affected areas
which renders it more difficult to distinguish this disease from
others But one peculiarity of anthracnose is that it generally at
tacks the veins of the leaves as well as the leaf stems and so the
identification is not always difficult The stems of the clusters are
also injured and it frequently occurs that a part is completely
girdled causing a ringaround as it is commonly called The
berries below the ring do not ripen but remain green and gradually
shrivel The berries of some varieties of grapes are always invari
ably affected to such an extent as to render them unfit for market
The Vergennes Diamond Salem Agawam and many others are
very susceptible to its attacks The first indication of the presence
of the fungus on the berries is the formation of distinct brown spots
which are practically circular in outline The discolored part is
sunken and may be bordered by a margin which has a tinge of red
or purple If a berry is attacked in several places it becomes
speckled in appearance until the spots grow into each other form
ing considerable areas of irregular outline The portions first dis
eased may change to a lighter or even to a gray color on account
of the rupturing of the epidermis or outer skin forming a hard
ened scab
TreatmentIn Europe where the fungus has long been known
it is the custom to wash the vines and the stakes during winter or
early spring with the sulphuric acid and sulphate of iron solution
The liquid is applied by means of swabs or brushes It blackens
the canes and this is a test of the thoroughness of the work If
after two or three days there remains portions which are unchanged
in color the vineyard is treated a second time particular attention
being paid to the parts omitted at the first treatment In addition
to these winter treatments the vines are sprayed during the sum
Tner months with the Bordeaux mixture European vineyardists
seem to have perfect control of anthracnose by following the above
line of treatment and the work done in America is also promising
The cost of washing vines and stakes in this country scarcely exANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 45
ceeds 2 per acre as shown by actual trials and marked benefits
appear to have followed the practice even under adverse circum
stances
The formula used by European vineyardists is hot water 100
parts iron sulphate as much as the water will dissolve sulphuric
acid one part This mixture is exceedingly caustic and will in
jure machinery clothes and nearly everything with which it comes
in contact and therefore requires the greatest care in using it
Dormant vines are uninjured by the treatment
Black RotThe name black rot has been commonly applied
to this disease on account of the appearance of the affected berries
these being of a deep black color But the fungus causing the
rotting of the fruit also attacks other parts of the plants on the
shoots it forms dark oval areas which are slightly shrunken The
centers of such spots are more or less thickly studded with very
small elevations or pimples these being characteristics of the dis
ease and by their aid the trouble can in most cases be identified
Affected leaves turn to a dark reddish brown color at the injured
part These portions are generally found between the larger veins
and not centered upon them as in the case of anthracnose Their
outlines are generally rounded There is probably no fungous
disease of the grape which annually causes greater losses than the
black rot Although each berry must be separately affected since
the disease does not spread from one to the other by means of the
stems yet the conditions are generally so favorable that a large
percentage of the crop is annually lost This disease is much
more virulent in Southern vineyards Grapes which show the at
tacks of the blackrot fungus are generally nearly or quite full
grown It is therefore during August and September that the
disease is most to be feared If the berries are still green when
the fungus gains an entrance the affected part turns a purplish
brown this color extending gradually to the entire berry which
still retains its form and firmness The part first attacked grad
ually becomes blackened and characteristic primples appear At
the same time the berry shrivels and becomes strongly ridged the
seeds projecting prominently under the drawn skin and minute460 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
elevations may be seen scattered thickly over its surface These
changes may take place very rapidly so that apparently in a few
days a crop may be largely reduced It seems to require about a
week for the disease to become noticeable after infection takes
place the rapidity of the later changes depending very largely
upon the condition of the weather A warm moist atmosphere is
particularly favorable to the development of this fungus
TreatmentAlthough the black rot appears late in the season
it is always safe to begin early in treating the vines The copper
compoimds especially the Bordeaux mixture have shown them
selves to be practically specifics against this disease Applications
should be made before the disease has appeared In the South
where the rot is a regular visitor the treatments may be com
menced to advantage as soon as the first leaves have fully ex
panded The second application may be made after the vines
have blossomed and the third from two to four weeks later de
pending upon the season The Bordeaux mixture may be used
safely up to the time when the berries are threefourths grown but
if used later than this there is danger of staining the clusters and
reducing their market value This may be partially avoided by
reducing the strength of the normal mixture onefourth or one
third although not so effective as the stronger mixture the dilute
form still possesses much value as a fungicide and it may be used
to advantage or the animoniacal carbonate of copper may be used
in its place and this is the fungicide very commonly employed
when the later applications are made If the weather be favorable
to the disease applications should be made about every ten days
after the fruit is grown Six or seven applications should practi
cally prevent the appearance of the disease even in badly infested
districts Everything depends upon the thoroughness with which
the work is done It was formerly supposed that to spray the
clusters was injurious to them but this is a fallacy The clusters
should be treated as well as the foliage especially when they are
young and if the practice can be continued without injury to the
appearance of the fruit so much the better It is necessary that
the growth from the spores which fall upon the berries should be
ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 461
stopped and this can only be accomplished by treating the clusters
as well as the other parts of the vine
Downy Mildew Brown Rot Gray RotThis fungus attacks
the stems foliage and fruit of the grapevine The external char
acters of the downy mildew are very distinct On the shoots it
causes the formation of brown slightly sunken areas these mav
easily be distinguished from the deeper and more distinctly
marked spots caused by anthracnose But it is only in very severe
cases that the shoots are affected to an injurious extent It is on
the foliage and on the fruit that the greatest harm is done The
foliage first shows the presence of the parasite by portions of the
leaf turning a lighter green than that of the normal tissue Later
these parts turn yellow and when the destruction of the tissue is
complete the parts affected are of a brown color If the under
surface of such leaves be examined it will be found that there is a
frostlike substance projecting from the discolored part of the leaf
after the upper surface has begun to turn yellow This appear
ance is due to the formation of fungous threads which project
beyond the leaf surface and bear the summer spores of the para
site The appearance assists materially in identifying the disease
The fruit is also susceptible to the attacks of the downy mildew
but when that is affected the vine does not so much as the grower
does In case of diseased foliage the crop of the next year as
well as that of the present is threatened but with diseased fruit
it is only a matter of the present year which is all sufficient to
make the grower anxious to know what can be done In the
Southern States the mildew appears during June The young
berries suffer very extensively They are generally attacked be
fore they are onehalf grown The name brown rot has been ap
plied to such fruit on account of the brown color which supplants
the green Later as the fungus matures the affected berries be
come covered with a whitish powderthe fruiting threads and the
spores of the parasitesand this gives the berries a gray color
from which has come one of the popular names of the disease
Both forms of the rot are nevertheless caused by the same organ
ism although the external characters differ462 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
TreatmentThe downy mildew of grapes may attack the vines
throughout the growing season and for this reason it is more es
sential that applications be made earlier in the year than those
necessary for the control of the black rot When downy mildew
is found an application made when the shoots have grown from
six to ten inches is a very important one The second one should
be made after the vines have blossomed and later ones should
succeed each other at intervals of two to four weeks taking the
same precautions against staining the fruit as mentioned in black
rot The treatments should be preventive rather than curative
Powdery MildewThe fungus causing the Powdery Mildew
of the grape differs from the preceding disease in the fact that it
is a surface fungus the body of the parasite not being found in the
tissues of the hostplant but upon the surface of the green parts
The vines are attacked throughout the growing season but con
trary to the general rule the disease develops more abundantly
during comparatively dry weather Young shoots attacked by
powdery mildew are checked in their growth and if the threads
of the fungus are abundant they impart to the affected portion a
grayish white color This color is particularly noticeable upon the
leaves for the fungus almost invariably grows upon the upper sur
face and if allowed to develop unchecked large patches soon be
come covered so thickly that the green parts underneath can no
longer be seen If these patches are firmly rubbed the white cov
ering may be removed and the browning of the parts formerly
covered will be seen This is especially distinct when the mildew
has made an energetic growth The discoloration is due to the
small suckers which the fungus has projected into the leaf cells
for the purpose of obtaining nourishment and the greater the
number of these suckers the more marked is the discoloration
Affected berries show similar discolorations and the whitish cov
ering may be removed as well As the berry grows the injured
parts assume a brown scurfy covering which is composed of dried
epidermis This golden brown film is very commonly seen upon
green grapes it is often cracked so that the green tissue is visible
Such disfigurements are however not alwavs caused by the powANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 463
dery mildew since any cause which destroys portions of the epi
dermis will be followed by similar discolorations
TreatmentThe powdery mildew is not a serious disease and
as the body of the fungus is not within the hostplant there is
little occasion for treating the vines until the fungus has put in an
appearance Sulphur has been very generally recommended for
its destruction the application being either made with the dry
powder or after the sulphur has been mixed with water This
remedy has not given uniformly good results out of doors and a
safer plan is to use some of the copper compounds Carbonate of
copper dissolved in ammonia is an excellent remedy and is easily
applied All parts of the plants should be treated
BattlesShellingIt frequently occurs that grapevines drop
their berries just as the latter are ripening The outer extremi
ties of the clusters are first affected This trouble is primarily
caused by defective nutrition of the berries and although to a cer
tain extent influenced by the action of fungi and insects the reme
dial measures should be directed towards strengthening the plants
by means of proper fertilizers potash being perhaps the most im
portant element required
Ripe Rot Bitter RotThe names given this disease are sug
gestive of the time in which the berries are attacked and what ef
fect the fungus has upon the fruit The disease may attack the
fruit stems and cause the berries to wilt on account of the supply
of nourishment being cut off But more commonly the berries
are directly attacked Such fruit shows a reddish brown discolor
ation at the affected point and this color soon extends over the
entire berry The surface then becomes dotted with black pimples
as in the case of black rot but here they are not so numerous
they are also larger but much less elevated The berry also shriv
els but the black color is wanting since those affected with
ripe rot remain dark purplish brown although some assume a
red tint As a rule they fall to the ground when this stage is
reached while berries destroyed by black rot remain upon the vine
even until the following spring Ripe rot will spread after the
grapes have been harvested and care should therefore be exer
464
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
cised in selecting only sound fruit when it is to be stored See
under head of apple
TreatmentThe same treatment which serves to check black
rot will also control this disease the later treatment being of special
importance
INJURIOUS INSECTS
ATTACKING THE ROOTS
The Broadneclced PrionusThe Broadnecked Prionus is a
gigantic borer from two and a half to three inches in length of a
yellowishwhite color with a small horny reddishbrown head
and a bluish line down the back which cuts for itself a cylindrical
hole through the center of the root of the vine a little below the
surface and where the root is barely large enough to contain the
larva nothing but a thin skin of bark is left but this is always
found entire so that the insect cannot be easily discovered It is
probable that it lives in the larval state about three years and that
it changes to a pupa within the root towards the end of June
The beetle appears about the middle of July The female meas
ures from one and a quarter inches to one and threequarter inches
in length and is of a brownish black color with strong thick jaws
Little or nothing can be done in extirpating these underground
borers as their presence is seldom suspected until the vine becomes
sickly or dies from injuries they have caused When grapevines
die suddenly from any unknown cause the roots should be care
fully examined and if evidences of the presence of this borer are
discovered it should be searched for and destroyed
The Tilehorned PrionusThe larva of this beetle a species
closely allied to the broadnecked prionus has also been found de
vouring the roots of the grapevine The larvse of the two species
resemble each other so closely that they are almost indistinguishable
When full grown the borer collects together a few fibers and
chips of the roots and with the aid of these constructs a loose co
coon within which it changes to a pupa almost identical with thatANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 465
of the broadnecked prionus This beetle is called the tilehorned
prioiius because the joints of the antenna of the male overlap one
another like tiles on a roof It is very similar in appearance to the
broadnecked prionus but the two species may be distinguished
by the difference in the number of the joints in their antennas in
the tilehorned the male has about nineteen joints and the female
about six while in the broadnecked both sexes have twelvejointed
antennae
TreatmentAny remedial measures useful for one species will
be equally applicable to the other
Grapevine RootborerThis larva resembles that of the peach
tree borer in appearance and habits but is a little larger in size
The larvae of the prionus beetles have only six legs while this six
teen legssix horny ones and ten fleshy onesand when full
grown measure from one inch to one and a half inches in length
It lives exclusively under ground and consumes the bark and sap
wood of the grape roots eating irregular furrows into their sub
stance sometimes it eats the bark and at other times works its
way under the surface When full grown the larva forms a pod
like cocoon covered with little bits of wood bark and earth and
situated within or adjacent to the uninjured root Within this it
changes to a brown chrysalis which when mature works itself
out of the cocoon to the surface of the ground when the perfect
insect escapes The moth resembles a wasp and appears in Au
gust The female is said to deposit her eggs in the collar of the
grapevine close to the earth and the young larvae as soon as
hatched descend to the roots It is stated that the scuppernong
grape and a variety of the fox grape are never attacked by this
borer When it has been ascertained that the borers are at work
on a vine the earth should be cleared away from above the roots
and the invaders searched for and destroyed hot water applied
about the roots is said to kill them As a preventive measure
mounding the vines as recommended for peachtrees under the
head of peachtree borer would probably be beneficial
The Grape PhylloxeraThis tiny foe to the grapevine has at
tained great celebrity during the past few years and much atten
30 a466 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
tion has leen paid to its life history and habits in the hope of de
vising some practical measure for its extermination The de
struction it has occasioned in France has become so great that it
has become a national calamity It is a native of America Our
native grapevines seem to endure the attacks of the insect better
than do those of Europe The insect is found in two different
forms in one instance on the leaf where it produces greenish red
or yellow galls of various shapes and sizes and is known as the type
gallinhabiting in the other and more destructive form on the
root known as the rootinhabiting causing at first swellings on the
young rootlets followed by decay which gradually extends to the
larger roots as the insects congregate upon them Early in June
there appears upon the vine leaves small globular or cupshaped
galls of varying sizes They are of a greenishred or yellow color
with their outer surface somewhat uneven and woolly On open
ing one of these freshlyformed galls it will be found to contain
from one to four orangecolored lice many very minute shining
oval whitish eggs and usually a considerable number of young
lice not much larger than the eggs and of the same color Soon
the gall becomes over populated and the surplus lice wander off
through its partlyopened mouth on the upper side of the leaf and
establish themselves either on the same leaf or on adjoining young
leaves where the irritation occasioned by their punctures causes
the formation of new galls within which the lice remain after a
time the older lice die and the galls which they have inhabited
open out and gradually become flattened and almost obliterated
hence it may happen that the older leaves on a vine will be empty
while those on the younger ones are swarming with occupants
These galls are very common on the Clinton grape and other varie
ties of the same type and are also found to a greater or less extent
on most other cultivated sorts They sometimes occur in such
abundance as to cause the leaves to turn brown and fall to the
ground and instances have been recorded where they have been
defoliated from this cause The number of eggs in a single gall
will vary from fifty to four hundred or five hundred according to
its size There are several generations of the lice during the seaANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
467
son and they continue to extend the sphere of their operations
throughout the greater part of the summer Late in the season
as the leaves become less succulent the lice seek other quarters and
many of them find their way to the roots of the vines and estab
lish themselves on the small rootlets By the end of September
the galls are usually deserted When on the roots the lice subsist
also by suction and their punctures result in abnormal swellings
on the young rootlets These eventually decay and this decay
i not confined to the swollen portions but involves the adjacent
tissue and thus the insects are induced to betake themselves to
fresh portions of the living roots until at last the larger ones be
come involved and they too literally waste away During the
first year of the insects presence the outward manifestations of the
disease are very slight although the fibrous roots may at this time
be covered with the little swellings but if the attack is severe the
second year the leaves assume a sickly yellowishcast and the usual
vigorous monthly growth of cane is much reduced In course of
time the vine iisually dies but before this takes place the lice
having little or no healthy tissue to work on leave the dying vine
and seek for food elsewhere either wandering underground among
the interlacing roots of adjacent vines or crawling over the surface
of the ground in search of more congenial quarters During the
winter many of them remain torpid and at that season they as
sume a dullbrownLsh color so like that of the roots to which they
are attached that they are difficult to discover With the renewal
of growth in the spring the young lice cast their coats and rapidly
increase in size soon they begin to deposit eggs these eggs hatch
and the young lice shortly become egglaying mothers like the first
and like them remain wingless After several generations of these
eggbearing lice have been produced a number of individuals
about the middle of summer acquire wings These are also all
females and they issue from the ground and rising in the air fly or
are carried with the wind to neighboring vineyards where they
deposit eggs on the under side of the leaves among their downy
hairs beneath the loosened bark of the branches and trunk or in
crevices of the ground about the base of the vine Occasionally8
468 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
individual rootlice abandon their underground habits and forirr
galls on the leaves
RemediesThis is an extremely difficult insect to subdue and
various means for the purpose have been suggested none of which
appear to be entirely satisfactory Flooding the vineyards where
practicable seems to be more successful than any other measure
but the submergence must be total and prolonged to the extent
of from twentyfive to thirty days it should be undertaken in
September or October when it is said that the rootlice will be
drowned and the vines come out uninjured Bisulphide of carbon
is stated by some to be an efficient remedy it is introduced into the
soil by means of an auger with a hollow shank into which this liquid
is poured Several holes are made about each vine and two or
three ounces are poured into each hole Being extremely offen
sive in odor and very volatile its vapor permeates the soil in every
direction and is said to kill the lice without injuring the vines
This substance should be handled with caution as its vapor is very
imflammable and explosive Alkaline sulphocarbonates aie also
recommended these are gradually decomposed in the soil and give
off sulphuretted hydrogen and bisulphide of carbon Carbolic acid
mixed with water in the proportion of one part of the acid to
fifty or one hundred parts of water has also been used with advan
tage poured into two or three holes made around the base of each
vine with an iron bar to the depth of one foot or more Soot is
also recommended to be strewed around the vines It is stated
that the insects are less injurious to vines grown on sandy soil also
to those grown on lands impregnated with salt Since large num
bers of these insects both winged and wingless are known to crawl
over the surface of the ground in August and September it has
been suggested to sprinkle the ground about the vines at this period
with quicklime ashes sulphur salt or other substances de
structive to insect life The application of fertilizers rich in pot
ash and ammonia has been found useful A simple remedy for
the gallinhabiting type is to pluck the leaves off as soon as the
galls appear and destroy them To guard against its introduction
into new vineyards the roots of young vines should be carefullyANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 469
examined before being planted and if knots and lice are found
upon them the latter may be destroyed by immersing the roots in
hot soapsuds or tobacco water
ATTACKING THE BRANCHES
Grapevine BarklouseDuring the month of June there are
sometimes found on the branches of the grapevine brown hemi
spherical scales from under one end of which protrudes a cottonlike
substance which increases in size until the beginning of July by
which time it has become a mass about four times as large as the
scale This cottony matter contains the eggs of the insect and
very soon there issue from it minute oval yellowishwhite lice
which distribute themselves and shortly become stationary sucking
the juices These scales are not usually found in any great
abundance and may readily be scraped off with a knife or other
suitable instrument which should be done before the young lice
escape
Fourspotted Spittle InsectIn June there occasionally ap
pear upon the branches spots of white frothy matter resembling
spittle embedded in which is found a soft pale wingless insect
which punctures the bark and sucks the juices from the branch at
the same time secreting over and around itself this spittlelike cov
ering The perfect or winged insect is a flattened treehopper of a
brown color which occurs upon the vines in the early part of July
It is about threetenths of an inch long Should this insect at any
time prove injurious it may easily be destroyed by the band while
in the soft wingless form enclosed in its frothy covering
Signorets Spittle InsectThis insect is very similar in habits
aud appearance to the fourspotted insect surrounding itself in the
soft or larval condition with the same sort of frothy mass When
perfect it is a little more than threetenths of an inch long of a
tawny brown color clouded with dull white and thickly punctated
with black dots The same remedies apply to this insect as to the
fourspotted
The Twospotted TreehopperThis is a small but very odd
looking brown insect with two yellowish spots on the edge of the
back and a prolongation in front like the beak of a bird It some470 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
times punctures the tender stems of the grape causing them to wilt
and turn brown While this treehopper is occasionally found on
the vine it is much more common in the redbud but its favorite
home is on the water ash
Bedshouldered SinoxylonThe larva of this insect bores into
the stems of grapevines and sometimes also into the branches and
trunks of apple and peachtrees It is a yellowish wrinkled grub
about threetenths of an inch long head small and body arched or
bent The only method suggested for destroying this insect is to
burn the wood infested by it
The Grapevine Wound GallThis curious gall is produced by
the sesostris snoutbeetle The beetle is about oneeighth of an
inch long of a reddishbrown color with a stout beak half as long
as its body It appears during the early part of July when the
female punctures the stem of the vine and deposits a egg therein
which shortly hatches producing a tiny whitish grub which lives
within the swollen part and feeds upon it At first the gall is
small and inconspicuous but towards the end of the season it as
sumes the form of an elongated knot or swelling this is generally
situated immediately above or below a joint Usually there is
a longitudinal depression on one side dividing that portion into
two prominences which commonly have a rosy tint Within the
gall the larva remains until June of the following year When
full grown it is about onefourth of an inch long white cylin
drical and footless with a large yellowish head During the
month of June it changes to a pupa from Avhich the perfect beetle
is produced in about a fortnight These galls do not appear to
injure to any material extent the branches on which they occur
Should they ever multiply so as to become injurious their increase
may be readily checked by cutting off and burning those portions
of the leaves on which they are situated before the beetles escape
ATTACKING THE LEAVES
Green Grapevine SphinxThe larva of this insect is one of the
most common and destructive of the leafeating insects injurious
to the grape The first brood of the perfect or winged insect ap
pears from the middle to the end of May when the female deANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 471
posits her eggs on the under side of the leaves generally placing
them singly but sometimes in groups of two or three The eggs
are nearly round about onetwentieth of an inch long a little less
in width smooth and of a pale yellowishgreen color changing
to reddish before hatching The young caterpillar comes out of
the eggs in five or six days when it makes its first meal of the
empty eggshell and then attacks the softer parts of the grapevine
leaves When first hatched it is onefifth of an inch long of a
pale yellowish green color with a long black horn near its poste
rior extremity half as long as its body As it increases in size the
horn becomes relatively shorter and changes its color the mark
ings of the larva also vary considerably at each molt When
full grown it is about two inches long with rather a small head
When full grown the larva descends from the vine and draws a few
leaves loosely together binding them with silken threads usually
about or near the base of the vine on which it has fed and within
this rude structure changes to a chrysalis of a palebrown color
The moths from this first brood of larvas usually appear during
the latter part of July when they deposit eggs for a second brood
which matures late in September passes the winter in the pupa
state and emerges as moths the following May The caterpillars
are very destructive to the foliage of the vine being capable of
consuming an enormous quantity of food one or two of them
when nearly full grown will almost strip a young vine of its foliage
in the course of two or three days In some districts they are said
to nip off the stalks of the halfgrown clusters of grapes so that they
fall unripe to the ground
RemediesThe readiest and most effectual method of dispos
ing of these pests is to pick them off the vines and kill them They
are easily found by the denuded canes which mark their course or
where the foliage is dense they may be tracked by their large1
brown castings which strew the ground under their places of resort
Nature has provided a very efficient check to their undue increase
in a small parasitic fly the female of which punctures the skin of
the caterpillar and deposits the eggs underneath where they soon
hatch into young larvae which feed upon the fatty portions of
their victim avoiding the vital organs By the time the sphinx
caterpillar has become full grown these parasitic larvae have ma472
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
tured and eating their way through the skin of their host they
construct their tiny snowwhite cocoons on its body from which
in about a week the friendly fly escapes No larva thus infested
ever reaches maturity it invariably shrivels up and dies
The Pandorus SphinxThis is one of the most beautiful of our
sphinx moths but is not common The moths appear in July
when after pairing the female deposits her eggs singly on the
leaves of the grapevine or Virginia creeper where they shortly
hatch producing small green larvae of a pinkish hue along the
sides and with a very long pink horn at the tail As the cater
pillar increases in size the horn becomes shorter and after a time
curves round As the larva approaches maturity it changes to a
reddishbrown color and after the third molt entirely loses the
caudal horn which is replaced by a glassy eyelike spot The
mature larva when in motion will measure nearly four inches in
length but when at rest it draws the head and two adjoining seg
ments within the fourth which shortens its body nearly an inch
giving it a very odd appearance It is a very voracious feeder
and strips the vines of its leaves with such rapidity that it soon
attracts attention When full grown it descends from the vines
and buries itself in the ground where it forms an oval cell within
which it changes to a chrysalis the insect usually remains in the
chrysalis state until the following summer but occasionally it ma
tures and escapes the same season Should these larvaa at any time
prove troublesome they can readily be subdued by handpicking
Tlie Achemon SphinxThe caterpillar of this sphinx is truly
a formidable looking creature measuring when full grown if at
rest about three inches and when in motion about three and i
half inches It much resembles the pandorus and feeds also on
the Virginia creeper as well as on the grapevine The egg is laid
on the Tinder side of the leaf in July and the young larva when
hatched is of a light green color with a very conspicuous reddisli
brown horn half as long as its body which as the larva increases
in size becomes shorter and finally disappears its place being oc
cupied by a polished tubercle with a central black dot The ma
ture larva varies from a pale strawcolor to a reddish brown the
color growing darker down the sides becoming deep brown as it apANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 473
proaclies the under surface It becomes full grown during the
latter part of August or early in September and just before under
going its next change assumes a beautiful pink or crimson color
Leaving the vine it descends to the ground where it buries itself
to the depth of several inches and having formed for itself a
smooth cell changes to a chrysalis of a dark shining mahogany
color The insect usually remains in this condition in the ground
until late in June the following year The insect is found in all
parts of the United States where the grape is cultivated but has
never occurred in sufficient numbers to be injurious It is so
conspicuous in the larval state that it might easily be controlled
by handpicking should it at any time prove troublesome
The Abbot SphinxThis is not a common insect yet it is found
occasionally over a large portion of the United States and Canada
The caterpillar attains full growth about the end of July or the
beginning of August when it measures nearly two and a half
inches in length It varies considerably in color from a dull yel
low to a reddish brown The chrysalis is commonly formed in a
little cavity on the surface of the ground covered with a few pieces
of leaves loosely fastened together and mixed with grains of earth
but it is said sometimes to bury itself below the surface It is
about one and a quarter inches long The insect remains in the
chrysalis condition until the following spring The moth is found
on the wing from the early part of April to the end of May and
measures when its wings are spread two and a half inches or more
across It is scarcely likely ever to prove destructive should it at
any time become so it might be subdued by handpicking
The Whitelined DeilephilaThis handsome moth is compara
tively a common insect and has a wide geographical range It is
doublebrooded appearing early on the wing in June and again
in September Its period of activity begins with the twilight
The larva is found occasionally feeding on the leaves of the grape
vine but more commonly on purslane turnip buckwheat and
apple leaves It is very variable in color When mature it buries
itself under the surface where within a smooth cavity it changes
to a light brown chrysalis the moth emerging early in September
when it deposits eggs from which the second brood of larvae are474
DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
produced which mature enter the ground and change to chrysa
lids before winter sets in Since it feeds mainly on plants of little
value and on these in no great abundance it is scarcely entitled
to be classed with injurious insects yet on account of its being
found occasionally feeding on grape leaves it is deserving of men
tion here
Darkveined DeilephilaThis moth closely resembles the white
lined Deilephila but there are differences which will enable any
one with ease to separate the two species The whitelined is much
the larger insect measuring when its wings are spread three and a
half inches while the darkveined Deilephila rarely exceeds two
and threequarter inches The mature larva measures from two and
a half to three inches in length The larvre feed on the grape
vines early in July It is not so common as the whitelined nor is
it likely to prove injurious to any considerable extent
Beautiful WoodnymphThe larva of this lovely moth is quite
destructive to the foliage of the vine upon which the moth is often
found resting during the daytime its closed wings forming a steep
roof over its back and its fore legs which have a curious mufflike
tuft of white hairs protruded giving the insect a very singular
appearance The moth appears during the latter part of June or
early in July and is active at night The eggs are laid on the
under side of the leaves singly or in small groups they are circular
and very flat about onethirtieth of an inch in diameter and less
than half of that in thickness On escaping from the egg the
young larva are yellowishgreen dotted with black they eat small
holes in the leaves as they grow larger they devour all parts of the
leaf the framework as well as the softer substance When ma
ture they are about one and a half inches long Although partial
to the vine it feeds also on the Virginia creeper and occasionally
on the hop AVhen full grown which is usually some time during
the month of August or early in September the larva descends
from the vine and seeks some suitable location in which to pass the
chrysalis state It frequently bores into decaying wood and is
fond of taking refuge in corncobs it is said also to burrow under
ground sometimes Sometimes the moth escapes from the chrysalis
late in the same season but commonlv it remains in this conditionANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 475
until the following spring This insect is subject to the attacks
of a twowinged parasite a species of the common housefly in ap
pearance Usually a large proportion of the caterpillars are in
fested by this friendly parasite otherwise they would soon become
a source of much annoyance to grapegrowers Where artificial
remedies are required the vine may be syringed with hellebore
and water or Paris green and water as directed for the larva of the
eightspotted Forester Handpicking may also be resorted to
Pearl WoodNymphThis is a very near relative of the beauti
ful woodnymph and so closely do these species resemble each
other in the larval condition that it is difficult to distinguish them
Although the pearl has been regarded as a grapefeeding insect
there seems to be some doubt on the subject The larva is nearly
one and a quarter inches long The chrysalis is a reddishbrown
The Eightspotted ForesterWhile the moth of this species
is very different in appearance from the beautiful woodnymph
and the pearl woodnymph the larva is very similar This larva
may however be distinguished by its having eight black lines in
each segment instead of six it has also a series of white spots along
each side close to the under surface When nearly full grown it
sometimes conceals itself during the daytime within a folded leaf
Before effecting its next change it molds for itself an earthen cell
upon or just below the surface which is not lined with silk and
within this enclosure is transformed into a brown chrysalis from
which in the early brood the moth escapes in a few days There
are usually two broods each year the moths appearing on the
wing in May and August the caterpillars in June and July and in
September The insect is very generally distributed Where the
larvse prove destructive they may be subdued by syringing the foli
age with Paris green and water in the proportion of a teaspoonful
of the poison to two gallons of water or powdered hellebore and
water in the proportion of one ounce of hellebore to two gallons of
water
Grapevine EpimenisThere is still another grapefeeding in
sect which in the caterpillar state bears a strong resemblance to the
beautiful woodnymph and the pearl woodnymph The larva in
this species is smaller of a bluish white color The young larva476
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
attacks the terminal buds of the vine in spring fastening the young
leaves by a few silken threads and secreting itself within the en
closure When full grown which is usually towards the end of
May it bores into soft wood or any other suitable substance and
there changes to a reddishbrown chrysalis about fourtenths of an
inch long roughened on the joints having a curious flattened
horny projection on each side of the tip Within this enclosure
it remains until the following spring when the perfect insect es
capes Should the insect ever prove destructive it may be subdued
by the treatment recommended for the eightspotted Forester
The American ProcrisThe larvae of this destructive insect
feed in flocks arranged in a single row on the under side of the
vine leaves The egg clusters from which these larvae proceed
consisting of twenty eggs or more are fastened by the moth to the
under side of the leaves While young the little caterpillars eat
only the soft tissue of the leaves leaving the fine network of the
veins untouched but as they grow older they devour all but the
larger veins They acquire full growth in August when they
measure about sixtenths of an inch in length and are of a yellow
color When full grown they disperse and retiring to some shel
tered spot or crevice construct their tough oblongoval cocoons
within which in about three days they change to shining brown
chrysalids about threetenths of an inch long from which the
moths escape in about ten or twelve days and soon deposit eggs for
the second brood which mature later in the season Some few
produce moths before winter approaches but the greater por
tion remain in the chrysalis condition during the winter the
moths escaping the following Tune This insect is more common
in the West and South than in the East and is sometimes very in
jurious They may be destroyed by syringing the vines with Paris
green and water as recommended for the eightspotted Forester
Grapevine LeafrollerThis insect although most abundant
in the Southern States is very generally distributed and will no
doubt in its caterpillar form be familiar to most grapegrowers
The moth measures when its wings are expanded about ninetenths
of an ineh or more across There are two broods of the insect
during the summer The first moths which have passed the winANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1S9S 477
ter in the chrysalis state appear early in June and deposit their
eggs singly on the leaves of the vine which are soon hatched the
young worm at once manifesting its leaffolding propensities by
turning clown a small portion of the leaf on which it is placed and
living within the tube thus formed As it increases in size a
larger case is made often the whole leaf being rolled into a large
cylinder wider at one end than at the other and firmly fastened
with stout silken threads In this hidingplace the little active
wingless creature lives in comparative safety issuing from it to feed
on the surrounding foliage It is so very rapid in its movements
both backwards and forwards that it frequently escapes detection
by suddenly slipping out of its case when disturbed and falling to
the ground The length of the fullgrown caterpillar is threequar
ters of an inch the body is yellowishgreen at the sides The
head is reddishyellow The first brood of caterpillars are full
grown about the last of July when they change to chrysalids from
which the moths escape early in August the second brood of larva
are found on the vines in September The chrysalis is about half
an inch long and of a dark brown color It is usually formed
within the folded leaf hence the last brood which pass the winter
in this inactive state may in a great measiire be destroyed bv
going carefully over the vineyard late in the season before the
leaves fall and picking off the folded leaves and burning them
or the larva may be destroyed earlier in the season by crushing the
folded leaves taking care that the active occupants do not escape
Although this insect is usually common it is seldom very destruc
tive anywhere
Gartered Plum MothThe family of moths to which this insect
belongs are called plum moths from their having their wings di
vided into featherlike lobes The larva appears on the grape
vines in spring as soon as the young foliage has fairly started fas
tening the terminal leaves into a spherical form and living within
the enclosure where it feeds on the tender leaves and young
bunches of blossom It is usually solitary in its habits but some
times two or three are found together When full grown which
is usually early in June it is about half an inch long and is of a
yellowishgreen color When matured it spins a few silken478 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
threads on the under side of the leaf or in some convenient spot
and having entangled its hind legs firmly in the web of silk sheds
its hairy skin and becomes a chrysalis It is an odd little thing
about fourtenths of an inch long angular and rugged and when
touched it wriggles about very briskly It remains in this condi
tion from one to two weeks when the perfect insect appears The
insect is singlebrooded Where troublesome it may be subdued
by handpicking or by pinching off the clusters of leaves and
crushing the larvae
Grapevine CidariaThis is a pretty moth producing a geo
metric or looping caterpillar which consumes the foliage of the
vine The insect passes the winter in the caterpillar state hibemat
ine in some secure retreat until aroused to activitv by the warmth
of spring when after feeding a few days on the young vine leaves
it becomes a chrysalis producing the moth about ten days after
wards The moths within a few days deposit their eggs on the
leaves of the vine which hatch early in June and the larva nearly
complete their growth by the end of the month pass into the chrys
alis state and appear as moths again in July and August These
latter deposit their eggs for the second brood of larvae which be
fore reaching maturity become torpid and remain in this condition
until spring Early in June the reddish geometric caterpillars of this
moth are found upon the leaves out of which they eat numerous
pieces of various sizes and shapes By the middle of the month
they become full grown when they measure about one and a quarter
inches long When these larvae are sufficiently numerous to prove
troublesome the vines may be syringed with Paris green and water
as recommended for the eightspotted Forester
Yellow WoollybearThis common caterpillar seems to have a
special liking for the leaves of the grapevine It is very common
and uniformly troublesome The moth from which the larva is
produced is commonly known as the white miller It passes the
vinter in the chrysalis state and appears on the wing late in April
or early in May and when its wings are expanded measures from
ne and a half to two inches across The eggs which are round
and yellow are deposited on the under side of the leaves in large
clusters and in a few days hatch into small hairy caterpillarsANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 479
which feed for a time in company devouring at this tender age
the under side of the leaf only the outer skin over the center part
soon becoming yellow and withered When partly grown they
separate each one choosing his own course and by this time
their digestive powers have become sufficiently strong to enable
them to cat freely of all parts of the leaf The full grown cater
pillar is nearly two inches long and usually of a yellowish color
but the color varies greatly When mature it seeks some shel
tered cranny or nook in which to pass the chrysalis state and
having found a suitable location proceeds to divest its body of the
covering and with this woven together by silken threads it con
structs a slight cocoon within which the chrysalis is formed of a
chestnutbrown color There are at least two broods of these in
sects each year and these broods so intermingle that the insect may
almost always be found in one or the other of its stages from May
to October This species is subject to the attacks of several kinds
of Ichneumon flies which destroy immense numbers of them every
year Were it not for this the woollybears would soon become
very destructive As it is they are sometimes very injurious
when this is the case handpicking should be resorted to and if
this be done while the larva are young and feeding in company
their destruction is easily accomplished
Pyramidal Grapevine CaterpillarThis caterpillar is frequent
ly destructive to grapevines and may be found on the leaves full
grown about the middle of June It is nearly an inch and a half
long the body tapering towards the front and thickened behind
When full grown the caterpillar descends to the ground and draw
ing together some loose fallen leaves or other rubbish spins a
slight cocoon within which it changes to a darkbrown chrysalis
from which the perfect insect escapes in the latter part of July
While partial to grapes the larva feeds also on thorn plum rasp
berries redbud poplar and the like The insects are distributed
over a wide area Where they are numerous enough to prove
troublesome they may be collected and destroyed by jarring the
trees or vines on which they are feeding when they will drop to the
ground4S0
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
The Silky PyrophilaThe caterpillar of this moth is of a
yellowishgreen color with a few very fine brownish hairs scattered
over the upper surface of its body It is found feeding on the
grapevine and sometimes in sufficient numbers to become a source
of annoyance it attains full growth about the middle of June
when it measures an inch and a quarter or more When mature it
changes to a brown chrysalis a little under the surface of the
ground from which the perfect insect escapes in July When
found to be injurious the caterpillar may be subdued by hand
picking
The Spotted PelidnotaThis enemy to the grapevine is a large
and handsome beetle which eats the leaves making numerous holes
in them It measures about an inch in length and half an inch
in width at its widest part is nearly oval in form of a dull reddish
yellow color with a polished surface and three black spots on the
outer side of each wingcover It appears during July and August
and is active during the day flying from vine to vine with a heavy
awkward flight and a loud buzzing noise The female deposit
her eggs in rotten wood on which the larva when hatched feeds
the decaying stumps and exposed decaying roots of pear hickory
and other trees being selected for this purpose When full grown
the larva measures nearly two inches in length It much resem
bles the larva of the May beetle When mature it forms a slight
cocoon into which are woven its own castings mixed with particles
of the surrounding wood and within this it changes to a pupa
irom which the beetle escapes about ten days afterwards Should
it at any time prove injurious it can be easily reduced in numbers
by handpicking
Grapevine Flea BeetleThis pretty but destructive little beetle
forces itself upon the attention of grapegrowers very prominently
in the spring season when awakened by the reviving warmth of
the sun from its winter state of torpidity and with appetite sharp
ened by its long fast it commences its work of destruction by eat
ing away the substance of the buds as soon as they begin to swell
thus destroying many bunches of grapes in embryo It goes onANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
m
with this work for about a month when it gradually disappears
Before leaving however the beetle provides for the continuance of
its race by depositing little clusters of orangecolored eggs on the
upper side of the leaves riddling them and when numerous they
devour the whole leaf except the larger veins and sometimes en
tirely strip the vines of foliage In three or four weeks the larva
attains full growth when it is a little more than threetenths of an
inch long usually of a lightbrown color sometimes dark and oc
casionally pale and yellowish When mature the larvae leave the
vines and descend to the ground where they burrow under the
earth and form small smooth oval cells within which they change
to dark yellowish pupae After remaining two or three weeks in
this condition the beetles issue from them and the work of de
struction goes on but since they live at this season of the year al
together on leaves of which there is an abundance the injury done
is much less than in the spring The beetle is about threetwen
tieths of an inch long and varies in color On the approach of
winter the beetles retire to some suitable shelter as under leaves
pieces of bark or in the earth immediately around the roots of the
vines where they remain inactive until the following spring
RemediesTo destroy the beetles it is recommended to strew
in the autumn airslaked lime or unleached ashes around the in
fested vines removing and destroying all rubbish which might
afford shelter In the spring the canes and young foliage may
be syringed with water in which has been stirred a teaspoonful
of Paris green to each gallon Strong soapsuds has also been rec
ommended and is deserving of trial On chilly mornings the
beetles are comparatively sluggish and inactive and may then be
jarred from the vines on sheets and collected and destroyed These
insects are much more abundant in some seasons than in others
The Rose BeetleThis beetle commonly known as the rose bug
attacks the rose and is also very injurious to the grapevine the
apple cherry peach plum etc Its body is a little more than one
third of an inch long slender and tapering a little towards each
extremity Its color is dull yellowish when fresh arising from its
being covered with a grayishyellow down or bloom The down
31 a482 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
on the body of the beetle is easily rubbed off producing quite a
change in its appearance the head thorax and the under side of
its body becoming a shinyblack These beetles sometimes appear
in swarms about the time of the blossoming of the rose they re
main about a month at the end of which period the males become
exhausted drop to the ground and perish while the females bur
row under the surface deposit their eggs then reappear above
ground and shortly afterwards die also Each female lavs about
thirty eggs which are buried in the earth to the depth of from one
to four inches the eggs are about onethirtieth of an inch in diame
ter whitish and globular In about three weeks they hatch and
the young larvae at once begin to feed on such tender roots as are
within their reach They attain full growth in the autumn when
they are about threefourths of an inch long and about oneeighth
of an inch in diameter of a yellowishwhite color with a tinge of
blue towards the hinder extremity which is thick obtuse and
rounded In October the larva descends below the reach of the
frost and passes the winter there in a torpid state in the spring
it approaches the surface and forms for itself a little oval cell of
earth within which it is transformed to a pupa during the month
of May In form the pupa bears some resemblance to the perfect
insect and is of a yellowishwhite color its whole body being en
veloped in a thin film that wraps each part separately In June
this filmy skin is rent when the enclosed beetle withdraws the body
and limbs bursts open its earthen cell and forces its way to the sur
face of the ground thus completing its various stages within the
space of one year Although those insects have many natural foes
such as carnivorous ground beetles insectivorous birds domestic
fowls etc they often need the intervening hand of man to keep
them within due bounds When numerous they may be detached
from the vines with a sudden and violent jar falling on sheets
spread below to receive them They arc naturally sluggish do
not fly readily and are fond of congregating in masses on the foli
age they are consuming and hence in the morning before the day
becomes warm they can be easily shaken from their restingplace
collected and destroyed burned crushed or thrown into scaldingANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 483
water This insect is very partial to the Clinton grape and where
this is to he had will congregate on it in preference to other varie
ties a peculiarity which may be made use of by planting Clinton
vines as a decoy and thus materially lessening the labor involved
in the destruction of the beetle
The Grapevine FidiaThis enemy to the grapevine is a chest
nutbrown beetle about onequarter of an inch long with its body
densely covered with very short whitish hairs which give it a hoary
appearance It is first seen in June and by the end of July has
disappeared Its mode of operation is to cut straight elongated
Iioles about oneeighth of an inch in diameter in the leaves and when
the insects are numerous these are so thickly penetrated as to be
reduced to mere shreds This is said to be one of the worst foes
the grapegrower has to contend with in Missouri and Kentucky
where at times it literally swarms and then almost entirely de
stroys the foliage of large vineyards It is a native insect found
in the woods feeding on the wild grape also on the redbud of
the vines in cultivation it is said to prefer the Concord and Xortons
Virginia Upon the slightest disturbance or when danger threat
ens it has the habit of doubling up its legs and falling to the ground
where for a time it remains motionless feigning death in the same
manner as the plum curculio Advantage may be taken of this
habit and the insects collected by placing sheets under the vines
and jarring them with the hand The grapevine Fidia belongs
to the great family Chrysomelidae which ineludes the grapevine
Flea beetle the potato beetle and many other injurious species
The Redheaded SystenaThis insect belongs to the Chrysom
elida3 and although very generally distributed throughout the
northern portion of America has not until of late been recorded
as injurious This insect is furnished with stout thighs which
enable it to jump like the fleabeetle of the vine to which it is
closely allied The beetle is about onesixth of an inch long the
thorax and wing cases black and densely but very finely punctated
The head is pale red above the eyes
The Lighkloving AnomalaThis insect is a beetle about one
third of an inch long in form resembling the May beetle which
appears late in June or early in July It is common on both the484
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
wild and cultivated grapevine feeding upon the leaves The
beetle is of a pale dull yellow color the thorax black margined
with dull yellow the hind part of the head and the under side of
the body also black sometimes the abdomen is brown These
beetles occasionally appear in swarms when they devour the foli
age very rapidly the vine leaves soon resembling a piece of net
work only the large veins with some of the smaller ones being left
RemediesDusting the vines with fresh airslaked lime or
syringing them with a solution of whaleoil soap or strong tobacco
water has been recommended Probably hellebore or Paris green
with water as recommended for the eightspotted Forester would
be more effectual
The Grapevine SawflyThis is a small fourwinged fly with
a shining black body except the upper side of the thorax which
is red the wings are semitransparent and have dark brown veins
the front pair being clouded or of a smoky color The forelegs
or under side of the other legs are pale yellow or whitish The
body of the female measures about threetenths of an inch in
length that of the male somewhat less The insect is doublebrood
ed the first brood of flies appearing in the spring the second late
in July or early in August The eggs are laid on the under side
of the terminal leaves of the vine in small clusters and the larvae
when hatched feed in company side by side from about half a
dozen to fifteen or twenty in a group preserving their ranks with
much regularity They begin at one end of the leaf and eat the
whole of the leaf including the ribs to the stalk and proceed from
leaf to leaf down the branch devouring as they go until full grown
When mature they measure about fiveeighths of an inch in length
are somewhat slender and tapering behind and thickened before
the middle They are of a pale yellow color darker or greenish on
the back After the last moult the larrse become entirely yellow
When they leave the vine they descend to the ground and burrow
under its surface There they form oval cells in the earth which
they line with silk and within these enclosures change to pupa3r
from which the perfect flies escape in about a fortnight The
second brood pass the winter in the pupae state Occasionally this
insect is very destructive sometimes entirely stripping the TinesANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 485
In such cases the foliage should be sprinkled with hellebore and
water or Paris green and water in the proportions given under the
head of the eightspotted Forester
The Grapevine LeafhopperThis insect is commonly known
as the Thrip It is rather more than oneeighth of an inch long
crossed by two broad bloodred bands and a third dusky one at
the apex These insects pass the winter in the perfect state hiber
nating under dead leaves or other rubbish the survivors becoming
active in spring when they insert their eggs in punctures in the
leaves of the vine The larvas are hatched during the month of
June and resemble the perfect insect except in size and in being
destitute of wings During their growth they shed their skins
which are nearly white several times and although exceedingly
delicate and gossamerlike the empty skins remain for some time
attached to the leaves The insects feed together on the under
side of the leaves and are very quick in their movements hopping
briskly about by means of their hind legs which are especially fitted
for this purpose They have a peculiar habit of running sideways
and when they see that they are observed upon one side of a leaf
they will often dodge quickly round to the other They are fur
nished with a sharp beak or proboscis with which they puncture
the skin of the leaf and through which they suck up the sap the
exhaustion of the sap producing on the surface yellowish or brown
ish spots At first these spots are small and do not attract much
attention but as the insects increase in size the discolored spots
become larger until the whole leaf is involved when changing to
a yellow cast it appears as if scorched and often drops from the
vine Occasionally the vine becomes so far defoliated that the
fruit fails to ripen As the leafhopper enters the second stage of
its existence corresponding to the pupal state in other insects di
minutive wings appear which gradually grow until fully matured
the insects meanwhile becoming increasingly active With the
full growth of the wings it acquires such powers of flight that it
readily flies from vine to vine and thus spreads itself in all direc
tions It continues its mischievous work until late in the season
when it seeks shelter for the winter The Clinton Delaware and
other thinleaved varieties suffer more from the attacks of these486
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
insects than do the thick leatheryleaved sorts such as the Concord
These leafhoppers are sometimes quite abundant in a vineyard
one season and comparatively scarce the next their preservation
depending on favorable weather and suitable shelter for the perfect
insects during winter
RemediesVarious measures have been suggested as remedies
Since the insect does not consume the outer surface of the leaf it
becomes difficult to deal with it Syringing with strong tobacco
water or soapsuds or fumigating with tobacco where the vines can
be enclosed so as to prevent the free escape of the smoke are the
most efficient remedies Dusting with lime sulphur and lime
hellebore and Cayenne pepper have all been recommended
Carrying lighted torches through the vineyard at night the foli
age at the same time being disturbed with a stick will destroy a
great many of them since they fly to the light and are burned
As a preventive the ground in the neighborhood of the vines should
be kept thoroughly clean and be several times raked or otherwise
disturbed late in autumn and early in spring so as to expose any
concealed insects to the killing influence of frost The glasswing
soldierbug feeds on these leafhoppers and devours large num
bers of them
Grapeleaf GalllouseThis is described under the head of
Phylloxera
TreehoppersThe waved Proconia is a cylindrical jumping in
sect nearly half an inch long which is said to lay its eggs in single
rows in the wood of the canes Besides attacking the leaves this
bug punctures with its beak the stems of the bunches of grapes
causing the stems to wither and the bunches to drop off Some
times it pumps out the sap so vigorously from the succulent
branches that the drops fall in quick succession from its body
The singlestriped treehopper is shaped much like a beech
nut with a perpendicular protuberance on the forepart of its back
higher than it is wide and its summit rounded The insect is of
a chestnutbrown color tawny white in front and with a white
stripe along the back extending from the protuberance to the tip
It is about onethird of an inch in height and may often be seen
on grapevines in JulyANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 487
The black treehopper is a small triangular shining insect
with a smooth rounded back Its color is greenishwhite and it
has a large black spot on its back from the anterior corners of
which a black line runs off towards each eye the upper margin of
the head and breast are also black The female is about onefifth
of an inch long the male smaller This species is sometimes found
in considerable numbers on grapevines about the last of July and
a few stragglers usually remain until October
Tree BugsThe large green tree bug is from six to seventenths
of an inch long flattened in form of a grassgreen color margined
with a lightyellow line which is interrupted at each point of the
abdomen with a small black spot It occurs on grapevines in
September
The bound tree bug is a large green bug closely resembling the
large green tree bug but is more broadlyedged all around except
upon its head with palered and has a palered spot upon the mid
dle of its back The insect is little more than half an inch long
The modest tree bug is smaller being from four to four and a
halftenths of an inch long of a tawny yellowish gray color thickly
dotted with brown This insect is one of the commonest tree bugs
and is found in the autumn on a number of different trees and
shrubs The tree bugs infest grapevines and suck the juices
The Grapevine AphisThis species of plantlouse which is
destructive to the young leaves and young shoots of the grapevine
is of a dusky brown or blackish color legs greenish marked with
dusky Most of the lice are wingless but some have wings clear
and glassy with brownish veins They cluster in thousands on
the ends of the branches causing the leaves to curl up and the vine
to appear unsightly They are seen early in summer and usually
continue but a few weeks as their enemies the ladybirds and other
predaceous insects increase so fast as to decimate them within that
time They are common in the South and in the Middle States
Should occasion require the application of a remedy the yines may
be syringed with weak lye tobacco water or strong soapsuds
The Brownwinged KatydidThis is perhaps our commonest
species of katydid and may be distinguished from the older species
by the greater breadth and convexity of its wingcovers which with488
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
their strong midrib and regular venation much resemble a leaf
The insect is about an inch and a half long its body of a palegreen
color with slightly darker wing cases The female has a pro
jecting ovipositor or piercer with which the eggs are thrust into
crevices and soft substances When in confinement the katydid
is said to insert its eggs freely into pieces of cork and other soft
substances The young katydids when hatched which usually
occurs in the following spring eat almost any tender succulent
leaves and have never been recorded as very injurious The ob
longwinged hatvdid a very similar species is said to deposit its
eggs also on grapetwigs
The Trumpet GrapeGallThese are curious elongated conical
galls about onethird of an inch long of a reddish or reddishcrim
son color sometimes inclining to green growing in considerable
numbers on the leaves of the vine Though usually only found
on the upper surface they are occasionally found on the under side
also They are produced by a gallgnat and on cutting into the
galls they are found to be hollow each containing a paleorange
larva It is probable that the larva enters the earth to transform
to the pupa and that the fly is produced the following season
Grapevine FilbertGallIn this instance a rounded mass of
galls from one and a half to two and a half inches in diameter
springs from a common center at a point where a bud would natu
rally be found The mass is composed of from ten to forty opaque
woolly greenish galls which have a fleshy juicy subacid interior
each with a single central longitudinal cell about onefourth of
an inch long and onefourth as wide containing a solitary orange
yellow larva about oneeighth of an inch long This is also the
larva of an undetermined species of cecidomyia a family the mem
bers of which may be recognized in the larval state by the peculiar
appendage known as a breastbone attached to the under side near
the head In this species it is almost yshaped the diverging
branches terminate in two projecting points which may be ex
tended at will and which are probably used by the larva in abrad
ing the soft tissues of the gall so as to cause an exudation of sap on
which the larva feeds The flies belonging to this genus are usu
ally of a dullblack color The gall is common in July the largerANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 489
sized specimens bear some resemblance to a bunch of filberts or
hazelnuts hence its name
Grapevine TomatoGallThese galls form a mass of irregular
succulent swellings on the stem and leaf stalks of the grapevine
very variable ia size and shape from the single round cranberry
like swelling to the irregular bulbous protuberances which look
much like a group of diminutive tomatoes They have a yellow
ishgreen exterior with rosy cheeks and are sometimes entirely
red the interior is soft juicy and acid Each gall has several
cells and in each cell there is an orangeyellow larva which before
the gall has entirely decayed enters the ground where it changes
to a pupa and finally emerges as a palereddish gnat with black
head and antenna and gray wings The larvae are liable to be
attacked by a parasite and also by species of Thrip which invade
the cells and destroy the inmates
Grapevine AppleGallThis is a globular fleshy greenish
gall about ninetenths of an inch in diameter which is attached
by a roughbase like that of a hazelnut to the stem of the vine
On its external surface there are longitudinal depressions which
divide the gall into eight or nine segments The interior is fleshy
for about oneeighth of its diameter then follow a series of elon
gated cells each divided into two by a transverse partition the
lower being the shorter of the two Each cell is occupied by a
single larva of a bright yellow color with a chestnutbrown
yshaped breastbone which eventually produces a gallfly When
young the gall is downy on the outside succulent within and is
said to have a pleasant acidulous flavor Should any of the galls
described ever become a source of annoyance they may readily be
destroyed by handpicking
ATTACKING THE FRUIT
The Grapeseed InsectAbout the middle of August some
berries in the bunches of grapes may be seen shrivelling up on
opening these many of them will be found to contain only one
seed and that of an unusually large size other large berries will
contain two seeds also swollen most of the seeds having a dark490 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
spot somewhere on their surface On cutting open these seel
the kernel will be found almost entirely consumed and the cavity
occupied by a small milkwhite footless grub with a pair of
brown hooked jaws a small and glossy skin with a few very fine
short white hairs The larva changes to a pupa within the seed
during the spring months and in July emerges as a fly escaping
through a small irregular hole The fly is black The parent in
sect probably deposits her eggs on the skin of the grape and the
young larvae as soon as hatched puncture the skin and work their
way to the seed which they enter while it is young and soft
Many of the affected grapes have a small scar on their surface
which may indicate where the insect has entered Should this
tiny foe ever become so troublesome as to require a remedy the
best one suggested is that of carefully destroying the shrivelled
fruit
The GrapeBerry MothWhen abundant this insect is very
destructive In some instances it is said to have destroved nearly
fifty per cent of the crop The young larvrc are found injuring
the grapes early in July when the infested fruit shows a discolored
spot where the larva has entered When the grape is opened and
the contents carefully examined there will generally be found in
the pulp a small larva rather long and thin and of a whitish green
color Besides feeding on the pulp it sometimes eats portions of
the seeds and if the contents of a single berry are not sufficient
two three or more are drawn together and fastened with a patch
of silk mixed with castings when the larva travels from one
berry to another eating into them and devouring their juicy con
tents At this period its length is about an eighth of an inch or
more the head is black the body is dull whitish or yellowish green
As it approaches maturity it becomes darker in color and when
about onefourth of an inch long is full grown When the larva
is full grown it is said to form its cocoon on the leaves of the vine
cutting out for this purpose an oval flap which is turned back on
the leaf forming a snug enclosure which it lines with silk fre
quently it contents itself with rolling over a piece of the edge of
the leaf and within this retreat the change to a chrysalis takes
place The chrysalis is about onefifth of an inch long and of aANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
491
vellow or yellowishbrown color There are two broods of this
insect during the year the spring brood feed on the tender shoots
of the common Iron weed and on the tuliptree
RemediesAs it is probable that most of the late brood pass
the winter in the chrysalis state attached to the leaves if these were
gathered and burned a large number of the insects would perish
The infested grapes might also be gathered and destroyed This
insect is attacked by a small parasite which does its part in keeping
the enemy in subjection
The Grape CurculioThis is a small beetle belonging to the
family of Curculios which passes the winter probably in the per
fect state and lays its eggs on the young grapes sometimes in June
or early in July It is a diminutive and inconspicuous insect only
about onetenth of an inch long Its color is black sprinkled
with grayish spots and dots and thickly punctated The young
larva when hatched enters the fruit and begins to feed upon it
its presence being indicated by the discoloration on one side of the
berry as if it were prematurely ripening A dark circular dot
soon appears in the middle of the colored spot showing the point
where the insect has entered the fruit The affected berry does
not decay but remains sound and plump but it sometimes drops
to the ground before it is fully ripe Late in July or early in
August the larva becomes full grown when it leaves the berry
drops to the ground and burying itself in the soil changes to a
pipa from which the beetle escapes late in August or early in
September
This is not a common insect It is rarely injurious to any con
siderable extent When it it troublesome the vines may be jarred
occasionally during the month of June placing a sheet or an in
verted umbrella under them when the beetles will fall and can
then be gathered and destroyed as in case of the Plum Curculio492
DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
INSTRUCTIONS IN SPRAYING
SOLUTIONS RECOMMENDED
1 Bordeaux Mixture
Copper sulphate 4 pounds
Lime fresh 4 pounds
Water40 gallons
Suspend the copper sulphate in fire gallons of water This may
he done by putting it in a hag of coarse material and hanging it so
as to be covered by the water Slake the lime in about the same
quantity of water Then mix the two and add the remainder of
the 40 gallons of water
Warm water will dissolve the copper sulphate more readily than
cold water If the lime is at all dirty strain the lime solution
If the lime is good the above amount is likely to be sufficient
It is an easy matter to know how much lime is required by using
what is termed the ferrocyanide of potassium test This substance
can be got at any druggists and very little is required Take a
small bottle 2 oz and get it filled with a saturated solution of this
compound If there it not plenty of lime in your mixture a drop
of the test added to it turns it brown Add more lime and stir As
soon as the test fails to color in coming in contact with your mix
ture it indicates there is sufficient lime present to neutralize the
effects of the copper sulphate Use wooden vessels in preparing
the Bordeaux mixture
2 Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate Solution Cupram
Copper carbonate 1 ounce
Strong ammonia sufficient to dissolve the copper carbonate
Water10 gallons
This solution is not much used and is recommended only in
cases where the fruit is so far advanced that it would be disfigured
by using the Bordeaux mixtureANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 493
3 Paris Green Mixture
Paris green 1 pound
Water200 to 300 gallons
Milk of lime 4 gallons
Use 200 gallons water in a mixture for appletrees 250 for plum
trees and 300 for peachtrees When Paris green is added to Bor
deaux mixture so as to form a combined insecticide and fungicide
add four ounces to every 40 gallons of the Bordeaux mixture
4 Hellebore
White hellebore fresh 1 ounce
Water 3 gallons
5 Pyrethrum
Pyrethrum powder fresh 1 ounce
Water 4 gallons
6 Kerosene Emulsion
Hard soap pound or soft soap 1 quart
Boiling water soft 1 gallon
Coal oil 2 gallons
After dissolving the soap in the Water add tie coal oil and stir
well for 5 to 10 minutes When properly mixed it will adhere to
glass without oiliness A syringe or pump will aid much in this
work In using dilute with from 9 to 15 parts of water Kero
sene emulsion may be prepared with sour milk 1 gallon and coal
oil 2 gallons no soap being required This will not keep long
NOTES
1 When there is danger of disfiguring fruit with the Bordeaux
mixture use the ammoniacal copper carbonate solution
2 Experience in spraying during the past three years indicates
that it is best to use the combined insectitude and fungicide com491 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
mencing as soon as the buds begin to swell again when the leaves
appear and continue it at intervals of 10 to 15 clays until the trees
Lave been sprayed 3 to 5 times which will depend upon the
weather In the case of a rainy reason it may be necessary to
spray at least five times while if dry and the mixtures have been
allowed to remain on the foliage then three or four times may be
sufficient
In no case spray while the trees are in bloom but immediately
after It is contrary to law and punishable by fine of from
100 to 500
3 The combined insecticide and fungicide containing Paris
green and Bordeaux mixture is to be used for insects that chew
and injurious fungi but kerosene emulsion alone for those insects
that suck the juices of plants such as aphis thrip red spider clover
mite oyster shell bark louse San Jose scale etc
4 A stock solution for the preparation of Bordeaux mixture
may be prepared as follows Dissolre 25 pounds of copper sulphate
in 25 gallons of water One gallon of this contains one pound of
the copper sulphate In another barrel slake 25 pounds of good
lime and add 12J gallons of water One gallon of this contains
two pounds of lime To make the mixture take four gallons of
the copper sulphate solution and two of the lime If there is anv
doubt about there not being sufficient lime try the test already
referred to under Bordeaux mixture Xow fill up the amount to
40 gallons with water
5 Prepare the mixture well apply it at the proper time and
be as thorough as possible in the work Threefourths of the so
called spraying done is not spraying at all The trees are only
drenched When spraying is properly done the mixture is bro
ken up like a mist and settles on every part of the plant A great
deal more of the mixture will remain on the plant when applied
in this way and there is also a saving of material as every drop
which falls to the ground is lost
6 No mixture should be left in the pump or barrel and after
using clean water should be pumped so as to clean the outfit This
is important as some of the mixtures act chemically on the metal
of the pumpANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
495
7 Use a Y and two nozzles or a triplehead and throe nozzles
The work can be done just as well and much more expeditiously
8 To keep Bordeaux mixture off horses and harness use coarse
linen or other cover
9 As most of the spraying mixtures are poisonous care should
he taken in working with them They should not he used when
there is any wound or abrasion of the skin exposed and care should
be taken not to allow the spray to settle on the hands or face or to
be inhaled Arsenites taken into the system by absorption or in
halation produce symptoms of poisoning In mild cases they re
semble the symptoms produced by poisoning in severe cases head
aches nausea eruptions boils and ulcers are said to result The
danger from arsenites which are soluble in water such as London
purple are much greater than from Paris green which contains
very little watersoluble arsenic There is more danger of poison
ing by absorption when perspiring freely However by taking
proper precaution there need be little fear A leather washer
about four inches in diameter should be fitted just below the noz
zle which will prevent the drip from reaching the hands As far
as possible keep to windward of the nozzle When much work
is to be done rubber gloves should be worn The face and ex
posed parts should be washed immediately after spraying
10 The cost of spraying with Bordeaux mixture is not very
great Copper sulphate of the best quality which is the only
kind that should be used can be had at from 44c to 5c per lb
by the barrel and Paris green at from 15c to 20c per lb The
cost for material to properly spray an average appletree for the
entire season skould not exceed from 4c to 5c
TKEATMEXT
1 Apple
Treatment for destroying codling moth bud moth tent cater
pillar cankerworm apple spot leaf blight pistolcase bearer and
powdery mildew496
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
First spraying Bordeaux mixture and Paris green 4 oz to the
barrel of the mixture when the buds are swelling
Second spraying Bordeaux mixture and Paris green before the
blossoms open
Third spraying Bordeaux mixture and Paris green when the
blossoms have fallen
Fourth and fifth sprayings Bordeaux mixture and Paris green
at intervals of ten to fifteen days if necessary
No definite date can be named after which it would be safe to
cease spraying for apple scab The orchard should be watched
after the third or fourth application and the treatment again ap
plied if scab appears on the fruit or leaves
Many apple growers who sprayed in 1897 until the end of June
and neglected to watch their orchards afterward lost heavily
The scab appeared very late in the season last year and all the ex
perimental orchards were given an extra application in the early
part of July which largely accounts for the splendid results ob
tained
2 Pear
Leaf blight scab and codling moth the same treatment as for
the apple
3 Plum
Curculio broivn rot and leaf blight
First spraying Bordeaux mixture before the flower buds open
Second spraying Bordeaux mixture and Paris green as soon as
the petals have fallen
Third spraying Bordeaux mixture and Paris green in seven
to ten days after
Fourth spraying Bordeaux mixture in ten to fifteen days after
4 Peach
Brown fruit rot leaf blight plum curculio and ptach curl
Exoascus spANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
497
Fir9t and second sprayings Same as for the treatment of the
plum
Third spraying Bordeaux mixture in two or three weeks
Fourth spraying Ammoniacal copper carbonate if any danger
of disfiguring the fruit with Bordeaux mixture
5 Cherry
Aphis slug brown rot and leaf blight
First spraying Bordeaux mixture as the buds are breaking if
the aphis appears use kerosene emulsion alone
Second spraying Bordeaux mixture and Paris green as soon as
the blossoms fall
Third spraying Bordeaux mixture and Paris green ten to fif
teen days after
6 Grapes
Mildew black rot flea beetle and leafeating insects
First spraying Bordeaux mixture and Paris green when leaves
are one inch in diameter
Second spraying Bordeaux mixture and Paris green when flow
ers have fallen
Third and fourth sprayings Bordeaux mixture at intervals of
ten to fifteen days
Paris green alone when the beetle is attacking the buds in the
spring
7 Raspberry
Anthracnose leaf blight and sawfly larpce
First spraying Bordeaux mixture and Paris green just before
growth begins
Second spraying Bordeaux mixture and Paris green about
when first blossoms open
Third spraying Bordeaux mixture when the fruit is gathered
8 Currant and Gooseberry
Worms and mildew
First spraying Potassium sulphide Bordeaux mixture and
Paris green as soon as the leaves expand498
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
Second spraying The same ten to fifteen days later
For worms alone hellebore or Paris green will be effective
9 Tomato
Hot and blight
Spray with Bordeaux mixture as soon as rot or blight appears
for three times if necessary at intervals of ten to fifteen days
10 Potato
Blight and beetles
First spraying Paris green as soon as the beetles appear one
pound to 100 gallons of water
Second spraying Bordeaux mixture and Paris green when
plants are six inches high
Third and fourth sprayings Bordeaux mixture at intervals of
ten to fifteen days if necessary
11 Cabbage
Pyrethrum applied in solution one ounce to four gallons of
water or dusted on one part pyrethrum to seven parts flour for
the cabbage worm
12 Strawberry
The rust or leafblight
Bordeaux mixture when it can be applied without disfiguring
the fruit will control this disease Apply at intervals of two or
three weeks on new beds after they begin to make runners
We have given the latest and best information on the subject of
fruits derived from the proceedings of the State Horticultural So
ciety of Georgia Insects Injurious to Fruits by Saunders and
The Spraying of Plants by LodemanANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
499
EEPOET OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST
Office of the State Entomologist
Atlanta Ga August 15 1898
To Hon E T Nesbitt Commissioner of Agriculture of the State
of Georgia
SirI have the honor to submit herewith a report of my work
as State Entomologist covering the time from the date of my ap
pointment March 1 1898 up to the present date as required by
Section 4 of an Act of the Assembly approved December 21
1897 entitled An Act to require the Commissioner of Agricul
ture to establish a special department of Horticulture and Po
mology to employ an Entomologist fix his salary and define his
duties to provide for the inspection of fruit trees fruit vineyard
melon and vegetable farms and prevent diminish and destroy con
tagious diseases and destructive insects in orchards vineyards and
other places to provide boards of arbitration fix their powers de
fine their duties and provide for their costs to provide funds for
the maintenance of said department to prescribe penalties for
violations and for other purposes
My work has been confined principally to the investigation of
the San Jose scale as to its distribution in this State and experi
menting with remedial measures for its control Our experience
leads us to believe that although the San Jose scale is a very dan
gerous and pernicious pest we can by persistently pursuing
reasonable measures successfully control it and that fruit culture
in Georgia will continue despite the perniciousness of this insect
In addition to this special investigation notes have been made
from time to time on various other injurious insect pests of the
season the most important of which are mentioned in this report
Eespectfully submitted
W M SCOTT
State Entomologist500
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST
W M Scott M S
I THE SAN JOSE SCALE
Aspidiotus pertHciosusComstock
The lifehistory of the San Jose scale its origin introduction
into the Eastern States and distribution through these States have
been repeatedly discussed in bulletins from the United States De
partment of Agriculture and the various State experiment stations
Hence it appears unnecessary to cover these points in this report
and so I shall confine the discussion principally to the distribution
of this insect in this State and how it may best be controlled
It might not he amiss however to point out a few of the ex
ternal characters with which the ordinary observer may detect it
Seen through a pocket lens the individual female scale is dark gray
in color circular and conical in outline and terminates at the cen
ter by a nipplelike prominence surrounded by a distinct ring The
male scales are elongated and smaller with the nipple near the an
terior end
A tree infested with the San Jose scale presents different appear
ances according as it is badly or only slightly infested
When thoroughly encrusted with this insect it takes on a gray
ishbrown ashy appearance as though the trunk and limbs had
been painted with dampened ashes By scraping the bark with a
knife the scales may he removed cohering like a mass of wet bran
If the tree is only slightly infested the bark will be found to be
dotted here and there with dark gray often black objects about
onesixteenth of an inch in diameter surrounded by a purplish
tinge of the bark The blackish appearance of the scale is espe
cially noticeable during the winter and spring and is character
istic of the overwintering individuals Scales of the summer
broods take on more of the grayish color In the summer season
attention may often first be attracted to them on peachtrees fromANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 501
the effects produced on the leaves Even when a tree is only
slightly infested the young insects take readily to the leaves espe
cially along the mid ribs specking them over with scarlet or pur
plish spots I have noticed this appearance of the leaves caused
by the scale as soon as a tree was approached while it took the
closest scrutiny to detect its existence on the bark
In case of the apple and especially old trees the scales seem to
prefer the fruit dwarfing it and covering the skin with purplish
spots
Just a point touching the lifehistory of this scale might not be
out of place The young usually appear first about the middle of
May and continue throughout the summer up to November or
December Of course this varies according to climatic condi
tions Some young larvse are present on trees in this State almost
throughout the winter On twigs received at the Virginia Experi
ment Station from Twiggs County Georgia January 18 1898
young scales were issuing in considerable numbers It is very
probable however that the insects had been dormant but a few
warm days in January had revived them and the mature females
had commenced reproducing again
On March 8 1898 and later dates I observed young scales
more or less abundant crawling over infested trees in south Geor
gia They were not observed to appear in very great numbers
however until the 20th of April on and after which date infested
trees wTere fairly alive with them
These points while not seemingly of practical significance have
their bearing on treatment as we shall see later
According to my observation the Abundance plum is its favorite
food plant It seems to take to this variety of plum more readily
than to any other plant It thrives so well and reproduces so
rapidly on this plum that only two seasons and even less time after
first infestation is required to completely kill the tree The peach
regardless of variety is not far behind the plum in susceptibility
It takes almost as readily to this fruit and very little more time
is required to destroy the tree Apples are more resistant and may
survive several years after the date of the first attack The LeConte
and Kieffer varieties of pears seem to be almost entirely exempt502
DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
from its attack In one of the nurseries of thfs State those varie
ties two and three years stock were standing in nursery rows
alongside of rows of Japan plums and in some cases the twigs of
the pears and plums touched The plums were thoroughly infest
ed with the scales while scarcely a scale could be found on the
pears Japan seedling pears in the same block of nursery stock
however were as badly infested as the plums LeConte and
Ivieffer pears used as border trees around large peach orchards
badly infested with the San Jose scale were found to be almost
free only a few scales being found on an occasional tree The rose
also deserves mention as being among the heroes that have died in
the cause It seems to be quite sensitive and yields quite readily
to the attacks of the scale and because of this fact we often find it
pays to carefully inspect the rose and frequently to destroy it en
tirely that we may preserve the fruit interest of a community
According to my observation this about covers the plants that
have suffered seriously from the attacks of the scale in Georgia
I have however found various other plants slightly infested
among these are quinces English walnuts and cottonwoods
Populus monilifera
In this connection I wish to correct erroneous reports circulated
more or less widely over the State that the forests swamps and
parks of the cities are infested with the San Jose scale Such
reports have a bad effect And so far as I have been able to de
termine by careful investigation they are incorrect It is quite
possible for the scale to leak out into the forests and swamps and
it may be that it has but I have not yet been able to discover such
to be the case It is unfortunately true that many of the shade
trees and forest trees are badly infested with scale insects other than
the San Jose scale and these are doing immense damage
While in Randolph county I was told that the maples and oaks
and seedling peaches miles away from any orchard w7ere infested
with the San Jose scale I wanted to see these trees and on being
taken to them found them to be badly infested with scales but not
the San Jose scale The maples were infested with the
gloomy scale Aspidiotus tencbricosus the oaks with the obscureANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 503
scale Aspidiotus obscurus and the seedling peaches with the
cherry or forbes scales Aspidiotus forbesi
A similar instance occurred in Wilcox county in regard to
chestnuts and other trees the scale in every case proving to be
some other species of the genus Aspidiotus These points bear
upon the possibility of keeping the pest under control In order
that I may not be misunderstood I will state further that there is
danger of the San Jose scale spreading into the forests and that ex
treme care should be taken and heroic measures adopted in order
to prevent such a disaster
Next I might mention a few facts that have come under my
observation concerning the means of dissemination which also
has to do with the possibility of suppressing this enemy to the
fruitgrower Since the females cannot fly and since they lose
their power of locomotion altogether after the young ones settle
down and begin to secrete their waxy coverings they must be dis
seminated by some outside agencies while in the unsettled larval
state which only lasts a few hours with each individual When
the scale becomes established in one part of an orchard it may soon
be more or less distributed over the whole orchard by means of the
plowmen and nudes I have a case on record where the scale was
introduced into one part of an orchard of twelve thousand trees
and from this center of infestation was soon distributed undoubt
edly by the cultivators and teams principally from one end of the
orchard to the other and throughout almost every part of the
orchard In another case the scales were introduced from a nur
sery on two or three trees in the center of three rows running
through an orchard of 20000 trees and these three rows and a row
on each side were soon slightly infested from one end to the other
while the other part of the orchard had escaped This shows how
a few infested trees may soon contaminate a whole orchard
Scales I think have undoubtedly been earned from one orchard to
another on mens clothes I have a case where a gentleman was
interested in an orchard badly infested with the San Jose scale
and owned two orchards several miles distant He became so
worked up over the matter that he determined to find out if the scale
was in his own private orchard Time and again he would go to504
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
the infested orchard and carefully examine infested trees to ac
quaint himself with the scale then he would go directly to his
private orchard and carefully inspect for the scale At first no
scales could be found but by and by it developed He had un
consciously carried it on his person and is now fighting it in his own
orchards Be careful therefore in going from an infested orchard
to an uninfested one that you do not carry the scale with you
Even the entomologists themselves cannot be too careful about
this point
Other methods of distribution are by birds carrying the scale on
their feet from tree to tree and from orchard to orchard by insects
especially ants and grasshoppers by stiff breezes of wind carrying
infested leaves and even the little animals alone and fruitpickers
may distribute it throughout an orchard and into other orchards
It may also be distributed on fruit However this plan has been
doubted by many On July 2 I took a scaleinfested apple from a
tree in north Georgia Dade county and on August 2 thirty
days later young were issuing and settling down on the apple
Should this apple have been brought in contact with the proper
foodplant any time during these thirty days the scale could have
easily transmitted to that plant
It is now a wellestablished fact that nursery stock is the most
common and effective medium of wide dissemination The scale
is introduced from one nursery to another on stock graft buds and
cuttings and after it once gets into a nursery it is next to im
possible to get rid of it without digging up and burning every
plant on the premises and starting a new nursery on other grounds
From these infested nurseries the scale is sent out on the stock to
the growers Only a few trees may be purchased to reset an
orchard but if infested with scales these are sufficient to demolish
the whole orchard In one case in this State a few trees were
brought from an infested nursery and planted in an orchard of two
thousand trees in three years the whole orchard was destroyed
by the scale and the pest had spread to a neighboring orchard of
twenty thousand trees It is now time for nursery inspection I
have already commenced the work and will continue until I have
inspected all the nurseries of the State that can be located beforeANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
505
the shipping season this fall Stock found infested will of course
have to be destroyed Nurserymen whose stock is found ap
parently free from the scales will be given a certificate to that effect
when such certificate is desired
EXTENT OF SPREAD IN THIS STATE
Just here I am at a loss to know what course to pursue Some
have urged me to let the facts be known while others insist that T
should not make public the infested localities on account of the
hurt it might bring to the nurserymen and real estate agents of
those localities Honesty is the best policy however and in the
end it would be better if the exact status of the matter were made
known so that the nurserymen and fruitgrowers would understand
each other and understand the situation perfectly After due
consideration however I have decided to give infested counties
without mentioning names or exact localities In fact most of
the counties I will mention have been brought before the public
as either infested or suspected through Prof Starness Bulletin
No 36 Georgia Experiment Station
I have only had about four months time to devote to this in
spection work and consequently the work is yet incomplete It
has been my aim to locate new infested localities visit localities
already known to be infested and to determine the extent of in
festation in these localities and to come to some agreement with
the owners of infested premises as to the disposition of such premi
ses Sometimes it has been necessary on account of conditions and
situation to use the grubbing hoe and root up thousands of trees
while in other cases conditions were such as to warrant treatment
I wish to say that in this work I have been treated with the ut
most courtesy and have met with the hearty cooperation of the
fruitgrowers and nurserymen In almost every case the work
has been done in an advisory way and it has not been necessary to
resort to compulsory measures
The principal source of infestation for south Georgia has been
a mirsery situated at Waycross Georgia now extinct It seems
that this nursery has been infested for at least six years during
which time it has sent the scale broadcast over the southern por506
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
tion of the State The evidence is clear that they sent scalein
fested stock into Bandolph county as early as the shipping season
of 189293 Prior to this time it seems that they had purchased
scaleinfested stock from a New Jersey nursery and thus intro
duced the scale on their grounds Another nursery in Berrieu
county also extinct seems to have played a prominent part in the
distribution of the scale in a local way The originally infested
stock is said to have come from New Jersey five or six years ago
Suspicion has also been attached to two small nurseries in Thomas
county These latter however have done little toward dissemi
nating the pest A number of cases are traceable to three Mary
land nurseries
Other than the abovementioned nurseries the two most impor
tant of which have gone out of business the nurseries of this State
so far as has yet been determined are free from the San Jose scale
Further inspection may reveal others and it is feared that some
small nurseries in infested localities will be found infested
Beginning with the extreme southern counties and giving a few
general statements concerning the infested localities in each county
the infested counties follow
Becatur CountyThere are two localities in this county known
to be infested three cases at one locality and one at the other in
volving about ten thousand treesprincipally peaches some plums
Stock from Waycros Georgia Some of these orchards have
been dug up and others treated
Thomas CountyThree widely separated localities of this
county have the scale Seven different premises are involved but
most of them are garden lots and only about a thousand trees are
infested in all Stock from Waycross Ga
Brooks CountyTwo localities are recorded for this county
with one case at one locality and three cases at the other At the
first locality an orchard of 1050 peachtrees four years old is badly
infested so much so that treatment will not be attempted but the
trees will be dug up and burned The cases at the second locality
cover only private gardens and dooryards Every case traced to
Wayeross
Lowndes CountyOnly three cases are now known in this counANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
507
ty and they are confined to one locality involving about five hun
dred treespeaches plums and quinces Such vigorous measures
are being pursued by digging up and using soap washes that it is
believed that these cases will be eradicated Source of infestation
unknown in one case the other traced to Waycross
Ware CountyIn this county was situated the wellknown
hursery that has so widely disseminated the scale over south Geor
gia On March 18 1898 I visited this nursery of about fifty
acres and found it to be thoroughly infested with the San Jose
scale throughout including a few hundred orchard trees It ap
pears that infested stock was brought to this nursery from New
Jersey possibly as early as 1890 It is now on the retired list
The local spread and dissemination on nursery stock in the county
is undoubtedly considerable The extent has not yet been deter
mined
Berrien CountyThe orchards of this county seem to have suf
fered most from this pest There are two distinct centers of infes
tation one of which however only involves two small premises
The other according to our records involves thirtythree different
premises ranging in grade from private gardens to orchards of
62000 trees principally peaches and plums in all covering prob
ably about 200000 trees There has been a loss of thousands of
trees but the growers have instituted such vigorous measures
against the pest that it is believed they will keep it under control
Hydrocyanic acid gas whale oil soap and kerosene have all been
freely used The wide dissemination of scale in this county is due
to a nursery of the county which became infested some five or six
years ago having obtained infested stock from New Jersey This
nursery is also on the retired list
Worth CountyThis county has also suffered much from the
ravages of the San Jose scale We have four different infested
localities on record and these are situated in widely separated parts
of the county so that it appears that the county is quite thoroughly
infested throughout Investigation reveals seventeen different
cases involving near 100000 treespeaches and plums Scaly
stock has been dumped into the county from three different sources
We have three cases charged to Maryland two to Waycross Geor508
DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA

gia one to the Berrien county nursery and eight to local spread
Mitchell CountyThis county also has the distinction of beina
one of the worst infested But since fruit is not grown so exten
sively here the interests involved are not so great One man alone
however says he has spent 500000 on his orchard and just as it
should have come into bearing he abandoned it on account of the
scale Our records show three localities infested involving twelve
different premises upwards of fifty thousand trees principally
peaches Infested stock from Waycross
Irwin CountyWe have two localities recorded as infested in
this county covering four premises Suspicion is attached to a
number of other premises but investigation has not yet been made
The infestation was introduced from the Berrien county nursery
and from Waycross
Wilcox CountyThis county furnishes two infested localities
and seven cases Scale introduced from Maryland Here kero
sene in mechanical mixture with water is being used with success
Randolph CountyThis county is among the worst infested
We have only one center of infestation recorded but the spread
from this in a local way has been enormous Seven bad cases
have been investigated and a number of others reported but not
verified These involve upwards of 50000 bearing treespeaches
and plums Waycross is the source of infestation The unfor
tunate growers have been very energetic in the use of whale oil
soap and lye washes with only partial success however
Bee CountyLee county furnishes but one infested locality
and two cases which are of little consequence Stock purchased
from Waycross and a small concern in Randolph county
Schley CountyWe have two localities recorded for this county
with two cases at one and five at the other involving about 44100
trees in allpeaches principally some plums Source of infesta
tion traced to a Maryland nursery Whale oil soap and kerosene
have been extensively used as a remedy with apparent success
Houston CountyIn this county two cases were discovered in
one locality and one case in another involving about 20000 peach
trees 10000 plums and some ornamental shrubs
In this very important fruit section it was determined not toANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
o09
take any risk but that the most heroic measures should be pursued
to eradicate the pest Every tree found to be infested was rooted
up And not only so but several thousand trees apparently not in
fested but adjacent to infested trees received the same treatment
Tins done I made a thorough inspection of the orchards in this sec
tion and found no more scales and it is hoped that the pest has been
entirely eradicated Waycross furnished the infested stock
Macon CountyIn one locality in this county three infested
premises were discovered involving about 2500 plums and a few
dozen peaches The same heroic measures were adopted here as
in the cases in Houston county Total destraction of all infested
trees with adjacent apparently uninfested one3 Careful inspec
tion of neighboring orchards showed no further infestation and
we have every reason to believe that the scale is eradicated Way
cross again was the source of infestation
Twiggs CountyInvestigation has been made in only one lo
cality of this county where four cases were discovered involving
some 20000 peachtrees Kerosene emulsion has been used here
with some success The scale seems to have been introduced from
a badly infested orchard five miles away in the adjoining county
Laurens probably carried on the clothing of persons who fre
quently went from this badly infested orchard to the others
Laurens CountyThis county ranks among the worst infested
and has sustained heavy losses from the ravages of the scale It
has the distinction of having had probably the worst case on record
in the east In one locality an orchard of 90000 peachtrees
planted during the season of 18923 is now totally demolished
70000 of the trees were dug up last spring and the other 20000
are to be destroyed this winter The scales were introduced into
this orchard on about 5000 trees from Waycross We have
another locality of two cases recorded One of these involves
about 3000 treesprobably due to local spread the other in
volves about 14000 bearing trees In this case the scale was
probably introduced from Thomas county
Wilkinson CountyThis county furnishes only one case of
about five thousand peachtrees Source of infestation unknown
Coweta CountyWe have onlv one locality of two cases re510 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
corded against this county About two thousand trees involved
Source of infestation unknown
Bade county in northwest GeorgiaThis county has one
infested locality involving only three adjoining garden lotsap
ples pears and peaches The trees were condemned and de
stroyed Maryland furnished the infested stock
This concludes the infested counties as we have them recorded
It will be seen from the above that the distribution is confined al
most entirely to south Georgia as we have only two infested coun
ties Coweta and Dade recorded north of Macon It must be
understood however that our inspection work has been confined
principally to the southern and central portions of the State But
from correspondence and information gained otherwise it is cer
tain that no such state of affairs exists in north Georgia as is ap
parent in south Georgia And it is believed that further inspec
tion will reveal comparatively few cases of the scale in this upper
section
NATURAL ENEMIES
The San Jose scale is attacked by various enemies and it is
boped that these will prove important factors in suppressing it
The fungous disease of the San Jose scale Sphwrostilbe coco
phila treated by Prof Rolphs in his Bulletin Xo 41 Fla Experi
ment Station is well distributed throughout south Georgia Unfor
tunately however this disease has confined its attacks principally to
other scales than the San Jose Aspidioius obscurus seems to
be its favorite host I have examined oaks that were thoroughly
encrusted with this scale and found about 95 per cent were dead
from the attacks of Sphwrostilbe It lias also been observed on the
forbes scale A forbesi in different localities and on aspecies of
Aspidiotus on oaks at Americus Georgia Strange to say I have
found the forbes scale heavily infested with this disease on trees
directly adjacent 4o trees badly infested with the San Jose scale
and yet the San Jose scale was uninfected with the disease This
disease seems to be doing good work on the San Jose scale in De
catur county onlyANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 511
A Black FungusWhile in Semen county I was told that
from some cause the San Jose scale was disappearing from some of
the orchards of that county Upon close examination of infested
trees I found black warty scabs which seemed to be scales swollen
into black masses Supposing this to be a fungous disease of the
scale I sent specimens to the U S Department of Agriculture for
identification The department reported to me that it was a fun
gous disease but on account of the absence of spores it could not
be identified at that time
A block of 100 peachtrees said to have been badly infested with
the San Jose scale two years ago was examined May 12 1898
and found almost free The pitted appearance of the trunk and
limbs and the presence of dead scales gave evidences of the trees
having been formerly badly infested These are now almost clean
and are taking on good growth and wherever scales are found the
fungus is present
In another wellknown orchard of this county there are several
hundred trees said to have been almost encrusted with the scale
two years ago and have never been treated Scarcely a scale
could be found on these trees May 14th when they were exam
ined The whole orchard of about 60000 trees is more or less
infested with the scale and this fungus could be found on nearly
every infested tree
In Worth county an orchard of ten thousand trees was planted
with stock from an infested nursery A scale supposed to be the
San Jose scale was discovered on a plumtree in the spring of
1895 No particular notice was taken of it until a year later
spring of 1896 when the owner discovered it on another plum
tree and sent specimens to the United States Department of Ag
riculture to be determined It proved to be the San Jose scale
and the two trees were destroyed Spring of 1897 several trees
were found infested and during that season about fifteen infested
trees were destroyed
On March 25 1898 I inspected these premises and found a tree
here and there through the orchard dead with the scaleabut
thirty in all There was very little spread from these now dead
trees and scarcely a live scale coidd be found in the orchard512 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
Wherever there were scales the fungus could be found In some
cases the scale had been removed indicating the work of a lady
bird
This is a remarkable case The scale has probably been in this
orchard four years certainly two years and has made practically
no progress On the other hand I have a case on record where the
scale completely destroyed an orchard of 70000 trees in the same
length of time The disappearance of the scale in the above
mentioned orchard seems to be due to the presence of this black
fungus
I will not cite further cases but will simply state that with about
four exceptions this disease has been found in every infested
county in Georgia but not in every infested orchard The fungus
is often found on trees dead from San Jose scales showing that
the trees were too far gone before the scale were attacked or that
the disease is too slow in its work
It is also found infecting the forbes scale in middle and south
Georgia and a species of Aspidiotus on oak
Predaceous InsectsI have very little to say for the predaceous
insects We have two species of ladybird that are preying on the
San Jose scale but they occur in such small numbers as not to
work any great destruction to the scale These friends are the
twicestabbed ladybird Chilocorus bivulnerus and the pitiful
ladybird ImIlia miseUa The former is quite abundant in most
parts of the State but seems to prefer the juices of the English
walnut scale Aspidiotus juggansregws and the forbes scale to
that of the San Jose scale Where these scales exist it usually oc
curs in great numbers and in some instances has almost extermi
nated them Only in a few ease has it been found attacking the
San Jose scale
The PrutIIIn misella lias been found in several localities but oc
curring in limited numbers and for that reason the result of its
work is almost imperceptible
These little insect friends however should not he disregarded
but should lie introduced into every orchard and tenderly fos
tered
Not infrequently have I noticed articles in the papers and heardANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 513
statements to the effect that the San Jose scale is no longer a
dreaded pest in California that fnngous diseases and predaceous
insects together with the use of the lime salt and sulphur water
have rendered it harmless and that the eastern growers need not
be alarmed Some of the Georgia people seem to have taken up
this idea and are inclined to let the scale run its course We
are not growing fruit in California but we are growing fruit in
Georgia and we have to fight the scale in Georgia If in the
course of time nature comes in with her various agencies and in
terferes in our behalf then we will have less fighting to do and
more time to sit down and fold our arms As it is now we must
fight and fight heroically or give up fruitgrowing in some sec
tions
This brings us up to the question of
TREATMENT
It must be conceded that the San Jose scale is with us to
stay as a permanent pest forming an important factor in the art
of fruitgrowing in infested sections of this State and all hopes of
total eradication must be given up The question with which we
must now deal is how it may best be controlled
I will discuss three lines of treatment each of which has been
tested and proved to be effective in a greater or less degree to wit
1 Hydrocyanic acid gas
2 Kerosene and water in Mechanical mixture
3 Whaleoil soap
Hydrocyanic Acid GasIt was indicated in Prof Starness Bul
letin as referred to above that the gas treatment of orchard trees
would play an important part in suppressing the scale in this State
and cases were cited in which almost absolute results were ob
tained
I regard this treatment as the most efficient remedy we have
but at the same time it must be understood that it is the most
expensive the most inconvenient and the most dangerous to the
operator It also cannot be said to be absolutely effective Some
33 a514
DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
of the scales may escape but it is certain that a less number escapes
this treatment than any other we have tried
This treatment consists in generating hydrocyanic acid gas
under a tent enclosing the infested tree by treating potassium
cyanide with dilute sulphuric acid
About thirty yards of eight ounce duck is required to make a
tent twelve feet high and ten feet in diameter at the base Cut
off a width of duck 31 feet long and sew it securely to a hoop of
onefourth inch gas pipe 31 feet in circumference To this first
width sew a second somewhat shorter than the first and so on until
the tent reaches the desired height cutting each width consider
ably shorter than the preceding one in order to make the ten
slope to about four feet across the top This clone cut out and
make a circular cap to fit this opening at the top and sew it in se
curely A ring is then sewed in the top strongly reinforced so as
to bear the weight of the tent without pulling out The very
closest seams should be made as it is desired to have the tent as
nearly air tight as possible It should then be painted with two
coats of linseed oil and lampblack
From 12 to 20 such tents can be operated by four men one of
whom should be leader directing the operation handling the
chemicals alone It is a very dangerous operation and every de
tail should be observed by the operator who should have previously
seen the process of fumigation and acquainted himself with the de
tails Both the chemicals and the gas are deadly poison Xinety
eight per cent potassium cyanide and commercial sulphuric acid are
the grades to be used The cyanide can be purchased by wholesale
from manufacturing chemists at about 32 cents per pound and the
acid at about 2 cents per pound
The formula used is 1 oz of cyanide 1 oz of acid and 3 oz
of water to every 150 cubic feet of space in the tent It is im
possible to get the exact amount of space and it would be well fo
al ways use chemicals a little in excess rather than to have a defi
ciency The cubical contents of a tent in position over a tree may
be approximated by guessing at the height and mean diameter and
multiplying threefourths the square of the diameter by the heightANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
515
The operation is simple and no danger should result if the proper
caution is taken
Overlarge trees should be cut back and the branches drawn in
by means of a rope in order to reduce the space to fit the tent
The tent is lifted from one tree and placed over another by one man
with a forked pole the forked end of Avhich is in the ring at the
top of the tent and the other end against the ground assisted by
one man on each side lifting at the hoop The tent being placed
in position the acid and water are poured together in an earthen
ware vessel and placed inside The cyanide in a longhandled
ladle is reached under the edge of the tent and added to the con
tents of the vessel Then the edge of the tent should be quickly
let down and earth thrown over the hoop all the way round The
tent should be left undisturbed for the space of about thirtyfive
minutes during which time the gang is operating the other tents
At the expiration of that time the men return and remove the
tent to another tree and the work goes on
The order of pouring the chemicals together given above should
be strictly observed A gang of men complained to me that there
was such sputtering of the chemicals when poured together that
the tents were soon burned full of holes and that it was almost
impossible to keep them patched Upon investigation I found
that the acid was added last The water dissolves some of the
cyanide before the acid can be added and when it is added it seizes
the dissolved cyanide so violently that an ebullition against the
sides of the tent is the result It is very important and absolutely
necessary to good results to keep a close watch over the tents and
strongly patch any hole that may be burnt or snagged in them
It should also be added that in case the trees are damp from dew
or rain an excess of chemicals should be used as the moisture con
denses and absorbs some of the gas
This treatment can be applied at any season of the year with
reasonable safety to the trees Mr Hoffman of Tifton Georgia
who was the first to use the gas treatment of orchard trees in Geor
gia and probably the first to successfully use it in the east has ex
perimented with it in many ways He has successfully treated
peachtrees in full bloom in full foliage and in fruit with almost516 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
perfect safety to the trees the exception being a slight burning
of the foliage and the ends of the twigs on occasional trees The
best time however is in the winter season while the scales are
dormant If the trees are treated in the summer season while the
young scales are issuing the operators with their outfit will almost
certainly communicate live scales to treated trees by removing
the ropes or otherwise coming in contact with them It would also
he better to work at nights or on cloudy days to avoid possible dan
ger of scalding the foliage and burning the tips of twigs by actinic
rays of the sun This injury is so slight however as not to war
rant overmuch precaution
As to the efficiency of this remedy I will cite a few instances in
which gratifying results have been attained
Premises of F II Jones Co of Tifton Ga Jake Harvey
Manager
3000 Abundance plums
3000 Elberta peaches
3000 Snead peaches
set in the fall of 1895 Scale was discovered in this orchard soon
after it was set and allowed to take its course for two years un
disturbed during which time the whole orchard became more or
less thoroughly infested The gas treatment was taken up Jan
uary 5 1898 and continued until the whole orchard was treated
by March 8th Mr Harvey with three men and a boy operated
twenty tents giving thirty minutes to the tree and using the or
dinary formula The work was done at day
March 21st I made a general inspection of the orchard care
fully examining some trees and was unable to find a live scale
May 14th assisted by Mr Harvey I selected ten of the trees for
merly worst infested and carefully examined each from the ground
to the ends of the twigs The trees were heavily encrusted with
dead scales and under a mass of these I found one live scale on one
tree and two on another On the other eight trees not a live scale
could be found General inspection of the whole orchard revealed
no more live scales This was accomplished without any apparent
injury to the trees The work was undoubtedly thoroughly done
and remarkably successful It will be nocossarv to watch for theANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
517
development of the pest in this orchard and when a tree is found
infested again a tent must be drawn over it and the scales given
another dose In two years it may be necessary to treat the whole
orchard again Mr Hoffman treated his orchard of 10000 peach
trees badly infested with scales with this gas during last winter
Upon inspection of this orchard May 13th I found live scales
breeding on a few trees that had been most heavily infested With
these exceptions the treatment was quite successful Other or
chards in Berrien county have been fumigated with good results
but in no case has the scale been eradicated
The fruitgrowers of Randolph county have been using the
whaleoil soap treatment for two years but on account of lack of
good results they concluded that they would have to resort to some
thing else or give up
I suggested the gas treatment and we made two tents to make
a test and to demonstrate the method of treatment April 27th
1898 we went to an orchard and selected four peachtrees thor
oughly infested with scale in full foliage and full of fruit After
sundown we applied the treatment using the ordinary formula and
leaving the tents on thirty minutes The next dajr April 28th
we treated four others in the same manner between eleven and one
oclock while the sun was shining hottest A committee of three
growers was appointed to keep notes and report results These
gentlemen were thoroughly acquainted with the scale to their sor
row and were fully capable of distinguishing dead scales from live
ones In due time the committee made the following report
jSTotes taken up to May 9th 1898 show that no damage was
done to either foliage or fruit and all scales dead so far as could be
determined on Nos 1 2 3 and 4 which were treated at night
The foliage at the ends of twigs on Kbs 5 6 7 and 8 was burnt
a little but no damage done to fruit Nbs 5 6 and 8 entirely
free from live scales No 7 however showed one live crawling
scale which probably came from adjoining badly infested trees
Prof W G Johnson of the Maryland Experiment Station has
recently conducted an extensive series of experiments with hydro
cyanic acid gas on orchard trees His results have not yet been518 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
published but Prof Johnson in a letter to me under date of
April 19 1898 says
My results so far are very gratifying and I feel confident as
I have expressed it on several occasions that gas when properly
handled is the only remedy for exterminating insects of the na
ture we have to combat
Cost per tree of fumigating is from three to five cents varying
of course with the size of the tree and the economic manner in
which the work is done
Fumigation of Nursery StockI take this opportunity to urge
upon the nurserymen of this State the importance of fumigating
their stock with hydrocyanic acid gas In my opinion not only
those nurserymen whose stock is grown within scaleinfested dis
tricts but all nurserymen whether there is any suspicion attached
to their premises or not should fumigate Thorough fumigation
is not only a precaution against the San Jose scale but against the
English walnut scale the cherry scale and in fact all insect life
Fumigated stock is worth more to the purchaser He can be fairly
sure that he is not introducing insect pests on his premises
The house very widely used in Virginia for this work is built
with two rooms each 10x10 feet on the ground 10 feet high in
front and 7 feet high under the eaves In case there is little
stock to be handled one room is sufficient It is built directly on
the ground with the sills sunk a few inches in the earth and without
floor The side walls and partition wall consist of double courses
of sheeting lumber with building paper between nailed on a sub
stantial frame and three inch stuff nailed over the cracks A
door at each end and a ventilating window near the top of the
front side of each room are sufficiently constructed and made to
fit tightly The roof is constructed like the sides and covered
with roofing paper Earth should be banked up a few inches
around the sides as it is desired to make the house as nearly air
tight as possible
This building should be on the packing grounds and the stock
fumigated as dug and brought from the nursery After fumiga
tion it can be removed from the house and trenched in It might
be well to puddle the roots before fumigating in order to preventANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 519
any probable injury although there is little danger of injury to the1
bare roots unless considerable excess of the chemicals is used or
the room is left closed overtime
The chemicals used to generate the gas are the same as given
above 98 per cent potassium cyanide and commercial sulphuric
acid with the same formula one ounce of potassium cyanide
one ounce of sulphuric acid and three ounces of water for every
3 50 feet of cubic space in the room Care should be taken to ob
serve the following order Pour the water into an earthen vessel
just inside the door then add the acid and last the cyanide and
immediately close the door
The room should be kept closed about the space of 35 minutes
then the door and windows thrown open to allow the fumes to
escape Xo one should enter under five minutes after the house
is opened While one room full of stock is fumigating the other
one can be filled As above stated the chemicals and gas are dan
gerously poisonous and extreme caution should be observed in
using them
Kerosene and Water in Mechanical MixtureNext to the gas
treatment in efficiency is in my opinion kerosene and water in
mechanical mixture and on account of its cheapness and simplicity
can be more generally used Kerosene in some form has been
used as an insecticide for many years and is known to be fatal to
insect life Pure or undiluted kerosene has also been proved to
be highly injurious to plants and for this reason cannot be recom
mended without conditions In the hands of aeareful intelligent
operator applied while the trees are perfectly dry in the finest
possible spray on a bright warm day to insure rapid evaporation
it may be used without injury to the tree and with certain death
to every scale with which it comes in contact Dr John B
Smith of New Jersey see Bulletin 125 New Jersey Experiment
Station has unhesitatingly recommended it both as a summer
and winter treatment and has obtained excellent results in his
experiments in that State It has also been recommended by
Prof F M Webster of the Ohio Experiment Station and Prof
Win B Alwood of the Virginia Experiment Station and possibly
others520 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
Many trees in this State have been sprayed with pure kerosene
and come through the ordeal safely but as many more have been
killed outright with the same treatment
Judge H H Singletary of Schley county sprayed and almosr
drenched 1000 fouryearold plnmtrees with pure kerosene in
January 1898 and only about 100 were killed and on May 5th
when I visited the orchard the surviving trees were in a healthy
vigorous growing condition
In February 1898 Mr W O Tift of Tifton Ga treated
6000 peachtreesElbertas and Chairs Choicewith pure kero
sene applying it with an atomizer Examination May 13 showed
2000 trees dead principally Elbertas which variety seems to be
most suspectible Most of Chairs Choice were uninjured In
every case at least 98 per cent of the scales were killed Con
sidering the fact that the peach the principal fruit grown in this
State is most susceptible to injury from insecticides and that the
climatic conditions of this State are such as to render plants more
susceptible to penetrative insecticidal applications together with
the results obtained with experiments in this State I hesitate tc
recommend kerosene in undiluted form
Two applications of the mechanical mixture of kerosene and
water in the proportion of one part kerosene and three par water
25 per cent kerosene will be almost if not quite as effective as
one application of pure kerosene and without damage to the tree
and this is the remedy which I wisli to heartily recommend
This applicationis made with a kerosene sprayer The kero
sene is placed in a separate tank within the water tank Suction
pipes connect the water and kerosene tanks with the pump cylinder
so that both kerosene and water are forced through the pump at
the same stroke of the plunger mixing as they pass through the
nozzle The proportion of oil is regulated by means of an in
dicator connected with a valve in the kerosene tank These
sprayers may be obtained from the Denning Company Salem
Ohio The Gould Manufacturing Company Seneca Falls 1ST Y
are also about ready to put a kerosene sprayer on the market
which however has not yet been testedANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
521
Iii order to prevent possible injury to the trees a very fine spray
is desired A Vermorel nozzle with the exit orifice of the cap
120 of an inch in diameter is probably best suited for this work
and such nozzle should be called for in ordering the sprayer
The first application should bc made in the fall soon after the
trees have ripened up and shed their foliage It can be made
later on in the winter but is likely to be most effective in the fall
while young are issuing In this climate the scales breed freely
up to December and even later All scales breeding at the time
of application are somewhat uplifted to allow the exit of the young
from beneath the scale and the delicate bodies of the insects will
be more exposed to the kerosene These breeding scales the young
just issued and recently set scales will be readily killed The ap
plication however can be made at any time during the winter
with good results
The trees should be thoroughly wet but not drenched and left
dripping It must be remembered that even with only 25 per cent
kerosene there is some danger of injury to the trees Care must
be taken to get the spray well down around the base and in fact
every part of the tree must be moistened In this case thorough
ness is the secret of success
The usual pruning of the trees can be done at any dme during
the winter and at the same time cut out all the spurs twigs and
limbs the trees can spare and cut it back as much as possible not to
take off too many fruit buds Also clear away leaves that mayhe
lodged in the crotches and any Other trash that may afford pro
tection for the scale This decreases the surface to be sprayed
and gets rid of the parts most likely to harbor scales in protected
places In case some of the trees are crusted over with the scale
and the limbs beginning to die it might be well to cut them back
to stubs leaving the main branches only about two feet long
Make the second application not long before the buds begin to
swell in the spring say about the latter part of February and the
first days of March Trees may be treated even after the buds
begin to swell This will destroy the majority of the scales which
mav have survived the first treatment522
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
A close watch should be kept over the orchard during the sea
son however and whenever a tree is found with crawling young
or live scales in any stage it should be treated at once with 15 per
cent kerosene This will kill all the crawling young and in fact
it kills the wellprotected insects in a great measure
This will pretty well clean an orchard of the scale and it may not
be necessary to give it a general treatment again for two years or
more However if the work has not been thoroughly done and
the treatment proves unsatisfactory the same course should be
pursued the following winter
If an orchard is found to be infested in the spring or summer
season it would be unwise to wait for winter treatment Hun
dreds of trees may be killed during that time and the spread of the
scale is going on In this case the 15 per cent mixture should be
used as a summer treatment One application may be sufficient
to keep the pest in check until the winter treatment can be taken
Tip
Records of TreatmentPremises of Mr J W Shanley at Pine
City Wilcox county 6000 bearing peachtrees more or less thor
oughly infested with San Jose scale Last February Mr Shanley
under the direction of Prof Starnes sprayed one tree with 50 per
oent kerosene three with 25 per cent kerosene one with 20 per
cent kerosene and one with 16 per cent kerosene all badly in
fested On the 30th of April I examined these trees and found
the one sprayed with the 50 per cent mixture apparently free from
the pest Of the three sprayed with the 25 per cent mixture
two appeared to be entirely free and the other about 98 per cent
of scale killed On the 20 per centsprayed tree about 95 per
cent of the scales were killed and the 16 per centsprayed tree
showed about the same result The trees showed no ill effect from
the treatment and were set full of fruit
A second examination of these trees was made July 16 when
the fruit was mature and still no signs of injury from the kerosene
could be noticed Possibly a few fruit buds were killed by the 50
per cent mixture since this tree was not quite as full of fruit as
the average tree in the orchard However this may be due to the
offects of the scale as the tree was very badly infested and someANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
523
of the limbs in a dying condition when the application was made
During the months of May and June this whole orchard except
a few hundred Alexanders which the owner contemplated dig
ging up was sprayed with the 15 per cent mixture Notes taken
July 16th show that in general the trees were not injured but that
some of the foliage of an occasional tree was burnt considerably
and a good many of these leaves were shed This burning was
greatest in the center of the tree and near the crotch where the
leaves were most shaded and for that reason evaporation retarded
No particular damage can come from this however and it should
not be considered serious The fruit was not injured However I
would not advise an application within ten days of the ripening of
the fruit as it might give it a slight kerosene taste
As for the scales a large per cent was killed but by no means
were they eradicated
In order to note the effect of the kerosene mixture on peach
trees Mr Samuel H Eumph at Marshallville Ga on the 20th
of April sprayed several trees with 20 per cent kerosene Up to
July 17th no ill effect was noted on either the trees fruit or fo
liage Mr P J Berckmans has also used the 15 per cent mix
ture on peachtrees without injury to the foliage
As to the effect produced on the bloom I am unable to say
Prof W B Alwood of the Virginia Experiment Station has
made some extensive tests in Virginia with dilute kerosene in water
mixture on pears peaches plums cherries and crab apples and in
Bulletin No 74 Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station page
32 he says
On April 13 1S98 when the trees were in bloom except
apple which was coming in foliage a second application of mixed
kerosene and water was made to a set of trees like the above In
this instance 15 per cent and 30 per cent mixtures were used
Notes taken to April 22 show that the stronger per cent
burned the bloom on the pear plum cherry and peach and slightly
burned young foliage on apple The 15 per cent mixture dark
ened the petals of the bloom on trees above mentioned but appar
ently the injury will not be material This treatment was applied
in bright warm weather524
DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
This kerosene treatment is far the simplest and cheapest remedy
that has yet been recommended Xo time or trouble is required
to prepare the mixture The kerosene and water are each poured
into their separate tanks and the treatment is ready for application
The oil in quantity costs about eight cents a gallon Onehalf
gallon of the mixture sprayed with a fine nozzle is ample for a tree
nine feet high and six feet through Since 25 per cent of this
is kerosene one pint would be used making a cost of one cent a
tree 1000 per thousand trees If any considerable number of
trees are to be sprayed a barrel sprayer with two hose attachments
mounted in a wagon driven between the rows should be used It
will take three men to operate one sprayer one in the wagon to
drive and pump and one on each side manipulating the hose In
this manner two rows can be sprayed at a time The hose should
be long enough to reach to the opposite side of the tree so that the
whole tree may be sprayed before leaving it With this outfit
1000 trees or more could be sprayed in a day
Important Points to be Observed
1 Bright dry days should be selected to insure rapid evaporation
to prevent injury to the trees
2 Since a fine spray is desired a Vermorel or Xixon nozzle with
cap of about 120 of an inch opening should be used with high
pressure behind it
3 Every part of the tree above ground should be wet but not
necessarily drenched
4 The liquid should not be allowed to run down and collect
about the roots
5 Care should be taken that the desired per cent of oil and
no more is being discharged
Whaleoil SoapThe whaleoil soap treatment has been rec
ommended and extensively iised throughout the eastern States
where the San Jose scale exists and I think is familiar to all
so I will not dwell on it long The results have been more or less un
satisfactory and workers have turned their attention to experi
menting with other substancesANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 189S
525
When this remedy is to be used the same generaldirections
given above for pruning the trees in the case of the kerosene treat
ment should be followed The application of whaleoil soap two
pounds in one gallon of water should be made about the latter part
of February It is thought best to spray at this time rather than
in the fall since experiments have shown that greater danger of
killing the fruit buds is incurred from the fall applications Better
results can be obtained by washing the trunk and limbs by hand
and afterwards spraying the whole tree with the same soap prepara
tion
A thorough application of this soap preparation will kill 90 per
cent to 95 per cent of the insects but they multiply and develop
so fast that at the end of the following summer after treatment
the trees are again fully restocked
If the trees are roughbarked or scaly as in the case of old peach
trees the soap preparation will form a film over the rough places
rather than reach into the deeper surface where the scale is pro
tected
Dr John B Smith in his bulletin referred to above recommends
whaleoil soap against the San Jose scale but in the same connec
tion on page 12 he says
Peachtrees should always be treated with kerosene because the
bark on bearing trees is rarely quite smooth and is apt to be scaly
or wrinkled or rough so as to form protection from any material
less penetrating than kerosene
In this State whaleoil soap has been most extensively used in
Kandolph county Here the growers have been spraying with
this soap preparation for two years The results have been very
unsatisfactory principally due I think to lack of thoroughness in
application These energetic growers have determined to give up
whaleoil and resort to something else possibly the gas treatment
If it is desired to use whaleoil soap to kill the young scales in
summer time I would not advise a solution stronger than one
pound of soap to four gallons of water Strong preparations are
highly injurious to growing plants
In order to test the effect of whaleoil soap on peach foliage and
fruit and as a precaution against some minor scale insects the Hale52G
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
people at Fort Valley on April 26 1898 sprayed 350 peachtrees
in full foliage and fruit with whaleoil soap one half pound in
one gallon of water As a result examination on May 9th showed
the foliage to he full of holes turning yellow and falling badly
And the fruit was very much retarded in development
Just a word about kerosene emulsion This preparation dilu
ted twelve times has been extensively used in Twiggs and Laurens
counties as a winter treatment for the scale In some cases a
large per cent of the scale was killed but in most cases the results
were anything but good It was rather a weak solution but hun
dreds of trees were killed by its use evidently on account of the
improper emulsification of the substance Kerosene emulsion in
the proportion of one to ten of water can be safely used in the
summer time to keep the scale in check by the destruction of the
young The 15 per cent mechanical mixture of kerosene and water
is much simpler and more effective
In conslusion it should be stated that all the recommendations
made in this report apply particularly to the peachtree but to all
other orchard fruit trees as wellapple pear plum cherry apri
cot etcexcept perhaps in the case of the gas treatment for pear
trees and overlarge appletrees which are apt to be too large for
the treatment to be practicable
II NOTES ON TWO SERIOUS SCALE INSECT PESTS OF GEOR
GIA OTHER THAN irfE SAN JOSE
While the main object of my inspection work has been to locate
and take measures against the San Jose scale at the same time
notes were made on such other insect pests and plant diseases as
promised to be serious menaces to horticulture The most danger
ous of these that our record shows are the cherry or forbes scale
Aspidiotus forbesi Johnson and the new peach scale Diaspis
amygdali M C
The Cherry ScaleThis species was described by Prof W G
Johnson in Bulletin Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History
Vol 4 Art 13 He first discovered it on an English Morello
cherry tree in Campaign 111 December 1894 and says that it is
very generally distributed over Illinois Cherry being its favoriteANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
527
food plant in that State he gave it the popular name Cherry scale
The female scale is rather convex circular in outlines and of a
dirty grayish color but usually conforms closely in color to the
bark to which it is attached The nipplelike prominence is a
little to one side of the center and is of a brickred tinge The
male scales are elongateoval with the nipplelike prominence
near the anterior end The general color is about the same as
that of the female with the purplish exuvfe very conspicuous The
margin of the scale is delicate and lighter in color
When a tree is crusted over with the cherry scale it takes on a
dirty grayish appearance and the surface of the trunk and limbs
becomes rough and pitted Infested trees are slow to put out in
the spring and look as though they would die Later on they
commence to grow the old scales are shed off and the trees may
look as healthy as uninfested ones In the latter part of the sum
mer when the summer broods are drawing heavily on them they
give way again and take on the unhealthy appearance
In Illinois according to Prof Johnson the species is twobrood
ed the first brood beginning to appear early in May and the second
in the first days of August Xotes taken in different parts of
south and middle Georgia show that in this climate the first brood
begins to appear during the last days of March and the first days of
April and the second during the first week in July It is very
probable that a third brood appears about the latter part of Sep
tember or the first of October We would naturally expect this
since the first brood appears a month earlier here than in Illinois
It is probably both oviparous and viviparous and I am inclined
to think it reproduces here principally viviparously or by bringing
forth its young alive I have never observed the egg and micro
scopic examinations show fully developed young within the body
of the females They hibernate as mature and partially mature
insects
In my opinion this scale ranks next to the San Jose in economic
importance The peach seems to be its favorite food plant in this
State but I have also found it attacking the plum apple and pear
It seems to be very well distributed over southern and central
Georgia and is doing immense damage to a number of orchards528
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
In some orchards that I have visited hundreds of trees are killed
by this scale We have one case on record of a peach orchard of
several thousand trees in Taylor county where probably half of
the trees are dead or dying from this pest Similar cases exist in
Muscogee Macon and Dougherty counties Space will not permit
details and I will simply mention those counties in which this
scale is working injury to the orchards They are as follows
Mitchell Dougherty Worth Randolph Terrell Sumter Wilcox
Muscogee Taylor Schley Macon Houston Crawford Spalding
Coweta Richmond and Columbia It has also been found in other
counties but not to any great extent
The same general directions for treatment of the San Jose scale
apply also to the cherry scale and I will not go into details The
cherry scale yields more readily to treatment and does not multiply
and spread so rapidly and for these reasons is more easily con
trolled
Two applications of the twentyfive per cent mixture of kero
sene and water as a winter treatment or three applications of the
fifteen per cent mixture as a summer treatment ought to about
clear an orchard of this pest In case of the summer treatment
each brood should be watched for and the application made while
the young are issuing
The New Peach ScaleThe original home of this insect is
probably either the West Indies or Japan In the United States
it is recorded as existing at Washington I C at Los Angeles
Cal in one locality in Ohio at Molino Fla and at Bainbridge
Ga It is now also known to exist at Thomasville Ga and at
Ashburn Ga
It attacks the peach plum cherry pear grape persimmon and
a few other plants
Upon investigation of the case at Bainbridge premises of Mrs
E Johnson March 12th 1898 I found that despite the vigorous
treatment instituted against the pest it had destroyed most of the
trees on the place Beaches plums and a sprout of Ailanthus
fjrandulosvs were badly infested
The case at Thomasville is on the premises of Mr T E Black
shear Several plums in a small orchard are infestedANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
529
There are three different premises infested at Ashburn One
premises of Mr J S Betts involves two small peach orchards of
about five hundred trees each and a garden lot of a few old peach
and plum trees and a hedge of young seedling plums along the
fence A lilac bush in the yard is also badly infested and is dead
Mr Betts has dug up several hundred trees and the rest are about
dead Source of infestation is not known Two other infested
premises are two lots of something over a hundred peach trees each
belonging to J B Boazman and W K Jenkins Only a few trees
in each lot are infested and the scales have probably spread from
Mr Bettss place j
The female scale is quite convex nearly circular and of a light
gray color with exuvial point at one side The male scales are
small elongated with sides parallel and are white in color A
tree badly infested takes on a whitewashed appearance
According to the observations of the Department of Agriculture
at Washington these insects pass the winter as mature females and
deposit eggs about the first of May which hatch about the middle
of that month In Georgia its life history is somewhat different
owing to the southern climate the first brood appearing about
two months earlier On March 12th 1898 I observed the young
to be issuing in small numbers at Bainbridge and on March 26th
the infested trees at Ashburn were fairly alive with crawling young
There are two or three more broods but I have not had an oppor
tunity to observe the dates of their appearance
It is evident that this is a very dangerous pest and my advice
would be to promptly destroy all infested trees as soon as discovered
If treatment is to be attempted watch for the different broods and
apply fifteen per cent kerosene in mechanical mixture with water
at the appearance of each brood Kerosene emulsion or whaleoil
soap one pound in four gallons of water may also be used with
good results Since the insect hibernates and does not pass the
winter in the egg state two or three winter applications of the
twentyfive per cent kerosene and water mixture might do the
work530 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA
III MISCELLANEOUS INSECTS
The English Walnut ScaleThis insect is prevalent only in
the extreme southern comities of the State Tt is not only found in
festing peaches and plum orchards hut the wild plums in the woods
and waste places are more or less badly infested In some cases
it lias worked considerable injury to orchards killing a number of
trees but the twicestabbed ladybird is quite successfully keeping
it in check
One application of whaleoil soap one and a half pounds in one
gallon of water applied to the infested trees in the spring just be
fore the buds begin to open is found sufficient to kill all but a
very small per cent of these scales
The Harlequin CabbagebugThis enemy to plants of the mus
tard family is quite well known to most gardeners of the State and
has been a serious pest this season Specimens have been received
at this office from different parts of north and central Georgia
which indicates that it is well distributed over these sections A
correspondent in north Georgia states that for the last two years
it has been almost impossible for him to grow cabbage and collards
on account of this post
The species is a very difficult one to combat while at work on
the plants Insecticides of sufficient strength to kill the bugs will
seriously injure the plants Hence we must look to the destruc
tion of the overwintering individuals to prevent the deposition of
eggs for the first brood in the spring This can be quite effectually
accomplished by pursuing the following directions In the fall
after the cabbage etc are gathered destroy the bugs by scatter
ing straw or other dry material over the whole patch and burning
it or by thoroughly spraying with pure kerosene This also may
be accomplished by plowing deeply with a turning plow taking
care to turn under all vegetation upon which the insect might be at
work Then in the spring keep a watch over the first mustards
that come up to detect any of the bugs that may have escaped the
fall treatment Tt might be well to plant a trap crop of mustard
for this purpose If they are seen to appear spray the mustard
with undiluted kerosene If this course is pursued the succeeding
crops will be troubled very little by the Harlequin cabbagebugANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898
531
The Red SpiderThe socalled red spider Tetranychus tel
arius is a very minute almost microscopic mite common in green
houses and often very abundant on outofdoor plants in summer
Since it thrives best in warm dry weather this season until re
cently has been especially favorable to its multiplication Shade
trees particularly oaks elms and locusts rose bushes and various
ornamental shrubs have suffered seriously from this mite Cotton
in some parts of the State has also been attacked and injured The
heavy downfall of rain for the past three weeks has greatly di
minished it and in some cases it has apparently disappeared
About the only effectual remedy we have tried is to turn a hose
of water on the plants and thoroughly drench them every day for
several days Kerosene emulsion has been recommended but does
not seem to be effective perhaps on account of the protection
afforded the mites by the web they spinINDEX
ACID PHOSPHATE
Experiments with 173176178
Identieal with superphosphate of lime 84
ANSWERS
To questions 921 2630 3339 4548 5356 6265 7175 8284 84a84l
APRICOTS
Varieties and diseases 433
APPLES
Varieties approved in different sections of Georgia 378379
Diseases and treatment 379384
Injurious insects and remedies385423
ASH ELEMENT
Fertilizer term in use 84
B
BALE
Standard cotton bale 7880
BEETLE
Remedies for Colorado potato beetle 5355
BEETS
Cultivation of sugar beets192730
Growing of sugar beets in Georgia and manufacture on a sm all scale 84c
BEANS
Remedy for rust in 74
BUGS
Remedies for the harlequin cabbage bug 4748 530
Remedies for Colorado potato bug 5355
CANNING FACTORIES
Value of to utilize crops 84i
CHEMICAL
Weed destroyer 75
CHICKENS
Cause of diseases in1315
COMPOSTING
Remarks on 6264
CORN
Shredded stalks for cattle 2223 33 36
Fertilizer for corn3637
Proper distance for planting corn 38
History cultivation and fertilization of corn 164168
Fertilizing culture and variety experiments on corn 169208
COTTON
History of8587
Culture of8896
Subsoiling 90
Rotation 91
Planting9194534
INDEX
Period of growth 9495
Shedding of forms blooms and bolls 9596
Picking9799
Experiments in cotton culture 99109
Manuring of cotton110145
Scientific experiments manuring cotton 124125
Yield and profit cotton fertilized and unfertilized124125
Comparative value of commercial fertilizers and homemade
manures126128
Kind of chemical manure best suited to cotton128134
Amount of fertilizer per acre giving best results135137
Best time of application of fertilizers to cotton13713S
Methods of manuring cotton at present in the United States m 143144
Manuring cotton in other countries144145
Diseases of cotton 146163
General nature of cotton diseases 146
Mosaic disease or yellow leafblight 146150
Red leafblight 150
Shedding of bolls151 152
Sore shindamping offseedling rot152 154
Eoot rot of cotton154161
Cotton boll rot161163
Oznium 154 161
Insect enemies of cotton 163
Reducing the cotton area 57
How much cotton to plant 8
The cotton acreage 2324
Yield and prices of cotton during the past few years 26
Diversification and smaller area in cotton3132
Fertilizing cotton 3738
Reduction of cotton acreage 42
Loss from making too much cotton 4344
Future prospects of cotton4445
Effect of the war on cotton4445
What farmers should do to raise cotton at a profit6465
CROPS
For fall 77
Condition of6061 6971 80S2
Forage corn as a fodder or silage crop5758
What our crops need 32
COW PEAS
Different varieties of for different purposes1718
D
DAMPING OFF
In cotton152154
DEHORNING
Not injurious1920
DISEASES
Of apples and treatment3793S4
In chickens cause of 1315
Mosaic disease of cotton147150
Yellow leaf blight of cotton 147150
Red leafblight of cotton147150
Shedding of cotton bolls 151
Seedling rot in cotton 152154
Root rot of cotton154161
Rot of cotton boll 161
General diseases of cotton146 163
INDEX
5E5
EGGS
Hens laying soft or thinshelled eggs
ENTOMOLOGY
Report of State Entomologist 500
San Jose scale and treatment 500
Important points to be observed
Fumigation of nursery stock
Hydrocyanic acid gas 513
Kerosene and water in mechanical mixture 519
Whaleoil soap 524
Cherry scale 526
New peach scale528
3839
529
524
524
518
518
523
526
528
529
FERTILIZERS
Remarks on the use of fertilizers
For potatoes
For corn
Composting
7
20
3637
6264
Fertilizer terms in general use 84
Floats a fertilizer term 84
Formula Dicksons Compound 120
Formula Furmans 121
Comparative value of commercial fertilizers and homemade ma
nures on cotton 126128
Yield and profit fertilized and unfertilized cotton 125126
Kind of chemical manures best suited to cotton124134
Amount of fertilizer per acre on cotton giving besi results135137
Best mode of application of fertilizers to cotton137
Best time of applying fertilizers to cotton137138
Miscellaneous experiments in fertilizing cotton 138139
General conclusions as to fertilizing cotton139143
Fertilizing experiments on corn164208
Fertilizing sweet potatoes 259279
Fertilizing mixture for peanuts 240241
Fertilizer for Irish potatoes 350
FRUIT CULTURE
Apples approved for different sections of Georgia377379
Diseases of apple trees and remedies379384
Blight 379
Bitter rot ripe rot379380
Black rot 380
Brown rot380381
Powdery mildew 381
Rust 381382
Scab382384
Injurious Insects and Remedies
Appleroot plantlouse385386
Roundheaded appletree borer386388
Flatheaded appletree borer388389
Longhorned borer 390
Stagbeetle 390
Applebark beetle 390
The eyedelater 391
Woolly louse of the apple391392
Apple liopus 392
Appletwig borer 392
Appletree pruner 392
Parallel elaphidion 392536
INDEX
Imbricated snout beetle 390
Seventeenyear locusts 392394
Oystershell barklouse 394395
Scurfy barklouse 395
Buffalo treehopper 395396
1 hornbush treehopper ogg
Apple tree tent caterpillar 396398
Forest tent caterpillar 399400
Whitemarked tussock moth 400401
Yellownecked appletree caterpillar 401
Redhumped appletree caterpillar 491
Cankerworms 401403
Fall webworm 4Q3 jq
Cecropia emperor moth 404405
Unicorn prominent 405
Turnus swallowtail qq
Blindeyed sphinx 4Qg
Apple sphinx qq
American lappetmoth 4gg
Yellow lappetmoth 4Qg
Velleda lappetmoth 4gg
Obliquebanded leafroller 406407
Lesser appletree folder 407
Leaf crumpler 407408
Eyespotted bud moth 408409
Applebud worm 409410
Greenapple leaftyer 4jq
Appleleaf sewer 4
Appleleaf skeletonizer 410411
Manydotted apple worm 4jj
Palmer worm 411412
Climbing cutworms 412413
Limetree winter moth 413414
White eugonia 414
Has moth caterpillar 414
Saddleback caterpillar 414
Appletree casebearer 414415
Resplendent shieldbearers 415416
Appletree bucculatrix 4ig
Apple lyonetiaV 416
Rosy hispa 416417
Cloaked chrysomela 417
Appletree aphis 417418
Codlingmoth 4ig 421
Apple curculio 49
Apple maggot 4i4oo
Apple midge 422
Apple fly 402
Apple thrips 402
Ashgray pinion443
Grapes varieties approved in the different sections of Georgia 457
Fungous Diseases and Treatment
Vnthracnose scab birdseye rot 457459
nlackrotv 459461
U wny mildew brown rot gray rot 431410
Powdery mildew 462463
Kattles shelling 4g3
Ripe rot bitter rot 463464
Injurious Insects
Broulnecked prionus 4g4INDEX
537
Tilehorned prionus 454
Grapevine rootborer
irape phylloxera465
Grapevine barklouse
Fourspotted spittleinsect
Signorets spittleinsect
Twospotted treehopper 469
Eedshouldered sinoxylon
Grapevine wound gall
Green grapevine sphinx 470
Pandoras sphinx
Achemon sphinx 472
Abbott sphinx
Whitelined deilephila473
Darkveined deilephila
Beautiful wood nymph 474
Pearl wood nymph
Eightspotted forester
Grapevine epimenis 475
American procris
Grapevine leafroller476
Ganered plum moth 477
Grapevine cidaria
Yellow woolly bear478
Pyramidal grapevine caterpillar
Silky pyrophila
Spotted pelidnota
Grapevine flea beetle480
Bose beetle481
Grapevine fidia
Eedheaded systena
Lightloving anomala 483
Grapevine sawfly 484
Grapevine leafhopper 485
Treehoppers 486
Tree bugs
Grapevine aphis
Brownwinged katydid 487
Trumpet grape gall
Grapevine filbert gall 48S
Grapevine tomato gall
Grapevine appletree gall
Grapeseed insect489
Grapeberry moth490
Grape curculio
Pches Varieties approved in different sections of the State423
Diseases and Eemedies
Black spot 424
Brown rot
Curl leaf curl frenching 425
Leaf rust
Mildew 426
Kosette
Yellows
Injurious Insects
Peachtree borer 427
Elmbark beetle
Peachtree barklouse
New York weevil
Peachtree leafroller
465
465
469
469
469
469
470
470
470
472
472
473
473
474
474
475
475
475
476
476
477
478
478
479
479
4S0
480
481
483
483
483
484
485
486
487
487
487
488
488
489
489
489
490
491
491
424
425
425
426
426
427
427
427
429
429
430
430
431538
INDEX
Bluespangled peachtree caterpillar 43
Peachtree aphis431432
PomegranatesRemarks on 433
PearsVarieties approved for the different sections of the State 433434
Diseases of the Pear and Treatment
Leaf blightFruit spot434435
Inj urious Insects
Feartree borer 435
Pigeon tremex 435
Twiggirdler 436
Pear blight beetle436437
Peartree barklouse 437438
Peartree psylla 438
Tarnished plant bug 438439
Oak platycerus 439
Peachtree blister beetle 4S9440
Peartree leafminer 440
Peartree slug440441
Green peartree slug 442
Goldsmith beetle442443
Iridescent serica 443
Peartree aphis443
Grasshoppers or locusts443
Indian cetonia 444
Melancholy cetonia 444
PlumsVarieties approved for the different sections of the State 444445
Diseases of the Plum and Treatment
LeafbligbtShothole fungus 445
Leafrust445446
Plum KnotBlack KnotPlum Wart446447
Plum pocketsPlum bladders 447
Injurious Insects and Remedies
Plumtree sphinx448
Gray dagger moth448449
Mottled plumtree moth 440
Horned span worm 449
Disippus butterfly 449
Polyphemus moth449450
Waved lagoa 450
Streaked thecla 450
Plumtree catocala 450
Leatcutting bee 450451
Plumtree aphis 451
Plum curculio 452 455
Plum gouger 455456
Saddled leafhopper 456
NectarinesRemarks on 432
ApricotsRemarks on 433
G
GRAIN
Louse remedy for 48
Moth and weevils8283
Smuts their causes and prevention216230
GRAPES
Varieties approved in different sections of the State 457
Fungous diseases and treatment 457464
Injurious insects and treatment464491INDEX
5S3
H
HARLEQUIN CABBAGE BUG
Remedies for 4748 o30
HENS QO
Laving soft or thinshelled eggs dSrfy
HYDROCYANIC ACID GAS
Remedy for the San Jose Scale 518518
I
INJURIOUS INSECTS
Of the appleJSHsS
Of the peach 427432
Of the pear12
Of the plum4484o6
Of the grape464491
INSECT ENEMIES
Of cotton 163
L
LANDS
What they need
Utilizing wet land 5o56
LICE
On poultry
LIME
Time and quantity to apply to land 2i
M
MANURES
Value of homemade manures 8y
Value of leaves as manure 910
Leaving manure in the stable 1011
Composting 56
Effect of mineral manures
MILLET
Time of seeding
27
150
MITES
On poultry
MOSAIC DISEASE
Of cotton 14
MOTHS
Remedy for grain mothsjms
N
NESBITT R T
False statement concerning him nailed 52
Reviews his stewardship 84a84c
History production and diseases of t
Looe smuts of oats 2for
Potassium sulphide treatment for oat smut224226
Hot water treatment for stinking smut of oats 224226
Sowing spring oats late 37
Spring oats suffer from drouth 6
OZONIUM
Of cotton154161540
INDEX
PARIS GREEN
Cheap substitute for 5960
PEACHES
Treatment of peach orchards where last years crop failed 1516
Are peaches reproduced from seed 1617
Size of peach crop of 189884h84i
Varieties approved for different sections of the State4344
Diseases and treatment 42447
Injurious insects and remedies 47 43
PEARS
Varieties approved for different sections of the State 433434
Diseases and treatment 414435
Injuri us insects and remedies 435414
PEANUTS
History culture and use 93 233
Food constituents in different parts of the peanut plant 234
Fertilizing constituents in different parts of the peanut plant 34235
aneties of peanuts 235236
Climate suitable for peanut culture 237
Soil suitable for peanut culture 937038
Manuring peanuts 23839
Food constituents required by a croo of 60 bushels of peanuts 239240
Fertilizer mixture for peanuts 4024
Culture of peanuts 941945
Harvesting peanuts 24649
Uses of peanuts 24951
Feeding value of pea nut hav 950
PLANS
For the year
PLOWING
Importance of good plowing
Advantages of deep over shallow plowing 4i S41
PLUMS
Varieties approved for different sections of the State 443444
Diseases and treatment 444447
Injurious insects and remedies 448456
POTATOESSWEET
Culturedraws258259
Soil and location 9cj
Fertilizers 259260
Preparation planting oqoq3
Cultivation 263264
Rigging264266
Preservation oiy270
Fertilizer tests 27079
Ridge vs level culture 9gQ9gi
Pinching back test 8184
Disturbance test
284285
Distance test 285286
Doubling slips 87
Variety tests 288297
POTATOESIRISH
346347
ulture34034
1 reparation38350
ertilizer 350351
Seed pieces and distance 351353
Cutting seed pieces 354355INDEX
541
Depth to plant time to plant 356
Cultivation356357
Harvesting 357359
Summer crop360362
Affections and remedies 363369
Insect pests369372
Preservation372373
Summary373376
a
QUESTIONS
Asked of the Commissioner and answered by him 921 2630
3339 4548 5356 6265 7175 8284 84aS41
E
ROOT ROT
0i cotton154161
ROT
Of cotton boll 161
Seedling rot in cotton 152154
RED SPIDER
Remedy for 531
S
SCALE
Cherry scaleremedy for 526528
New peach scale remedy for528529
San Jose scale remedy for500512
English walnut scale to distinguish from San Jose 54530
SHALLOW PLOWING
Advantages of deep plowing over shallow 84i841
SILAGE
Advantage of and best way of putting it up and best crops to plant
for it 1113
SMUTS
Cause of grain smuts and prevention 216230
Stinking smuts of wheat 217218
Loose smut of wheat218220
Loose smut of oats220223
Bmuts of barley rye and corn 223
Practical direction for treating seed for smut 223224
Hot water treatment for stinking smut of wheat and oat smut 22ii26
Hot water treatment for loose smut of wheat and for barley smut 226
Copper sulphate treatment for stinking smut of wheat 226
Drying the treated seed 227
Extra increase in yield as a result of seed treatment 227228
Duty of seedsmen 229
Summary229230
SOAP
Whaleoil soap for treatment of fruit trees 524526
SOUTH CAROLINA ROCK
Fertilizer term in use 84
SORGHUM
For syrup and for forage5859
As a forage plant 7273
SPRAYING
Instructions for spraying 492498
Solutions recommended492495
Treatment of appletrees495496542
INDEX
Treatment of pear and plumtrees 49
Treatment of peachtrees 496197
Treatment of cherry grapes raspberry and currants 497
Treatment of gooseberries 497498
Treatment of tomato potato cabbage and strawberry498
SUBSOILING
Meaning of subsoiling 7374
SUGAR
Boiling graining purging whitening sugar 320324
Yield and return from sugar and syrup324325
Remarks on beet sugar 19
SUGAR BEETS
Cultivation of 2730
Growing of in Georgia and manufacture in a small way 84c
SUGARCANE
Soil conditions preparations fertilization planting harvesting pre
servation of seed cane 298303
Effect of time of harvesting up n yield of sugar303305
SYRUP
Requirements of good syrup305306
Obstacles 306
Variations in density of syrup306308
Making a simple tester309310
Effects of variety 310311
Effects of soil upon quality 311312
Making the syrup 312313
Filtering the juice313314
Clarifying the juice314316
Precipitation by fullers earth 316
Finishing and testing the syrup 316317
Preserving the syrup 317318
Marketing the syrup318320
T
TIMBER
Best season to cut 84gS4h
TOMATOES
To develop early and give them uniform color 55
Instructions for spraying 498
TOPICS
For soil tillers 59
VETCHES
When to sow

W
WATERMELONS
Culture4547326327
Soil and location 32
Preparation distance laying off 328329
Fertilization 329331
Planting331332
Forcing for earliness and size332333
Cultivation 333334
How to tell a ripe melon335336
Gathering and marketing 336337
Christmas watermelons 337
Saving seed337338INDEX
543
Other uses of the melon338339
Affections and remedies
The melon worm 339
The melon louse339342
Striped cucumber beetle 342
Flea beetle 342
Schedule of precautionary operations342343
Varieties 343
Kerosene emusion 341
Summary 344345
WEEDS
Chemjcal destroyer of 75
WEEVILS
Remedies for granary weevils 89S3
WHEAT
History cultivation diseases etc209212
Stinking smuts of217218
Loose smuts of218220
Hot water treatment for stinking smuts 224226
WHITE ARSENIC
Cheap substitute for Paris green 5960
WORK
For February og
For July 6869
Brain work essential on the farm 78

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