THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA a r lPUBLICATIONS OF THE GEORGIA STATE Department of Agriculture For the Year 1898 TOGETHER WITH PORTIONS OF OTHER AGRICULTURAL BULLETINS OF INTEREST TO FARMERS Volume XXIV R T NESBITT COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE ATLANTA GA STATC UBARy Geo W Harrison Statb Printer i The Franklin Printing and Publishing Co 1898 THE GENERAL LIBRARY THE UNIVERSITY Of C THE GENERAL LIBRARY THE UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA ATHENS GEORGIALIBRARY MAR 6 1945PREFACE In accordance with the custom of the Department of Agricult ure we have compiled some of the publications of the Department in this the twentyfourth annual volume of the Department To make the work more valuable to the farmer as a book of reference we have added such selections from other sources as we think will be of real interest and importance to those whom it is intended to benefit Fruits in Georgia have been treated in a succinct form so as to render it valuable to the fruitgrower Our aim is to make it eminently practical and useful The copious index has been ar ranged with a view of assisting the reader and with the contents of the book will we have no doubt insure the preservation and ap preciation of the volume THE GENERAL LIBRARY THE UNIVERSITY OF swiiE libra THE GENERAL LIBRARY THE UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA ATHENS GEORGIAfBE o8t Y 1 Ls Y JANUARY TOPICS FOE SOIL TILLERS AGRICULTURAL SECRETARY NESBITT GIVES SOME ADVICE PLAN TO SOLVE COTTON PROBLEMCOMMISSIONER TELLS FARMERS NOT TO LAY SCHEMES FOR THE COMING YEAR ON THE SUPPOSITION OF HIGH PRICES AND A SHORT CROPSAYS MATTER SHOULD BE LOOKED AT FROM A PURELY BUSINESS STANDPOINT Successful farming comprehends more than the mere planting cultivating and gathering the crops Nor is it the ability to pro duce a large yield from a small area This is often done at a heavy loss The successful farmer looks into all the details of his work He studies the requirements of his different crops that is the food elements required and the proper proportions of each He also studies his different soils and carefully notes their elements of fertility He ascertains the relations of the proposed crops to the stored fertility of the soil In selecting his fertilizers he keeps in mind these three points The needs of the crop the ability of his land to meet these needs and the elements required in the fertilizer to supply deficiencies of needed plant food in the different fields which he expects to cultivate These are questions of as much per haps of greater importance than the amount of the crops produced or their value in the market and unlike the rest they can only be decided by experiment and experience That certain fertilizers should be used for certain crops no one at the present day doubts but we will gain an accurate knowledge on these points not by an analysis of the soil nor by an analysis of the crop but by observa tion and experiment REDUCING THE COTTON AREA Times have materially changed in the last twentyfive or thirty years for the farmer as well as for the professional man and for 6 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA other men of all trades The farmers constitute perhaps the only class which has not changed with changed conditions Here and there we find among them a man who has risen to the demands of the times but as a rule the great body of farmers are pursuing the same beaten track which their fathers have always followed re gardless of the fact that from our exhaustive system of agriculture the very structure of our soils even has undergone a radical change and that these soils now require different treatment from that which they have received in the past These are times of such fluctuating prices and close margins that it pays the farmer to do his own planning in these matters and to use his brains and judgment as to what where and how much he shall plant of dif ferent crops in order to get the best returns for his investment of time labor implements stock and land The experience of the past few years will do much to throw light on these questions It lias been proven by repeated efforts that farmers are not easily or ganized they do not folly appreciate the impartance of united effort for selfprotection Another difficulty in the way of con trolling the area in cotton is the fact that for generations we have been studying the habits and peculiarities of this our money crop and it is the one crop which we know how to grow It has always been our money crop and we hesitate to engage in experimental work on other lines It seems to us however that the solution of this much discussed problem is a very simple one and the plan if universally followed will once and for all set at rest the question of how much cotton the South can afford to raise The answer is as much as she can produce after she has provided for full barns and smokehouses for plenty of home supplies from field orchard garden poultry yard and dairyand has thus learned the oft repeated lesson of living at home and working on a cash basis to pay as you go and go as you pay We must adapt ourselves to the changed conditions which we meet on every hand and this cannot be done by any very sudden or very radical reforms Over a very large area cotton must re main the chief money crop To abandon its culture and trust toANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 7 some other perhaps unfamiliar crop would be the height of folly but we must not load our agricultural ship to the gunwales with cotton bales and then expect to escape disaster when unfavorable conditions arise THE USE OF FERTILIZERS We have always maintained that the wonderful power of com mercial fertilizers is but faintly comprehended by those whose mis fortune it has been to misapply them A thoughtful man cannot expect to improve his land with commercial fertilizers alone The common practice of drilling in 100 or 200 pounds to the acre on land destitute of humus is a grave mistake and has proven a curse rather than a blessing But when we fill the land with humus by turning under vegetable matter by careful rotation of crops by making and taking proper care of all the home manures possible and by the use of leguminous crops we will find that the profitable use of commercial fertilizers will be limited only by the amount of money we are able to invest in them The intelligent use of fertilizers enables one to plow deep to plant renovating crops to raise and improve stock and keep more of it to make 100 per cent more of home manures and to double the producing capacity of hibor now our most expensive item Injudicious and careless methods are worse than useless Unless intelligent forethought marks our plans the fertilizer fails to feed either the crop or the land Nothing is more dangerous to the crops or more depleting to the farmers pocket than heavy amounts of commercial fertilizer indiscriminately applied to worn and exhausted soils PLANS FOR THE YEAR The farmer should lay his plans for the year with careful fore thought not overrating advantages nor underestimating difficul ties Having thus mapped out his work he is better prepared to take advantage of every favorable opportunity to push it forward to completion Look at the question of8 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA HOW MUCH COTTON TO PLANT from a purely business standpoint Dont make your plans on the supposition of a short crop and high pricesboth of which are subject to a score of deciding influences of which we have no knowledge and which are also practically beyond our control Consider what have been your profits or losses in the past and the causes leading up to such results Calculate as to what with favorable seasons will be a fair yield set aside an ample area for all provision crops and then put in just so much cotton as your experience shows that you can manage successfully Dont bur den yourself with a cotton crop so heavy that it is a continual menace not only to your peace of mind but to the successful car rying through of other farm operations The importance of GOOD PLOWING cannot be overestimated The quality of the land situation en vironment all should exercise a deciding influence as to the time to plow the depth to be broken and the kind of plow to use On ordinary land the plowing may go on as long as the weather per mits and if a subsoiler follow each turn plow we are taking long odds against injury from drouth next summer By a subsoiler is meant not the double turn plow which will throw a quantity of clay to the surface but the long sharp strictly subsoil plow which breaks the subsoil in the bottom of the furrow and leaves it there In turning stubble sod or stiff land turn each furrow only partly over By this plan the frosts act more directly upon the vegeta ble matter and other elements and when the subsequent prepara tions for planting are completed this vegetable mold is thoroughly mixed with the soil instead of remaining in a layer at the bottom of the furrow GATHER AND SAVE HOME MANURES When the weather does not permit the plows to run the teams cannot be better employed than in gathering up all fertilizing maANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 189S 9 tcrials which have accumulated around yards and barn If not convenient to compost it is better to haul and spread directly on the land rather than allow their valuable elements to be wasted by alternate freezing and thawing or by the washing of winter rains Tor many reasons the homemixing of fertilizers is to be greatly preferred The expense is reduced we know exactly what ele ments of plant food we are using we can regulate the propor tionate amounts of each to suit the needs of special crops or indif ferent soils and during the process we are led to shidy more care fully the delicate adjustment of such agricultural truths as are thus brought under our observation E T NESBITT Commissioner EEPLIES TO INQUIRIES INFORMATION FURNISHED BY THE AGRICULTURAL DEPART MENTMANY QUESTIONS ARE ANSWEREDBEST VARIETIES OF COW PEAS FOR HAYBEET SUGAR CULTIVATIONTHE PROPAGATION OF PEACHTREE3 CAUSE OF DISEASE IN CHICKENSFERTILIZERS FOR POTATOES AND CABBAGES ETC VALUE OF LEAVES AS MANURE QUESTION In putting leaves in a stable for bedding do they add anything to the manurial value of the mass or are they simply used as an absorbent for the liquid and solid animal manures ANSWER cs Leaves alone possess considerable manurial value as is shown in the improvement of the crops on land which has had a heavy coating of leaves plowed under and as a bedding for stable pur poses they are not excelled They not only add their own ele ments of fertility to the manure but hold its valuable constituents preventing their escape and enabling the farmer to save them to apply to his crops Nothing pays better than to use the teams on wet days when other farm work is interrupted to haul up a plenti10 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA ful supply of leaves On farms where this is the rule throughout the year we hear little complaint of poor crops and high priced fertilizers Successful farming depends more on good manage ment and care in such small items as this than on planting large areas A small farm made rich with all the home manures which can be saved supplemented with commercial fertilizers and legu minous crops will not only be more satisfactory but will bring in more actual cash than a large one cultivated on the plan of taking off more from the land than we return to it After a while the an nual decrease in fertility will become painfully apparent and then the farmer has either to slowly and painfully retrace his steps and return to his land the elements of which he has robbed it or the money lender comes in to gradually absorb land house home everything LEAVING MANURE IN THE STABLE QUESTION I am situated so that it will be very inconvenient for me to either haul out the manure from my stables or compost it Will it injure my stock to allow it to remain in the stables for a month or two provided I am very careful to keep plenty of dry bedding If this plan is practicable I will avoid one handling and of course that much trouble and expense ANSWER While our experience has been that it is much better to haul the manure directly to the field or to compost it not allowing it to ac cumulate in the stables the plan you suggest lias some advantage and if you arc careful to keep a bountiful supply of good bedding your animals will not be materially injured By your plan as you suggest you will save one handling You will also save all the liquid manure You will make much more manure because you will be compelled to use a much larger amount of bedding You will also preserve the manure in good condition and when you are ready to haul it out which ought to be done long enough before planting time to get the manure fhorANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 11 oughly incorporated into the soil you will find that its chemical properties have heen well conserved and that its mechanical con dition is such that the spring rains will soon wash its strength into the soil A good plan before beginning to haid is to take a sharp spade or other suitable implement and cut the manure into blocks of convenient size to handle This will be found to greatly expe dite the moving and hauling of the heavy mass QUESTION Please give me some idea of the advantages of silage over other food for stock Is it suited to horses and mules I have never had any experience in making or using it but if what I hear of it is true I would like to try some another year Please give me some directions as to the best way of putting it up and the best crops to plant for it Do you think it pays for the trouble and expense ANSWER Silage is eaten by all farm animals but is peculiarly fitted for milk cows It pays because it enables us to put up a green sum mer crop and keep it in condition for feeding all winter and it pro duces nearly equal results as if fed green Animals fed on silage not only relish it but it will produce as much milk and butter or even more than the same kind of fodder in the dry stage because the stock will have better appetites than if fed entirely on the dry food and are consequently more thrifty One acre in corn will produce as much nutritious food as several acres in hay Thus it is cheaper than hay and has besides the following advantage It is a practically certain crop while hay is uncertain As the propec time to harvest any green crop for ensilage is at maturity before the leaves turn brown just when the water contents of the plant begin to diminish it follows that there is very little loss of quan tity in preserving it as silage while the best part of our dried fod der is often destroyed by unfavorable weather before we can get it under shelter Any of the following crops may be used Corn red clover rye oats wheat sorghum the millets soja beans and12 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA cow peas indeed almost any green crop may be utilized but all things considered corn pays the best It should be planted very thick and cut when the ears are well formed The whole plant is then cut up into short lengths and packed in the silo tramping down evenly and firmly Unless this precaution is observed that is should the leaves and bits of stalk be unevenly distributed the silage will become moldy and unfit for use If there should be lack of moisture when packing the whole mass will become dry and moldy This should be remedied by pouring water over the mass during the process of packing Of course the silo must be abso lutely water and air tight and the contents after being cured bear somewhat the same relation to our dry hays and fodders as canned fruit does to dried fruit The daily ration is about one cubic foot of silage An experi enced dairyman says he gives his cows all they will eat from 30 to 50 pounds to each cow and has never experienced any bad re sults from it A small deep silo is to be preferred Small be cause a greater depth of silage can be removed each day which is an advantage in both warm and cold weather In warm weather there is less loss from spoiling and in cold weather less injury from freezing The silo should be deep because the greater depth gives more weight and it is less liable to mold At least 3 inches should be removed for the daily feeding in order to keep the mass in good condition On the whole we think the following direc tions cover the ground for building a well constructed silo and they are the only kind that pay A carelessly built silo is an ex travagance a wellmade one is an economy 1 The inside walls should be smooth and as nearly vertical as possible there should be no uneven edges to prevent the uniform settling of the contents We have already mentioned that the silo should be narrow and deep rather than wide and shallow 2 As the moisture from the silage is acid and tends to decay the wood the inside of the silo should be well protected by a coat of coal tar applied hot The inside of the silo should be two lay ers of boards the first horizontal and placed against the studs Over this place a layer of the tarred paper which can be boughANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893 13 ready prepared and last a layer of smooth dressed boards placed vertically on close edges 3 The floor may be of stiff clay tramped hard and to make it smooth close and rat proof a layer of cement is highly recom mended For ventilation there should be anger holes bored be tween the studs and openings should be left at the top of the wall These should be covered with screen wire to keep out rats and mice 4 The studs should be very strong to resist the great pressure to which they are subjected the foundation should extend below the first line and should be 18 inches thick the sills should be weli tarred and should rest on a good foundation bedded in cement or mortar The roof should be close and should have a dormer win dow through which to fill the silo 5 The silo should be so constructed and situated as that no water will fall or drain into it at any time These are the main points but we would advise that if you are not acquainted with the principles or practical workings of a silo you examine one which is properly constructed before attempting to build for your own use CAUSE OF DISEASE IN CHICKENS QUESTION For several years I have raised comparatively few chickens though I once prided myself on my success in this line I am careful as to food and water and my coops are kept clean but from the several hundred chickens annually hatched out very few come to maturity most of them dying in the first few weeks My neighbors are disposed to think that some disease germ has gained a foothold here and that it is useless for me to attempt td raise poultry Do you think such can be the case and if so is there any remedy which I can use to eradicate it ANSWER Without a full knowledge of your surroundings and methods it is difficult to answer your question except on general principles It is true that disease germs may lurk in poultry houses from year14 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA to year and that thousands of chickens are carried off annually by these unsuspected agents In such cases the best plan is to tear down the fowl house and build in an entirely different location as far removed from the first as possible then give the house a thor ough whitewashing with lime inside and out in which a consider able quantity of crude carbolic acid has been mixedsay a teacup of the acid to each gallon of Kmewash Put in new roosts and nests and arrange them so that they can be taken out and cleaned every few weeks In cleaning them a good plan is to carry them a safe distance from the house brush them over with kerosene and then apply a lighted match The fire will ran over without injur ing them and will destroy any lice or mites which may be in hiding From an experience of several years we have come to the conclusion that these destructive pests caYry off a greater number of chickens than actual disease By having movable nests and roosts which can be taken out in a few moments it is much easier to give the house a thorough cleaning and one cannot be too careful to go into every crack and corner A few of these vermin safely lodged in an unnoticed crack will lay the foundation for millions of others in a very short time We have found kerosene a splen did agent for checking them and a common watering pot for sprinkling into the otherwise inaccessible crevices answers every purpose The droppings should not be allowed to accumulate and become a harbor for these myriads of insects which being almost invisible to the naked eye will accumulate alarmingly before their presence is even suspected The droppings should be removed each day and the houses kept scrupulously clean not only to pre vent vermin but as a sanitary measure Where the droppings are allowed to accumulate from week to week they give off unwhole some gases and odors which being inhaled cause many of the diseases from which our chickens suffer If a layer of plaster or dry earth is spread on the floor of the coop all the fertilizing prop erties of the manure are absorbed and fixed and if care is taken to remove and store it under shelter we have a fertilizer approaching in composition to guano though not so rich Such manure com posted with eight or ten times its bulk of rich earth will make a fertilizer of great value for either field or garden cropsANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 189S 15 Another prolific cause of the fatality among young chickens is the widespread custom of feeding them on raw cornmeal dough It should always be cooked Where milk is plentiful we have found it a good plan to scald the milk and stir into it sufficient meal to make a soft dough letting it stand on the fire long enough for the meal to become cooked but not scorched If wheat bran is convenient it adds very much to the nutriment of the mixture and this makes a splendid warm feed for the cool spring mornings when the little chicks often become chilled Besides this they should be given any table scraps meat fruit or vegetable trim mings and if sweet milk and clabber can be spared for them they are of incalculable worth in giving them a vigorous and early growth A flock of well kept poultry can be made the source of a steady income and should only enough be raised for home use the investment pays better than anything else which requires the same outlay of time and money TREATMENT OF PEACH ORCHARD WHERE LAST YEARS CROP FAILED QUESTION I gave my peach orchard a moderate fertilizing last year bur the crop was almost a complete failure I have almost determined to leave it alone that is without anything further than keeping down the weeds until I get some return from the fertilizer put on last year Do you think this would be a good plan ANSWER The care of a peach orchard requires the exercise of a good deal of common sense as well as the judgment gained from experience and observation and in answering a question like the foregoing much depends on the condition of the land on which the trees stand as well as on the age and condition of the trees themselves If the trees are thrifty and the soil in good condition perhaps you may another year reap some return from your investment of fertil izer but the general mistake in fertilizing an orchard is to make the allowance too small rather than too large And sometimes we16 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA may make a mistake in the kind of fertilizer used For instance old trees which have been in bearing a number of years do not need the elements in the same proportions as a young orchard just coming into bearing The latter will require a larger per cent of nitrogen while an old orchard which has been well cared for will require little else than a liberal application of potash with perhaps a small per cent of phosphoric acid Your orchard should have been well plowed in the fall turning under all vegetable matter and it pays better to fertilize at the same time and with a generous hand The heavier pruning also should have been done in the fall While careful pruning is absolutely necessary to healthful and profitable development of the trees it is extremely hazardous to do any severe cutting after January 1 It is too near the time for the sap to start and although too much wood is the general mis take among our orchardists it is too late now to remedy an error of this kind Severe cutting at this season is not only fatal to the crop but often to the trees also On the whole we would say if your orchard is on thin land and is rough and overrun with weeds and briars and bushes we would certainly clean it off and plow it if possible giving it a dressing of potash and if the orchard is young a small application of nitrogen Later on a crop of peas will do much in the way of humus and nitrogen to encourage a healthy growth even if the pea crop is harvested and thus you will not consider that your land is entirely idle though the peach crop should fail ARE PEACHE3 REPRODUCED FROM THE SEED QUESTION I have had little experience in the propagation of peachtrees but I can remember when my grandmother always saved and planted every unusually fine peach which she came across during the summer Her orchard was mostly from seedlings and I dont think I ever saw a finer one But I am told now that seedlings cannot be depended upon to reproduce themselves Is this true and is there any assigned reason for itANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 189S 17 ANSWER Formerly in nearly every part of this State there were good varieties which were kept up from the seed but from neglect and other causes they have deteriorated and today if we wish to propa gate a particular variety we must depend on budding and grafting to produce certainly what we wish The seeds from all cultivated orchards have a strong tendency to revert to the original wild type which was very inferior as to size and quality being little more than a large seed covered with a thin layer of flesh Besides the blos soms from one tree may be fertilized from those of another and perhaps different variety and there are always these uncertainties attending the propagation of a peach from the seed We have tried the experiment and succeeded in producing a thrifty young orchard of seedlings from extra fine peaches whose first crop of fruit proved them without a single exception to be utterly worth less DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF COW PEAS FOR DIFFERENT PURPOSES QUESTION Please tell me what you consider the best variety of cow peas for hay also for turning under and for the other uses to whicli this crop is put Of the 50 odd varieties raised I suppose a good many possess the same characteristics What I wish to know is the principal varieties and their uses ANSWER The selection of the variety for planting should be determined by the use for which the crop is designed If a heavy yield of hay is the principal object the more vigorous and late maturing up right varieties such as clay unknown and whippnonvill should be used Of these the unknown is certainly one of the best but if to be cut for hay shoidd not be planted too early as it finally be comes so trailing as to be difficult to cut with a machine and it produces less seed when it has too long a season for growth If the crop is to be pastured or is to be left to decay through the18 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA winter on the surface of the ground trailing varieties should be used the unknown black and red ripper being among the best For this purpose they should be planted as early as possible For stock peas black clay speckled crowder and unknown have given us the heaviest yields but if peas are wanted for table use the large and small lady sugar and buckeye will be among the best One of the common methods of growing peavines is to plain them between the rows of corn at the time of giving the last culti vation In this way a crop is secured which costs absolutely noth ing except for the seed and sowing and which may be relied upon for a considerable amount of seed and grazing and at the same time will make a cheap and effective fertilizer for the succeeding crop In some cases the peas and corn have been planted at the same time in alternate hills but we have rarely found the prac tice economical If running varieties are used they tie cornstalks together so as to materially reduce the yield of the grain while if dwarf varieties are used they are so shaded by the corn as to make but little growth When planted between the rows in June or July they begin their rapid growth after the corn begins to ripen and the corn crop is gathered before the vines are large enough to be troublesome When a crop of peas is grown in this way it cannot well be cut for hay but will usually make a good yield of seed and will afford a large amount of most excellent grazing for either cattle or hogs For such late grazing the black and the red ripper are among the best varieties as the peas will lie on the ground a long time without injury BEET SUGAR QUESTION I notice a good deal in the daily papers about the feasibility of our farmers being successful in the cultivation of beets for sugar What is your opinion on this subject and would you advise a man who has suitable land to go into the business of cultivating beets for marketANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893 19 ANSWER As suitable land is only one of tlie many requisites for successful beet culture we would not advise the venture if that is the only advantage possessed by the owner First and foremost is a suitable and accessible market then a knowledge of how to prepare for plant cultivate and sell the crop is absolutely indispensable Granted these essentials we should be able to produce our own sup ply of sugar but as with every other new enterprise it is a mistake to rush in and undertake to carry it through before we are thor oughly prepared for the work The signs of the times point to this as a new American industry and as the Louisiana Planter per tinently says we could reach an immense development of the sugar industry before we should be compelled by the magnitude of our home production to accept the price of the world at large At any rate the American people seem determined to try the experiment of the beetsugar industry The closeness of the margins in manu facturing in almost every district leads to the concentration of much attention in this one industry which seems to promise a profit to those who engage in it or at least to promise a profit after the first losses due to bad management shall have been made The industry is one suited to our soils and climate is legitimate in every respect and we trust that it will be so encouraged that in time we will be able to fully supply our home market DEHORNING QUESTION Does dehorning injure the animal very seriously and is it very painful Would you advise that where a large number of cows are kept they should be dehorned ANSWER It has been conclusively demonstrated that if dehorning is prop erly done and proper attention given to the animals afterwards they experience little inconvenience and feel very little pain We have known whole herds of grown animals dehorned where20 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA scarcely an animal missed a feed and the flow of milk was not per ceptibly diminished Bnt every precaution was used to give as little pain as possible and the most approved instruments were used On the other hand we have seen eattle die from the effects of cruelty and after neglect The best time for such work is in the mild weather of spring or fall During hot weather the flies are troublesome and should be guarded against by smearing tar over the wounded part In cold weather the cows should be well pro tected and cared for until they entirely recover from the operation The best plan of dehorning is to apply a Chemical dehorner to the button as soon as it appears on the calves which is easily and cheaply done On no account should one attempt to dehorn u grown animal until he has previously seen the work properly done and has the necessary and suitable tools and appliances at hand for taking off the horns thoroughly and quickly FERTILIZERS FOR POTATOES QUESTION Please give me a good fertilizer for my potatoes and will the same formula do for my early cabbages ANSWER A good fertilizer for potatoes should contain about 12 per cent of potash 8 per cent of phosphoric acid and 3 per cent of nitro gen For cabbages 8 per cent of potash 8 per cent of phosphoric acid and 0 per cent of nitrogen We have here illustrated the principle that different crops while they require the same ele ments need these in different proportions Were you to use the cabbage formula for your potatoes you would perhaps have vig orous plants with luxuriant foliage and but few tubers The large amount of ammonia would stimulate a vigorous growth above ground while the proportion of potash and phosphoric acid is not sufficient to form any considerable number of potatoes On the contrary cabbages are gross feeders and require heavy applications of nitrogen with smaller doses of potash and phosphoric acidANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 21 TIME TO APPLY LIME QUESTION Is it too late to apply lime to my land How shall I put it on and how much to the acre ANSWER As a general thing it is best to apply lime in the fall It should he applied evenly to the surface of the fall plowed land It will gradually sink into the soil and perform a wonderful work there To aid in its even distribution on which much of its beneficial effect depends a harrow should be run lightly over the land There are exceptional cases in which the application may be made later For instance if the soil is very sour or if fertilizers without nitrogen are to be used If nitrogenous fertilizers are to be used the lime should be applied in the fall The usual rate is from one to two tons to the acre On very dry sandy soils smaller applica tions must be made than upon moist ones Other things being equal the productiveness of the soil is in a measure dependent on a certain percentage of lime22 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA 5558S FEBRUARY CORS STALKS FOR CATTLE FARMERS URGED TO MAKE USE OF THIS VALUABLE FORAGE MR NESBITT DISCUSSES MATTERTHE COMMISSIONER OF AG RICULTURE REQUESTS GEORGIA SOIL TILLERS TO GIVE THE NEW FOOD STUFF A TRIALAS TO THE COTTON ACREAGE WORK DURING THE PAST MONTH DELAYED BY BAD WEATHER SHREDDED CORN STALKS As a matter of much importance to farmers I again call their attention to the immense value of the corn stalks usually left stand ing and wasting in the fields when they are shredded and used for forage I have recently had a conversation with a gentleman who is now selling all he can make of this forage at 10 a ton in carload lots and 12 a ton in smaller quantities His experience is that from li to 2 tons of shredded fodder can he made to the acre ac cording to the size and number of plants and that a large machine will cut each day the product from six to twelve acres Of course in both cases the amount is determined by the quality and yield of the corn crop It has been ascertained that the larger machines accomplish more profitable and more satisfactory work than the smaller ones the stalks being more thoroughly cut and shredded These machines being portable if one farmer cannot afford the higher price for the larger machine a combination of farmers can invest in one and thus by moving from one farm to another the stalks for a neighborhood may be converted into a wholesome and nutritive food Or as suggested before one man may own such a machine and by working all farms in reach during the fall and winter the entire crop of corn stalks may be shredded without ex pense to the owners A strange proposition but nevertheless true because the toll may be paid in kind and is taken from an other wise worthless product At the experiment station farm the stripped stalks which had been left standing on the fields until January were hauled up andANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 189S 23 Bhredded The product was not only readily eaten by the farm animals but upon analysis was found to contain more nutriment than an equal amount of the cottonseed hulls now so popular as stock food The shredded fodder has this additional advantage over the hulls it is much more relished by horses and mules as well as cattle and there is not the same precaution necessary in feeding it It is well known by those who feed cottonseed hulls that there is danger of its becoming compacted if fed in too large quantities and that it is always safer to mix it with other more concentrated food stuffs The utilization of such a tremendous quantity of forage will enable us not only to raise more and better cattle and farm stock for home use but will give an impetus to stock raising for export There is a growing demand from the west for southern cattle and with this enormous addition to our food stuffs a comparatively large number of beeves may be successfully raised to meet this market without drawing too heavily upon the other resources of the farm Thus will be opened a new source of income for the Soxith and also the foundation be laid for a direct exportation to Europe of thousands of Southern raised beeves We have every advantage of climate and transportation and once the business gets a firm foothold we can scarcely compute its benefits to the South Our superior situation and environment will give us an immense leverage over our western competitors This plan of shredding and utilizing the otherwise useless corn stalks is growing in favor each clay and the time is coming when the shredded fodder will be as much an article of commerce as the popular cottonseed hulls once considered equally worthless THE COT I OX ACREAGE We have no new arguments to offer on this subject on which hangs the prosperity not of the farmers only but of the whole South and we may say of the country at large In the successful and profitable handling and marketing of our cotton crop by farm ers buyers manufacturers and others we include a very large per cent of our national population and therefore the decision of the farmers as to how much cotton they will undertake to raise in 9824 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA is a matter of almost as much importance to the whole country as to themselves This decision to some extent affects present con ditions also for as soon as it becomes known that a large crop is to be planted the price either continues depressed or falls lower whereas if a reduced area is decided on prices and the general cotton trade show a favorable tendency In our inquiry column are some very pertinent questions as to the cotton situation and the conditions of supply and demand We have endeavored to answer them fully and clearly and to emphasize what we have so often repeated in these columns that the farmers individually must con trol this matter Xo convention or set of resolutions however in telligent the former or forcible the latter seems powerful enough to cope with it Each farmer must study the question for himself and must decide not how much cottonhe can raise but how much he can raise profitably When this is done and when each man sets aside a sufficient area for abundant home supplies it will be found that a reduction of the cotton area is a foregone conclu sion Profitable cotton production hinges on home supplies and by that term we do not mean plain bread and meat but plenty of poul try eggs milk butter fruit and vegetables as well In our cli mate all can be produced at little cost and in greatest abundance But if a man overburdens himself with an expensive cotton crop lie has no time to attend to these socalled minor crops and when the cotton is gathered and sold ten chances to one he will have no money to buy necessary food much less the articles of comfort and even luxury which he could have produced on his farm at a scarcely appreciable cost Our past experience has made the facts plain but the certainty of a cash market for cotton and rl 1 uncertainty of being able to sell a surplus of any other crop has tempted the large body of farmers to continue to plant big crops of cotton and to take the chances of selling them for enough to buy needed supplies implements etc The cheapness at which we can produce all food crops should forever set at rest tins ques tion of home supplies Our mistaken policy on this point ami the crowding of the cotton market has reduced our income from that source millions and millions of dollars and when to this is added short food supplies our condition is deplorable indeedANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893 25 WORK FOR THE MONTH Bad weather has somewhat delayed farm work although in many sections farmers have taken advantage of the bright days to push forward preparations for another crop February is the best aver age month for sowing spring oats If the soil is thin make it rich by manures or fertilizers Oats will not do well on poor land any more than other crops but with the same care and plant food that we give other crops they often make far better returns and there is no better stock food known to Southern farmers Whenever the ground is dry enough the regular field plowing should go on Dont plow when the land is too wet This is a mistake which it often requires years to repair Use a subsoiler wherever possible its good effects will be noticeable when our long summer drouth sets in Clover and grass may be sown Both require thorough preparation and high manuring In the southern part of the State all the earlier vegetables may be planted and it is in this month that the general Irish potato crop is planted For various reasons the eastern crop was a failure last year Brices are ruling high and will no doubt continue fair For this reason a Southern crop which can be forced on the market early would pay It would be well however to study the markets and not wait until the crop is ready before making any arrangements to dispose of it Complete your arrangements before hand dont leave anything to chance Many of our farmers know how to raise potatoes success fully but not all of these know how to market them profitably Jeff Wellborn says we can grow them much cheaper here than they do at the Worth and if the seed used are from the fallgrown crop they will come on much earlier He has raised eight crops fall and spring in four years on the same land without a change of seed and each year the potatoes have improved in quality and quantity After the spring crop is taken off he sows the land in early maturing peas When these are taken off the land is in fine condition for the fall crop and thus he gets three crops off the same area The land after the peas is thoroughly prepared and he gets about 160 bushels of potatoes without any other fertilizer than the peas If the ground has been well broken and the plant26 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA ing properly managed a very shallow cultivation is all that is nec essary In field crops just as the plants begin to break the ground it is well to run a harrow across the rows to break the crust Do not run a deep furrow near the rows Keep the patch free from weeds For the northern markets ship in 11peck potato barrels instead of sacks they keep better and are more attractive in appear anceboth of which add to the price R T NESBITT Commissioner SOME COTTON STATISTICS YIELD AND PRICES DURING THE PAST FEW YEARSFIGURES FOR FARMERS QUESTION What were the total cotton crops for 189596 and 189697 and their average price and as far as known what has been the crop and the price for 189798 ANSWER The cotton crop for 189596 official figures was 7157346 bales and the average price was 809 cents per pound The crop of 189697 was 8757964 bales and the average price was 742 cents per pound Up to January 1 1898 7260033 bales have been marketed and the average price was 605 cents per pound By comparing this with the receipts up to January 1 1897 we find that there was up to January 1 1898 marketed 861841 bales more than to January 1 1897 We also find that owing to the difference in price although there was such a large excess of bales the farmers of the South have lost 54305046a striking Com mentary on large crops and low prices It is almost beyond belief that the cotton crop which is virtually a monopoly and which should be a means of independence is surely becoming the cause of general depression and povertyANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893 27 LIOE AND MITES ON POULTRY QUESTION I live in the southern part of the State and owing to the climate I suppose our poultry is much troubled with mites and lice I am careful about keeping the coops clean but in spite of this these vermin seem to multiply very rapidly How shall I destroy them ANSWER The coops should be thoroughly whitewashed inside and out with a limcwash in which has been mixed crude carbolic acid Every part of the roosts should be brushed over with kerosene old nests removed and all litter burned up An experienced poultry raiser says the easiest plan to get rid of the pests on the fowls themselves is the following Fill a five gallon oil can about twothirds full of warm water and add about one ounce of carbolic acid Select a clear bright morning and dip each fowl bodily into the bath covering every part Hold it up to drip a few seconds and then turn it loose In an hour they will be dry and free from living lice THE SUGAR BEET INDUSTRY QUESTION Please tell me something about the cultivation of sugar beets the method cost preparation for market kind of soil snitable etc How are the factories in this country succeeding Is the sugar of good quality and is the crop one which can be cultivated at the South How much do manufacturers pay for them ANSWER As yet the sugar beet industry in this country is in its infancy and we have to depend on the experience of others for enlighten ment on the points on which you request information The follow ing is from a man of large experience both in this country and in Europe and what he says on sugarbeet culture is reliable and valu28 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA able He says the soil should be good The crop will not pay if planted on poor ground or on muck land or on land which has not good drainage or if the soil is not in a good state of cultivation The cost of raising an acre of beets is too high for them to be grown on poor land The success of this industry is in the hands of the farmer and not in the hands of the manufacturers Xo matter how perfect the machinery or how economically a factory is man aged if the beets are brought to the factory not in proper condition the expenses are doubled and the farmer is docked which means loss of time general discouragement and want of success to both manufacturer and planter The beets when delivered at the fac tory should be cut off flat at the root of the leaves so that none of the green top is left This is absolutely necessary in order to make a good standard of sugar Every beet of which the green juice o f the leaves is mixed with the beet juice proper is an obstacle to crystallizing the sugar and every drop of that green juice must he eliminated before the white granulated stigar can be manufac tured All the fertilizing properties of the beets are contained in the tops and the farmer meets with a double loss if he carries them to the factory instead of cutting them off and leaving them ou his land He is docked 8 or 10 per cent at the factory and wastes the valuable fertilizing properties of the tops which are thrown away i METHOD OF CULTIVATING SUGAR BEETS The rows should he 18 or 20 inches apart the plants thinned but to stand 5 or 6 inches in the row Do not wait until the young beets are surrounded by weeds but cultivate with the hoe as soon as the plants can be seen The thinning should be done as soon as the plants have two to four leaves After this keep the weeds and grass down by the horse hoe cultivating often to loosen the earth around the plants and give air to the roots As the cultivation is very expensive no chance should be neglected which will help to make as large a crop as possible If weeds and grass are allowed to grow they will take up the strength of the soil which should he used to makethe beets The rows should not be further thanANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893 29 20 inches apart If wider than this the beets will be larger but will not yield as much in weight per acre and besides what the sugar manufacturer wants is small beets from 1 to 2J pounds in weight These are more profitable to handle and have also a higher percentage of sugar and less water than the larger sizes COST OF CULTIVATING AN ACRE OF SUGAR BEETS Preparation of land plowing and harrowing 2 00 Extra harrowing before putting in seed 50 Tilling and rolling 1 50 Gleaning between the rows with hand hoe 3 00 Thinning out and resetting plants to stand 5 or 6 inches and cleaning between rows 6 00 Cleaning with horse hoe 75 Cleaning with horse hoe and slightly hilling up 75 Taking out weeds near the beets which horse hoe has left 1 25 Pulling up topping putting the beets in small heaps and covering with leaves 6 00 Loading and hauling to market estimating 12 tons to the acre at 50 cents per ton a distance of 6 miles 6 00 27 75 The 12 tons at 400 per ton would be48 00 Cost of cultivating as above 27 75 20 25 In this account labor is estimated at 125 a day and no allow ance is made for fertilizers or cost of seed The United States Department of Agriculture estimates the cost per acre for the first few years at from 40 to 50 per acre though in many instances it will fall below these figures The cost varies so with varying conditions that it is impossible to give an estimate which will suit every locality The price paid at the factory is from 4 to 5 per ton according to quality and the yield is from 10 to 20 tons per acre The best fertilization for beets is secured by a heavy applica80 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA tion of homemade manure on a previous crop The first run of beet sugar in Xew York State was made the past month and the product was smooth grained white and sweet There are other factories springing up over the country and there are eight already in successful operation Professor Massey says I was struck with the identity so far as cultivation is concerned of the sugar beet culture and that of cotton I fully believe that the negroes who are accustomed to the cultivation and thinning of cotton would make the best of hands in the beet field T believe that we can grow the beets as well as they can in Xcbraska and grow them more cheaply He says also that our cotton sweep as a cultiva tor beats all the variety of tools that he saw used for beet cultiva tion Land for beets should always be prepared very deeply Subsoiled if possibleANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893 31 MARCH FARMERS SHOULD NOT BE FOOLED SUDDEN RISE IN COTTON PRICE IS ONLY A SNARENESBTTTS WARNING NOTECOMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE EXPOSES THE OLD GAME THAT IS BEING PLAYED TO INDUCE PLANT ING OF A BIG CROPAN APPEAL FOR DIVERSIFICATION AND SMALLER AREA COTTON It is to be hoped that no sensible farmer will be misled into the oft repeated mistake of planting a ruinously heavy cotton crop by the recent expected and predicted rise in the cotton market Surely that game has been played often enough and we have learned its meaning Concentration should always be the watchword among farmers that is the aim should be to cultivate only so much land as we can thoroughly manage and from which we can obtain the largest yield at the smallest cost But just now it is even more important than usual that we do not waste our time and money and weaken our strength by spreading out our farm operations over a larger area than we can do justice to or than will pay expenses Cotton plant ing time is fast approaching and the price of cotton has advanced more than half a cent This is the usual program and at this hopeful season of the year many an otherwise sensible man who has resolved on better plans sees in this improved price reason for breaking his good resolutions Instead of apportioning a fair amount of his land and time and labor to cotton and the remainder to the comforts and independences of farm life he resolves to try the allcotton plan again another year and trust to luck or his time account with his merchant for the balance By allcotton we do not mean that he will be so foolish as to actually plant his whole farm in cotton but that he will give his main energies and his best lands to this crop How many a man is now taking this step thus preparing for a hand to hand struggle against desperate odds fm32 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA start to finish In his case the minor crops which mean so much to family comfort as well as to family income must necessarily be reduced or altogether abandoned The vegetable garden the or chard the dairy the smokehouse the poultry yard all must suffer while the staple provision crops corn wheat oats potatoes cane all must in a measure give place to the predominating allabsorb ing daily struggle for an increased number of cotton bales This course is simply playing into the hands of the spinners The cer tainty of a big cotton crop will not only prevent any considerable rise in present prices but will tend to keep the market depressed while any indication that the farmers are determined on a reduced area would at once send prices up Cannot farmers realize that they hold the key to their own prosperity and that success the coining year lies only in a smaller cotton crop and ample provisions for man and beast The little experience of the past year and the alarms now being sounded from one end of the South to the other should surely warn him of his danger For his own sake and for the prosperity of the country at large we trust the warning will be heeded before it is too late WHAT OUR CROPS NEED Our crops need three main elements nitrogen phosphoric acid and potash Different crops take up these elements in different proportions but there is no crop that we grow which does not re quire them in greater or less degree WHAT OUR LANDS NEED The crying need of most of our lands is humus that is decaying vegetable matter by which we enable the crops to appropriate the three needed chemical elements to the best advantage HOW SHALL WE OBTAIN THESE The all important humus must be supplied from the farm itself in the form of stable manures composts by plowing under the various forms of vegetable and animal matter which accumulate from year to year and last but not least by leguminous cropsANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 189S 33 These when properly managed perform three important offices They gather the unused nitrogen from the air deposit it in the soil and also help to unlock the stores of potash and phosphoric acid lying dormant in most subsoils They furnish a crop rich in food constituents When this is taken off the land what is left of stubble and roots lays a foundation for the humus which every experienced farmer knows is the factor above all others which makes successful farming possible Having by such means ob tained the necessary humus and nitrogen it remains for us to secure needed potash and phosphoric acid These may be supplied in part by deep fall plowing bringing up a little of the subsoil going deeper each year and by the frequent and fine pulverization of the soil during cultivation both of which enable it to hold moisture and thus convert its elements to the use of growing crops If when the leguminous crops are planted they are given the necessary amount of phosphoric acid and potash for their best development say 200 to 400 pounds to the acre not only will their nitrogen powers be increased but when the stubble and roots are plowed in much of these mineral elements will remain and be just in right condition to be taken up by the following crop This is the most economical and at the same time the most profitable plan for our worn soils Commercial fertilizers when used alone on such lands act only as a temporary stimulus The rotation which legumi nous crops require will gradually lead to the diversified farming so much to be desired Diversified intensive rotating and economical farming is what Georgia and the South so sorely need K T NESBITT Commissioner INQUIRIES AND ANSWERS STATE AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT FURNISHES INFORMATION QUESTION I notice what you say in the February report about making use jf the cornstalks which have been wasted heretofore Please give34 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA us a little more information on this subject After the stalks are shredded how is the fodder kept and what is its feeding value Can it be fed to farm stock without using any other roughage and is there any trouble in getting them to eat it ANSWER After the stalks are shredded the fodder may be kept in the barn or any dry place until needed for use taking care not to dis turb the mass for no matter how dry it may seem there is at first sufficient moisture to cause a slight fermentation and if the fodder is disturbed during this fermentation mold is apt to appear The feeding value of this fodder has been shown by analysis to be greater than cottonseed hulls and nearly equal to the best quality of timothy hay At the Experiment Station farm in this State this forage has been thoroughly tested It has been used there for weeks at a time as the only roughage to the manifest benefit of the farm animals and they eat it readily On the subject of Corn stalk Hay we copy the following from Bulletin Xo 36 of the Georgia Experiment Station These bulletins are sent free to every farmer who applies for them and we would advise you to address a card to Director R J Redding Experiment Ga re questing that your name be put on the mailing list You will then receive all the literature of the station as it is issued Bulletin No 34 says In Bulletin No 30 containing the results of Experiments in Corn Culture made in 1895 the attention of farmers was especially called to the advantages of the method of utilizing the cornstalks for stock food It is the almost universal practice in the South to gather and cure the blades and harvest the ears of corn leaving the entire stalks in the field to prove an almost unmitigated nuisance and obstruction in the preparation and cultivation of the land in the succeeding crop and winter homes and hibernating re treats for insects that will be ready to attack such crops especially if it shall be another crop of corn Farmers have habitually con sidered this large part of the crop as of no practical value Indeed cornstalks especially of the large types of corn planted in theANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 189S 35 South are of little available food value because of the mechanical condition Even in the North the old method of feeding the stalks stover without any mechanical preparation was but little less wasteful and slovenly than leaving them in the fields But the use of machinery for preparing the cornstalks shredding them into a coarse hay is rapidly extending A number of very effect ive machines may now bs had at moderate prices that will convert the hard flinty stalks into a soft easily masticated substance very similar in mechanical condition to coarse hay that is readilyeven greedilyeaten by horses mules and cattle In Bulletin No 30 already referred to the whole subject was discussed at some length showing by experiments made and by analysis that the value of the naked stalks that are generally left in the field after harvesting the ears shucks and blades amounts to fully onesixth of total value of the crop Bulletin No 36 published last fall says further on this subject The station has just finished shredding the cornstalks from five acres of corn The crop was very much injured by the extreme beat and drouth and the yield of grain was cut off at least 25 per cent The corn was cut down just above the surface of the ground August 23 and immediately shocked placing about 150 stalks in each shock and tying the top of each shock with twine No rain fell on the shocks and the ears were husked out October 3 and the stalks immediately run through the shredding machine being ap parently perfectly dry The yield of the five acres was as follows Shelled corn 155 bushels Shredded stalks or stover14000 pounds This represents a yield per acre of 31 bushels of shelled corn and 2800 pounds of dry corn hay which is believed to be very nearly equal in feeding value to good timothy hay In the above total yield of corn hay is included the blades and shucks which are almost universally saved and utilized by Georgia farmers But there are also included in the 2800 pounds of corn hay about 1300 pounds of the stalks which are usually permitted to remain on the ground and nonutilized as food This 1000 pounds represents the food loss for every 31 bushels of shelled corn The corn crop THE GENERAL LIBRARY THI UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA ATHENS GEORGIA THE GENERAL LIBRARY HE UNIVERSITY OF GEOR STATE LIBRARY GIFT 19336 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA of Georgia for convenience may be stated at 31000000 bushels sometimes less often more Then at 1300 pounds of corn hay heretofore not saved for every 31 bushels of corn the total loss in the State would be 1300 pounds by 1000000 equals 1300 mil lion pounds or 650000 tons of corn hay a very good food and worth at least 10 a ton or a total of 0500000 or about enough to pay for all the commercial fertilizers used in Georgia in one year This may be considered a remarkable statement and it will no doubt surprise many a farmer who has not thought about it I have replied to your question thus at length because there is scarcely a subject of more importance to the farmers just now The universal practice of shredding the cornstalks means a saving of millions of dollars FERTILIZER FOR CORN QUESTION What are the best proportions in a commercial fertilizer for corn and how at what time and in what amount would you ap ply it ANSWER All things considered the best fertilizer on our ordinary lands for corn should be in about the following proportion Cottonseed meal 1000 lbs acid phosphate 1000 lbs muriate potash 50 lbs or 200 lbs of kainit may be substituted for the muriate of potash On lands almost destitute of humus that is which have been culti vated and recultivated in clean crops we would not venture to use more than two or three hundred pounds to the acre applied just be fore or at planting time The corn crop more perhaps than any other is dependent on a supply of moisture for its best development and it has been found that the direct application of commercial fer tilizers does not result as well as where these have been applied to a previous crop provided the application be sufficiently heavy If the fertilizer has been broadcast as for oats or peas the succeed ing com crop is usuallyvery satisfactory although fine crops of corn are often made after a heavily fertilized cotton crop As aANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893 37 rule any formula which will analyze 700 per cent phosphoric acid 130 per cent potash and 340 per cent nitrogen is suited to corn LATE SPRING OATS QUESTION I have a piece of land which I think will make a good crop of oats but I am in doubt about planting it so late Would the first of March be too late to sow it down And what kind of seed would you advise me to use ANSWER In southern Georgia the first of March is rather late to sow oats but in your section North Georgia if a quicklymaturing va riety like the Burt is planted on rich or well fertilized land the ohances for a satisfactory crop are good The great drawback to our oat crop is want of care in preparation and seeding coupled with the fact that we generally plant our oats on our poorest land In sowing oats at this season our object should be to force the crop forward to a quick maturity To do this plant the Ninety Day or Burt seed on land naturally rich or made so by rotation and manure If the land has been previously well broken and the oats are harrowed in so much the better But if time is too press ing for this then clear off the land sow the oats about a bushel to the acre and plow the seed in running the furrows close and deep FERTILIZING COTTON QUESTION Please tell me how the elements in a commercial fertilizer affect cotton I mean what influence do the separate elements nitrogen phosphoric acid and potash have on the growth of the plant Of course every man who plants cotton would rather have bolls than stalks or leaves I know the probable effects of certain qualities of soil on the cotton plant What I want to know is the separate effect of each ingredient in the fertilizer so that I may more clearly understand how to apportion my fertilizer to suit my dif33 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA ferent kinds of landin other words to induce the development of wellformed and wellfilled bolls ANSWER Nitrogen makes weed or stalk it also has a tendency to prolong the period of growth If there is an excess of nitrogen it often causes the plant to form stalk and leaves late in the season when it should be developing fruit Phosphoric acid tends to force ma turity and develop fruit Potash will give strength and vigor to the stalk It enters largely into the lint and if in the form of kainit tends to lessen liability to rust The fruitforming element is phosphoric acid Nitrogen makes stalk and foliage Potash gives strength to the plant and develops the lint PROPER DISTANCE FOR PLANTING CORtf QUESTION Would not a larger yield be realized from the same land if the corn crop was planted in double rows on wide beds instead of single rows on narrow beds ANSWER Experiments have been carefully conducted to settle this ques tion and the conclusion arrived at is that the more nearly each plant occupies the center of a square area of soil the greater the yieldthat is all conditions being equal single rows 4x3 will yield more than double rows 2x6 One plant in each hill the hills equidistant gave better results than two planted to the hill separated by longer distances HENS LAYING SOFT OR THIN SHELLED EGGS QUESTION Some of my hens are laying eggs with soft or very thin shells I cannot account for this as they have plenty of lime and grit in reach and are in splendid condition Please tell me if there is any remedy for thisANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893 39 ANSWER Perhaps the trouble is that your hens are in too fine condition Hens which are too fat often lay such eggs Try softer rations and a little Epsom salts every other day This may be given in the drinking water Let them have green food and plenty of lime40 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA APRIL NESBITT SOUNDS WARNING NOTE AGRICULTURAL COMMISSIONER ON UNWIELDLY AREASPLAN IS NOT PROFITABLETHE DANGER OF PLOWING OVER MORE LAND THAN YOU CAN CULTIVATE THOROUGHLYDEEP PREP ARATION ENABLES CROPS TO SUCCESSFULLY RESIST DROUTH DONT TRY TO CULTIVATE TOO MUCH LAND Department or Agriculture Atlanta Ga April 1 1898 The exceptionally dry and open winter lias enabled industrious farmers in all sections to be well advanced with their work Tor this reason some may have been tempted to plow over more land than they will be able to thoroughly cultivate during the coming season To these we would say repair this error right nowdont wait until you are overcropped and struggling vainly against gra and accumulated work and worry to find out your mistake It is better to abandon part of the land even after it is planted and bring the remainder to the highest point of cultivation than fco en danger the entire crop by a too large area which must be hur riedly and imperfectly cultivated A farmer should be able to get around his crops at least every ten days or two weeks a longer interval than this means risk and often irreparable injury April has become the great cotton planting month in Georgia Of late years the planting of this crop has been gradually delayed from a later to a later date Farmers are beginning to more fully realize the importance of thorough preparation and that any reasonable delay in planting is more than atoned for by put ting the land in firstclass condition for the reception of the seed Of two crops the one planted early and hurriedly on imperfectly prepared land and the other later on land more completely and carefully plowed and fertilized it will be found a the season progresses that the crop on the well prepared land other conditions being equal will attain to more satisfactory andANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893 41 perfect development and also that its proper cultivation is more easily managed On the land where the farmer has trusted to sub sequent cultivation to correct the mistakes and shortcomings of hasty preparation the conditions will he found far from satisfactory Of one fact the farmers should he thoroughly convinced and that is that no amount of after cultivation will ever atone for the plant ing of a crop on rough ill conditioned land Our lands as a rule do not receive the careful preparation which will insure their great est yield and this neglect is the main cause of short crops as well as of innumerable harassing and retarding experiences during the period of cultivation THE LACK OF THE USUAL RAINFALL furnishes another argument for the thorough preparation of the land We could cite innumerable instances coming under our ob servation where thorough and deep plowing and subsoiling before the crop was planted have enabled it to survive and even develop during a protracted drouth There is now complaint from almost all sections of lack of water Some farmers even this early in the season are compelled to haul from some distance nearly all the water needed for household and farm uses Fortunate is the man who has by deep and thorough plowing formed a reservoir to catch and hold such rains as have fallen to be ready for the demands of the crops when the usual summer drouth comes on Wot only does this careful preparation enable him to lay up a supply of moisture but the condition of his land is such that he can practice the level surface culture which is conceded to be the culmination of successful farming This shallow cultivation of well prepared land never allowing a crust to remain long on the surface not only keeps down wTeeds and grass but prevents the unnecessary evapo ration of the moisture which our deep plowing has enabled us to store up in lower depths David Dickson the most successful of Southern farmers speaking from his abundant experience main tained that every inch added to the depth of preparation largely increased the drouth resisting powers of the crops grown on that land Farmers who have not exercised the precaution of thorough42 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA preparation must now take the chance of injury from lack of neces sary moisture They should counteract these difficulties as far as possible and conserve their limited supply of moisture by such shallow cultivation as the condition of their land will admit REDUCTION OF THE COTTON ACREAGE In another column we call attention to a recent publication front Latham Alexander Co on this subject and we would emphasize with all the force at our command what is there so plainly stated Under present conditions farmers have not the moral right to risk the wellbeing of themselves their families of the whole South on an abnormally large cotton crop and a correspondingly short food supply In a conversation with one of the largest cotton planters in the Mississippi valley I was most forcibly impressed with the folly of our past and present policy This man keeps an accurate account of all expenditures iises improved implements pays cash for all needed supplies and though he makes a bale of cotton to the acre without any fertilizer his crop costs him five cents a pound inde pendent of the interest on his large investment He makes about 2500 bales At the small margin of profit allowed by ruling prices he does not clear enough to pay even a moderate interest on his investment The same conditions apply with even greater force to the small farmers The man in Georgia who plants 25 acres in cotton at a cost of five cents a pound though he should make a bale to each acre will at the prices ruling during the greater part of this season scarcely clear enough to pay for the fertilizer which under our present system of farming has become an absolute necessity Where then is OUR HOPE FOR BETTER CONDITIONS We reply in concentrating our forces and thus reducing the cost of production and in raising on each farm as far as possible every thing needed to carry on the operations of that farm When these two principles of reasonable and successful agriculture obtain a general recognition and farmers everywhere put them into enerANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 43 getic operation a reduction of the cotton area will be successfully accomplished and our farmers will become once more the bone and sinew of our land rather than the uncertain dependents of mer chants and money lenders We would STRONGLY URGE the making and utilizing of every pound of farmyard manure which our surroundings make possible Not only will this years crops show the benefit but our lands will be improved and future crops will be increased Plant every acre possible in peas using potash and phosphoric acid to produce a more luxuriant growth and thus to increase their nitrogen gathering power as well as to as sure an abundant yield THE MINOR CROPS of sorghum potatoes ground peas not to mention melons vege tables and fruits should all have their allottel space and their full quota of attention Comfort health independence lie along these lines and may be ours by proper effort In closing we would urge upon every farmer to WATCH THE WAR CLOUDS Should war with Spain become a certainty the probable effect on the price of cotton would be most disastrous while provisions would take a corresponding rise FARMERS SHOULD STUDY CAREFULLY the following facts presented by two of the best informed cotton authorities in America and England They are contained in the latest report of Latham Alexander Co and are reproduced here in order to give them the widest circulation and to bring them more directly to the attention of farmers throughout the State LOSS FROM MAKING TOO MUCH COTTON In our circular letters of January 19 and February 5 we en deavored to show the undeniably enormous losses that the South44 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA lias invariably sustained when more cotton was produced than necessary to supply the wants of the world If we should bring the tabulated figures made then up to tins date the losses to the farmers on this years crop would appear still more startling and with the condition of affairs now prevailing throughout the world the necessity for a reduction in acreage this year should appeal to every farmer with greater force and induce him to largely increase the production of food crops THREATENED WAR The threatened wars in the east and between Spain and the United States are a serious menace to the cotton planting interests of the South On this subject the report says The planters of the South have no encouragement to plant cot ton largely this year with the AngloEussianChinese complica tions existing in the east which might before the new crop couhl be marketed greatly reduce the value of cotton and the strained relations of our government with Spain which possibly might re sult in war staring them in the face Even with permanent peace existing between all the nations of the globe the consumptive demand for cotton would not be suffi cient to warrant the production of another such large American crop as last year An inevitable loss to the whole South in our opinion would surely follow THE FUTURE PROSPECTS OF COTTON From a recent circular of Messrs Ellison Co Liverpool the highest authority on cotton consumption in the world we make the following extract as to future prospects In our annual report issued in January we showed that with an American crop of 10750000 bales and a consumption of about t650000 bales the stock of American cotton in the ports of the United States Europe and the surplus stocks at the American and European mills would be about 1900000 bales against only 800 00 last year and we remarked that in regard to the future ofANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893 45 prices everything would depend upon the prospects of the new crop With as great a reduction in acreage as took place in the spring of 1895 we should see a repetition of the upward movement in values witnessed in that year but if planters are satisfied with present prices and do not reduce the area planted then cotton will become a greater drug than it ever lias been in the history of the trade and planters will not get anything like present prices In their report Messrs Ellison Co based their calculations upon a crop of only 10750000 bales when 9975418 bales have already been received and the indications favor 11000000 bales or more MERCHANTS SHOULD USE THEIR INFLUENCE FOR REDUCTION OF COTTON AREA The present unfavorable outlook for prices of next years crop should induce every merchant in the South to use his influence with the planters to cause a marked reduction in acreage which would be surely followed by better prices and greater confidence in general business operations throughout the South E T NESB1TT Commissioner QUESTION BOX FOE MONTH INFORMATION GIVEN BY THE STATE AGRICULTURAL DEPART MENT QUESTION I am a new comer to Georgia and write for information in regard to watermelons Having never engaged in their culture I would like to know the soil and exposure best suited to them also the various details of planting and cultivating I would like also to be advised as to the best fertilizer to use Should the land be made very rich46 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA ANSWER Replying to your last question first we would state that to raise the best melons it is not necessary to have a very rich soil indeed a large amount of humus is a positive disadvantage but it is im portant that the top soil be well drained and that it be underlaid by a clay subsoil The warm light gray soils of the wire grass region of Georgia are peculiarly suited to the needs of the water melon and from this section come the finest melons in the world The land should be preferably dry but not too dry and the ex posure should be toward the south as the melon is a typical plant The preparation need not be deep but the surface soil should be re duced to as fine a tilth as possible by repeated harrowings and then checked off 10 feet a way This last will render it easy to cultivate the patch both ways If you have the choice of selection land which was planted in field peas last year and on which no succeeding crop was grown will furnish best conditions for proper fertilization Stable ma nure is also a fine fertilizer but should be applied the previous fall to obtain the best results After the land is checked off run a wide shovel plow in one set of the checking lines all in the same direc tion the opposite lines only serve to mark the places where the seeds are to be planted Into the shovel furrow put the fertilizer well decomposed stable manure or compost or lacking this a com mercial fertilizer in the following proportions One part muriate or sulphate potash two parts nitrate soda four parts high grade acid phosphate and at the rate of about TOO pounds to the acre Bed up on this with a turn plow two furrows on each side four fur rows in all and leave until planting time When the ground has warmed up sufficiently and all danger of frost has passed put in the seedsthe cross furrows will indicate the proper places Al low about 20 seeds to the hill and dont plant deeper than one inch nor in a bunch but put in each seed separately which can be easily done by spreading the seed on the surface and piishing in with the finger When the seed come up thin down gradually to one plant in the hill and after the first rain break out the middles with aANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 47 turn plow throwing the furrows towards the bed and finishing up with a water furrow which will serve to drain the beds Two plowings will generally suffice the first at right angles or across the beds and the second parallel with them and both should be very shallow using a cultivator or scrape At the second or last plowing broadcast about a peck of Whippoorwill or JSFew Era peas to each acre These will serve to keep down the weeds shade the melons from the scorching sun and put the land in fine condi tion for any succeeding crop The above is a summary from a very interesting bulletin published by the Georgia Experiment Station In this bulletin No 38 Horticulturist Starnes has given much more full and explicit directions than can be attempted in our limited space We would advise you to send for it Address Director E J Eedding Experiment Ga The bulletins are sent to all farmers who apply for them HARLEQUIN BUG QUESTION Please find enclosed some bugs which are eating up every green thing that they can find There were a few on my cabbages last fall and now there are thousands of them on my turnip greens and they are sucking and killing the salad If we dont get rid of them we cannot have any vegetables this year in our neighborhood There is great complaint of their destructiveness from all sides ANSWER The bug sent is the muchdreaded Harlequin Bug the worst known insect enemy of cruciferous plants They live through the winter hidden under leaves or trash of any kind All rubbish under which the bugs can take refuge during the winter should be carefully burned and infected fields or gardens should have clean culture These bugs are very difficult to deal with as they can not be reached by any of the arsenical poisons When the bugs are young Persian insect powder in decoction or dry will often prove effectual Handpicking is often resorted to throwing the bugs as picked into pans or cups containing kerosene Cabbage48 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA growers plant mustard between the rows of cabbages The bugs prefer the mustard and it attracts them in large numbers They can then be destroyed with pure kerosene Bather than let them live and multiply if nothing else can be done apply kerosene This will of course ruin the turnip salad but better that than to allow them to continue their ravages GRAIN LOUSE QUESTION We have a small patch of oats in Griffin that is being ruined by a small green insect we enclose sample of them in letter We called on Mr Kimbrough at the Experiment Station and lie asked us to write you in reference to the matter and to send your man down to investigate same Any information you can give us will be highly appreciated ANSWER The insect sent is the Grain Louse It lives by sucking the sap of wheat oats etc and thus injuring and frequently killing the plant It appears that all the individuals of this family are females and they produce living young beginning as soon as adult and continuing during life Xo male or egglaying female of the Grain Louse lias ever been found They multiply with great rapidity and frequently do much damage From experiments that have been made it has been found that this pest can be kept under control by spraying the oats when young with a strong decoction of tobacco stems or with kerosene emulsion and water Lse about 100 gallons to the acre with a spraying outfit It has also been recommended to use freshly slaked lime with a little carbolic acid sown broadcast on the infested oats or wheat Generally this in sect pest is worse on the field where oats or wheat follow oatsANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1895 49 MAY DUTY OF FARMERS IY THE PRESENT CRISIS HEAVY PROVISION CROP SHOULD BE PLANTEDWAR AND COT TON PRICES COMMISSIONER NESBITT POINTS OUT THAT THERE WILL BE A BIG DEMAND FOR BREADSTUFFS ETC WHILE THE FLEECY STAPLE IS LIKELY TO TUMBLEOUR DUTY IN THE PRESENT CRISIS Department of Agriculture Atlanta Ga May 1 1898 Now tlut the war with Spain has been definitely decided on the gravity of the situation demands that we as farmers give ourselves to a careful study of its bearings on our agricultural interests both individual and collective The opinion among competent army and navy experts seems to be gaining ground that the campaign after hostilities actually begin will be neither short nor easy and it may drag along for months Under these apprehensions what is our plain duty What do we owe to ourselves our families our country While our army and navy on land and sea are enforcing a recognition of the great principles of human independence what are we farmers to do How can we help in the struggle that is to set Cuba free We are to supply not only the home demands for provisions but we are to supply the sinews of war to our armies in the field by a bountiful food crop Besides the usual home de mand there will be a heavy demand for breadstuffs and provisions to feed our armies Should peace be declared without hostilities the demand will still be heavy There will be thousands of home less helpless people in Cuba to be fed Thus in either event war or peace all surplus supplies will find a ready and profitable market Therefore if we have not already done so we should put in an un usually heavy provision crop even if we have to appropriate for this purpose some of the acres intended for or already planted in cotton50 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA EFFECT OF THE WAR ON COTTON When a farmer sets himself for a hand to hand struggle with an overwhelming cotton crop he necessarily consigns the provision cropthe bread and meat supplyto the domain of chance Under present conditions every consideration of selfinterest every prompting of patriotism appeals against such a course The gen erallv accepted idea of war agriculturally speaking is cheap cotton and high provisions A war with Spain would almost paralyze our cotton trade while the price of provisions would advance In view of these facts what will be the fate of the man who produces a large cotton crop for which he will get a low price and who de pends on buying the whole or even part of needed provisions for which he will pay a high price It is scarcely necessary to say and while he has injured himself he has also to a certain degree injured his State and country both of which are now looking to him to do his duty in the struggle which is upon us I know that some farmers may argue that as the general crop may be much reduced now is the time to take the chance and put everyavail able acre in cotton but there was never a graver mistake If therewas a year to increase the food crops and decrease the cotton this is the year for the reasons already given THE FLOOD IN THE MISSISSIPPI also furnishes another argument with some farmers for planting a large cotton crop in Georgia They reason that wll he so late fc the cotton crops in the fertile Mississppt valle are Pte lt the yield will be very much cnt off En heyiaw the Tear just past there was an almost unprecedented flood m v ley and that the crop of 97 waa delayed almost later than was I rLtvn before certainly much later than the preaen Send can Several weeks later than the present date they too put m a big cropANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 189S 51 and the consequence was the largest general cotton crop on record and ruinously low prices At present THE PRICE OF COJTON IS ADVANCING and this also may allure the unwary farmer into the error of over cropping himself I have always maintained that the true policy is to provide bountifully for every need of the farm and then to put in just as much cotton as can be well managed And that rule still holds good The man who does this is safe in any event be the price of cotton high or low because he is not compelled to sell bimself to the provision dealer or merchant for bread and meat He is also in a position to exercise his judgment in the disposal of his cottonto sell or to hold as circumstances suggest Were every farmer thus independent the control of the cotton market would be virtually where it belongsthat is in the hands of the producersrather than of the men who deal in futures It has been well said and it has come to be a fact that not supply and demand for spot cotton affect the price but supply and demand lor futures establish the price and this future market is con trolled by professional operators and manipulators which could not be possible were each individual farmer able to sell or hold his cot ton at will As things now stand these operators are so sure of the entire cotton crop being on the market within a certain period tli at they actually sell the results of the farmers labor twelve months in advance And so far the farmers have quietly sub mitted Why Because their shortsighted policy has rendered them powerless to resist Ninetynine onehundredths of our farmers are compelled to force their cotton on the markets early in the season and the speculators thus become masters of the situa tion Full barns and full storehouses in the South mean inde pendence to Southern farmers because their cotton crop is thus released from bondage and they can exercise their judgment as to when and how to seM it E T NESBITT Commissioner52 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA FALSE STATEMENT NAILED MR NESBITT DID NOT SAY COTTON COULD BE RAISED AT 34 CESTS It has come to my knowledge that a report is being circulated over Georgia that the head of this department has said that Georgia farmers could raise cotton profitably at 3 cents a pound Such a report being well calculated to injure the usefulness of this de partment therefore in justice to the department and all concerned I feel impelled to correct the false statement The following from The Cherokee Advance fully explains the matter COLONEL NESBITT WAS UNINTENTIONALLY MISREPRESENTED In making mention of Martin V Calvin retiring from the race for Commissioner of Agriculture two weeks ago in which we made impartial reference to the candidacy of Commissioner Nesbitt and Colonel 0 B Stevens we said that Colonel Nesbitts mistake of advocating the raising of H cent cotton at a profit is hurting him no little In making this statement we unintentionally did Colonel iNes bitt an injustice and now gladly make the correction While the statement was made and published in the reports issued from the Department of Agriculture volume 18 1892 page 30 it was the result of an experiment made at the Experiment Station under the direction of Director Redding which gave the result of several tests showing that cotton could be raised even at H cents per pound On one thorough test however the publication referred to above said Mr Kimbrough the agriculturist estimates the aggregate cost of plowing harvesting hoeing picking and fertilizersnothing being allowed for interest on the land or superintendenceat am amount which would make the cost of the cotton 3 cents per pound of lint Colonel Nesbitt did not say that He only published this experiment with other tests made at the Experiment Station and we trust that our readers will so rememberANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893 53 INFORMATION FOR FARMERS STATE AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT REPLIES TO MANY INQUIRIES QUESTION There is a bug eating up my Irish potato plants a specimen of which I send you Is there any sure remedy for them and if so what is it What is the name of the bug ANSWER The insect you enclosed is called the Colorado potato beetle and is very destructive to the Irish potato crop They have only ap peared in Georgia during the last few years but are now thoroughly domiciled and fortunate is the owner whose patch or field of Irish potatoes is not attacked by them They should be attacked on their first appearance as they multiply rapidly and any delay ren ders it more difficult to get rid of them They may easily be distin guished from the striped blister beetle also an enemy to the potato plant but less destructive the latter being much more slender in body and longer with longer legs greater activity and more ready to take flight A very effective remedy against the Colorado beetle especially on first appearance is to pick them off by hand at the same time destroying their eggs which may be found on the under side of the potato leaves in masses and are easily recognized by their orange color The usual remedy is to dust or spray the plants with either Paris green or London purple If dusting is preferred use one part of the poison to five parts of flour and two to three parts of air slaked lime or finely sifted ashes Apply with a sifter or perforated pan If spraying is preferred use 6 to 7 ounces of either poison to 50 gallons of water Most persons prefer London purple because of its cheapness and better mechanical condition being as a rule more finely powdered than the Paris green These applications may have to be repeated two or three times during the season Remember that Paris green and London purple are both deadly poisons and should be handled most carefully In dusting apply in the morning while the dew is on the plant54 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA TO DISTINGUISH THE ENGLISH WALNUT SCALE FROM THE SAN JOSE SCALE QUESTION We have had what is called the English walnut scale on our or chard How may we distinguish it from the San Jose scale ANSWER A tree infested with the San Jose scale presents different ap pearances according as it is badly infested or only slightly infested AY hen thoroughly encrusted with this insect the tree takes on a grayishbrown ashy appearance as though the trunk and limbs had been painted with dampened ashes By scraping the limb with a knife the scales may be removed cohering like a mass of wet bran If the tree is only slightly infested the bark will be found to be clotted here and there with very dark gray often black scales about 11G of an inch in diameter surrounded by a purplish tinge of the bark The blackish appearance of this scale is especially notice able during the winter and spring Later in the season when the overwintered insect reaches maturity the scale takes on more of the grayish appearance Aided by a pocket microscope the female scale will be seen to be circular and conical in outline terminating at the center by a minute nipple like prominence surrounded by a distinct ring The male scales are smaller and elongated with the nipple near the anterior end The English walnut scale is larger about onetwelfth of an inch in diameter and more flattened than the San Jose scale It is circular in outline and of a pale grayishbrown color The nipple like prominence is at one side of the center and is reddishbrown By raising the waxy scale the body of the insect is revealed which is larger and of a paler yellow color than that of the San Jose scale When one once becomes familiar with these two scales it is not difficult to distinguish them Left unchecked both will eventually kill trees which they attack but the San Jose is much more prolific and less time is required for its destruction of the infested plant V M SCOTT EntomologistANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893 55 TO DEVELOP TOMATOES EVENLY AND GIVE THEM UNIFORM COLOR QUESTION Although I have succeeded in raising very large crops of toma toes I have had great difficulty in ripening them uniformly and while some are smooth and evenly developed a large per cent are rough and uneven which of course injures their market qualities If you can give me some hints to enable me to overcome these draw backs I will be greatly obliged ANSWER While tomatoes will grow and produce abundantly on any me dium soil there is one essential to their successful cultivation and that is very thorough preparation If the land is subsoiled so much the better and it should then be harrowed and reharrowed until not a lump remains It is not necessary to broadcast the manure if a complete commercial fertilizer with a preponderance of pot ash and phosphoric acid is used Use a handful of this a handful of wood ashes and a tablespoonful of nitrate of soda to each plant being careful to mix thoroughly with the soil and to prevent any of these ingredients touching the plant After the plants are set that is in two or three days give them a thorough working with the harrow or cultivator and of course the weeds are to be kept down throughout the growing season When the fruit begins to set repeat the application of fertilizer By this plan the plants are strong and stocky and the fruit abundant and evenly developed Stable manure may be used but it should be thoroughly decom posed made fine and mixed with the soil If the plants are troubed with insect enemies they should be sprayed according to the directions we have frequently given TO UTILIZE WET LAND QUESTION I have some wet land which is very rich but I have never been able to cultivate it with success Can you advise me as to what plan I shall pursue to get the best return from it It generally dries off some time in May56 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA ANSWER There are two or three plans by which you can make such land profitable but the foundation of each is thorough preparation As soon as it is dry enough to be worked plow it that is break it up deeply and thoroughly and harrow until smooth Now sw it in peas some upright variety which can be cut for hay AY hen these are taken off plow and harrow again and set in Bermuda grass It will make a permanent pasture or royal hay Some of the finest Bermuda hay is produced on just such lands in this State Another plan which we have seen highly recommended is the following After the preparatory plowing and harrowing keep down the weeds by harrowing once a week until the middle of June then sow in millet a bushel to the acre if grown for seed a bushel and a half if grown for haythe German millet if the seed is to be used the Hungarian if for hay When this crop is taken off go over the field two or three times with a cutaway harrow in opposite direc tions so as to thoroughly break up the surface Repeat this op eration every week or ten days until the middle of September and then sow timothy at the rate of a third of a bushel to the acre with 250 pounds of fertilizer harrowing it in lightly By either plan you will have a permanent meadow which can be grazed or cut as you prefer EFFECT OF MINERAL MANURES QUESTION Do mineral manures tend to exhaust the nitrogen in the soil 3 ANSWER The mineral manures enable the plants to make use of the nitric acid that is in the soil Indeed if they are absent the crops can not take up this nitric acid no matter how great the amount that is diffused through the soil Therefore the mineral manures can not be strictly said to exhaust the nitrogen for although they cause the plant to take up a larger amount than they otherwise would this does not increase the exhaustion as the minerals only arrest and hold for the use of the crops that which would otherwise be washed awayANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893 57 JUNE FOEAGE CEOPS THE HOPE OF FARMERS BEST MEANS OF SUPPLEMENTING FOOD SUPPLIES NESBITT GIVES POINTERS AGRICULTURAL COMMISSIONER ON THE COURSE TO PURSUE IN VIEW OF THE HIGH WHEAT PRICES AND WITH THE PROSPECT OF A CONTINUANCE OF SUCH MARKET CONDITIONS Department of Agriculture Atlanta June 1 1898 With wheat quoted at an almost unprecedented figure and prices of other food crops advancing and with the prospects of such market conditions being sustained for at least some months to come prudent farmers are now casting about for practical means of sup plementing their food supplies There is no section of the world in which a greater variety of FORAGE CROPS may be grown than in the South and as a measure of safety it would be well for Georgia farmers to put in such of these crops as our surroundings and opportunities render possible First and foremost comes FORAGE CORN AS A FODDER CROP OR FOR SILAGE As to the best methods of managing this crop there are somewhat conflicting opinions but these result from a misapprehension rather than from any real difference in the proper plans for planting cul tivating etc It depends upon the purpose for which the crop is intended as to which method should be adopted If the crop is intended for fodder that is to be cut and cured the object is to secure a large yield of small and medium sized stalks having an abundance of leaves and little grain The plants may therefore be planted in narrow rows and crowded in the drill In curing this crop the surplus moisture is dried out and we have a nutritious58 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA forage which supplemented with grain makes a good and com plete ration But in planting corn for the silo the object is to se cure a good yield of well developed stalks each one bearing at least one well grown ear upon it The plants must not be crowded too closely together The rows should be at least 3 to 4 feet apart and the plants should stand from 15 to 20 inches in the row If the plants stand closer than this the stalks do not have room to ma ture sufficiently and the consequence is watery stalks and the ears which form are not well filled with grain Silage made from such corn as this is apt to be very unsatisfactorysour and innutritions From this explanation we see that fodder corn should be crowded as close as the strength of the land will admit while a corn crop intended for the silo should have sufficient distance to produce a heavy yield of stalks and ears sufficiently matured to be cured into good sweet silage THE PEA CROP Field peas give us another crop for forage of which too much cannot be said Among the many advantages of this crop is the fact that it can be sown from May until July and also that it can be utilized as a threefold food for man for beast and for the land No matter in what way we decide to use it it will return with in terest whatever amount we have invested in it MILLET Millet also may be seeded at any time from May to August and though it requires richer land and more thorough preparation than corn or peas it is a good investment where forage promises to be short One bushel of German millet sown on an acre of land well prepared and the seed harrowed in will make a heavy yield and when cured at the proper time that is before the seeds mature will make a most acceptable addition to our forage supply SORGHUM Sorghum is a crop which should find a place on every Georgia farm It is not affected by drouth to the ruinous degree that our ANNUA PUBLICATION FOR 1893 59 corn crop often is and the stalk and the grain are both excellent food for cattle and hogs besides which there is usually a good de mand for the syrup With the improved system of evaporating now in general use the syrup has become a desirable article of food in most farm households During the hot season the man who is fortunate enough to have a sorghum patch is assured of green food for his Stock when every other crop is drying up while the cured fodder makes a nutritious and appetizing feed for the winter months It is not too late to plant any of these four cropsindeed all may be planted later than this date and under favorable conditions will be very satisfactory Though there are other crops which in time may supersede them we would advise as we have these four forage crops of such well known value and with the cultivation of which we are so thor oughly familiar that we do not venture except by way of experi ment on a small scale on the culture of new and untried crops It is well for each farmer to give his attention to these new crops and to thoroughly satisfy himself as to their merits before undertaking their culture to any large extent In these days when inquiries are constantly being received at this department as to the value and efficiency of certain insecticides raid when Paris green is coming into such general use the follow ing CHEAP SUBSTITUTE FOR PARIS GREEN which has been thoroughly tested at the Ohio Experiment Station may be of service in reducing the cost in cases where larger quanti ties are used White arsenic in a soluble form costs about onethird as much as Paris green and unlike the latter gives no trouble in the way of settling Paris green does not dissolve readily and needs constant agitation to keep it from settling Here is the formula Dissolve 2 pounds of commercial white arsenic and 4 pounds of carbonate of soda washing soda in 2 gallons of water and use 1J pints of this mixture to 50 gallons of Bordeaux mixture This0 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA will be found sufficient for any purpose where a combination mix ture of fungous and insect pests is required As for instance po tato blight fungus and potato bugs insect apple scab fun gus and apple worms insect The easiest May says the bulletin to make the solution is to put both the white arsenic and the carbonate of soda in a gallon of boiling water keep boiling about 15 minutes or until a clear liquid is formed and then dilute to 2 gallon This is the season when it is necessary to wage an unceasing war fare against all kinds of insects and fungous pests and the above combination of Bordeaux and white arsenic is effective in destroy ing a large proportion of these most annoying and destructive ene mies The horticulturist or farmer indeed any man who looks to the products of the soil as the reward of his labor would do well to study the disease and insects which are liable to attack his special crops and at the first indication of their presence use active and prompt measures to prevent serious injury Sometimes a few days1 delay in using proper remedies is fatal more especially in the rap idly maturing crops Personal observation in the different sections of the state confirm the reports of promising crop conditions al though in some sections the dry weather has retarded the satisfac tory development of the young plants and cut off the oat crop E T KESBTTT Commissioner COXDITIOX OF THE CEOPS REDUCED COTTON AREA AND CORN SMALL THROUGHOUT THE STATE COTTON This crop somewhat retarded by high winds and cool nights in May Acreage less than last year Stands not good in many counties on account of dry weather Some fields have had to be replanted Elants small Cultivation good Will improve with the advent of warm nights and hot sunsANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893 CORN 61 Small throughout the state on account of cool weather in April and want of rain Stands fairly sood Some damage from cut worms OATS Have suffered greatly from drouth particularly in South Geor gia where many fields have been ruined The crop is so injured by dry weather that the yield will not be up to the average WHEAT Largest acreage planted in years At least twice as much as last year Prospects fine for the best crops in many years Very little rust reported and the crop is almost assured The good price will be a great boon to the farmers of North Georgia CANE Acreage greater than last year Stands not good on account of the unprecedented drouth through South Georgia RICE Increased acreage and plants doing well where irrigation is used Upland rice small and backward Minor crops such as potatoes hay etc have suffered in many counties for want of rain FRUITS The peach crop promises to be one of the largest ever made All oilier fruits except apples promise well The strawberry crop though somewhat injiued by the cold snap in April rallied later on and an immense crop will be marketed Blackberries and other small fruits are promising in profusion Melons are doing well62 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA INFORMATION OX FARMING STATE AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT REPLIES TO A NUMBER OF INQUIRIES QUESTIQiN Please advise me about composting For several years I have composted my stable manure with cottonseed chemicalsrich earth etc but it is a heavy job and requires so much extra work in hand ling that I have been debating in my own mind whether some other plan would not pay better Recently my attention has been called to articles in agricultural journals on this subject in which the writers say this plan will soon become a thing of the past Do you agree with this view or what would you advise ANSWER It is not advisable to handle a heavy article like manure any more than is absolutely necessary and where it is possible to haul the manure directly to the land we have found that it pays better than the more costly plan of composting But often the hauling cannot be done when in the busy season every mule and frm hand is engaged in the different crops Under such circum stances rather than allow the manure to accumulate in the stables to the manifest injury of the animals or to waste it by throwing it in loose piles in the stable yards we would select wet days when it is not possible to work in the fields and put the manure in com pact compost heaps when its valuable constituents will be held until such time as we can irtilize them Where a farmer has a large number of cattle which he is feeding for market which prac tice is becoming quite extended since cottonseed meal and hulls afford such a cheap and certain means of fattening beeves it is a good plan except in severe weather to pen the cattle directly on the land to be improved Near Atlanta there are 25 acres of most magnificent oats sown the last of May nearly ready for cut ting which arc a striking and wonderful object lesson as to the wisdom of this policy The manure from feeding the hulls and meal contains elements of fertility in the highest degree beneficial to both land and crop The following on this subject from ProANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1S9S 63 fessor Massey is both opportune and practical and outlines an economical plan not only for utilizing farm manures but for ob taining at a comparative small cost a part at least of that expensive element nitrogen which is an absolute essential to successful farm ing Of course we cannot expect to feed cattle enough to enrich the entire farm each year but by pursuing this plan even on a lim ited area one will be surprised at the results in the increased yield of crop No matter how carefully the manure is handled while in the stable or barnyard there will be a constant loss and there is less of loss when it is spread on the land than anywhere else Let one hauling do for the homemade manure and let that be to get it out and spread it broadcast on the land where the corn crop is to be planted Then if the corn is followed by a crop of winter oats as it should be in the cotton belt there will be found enough to carry the oat crop through success Then after the oats are cut give all the land a liberal dose of the mineral plant foods that the pea de lights inacid phosphate and potash in the form of muriate of potash Spread this also broadcast for the broadcast use of manures and fertilizers is what tends to the improvement of the land and its building up for improved crops Then sow the land in peas and by the use of the previous dressing of 300 to 400 pounds of the phosphate and potash mixture you should get a crop of hay that will enable you to feed more stock than ever and thus raise more manure to put out broadcast But what we especially wanted to oppose was the laborious hauling of earth manure cottonseeds and all sorts of rubbish to make a pile and to turn and mix and pile and repile the mixture thinking by this process the whole will become stable manure is a great waste of labor If there are valuable accumulations of wood and mold handy haul it and spread it on the land and haul and spread the stable manure and put your cottonseed down in a furrow deep between the ctton rows where after it has rotted the cotton roots will find it just wThen they need it mostat fruit time Acid phosphate and potash spread broadcast on the land for a big crop of peas will leave nitrogen enough in the land for the cot ton that is to follow and you will need to buy if anything only64 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA the same mineral fertilizers while the great crop of peavine hay will enable you to feed more stock and to add a profitable industry for the winter in selling beeves or milk and butter WHAT SHOULD FARMERS DO TO RAISE COTTON AT A PROFIT QUESTION I have seen the unjust criticisms which have been spread abroad in regard to the experiment carried on at the Georgia Experiment Station as to the cost of raising cotton I remember the manner in which your words were at the time perverted and also the eff irt which has all along been made to get political capital out of what was really a most sound piece of advice to farmers This was six years ago and if this advice had been generally heeded much of the subsequent hardship consequent on the low price of cotton would have been avoided indeed I with many others believe that the price of cotton would have been maintained at a reasonable fig ure because under your system it would have been impossible to so overcrowd the markets as to make our staple crop almost value less as it has been except to cotton buyers and speculators the far mer not being in it Reviewing the past years and all that has been said pro and con as to the low price of cotton cost of pro duction etc what is your present opinion as to how we shall meet and combat conditions which so far have proven too much for us ANSWER My position on this question is the same today that it was six years ago namely that when a farmer has made ample arrange ments to raise a full supply of bread and meat for his family and food for his cattle mules and other farm stuck then lie is at lib erty and not until then to cultivate in cotton all the land which he can successfully manage And just here I would emphasize the fact that at present low prices no cotton crop can be a success where it takes three acres of land to make one bale of cotton We must by a vstem of terracing to hold the fertility of our lands by deep plowing to hold the moisture and to utilize heretofore unsuspected elements of plant food by planting renovating cropsANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 65 by rotation and by manuring intelligently managed change the results from acres to the bale to bales to the acre I am aware that many who have not studied this question will maintain that this system is not justified by the extremely low prices which have ruled during the past season but it is just here that the mistake comes in If by careful and judicious management the yield can be doubled or trebled I am satisfied from observation and personal experience that instead of being a loser the farmer will be a gainer end that instead of being extravagant it is the most economical as well as the most intelligent method that can be followed The almost universal practice of forcing a few more pounds of cotton from our hard run fields by the simple application of 100 or 200 pounds of commercial fertilizers is bringing our lands to poverty and our farmers to want 5aCO DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA JULY WOEST DROUTH IN NUMBER OF YEARS THE SPRING PLANTED OAT CROP SUFFERS GREATLYWHEAT NOT SO UVIUCKYCOMMISSIONER NESBITT REVIEWS THE AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS IN AN INTERESTING LETTER TO GEORGIA FARMERS AND ONCE MORE POINTS OUT THE IM PORTANCE OF THOROUGH PREPARATIONTHE OAT CROP Department of Agriculture Atanta July 1 1898 The drouth which has prevailed for several weeks throughout the State is said to be the most severe known at this season of the year for twenty years The wheat crop which is much heavier than usual escaped with comparatively little injury hut the oat crop particularly the springplanted fields and more especially those in which the seed were carelessly put in and imperfectly fer tilized has suffered severelyin some sections of the State may be denominated a total failure We need no better illustration of the importance of thorough preparation and fertilization than is afforded by the yields of this crop throughout the State The results of the long continued drouth have most fully confirmed the oftrepeated assertion that successful cropping depends in great measure on thorough preparation of the soil before the seed are put in It has been fully demonstrated that if we take the precaution of providing a wellstored reservoir in a deeply prepared seedbed then when the demand for moisture comes and the grow ing plants begin to droop for lack of necessary rain from above Mother Nature will come to our rescue and through the power of capillary action will pump up from the reserve supply which we have stored in lower depths the lifegiving revivifying moist ure so necessary for plant growth Here we have beautifully il lustrated the manner in which the intelligent farmer may on the erv brink of failure wrestANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 189S G7 SUCCESS from adverse circumstances If he lias studied natures laws he knows that when the upper soil becomes dry if there is a reserve supply of moisture stored in the subsoil the power of capillary action will draw it to the surface But his knowledge must not stop here He must also have learned that it is impossible to keep this moisture in reach of the growing plants if a crust is allowed to form and remain on the surface When that crust remains and is unbroken no power can prevent the evaporation of the moist ure which comes to the surface through the capillary tubes It is the farmers province and privilege to so break up these tubes that the moisture may be held in check and in reach of the growing plants long enough for them to absorb its lifegiving properties before they become dissipated into the atmosphere To do this he must by constant SHALLOW CULTIVATION keep a thin mulch of finely pulverized surfacesoil spread over his fields The man who thoroughly understands the importance of this principle will never allow a crust to remain on his land longer than he can run a shallow broad furrow to break it up The need of this rapid work accentuates the importance of widecutting plows and expanding cultivators JULY has often been called the pivotal month because if the work is not carefully planned and adjusted much of our previous effort will count for naught In laying by our crops we should re member that the network of delicate roots just beneath the surface permeates the entire field and that we should be as careful to avoid injuring these as we are to prevent the breaking and tearing of the leaves and stalks above the ground DURATION OF CULTIVATION Plowing at this season should be regulated very much by the habits and condition of the different crops For instance work in68 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA the latematuring largegrowing varieties of cotton may cease sooner than in the shorter limbed earlymaturing kinds because when the growth of these large varieties is thus checked they begin to take on fruit which they would not do to the same extent if then luxuriant leaf growth were encouraged by continued cultivation On the other hand if the smaller and quicker maturing varieties are developing favorably a shallow center furrow even well into August will be of benefit We should always keep in mind that the object of plowing at this season is not to break the soil to any depthone inch is enoughbnt to keep down any incipient weeds or grass to check evaporation and to promote the access of air to the plant roots OTHER WORK FOR THE MONTH Peas for forage may be sown until the last of July and if en couraged by an application of acid phosphate and potash will store up in the soil for our future use the third and most important as well as most expensive element of plant foodnitrogen As we have time and opportunity we should also decide on our fall cam paign what crops we will plant and what fields apportion to eacn one Any successful SYSTEM OF ROTATION must recognize certain fixed laws The most important of these is that crops of like growth and habits extracting the same ele ments of plant food from the soil in similar proportions should not follow each other but should be succeeded by those which while demanding the same elements will absorb them under dif ferent conditions and in different proportions thus in a measure equalizing the draft upon the resources of the soil In considering the FALL CROPS RYE should be given an important place It not only furnishes first class green food for the cold months but as a renovator and ac cumutator of humus cannot be too highly prized It is hardyannual Publication for i89s and besides performing the above important offices it acts as a stay to the winter floods which otherwise rush over our bare fields September is early enough to sow any of these fall grain crops but July is none too early to plan for our wheat oats and rye fields A pea stubble is a firstclass beginning for either wheat or oats as both demand a full supply of nitrogen If rye is sown on the pea stubble it continues the work of renovation begun by the pea crop and when turned under in the spring lays the foundation for boun teous crops of either corn or cotton R T KESBITT Commissioner CONDITION OF THE CROPS DRY WEATHER INJURES CORN AND COTTON IS SOMEWHAT RE TARDEDCOTTON Throughout the State the cotton fields are well worked and free from grass The stands are fairly good and the plants as a rule healthy On account of the dry spring the growth has been some what retarded and the weed is not as large as it should be at this date No reports of lice or other insect enemies as yet and with plenty of rain for the next six or eight weeks the crop may turn out well The cotton plant needs but little rain in the earlier stages of its growth but as it takes on fruit abundant moisture is required for its proper growth and development and a further continuation of the dry weather of the past six weeks would prove almost ruinous COHN This crop has been injured by the dry weather particularly so in the southern portion of the State The rains have been very partial some localities being favored with an average fall while others in the same neighborhood have seriously suffered There has been no general heavy rainfall covering the entire State dur ing the year consequently rivers have been low branches and70 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA creeks have dried up wells have failed and in some places it lias been difficult to get any water for any purpose Of course the crop has suffered more or less under these circumstances and will be undoubtedly cut off to a considerable extent The fields how ever have been well worked and are clean and in good condition and with abundant and immediate rains Middle and North Geor gia may still make good crops OATS This crop has been a disappointment to those who planted in the spring the want of rain rendering the crop in many cases worthless Fallplanted oats did very well as a rule though they would have turned out better with more rain in April I again advise farmers to plant at least half of their oat crops in the early fall The chances of their being winteikilled are less than the chances of the spring oats being ruined by a dry May WHEAT This crop has been harvested threshed and I hope sold In many years the State has not made a better or more abundant crop and I trust that the farmers of the wheat section of Georgia will feel encouraged by this years experience to engage still more largely in its cultivation Since harvesting commenced the price has steadily dropped but I trust that the wheat growers of Geor gia received not less than 1 a bushel for their crops MINOR CROPS such as corn sorghum sweet potatoes rice etc have all felt the bad effects of a hot dry spring General and abundant rains are required all over the State to bring these crops out so that an aver age yield may be expected Gardens and pastures have been badly injured in every county in the State Recent showers have caused a little improvement in both but general and heavy rains are neces sary to bring about any marked improvementANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893 71 FRUIl Peaches and watermelons are being marketed and the prospect is good for an abundant crop of each Watermelons so far are small for want of rain Peaches will be small also for the same reason and because of overbearing The berry crops have all been injured by dry weather Grapes promise to be abundant Apple crop poor LWQUIKY BOX FOE MONTH THE STATE AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT REPLIES TO QUESTIONS QUESTION I would like to know something more about vetches Some time ago I read your article on this subject and as I wish to ex periment a little on this line I write to ask if it is advisable to sow now or would it be best to wait until fall If we can get a certain crop that will give us green food in the late winter and early spring one difficulty that the farmer has to contend against will be over come and if this can be done with a nitrogen gathering crop which will at the same time benefit the land farming at the South will have made a long step forward ANSWER In the Southern States vetches should be sown in the late sum mer or early fall The hairy vetch is preferred for our climate and should be sown from the middle of August to the middle of September according to seasons Spring vetches seem more par ticularly suited to northern latitudes indeed have proved a signal failure in our climate Hairy vetch will stand a good amount of cold and drouth but it does not like a damp soil any excess of water is very injurious to it and it seems to prefer a sandy soil At the Mississippi Experiment Station heavy annual crops have been realized from a piece of land sown in 1888 which has never been reseeded Stock is taken off and cuttings cease in March the plants mature and scatter their seed over the ground which begin72 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA to germinate with the first fall rains If the crop is intended to be cut for forage and is sown broadcast about a bushel of winter oats or rye or wheat should be be sown at the same time These will furnish a support for the vines and prevent them from trailing on the ground The difficulty of cutting the crop properly will thus be obviated When cut for hay the plants should be in full bloom The kidney vetch is another variety which is recommended for poor thin calcareous or very sandy soils which will not support clovers or better forage crops but from the result of experiments with it it cannot be recom mended as of much value The hairy vetch however has a high endorsement Stock are very fond of it It has a high feeding value It may be cvired for hay or pastured and is a most ex cellent plant for soiling When once fairly established it with stands drouths and extremes of temperature Most of the seed are imported from Europe and as yet are highpriced which is the chief present difficulty in the way of its general introduction Its cultivation is however increasing and we hope to see the day when the muchneeded green crop to fill up the hiatus between late winter and early spring will be found in the vetches of which so little is now generally known We would like to know the result of your experience if you decide to try the experiment this fall SORGHUM AS A FORAGE PLANT QUESTION Is sorghum a good plant for feeding green and for making hay If so what variety would you recommend and how to plant and save ANSWER Sorghum is a most excellent forage plant to feed either green or to save as hay It does best on rich loamy soils but will do well on any soil that will produce fair crops of corn or cotton Prepare the land well and bed as you would for cotton in 3 feet rows using from 300 to 400 pounds of a complete fertilizer AboutANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893 78 cotton planting time open a shallow furrow and drill the seed from a half bushel to three pecks to the acre Cultivate shallow and often When grown for forage it is not necessary to thin out though thinning is very essential when the sorghum is grown for syrupmaking The Early Amber and Minnesota Early Amber are excellent varieties as are also the Early Orange and Kansas Orange Sorghum will do better on thin soils and will stand drouth better than corn For making hay cut soon after it begins to bloom and put up in small shocks until cured For feeding green cutting should be begun as soon as the plants begin to form heads Stir the ground with a cultivator or plow immediately after har vesting a crop and the sorghum will continue to grow and make a second and third cutting Feed but little at first increasing the amount day by day until the stock become accustomed to it ABOUT SUBSOILING QUESTION Is it not injurious to land to subsoil at this season 1 am a young farmer but I have always heard that it was dangerous to bring the clay to the surface after the late fall or early winter ANSWER You are under a misapprehension as to the meaning of subsoil ing This is not a turning of the clay to the surface but it is the breaking up of the subsoil at the bottom of the furrow and leaving it there This may be done by following in the bottom of the fur row which is made by an ordinary plow with a long narrow scooter or a bull tongue Or it may be accomplished with one furrow made by a subsoilplow constructed especially for this purpose In either case it is simply breaking up the lower soil which is not reached by an ordinary plow This plan will expose it to the action of the air will drain it of surplus water or make it more retentive of necessary moisture and by thus increasing its porosity or powers of absorption will not only regulate the moisture 74 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA for the use of crop but will bring into service its heretofore locked up and insoluble elements of plant food BEAN RUST QUESTION Last year my beans were attacked by a disease which my neigh bors called bean rust When I discovered the trouble it was too late to prevent the damage It seemed to be more on the pods than anywhere else although a large per cent of the leaves event ually became affected The little round spots first appeared on the pods when about half grown and the pods turned dark and seemed to shrink up around those spots Sometimes they were pink and again red If there is any way of preventing this I want to begin in time this year What is the disease and is there any remedy ANSWER The disease which you describe is anthracnose and the best pre ventive after the beans are planted is Bordeaux mixture with which the plants should be sprayed But a better preventive still is to plant only bright plump seed As the disease lives in the seed from one season to another all seed should be carefully ex amined and only the perfectly sound ones used All which are shriveled or imperfect should be rejected HANDLING LATE POTATOES Those who have rather late ground on which potatoes are to be planted will find it worth while to sprout the seed now Merely set them in a warm light place and let them send out shoots about three inches long As soon as the ground can be worked plant the potatoes handling them carefully so as not to break off the shoots allowing one sprout to each piece of seed In this way potatoes can be raised on late land as soon as on early and by the ordinary methodANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893 CHEMICAL WEED DESTROYER 75 Professor Shutt of the experiment farms at Ottawa Canada recommends the following very simple compound for destroying weeds and grass Two pounds of sulphate of copper or blue vitriol and six gallons of hot water Dissolve and apply as a spray or through an ordinary sprinkling pot76 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA AUGUST CROPS IN GEORGIA HELPED BY RAINS HO FURTHER CULTIVATION AFTER THIS DATE REQUIRED WORK FOR COMING MONTHCOMMISSIONER OF AGRICULT URE NESBITT URGES CONTINUED ACTIVITY IN CARRYING OUT ALL PLANS FORMULATED AT THE BEGINNING OF THE YEAR Department of Agriculture Atlanta Ga August 1 1898 The widely distributed rains following the longcontinued drouth have caused some shedding of the cotton and in some in stances came too late to rescue the corn crop but as a rule crops throughout the State are in good condition and further cultivation after this date is not only unnecessary but might prove actually hurtful The laying by of these standard crops should not mean a cessation of farm activity nor an entire abandonment of the plans so carefully formulated in the beginning of the year For tunately for Georgia the strictly cotton farm except in rare in stances is a thing of the past in nearly all sections of the State there is hay to be saved orchards and vineyards to be looked after cattle and hogs to re ceive the proper care and lastly fall crops to be prepared for Another important branch of his work to which the average farmer lms been so far wofully indifferent is the destruction ot the various insect enemies which are beginning to infest our fields and depredate on our crops To keep these in check it has become necessary that each individual farmer wage an incessant warfare on them At this season much may be done to destroy their breeding places In the stubble fields in the fence corners and in many byplaces they will be found entrenched preparing for their winter accommodation in order to be ready in the spring to start out on their destructive work with the first warm days If neglected now the result will be an astonishing increase in num bers and in the amount of injury to various cropsANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 77 In Tennessee in 1894 the chinchbug was observed in different sections of the State but not in numbers sufficient to cause any alarm and no precautions were taken to prevent their reappearance In 1895 a territory of nearly 600 square miles was literally cov ered by these depredators and the farmers in this section not only sustain great loss by the actual injury to their crops but were compelled to at considerable expense destroy the hordes of bugs which infested every part of their fields We need not therefore lay the flattering unction to our souls that the season of laying by is a season of entire rest While there may be a compara tive letup in the driving work necessary to the proper manage ment of your standard crops there are still various farm operations just as important which should not be laid by Indeed after nearly forty years experience on the farm we have come to the conclusion that for the uptodate farmer layingby time comes only when life itself ceases FALL CROPS Because we have failed in one or even two trials with crimson clover we should not abandon the attempt to grow it It is cer tainly a most valuable adjunct to our forage supply besides per forming for our lands during the winter the work which the pea crop accomplishes in the summer namely storing up both humus and nitrogen for future crops The general mistake in planting fall oats and rye two of our most important crops is that they are put in too late and the land is not made rich enough If the seed are put in early and the crop forced forward by high manuring the result is usually most satisfactory In verycold weather it is always the rich spots which escape sometimes when the poor thin spots are entirely killed out The present year the spring oats were an entire failure while the fall crop was unusually fine August is none too early to begin the preparations for all crops to be sown in the fall After the land is thoroughly broken it should be harrowed and re harrowed until smooth and fine Time was when the preparation and cultivation of our lands though of the rudest and most im78 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA perfect character produced phenomenal crops because the virgin soil abounded in the elements of plant food But today thought ful farmers realize the fact that even in our incomparable climate where we can produce two or three crops on the same land each year the time has passed when muscle can count against brain All over the State we begin to see the evidence of this BRAIN WORK Intelligent energy is taking the place of mere plodding The farmers who have a welldefined thoroughlystudied plan which they follow with unfailing pertinacity are the men who are forging to the front in successful agriculture Science by its discovery of complete plant foods and by its equally important findings as to the food requirements of different crops points out the means but it remains for the farmer to take hold of these means and by judi cious rotation of crops thorough preparation of the land and proper cultivation to promote the chemical changes necessary to the most profitable development of his business Some of the results of such careful methods are seen in the yields of wheat and oats reported to this department the present year larger than ever before in some cases almost phenomenal STANDARD BALE Equally important with the careful saving and haling of our cotton is the necessity of meeting the complaints made by the various transportation companies and mills against the different sizes of our American bales The loss of space in storing these bales and the generally damaged condition in which our cotton reaches foreign markets have given rise to a general protest and as about threefourths of our cotton is handled by European buy ers it is to our interest to meet their demands in this respect The discriminations which may be made against our cotton on account of these objections may amount in the aggregate to an in credible sum Tt has been found after several tests that the best size for convenience of handling and storing is the bale made from a press measuring 24 inches in width by 54 inches in length ThisANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 189S 7 is the size advocated by all the cotton growers associations This size 24x54 has been found to press to a greater density and after being compressed for final shipment the original bagging will en tirely cover the compressed bale and thus much of the injury from the rough handling of our cotton will be prevented All this redounds to the interest of the farmer because all the extra expenses from waste of space higher insurance and actual waste of cotton are charged against his cotton in the general ac count and any method which will reduce these expenses will add that much to the price In a circular addressed to the ginners of the South issued by J H Sloan of Augusta Ga one of the leading cotton men of the South he says that our cotton as a rule reaches the European manufacturers in such badly damaged condition that they refuse to pay a good price for it He has made a study of this subject and is in a position which gives him every opportunity of ascer taining its true status In his address to the ginners he says We take the liberty of calling your attention to the importance of exerting all our efforts in favor of the adoption of the standard size cotton bale which is a bale made in a pressbox measuring on the inside twentyfour inches wide by fiftyfour inches long and deep enough to make a bale weighing about 500 pounds It is well understood that the more cotton that can be stowed in a steamer the less the freight and consequently the more the cot ton grower will receive for his crop It naturally seems that a few inches in the size of bales would make no difference but a few inches running irregularly through an ocean steamer amounts to a great loss of space and in stowing bales of irregular sizes they are so screwed in oddshaped spaces as to often break and nearly always are torn and twisted out of shape by the time they reach the foreign ports The lost spaces also form air passages and in case of a fire the damage is much greater consequently the insur ance is higher than it should be The same complaints are made by the railroads and by the mills when they put their cotton in warehouses We think we have fully explained the reasons for this change80 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA and that it is to your interest to do all that is in your power to have every one make this change by next season As a general rule the press boxes will have to be made smaller either one way or both This can be done with very little expense by lining the inside with boards one lining on another where the size is to be reduced several inches Then the followblock can be sawn off to fit the box The cost of making this change in most cases will not exceed 500 We have received letters from a majority of the ginners in our territory and they promise to alter their press boxes to the standard size We respectfully solicit the cooperation of all growers and those interested in the cotton crop to urge upon the ginners the importance of making all bales of the standard size as the success of this movement and the benefits to be derived from it depend upon them We are confident that a large majority of the ginners will make this change but it is necessary that the change be as near universal as possible Let farmers interest themselves in this to them vital question and urge upon their ginners the importance of a uniform size for press boxes E T NESBITT Commissioner CONDITION OF THE CEOPS FRESH GROWTH AND VIGOR TAKEN ON SINCE RECENT HEAVY RAINS For the past two or three weeks rains have been quite general over the State and in consequence the growing crops have taken on fresh growth and vigor COTTOV In most of the counties there has been too much rain for this crop and unless there is very speedily more sunshine and less moisture the damage will be very serious Complaints are comANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893 81 ing in from various points of rust black rot blight shedding etc and all these are aggravated by excessive rain particularly on the light lands of the State The fields are generally too wet to plow and grass is getting troublesome in some localities The crop is just at its critical stage and the next few weeks will decide as to the result At this date I think the outlook poor for a full crop in Georgia Fair weather with occasional moderate rains is what the plant needs now but in place of these we are having cloudy weather with heavy rains CORN This crop has improved wonderfully in the past few weeks and the State is now almost sure of a plentiful supply of this our most valuable grain crop The very early corn in South and Middle Georgia has been seriously injured by the dry weather of May and June and yet in many cases this corn with a dwarfed stalk and looking as though it would make nothing has been revived has put out bold shoots and will make threefourths of a good crop The very early corn is but a small proportion of the crop and the rest is making all that the land and cultivation given it renders possible Some reports state that certain counties will make double the crop made last year and all report excellent prospects A large crop is now assured in South and Middle Georgia and two more weeks will make the crop safe in SForth Georgia There has been some injury to bottom lands from excess of moisture and inability on that account to work them but in the aggregate this does not amount to much FRUIT The watermelon crop most of which has been shipped has proved rather disappointing The crop has been abundant and the shipments probably an average in the number of carloads but the melons have as a rule been small and the prices therefore low leaving but little profit for the grower Some fine melons are now going north on which the growers should realize fair profits82 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA The peach crop of the State is the largest ever grown within her borders and the fruit never was so free of worms and other insects and diseases The mistake made by most of the growers was in leaving too much fruit on the trees and this with want of rain in June causes the peaches to be smaller than usual The growers have in some cases met with much loss by inability to obtain crates the crate manufacturers being unable to supply the enormous de mand The growers should be prepared for this and like emer gencies by having at hand drying and canning plants and when it is either impossible or unprofitable to ship their fruit they could then can or dry it There should be no waste of a product for which the demand is so great Grapes are fine and abundant all over the State and are beino largely shipped to the northern markets The pear crop is short owing chiefly to blight for which there has as yet been found no remedy Georgia apples will be scarce the crop being very poor in most of the apple counties only here and there a fair crop being found POTATOES CANE PEAS ETC These minor crops as they are called though of great import ance and service to the farmers are all doing well now that the rains have started them to growing and the prospect is excellent for an abundant yield of each of them The area sowed in peas is large and it is evident that Georgia farmers have learned that there is no cheaper or better method for keeping Up the fertility of their lands than by sowing annually in cow peas every available acre on their farms Pastures have greatly improved in the past few weeks and are now very fine Gardens doing well also as re gards the later vegetables GRAINWEEVILS AND MOTHS QUESTION Please give me some information as to grainweevils and moths ANSWER The granary weevil which is probably the one to which you refer is an indoor insect and on account of having lost the use ofANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893 83 its wings does not venture out into the grain fields The mature female punctures the grain with its snout and inserts an egg from which is hatched a white fleshy legless larva which feeds and develops within the hull The adult weevils also gnaw into the grain and devour the mealy interior and probably do as much dam age as the larvae The Angoumois grain moth is undoubtedly one of the most in jurious insects that we have in this State infecting the grains It does not confine itself to the grain stored in cribs and bins but also attacks standing grain in the fields The first white but soon red eggs are deposited between the rows of grain of the ears of corn either singly or in clusters of about two dozen both in the field and in the granary From these eggs are hatched in four or five days minute caterpillars which burrow into the kernels and devour the starchy interior In about three wreeks this caterpillar reaches maturity enters the chrysalis stage and in a few days emerges as a winged moth the females of which proceed to deposit eggs for another brood There are five or six broods during one season they hibernate in the grain as caterpillars A cheap and effective remedy for insects injurious to stored grain is fumigating with bisulphide of carbon The bins should be made as nearly airtight as possible by the use of boards and heavy blankets then the liquid should be poured into several small dishes distributed over the grain using from 1 to pounds for every 100 biishels of grain The liquid evaporates very rap idly and the gas being heavier than the air descends and per meates the whole mass of corn killing all insect life with which it comes in contact The bin should be kept closed for six hours or more and then the covering removed and the doors and ventilators opened Bisulphide of carbon is poisonous and highly inflam mable and fire in any shape should not be brought near it It however does not injure the edible or germinating principles of the grain unless used in great excess Hoping that this is the information desired I remain W M SCOTT EntomologistS4 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA FERTILIZER TERMS IN USE QUESTION 1 Is the term very handy ash element now in use in the fertilizer trade and does it mean acid phosphate and kainit or any form of potash 2 I read about South Carolina rock and dont know if it has been treated with sulphuric acid or not Am I right in saying that floats is the finely ground South Carolina rock and acid phosphate the same floats treated with sulphuric acid not neces sarily gromd so fine 3 Is acid phosphate practically identical with the old super phosphate of lime except that burnt bone was used instead of South Carolina rock ANSWER 1 The term ash element never has been used in the fertilizer trade It simply means the ashes left upon burning any plant Such ashes contain some phosphoric acid some potash and also other salts that have been taken up by the plant from the soil There is of course no nitrogen in the ashes that element being driven off by the heat of combustion 2 The term South Carolina rock implies that it has not been treated with acid After such treatment it is known as acidulated South Carolina rock or acid phosphate Floats is the natural South Carolina rock ground to a fine powder 3 The term acid phosphate simply means acid phosphate of lime and is identical with the term superphosphate of lime it being immaterial from what source the phosphoric acid is derivedANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 84n SEPTEMBER XESBTTT REVIEWS HIS STEWARDSHIP THE RETIRING COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE TO FARMERS GRATEFUL FOR SUPPORT HE GIVES A BRIEF RESUME OF THE INNOVATIONS AND RETRENCHMENTS INAUGURATED SINCE HE TOOK CHARGE OF THE DEPARTMENT EIGHT YEARS AGO Department of Agriculture Atlanta Ga September 1 1898 As this will perhaps be my last monthly talk to the farmers of Georgia before my successor takes charge of the affairs of the agricultural department I wish through this medium to thank the people of the state and the farmers more especially for the manner in which they have held up my hands in my effort to build up the agricultural interests of the state and to focus public attention on some of the more important agricultural issues of the day I am indeed grateful for the consideration and courtesy which I have received from a large majority of my fellow citizens during my administration of the affairs of the agricultural department and I feel that I owe it to myself and to them to give a short review of my stewardship since they entrusted me with so important work Notwithstanding the wise and beneficent aims of its founders some unchecked abuses had found their way into the agricultural department through the inspection of oils and fertilizers duties simple enough in themselves requiring integrity of purpose rather than superior skill and knowledge but which brought dispropor tionately large emoluments to the fortunate holders of such posi tions In justice to my predecessors it should be stated that the condi tion referred to was the outgrowth of an unforeseen and rapidly increased consumption of both oils and fertilizers for which no846 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA provision was made in the statute law of the state At leading central points like Atlanta or Savannah under this system as much as 8000 or 10000 annually were received hy individual in spectors of oils and fertilizers these two offices being at that time consolidated That is one inspector received about as much as the entire supreme judiciary of the state In 1890 when I took charge the farmers whose interests were especially to be served by the department having found a few tares amidst an abundance of wheat were in the front ranks of those who were willing to tear down an institution which had been built up mainly for their pro tection and guidance I dont think I am assuming too much when I state that in the eight years of my incumbency the depart ment lias gradually been growing in favor with the farmers and that my earnest efforts to make it effectively and actively useful to them are even now bearing fruit The slate legislature was in session when I took charge in 1890 and I immediately siiggcsted and urged the abolishment of the system by which oil inspectors were receiving such exhorbitant fees An act allowing Hiom to retain only 125 per month out of inspectors receipts and requiring them to make monthly returns to the state treasury of all sums in excess of this amount was approved December 20 1890 and since then by this innovation 100000 from oil and 125000 from fertilizers have been saved to the state and placed in the treasury In December 1891 following the same line of retrenchment the fixed salaries of the 12 guano inspectors were reduced from 12500 to 8333 per month and only four of these were kepi on duty the whole year the others from four to six months Here was another saving of several thousand dollars The office ex penses were also reduced by the salary of one clerk 180000 annually and although I he office duties have steadily increased until they have been more than doubled and trebled the work has been carried on by the original number of clerks with a slight increase of salaries During my administration the whole plan of fertilizer inspec tion has been revolutionized The old plan was in bulk and before leaving the factories The new bill which is now the law wasANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 84 c most carefully planned to give full protection to both buyer and seller It provides that the inspecting shall be done only after the fertilizer is shipped to different points and put upon the market in separate packages The provisions of this bill are such as to place Georgia in the lead as to the judicious and careful supervision of her immense fertilizer trade This law as compared with those in force in other states is superior which is evidenced by the fact that many inquiries have come on this subject to this department from different southern states The Georgia fertilizer law has finally become the basis for similar laws in her sister states Another important change has been the removal of the state laboratory from Athens to the capital where the important work of analyzing every brand put on sale in the state is carried on under the immediate supervision and inspection of the commis sioner of agriculture This affords increased advantages and facili ties to the state chemist in his daily routine work which has in creased tremendously since 1890 Another innovation which has made the department the medium of communicating valuable information to the fanners throughout the state is the substitution of plate matter furnished to the weekly press in lieu of the circulars and bulletins previously issued The monthly talks and answers to questions containing practical hints on topics connected with the farm the garden the dairy the or chard and kindred subjects carefully arranged as to time and season of the year are published in the weekly papers of the state These go to the remotest sections each month and thousands of farmers who are practically cut off from the usual sources of in formation are thus reached and placed in touch with the busy world and kept informed on many subjects most valuable in the cimduct of their farm operations Besides these publicationsthe department has issued a handsomely illustrated manual entitled Georgia a Fair Field For Homeseekers and Investors and in addition to this another larger volume has been prepared and issued entitled Georgia Her Resources and Possibilities The latter volume was intended as a sequel to The Commonwealth of Geor gia and not only points out the various advances made in the eco nomic industries of the state but shows by an exhibit of the re8W DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA sources of every comity throughout her length and breadth what her boundless possibilities are Both of these volumes have been widely circulated and widely read and 1 believe have been largely instrumental in advertising the enormous advantages which our state offers to those seeking homes in a healthy section where wise laws arc rigidly enforced and where the faithful laborer will in due time reap the rewards of faithful work To my record in the agricultural department I can refer with a feeling of just pride The department has been elevated to a high plane of usefulness and the farmers throughout the state are beginning to realize its importance and close relation which it bears to every line of their business The opposition among them to the department once so pronounced has subsided and it is with gratitude that I point to the fact that my staunchest supporters have come from the ranks of the farmers those who once so bitterly opposed it I trust that the farmers will extend to my successor the same cordial support that they have given to me and that he will rise to the full measure of the vast work yet to be accomplished through the Georgia department of agriculture It is the farmers who keep the life blood of our country in fresh healthy condition The business of farming feeds the whole peo ple It is the basis of the prosperity of our transportation lines in railroads and ships as well as of all the money transactions of the country It pays its own taxes and much besides that should be paid by the monied powers of the country It sends the life blood coursing through the arteries of trade and commerce It lies at the foundation of the moral and political power of the na tion Without its sturdy support all that is beautiful in literature and art and even in science would languish and die Statistics show that but for the infusion of fresh blood from the country into city families the latter wotdd die out in three generations It has been said that the success of a nation is measured by the condition of its agriculture Granting this to be true how all important that every means agricultural departments experiment stations farmers institutes agricultural and mechanical colleges agricultural societies farmers clubs county and state fairs in other words every educational engine should be used to elevate andANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 84e broaden our agricultural interests I believe that Georgia is on the threshold of a wonderful agricultural era May her people from the governor down to the humblest citizen within her bord ers work harmoniously and together to secure the advantages which will accrue to each and every one of them when Georgia becomes a self sustaining state buying largely perhaps but selling more E T NESBITT Commissioner SUGAR BEETS QUESTION Can sugar beets be grown successfully in Georgia and can the sugar from them be manufactured in a small way by the farmers ANSWER According to the department of agriculture at Washington sugar beets cannot be grown profitably in the southern states I quote you what the department says on the subject Experience has shown that the sugar beet reaches its highest development in north temperate latitudes So far as the produc tion of beets with high tonnage in concerned it is found that this can be accomplished far to the south but beets grown in such local ities are upon the whole less rich in sugar and less suitable for the manufacture of sugar than those grown farther north It must be remembered however that the expressions north and south do not refer to any absolute parallels of latitude but rather to isother mal lines which in many cases run obliquely to the parallels of latitude and in some cases across them almost at right angles As a result of many years of careful experimentation it may be said that as far as temperature alone is concerned the sugar beet attains its greatest perfection in a zone of varying width through the center of which passes the isothermal lines of 70 degrees Fah rciiihek for the months of June July and August If the agricultural department at Washington is correct in the above statement and they doubtless are the cotton states are de barred from growing the sugar beet profitably as the southernW DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA boundary of the belt spoken of as suitable to their cultivation passes through the central part east and west of Pennsylvania Ohio Indiana Illinois Iowa and Nebraska and thence dips almost due south to the boundary of Mexico The same authority however says There are doubtless many localities lying outside of this belt both north and south in which the sugar beet will be found to thrive but this will be due to some exceptional qualities of the climate or soil and not to any favorable influence of a higher or lower temperature My opinion is that the sugar beet would find suitable soil tem perature and moisture in the valleys of our northern counties and on the plateaus of our mountain ranges but not elsewhere in the state The cost of growing sugar beets is variously estimated at from 3000 to G000 per acre and the value of the crop at from 4000 to 7000 per acre according to yield and percentage of saccharine matter in the beets The latter part of your question is fully answered by the Wash ington department as follows On account of the elaborateness of the process and the costly nature of the machinery which is necessary to produce beet sugar even in a small way it is not believed that it could be profitably made in the way indicated The department lias no knowledge of any successful beet sugar factory of this kind There is no country producing any notable quantity of beet sugar in which home ap paratus costing only a few thousand dollars has any appreciable in fluence on the output of sugar Russia has been cited as an ex ception to this rule but the average annual output of each factory there is in round numbers 5000000 pounds representing an aver age consumption of 25000 tons of beets It would not be right to encourage the attempt to manufacture beet sugar in any such way nor should the expectation be excited among our farmers that they will be able to make a crude article of sugar which they can dispose of to a central factory for refining purposes The cost of a firstclass beet sugar factory wilJi a capacity of not less than 300 tons of beets per day will be from 225000 to 250000 In 1896 and 1897 the worlds production of cane sugar amounted to 2747500 tons while of beet sugar the output wasANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 847 49GO000 tons In that year the beet sugar made in the United States amounted to 40000 tons BEST SEASON TO CUT TIMBER QUESTION When is the best season of the year to eut timber for durability There seems to be various opinions on this subject ANSWER You are entirely correct in the statement that there are various opinions on this subject and even in this age of education and enlightenment men may be found who will consult some out of date almanac to find whether the moon and the signs are right before they will cut timber of any description or for any purpose Of course such guides are worthless and are simply remnants of past superstitions in which our ancestors believed but which mod ern science has proved to be false There is however a proper time to cut timber where durability is desired and the reason for it is plain and simple Other things being equal timber will naturally last longest if the tree is felled at a season when the wood contains the smallest amount of sugar or starch or other matters fit to feed fungi and worms So says Storer the best authority that could be quoted on the subject At what time of the year then is the tree in the condition indicated Why plainly when the spring and early summer growth is completed and the winters store of starch sugar etc is exhausted in the making of leaves twigs fruit new wood etc Consequently the late summer and fall are the proper seasons in which to cut timber An eminent authority says that when limber is eut in the spring when the sap is rich in sugar the fermentative process changes the sugar into an acid which is the very first stage of decay and thus early started can it be wondered at that posts and crossties do not last as long as they would if cut when these conditions could not possibly exist In 1860 in Virginia a fence was set with posts split from an oak cut when the leaves were of full size and vigor Twentytwo years afterwards these posts were taken up and reset elsewhere and most of them are doing duty yet after being used for more than 30 years84A DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA Had these posts been cut in March or April they would not have lasted over ten years at the utmost Away back in the time of Julius Csesar is was found that ships were not durable when built of timber from trees that had been cut down in the spring And the Koman architect Vitrurius held that trees should never be felled in the spring While at that time the want of durability in springfelled timber was attributed to wrong causes still the effect was well known and the people were notified of it Xow as regards cutting timber to be used as fuel doubtless the winter is the best time for that purpose for as an eminent writer on the subject says any given number of sticks of cord wood that have been cut in the winter would naturally weigh more and con tain more combustible heatproducing matter than the same number and kinds of sticks cut in the summer after the starch etc had passed out from them Another valuable point is that trees cut in the late summer will send up but few shoots and sprouts as compared with those cut from December to Iarch This is important to those who wish to destroy any particular kind of tree or clear land To sum up 1 Timber for posts rails building purposes etc should be cut in the late summer and early fall 2 For fuel cut in midwinter and up to the putting out of leaves in the spring 3 Where you wish to prevent shoots and sprouts cut in mid summer THE PEACH CROPCANNING FACTORIES QUESTION Can you give me some idea of the size of this years peach crop and its value to the growers I mean its net value ANSWER We can only approximate the size of the crop and as the returns are not yet reported can only form a partially correct idea of its value Besides the large amount sold at home and the thousands of bushels wasted from inadequate shipping facilities and the longANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 84i continued rains there were shipped from Georgia 2200 carloads of peaches As each car contains 600 crates of 3 pecks each this represents 450 bushels to the car in round numbers 990000 bush els in all It is generally agreed that at least onethird of the fruit was wasted The demand for crates was much larger than the supply The peach crop matures and is marketed in a very limited time and the delay in securing crates caused a heavy loss of the most saleable peaches while thousands of bushels of second qual ity were either fed to the pigs or suffered to rot on the ground Had there been canning factories and evaporators conveniently located much of this loss could have been prevented and instead of paying larger sums the coming season for canned and evaporated peaches shipped into the state from outside sources the home de mand always a steady one could have been supplied by our own people Canning factories can be so quickly erected that even after the crop has become set and a fair estimate of its amount is thus rendered possible enterprising workers may get everything in readiness for utilizing the surplus fruit should the promise of the crop justify the outlay Under the conditions surrounding our peach production Georgia being the largest producer and ship per in the Union it will certainly pay to gather up the fragments that nothing be lost We trust that in the future adequate ar rangements will be made to utilize as nearly as possible every bushel of Georgias truly wonderful peach crop SHALLOW AND DEEP PLOWING QUESTION Please give me in your Answers to Questions the advanta ges if any of deep over shallow plowing in preparing land for crops ANSWER If there is any good argument in favor of shallow plowing in the preparation of land for any crop I have never heard it and yet the great majority of farmers in Georgia continue plowing their fields to a depth of three or four inches utterly ignoring the fact that deeper plowing would in most cases increase their crops84j DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA thirty to fifty and even one hundred per cent Year after year the three or four inches of top soil is stirred and planted in various crops diminishing each year in yield until finally the soil is said to be worn out while in many cases just underneath the exhausted top soil lies an untouched subsoil rich in plantfood or which brought gradually to the surface will by exposure to the air and sunshine become fertile and productive of good crops Surely there is more in the man than there is in the land In advo cating deep plowing I do not mean that the plow should be run so as to bring to the surface two or three inches of the clay subsoil at once for in most cases this would prove an injury rather than a benefit but I do mean that each year a little of the subsoil should be brought to the surface and incorporated with the top soil which would thus be gradually deepened until in the course of a few years we would have a top soil eight to ten inches deep capable of resisting drouths and of producing bountiful crops This is no imaginary theory but is one that is being put in practice every year by progressive and successful farmers and if in universal use would add greatly to the productiveness and therefore to the value of our farm lands Every farmer in preparing his garden for planting breaks the land as deeply as possible and many follow in the turning furrow with a subsoil plow breaking up the underlying hardpan to a depth of several inches Experience has taught them that to raise vegetables successfully the land must be deeply broken and well prepared In what then do the field crops differ from the garden crops that the latter should be so much more favored Are they not both dependent upon the moisture and plantfood that their roots can obtain from the earth Why then should we expect rfield crops to obtain a full supply of these essentials under condi tions that would insure a failure in the garden Try it for your self on the average upland of Georgia Break up one acre of land in the usual way viz three to four inches deep on the adjoining acre break in the same way only following in each furrow of the turnplow with a subsoil to an additional depth of five or six inches use the same fertilizer or no fertilizer at all on both acres and I will venture the assertion that the deeplyplowed acre will produceANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 SU from fifty to one hundred per cent more than the other except in the exceptional years of abundant rains through the entire growing season Try it for yourself and be convinced and stop scratching over twenty acres of land when ten acres properly pre pared will make just as much while in the cultivation much labor will be saved Remember however that in subsoiling more harm than good will result if the clay subsoil is at all wet In that event the action of the plow will tend to patch and knead the clay into a compact mass impervious to both roots and moisture This danger must be closely watched and guarded against for the surface soil may be in excellent condition for plowing while the soil below is entirely too wet Deep plowing not only affords a greater range for the roots of plants but it also renders the soil capable of holding a much larger amount of water Every farmer has seen shallowplowed soil swept away to the depth of the plowing by a heavy rain whereas had the land been deeply broken doubtless the water would have been held by the soil not only without any damage but with abso lute and great benefit to the growing or prospective crop Many persons have tried subsoiling and failing to get good results have denounced the practice as a waste of time and labor They made the mistake of plowing the subsoil when too wet which simply re sulted in compacting it and when the surface water dried out it was harder and more impervious to roots than before the plow disturbed it We all know how injurious it is to plow the surface soil when too wet and the very same results hold good when ap plied to the subsoil To sum up the advantages 1 Subsoiling permits the roots of plants to penetrate deeper than they otherwise would and thus enables the plants to resist drouth 2 It gives practically a larger acreage to the farmer as one acre properly subsoiled will produce as much as one and a half to two acres of similar land not subsoiled 3 It brings within the reach of plants additional food supplies which otherwise would be inaccessible to them841 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA 4 It absorbs and holds for the future use of the growing crop the heavy rainfalls which would otherwise run off and be lost 5 Finally it enables the surface plow to go deeper with lesa expenditure of strength Try it and be convincedANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893 85 THE COTTON PLANT SOMETHING OF ITS HISTORY CULTIVATION DISEASES AND ENEMIES MANURING History tells us that eight hundred years before the coming of Christ cotton was grown in India and doubtless long before that time people of that ancient civilization turned out with their rude machinery such fabrics as have not been equaled in fineness until very recent times At a later date the cultivation and manufacture of cotton was introduced into China and Japan also into Arabia and Asia Minor and all along the Mediterranean coast of Africa and was carried by the Moors at a still later period into Spain and some of the Mediter ranean islands When Columbus first discovered the New World as it was called he found cotton growing in the West Indies which the natives skillfully wove into cloth Pizarro the first white explorer and conquerer of Peru found cotton growing in that country and Cortez in his cruel and merciless conquest of Mexico gathered the growing cotton and with it padded the clothing of his soldiers to protect them from the arrows of the natives But while cotton has thus been known and used for hundreds of years it is only within comparatively recent times that it has become one of the greatest factors in the commerce of the world One hundred yearsago this country raised 25000 bales of cotton Now we raise from 8000000 to 10000000 bales while Egypt India Brazil and other countries make up the 13000000 hales which are now required to supply the spindles of the world This almost magical increase in production is the result of the invention of the saw gin in 1793 by Eli Whitney Before that date the seed were separated from the lint by hand a slow and laborious occupa tion which effectually debarred any decided increase in the crop There are men in Georgia today who remember when it was the custom to give each member of the family after supper a pint measure of seed cotton from which the seed were to be handpicked before bedtime86 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA In addition to Whitneys invention which made cotton raising profitable wonderful improvements have been made in spinning and weaving enabling the mills to handle and convert into a great variety of goods all the cotton that the world thus far has been able to produce Improvements in ginning and manufacturing appear to go hand in hand with the increased population but methods of production have improved but little in the last fifty years and the land is still scratched and butchered and exhausted even as it was in the wasteful and extravagant days of slavery In the earlier history of cotton culture in this country and indeed up to thirtyfive years since the seed after being separated from the lint was considered of no value in the rich sections of the western cot ton states and were either burned or hauled to the nearest bayou and clumped into the water to get rid of them In the older and poorer cotton states they were usually used as a fertilizer under corn or small grain Now however no seed are thrown away but whenever they can be reached by river or railway they are being keenly sought for and purchased by the oil mills at a price ranging from ten to fifteen cents a bushel to be converted by them into the valuable commercial products of oil meal and hulls The mills get from a ton of seed 40 to 45 gallons of oil 685 to 700 lbs of meal and 715 to 725 lbs of hulls in addition to some 200 lbs of linters obtained by reginning the seed The greater proportion of the oil made in this country is used in making food products such as refined lard cottolene butterine and the salad and cooking oils Several million gallons go to Italy and other countries of Southern Europe and come back to us as pure olive oil for salads etc or as the delicate and palatable oil in the sardine boxes of France and Spain The meal obtained from crushing the seed enters very largely into the manufacture of fertilizers and is yearly growing in favor as a valuable cattle food The lmlls that a few years ago were burned or hauled off and thrown away have been found valuable as a substitute for hay in feeding cattle and at this time readily command from three to four dollars a ton for that purpose The oil mills are rapidly multiplying in number and the industry promises to assume imroBnse proportions in a few yearsANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 87 Should all the seed from a crop of 9000000 bales of cotton be worked up by the oil mills the result would be 180000000 gallons of oil 1500000 tons of meal and 1500000 tons of hulls At present prices these products would be worth 61500000 which is more than the present value of 2000000 bales of middling cot ton So rapidly are the oil mills increasing that in all probability this result will be practically reached in the next quarter of a century88 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA CULTURE OF COTTON GEOGRAPHY OF THE COTTON BELT By Harry Hammond The cotton belt covers 24 degrees of longitude and 10 degrees of latitude Excluding from the count the greater part of Virginia more than 100000 square miles of western Texas and the whole of Kentucky Kansas Missouri Utah California Arizona and Xew Mexico in all of which cotton has been cultivated and where a larger demand might cause its culture to be extended the cotton growing region measures nearly 600000 square miles almost one tliird of the total area of settlement in 1890 of the United States The 20000000 acres planted in cotton occupies barely 5 acres in every 100 of this extensive region Scarcely 50 per cent of this territory is in farms and not more than onefifth has at any time been tilled This section contained in 1890 a population of over 8000000 whites and something over 5000000 negroes in all 13651006 every 100 of them producing 53 bales of cotton an average of 254 pounds of lint per capita The Mississippi River turned from its southeasterly course to one south of west by the bluff lands of Tennessee Mississippi and Louisiana divides the cotton belt into two nearly equal eastern and western portions Bordering the west of the flood plain of the great river are the oak and hickory uplands of Arkansas Louis iana and Texas stretching westward more than 200 miles to the black Cretaceous prairies of Texas These black prairies descend from Indian Territory in a broad crescent its concave edge facing west and enclosing the more elevated redloam prairies until it thins out into the coast prairies of the southwest in the neighborhood of Austin To the north the oak and hickory is bounded by the red lands of Arkansas The counterparts of these regions are found east of the Mississippi Moving east from the bluff and yellow loam tablelands that rise from the flood plain of the river we again meet the oak and hickory lands in Mississippi and Alabama BeANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893 8i yond these another crescent of black Cretaceous prairies its concave edge however facing east reaches from northwestern Mississippi to southeastern Alabama Northeast from the concave border of these prairies lie the valley lands of Alabama Georgia and Ten nessee the Coal easure of those States the gravelly hills of Ala bama and the central basin of Tennessee Near the termination of these prairies in southeastern Alabama another region is en countered This is a prolongation of the Alleghanies and passes from the locality named in a broad belt to the northeast across the States of Alabama Georgia South Carolina and Worth Caro lina It is known as the metamorphic or Piedmont region or in popular parlance as the region of gigantic rocks On the north eastern border of thisregion in North Carolina the pine hills are met The pine hill region reaches southwestward along the south ern border of the Piedmont region and the Alabama and Missis sippi prairies traversing all the Atlantic and Gulf States inter rupted only by the delta of the Mississippi until it crosses Louisi ana and reaches the oak and hickory of Texas South of the pine hill region is a broad belt of level pine lands coextensive with it and everywhere touching either the Atlantic or the Gulf coasts until it reaches the coast prairies of Louisiana and Texas where it ter minates In 1801 South Carolina led the other States in the production of cotton In 1850 Alabama stood first in the amount produced Mississippi led in 18601880 and Texas stood first in this respect in 1890 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON COTTON CULTURE The matter of the first consideration in the culture of cotton as in that of any other crop is to prevent the removal of the soil by washing Everywhere in the hill country neglect in this regard has resulted in the denudation of the soil from extensive areas of cultivated fields rendering them barren and devastating other fields lying at a lower level Nor does the injury stop here The public roads become convenient channels along which to their destruction these muddy floods at last pour into the streams dam90 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA ming them up causing freshets and converting fertile bottoms into miasmatic marshes The evil is generally recognized and to some but to a wholly inadequate extent remedies are applied by terraces and hillside plowing Where this is thoroughly done and persisted in it has proved eminently successful A very common error has however attended the practice It is that some fall should be given the line of the terrace to allow the water to escape The result is that while one gully may be cured by such a terrace a larger amount of water is concentrated at its lower terminus and another and larger gtilly created there The terrace should be on an exact level and must from time to time be amended on account of changes occurring in the spaces between the terraces A spirit level may be used to establish the line of terrace but a simpler cheaper and more accurate implement is a compass made of light stuff and strengthened with a crossbar The legs should be 15 feet apart at the ground coming together 7 feet above it At the apex a cord is suspended with a weight attached to act as a plumbbob When the feet are on a level the place where the plumb cord crosses the bar is marked In stepping off the terrace the level will be exact when the plumb line corresponds with the mark on the cross bar It would seem proper that legislation should compel owners on the higher levels to restrain the rains which falling on their fields issue in destructive floods on their neighbors at a lower level1 SUBSOILIXG Subsoiling and deep breaking are open to question There is no question that a deep mellow soil is to be preferred but the ef forts to obtain it are limited by the cost by the risk of injury to some soils through leaching and to others by bringing sterile earth to the surface Sandy soils may suffer in the first way and heavy clays in the second Experiments to determine the value of these operations are conflicting and inconclusive U S Department of Agriculture Bulletin No 20ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893 91 ROTATION Rotation of crops opens a wide field of inquiry The usual practices have been noticed and the value of broadleaved and nar rowleaved plants or root crops and crops maturing above ground in rotations might be mentioned but there is an absence of exact knowledge here which is a cause of much distrust The rotation of growths observed everywhere in nature shows its necessity but this rotation differs with every slight variation of soil and nothing is accurately known about it Such knowledge would have to go far beyond the theory of the exhaustion of certain fertilizing con stituents of the soil It would have to deal with hosts of living animals and vegetable friends and foes who fight for or against each growing crop and render changes necessary The farmers mind grows confused over the complicated con ditions of this great struggle and after vainly attempting to under stand and conform to them he withdraws turns his fields over to nature and lets them rest And nature resuming her work of growing heavier and heavier crops every year restores the fertility which man has destroyed by his exhaustive culture Even Peter Henderson the great gardener said rest was necessary to his gar dens once in five years Exhaustion of the soil differs in intensity but for the most part it is only temporary Fields considered utterly used up and thrown out for years when cultivated again have produced better than those which have been under a management more or less care ful Nevertheless this temporary exhaustion must inevitably oc cur in every soil not treated to restoratives notwithstanding that full crops of cotton have been grown on some soils for more than forty successive years PLANTING AND CULTIVATION Bedding up land previous to planting is universally practiced Where manures are drilled in this is indispensable It forms a warm seedbed in the cool weather of early spring and possesses other advantages The plants are usually left 2 to 3 inches above the middle of the row which in 4foot rows give a slope of an inch92 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA to the foot This causes the plow in cultivating to lean from the plants to go deepest in the middle of the row and as a conse quence to cut fewer roots Tour feet is the usually accepted distance between the rows The distance between the plants seems of little importance within the limits of 8 to 14 inches Still as nothing but cotton stalks will make cotton it is unsafe on average land to risk wider spans than 1 foot Nothing conclusive has been settled about checked cotton It may save a hoeing which should cost about 30 cent an acre and as plowing is done at about the same cost the question of saving is not determined The skillful use of the hoe does the most accurate and thorough work Good crops are made with the hoe without using the plow at all It may be said that cotton growing was originally established entirely by hoe culture even the soil for planting being prepared with the hoe The perfect cotton planter is not yet invented It should drop five or six seed in a single line at regular intervals say a foot apart In very dry seasons a narrow and deep coulter furrow the dirt closing in behind it is run immediately in advance of the planter It freshens up the bed and assists very much the germi nation of the seed Much is said about deep and shallow culture and many believe that they can affect the plant beneficially by practicing the one or the other The only certainty is that all grass and weeds must be vigorously kept down and that the capillary pores through which the moisture escapes after rains must be broken The first is most thoroughly effected by a broad sharp sweep which takes every thing it meets while going shallower than most other plows Har rows and cultivators are apt to be turned aside by stubborn bunches of grass which thus escape them But the sweep does not distrib ute the loose dirt as generally as a light harrow does and therefore is not as effective in the mulching process The effect of cutting roots depends entirely upon the season that follows the operation The following experiments will show how difficult it is to arrive at results in this matter In the month of June the cotton plants being about 18 inches high dirt was drawn up 6 inches aroundANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1895 93 some it was drawn away to the depth of 6 inches from others the roots of others were cut all round close to the stalk to the depth of 6 inches and the next stalks had all the roots cut off below 6 inches These last wilted in a few moments from this heroic treat ment but seemed to recover in a few days A rainy season ensued a vigorous growth set in and when the crop matured no difference could be observed in the fruitfulness of the different series of plants The date of cotton planting reaches from March 1 to June 10 Cotton is seldom planted at the latter date except when put in after a crop of oats A good crop is made when the season is especially favorable but the occurrence of drouth makes it exceedingly un certain The plants also are more liable to the attacks of cater pillars which only make their appearance in force late in the season They prefer to feed on the younger and fresher stalks and it was thought in some sections that the frequent recurrence of the cotton worm was in some degree promoted by the late plant ing of cotton after oats which was much in vogue at one time At least they were not so bad after it was abandoned or before it was commenced The last regular planting is May 20 under the mountains in Georgia The following are the dates in the vari ous sections Planting commences March 1 in southern Texas March 15 middle Louisiana Texas coast March 20 southern Mississippi March 25 South Carolina coast pine hills of South Carolina and Georgia middle Mississippi April 1 Mississippi bottoms middle Texas southern Arkansas April 5 northwest Georgia April 7 middle Arkansas April 10 west Tennessee Piedmont North Carolina South Carolina Georgia upper Alabama north Arkan sas upper Texas April 20 northern Louisiana May 20 northeast Georgia The first blooms appear May 15 in southern Texas May 20 central Louisiana May 25 central Texas southwest Georgia June 1 Mississippi bottoms southern Arkansas middle Georgia June 10 pine hills South Carolina middle Alabama central Georgia Tennessee June 20 northwest Louisiana middle Arkansas north west Georgia southern North Carolina July 4 northern Arkan94 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA sas northern Texas July 10 northeast North Carolina July 25 northwest Tennessee The first bolls open May 15 in southern Texas June 25 middle Texas July 1 south Louisiana July 10 middle Louisiana July 15 southern Georgia pine hills South Carolina August 1 north west Louisiana south Arkansas coast North Carolina September 1 Piedmont North Carolina redloam prairies Texas September 15 north Arkansas Picking commences July 10 in southern Texas August 1 south ern Louisiana central Texas August 15 pine hills South Caro lina coast of Georgia and South Carolina Mississippi uplands August 25 northwest Louiiana Mississippi bottoms September 1 north Texas coast of North Carolina northwest Georgia Octo ber 1 northwest Texas north Aikansas PERIOD OF GROWTH The following data relating to the above and other important points in the life of the cotton plant are from records carefully kept in South Carolina near Augusta Ga Of 100 seed planted 10 in a hill March 29 1887 24 came up of which 2 died 39 could not be found and were probably eaten by insects 23 rotted and 14 seemed sound but failed to germinate The first plant appeared in 14 days after planting the 10 hills were up to a complete stand in 18 days and no seed came up after 30 days This season was cool and wet but in very dry seasons seed may lie in the ground from April 1 to June 10 and then come up to a good stand The third leaf made its appearance in 8 days after the plant came up and in 22 days after the seed was planted the fourth leaf appeared the day following The significance of this observation is that after the true leaves appear the plant being no longer dependent on the seedleaves for its supply of nour ishment is not so liable to injury from cold Other series of seed were put in the ground of later dates and the following observations recorded from day to day The first form bud was seen on a plant coming up in April 41 days afterANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893 95 the plant appeared and 53 days after it was planted For all the other plants coming up in April the average was 40 days to the form ranging from 34 to 45 days appearing earlier in the warniev Aveather and later in the cooler weather For plants coming up in May the average was 29 days from the appearance of the plant to the first form ranging from 25 to 39 days to which 8 days may he added to show time from planting to forming Forms appear ing in May bloomed in 21 to 32 days average 25 days forms ap pearing in June bloomed in 20 to 27 days average 24 days forms appearing in July bloomed in 20 to 26 days average 24 days forms appearing in August bloomed in 21 to 27 days average 25 days Blooms appearing in June made open bolls in 45 to 56 days average 52 days blooms appearing in July made open bolls in 64 to 71 days average 65 days blooms appearing in August made open bolls in 46 to 58 days average 52 days Forms on May 24 made open bolls August 9 forms on June 24 made open bolls September 21 forms on July 24 made open bolls October 8 forms on August 24 made open bolls November 9 As killing frosts occur about November 17 it would seem that the latest blooms that can be counted on would be about September 1 From this it follows that the minimum period from planting to the first open boll is 120 days and the maxinmm period is 157 days The interval of 37 days between these periods is more than sufficient to fix a full crop of fruit if the condition of the weather is favor able to the plant at the fruiting stage SHEDDING OF FORMS BLOOMS AND BOLLS When the weather is not favorable at the fruiting stage the otherwise hardy cotton plant displays its greatest weakness It sheds its forms its blooms and often its halfgrown bolls The following table condensed from the daily record above referred to represents to some extent the loss occasioned in this manner The plants having received very careful attention the loss exhibited is a good deal below the average sustained in ordinary field cultureDEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA Propoi iion of forms which produc bolls Number of plants Forms Blooms and bolls dropping Bolls maturing Per cent maturing Date of coming up Appeared Died Bloomed 7 10 2 1 1700 2586 154 60 1231 1819 1l6 24 469 667 48 36 163 191 12 19 306 468 36 7 18 18 23 Julv 11 The 1580 bolls picked before September 10 weighed 205 pounds or about 77 bolls to the pound 432 bolls picked Septem ber 19 weighed 575 pounds or 75 bolls to the pound 293 bolls picked October 5 weighed 3 pounds or 97 bolls to the pound 493 bolls picked October 24 weighed 35 pounds or 140 bolls to the pound The average for the whole season was 85 bolls to the pound These plants were fertilized at the rate of 936 pounds to the acre onefourth acid phosphate and threefourths cottonseed meal They were planted in 4foot rows 18 inches between the hills which would give 9360 plants to the acre If an acre had fruited as these 20 plants did and every form had stuck and matured into an average boll the yield would have been 25952 pounds of seed cotton to the acre a yield undreamed of As it turned out they actually produced at the rate of 4400 pounds to the acre a yield that has seldom if ever been attained Such calculations show how misleading it is to apply estimates on small patches to field crops but it also shows that much more might be obtained by greater care and precision A more thorough study of the cotton plant might discover means to obviate this great waste At present cotton growers are at a loss to form a correct idea of the cause or to apply any effectual remedy A week or two before cotton opens sometimes a month the crop being clean field work stops Formerly much important work of repairs and improvement was done during this interval Sow the hands that were engaged in cultivating the crop are dis charged and no work except what is absolutely indispensable is doneANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893 97 PICKING Cotton picking is the most tedious and expensive operation in cotton growing The picking of the crop of 1894 is estimated to have cost not less than 60000000 The most of the picking was paid for at 50 cents per hundredweight and planters in Texas who grew as much as 2500 bales said it cost them 9 a bale to gather their crops It is very light work at the most pleasant season of the year and it is effectively performed by women and even by small children as well as by men In the early days of this culture the amounts of cotton picked were small It is rela ted in the Southern Cultivator that the report that a young man had picked 100 pounds in a day created great excitement among the farmers in Georgia who came from far and near to see it done and gave a barbecue in honor of the achievement For a long time this has been a low average for ordinary pickers As early as 1839 there is a record of 86 handsmen women and children old and youngaveraging over 133 pounds of seed cotton apiece a day In October 1894 10 convicts of the Mis sissippi penitentiary picked in 5 days 18340 pounds of cotton a daily average of 333 pounds per man The picking season will average in duration at least 100 days and picking at the above rate would turn out 22 bales to the hand It has never been as sumed that one man could cultivate more land than would make 10 bales so that one man is able at average full work to gather as much as two can make This however is very far from being the case and in the Mississippi bottoms the same year it was not unusual to hear of tenants and space workers who did not gather during the whole season as much as a bale to each picker in their families Strikes among cotton pickers are not made by combina tion but they are executed as effectually and destructively by in dividuals It is very difficult to get them to work until the cotton is fully open and it is hard to stimulate them to pick over 100 pounds a day The damage resulting from slack work here is often very serious due in part to the loss of some cotton by falling1 out and to an equal extent to the injury to the quality of that98 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA which is gathered the staple being soiled by dust and stained by the coloring matter from the bolls It has been thought that the production of cotton would be limited by the amount that could be gathered This limit is still remote Excluding the popula tion of towns and villages who do a considerable share in cotton picking and deducting onethird for children under 11 years of age there remains an exclusively rural population in the cotton States of over 6800000 all more or less occupied in cotton grow ing and capable at the low average of 100 pounds a day of picking daily more than 450000 bales or the very large crop of 1894 in 20 or 21 days and if they did the same task during the whole season they could gather four or five times as much as the largest crop yet made Much skill and capital have been expended in efforts to make a machine that would pick cotton It cannot be said that any has proved successful in solving a problem that seems about equal to that of gathering strawberries or raspberries by machinery This could be done if it were not for the injury to the berries and if they were to be made into jam perhaps assorting and washing machines might be invented to utilize a portion of the harvest Cottonpicking machines gather limbs leaves and bolls and pass the whole through a cleaning separator that it is claimed leaves the cotton in the condition of average cotton picked by hand A cottonpicking machine with a driver and two horses taking a row at a time would go over about 6 acres a day The cost of the work of an expensive and complicated machine as this must neces sarily be would hardly be less than 5 a day and if the cotton were gathered at the right stage there should not be more than 200 pounds to the acre open Cotton left in the field for a fuller open ing than that is liable to serious damage and in case of storms to almost total loss The machine would thus gather at the most 1200 pounds a day at a cost of 416 cents per hundredweight the present cost being from 40 to 50 cents and so highly paid at that that there is little doubt it will be reduced to 30 cents or less as it has been already in some localities and even then expert pickers will earn from 1 to 150 a day and moreANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 99 In improving shortstaple cotton there is a growing tendency to develop varieties which take on and open all their fruit at nearly the same time If such a variety were perfected it would sim plify the gathering by machinery especially as such varieties at present shed their leaves about the time the cotton begins to open thus removing the character of trash which it is more difficult to separate than either the stems or the bolls EXPERIMENTS IN COTTON CULTURE BY THE EXPERIMENT STATION The agricultural experiment stations in the cotton belt have con ducted relatively few field experiments on cotton culture their work in this line having been largely confined to the best distance between the plants and the effects of topping While the results of these experiments have not been conclusive some of them afford suggestions of value to the planter and the experimenter The fol lowing brief summary prepared by Mr J F Duggar of this office presents an outline of the work of the stations in this line with references to the published reports In a single test at the Alabama Canebrake Station planting on high beds resulted in a larger yield than was obtained with flat beds on a black slough bottom a kind of soil which is very retentive of water There was only a very slight difference in yield between ridges made on an unbroken center and those formed by bedding on a center furrow The usual recommendation of the stations is to plant on low or flattened ridges1 At Camden Ark on a field previously planted in corn a larger yield was obtained by breaking the land and then forming the beds than by making the ridges without previous plowing the difference being 292 pounds of seed cotton per acre On ridges made in Feb ruary the yield was slightly greater than on those made just before planting in May2 Subsoiling proved profitable in one test made at Athens Ga 1 Alabama Canebrake Sta Bui 4 2 Arkansas Sta Bui 28100 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA and in the same locality results favored planting later than April 101 At the Alabama Canebrake Station cotton growing on tile drained land was in most seasons more productive than on un drained land2 The depth and extent of the root growth of a plant furnish sug gestions as to methods of preparing and tilling the soil At the South Carolina Station the taproot of the cotton plant extended to a depth of more than 3 feet when the plant was grown on a light sandy soil with subsoil of the same character On a loam with a more compact subsoil the taproot terminated abruptly as soon as the hardpan was encountered at a depth of 0 inches below the sur face At the Alabama College Station the taproot penetrated ver tically to a depth of 12 inches or 3 inches into the subsoil its course then becoming horizontal In South Carolina it was observed that most of the lateral roots commenced about 3 inches below the surface and never went be low the upper inches of soil In a garden soil of sandy drift and pebbles the Alabama Sta tion found a young cotton plant 3 inches high having one of its lateral roots 3 feet 4 inches long the end of the root being only 3 inches below the surface Almost identical measurements were made of the roots of a young cotton plant at the Arkansas Station In Alabama from a cotton plant 2 feet high and just beginning to bloom one lateral root extended more than 5 feet Some of the lateral roots began only 1 or 2 inches below the surface The position of the roots was such that the experimenter estimated that the usnal deep cultivation would have destroyed fourfifths of the lateral roots which extended at right angles to the row In this we have a strong hint as to the superiority of shallow over deep cultivation a superiority which was proved by experi ments extending over several years at the Alabama College Ala bama Canebrake Georgia and Mississippi stations We find only 1 Proc Georgia State Agl SoC Feb 1874 p 67 2 Alabama College Sta Bui 4 1887 Bui 3 1888 Alabama Canebrake Sta Buls 11 and 147fe ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 189S e two instances in which shallow culture failed to affor yield than deep culture1 At the Georgia Station an experiment to determine thebest dis tance between cotton plants was conducted in five different years The rows were uniformly 4 feet wide and the attempt was made to leave single plants either 1 2 3 or 4 feet apart in the drill It generally happened however that the stand was much more imper fect on the plats planted close than on the others This is equiva lent to saying that the least average distance between plants was somewhat greater than 12 inches The following table gives the yields obtained each year with different distances on land heavily fertilized Y feSfosi Yields in pozmds per acre of seed cotton from planting at different distances Ytar 1 by 4 feet 2 by 4 lett 3 by 4 feet 4 by 4 feet 1891 Pounds 1943 1616 1903 2065 2270 Pounds 2027 1516 1905 1812 2047 Poxtnds 2007 1501 1925 1843 1985 Pounds 1833 1439 1770 1671 1767 1892 193 1891 1895 1900 1861 1852 1696 The figures giving the average yield for five years indicate that even on land so rich or well fertilized as to produce one and one third bales of cotton per acre a distance of 4 feet in the row be tween plants reduces the yield considerably On the whole the results seem to indicate that with 4foot rows when the date of planting is rather late there is an advantage in spacing cotton plants 12 to 16 inches rather than in allowing more room in the drill The experimenter however in summing up the results for the five years expresses a preference for a distance of 2 by 4 feet when early planting is practicable and when a yield of 1800 to 2000 i Alabama Canebrake Sta Bui 4 Alabama Dept of Agr Bui 6 1886 Ala bama College Sta Bui 4 1887 Bui 3 1888 Arkansas Sta Kpt 1888 p 117 Georgia Sta Buls 11 and 16 Mississippi Sta Rpt 1889 p 13 Bpt 1890 p 16 South Carolina Sta Rpt 1889 p 81102 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA pounds of seed cotton can be expected In this case early thin ning and rapid and thorough cultivation are recommended That close planting favors early maturity and hence is desir able when the date of planting is late or where the growing season is short as in the northern part of the cotton belt is indicated by the following facts noted in the experiment of 1892 The total yield varied little for plantings at different distances but at the first picking the yields for distances of 1 2 3 and 4 feet were 593 449 323 and 221 pounds respectively At the second picking the yield was again greatest with close planting However at the third picking the yield was greater as the distance was greater and this was yet more strikingly true at the fourth picking showing the tendency of wide spacing to delay maturity The yield of cotton per plant as influenced by distance in the drill was determined in the same experiments as follows Yield of seed cotton per plant at different distances in rows 4 feet apart 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 Average of 5 years 1 foot Pound 0210 169 275 243 275 234 2 feet Pound 0405 287 417 325 411 3 feet 309 Pound 0565 423 561 483 557 4 feet Pound 0687 542 690 566 665 626 From this table we see that with plants at a little more than 12 inches apart each plant averaged more than onefifth pound of seed cotton at 2 feet apart a little more than onethird pound at 3 feet apart onehalf pound and at 4 feet fiveeighths pound The yield per plant varied greatly in different years In this connec tion it should be remembered that the minimum yield in these ex periments was 1 bale per acre In 1893 the Georgia Station conducted an experiment to ascer tain the best distance between the rows Each plant was al lowed 6 square feet of ground one series of plats bearing plants at distances of 3 feet by 24 inches another 4 feet by 18 inches another 5 feet by 144 inches and another 6 feet by 12 inchesANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 189S 103 The yield was greatest1964 pounds of seed cotton per acre when the distance was 3 feet by 24 inches and the yield per acre and the product per plant decreased as the rows were widened with the accompanying closer planting in the drill In other words the yield increased as the space assigned to each plant approached a perfect square A repetition of this test in 1895 confirmed the results of 1893 On land of less capacity than 1 bale per acre it would probably be well to reduce the width of rows to 3A or even 3 feet It may be safely urged that land which will not produce the maximum crop of which it is capable with rows not less than 3 feet wide cannot profitably be cultivated in cotton1 In a test made by the University of Georgia at Athens the yield decreased very slightly and very gradually as the rows widened from 2 to 4 feet the difference being scarcely sufficient to pay for the extra expense of cultivating narrow rows In this experi ment the plants stood close together in the row10 to 15 inches apart and the yield averaged a little more than half a bale per acre On the same field single stalks and groups of 2 and 3 plants were left in a place the interval for all being the same10 to 15 inches The yields were practically identical2 Other experi ments notably those conducted at the North Louisiana Station suggest that the cotton plant under some conditions does not suf fer from the presence of 2 stalks in a place a point of advantage where planting in checks is desirable At the North Louisiana Station it was found in 1888 that with close planting in the drill every increase in the width of the row beyond 4 feet reduced the yield As between narrower rows the results were not conclusive3 In 1889 single stalks were left 8 12 16 and 20 inches apart in the drill 2 stalks in a place were also left at these distances and at 24 inches apart The maximum yield of seed cotton was one and onethird bales per acre Whenever the distance was greater than 16 inches the yield decreased whether 1 or 2 plants stood in a 1 Georgia Sta Buls 11 16 20 24 and 27 2 Proc Georgia State Agl Soc Feb 1874 p 67 J Louisiana Stas Bui 22 old ser104 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA place Even closer planting seemed to be slightly advantageous1 The abovementioned experiment was repeated in the following year when the maximum yield of seed cotton1690 pounds was obtained on the rows in which 2 plants stood together at in tervals of 16 inches For distances greater than 16 inches the yield decreased as in the preceding year both for 1 and 2 stalks in a place With single stalks the yields at 8 12 and 16 inches were practically identical Planting at a distance of 16 inches has the advantage of rendering cultivation easier than closer planting2 When again repeated in 1891 the maximum yield1800 pounds of seed cotton per acrewas obtained on the two plats having 2 stalks in a place at intervals of both 16 and 24 inches For single stalks distances of 16 and 20 inches proved of equal value and yielded more than closer planting3 The next year the maximum yield960 pounds of seed cotton per acrewas obtained from 2 stalks in a place at intervals of 24 inches Single stalks were most productive at distances of 16 and 20 inches yielding respectively 910 and 920 pounds of seed cotton4 In 1893 the greatest yield1160 pounds of seed cotton per acr was produced by 2 stalks together at a distance of 24 inches Sin gle stalks at intervals of 12 inches gave a yielding almost identical witli the above1140 pounds per acre5 In 1892 early maturity was apparently favored by rather close planting at the first picking the single stalks of groups of two growing at intervals of 12 inches had matured a larger proportion of their total crop than had the plants grown at any other distance In 1893 however close planting did not notably increase the pro portion of total yield secured at the first picking In 1893 at the experiment station at Baton Eouge La 1 and 2 stalks were left at intervals of 12 18 and 24 inches in rows 3 4 and 5 feet apart In rows 3 feet and 4 feet apart a distance of 18 inches between single plants afforded the largest yield in rows 5 1 Louisiana Stas Bui 27 old ser 2 Louisiana Stas Bui 8 2d ser 3 Louisiana Stas Bui 16 2d ser 4 Louisiana Stas Bui 22 2d ser 6 Louisiana Stas Bui 29 2d serANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893 105 feet apart 12 inches between plants in the drill proved best The greatest yield for single stalks 2037 pounds of seed cotton per acre was obtained when the distance was 18 inches by 3 feet in other words when the feeding area of each plant approached nearest a square When 2 stalks were left in a place the greatest yield on any plat was obtained by planting at distances of 2 by 3 feet in 4foot rows 18 inches gave the largest yield 1734 pounds in 5 foot rows the yield increased with the distance between the groups of plants Taking the average results of all distances with both 1 and 2 stalks in a place the yield of seed cotton per acre was 1821 pound on the 3foot rows 1557 pounds on the 1foot rows and 1540 pounds on the 5foot rows With single talks 3foot rows and 4foot rows afforded practically identical yields when the distance between plants was 1 foot at greater distances in the drill 3foot rows proved superior With 2 stalks in a place 4foot rows proved most productive except when the distance in the drill was extended to 2 feet when 3foot rows gave the largest yield obtained on any plat In this experiment distance of planting did not notably af fect the earliness of the crop1 The South Carolina Station conducted experiments on the sub ject extending over several years at three different localities in the State The average results showed only very slight differences in yield whether the rows were 3 4 or 44 feet apart In the South Carolina tests when checking was practiced there were no constant differences in yield whether the distance was 2 or 4 feet between the hills In comparing drill culture with check ing the average results of a number of experiments were quite simi lar indicating no marked difference in yield between the two sys tems4 At the North Carolina Station in 1886 checks 2 feet by 3 feet and 3 feet by 3 feet afforded practically the same yields nearly 14 bales per acrebut planting at distances of 4 feet by 4 feet greatly reduced the yield At distances of 2 by 3 feet the 1 Louisiana Stas Bui 28 2d ser 2 South Carolina Sta Rpt 1888 p 274 Rpt 1889 p 324 Bui 2 n ser see also Georgia Sta Bui 11106 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA crop matured somewhat earlier than on plats where more space was allowed each plant1 At the Alabama College Station cotton was planted in 1886 at intervals of 1 2 3 and 4 feet in 4foot rows The closest plant ing yielded slightly more the widest spacing somewhat less than did the intermediate distances The yield at different distances ranged between 1085 and 12925 pounds of seed cotton per acre2 Distance experiments were also made in 1889 and in 1890 with out decisive results the figures in the latter year suggesting a slight superiority of a distance of 2 by 4 feet as against 1 by 4 feet 3 by 4 feet and 4 by 4 feet the yield being at the rate of about two thirds of a bale per acre Close planting hastened maturity3 In 1891 Welborn Pet a cluster variety planted in rows 4 feet apart yielding 2519 pounds per acre of seed cotton when the inter val between plants was 1 foot 2010 pounds when the plants were 2 feet apart 2077 pounds at 3 feet and only 1145 when the dis tance was increased to 4 feet Peeler a longlimbed variety in 4foot rows yielded at 2 feet 1983 pounds at 3 feet 1487 pounds at 4 feet 1453 pounds and at 5 feet 1333 pounds of seed cotton per acre4 At the Alabama Canebrake Station on slough bottom land a distance of 3 by 4 feet resulted in a yield of 952 pounds of seed cotton per acre against a crop of S96 pounds obtained on the plats where the spacing was 1 by 4 feet 2 by 4 feet and 4 by 4 feet At the same station in the following year the yield per acre of seed cotton in 4foot rows was as follows Plants 1 foot apart 1216 pounds 2 feet 936 pounds 3 feet 760 pounds 4 feet 880 pounds6 Prom the results just summarized it appears that there has been found no definite law determining the proper distance applicable to all conditions The results thus far attained by the stations rel 1 Noth Carolina Sta Rpt 1887 p 127 2 Alabama College Sta Bui 4 1887 3 Alabama College Sta Buls 4 and 22 4 Alabama College Sta Bui 38 5 Alabama Canebrake Sta Bui 8 0 Alabama Canebrake Sta Bui 4ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893 107 ative to distance between cotton plants though not capable of gen eralization afford useful bints to cotton growers whose soils resem ble tliose of the different experiment stations Future investiga tions may result in rules of practice applicable to certain characters of soil and varieties of cotton At best however variations in weather which cannot be foreseen will limit the application of such rules Eotation experiments have for some years been in progress at the Arkansas and Louisiana stations but in the nature of the case con clusive results are not to be expected until many crops have been grown1 Five hundred bolls of the Peerless variety were selected at the Arkansas Station from the bottom and from the top of welldevel oped stalks the seed cotton from 500 bottom bolls weighing 826 pounds from 500 top bolls 646 pounds On planting the seed of these two lots of cotton the seeds from bottom bolls germinated much better and more promptly than those from top bolls The former also matured earlier and afforded a larger yield1043 pounds of seed cotton per acre as against 760 pounds from seed obtained from top bolls The more complete and earlier sprout ing of the seed from bottom bolls may have been the cause of the earlier maturity and greater productiveness of the resulting plants for two replantings of seed from top bolls were necessary and even then only about half a stand was obtained while seed from bottom bolls afforded an excellent stand without replanting But it does not appear whether the position on the parent plant the greater size of bottom boll seed or some other condition was the cause of the earlier and more complete germination of the seed from bottom bolls Further experiments are needed to fully establish the differ ence if any in the germination and productiveness of seed from different parts of the cotton plant2 Experiments intended to ascertain the effect of topping cotton have been conducted by the Alabama Canebrake Alabama College Georgia Louisiana Mississippi and South Carolina stations and 1 Arkansas Sta Bui 23 Louisiana Bui 17 n ser 2 Arkansas Sta Bui 23108 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA by the University of Georgia In only one of these experiments that of the Alabama Canebrake Station were the results decisively in favor of topping In one year of the test at the Alabama Col lege Station the figures slightly favored topping though in the preceding year the slight advantage was with the plants not topped The Georgia Station in 1890 and 1811 obtained a smaller yield from topped plants than from those not topped Here as in sev eral other experiments bearing on this question the effect of top ping at different dates was studied and the single exception to the injurious influence of this mutilation occurred in 1891 on the plat where it took place late August 15 The earlier the topping the greater was the injury in these experiments At the Mississippi Station topping as late as September 20 resulted in a large shrink age in yield The South Carolina Station conducted experiments in two local ities in that State during three years without being able to observe any perceptible variation in yield between plants topped and those not topped A single test at the North Louisiana Station in which plants growing at different distances were topped revealed no marked effect for good or ill resulting from this practice Topping has given contradictory results under different con ditions Differences in soil and climate are probably responsible for this and it remains for future experiments to determine the conditions under which topping is beneficial or otherwise In a single test made by the University of Georgia the yield on the plats where topping was practiced was 1303 pounds of seed cot ton and on the untreated area 1387 pounds the loss of 84 pounds was ascribed to topping The prominent feature of this experi ment was the probable influence of topping in hastening maturity the topped plants yielding 4 7 per cent more at the first picking than did the plants not topped This increased earliness if it could be fully established might explain the occasional success of topping and would recommend the practicefor late varieties and for localities where the growing season is short However two ex periments on a more extensive scale at the Georgia Station fail to show any perceptible increase in earliness as the result of toppingANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1893 109 In future experiments in topping cotton it is to be hoped that its possible influence on early maturity of the plant will be observed The detailed results of experiments in topping cotton may be found in the following publications Alabama College Sta Bui 4 1887 Bui 4 18S8 Alabama Canebrake Sta Bui 4 Proc Georgia State Agl Soc Feb 1874 p 67 Georgia Sta Buls 11 and 16 Louisiana Sta Bui 27 old ser Mississippi Sta Rpt 1889 p 13 Soutli Carolina Exptl Farm Rpt 18831886 p 33 South Carolina Sta Rpts 18S8 p 281 1889 p 332 and Bui 2 n ser 110 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA THE MANURING OF COTTON By H C White Ph D President and Professor of Chemistry of the Georgia State College of Agricult ure and Mechanic Arts and ViceDirector and Chemist of the Georgia Experiment Station HISTORICAL In the early history of cotton culture in the United States the great bulk of the crop was made with practically no artificial ma nuring The natural fertility of the soil was depended upon to furnish the plant food needed by the crop Such attempts as were made to increase the natural productiveness of the soil were mainly in the direction of improved mechanical tillage Even such attempts were however limited in scope and imperfect in character The large area of virgin land in the cottongrowing States its cheapness and the peculiar character of the labor em ployed in cotton culture made it apparently and probably actually more profitable to cultivate a given area for a few years only and when it was worn out to abandon it and bring fresh lands into cultivation The cheapness of the slave labor the peculiar adapta bility of the negro slave to the climatic conditions of most of the cottongrowing States and the necessity of providing employment for the rapidly increasing numbers of slavesfurnishing a labor which while muscular was relatively unintelligentconspired to maintain a system of culture in which the necessity for providing by judicious fertilization against the depletion by continuous cult Tire of a given body of land was not recognized or if recognized the process was deemed impracticable or relatively unprofitable The small demand made by cotton as compared with other crops upon the plant food of the soil was moreover well known as the result of experience and the best lands of Southern plantations those which were naturally most fertilewere as a rule reserved for corn wheat and other supply crops so far as was necessary and the residue given over to cotton culture For the same reason andANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 Ill because moreover of the clean culture necessary for cotton with which excessive growth of grass and weeds would interfere such home manures as stable manure etc as were saved upon the plan tations were when used at all devoted to the corn and grain lands and practically none applied to cotton The quantity of such ma nures made was in any event small as the stock and cattle upon cotton plantations were as a rule limited in numbers to the bare needs of the plantations and the mildness of the climate rendered unnecessary such careful housing of farm animals as would conduce to the saving of manure Cottonseed was produced in large quan tities as a necessary byproduct of the cotton crop and at the time the surplus not needed for seeding had no value except for manurial purposes in the crude form An examination of the agricultural journals published in the cottongrowing States previous to say 1845 shows that the manu rial value of stable manure cottonseed and similar materials was quite as well known to the cotton planter as to farmers elsewhere at the time Under the system of extensive culture found profitable with an abundance of cheap fresh lands and rapidly increasing possession of slave labor the economic question presented to the cotton plant er was the cost of transporting bulky materials of comparatively small manurial value versus that of clearing new lands as an avenue of employment for his labor The question was neither ignored nor untested Numerous instances are recorded of experiments upon the subject by leading intelligent planters Experience de termined the policy in favor of fresh lands and stable manure and cottonseed came to be regarded as not worth the cost of handling as fertilizers for the cotton crop They were used to considerable extent upon gardens and under grain crops but only in rare in stances with cotton Especially was this true of cottonseed which in addition to its superiority in manurial value over stable manure was collected in large quantities at the gin houses and thus accu mulated was more cheaply handled Various methods were used in applying the cottonseed as a manure Upon small areas the green seeds were sometimes scattered broadcast and plowed under More frequently they were applied in drills or furrows in varying 112 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA quantities and at different depths It was generally considered judicious to kill the seed before using for manure to prevent after sprouting and to secure material in hotter mechanical condition for handling This was accomplished in various ways A common practice was to pile the seeds in large heaps and allow them to stand for several months exposed more or less to the weather The heat of partial germination would kill the seed and the mass would under go a process of rotting The heap was cut down in spring and the rotted material applied to the land There was of course great manurial waste in this process Frequently on cutting down such heaps the odor of escaping ammonia was so strongly developed as to be noticeable at considerable distance from the heap While the cotton crop of itself received practically no artificial fertilization at all the lands designed for grain and supply crops were manured and otherwise treated in much the same manner as obtained for similar crops elsewhere so far as the prevailing con ditions permitted The manurial value of soiling crops especially clover and peas of fallowing and of rotation was well understood and such methods of soil improvement were in many instances practiced As population increased and fresh lands became less abundant higher in price and more difficult to acquire cotton to some extent was given a place in the rotation of crops and thus bene fited by the fertilization applied to previous crops In the main however the great bulk of the cotton crop previous to I860 may be said to have been grown without artificial fertilization and mainly upon virgin soil As a matter of fact previous to the civil war the best lands of the plantations were devoted to food crops and they were manured and tilled as judiciously as the conditions permitted and the then state of knowledge of scientific agriculture indicated The profit in the lave depended upon the finding of a market for his labor and the best market afforded was an extension of the area of cul tivatable lands devoted in their fresh state to the production of a crop readily convertible into money peculiarly suited as the slave himself to the climate and in the cultivation of which muscular labor should count for much and intelligence and science for but little Under the circumstances there was no profit discernible inANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 113 the artificial fertilization of a cotton plantation or even in attempted preservation of its original fertility and as the cotton planter natu rally planted for present gain with but small consideration for the prosperity of posterity the cotton crop of the United States pre vious to 1860 was in the main made by skimming the virgin soil of the cotton States the production depending upon the natural fer tility of the land In 1845 Penman guano was first introduced into the United States In 1846 Mr David Dickson of Hancock County Ga saw an advertisement in the American Farmer Baltimore of the won derful effects of Peruvian guano He procured three sacks and used it and finding it paid used it in increasing quantities till 1855 or 1856 and then went into it fully This was probably the first instance of the use of a concentrated fertilizer in the cottongrow ing States upon crops of any kind and certainly the first instance of such use with cotton Mr Dicksons first experiments with Peruvian guano were upon a small and judicious scale He ap plied it to cotton only upon his best cotton lands in comparatively small quantities and always in the drill When he went into it fully the amount he used was rarely as much as 200 pounds per acre The successful experience of Mr Dickson and other prominent planters who speedily followed his example led to very numerous experiments with Peruvian guano as a fertilizer for cotton The history of this famous stimulant manure as a cotton fertilizer in the Southern States was similar to that which it had experienced in connection with other crops elsewhere For a year or two the results of its use wTere not only satisfactory but surprising Subsequently the rapid and excessive growTth of weeds with all the attendant dangers in a region subject to severe drouth was not attended with a corresponding yield of fruit and the reputation of the guano suffered accordingly It was suggested that the active stimulant effect of the manure might be overcome by burying the guano deep in the soil and for a while this plan was followed quite extensively It was not found satisfactory however and many entirely abandoned the use of Peruvian guano as unprofitable The dangers attending the use of Peruvian guano as a fertilizer 114 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA when applied alone were perhaps more speedily and more striking ly manifested in the case of cotton than of most other crops with which it was used because of the initial poverty of the generality of cotton lands their deficiency in organic matter the clean culture of the crop and the heat and drouths of the region in which it was cultivated In 1860 came the civil war and almost simultaneously the intro duction into commerce on a large scale of chemical manures as a result of the investigations and teachings of Liebig the discovery of phosphate deposits and the opening of the German potashsalt beds The results of the war the abolition of slavery and the in troduction of chemical manures completely revolutionized the methods of cotton culture in the Southern States Up to that date the principal capital of the cotton planter had been the controll able labor of his numerous slaves the field of its employment cheap virgin lands requiring scarcely any other capital for their profitable cultivation Xow his chief and almost sole possession was an extensive domain of wornout and abandoned land robbed of its original fertility by the butchery of previous cultivation and offering scant promise of productiveness at the hands of the recently emancipated unskilled and irresponsible frcedman Under these circumstances the chemical manure furnishing plant food in a concentrated form at comparatively small cost easy of application guaranteeing a fairly good crop from even the poorest and most exhausted soil with a minimum expenditure of labor in cultivation and requiring no special skill in its manipulation was hailed as an agent admirably and peculiarly suited to the necessities and the new conditions of the cotton planter The obligation no longer rested upon the planter to devote his chief attention and his best lands to the production of food crops for his labor Cotton was a crop for which there was great demand at good prices and immediate cash payments An enormous impetus was in consequence given to cotton culture in the former slave States Concentrated manures made such culture possible and profitable and almost immediately came into wellnigh universal use Since the close of the civil war to the present time practically all the cotton cultivated in the United States with the exception of comparatively small quantitiesANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 115 grown upon the alluvial soils of great river bottoms and occasional areas of newly cleared land has been fertilized with concentrated manures Probably upon no other crop to which they have been applied have these manures exercised so great an influence as upon cotton Not only were profitable crops made with them upon lands which without them it would not have paid to cultivate and an immense area of wornout land thus redeemed to culture but the stimulant effect of the manure so shortened the period of growth and maturity of the plant that the climatic limit of culture was extended Cotton soon came to be grown abundantly over large regions where previous to the introduction of such manures killing frosts intervened before the maturity and fruitage of the plant The enormous increase in the cotton production of the United States since 1860 is undoubtedly to be credited chiefly if not exclusively to the use of concentrated manures Considering the condition of the land and the labor system of the cotton States at the close of the civil war it is difficult to conceive how cotton cul ture could have been continued or sustained but for the use of such manures Undoubtedly all these circumstances and considerations con spired to invest the commercial fertilizer in the estimation of the cotton planter with something of the character of a fetish and this led in turn to two natural errors on his part 1 to attach hut little importance to difference in chemical composition quality or character of the various compounds offered in the markets and 2 to rely too exclusively upon the fertilizer for the production of his crop During the years of the war from 1860 to 1865 when the Southern farmer was cut off from communication with the rest of the world immense progress had been made elsewhere in the study and correct understanding of the value of chemical manures and research and experiment had indicated approximately the the proper qualitative and quantitative composition of such ma nures for general crops The trade was not slow to offer these in so promising a market as the cottongrowing State Guanos some genuine and some socalled fertilizers complete ma nures and innumerable compounds under suggestive appellations which testified to the vigorous and picturesque imagination of theHC DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA American tradesman were ready in waiting at the restoration of peace and were soon poured in a rapidly swelling flood upon the cotton plantations of the South Guano soon came to be and still is the popular designation for all such manipulated goods The greater number of these were quite similar in character being mixtures of dissolved phosphate potash salt and nitrogenous matters generally organic They differed quite widely in quality however ranging in soluble phosphoric acid from G to 10 per cent in soluble actual potash from 1 to 4 per cent and in nitrogen from 1 to 3 per centj as well as differing in the sources of the materials of which they were composed A small quantity of the soluble phosphate was obtained from bones much the larger quantity from phosphate rock The potash salts were mainly the German kainit and muriate of potash The nitrogen compounds used were very numerous mineral salts sulphate of ammonia and nitrate of soda and animal matters dried blood fish scrap tankage etc all participated in the construction of these socalled complete ma nures Peruvian and other tree guanos were offered in moderate quantities both in original condition and profiting by experience manipulated with dissolved phosphate to PhosphoPeruvian for instance to safer composition for general use For a number of years the choice of a guano was determined mainly by the per suasive representations of the seller of the goods or the personal ex perience of the buyer or his friends in their actual use and the relative prices of different goods were fixed more by the reputation thus gained for the brand than by their relative contents of actual plant food Indeed even when competition and the agreement of manufacturers and dealers brought all such manipulated goods to an approximately uniform price the variation in quality as indi cated by chemical analysis was still quite great among them and yet was practically disregarded by the purchaser as a rule Guano was guano and aside from a slight prejudice irration al no doubt but comprehensible in favor of the darkcolored and badsmelling varieties no great importance was attached to its com position or its variations provided it made cotton which even the poorest in quality of those offered was quite competent to do To adopt an oftused expression the use of guano in cotton cultureANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 117 was the result of revolution not of evolution and it is small wonder therefore that is was neither strictly scientific nor thor oughly efficient To the cotton planter after the war with sterile lands and his labor system wrecked guano was offered as the one sole chance for profitable tillage of his soil It came to him appar ently fullfledged and perfected He adopted it in his dire extrem ity It served him admirably and speedily assured a certain meas ure of prosperity It is not surprising that he should have been slow to inquire into the rational of its value or indisposed to meddle with its composition Anything like scientific experimentation with chemical manures on a large scale in cotton culture was there fore not undertaken and was very difficult to secure The use of such manures was largely empirical and necessarily in many cases more or less injudicious The ease with which cotton could be produced by the use of such manures led as has been said to an undue dependence upon them ior the making of the crop Proper mechanical tillage was neglect ed and the previously wornout lands were again merely skimmed this time with the addition of the fertilizer As a consequence it was not long before the great bulk of the cotton lands began to show the effects of a continuous clean superficial culture in a re gion subject to torrential washing rains in winter and hot baking suns in summer Moreover for reasons above mentioned cotton raising has become the absorbing agricultural occupation of the country The production of grain and other crops of live stock and domestic animals was neglected and even the necessary food supplies for the family and the labor were purchased of the mer chant by the very large majority of Southern farmers Payment for these supplies including the guano that was used was made as a rule after the crop was gathered and thus began the unfortunate credit system which by reason of its enormous interest charges in the form of time prices soon involved the cotton growers not only in a stupendous burden of debt but also in a fixed and ruinous system of agriculture from which there seemed no escape Cotton was the basis of credit no other farm product was acceptable in payment of debts upon the agreement to produce it credit at fear ful interest charges could alone be had For the farmer without118 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA capital it was cotton or starvation whether he would or not he was forced to raise cotton to raise cotton required guano to obtain guano a debt was incurred payable only in cotton It is evident that this allcotton system of agricultural operations afforded but little opportunity for the making and use of farm manures the growing of soiling crops rotation and the other aids to culture possible in diversified farming In the course of time the illtreated soils failed to respond as liberally as at first to the application of the concentrated fertilizer the rapidly falling price of cotton conse quent upon the enormous production decreased the purchasing ability of the individual farmer and a revulsion in public sentiment on the subject of fertilizers ensued in which guanothe chief the necessary agent in the making of cottonfell from the high estate in which it had been held as the cotton planters best friend and came to be regarded as the cause of all his woes In the news papers in public assemblies in meetings of granges alliances and similar organizations denunciations of commercial fertilizers were frequent and vehement and resolutions galore were unani mously and enthusiastically adopted recommending and pledging a restriction of their use Even legislation was invoked to purge the body politic of the suspected source of current ills and in the legislatures of a number of the cotton States measures were intro duced although none so far as can be ascertained were actually enacted designed to hamper or suppress the guano trade or to make the legal test of the genuineness of a commercial fertilizer the actual profit derived from its use What declamation resolutions and legislation were powerless to achieve however necessity slowly accomplished a recasting of the plan of farming operations upon the cotton farms By degrees the acreage of cotton was relatively decreased Food supplies stock and cattle were raised The cotton planter endeavored to live at home and make the cotton his surplus crop Cotton in many instances was entirely abandoned and replaced by fruit truck and other crops With the diversification of crops came better tillage renovating crops home manures and a better under standing and more judicious use of concentrated fertilizers ToANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 119 this improved condition the major part of the cotton States have attained at the present time1 In the meanwhile numerous agencies had been at work in the cotton States looking to the study of the scientific culture of cotton and a dissemination of a knowledge of the principles of agricultlral chemistry which at this period exerted so potent an influence in all the processes of agriculture and particularly in the methods of manuring crops iSTot a few of the leading and most intelligent cotton planters speedily informed themselves of the progress the world had made during the wartime isolation of the cotton States and began to make intelligent application of this knowledge to their own conditions Numerous agricultural journals were estab lished and devoted large portions of their space to the discussion of the subject of the fertilization of cotton and especially of the use of chemical manures Landgrant colleges provided for by the act of Congress in 1862 wTere now established in the cotton States which during the war had been excluded from the benefits of the Federal legislation and did much to popularize a knowledge of the natural sciences pertaining to agriculture and to enlighten the peo ple on the subject of commercial fertilizers and the nature and proper mode of use of chemical manures Experiments of a more or less tentative character were carried on at some of the colleges plant and other analyses were made and published and the begin ning was thus made in the study of the scientific fertilization of cotton Finally when in 1888 agricultural experiment stations were generally established in connection with the colleges a num ber of thesenotably those of Alabama Arkansas Georgia Louis iana Mississippi North Carolina South Carolina and Tennessee entered upon careful and systematic study of the subject Following the plan previously adopted in some of the Northern States legislation was enacted in most of the cotton States provid ing for the official control of the sale of commercial fertilizers committed variously to departments bureaus or boards of argicul ture and in some instances to the colleges of agriculture These lawsin most cases prescribing minimum contents of valuable 1 See also article on Culture of Cotton p 88120 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA chemical ingredients in the fertilizer admissible to salewere in tended only to guarantee the genuineness of the manure and to guard the purchaser against imposition in the composition of the goods They were educative however in that they made familiar the chemical terms available phosphoric acid potash nitro gen ammonia etc and thus aided the popular apprehension of the functions of the manure As early as 1858 Mr Dickson hereinbefore referred to treated bones with acid according as he says to the practice of English farmers and used the compound either alone or mixed with Peru vian guano under cotton Later he used commercial dissolved bone and experimented largely with it and other commercial ma nures In 1869 he pirblisked a little book Dicksons System of Farming consisting largely of a collection of his contributions to current agricultural journals which had at the time wide circula tion and excited considerable interest In it he strongly recom mends good tillage renovating crops and rotation and does not underestimate the value of home manures but attaches prime importance to the use of chemical manures as fertilizers for cotton on which subject he says After twenty years of diligent research and study of the laws of nature as applied to agriculture with the experimental use of Peruvian guano and other guanos upon soils and crops I have determined upon the following combination of commercial manures ag the best and most valuable for all crops Formula Dicksons Compound Pounds Peruvian guano 100 Dissolved bones 100 Common salt 100 Land plaster 50 Well mixed This compound I have now been using for many years upon all my farm crops and unfailingly with satisfactory results In my hands and under my system of farming this compound has never failed to grow me good crops and bring me satisfactory dividends It has always paid me and my clear profits have always been larger in proportion to the amount of the compound ap pliedup to 1000 pounds per acre I have long since learned not to fear failure of making paying crops no matter the season Subsequently Mr Dickson modified this formula somewhat for cotton as followsANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 121 Pounds per acre Dissolved bones 250 Peruvian guano 65 Land plaster 10 This formula was based of course upon no accurate study of the cotton plant and its requirements but was merely such a fairly well proportioned mixture of concentrated manures as experience had shown to be profitable Other writers were inclined to dispute the importance he attached to Peruvian guano suggested other combinations of the commercial fertilizers available and the bat were fought over in the agricultural journals without much if any ties of the humus mineral and other theories of fertilization careful and genuine experimentation Nevertheless Dicksons compound and similar mixtures were used to a considerable ex tent and no doubt with profit For a few years subsequently to 1877 composts attained con siderable celebrity as fertilizers for cotton chiefly through the practice and writings of Mr Farish Furman of Baldwin County Ga Recognizing the nitrogenous content of cotton seed and stable mamires it was recommended to compost these with acid phosphate and potash salts and thus cheapen the cost of the com plete fertilizer as compared with that of the ammoniated guanos sold by the manufacturers The original formula for a compost recommended by Mr Furman was as follows Furmans Formula Pounds Barnyard manure 50 Cotton seed 750 Acid phosphate 367 Kainit 133 2000 To be used at the rate of from 400 to 800 pounds per acre These exact proportions were not always followed by those who adopted Mr Furmans general suggestion The general plan of making a compost was to put down on an earthen floor a layer usually of about 20 bushels of stable manure then a layer 20 bushels of cotton seed then a sack 200 pounds of acid phosphate with occasional addition of kainit or muriate of122 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA potash then repetition of the layers to any extent desired covering the whole frequently with a layer of absorbent earth The com post heap was protected roughly from the weather frequently in a latticed pen and kept moderately moist It was put up in the autumn immediately after the close of the ginning season and al lowed to stand until spring It was then cut down mixed and ap piled in the drill It was assumed that the partial rotting of the com post in the heap would improve its quality as a manure Subse quently it was doubted whether this improvement was sufficient to compensate for the trouble and cost of making the heap and the green cotton seed stable manure and acid phosphate were com posted i e simply mixed together in the drill at the time of ap plying the fertilizer immediately or a short while before planting Composting both in the heap and in the drill is still practiced to a considerable extent although probably not so largely relatively as when first introduced and large quantities of stable manure and cotton seed especially are thus used in the fertilization of cotton Between 1870 and 1880 a large number of cottonseed oil mills were erected in the cotton States These threw upon the market at comparatively low prices a large quantity of cottonseed meal for which the stock and cattle of the country did not furnish a sufficient market for complete utilization as a feeding stuff Numerous experiments demonstrated the suitability of cotton seed meal as an ammoniater in fertilizers for cotton and it was used in increasing quantities by the manufacturers of ammoniated fertilizers At the present time it is probably the most largely used source of nitrogen in the commercial and other concentrated manures applied to cotton As popular understanding of the composition and functions of chemical manures increased greater variety and discrimination were observed in the purchase of commercial fertilizers The cot ton planter was fortunate in having immediately at hand the main constituents of manipulated manures Acid phosphate was made in large quantities at Charleston from the South Carolina phos phate rock and subsequently at numerous other points in the South ern States from both South Carolina and Florida rock Cotton seed meal was produced at the numerous oil mills in the SouthANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 123 German potash salts were imported direct into Southern ports and a limited supply of ashes rich in potash 15 to 25 per cent was furnished by the oilmills which used cottonseed hulls largely for fuel Many cotton planters began to purchase these raw materials of chemical manures and use them either separately or more gen erally mixed in such proportions as experience or perhaps more truly reference to the average analysis of the commercial ammo niated fertilizers seemed to indicate as best suited the requirements of the cotton crop Numerous formulae were used none of them professing to be based up accurate information furnished by strictly scientific experimentation but providing the approximate proportions of available phosphoric acid potash and nitrogen which research and experiment elsewhere had shown to be adapted to crops in general The following is a typical example of the mix tures used Poundp Acid phosphate1200 Cottonseed meal 600 Kainit 200 2000 If muriate of potash or cottonhull ashes were used in place of kainit the amount was usually smaller and the proportion of acid phosphate correspondingly increased As the raw material varied somewhat in quality these mix tures also varied in analysis ranging in general from 7 to 10 per cent of available phosphoricacid 2 to 4 of nitrogen and 1 to 3 of potash Such mixtures appeared to give generally satisfactory re sults with cotton and were and still are used quite extensively in all the Southern States The cottonoil mills as a rule were will ing to exchange cottonseed meal for cotton seed generally at the rate approximately of 1 pound of meal for 2 pounds of seed and the mixing of chemical manures on the farm wTas thus encouraged Subsequently to 1885 the relative quantities of acid phosphate with or without a small content of potash purchased by the cotton growers as compared with the amount of ammoniated guanos largely increased indicating an effort to supply the crop with its nitrogenous nutriment by use of soiling crops stable manure green and rotted cottonseed and other home manures124 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTS BEARING UPON THE MANURING OF COTTON With the establishment of agricultural experiment stations in 1888 systematic experimentation in the fertilization of cotton be gan mainly at or under the auspices of the stations in the cotton States These experiments have been diverse in character varied in conditions and unequal in the attention care and length of time devoted to them They have added much of great value to our accurate knowledge on the subject and have indicated certain con clusions which may be provisionally accepted with some degree of confidence Upon many points however they have not yet afford ed positive and definite conclusions The apparent resultsof the experiments are in many cases contradictory and in many more inconclusive This is not to be considered surprising inasmuch as the experiments without exception have been field experiments subject to all the contingencies inconsistencies and misleading re sults incident to work of this description STo pot or water culture of cotton seems to have been undertaken at any rate no results of such experiments have been published Eesearch and experiments at the station bearing upon cotton culture have covered a wide range of investigation Of these experiments nothing need here be said further than to note as bearing upon the subject of the fertilization of cotton cer tain results of the chemical analysis of the plant as follows i1 Fertilizing constituents contained in a crop of cotton yielding 300 pounds of lint per acre Amount per acre Constituent In 300 pounds lint In 654 pounds seed In 404 pounds bolls In 575 pounds leaves In 658 pounds stems In 250 pounds roots In 2841 pounds total crop Per cent 072 18 222 Per cent 2008 666 763 Per cent 450 114 1220 Per cent 1385 257 657 Per cent 517 122 774 Per cent 162 38 275 Per cent 4594 Phosphoric acid 1215 3911 The average production of cotton per acre is much less than 300 pounds of lintprobably something less than 200 pounds A calculation accordingly can however easily be made from the figures given above 1 Tennessee Sta Bui Vol IV No 5ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 125 The station experiments bearing directly upon the fertilization of cotton may be roughly classified by the end in view as follows 1 To test the yield and profit from the use of fertilizers as com pared with unfertilized soil 2 To test the comparative values of commercial fertilizers and home manures 3 To determine the kind of fertilizers chemical manure best suited to cotton 4 To determine the amount of fertilizer giving best results 5 To determine the best mode of application of the fertilizer 6 To determine the best time of application 7 Miscellaneous Omitting mention of such experiments as were manifestly unre liable by reason of accident omissions lack of care and attention or from other causes a succinct review of the results obtained in these several lines of experimentation is here presented YIELD AND PROFIT FROM THE USE OF FERTILIZERS ON COTTON AS COMPARED WITH YIELD AND PROFIT FROM UNFER TILIZED SOIL The results of experiments instituted on this line vary greatly with the nature of the soil the seasons the culture and the kinds and amounts of manures employed With the exception of those iipon one class of soil however they all agree in demonstrating that large profit attends the judicious manuring of cotton The exception is in the case of the black prairie or canebrake soils of the alluvial formation of the Gulf States Experiments upon such soils at the Alabama stations indicate that no compensating returns may be expected from the use of manures except crashed cotton seed and cottonseed meal and even with these the returns are small Drainage and good mechanical tillage seem to be the chief need of these soils Upon other soils of Alabama how ever the percentage of profit from a judicious use of fertilizers followed by intelligent cultivation is most satisfactory Upon a poor sandy soil withno retentive clay within 3 feet of the sur face even with unusual expense for fertilizers the increase result126 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA ing from the use of commercial manures paid 85 per cent profit on cost Experiments made under direction of the Arkansas Station in dicate that fertilizers are generally remunerative the percentage of profit ranging from 20 to 180 Five hundred pounds per acre of rotted cotton seed gave a net profit of 393 Five hundred pounds each of cotton seed at 650 per ton and cottonseed meal at 20 per ton gave equal financial profit At the Georgia Station the use of commercial fertilizers was almost always profitable the percentage of profit ranging from 5 to 250 The stations of Louisiana Mississippi North Carolina and South Carolina obtain similar results from experiments and indi cate that the application of fertilizing material to cotton seems with few exceptions to be profitable W B Dana1 states that in 1878 the increased productiveness due to the use of commercial fertilizers is estimated to be 50 per cent The effect does not all pass off the first season but in about the proportion of TO per cent the first year 20 per cent the second year and 10 per cent the third year2 To the teaching of these specific experiments may be added the general experience of the great bulk of the cotton planters and it may be accepted as proven that cotton responds favorably to arti ficial manuring and that upon most of the soils of the cotton States all kinds of manures including concentrated commercial fertilizers at the prices at which they are commonly held are profit able when judiciously used COMPARATIVE VALUES OF COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS AND HOME MANURES Results of experiments on this point also vary considerably with the soil and season Cotton from seed to loom Hammond estimates that in 1889 627899 tons of fertilizers were used on cotton in the United States and that the use of this amount of fertilizer re sulted in an increased crop of 728337 bales of seed cotton or a little over 9 per cent of the crop of that yearANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 127 In Alabama green manuring appears to have been most profit able upon both prairie and sandy soil Peas and melilotus both gave good results pea vines appeared to be the best fertilizer for cotton peas were more economical for green manuring for one season melilotus for two stable manure generally gave good re sults lasting in effects upon canebrake soils both drained and Tin drained crushed cotton seed and stable manure each gave small returns commercial fertilizers none Upon a field with sandy soil which has not been cultivated for many years stable manure con trasted with chemical manures of various kinds and in various pro portions produced the largest increase and the largest profit per acre but it was noted that the amount applied was at the rate of nearly 2 tons per acre or onehalf ton more than the amount annu ally saved from each mule kept There is no question about the efficacy of good stable manure properly used but the available sup ply is too small In Arkansas cottonseed and cottonseed meal gave best results when tested against acid phosphate and kainit separately On worn sandy bottom lands almost continuously planted in cotton for thirty years cottonseed meal and stable manure each gare better results than chemical manures and better results when used alone than when mixed with acid phosphate and kainit There is no better fer tilizer for cotton than stable and barnyard manure Other experi ments indicate however that stable manure from feeding cotton seed and peavine hay extended the growing season of the plant delayed maturity of the crop and hence decreased the possible yield and profit In Georgia cotton seed and stable manure alone were found unprofitable as compared with the same compost with acid phos phate and gave less profit when used in amounts of equal cost than chemical manures In Louisiana cotton seed and stable manure alone were of doubtful profit as compared with chemical manures Manure from the farm should be reenforced with cottonseed meal and com posted with acid phosphate The compost is the best manure in the world for cotton The formula recommended for the compost is128 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA Green cotton seedbushels 100 Stable manuredo 100 Acid phosphatepounds 2000 Almost as effective as the compost was a homemade chemical manure constructed as follows Pounds Acid phosphate 1100 Cottonseed meal 700 Kainit 200 In Mississippi commercial fertilizers were more profitable than stable manure or cotton seed alone but paid best in connection with an abundance of organic matter Composts variously pro portioned gave best results In North Carolina barnyard manure was found to be especially effective partly on account of its after effects and somewhat the best of all fertilizers Its first cost 1 per load however detrac ted from the profit and a combination with acid phosphate was much more profitable Home composts gave generally good results and next to these a home mixture of Pounds per acre Acid phosphate 200 Cottonseed meal 100 Kainit SO KIND OF FERTILIZER CHEMICAL MANURE REQUIRED BY OR BEST SUITED TO COTTON Assuming phosphoric acid potash and nitrogen in suitable com pounds to be the three chemical substances proper and possible to be used in the fertilization of cotton the experiments have been mainly conducted with a view to determine the relative importance of these the best form of each i e of the compound available in commerce and the proportions of each in a mixed feitilizer most suitable to the requirements of the cotton crop regard being had to the character of the soil to which they were applied and account being taken of the profit afforded In Alabama in 1888 experiments were made upon a sandy drift soil to determine the proper ratio of nitrogen to phosphoric acid in fertilizers for cotton The amount of phosphoric acid wasANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 129 constant200 pounds of English superphosphate 12 per cent soluble per acreand the amount of nitrogen in dried blood and cottonseed meal varied so as to furnish 1 part nitrogen to 1 2 4 6 and 8 parts phosphoric acid The smallest quantity of nitrogen employed gave as good results as larger quantities No difference was observed in the two sources of nitrogen In 1889 cooperative experiments under direction of the College Station were made on 9 farms furnishing typical soils of the State The fertilizers used and the amounts per acre were For nitrogen sulphate of ammo nia 80 pounds nitrate of soda 100 pounds cottonseed meal 200 pounds for phosphoric acid dissolved boneblack 200 pounds for potash kainit 100 pounds Green cotton seed 960 pounds per acre and stable manure 3000 pounds per acre alone and in com bination with acid phosphate were also used The fertilizers were applied singly and in various combinations to fifteenthacre plats without duplication Some of the experiments proved to be of little value owing to mistakes and omissions others indicated with some clearness that phosphoric acid was the ingredient chiefly need ed in the soil testedsandy and brown loam with clay subsoil An experiment was also made with cotton on newly cleared land in which acid phosphate was applied on two plats acid phosphate and cottonseed meal on two and manure on one The results indicated that the natural soil did not furnish sufficient nitrogen and was very deficient in phosphoric acid for the requirements of the crop In 1890 an experiment was made on fifteen plats in a field which had not been cultivated for many years The fertil izers used were sulphate of ammonia dissolved boneblack and kainit singly two and two and all three together Floats alone and in combination separately with sulphate of ammonia and green cotton seed was also used as also stable manure and green cotton seed singly Contrast was made with plats receiving no manure The results indicated that this soil needed nitrogen and potash but was most deficient in phosphoric acid for the production of the crop This experiment and another on a sandy drift land long in cultivation indicated that floats in connection with cotton seed was more profitable than acid phosphate In 1891 cooper 9a130 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA ative experiments were made on 36 farms in various parts of the State with different fertilizers in different amounts and combina tions The experiments were not perfectly accurate but indi cated certain conclusions Potash did not seem to pay phosphates applied alone did not have much effect nitrogenous fertilizers in all forms gave an increased yield In 1893 certain experiments indicated that nitrogenous fertilizers cottonseed meal and nitrate of soda alone on cotton pay on sandy lands providing there are good rains following their application The general indications afforded by the great number and variety of cooperative experiments made since 1888 under the auspices of the Alabama Station upon a variety of soils of the State the major ity of which were sandy are that a complete fertilizer is needed for cotton Phosphoric acid is often the controlling element and a sufficiency of nitrogen is frequently lacking in the soil Potash alone does not pay Phosphate applied alone have some effect but much less than when combined with nitrogen Nitrogen partic ularly in organic forms is profitable especially in connection with phosphates The unfertilized soil of the station needs nitrogen potash and phosphoric acid It is especially deficient in the latter In new ground the decomposition of the vegetable matter in the soil did not furnish all of the nitrogen needed by the cotton the increase from phosphates alone was satisfactory but the increase caused by the addition of nitrogen did not justify its use As to floats the experience of several years indicated that a part of the phosphoric acid becomes available to the plant the first season but the solubility is much facilitated by combining the floats with cot ton seed or cottonseed meal In Arkansas in 1889 experiments were made on sandy bottom land which had been almost continuously planted in cotton with out manuring for thirty years Acid phosphate cottonseed meal and kainit were used singly and in combination also stable manure and composts in different amounts Nitrogenous manures alone were profitable Neither acid phosphate nor kainit alone paid All of the different plats on which cottonseed meal was used either singly or in combination gave some profit and this was due not to the acid phosphate or kainit but to the cottonseed meal TheseANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 131 results were confirmed by similar experiments made in 1891 Cooperative experiments made in 1888 at five points in the State and repeated in subsequent years indicated that a complete chemi cal fertilizer is needed for cotton A combination is provisionally recommended of Pounds per acre Acid phosphate 200 Cottonseed meal 200 Muriate of potash 50 In Georgia a series of excellently arranged and very carefully conducted experiments have been in progress upon the station farm since 1890 The soil of the station is somewhat irregular in char acter but is for the most part a gray sandy loam underlaid by yellow clay and previous to the institution of the experiments had been in continuous cultivation for a number of years Fer tilizing materials in great variety and in many different combina tions were used The results of the experiments have not been strictly accordant but the following general conclusions seem to be provisionally warranted Cotton requires a complete manure i e one containing soluble phosphoric acid potash and nitrogen Neither phosphoric acid norpotash give as good results alone as when combined with each other Phosphoric acid alone largely surpasses no manure Potash alone is doubtful sometimes it affects the yield injuriously Nitrogen alone has little or no effect but lias very decided effects when mixed with phosphoric acid and potash In some cases nitrogen seems to be the controlling element in a fertilizer but on the whole phosphoric acid is most effective in increasing the yield Cottonseed meal and cotton seed and nitrate of soda seem to be the best forms of nitrogen for cotton and are about equal in value proportionately to the content of nitrogen There is little or no difference in the value of kainit and muriate of potash The phosphoric acid in floats and Florida soft phos phate is not in a sufficiently soluble and available condition to answer the needs of the cotton crop The best proportions of the three elements in a complete fertilizer for cotton are approximately nitrogen 1 part potash 1 part phosphoric acid 3J parts Of such a complete fertilizer the quantity to be used per acre should be an132 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA amount furnishing nitrogen 20 pounds potash 20 pounds phos phoric acid 70 pounds In Louisiana admirably conceived and carefully conducted series of field experiments in the fertilization of cotton have been made both at the State Station at Baton Rouge and at the North Louis iana Station at Calhoun beginning in 1886 and still in progress Plats of uniform size were manured with nitrogenous phosphatic and potash fertilizers of different kinds and in different proportions separately and in great variety of combination The questions tested were 1 Do these soils the worn sandy lands and red lands of Louisiana need nitrogen to grow cotton profitably If so in what form can it be best presented and in what quantitcs per acre 2 Do these soils need phosphoric acid If so which is the best f mil and in what quantities per acre 3 Do these soils need potash If so which is the best form and in what quantities per acre The results of the experiments were in some instances incon clusive and in some apparently contradictory as the seasons and the conditions varied On the whole however the following con clusions seem justified as the result of the entire series of experi ments 1 These soils need nitrogen and nitrogenous manures may pro fitably be used in the fertilization of cotton la All forms of nitrogenous matters vegetable animal and mineral are satisfactory and profitable but on the whole they stand in the following order of excellence a vegetable cotton seed and cottonseed meal animal dried blood fish scrap etc and c mineral sulphate of ammonia and nitrate of soda 16 One ration 24 pounds of nitrogen per acre is more profit able than larger quantities 2 The soils need phosphoric acid Phosphatic manures may be profitably used in the fertilization of cotton They arc not so neces sary upon these soils however as nitrogen 2a The soluble forms of phosphoric acid in dissolved bone black and acid phosphate are emphatically better than the insoluble forms in floats and similar materialsANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 133 2b One ration 24 pounds per acre of phosphoric acid is more profitable than larger quantities 3 Potash in no form either alone or combined with other ma nures is needed for these soils Potash manures are not profitable in the fertilization of cotton It is very certain that phosphoric acid is needed to grow cotton successfully but in small quantities and combined always with nitrogenous manures In Mississippi experiments in the fertilization of cotton were made at the College Station and at Holly Springs in 18881893 The results indicate that on upland soils the fertilizer should be rich in organic matter and nitrogen and contain more potash than phosphoric acid On sandy valley lands the phosphoric acid should predominate Lime soils require large quantities of potash On soils poor in lime potash was not needed or did not pay On black prairie lands the value of concentrated fertilizers was not definitely indicated The results in different years were conflicting Cotton hull ashes were found to be an excellent form of potash In North Carolina experiments on representative soils of the chief geological areas in the State were conducted in 18901894 Stable manure gave best general results in yield but was not always most profitable on account of initial cost Next to stable manure a complete fertilizer gave best results and the proportions per acre recommended are Pounds per acre Acid phosphate 200 Cottonseed meal 100 Kainit 50 Acid phosphate alone was for the most part profitable Cotton seed meal alone was profitable in the majority of cases Kainit alone was unprofitable except in the case of the poor sandy lands of Eastern North Carolina In South Carolina a very elaborate and most carefully conducted scries of experiments was made upon the station farms two sit uated in different sections of the State and extending over three years18881890 The soils selected were typical of the up land soils of the cotton States and were very thin being greatly exhausted by years of improvident culture Applications of134 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA fertilizers phosphoric nitrogenous and potash of various kinds were made separately and in various combinations and in different amounts but more particularly in the approximate quantities and proportions shown by existing analysis of the cotton plant to be necessary for the requirements of the crop The details of the experiments and the results have been reported in a bulletin of the United States Department of Agriculture1 The conclusions reached are in part as follows 1 Cotton requires nitrogen phosphoric acid and potash 2 Of the three phosphoric acid is relatively the most important and controls the action of the other two It can be used alone with some advantage to the crop but much more effectively in connec tion with potash and nitrogen 3 Nitrogen is relatively more important than potash It can only be advantageouly used in combination with phosphoric acid or phosphoric acid and potash 4 Potash like nitrogen is of little value to cotton when applied separately it must be combined with the other constituents 5 Expressed in terms of the latest analysis of the cotton plant the proportions and amounts of nitrogen phosphoric acid and pot ash required are as follows Between threesevenths and four sevenths nitrogen about four and onefourth phosphoric acid and between onethird and onehalf potash With proper allowance for the cost as well as the effect of each application the requirements may be more exactly given as follows Xitrogen 043 phosphoric acid 116 potash 038 In other words the required proportions are Nitrogen 1 phosphoric acid 2J potash f and the amounts called for by a crop yielding 300 pounds of lint per acre are Xitro gen 20 pounds phosphoric acid 50 pounds potash 15 pounds 6 The amount of phosphoric acid determines the amount of nitrogen and potash With a given amount of the first only cer tain amounts of the last two can be profitably used 7 Potash can be as effectively supplied by muriate of potash or kainit as it can by sulphate of potash 8 Phosphoric acid is of value to cotton in proportion to its solu Farmers Bui 14ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 135 bility hence the several kinds of phosphatic manures cannot be indifferently employed Preference must be given to acid phos phates containing considerable percentages of soluble phosphoric acid Insoluble phosphoric acid in slag floats or marl is of little direct value to the crop upon which it is applied and even granting that its effects in the soil may be lasting they are not in the long run sufficiently pronounced to meet the interest on the capital in vested in the application 9 Inorganic organic and mixed nitrogen are of very nearly equal value to cotton The slight difference is in favor of the last two Stable manure containing organic nitrogen is the best fertili zer of its class and is lasting or cumulative in its effects The or ganic nitrogen of stable manure to the amount of 50 per cent can be fully replaced by the inorganic nitrogen of nitrate of soda As between cotton seed and cottonseed meal there is a slight difference in favor of the latter Whole cotton seed is as efficacious as ground cotton seed Inorganic nitrogen in nitrate of soda is about as val uable to cotton as organic nitrogen in cotton seed or cottonseed meal The results obtained in Georgia and South Carolina are worthy of special consideration in this connection as the experiments yield ing them were conducted specifically for determination of the points now under discussion THE AMOUNT OF FERTILIZER PER ACRE GIVING BEST RESULTS The experiments bearing upon this question are somewhat mea ger and the results uncertain The amount of fertilizer which may be judiciously and profitably employed is shown clearly to depend upon the character condition and previous treatment of the soil and to some extent upon the season ATery few systematic experi ments have been made to test this specific question In Alabama one series of experiments indicated that an applica tion of 1000 pounds per acre of a complete fertilizer was not as profitable as one of 500 pounds although the yield was somewhat increased In Georgia large doses of fertilizer applied at planting or during the earlier periods of growth resulted in earlier maturity of the crop without however sensible increase in profit The results of experi136 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA ments conducted for several years on series of plats of gravelly gray soil with yellow subsoil in which fertilizers were applied at the rates of 400 600 and 1200 pounds per acre indicated 1 That while heavy doses of fertilizers do not give a corres ponding increase in the yield of cotton or so large a percentage of profit yet such heavy applications within reasonable limits are judicious provided the land is in good condition 2 That the limit or maximum amount of fertilizers that can be safely and profitably applied to land in good condition varies con siderably say from 500 to 1000 pounds per acre according to sea sons variety of cotton etc In these experiments the maximum amotmt that was immediately profitable was probably between 500 and 700 pounds per acre It is concluded that in general the most effective amount of fertilizer was 6256 pounds per acre compounded as follows Pounds Acid phosphate 468 Nitrate of soda 130 Muriate of potash 54 6 652 6 or such an equivalent amount of similar mixtures as will furnish per acre approximately phosphoric acid 70 pounds nitrogen 20 pounds potash 20 pounds It has been shown that 8 worth of wellbalanced fertilizer may be ex pected to increase the yieldof seed cotton on 1 acre 1000 pounds But such results can only be attained by concentrating the fertilizer on the best land not by scattering it at the rate of 100 or 200 pounds to the acre over a large wornout plantation The mistake should not be made of applying large amounts of concentrated fertilizers on thin worn out land The larger the application the more important is it that the land be in the best possible con dition In North Carolina heavy applications of stable manure while somewhat proportionately increasing the yield were not profitable In South Carolina it is concluded that the amount of phosphoric acid and proportionate amounts of nitrogen and potash cannot be indefinitely increased with the expectation of obtaining a corres ponding increase in the crop The gain in crop does not keep pace with increase of fertilizers and a point is speedily reached beyond which this gain is not sufficient to meet the additional cost of theANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 137 heavier applications The soil cannot be profitably forced the application of fertilizers must be regulated by its mechanical as well as chemical condition The maximum quantity of fertilizer that can in general be used with advantage is concluded to be an amount that will furnish per acre phosphoric acid 50 pounds potash 15 pounds nitrogen 20 pounds BEST MODE OF APPLICATION OF FERTILIZERS TO COTTON In Alabama experiments in 1887 indicated that broadcasting compost and stable manure gave better results than application in the drill In Georgia the results of general experiments indicate that it is by no means necessary nor is it desirable to broadcast the fertili zer when less than 1500 pounds are to be applied to an acre of corn or cotton or other widerow crop If only 500 pounds are to be applied distribute it in a deep furrow and mix it by running two scooter furrows through it If more than 500 pounds then divide the amount between the center furrow and the two listing furrows Broadcast manuring should as a rule be confined to crops that are planted broadcast as small grain grass etc The experience and the practice at the stations generally substan tiate the conclusion reached in South Carolina that fertilizers may bo indifferently drilled or broadcasted where they are liberally ap plied but drilling is to be preferred where small amounts are em ployed BEST TIME OF APPLICATION OF FERTILIZERS TO COTTON A number of experiments have been made to test the effects of intercultural applications of fertilizers the results of which how ever are for the most part discordant and inconclusive In Alabama one set of experiments in 1888 indicated that one application of the fertilizer in the drill before planting gave best results Another in 1890 was very carefully conducted in order to test the efficacy of the application of additional fertilizer during the growth of the plant in prolonging its fruiting period and increasing the yield Two hundred pounds of cottonseed meal per acre were applied at the second plowing of the cotton138 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA June 18 and covered lightly with the scrape Two hundred more were ap plied in the same way at the last plowing July 30 These were applied to two plats to which 200 pounds of cottonseed meal and acid phosphate mixed in equal parts of each were applied in the drill before planting and were compared with a third plat to which the same quantity of cottonseed meal and acid phosphate were applied at planting but to which no subsequent ap plications were made The average increase caused by the additional appli cations was 331 pounds of seed cottoijier acre The intercultural applications had the effect of continuing the growth and fruitfulness of the cotton after that on plat 3 had ceased to grow In 1893 however it was found that 200 pounds of mixed nitrate of soda and cottonseed meal applied to previously fertilized plats in June was as profitable as 100 pounds in June and 100 pounds in July The addition of cottonseed meal as late as August 13 was not profitable In Georgia it has been found that marked effects result from in tercultural fertilization or successive applications of fertilizers dur ing the growing season When a heavy application of a readily available fertilizer is to be made it would be advisable to divide it into at least two doses and possibly more In Louisiana the conclusion is reached that fertilizers for cotton should all be applied at time of planting A second and third appli cation is not profitable MISCELLANEOUS EXPERIMENTS Incidentally to the main objects for which the experiments in the fertilization of cotton were instituted certain indications on miscel laneous and minor points have been afforded The general experience at the stations and elsewhere is to the effect that chemical manures generally and especially nitrogenous and phosphatic manures hasten the maturity of the crop Stable manure in some instances Arkansas NorthCarolina delayed ma turity beyond the fruiting period The cumulative effect of manures in the soil is fairly well evi denced in several cases Nitrogenous manures increased the yield the second season without additional fertilization Alabama Arkan sas but not the third season Alabama Phosphatic manures in creased the yield without additional fertilization the second and third season Alabama The cumulative effects of heavy appliANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 139 cations of a complete fertilizer were manifest the second and the third years Georgia Floats alone gave a greater increase over no manure the third year after application than in the first or second year Alabama Kainit is recommended as a specific for rust and blight in cotton to be used in connection with cotton seed or cottonseed meal North Carolina Kainit appears to retard the appearance of blight Ala bama Kainit retards the opening of the bolls Arkansas Marl alone or in combination with commercial fertilizers is of no direct value to cotton Applied upon leguminous crops which are to be turned under as a preparation for cotton its indirect value is great South Carolina Air slaked lime mixed in the drill with acid phosphate and floats had no apparent effect upon the crop Alabama Applications of copperas are without effect upon cotton South Carolina Xitrate of soda should generally be applied with the other fertili zers at the time of planting South Carolina but on the other hand it may be profitably divided into two applications the second not to be later than June 1 Georgia The quantity of nitrogen in the fertilizer seems not to affect the relations between the weight of seed and lint Alabama Shallow applications of fertilizers i e at depth of 2 or 3 inches give better results than deeper applications Louisiana There is no advantage in separating the ingredients of the fertili zer and applying them at different depths Louisiana It is highly important that the fertilizer be well mixed with a considerable portion of soil Georgia The cowpea is an excellent green manuring crop in preparation of land for cotton Alabama Arkansas Louisiana Georgia The most profitable method of application is to gather the peas or cut the vines for hay and turn under the stubble with addition of the manure from stock fed with the hay Alabama Arkansas Georgia GENERAL CONCLUSIONS In reviewing the results of the experiments conducted at or under the auspices of the experiment stations and taking into account the140 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA general experience of successful cotton growers certain general con clusions on the subject of the fertilization of cotton may be accepted as tentatively established 1 Cotton is a plant which responds promptly liberally and profitably to judicious fertilization 2 By judicious fertilization the maturity of the crop may be hastened and the period of growth from germination to fruiting so shortened as to materially increase the climatic area within which cotton may be profitably grown 3 As is the case Avith most other crops the profit from manur ing cotton with concentrated fertilizers is much enhanced by ante cedent proper preparation of the soil It pays to bring cotton lands up to a condition of good tilth by mechanical treatment and especially by incorporating in them liberal quantities of organic matter Upon lands in such condition fertilizers of all kinds yield more profit either from small or large applications than upon lands not so treated 4 Renovating crops and especially the cowpea furnish an effi cient and economical method of bringing cotton lands into condi tion to respond most liberally and profitably to the application of concentrated manures under cotton The most profitable plan of employing the cowpea for this purpose on cotton is to gather the peas at maturity cut the vines for hay and turn under the stubble along with the manures resulting from feeding the hay to stock and cattle 5 Barnyard manure and similar bulky manures are more effi cient and profitable as soil renovators than as specific fertilizers for cotton They should be broadcasted liberally and used rather as soil improvers than as immediate fertilizers The same is probably true of cotton seed except whore the price to be had for the seed at cottonoil mills justifies the exchange of seed for cottonseed meal to be used as the source of nitrogen in a concentrated manure If however only small quantities of such manures are to be had and if is desired to use them as direct fertilizers it is more profitable to compost them with acid phosphate preferably containing small percentage of potash than to use them alone It is more profitableANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 141 to compost directly in the drill at time of planting than in heaps previously 6 Cotton may wisely be assigned a place in a judicious rotation system Upon lands devoted to staple crops a three years rota tionsmall grain corn with peas cottonis judicious Each crop in the rotation should be appropriately fertilized It is in evidence that the cumulative effects of such manuring upon the succeeding crop are marked 7 Upon the great majority of the soils of the cottongrowing States it is advisable and profitable to use as a concentrated fer tilizer a complete manure i e one containing soluble phos phoric acid available potash and available nitrogen rather than a manure containing one or two of these ingredients Nitrogen however may probably be advantageously omitted from the con centrated fertilizer in whole or in part when the soil has previously been liberally supplied with this ingredient through barnyard manure green manuring etc 8 Soluble phosphates are very much to be preferred in the fertilizer for cotton to those which are not soluble 9 There is no great difference if any in the agricultural value and profit when used in the fertilizer for cotton of the various soluble potash salts to be had in commerce except propor tionately to the price and content of actual potash 10 Of the nitrogen compounds available for use in fertilizers the organic forms vegetable and animal are perhaps best suited to cotton if one form alone be used although nitrate of soda is probably nearly if not quite of equal value Further experiments are needed to determine the efficacy of mixing various nitrogen compounds in different proportions 11 The most judicious proportions of soluble phosphoric acid potash and nitrogen in a complete fertilizer for cotton cannot be said to have been as yet determined with entire accuracy Those suggested by Georgianitrogen 1 potash 1 phosphoric acid 3 and by South Carolinanitrogen 1 potash f phosphoric acid 2 perhaps approximate reasonable accuracy In the light of present information perhaps nitrogen 1 potash 1 phosphoric acid 2f or would not be injudicious proportions for general use142 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA 12 The amount of concentrated fertilizer which may profitably be used per acre varies widely with the nature and condition of the soil the seasons and other circumstances For an average soil in fairly good condition perhaps the maximum amounts indicated by Georgia nitrogen 20 pounds potash 20 pounds phosphoric acid 70 pounds or by South Carolina nitrogen 20 pounds potash 15 pounds phosphoric acid 50 pounds or an approximately mean of the two would be the maximum limit of profitable application The actual weight of the complete fertilizer furnishing these quan tities would of course vary with the percentage composition in nitrogen potash and phosphoric acid of the material used to make the fertilizer If the commercial ammoniated fertilizer or other concentrated manure intended for use under cotton should be com pounded as it might very well be and in some cases is to analyze approximately Per cent Soluble available phosphoric acid 9 Potash 3 Nitrogen 3 then 700 pounds per acre of such a fertilizer would be approxi mately the maximum amount that could judiciously and profitably be used under ordinary circumstances upon soil in good condition 13 The concentrated fertilizer should be applied in the drill not broadcast at a depth of not more than 3 inches and well mixed with the soil 14 All things considered it is perhaps best in most cases to apply all the concentrated fertilizer in one application at the time of planting With lands in superior condition however or where large quantities of fertilizers are used it is probably profitable to apply half at planting and half at the second plowing These conclusions it is believed are justified by the present state of knowledge on the subject of the fertilization of cotton They may be accepted provisionally and until modified and cor rected by the results of further investigation and experiments such as are now in progress at several of the experiment stations in the Southern States In view of the importance of the subject and the unsatisfactory state of knowledge concerning it the writer ventures to suggest that it would probably be wise for some one ofANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 143 the stations of the cotton States to devote a large part of its time and resources to an extensive thorough and intimate study of the nutrition growth and development of the cotton plant It is perhaps not hazardous to conjecture that the results of such study might modify materially the apparent conclusions thus far reached on the subject of the fertilization of cotton METHOD OF MANURING COTTON AT PRESENT IN GENERAL USE IN THE UNITED STATES The method of fertilizing for cotton at present employed by the Southern cotton grower varies somewhat withdifferences in soil climate capital etc The greatest variation perhaps is in the preliminary preparation of the land Some cotton farmers practice green manuring rotation composting etc with regularity others irregularly others not at all There is much greater uniformity observed in the use of concentrated fertilizers although here again there are wide differences in usage particularly as to the amount of fertilizer employed From the time of their introduction until the present the method of applying chemical manures to cotton has been essentially uniform and the sameviz in the drill They are very rarely broadcasted Neither indeed as a rule are com posts stable manure or cotton seed A shallow furrow varying in depth from 3 to 6 inchesmuch more frequently 3 than 6is opened with the plow and the manures applied by hand generally through a tin tube known as the guano horn 3 feet long and 2 inches in diameter or by a mechanical distributer much like a grain drill planter and capable of being set to deliver fixed and uniform quantities The manure is then listed oni e covered with a thin layer of soil to the depth of 1 to 3 inches The seed are dropped upon this either by hand or from a planter and covered with soil to a depth usually of 3 inches The seed are frequently rolled in ashes or sometimes in acid phosphate or other fertilizer before planting The amount of fertilizer used per acre varies greatly From as little as 50 pounds to as much as 1000 pounds per acre is used The average amount used by the great majority of cotton growers is probably between 175 and 200 pounds per acre The fertilizer is for the most part the commer144 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA cial ammoniated article although considerable quantities of acid phosphate with or without potash and home mixtures of chemicals are so used In the case of composts suchas that prepared by the Furman formula for example the amount used is usually about 400 pounds per acre The commercial ammoniated fertilizer sold in the Southern States at the present time will average in composition approxi mately Per cent Soluble available phosphoric acid 9 Nitrogen 2 Potash 2 Acid phosphates range in content from 12 to 15 per cent of available phosphoric acid and are often given a small content of potash ranging from onehalf of 1 per cent to 2 per cent The home mixture of chemicals is usually constructed on the formula approximately Pounds Acid phosphate 1200 Cottonseed meal 600 Kainit 200 2000 MANURING OF COTTON IN OTHER COUNTRIES Elsewhere than in the United States the culture of cotton is mainly confined to the rich alluvial lands and a large proportion of the crop is grown without any manuring whatever still in most countries some use is made of farm manures Even on the fertile alluvial soils of Egypt which are so abundantly supplied with fer tilizing materials by the overflowing of the iSTile barnyard manure is applied to the extent of 10 to 15 tons per acre and generally speaking except on the richest land it is acknowledged by experi enced growers that the crop repays the cost of the application In spite of the fact that clover is very generally grown as a preparatory crop for cotton in this country nitrogenous manures as a rule are the most profitable because the nitrogen of the soil is exhausted by the large crops of cotton and sugar cane which are grown and which return nothing to the soil and is also dissipatedANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 14 by the rapid nitrification which goes on under the peculiar climatic conditions of Egypt The time at which the manure is applied varies considerably Some spread it over the land and plow it in before making the ridges Others ridge the land and spread it in the furrows subse quently covering it by splitting the old ridges Either of these methods is suitable and preferable to the system of applying it after planting which is perhaps more common than the other When the cotton is a few inches above the ground the manure is either spread in the furrows and hand hoed in or a handful is put under the roots of the young plants This latter method involves more labor than any other and has no advantages Fresh ma nure is not thought so good as that which has been in the heap for two years and old manure is always used by the best growers For the production of manure earth is used as litter and the composi tion of the resulting manure depends therefore to a considerable extent on that of the earth used It contains but little water 5 or 6 per cent being an average As the results of several analyses made by Dr Mackenzie the mamire may be said to contain Nitro gen 04 per cent phosphoric acid 025 per cent and potash 15 per cent Following clover as cotton almost invariably does it finds ex cept on very poor land a sufficiency of nitrogen if the fodder crop has been grazed If cut and removed the case may be different After a fallow the land is generally manured as the land selected for this purpose is of poor quality and more benefited by its appli cation Xo artificial fertilizers are applied in practice and as yet no experiments of a reliable nature have been made to ascertain their effect1 x Foaden MS article on cotton culture in Egypt in the possession of this Office 10146 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA DISEASES OF COTTON By George F Atkinson M S Professor of Botany in Cornell University GENERAL NATURE OF COTTON DISEASES Investigations continued for several years have brought to light several quite well characterized maladies of the cotton plant in the United States Some of these are physiological in their na ture being due to disturbances of nutrition and assimilation Other diseases of this plant are due to the action of fungous or ganisms which live as parasites in various parts of the plant con suming the nutriment and causing destructive changes which bring about the death of the part attacked if not of the entire plant The term rust frequently defined as red rust or black rusty has become so general in its application as to be utterly valueless other than in conveying the notion of disease If we accept the term cotton rust as simply synonymous with cotton disease it will tend to eliminate much of the confusion which must neces sarily result should the term be accepted for any single disease and the great indefiniteness which has clustered around this term as a name for a single disease will be cleared away By the appli cation of appropriate names to carefully discriminated conditions of the plant much progress will be made in the understanding and treatment of these troubles The purpose of the present article is to present a resume of the results of the investigations upon cotton diseases in the United States some of which have already been published These diseases may be classed in three general divisions accord ing to their etiology Diseases due to physiological causesMosaic disease or yellow leaf blight red leaf blight shedding of bolls and angular leaf spot Fungous diseasesTrenching sore shin damping off or seedANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 147 ling rot anthracnose root rot cottonleaf blight areolate mildew cottonboll rot and ripe decay of bolls Nematode diseasesBoot galls MOSAIC DISEASE OR YELLOW LEAF BLIGHT The later stages of this disease probably form the larger part of the troubles which are termed black rust The name mosaic disease or yellow leaf blight is quite characteristic of the early stages of the trouble as it is here defined and renders it possible to differentiate it readily from the other troubles which are often spoken of as black rust but which are in reality quite different in their nature The term yellow leaf blight was first used by the author in 18921 Mosaic disease was added to this term or used synonymously a few months later2 The latter seems the more appropriate but since the former was first used in differen tiating this peculiar disease from the others it seems well at least to continue its use in the literature of the subject for the present During very rapid progress of the disease also the mosaic character of the leaf is not so apparent as during the normal development In 1891 a preliminary investigation of the socalled black rust was made3 The study was confined entirely to the organisms present on the leaf and other parts of the plant and it was not pos sible at that time to do more than to record the presence of certain fungous organisms to observe their botanical characters and to note the fact that their presence at least hastened the destruction of the plant The followingyear investigations taken up at the beginning of the season confirmed the view that the organisms hastened the de struction of the plant and at the same time demonstrated the fact that the organisms did not initiate the disease but only aggravated it The results of the trials of Bordeaux mixture eau celeste and copper sulphate indicated that this disease could not be prevented 1 Alabama College Sta Bui 36 2 Alabama College Sta Bui 41 3 Alabama College Sta Bui 27 Bot Gaz 16 1891 No 3 pp 6165148 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA by the application of fungicides and confirmed the conclusion drawn from observations of a different character that it was due to physiological causes Experiments conducted under the direction of the author in several localities in Alabama during two seasons showed a con siderable reduction of the disease on plats where kainit was the fer tilizer used At Auburn an experiment was conducted on three plats Plat No 1 on which cowpeas had been grown received before plowing a heavy dressing of kainit and acid phosphate Xo nitrogenous fertilizer was applied Plat Xo 2 received nitrate of soda in ad dition to other fertilizers but no kainit Plat Xo 3 received a complete fertilizer In July there was a perceptible yellowing of the plants in plat 1 while plats 2 and 3 bore a rich green foliage The yellow color of the plants in plat 1 was evenly distributed over the leaf there being no indication of the mosaic arrangement so characteristic of the disease In September the plants were ma tured and only a few showed any sign of the disease The yellow color of the plants was due to the acid phosphate and kainit ripen ing the plants prematurely acid phosphate being known to produce this effect along with a suffused yellowing of the plants Early in August the plants in plats 2 and 3 were badly affected the leaves showing the checkered appearance of the disease and were an easy prey for such fungi as Macrosporium nigricantium and Cercospora gossypina resulting in their curling up drying and falling off In a field of cotton of 3 or i acres near the scene of the above experiment the plants in May and June were very promising but in August the disease had appeared to such an extent that the yield fell off at least onehalf of what would have ordinarily been expected The fertilizer used in this case was stable manure cot tonseed and acid phosphate These experiments seem to show what has for some time been held by a number of intelligent planters who have experimented with kainit as a fertilizer It has been qnite frequently noted that with quite large applications of kainit there was no appreciable increase in the yield of cotton This occurs in those seasons whenANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 149 the rains are quite frequent not long continued and keep the soil moist and the plant in normal growth On the other hand during dry seasons as well as seasons of drouth followed by longcon tinued rains kainit has a perceptible sometimes a remarkable in fluence in increasing the yield This with the wellknown effect of such salts in changing the physical condition of the soil leads to the belief that the increased yield and the comparative freedom from disease result from the action of the kainit in bind ing more firmly together the soil particles so that it is more reten tive of moisture or more able to draw it up from below1 Salt and wood ashes are known to produce much the same results in the soil2 Rolling the land is frequently resorted to in order to produce the same effect In the cultivation of cotton the more progressive planters are careful to prepare the land well before planting and then to cultivate only the surface soil afterwards in some cases scraping the surface of the soil with a sweep to a depth of only a few inches This leaves the underlying soil undisturbed and there is no break in the continuity of the surface film on the soil particles below the few inches which have been stirred The few inches of soil which have been stirred thus act as a mulch Characters of the diseaseIn the normal and usual progress of the disease there first appears a peculiar yellowing of the leaf wdiich gives it a checkered or mosaic appearance The yellow color appears in small areas and bears a definite relation to the venation of the leaf being bounded by veinlets which subtend areas more or less rectangular in outline The green color is found along the larger and intermediate veins The portions of the mesophyl lying along the veins being near the channels for the distribution of the nutriment receive a better supply of moisture and assimila tive material than the areas farther away and those along the smaller and terminal ramification of the Vascular channels at a time when the supply is being cut short because of unfavorable conditions of the soil They are thus enabled to hold the green 1 Alabama College Sta Bui 36 2 See articles on climatology and soils p 160150 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA color and continue the activities of the leaf for a longer period while the angular areas most remote from the sources of supply are the first to feel the loss and the deficient nutrition is manifested by the yellow color of the parts During the first stages of the disease this color may become very pronounced but later it may be marred by the appearance of dis colored spots produced by the growth of fungous organisms in the tissues weakened by the failing nutrition of the plant Soon how ever there appear minute brownish spots in the yellowish areas which increase in size centrif ugally assuming a circular outline and marked by concentric rings The concentric rings are probably due to the periodic growth of the fungous threads within the tissues the periodicity being produced by variations in the temperature The first fungus which in most cases appears following the mo saic condition of the leaf is Macrosporium nigricantium Atk As the leaf thus becomes in a badly diseased condition the Macro sporium is likely to be soon followed by an Alternaria The black hyphffl and spores of these two fungi soon give a black appearance to nearly the entire leaf from which the disease takes the name of black rust EED LEAF BLIGHT The foliage of cotton frequently presents a red coloration which is of the same nature as that displayed in wrhat are termed autumn leaves It is an exceedingly common occurrence toward the ma turity of the cotton even of quite healthy and rank growth It is of rarer occurrence however in alluvial and rich soils than on poor lands It is especially common on what is known as the upland where the soil is worn and poor Here it occurs quite early in the season and cotton sometimes makes but little progress before the leaves become red growth ceases an early maturity sets in and the leaves drop while the plant bears from one to two or several bolls The affection if it can be so called is usually de nominated red rust It results from an impoverished condition of the soil showing a lack especially of potash and nitrogen and probably also of phosphoric acid This can be remedied by proper fertilizing and cultivation ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 SHEDDING OF BOLL1 151 The shedding of bolls or forms or their death and drying while still attached to the plant is very frequently a source of great loss to the cotton crop The trouble has been long known but one widely prevalent and disastrous form has been misunderstood It is often confused with the work of the bollworm with punctures made by some hemipterous insect etc That some of the shed ding is due to the work of the bollworm is true but the shedding referred to here is a purely physiological trouble During three years observation in Alabama the author found this physiological form of shedding to be very serious It occurs most frequently in extremes of either dry or wet weather or during the change from one extreme to another It may occur to some extent under normal climatic conditions especially if the cotton plants are too thick or the variety of cotton is one which develops a very large amount of fruit forms in proportion to the leaf surface During a normal period of growth the plants put out as many fruit forms as could be matured should the conditions favorable to growth continue If a very dry period succeeds this interfer ing with the supply of nutriment and moisture there will occur a partial withholding of tissueforming material and moisture at a very critical period in the life of the young forms and the tis sues of the young fruit are forced into an unnaturally matured condition The fruit including the peduncle and often more or less of the surface tissue of the stem at its point of attachment be comes first of a paler green color than the adjacent parts of the plant so that a wellmarked color line delimits the healthy from the unhealthy portion In many cases the tissue is separated at this line so that the fruit falls off completely or hangs by a few fibers to the stem The early growing season may be exceptionally favorable for the development of a large plant with an abundance of young fruit and if followed by even ordinarily normal condi tions will result in a partial loss of this fruit A long rainy season may also cause the young bolls or forms to fall the soil being so Alabama College Sta Bui 41152 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA saturated with water as to interfere with root absorption and the assimilative activity of the leaves will also be disturbed The more or less complete separation of the tissues at the line of division between the healthy and dying portion depends upon the point of attachment of the fruit to the stem and also to some extent upon the variety In some cases the line of separation is apt to be clean cut resembling the scar left by a falling leaf especially when the peduncle stands at a strong angle from the supporting branch near its junction with the stem or larger branch If the point of attachment is at a somewhat greater distance from this junction and the peduncle much more inclined obliquely the line of separa tion is apt to include from onehalf to 1 inch of the surface tissue of the stem below the peduncle and very frequently then the lower part of the dead surface tissue does not entirely separate and the boll usually remains clinging to the plant In some varieties es pecially the cluster varieties of cotton the separation of the tissues does not take place so frequently and the boll usually remains firmly fixed in position but the dead part readily indicates the tissues involved The matured bolls do not form a separate layer of tissue when they mature but remain fixed to the plant The falling away of the dead immature bolls and forms when it does occur is a useful provision of nature since the plant is left in better condition for the gathering of fruit which does mature One great objection held by some to the cluster varieties of cotton is their tendency to hold the dead immature fruit There is need of careful observations on this disease in order to throw light upon its treatment SORESHIN DAMPING OFF SEEDLING ROT These are names applied to a very common disease which cause young plants to rot off partially or entirely at or near the surface of the ground There seem to be several phases of the disease Sometimes the tissues undergo a soft rot which progresses very rapidly and the early stages are not marked by any striking color characteristics Another phase may progress rapidly or slowly and is usually quite well characterized by a reddish brown colorANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1S98 153 which accompanies it This phase is also characteristic in that it is usually manifested on one side of the stem in the form of an Ulcer which gradually deepens until the vascular system is reached when the life of the plant becomes really endangered Even when this stage is reached however the plant may and does frequently recover This latter phase is characteristic of a very common disease of seedling cotton It is called by the planters in many places sore shin Many planters say that sore shin is the result of a me chanical injury to the plant from a cut by the scrape used in cultivation The term is sometimes applied to such injuries upon quite large stalks of cotton but it should not be confused with the sore shin of seedlings which is caused by the parasitism of a fungus The fungus which is almost universally said to be responsible for the phenomena of damping off is Pythium debaryanum While all cases of damping off are not by any means due to this Pythium it is quite likely that many of the cases of what above is termed a soft rot of seedlings are due to it The fungus with which we are chiefly concerned here will be called sore shin fungus for convenience for it is not well known at present what the species of fungus is or even the genus for from all of the artificial cidtures yet obtained of it nothing but the mycelium and sclerotium stage has been obtained The diseased portion of the plant is just beneath the surface of the ground and presents an area of shrunken tissue of a dull brown or reddish color The size of the shrunken area and the depth of the injury are proportionate to the serious condition of the ulcer as it may be termed If the injury remains confined to the super ficial tissues the plant will usually recover It does sometimes re cover when the injury reaches the vascular tissue but more fre quently death results when the trouble has progressed thus far When the study of the trouble was first undertaken an examina tion of the diseased tissue showed the presence of several fungi Besides the frequent occurrence of Rhizopus nigricans and sapro phytic species of Fusarium there were generally present in great numbers nonfruiting threads of some fungus This led to the154 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA supposition of their causal relation to the disease The threads are 9 to 11 in diameter and the cells 100 to 200 p in length At first they are colorless and possess numerous vacuoles of varying sizes in the nearly homogeneous protoplasm Later they become brown in color The branches extend obliquely from the parent thread are somewhat narrower at their point of origin and possess a septum usually 15 to 20 from the parent thread giving it clavate form to this part of the branch which is continuous with the parent thread Frequently the hyphse are associated in strands being woven and twisted together Pure culturesBy placing affected seedlings on filter paper in a moist chamber there are developed in twentyfour to fortyeight hours numerous threads in a horizontal or procumbent position which extend out for 1 to 3 centimeters over the paper often not contaminated with other fungi By transplanting a few of these threads using a flamed platinum needle into nutrient agar ren dered acid by lactic acid 1 drop concentrated lactic acid to about 10 c c of nutrient agar a pure culture of the fungus was ob tained A series of experiments was conducted to determine whether this fungus could really produce the disease and damp off the young plants The experiments showed that the fungus used in the inoculations was the cause of the disease produced at that season in the gardens and fields examined Numerous cultures were made on Irish pota toes cotton stalks oak wood cottonseed and horse dung the de tails of the cultures as well as the experiments mentioned above being published in Alabama Station Bulletin 41 ROOT ROT OF COTTON OZONIUM A preliminary account of the root rot of cotton was published by Pammel in December 18881 A fuller account of the investiga tions appeared in the following November2 The following ac count is an extract of the latter supplemented by the results of the authors own investigations 1 Texas Sta Bui 4 Texas Sta Bui 7ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 Ii5 The disease is a true rot caused by one of the higher fungi but nothing as yet has been found except the rhizomorphic and a sclerotialike condition so that the affinities of the fungus are still unknown The fungus was published by Pammel provisionally as Ozonium auricomum Link but it is quite likely that it is not identical with that species Certainly it is not identical with several specimens which occur in some of the European exsiccatse It will here be spoken of simply as Ozonium There is a general belief among planters that certain soils only harbor the disease The investigations showed however that nearly all classes of soil are more or less subject to it Planters suf fer most from the disease in the central black prairie region of Texas Its northern boundary is the Red River as far east as Paris Tex extending in southwesterly direction to San Antonio and thence westward The counties of Montague Wise Parker and Hamilton are the western boundary in the north A white rotten limestone often cropping out underlies the entire region The soil of these black waxy prairie lands is very retentive of moist ure which is a condition favorable to the development of the fun gus The moisture is especially abundant when the limestone comes near the surface of the soil The cotton frequently dies from the disease on the limestone ridges and slopes when none is1 affected in other parts of the field Tor the discussion of the vari ous theories which have been advanced to explain the cause of the disease before it was shown to be due to the parasitism of a fungus reference should be made to Pammels work Characters of the diseaseThe first indication manifested by the cotton plants of the activity of the fungus is the sudden wilting of one or more plants This is usually first noticed in the latter part of June and early in July though the time varies with the locality Planters sometimes associate the dying of cotton with the appearance of flowers and the bolls but from the condition of fields early in July it seems that it makes its appearance much earlier in the season R D Blackshear of Navasota Tex has reported plants dead from the trouble as early as May 6 and cer tainly quite young plants are affected with it The fungus has been seen on plants only 6 inches high The sudden wilting of a156 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA considerable number of plants does not occur however until near the middle of June or later The wilting of a single plant here or there in the field might be overlooked or be attributed to some other cause This explains why from general observation the disease is thought to appear first at a later period From a single stalk which dies in May or June the disease may spread so that areas of consid erable extent will be affected by the close of the season The dead patches have no definite boundaries but extend in all directions through the field the black streaks and patches formed by the dead plants occasionally containing a few green plants In passing through the belt where the disease is prevalent a striking contrast is observed between the areas made black by the dead plants every where so conspicuous in the fields and the interspersed green areas of apparently healthy plants The suddenness with which plants die is governed somewhat by the atmospheric and soil conditions Planters frequently say that dry weather checks the disease Dur ing the dry weather in August 1888 few plants were dying In the latter part of August the rains set in and then during intervals of sunshine large numbers of plants wilted In June and July 1889 it was again noticed that more plants gave the external evi dence of disease after a rainy day which was followed by warm sun shine than during several days of dry weather Healthy plants are frequently found close to diseased ones even late in the season but it does not follow that such green plants are not affected with the disease as has been shown to be the case by examination For example eight plants were found growing in a cluster two of which had wilted and in each case the taproot was1 covered by the mycelium In two of the green plants the taproot contained an abundance of the fungus and the plants would prob ably have wilted in a very few days In two other cases a small amount of the fungus was found on the roots while only a single one at that time was apparently exempt Every plant which presents the pathological conditions above de scribed possesses the fungus on the roots if we add to the sudden wilting of the plant the characteristic shrunken areas of the roots Under the article on frenching it will be seen that sometimes this disease causes the plants to wilt suddenly under atmospheric condiANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 157 tions similar to those which are most favorable to the sudden wilt ing of the plants from the Ozonium rf the roots of plants just dead from the disease be examined frequently there are small wartlike bodies on the surface which very often occupy the lenticels of the root These are probably the same as the sclerotialike bodies which are described farther on Plants which have not yet succumbed to the disease but which are affected show the presence of the fungus on the root sometimes in considerable quantities so that it appears as if the root or a portion of it were covered with a whitish mold The white threads gradually assume a brown color beginning in the older portions The taproot is usually the first to be attacked and the point which the fungus first invests is somewhere near the sur face of the ground It does not begin at the tip or near the tip of the root and in many cases the lower portion of the root is free from the fungus at least in the early stages In cross sections of the diseased roots the characteristic threads of the fungus are seen to extend into the medullary rays and into the vessels The threads within the tissues of the root do not become brown in color and there are not the peculiar branching setae but the identity of the threads with the fungus upon the surface can be determined by the direct continuation of the superficial threads with the internal ones The fungus derives its nourishment from the living substances of the root and also in its physiological processes sets up certain fermentations which kill the affected portions causing partial de composition which results in the shrinking of the tissues and the formation of quite extensive depressed areas The borders of thesa depressions show at first a red discoloration which ultimately be comes brown Near the surface of the soil an enlargement fre quently is formed in which elaborated materials are apparently stored during the progress of the disease From these enlarge ments new roots are frequently developed as the lower roots are placed under contribution to the parasite These help in favor able weather to prolong the life of the plant but are usually not sufficiently developed to prevent the collapse of the plant when the older roots give way When the roots become seriously injured158 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA root absorption of material from the soil becomes so diminished that it is not equal to transpiration from the large leaf surface and the plant wilts In the affected areas the disease spreads from year to year in a centrifugal manner the fungus making its way through the soil from plant to plant The lint of the diseased cotton is injured the fibers are wider and the spirals are fewer and more uneven than in lint from healthy plants Some have supposed that the disease could be transmitted through the seed but experiments have shown that this is not the case Morphology of the fungusThe threads which are found upon the surface of the roots are usually associated in strands which course over the surface of the root irregularly and branch quite frequently The internal threads are sometimes associated in par allel layers but are not formed into distinct strands like those upon the surface The cells are hyaline usually short and of a greater diameter than the separate superficial threads or those upon the surface of the strands The threads which compose the strands are usually of a greater diameter in the inside of the strand and smaller upon the surface From the surface of the strands there are numerous free threads which stand out at various angles Many of them are quite peculiar and characteristic of this fungus They terminate in a long slender point and frequently possess opposite or verticillate branches of the same character No fruit ing condition in the form of conidia has as yet been determined nor any form analogous to the fruit body of any known fungus The Ozoniurn auricomum Link of Europe is very different from the above fungus though it is similar in habit in many cases and produces diseases of the roots of various plants The space is too limited here for a discussion of the diseases due to this fungus but mention should be made of the supposed complemental or fruiting form which has been reported in a number of cases in Europe The complemental fruiting form is given in many cases by different authors as a very distinct fungus which is evidence that very much weight cannot be given to the specific determina tion of these root fungi by the rhizomorphic form only unlessANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 159 there seems to be some very characteristic features as in the case of the Texas Ozoniurn which mark it very clearly The European Ozonium is said by Schroeter1 to be the undeveloped condition of Coprinus radians Penzig2 of C intermedius Winter3 and Sac cardo4 of Tramates odorata Holuby5 of Agaricus deliquescent This would seem to show that the European Ozonium was at least the rhizomorphic form of one of the Hymenomycetes Pammel is inclined to think that the Texas Ozonium is the undeveloped form of some Pyrenomycetous fungus probably being influenced in forming this opinion by the discovery of the frequent association of a fungus in the roots of the diseased cotton and sweet potatoes which possesses blackish rotund bodies that resemble the perithecia of some Pyrenomycetes and also by a doubtful artificial culture which he obtained by washing the threads of the Ozonium The cultures obtained from this were not in any way like those of the fungus as it appears in its natural habitat but it was suggested that this might be due to the influence of the artificial medium The pure cultures obtained by the author later show that this could not be the case Pammel himself did not place much confidence in the results from his supposed cultures of the Ozonium But this makes little difference from the standpoint of the treatment of the disease TreatmentThe results of experiments at the Texas Station6 show that the disease cannot be controlled by any application to the soil at present known Potation of crops seems to be the only method which will keep the fungus in check There are however a large number of other plants upon which the fungus can grow readily If plants which are susceptible to attacks from the Ozo nium are grown year after year on the same ground the soil be comes after awhile so thoroughly infected with the fungus that 1 Kryptogamen Flora Von Schesien Bd III 1st Hefte Pilze 1889 p 519 2 Sui rapporti genetici tra Ozonium et Coprinus Nuovo Giorn Bot Ital XII pp 132143 Die Pilze in Rabenhorsts Kryptogamen Flora von Deutschland I p 105 4 Saccardo Sylloge Fung VI p 345 5 Zur Kryptogamen Flora von Ns Podhrad Oest Bot Ztschr 1874 No 10 6TexasSta Bui 7160 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA the crop will not grow to any extent Corn sorghum millet wheat oats and other members of the grass family are suggested as desirable crops to grow in rotation with susceptible plants Some suggest a rotation which will bring cotton or a susceptible crop into cultivation on infected soil not oftener than once in three or four years Other plants subject to the diseasePammel names the follow ing plants as subject to attacks from the Ozoniuni and from winch the disease may be communicated to cotton grown in the same soil All nursery stock except species of the genus Primus apple trees Russian and paper mulberry China berry Japanese persimmon grafted on native persimmon elm basswood and silver maple Of these the China berry and paper mulberry trees suffer most se verely In August 1888 the roots of a number of living China berry trees were observed to bo covered with the fungus and in the following year they wore found to be dead and the disease had spread to some young paper mulberry trees in the neighborhood Old and dying trees frequently develop suckers At Anna a number of paper mulberry trees nearly dead produced hundreds of suckers from inches to 2 feet high which covered an area of sev eral rods The suckers were wilting in large numbers and many were dead Specimens of the pear from Burnet County had the fungus on the roots but the trees had been dead for some time and itwas thought that the fungus worked only as a saprophyte on these trees When young apple trees are affected with the fungus the leaves suddenly wilt and turn black and in a short time the trees perish In older trees death is more gradual They have a sickly appearance several years prior to death bear a heavy crop of fruit and then die Ozonium disease of apple trees must not be con founded with the trouble brought about by the presence of aphides Schizoneura lanigera on the roots which develop as the result of injury irregular knots on the roots Sometimes both the aphides and the Ozonium are found upon the same root Weeds affected ly the fungusThe common sida Sida spiiiosa is very commonly attacked by the Ozoniuni in infected fields Even in fields well cared for by the planter this weed may be found in limited numbers Frequently in such cases as well as whereANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 101 the weed is more abundant it is found to be attacked by the disease This would be expected at least since other plants are known to be subject to the attacks of the fungus because the sida belongs to the same family as the cotton plant The fact that this weed is subject to the attacks of the fungus and that it is a very widely distributed and common weed throughout the cotton belt is one difficulty in the way of success from the rotation of crops The ragweed and cocklebur and some other Conrpositse were found to be affected by the fungus In all cases observed the attack upon these plants seemed to follow some injury of a mechanical nature There was no doubt that the fungus caused the death of the plants in question but it was considered doubtful if they initiated the trouble In orchards and nurseries all diseased plants should be dug up and burned Care should be exercised in the purchase of nursery stock to see that the roots are perfectly healthy In the use of sweet potatoes for seed great care should also be taken for in the use of affected potatoes or the planting of affected nursery stock the fungus may be transplanted to soils in which formerly the fun gus was not present To the abovementioned plants which are subject to the Ozo nium should be added alfalfa1 COTTONBOLL ROT This disease was first described by J M Stedman2 It affects the bolls seed and lint Affected bolls were first received from Baldwin County Ala in August 1893 The bolls were in a rot ten condition and contained insects which were determined as Eparm cestiva and Carpophilus mutilatus beetles known in the Southern States Mexico Central and South America and having the habit of feeding upon decaying and injured fruit of all kinds and sometimes found sucking the sap from wounds in trees They were found common in cotton bolls and in heaps of decaying cotton seed They were thus regarded as not having any connec tion with the cause of the disease 1 Texas Sta Bui 22 Alabama College Sta Bui 55162 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA Saprophytic fungi and in some cases the anthracnose of cotton were found but in bolls that were only slightly diseased no fungus was observed Pure cultures of the bacteria inside the closed bolls were made by the plate method and cultivations were started on gelatin and agar In gelatin in four days the bacteria clouded the entire mass giving it a greenish color In agar the growth produced a milky cloud along the entire track of the needle path and over the surface of the agar as a more or less white semitransparent glossy growth Bolls on healthy cotton plants were inoculated with the bacteria from these pure cultures and in all cases the disease appeared Other bolls punctured with a sterile needle remained healthy ex cept in one case where the decay produced was different from that characteristic of the disease This rot is said to originate within the boll and is not apparent until the contents of the boll are de cayed when the carpels show signs of the disease in places It first begins as a small darkbrown area involving the young seed at the point near the peduncle If it begins some time before the maturity of the boll the entire boll will rot and not open but it may begin so late that only a few seed and a small portion of the lint are affected while the carpels separate and the lint may be ex posed and gathered Stedman discusses the question of the probable means of en trance of the bacillus into the interior of the boll The suggestion that the germs may in the ground in some unexplained way make their entrance in the root and travel up the stem to the boll is made and also the question of entering the young ovary at flowering time when the germs may be distributed to the ovaries by the agency of insects The possibility of the germs being in the seed at the time of planting is also suggested and plans for experiments to de termine the manner of infection are proposed The organisms would not induce pathological conditions when introduced to any other part of the plant although in some cases they were able to live for some time The disease is chiefly confined to the middle and top crop first manifesting itself early in August The organism is a short straight bacillus truncate at the ends with slightly rounded corners 15 p to 075 p It is usually soliANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 163 taiy sometimes in pairs and occasionally in chains of three to four It stains readily with the usual aniline colors is aerobic nonlique fymg motile and forms spores though the latter are not described The problem of the entrance of the organism to the bolls should he investigated together with the relation of the plant to soil and climatic conditions in connection with the disease also its possible connection with the disease called frenching should be taken into account In this disease the organism as we know travels up the stem through the vascular ducts and aside from the foliage characteristics which are usually quite marked many of the bolls are affected and the rot here begins in the interior of the boll at the same point as in the cottonboll rot It should also be borne in mind that when the bolls are within a few weeks of maturity they are in one sense a form of nutrient medium for even saprophytic fungi and bacteria which are introduced into them so that too much reliance should not be placed upon the results of the inocu lation of the bolls through needle punctures INSECT ENEMIES Cotton also has a number of insect enemies which sometimes do a great amount of damage Among these may be mentioned the cottonworm or caterpillar the bollworm the cutworm lice etc The cotton caterpillar can be fought successfully by dusting the plants with either Paris green or London purple and many bollworms are killed by the same means as they frequently ear some of the tender leaves of the plant before entering the bolls Lice and cutworms cannot be conquered as there is no practical and economical method of waging war against them Frequent stirring of the soil to encourage rapid growth of the plants is recom mended in their case164 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA CORN ITS HISTORY CULTIVATION FERTILIZING ETC This the great cereal crop of the United States is a native of America and was therefore unknown to the rest of the world be fore Columbus landed on the shores of Hispaniola The natives of the West Indies cultivated it quite extensively at that time and later explorers found it in common use among the Indian tribes from the great lakes southward to the equator From this country it was carried to the old world where its cultivation has obtained a firm foothold in southern Europe and to some extent in south ern Asia and northern Africa Several varieties were cultivated even then by the aborigines for mention is made where the Pil grims found corn buried in the earth by the Indians some yellow and some red and others mixt with blue There is also mention of white and yellow corn and varieties of which the grain be big Corn is still found growing wild in some portions of the continent and in such case each grain of the ear is covered with a husk which has long since disappeared by continuous cultivation The United States is now the great cornproducing country of the world our annual crop reaching in 1896 over 2200000000 bush els while the balance of the world made 435000000 bushels The greater part of this enormous production is consumed at home During the year 1897 there were exported 176916000 bushels as compared with 101000000 bushels in 1896 showing that foreign nations are learning to appreciate the merits of our great cereal Doubtless our exports of this grain will reach large proportions in a few years but our own country will always con sume the larger portion of our product As an eminent authority says The value of the corn crops annually produced in this coun try may perhaps be justly estimated in a financial point of view as amounting to a certain number of millions of dollars but in another sense its value to this country is inestimable when we con sider the effect of its cultivation in hastening its settlement and the continuance of its prosperity entering as it does into the food of all classes of people and also greatly cheapening and increasing the product of beef pork and mutton besides the many other usesANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 i65 to which it is appropriated and the increased wealth of the nation resulting from the annual exportation of this product The following table shows the acreage yield per acre total pro duction value per bushel and total value of the crop by States and Territiories Acreage yield per acre production value per bushel and total value of the com crop of 1897 by States and Territories States and Territories Maine New Hampshire Vermont Massachusetts Rhode Island Connecticut New York New Jersey Pennsylvania Delaware Maryland Tirginia North Carolina South Carolina Georgia Florida Alabama Mississippi Louisiana Texas Arkansas Tennessee West Virginia Kentucky Ohio Michigan Indiana Illinois Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa Missouri Kansas Nebraska South Dakota North Dakota Montana Wyoming Colorado New Mexico Utah Washington Oregon California Acreage Acrts 9903 24064 45237 39486 8494 45258 494682 271283 1246281 219773 616774 1752898 2409505 1700881 2924824 476372 2543694 2092824 1269149 3901359 2223785 3032028 694053 2803728 2835864 990511 3660844 7167018 1019551 993880 7589281 6612457 9024596 8042283 993987 25060 1065 2359 176525 24503 8477 6477 13258 60720 Yield per Bvshds 37 34 35 325 31 315 31 315 36 29 33 18 13 9 11 8 12 145 17 185 16 21 245 23 325 315 30 325 33 26 29 26 18 30 24 17 18 12 19 27 22 18 25 315 Production Biish Is 366411 818176 1583295 1283295 263314 1425627 15335142 8545414 44866116 6373417 20353542 31552164 31323565 15307929 32173064 3810976 30524328 30345948 21575533 72175142 35580560 63672588 17004298 64485744 92165580 31201096 109825320 232928085 33645183 25840880 220089149 171923882 162442728 241268490 23855688 426020 19170 28308 3353975 661581 186494 116586 331450 1912680 Price per bushl Total 8009505l 238 ll902967933 26 Cents 47 45 43 47 54 49 40 38 34 30 30 38 43 49 48 55 46 45 45 41 40 36 40 35 25 27 21 21 25 24 17 24 22 17 21 32 65 50 38 58 55 55 53 56 Value i 172213 368179 680817 603 149 142190 698557 6134057 3247257 15254479 1912025 6106063 11989822 13469133 7500885 15443071 2096037 14041191 13655677 9708990 29591SOS 14282224 22922132 6801719 22570010 23041395 8424296 23063317 48914898 8411296 6201811 37415155 41261732 35737400 41015643 5009694 136326 12460 14154 1274510 383717 102572 64122 175668 1071101 501072952166 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA It will be seen in the above table that Georgia occupies a very poor position among her sister States in point of yield per acre surpassing in this respect only Florida and South Carolina This should not be the case Our lands are capable of producing better crops of corn and it is our own fault if we do not bring about this desired result From an excellent address delivered by Hon Charles Schuler at a Farmers Institution in Louisiana I quote the following which is as applicable to Georgia as to Louisiana How many of you can correctly tell me what it costs you to prepare plant and cultivate one acre in corn On the hill lands of North Louisiana with the old tools used the prevailing method is to make it with twelve furrows Any one familiar with plowing knows that with an average mule or horse the plowman can make these furrows in one and onehalf days If your labor ieosts you fifty cents per day it will be seventyfive cents for labor to do the plowing add twentyfive cents for hoeing and you will have a total of one dollar per acre cost for labor to prepare plant and cultivate your acre of corn as you now do it Let your average crop be ten bushels and the cost for labor to make your corn in the field will be just ten cents per bushel Dont you think that this is cheaper than to haul it ten or twenty miles over bad roads as many of you have been doing But why occupy one and onehalf days in turning twelve furrows to your corn land when the same work can be done much better in less than half of the time with the use of improved farm implements Why confine your yield to ten bushels of corn per acre when by the use of cotton seed meal and other fertilizers you can easily build up your land to yield double The use of modern laborsaving implements by the hill farmer has become a necessity He cannot raise cotton at the present prices without using them If necessary to make cheap cotton then also use them in your corn That they can be successfully used there is no doubt Colored labor on my place has used them for several years cultivating as high as from seventyfive to one hundred acres to the plowhand Experiments made at the Experiment Stations and by individual farmers prove that by the use of fertilizers which in a great measANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 167 lire are produced by ourselves the yield of corn can easily be doubled Two of the most frequent objections to the raising of corn in this State are 1st that the weevil is so destructive 2d that we have no market for our surplus To the first objection I would say that science has come to our relief and shown us that by the propel use of bisulphide of carbon the weevil can be easily destroyed and to the second objection I want to say that if the Kansas or Ne braska cornraiser finds it profitable to send his product over a long line of railway to New Orleans to find a market it seems to me that the Louisiana farmer might likewise But to my mind the best market for your surplus corn will be the HOG To profitably raise hogs will require 1st the selection of such stock as may suit your surroundings If you live near an abund ance of woodland where you can utilize the range you will find that our muchdespised native hog will be a very good foundation to build upon Get you a wellbred male from the many reliable breeders now raising fine stock in our State and you will soon have a thrifty bunch of pigs Should you not have the advantage of the range and raise your hogs in pastures then the selection should be made from a variety which will take on the greatest amount of flesh and be ready for the market in the shortest possible time Next to the selection of the kind of hog you must raise it is very important that you look after their health I very much doubt whether the hogs in our State and for that matter all over the South are often suffering from the disease called hog cholera which creates such a loss among the animals in the North and West It is true they often die but thats no reason they have cholera With a climate which permits grazing nearly the whole year we have greatly the advantage With regu lar feeding access at all times to clean drinking water and a condi tion powder composed of salt ashes and charcoal with an occasional tea made out of pine roots or a small quantity of turpentine in the slops given them during the summer I think you will succeed in having a healthy and thrifty lot of hogs On alluvial soil alfalfa168 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA should be grown and Bermuda set on hill lands to furnish the green food necessary to keep them in a healthy condition While during the early and late portions of the year corn will furnish the main food supply The 9th of May will ripen you an oat crop which will be highly appreciated by all your farm animals June will furnish you with early or sugar corn July and August with sor ghum peas and droppings in your orchard September and October corn and peas with the Spanish peanut sweet potatoes and corn to round them up on during November and December which will give you a most excellent lot of live pork for either the smoke house or the packer With the exception of the sorghum I would have the hogs do their own gathering Try it brother farmers You cotton planters who may be com pelled to sell your products for five cents or less per pound you sugar planters who may find that the provision favorable to sugar in the Dingley bill will not bring you lasting prosperity which you expect you rice planters who also may soon be confronted with the problem of overproduction or under consumption bring Hog and Hominy to your assistance and you will be in a beter position to resist and overcome the evils which may possibly arise and over which vou may have no controlANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 169 The following experiments as regards fertilizing cultivating etc of corn will prove of interest and value to the thoughtful farmers of the State GEORGIA EXPERIMENT STATION Bulletin No 34 November 1896 Fertilizer Culture and Variety Experiments on Corn THE WEATHER Of all the crops grown on a Southern farm there is none that is more dependent on the weather or more influenced by unfavorable conditions of the weather than Indian corn This is especially true when the corn is planted on the worn uplands that have been plant ed in summergrowing crops with shallow culture and without the intervention of an ameliorating crop for many years in succession until the soil has been almost entirely deprived of its original stock of humus and cannot be brought into good mechanical condition and therein maintainedby the ordinary means of preparation and culture The summer of 1896 was peculiarly trying to all crops but par ticularly to corn A cursory examination of Table 2s o 1 which gives the total rainfall for each month of the year and in detail for April May June July August and September will disclose the fact that the rainfall was exceedingly irregular or badly dis tributed Commencing with April it appears that only 184 inches fell during the month and of this amount 114 inches fell on the first day of the month In May there fell a total of 083 of an inch and on June 1st 007 of an inch So from April 2d to June 2d inclusive a period of 62 days the total rainfall was but 153 inches170 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA TABLE No I Rainfall inches at Experiment Ga 1896 January total 4 96 February total 430 March total 348 April 1 114 94 016 26 047 29 007 May Total 1 5 21 22 25 26 31 184 Total June 1 3 9 18 19 21 26 30 028 0 21 005 009 004 008 0 08 007 084 020 071 0 25 072 036 087 083 7 and 8466 10 12 13 15 16 17 19 22 26 27 Total 1196 Aug July Total 2 3 4 6 4OS 0 01 044 004 070 1 S 7 16 24 25 Total 218 Sept19 023 22 0 35 28 010 29 076 Total 144 October total 2 70 November total 856 December total 193 Total for the year 4826 Mean Temperature and Rainfall for the months of May June July and August in each of the years 1890 to 1896 at Experiment Oa May J une July August YEARS 3 J H a 3 o5 3 SI H 3 3 3 aj 3 o Si a H 3 9 3 M oj h 3 flg OS g S H 3 a 3 1890 719 697 73 3 704 712 688 670 316 107 394 176 548 802 796 790 761 779 788 183 325 694 567 171 517 802 777 781 830 772 792 619 515 412 351 668 442 767 744 781 760 766 786 577 1891 1892 4 63 718 1893 569 6 60 1312 709 S68 78 6 409 792 501 76 7 716 1896 767 083 772 402 794 1196 810 218 ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 171 This drouth was partially relieved by a rain of 082 of an inch on Tune 3d and by frequent light rains throughout the month amount ing in all to 402 inchesvery nearly the normal precipitation for June but not sufficient to fully recover the crops from the effects of the severe drouth of April and May The rainfall in July was phe nomenal both in the number of days on which rain fell and the total for the month there being 16 rainy days and a total of 1196 inches or nearly seven inches greater than the average for six years See Table of Mean Temperature and Rainfall for 1890 to 1896 August followed with only 218 inches of rain or five inches less than the average for six years But perhaps the most remarkable feature of the weather during July and August was the unusually high temperature and the great number of very hot days The mean temperature of July was but little above the normal as shown in the table but the record shows that there were 13 days on which the mercury reached 90 degrees and over In August there were 19 days on which the thermome ter marked 90 degrees or over including 5 days at 95 and over and the mean for the month was 810 degrees43 degrees higher than Hip average for six years The result of such remarkable abnormalities in the temperature and rainfall could hardly have been otherwise than unfavorable if not disastrous to the corn crop These comments on the weather are not intended as an apology for the light yields of corn in the experimental plots so much as to suggest that the results of different fertilizer formulas and different methods of planting and cultivation as detailed in the accounts of the experiments may have been and certainly were largely af fected by those abnormal weather conditions The results readied and any conclusions drawn therefrom must therefore be consid ered in the light of these facts and modified accordingly EXPERIMENT NO lGENERAL FERTILIZER TESTS ON CORN Ill this and all other experiments which will follow it should be stated that the practical details of field work were all executed under the personal supervision of Mr James M Kimbrough Ag riculturist172 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA TABLE No II Experiment No 1General Fertilizer Test on Corn Summary Formulas per Acre Per Acre d a 3 a 05 w o o co QQ OS o 03 2 c o 3 CD 2 S3 13 is a o A 3 Ph o a ts CQ 03 s Ph 60 OS a v cj CD 3 CD o 02 3 QQ a CO 3 fin s O 2h ft O co 1 3 3 4 5 7 8 1 156 1040 156 2340 90 3 07 2810 2 156 1560 156 2340 93 3 18 2829 3 156 1560 234 2340 91 3 86 2744 4 156 1040 234 2340 89 3 75 2872 5 95 96 3 57 2586 6 234 1040 156 2340 2702 7 234 1560 156 2340 93 3 68 2748 8 234 1040 234 23 40 94 4 25 2818 9 156 1040 156 2340 92 3 07 2790 10 156 1560 156 2340 93 3 18 2654 11 156 15 60 234 2340 90 3 86 2748 12 156 1040 234 2340 93 3 75 2682 13 91 93 2462 14 234 1040 156 2340 3 57 2740 15 234 1560 156 2340 93 3 68 2713 16 234 1040 234 2340 90 4 25 25 27 19 156 1040 156 2340 91 307 2800 210 156 1560 156 2340 93 318 2742 311 156 1560 234 23 40 90 386 2746 412 156 1040 234 23 40 91 375 2776 513 2340 93 94 2524 614 234 10 40 156 357 2721 815 234 1560 156 2340 93 3 68 27 30 816 234 10 40 234 2 40 92 425 2672 Tnble No 1 shows the arrangement of the 3row plots and the different variations of the fertilizer formula The normal ration was as follows Acid phosphate 156 00 pounds Muriate of potash 10 40 pounds Cotton meal 15600 poundsANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 173 This makes the seventh year of field experimental work with the view to finding out the effect of different forms of the fertilizing elements different proportions of the same varying qualities and times of application etc and the end is not yet In other words the subject has not been exhausted nor has the final conclusion been reached The section on which this experiment was located comprised one acre of the ordinary red soil of Middle Georgia It was cultivated in cotton in 1895 and with liberal fertilization produced an aver age of 2079 pounds of seed per acre the experiment of that year having been a general fertilizer test on cotton The rows how ever were laid at right angles to the direction they had in 1895 The land was broken flush with a turn shovel March 3d On March 16th it was laid off in fourfoot rows a large shovel follow ing an initial scooter furrow the fertilizer distributed in these fur rows and after running a scooter plow in each in order to more thoroughly mix the fertilizers with the loose soil the furrows were listed on with a turn plow The corn Shaws Improved was planted March 20 afterwards thinned to one stalk every four feet making a total number of hills to the acre of 2705 The cultiva tion was frequent and shallow and the ground was in mellow con ditionthe season being very dryuntil June 15 when it was sown in peas and laid by This formula was successively varied as follows 2 By increas ing the amount of muriate of potash to 1 rations the other ingre dients remaining normal 3 By increasing bth muriate of pot ash and cotton meal to 1 rations the acid phosphate remaining as before 4 By using 1J rations of cotton meal the other ingre dients remaining normal 5 By withholding all the ingredients 6 By using 1 rations of acid phosphate and 1 ration of each of the others 7 By using 1J each of acid phosphate and muriate of potash and one of cotton meal 8 By using 1 rations each of acid phosphate and cotton meal and 1 ration of muriate of potash These formulas were repeated in the same order of succession on the remainder of the section At plowing of the corn 2340 pounds of nitrate of soda per acre were applied dropping the dose for each hill of corn within C inches of the seed Column 6 of the table 174 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA shows the percentage or number of matured stalks for each 100 originally planted It should be remarked that the missing hills were replanted in Brazilian Flour Corn a very distinct variety in order to take the due proportion of sunlight fertilizers moisture etc But these replant stalks were cut out before the main crop was gathered and their product was not taken into the account The yields given in column 8 are what the respective yields would have been if a perfect stand had been secured and maintained until the crop was harvested This plan was followed in all of the experiments reported in this bulletin Column 7 gives the actual cost of the different formulas from which it is easy to estimate the direct loss or gain from the use of the fertilizers RESULTS The main table shows the results in detail by plots The sum mary groups the corresponding duplicate plots and their resulting averages A mere glance reveals the fact that the fertilizers ap peared to affect the yield very little The average yield of the two unfertilized plots was 2524 bushels The greatest yield among the fertilized plots was 2800 bushels the plots having re ceived single ration of the normal formula This was a gain of 276 bushels per acre at a fertilizer cost of 307 The next high est yield was 2776 bushels from the plots that received a single ration of acid phosphate and muriate of potash and 1 rations of cotton meal an increase over the unfertilized plots of 252 bushels at a fertilizer cost of 375 The next highest yield was 2746 bushels from the plots receiving one ration of acid phosphate and li rations each of muriate of potash and cotton meal an increase of 222 bushels of corn at a fertilizer cost of 386 On the whole the differences between the effects of the differ ently compounded formulas so far as judged by the increased yields were insignificant CONCLUSIONS 1 No definite e mcui ins can be drawn from the results of this experiment The seasons were too unfavorableANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 175 2 The first conclusion appended to the results of a similar ex periment in 1895 included the suggestion that a commercial fer tilizer for corn should contain the three valuable elements in about the following proportions Available phosphoric acid 9 per cent potash 125 per cent nitrogen 275 per cent There is no reason at present manifest for changing that suggestion 3 Previous conclusions that it is not expedient to rely on com mercial fertilizers for corn and that corn should follow a liber ally fertilized cotton crop are at least sustained by the results of this experiment EXPERIMENT NO 2RESIDUAL EFFECT OF FERTILIZERS In 1895 a oneacre section was planted in cotton receiving suc cessively increasing quantities of fertilizers on successive plots in creasing from 400 pounds to 1200 pounds per acre two plots re ceiving no fertilizer In 1896 the same plots were preserved and carefully prepared and planted in corn each plot receiving the same amount In breaking the land preparatory to planting care was used to avoid intermingling the soils from the several plots Each plot was plowed lengthwise its six rows and not crosswise A deep shovel furrow was run in each middle March 6 which was then bedded on leaving a narrow ridge on which the cotton stalks had stood The ridge was immediately opened out with a 10inch shovel March 15 the fertilizer was uniformly distributed in this shovel furrow a mixing furrow was run in it and then a list made with a scooter March 20 the section was planted in Shaws Improved Corn and each row received 045 pounds of nitrate of soda dropped near the seed before covering with a hand hoe The cultivation was as usual frequent and shallow and very thorough Missing hills were replanted with Brazilian Corn the product of which was not included in the final yield Table ISTo Ill gives the detail of arrangement of the plots the fertilizer formulas used in 1895 on cotton and in 1896 on corn the yield of cotton in 1895 and the yield of corn in 1896 The cost of the fertilizers for each year and the total cost for the two years are also given in the table176 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA I1 MO n SS 3 ts W u a 5 P3 1 1 CM H o H z a S a ft H w ft J8d 968I ni ni aioy ujo3 paipqs jo Baqsna S68I U 8jov i uooq paag jo spanoj o o o c o to O CO oso Q 00 I n O a o a a w j co ST SSSS d9 P j r 0 O UU 1C O IO 00 C5 CM O 1 o 5 OiO o o CS o ft 57 o 3 ft a q ftft j 02 IE O O ft 00 CJ u S cc o H 0 J CO as 00 i1 o U ti o J CO o a CO P a s CO N M M o M on 05 c O or Cl N CO CM CO OS IC LO 00 M i CO w CO CC o o o o C CO C5 M CO ae o O O g o O O CO CO CO CO se t oo coii ft o o a 4 CO 3U0 9Bf 9 gamiBuob o qoee bou jo S3uag 8 8 CO CM CANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 17T In a corresponding similar experiment made last year 1895 the plots that had been unfertilized in 1894 were also planted without fertilizer in 1895 In commenting on the experiment of 1895 the last stated circumstance was noted as a defect in the scheme of the experiment as it is impossible to say how much the result was due to the residuum of the fertilizers applied to the cotton in 1894 In planning the present experiment this defect was avoid ed by fertilizing every plot alike so that any difference in the re sulting yields of corn might safely be charged to the difference in the amounts of fertilizers applied to the cotton in 1895 RESULTS Where 400 pounds of fertilizer were applied per acre in 1895 the yield of corn in 1896aided by 300 worth of fertilizer was 2926 bushels per acre or only 1 bushel more than the yield of the plots which received no fertilizer in 1895 The yield of corn in 1896 from the plots that received 800 pounds of fertilizer in 1895aided in 1896 by 300 worth of fertilizerwas only 2902 bushels or 024 bushel less while the plots receiving 1200 pounds of fertilizer per acre in 1895 gave a yield of but 3032 These results will doubtless surprise the majority of readers CONCLUSIONS It is quite clear so far as this experiment may be trusted that the effect of the fertilizers applied in 1895 on cotton was hardly more than none at all It is true the season was unfavorable for corn but the residual virtue of the fertilizers applied in 1895 if such virtue really existed should have been more evident and pro nounced therefore 1 The residual effects on corn of a fertilizer applied to cotton the previous year are not very pronounced even when the quantity so applied was liberal EXPERIMENT NO 3VARIETY TEST OF CORN Two sections of one acre each were selected for the test the same being four years cleared and well suited for the experiment The 178 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA soil was well prepared uniformly fertilized as indicated in Table No IV and planted in twenty varieties of field corn The dose of nitrate of soda as in most of the other experiments was applied in the furrows near the seed corn Two rows the length of an acre were planted in each variety and the series was repeated twice making six rows of each variety Table No IV gives the results and is arranged in the order of yield per acre of the several varie ties TABLE IV Experiment No 3 Variety Test of Corn 0 00 CD O CO 32 o Fertilizers per Acre Acid PhosphatenTo Muriate of Potashifm n Cotton Meal 1 Aft Nitrate of Soda li 4U 34580 Cost3 07 Varieties of Corn ojT3 U f 0J a s XI ft d 0 aj X H o a fl bl C CJ 0 o U 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 18 14 15 16 17 IS 111 20 Cokes Prolific Higgins Henry Grady Shaws Stegalls Hoffmans White Shannons White Ledbetters White Delks Southern White Sewells White Jones Pearl Mammoth Yellow Jacksons White Moores Yellow Donaldsons White Deep Grain White Big Tennessee Yellow Jones Bread and Stock Hickory King Average of all varietiesii 28 27 26 26 25 25 25 25 25 25 24 24 23 23 23 22 22 22 21 19 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 59 It should be stated that a variety test of corn where the width of row the distance between hills and the number of plants inANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 179 each hill are the same for each variety is not necessarily fair and just to every variety for obvious reasons For instance one varie ty may produce large stalks and ears while another may have a different habit and require a different spacing or a greater number of plants to the acre in order to give a maximum yield Again one variety may be earlyanother lateand as a result the weather or seasons may hit one just right and the other just wrong These differences between different varieties cannot as a rule be foreseen and provided against unless the experimenter had previous knowledge of the facts either from experience in growing them or from other sources For these reasons the effort has been for several years past to exclude from such a test such varieties as were known to differ materially in height and size of stalk and earliness of maturity from the ordinary standard field varieties commonly planted in the South As a matter of fact there appeared no material differences in these respects between the twenty varieties included in this test Some of the varieties very probably would have shown better comparative results than others if less distance had been given Indeed there is good reason to believe that all would have pro duced more corn if they had been planted more closely Five of the varieties in this test have been subjected to the same test in each of the four preceding years It may therefore be of interest to compare results of these five during the period of five years This is done in Table No IVA The yield per acre of each variety is given for each year and the adjacent column shows the relative rank of each as to yield for each year of the five Three of the remaining 20 varieties are also included in this ex hibit because of their relatively high yield the present year to witCockes Prolific Henry Grady and StegaWs It is interesting to remark also that the sections of land cov ered by this test are the same on which the test of varieties were made in 1894 two years ago Again the variety test in 1S95 was made on similar and adjacent soil to that on which the present test was made Neither of the sections however has been favored with a crop of coAvpeas since they were clearedTABLE No IVA Comparison of Eight Varieties of Corn NAMES OF VARIETIES OF CORN 1852 2 3 Shaws Improved Higgins Shannons White Shannons Yellow Southern White Cockes Prolific Henry Grady Stegalls Averages Not planted t 4 years only 2640 2771 2774 2845 3065 2819 33 1893 W 0 K 3246 3058 31 52 3352 3130 31 96 1894 P 3246 3058 3152 33 52 3130 3188 P5 1895 a M 1896 a P Average 5 Years a 45 55 4555 4246 35 37 35 37 4246 2613 2784 2582 2500 2820 2688 2585 2459 10 1 3 5 3260 3245 3187 133 71 31 53 8212 d H S ta z H o s O d H d W H I Q H O to OANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 RESULTS 181 These are sufficiently detailed in Table IV In considering the average rank of the several varieties included in Table IVA based on the total yield for the five years it should be noted that Shannons Yellow which shows the highest yield was not in the contest the present yeara poor year for corn and is not there fore entitled to rank first The conclusions of the test for 1895 showed in a similar table that Shannons Yellow ranked second for the period of four years CONCLUSIONS Every one can draw his own conclusions in the face of such a showing Among the new varieties introduced into this test Cockes Prolific is very promisinggiving the greatest yield of all NoteThe Station has no seed corn to sell and refers all in quiries to the following names and addresses of parties of whom seed of the several varieties was procured Higgins Improved Moores Yellow Big Tennessee Shannons Early H C HigginsLarkinsville Ala A L Moore Hamilton Ga 11 N ShannonGoodlettsville Tenn Hoffmans Improved White J E AbernathyBuford Tenn Hickory King R T WallerClarksville Ga Delks Improved WhiteM F DelkSenoia Ga SS16 i jmoo Shanes ImprovedH H ArringtonSummerville Ga Cockes Prolific xSP Deei Mark Co Atlanta Ga Mammoth YellowJ JonesBread and Stockl t r TT Jones Pearl H phllhPs JonesHamilton Ga Ledbetters White 0 P LedbetterLavonia Ga182 j DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA Henry GradyA H IrwineAustell Ga Stegalls improved WhiteJ P StegallEmersDD Ga Sewells Improved WhiteT W Sewell Lavonia Ga EXPERIMENT NO 4SINGLE VS DOUBLE ROWS There is a somewhat prevalent belief that Indian corn will yielcF a larger crop if planted in double rows This is the plan often practiced by those who enter popular prize contests for the largest product of corn per acre The first instance of planting a pre mium acre in this wayso far as we knowwas by Maj R H Hardaway of Thomas county Ga who secured a yield of 119 bushels of shelled corn from one acre aided by artificial irrigation With a view to testing the merits of this method of planting this experiment was projected The land selected was two acres of rather hard dry clay soil on one of the highest points of the farm The ground was wellbroken with a twohorse turn plow in February and well harrowed March 9 March 14 the rows were laid off and the fertilizers distributed according to the following arrangementsPlats 1 3 5 6 8 10 and 12 of the first acre were laid off in five rows each four feet wide and fertilizers dis tributed in the furrows at the rate of 3458 pounds per acre cost ing 300 per acre excepting plot jSTo 5 which received no fer tilizeras a check plot The dose of fertilizers for each row was distributed in the same mixed by running a scooter furrow in the furrow and then listed on Plats 2 4 7 9 and 11 were laid off into 3 rows 6 feet apart the fertilizers at the same rate per acre 3458 pounds mixed in the same way and listed on In the 4foot row plots the corn was dropped and spaced to one stalk every 4 feet so as to stand 4x4 one stalk in a hill or 2704 stalks per acre or one stalk to every 16 square feet In the 6foot double row plots the corn was dropped and spaced in each of the listing furrows 4 feet apart so as to stand in double rows 6 feet apart from center to center and the plants 4 feet apart in each row of the double row the successive plants alternating regularly from end to end of the double rows This would give one stalk to every 12 square feet or 3605 as we space a single acre stalks to the acreANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 183 TABLE No V Experiment No 4Single vs Double RowsCorn CO Fertilizer Formula Acid Phosphate Mur Potash 15600 lbs 1040 lbs CO 3 Cotton Meal 15600 lbs v a Cost per acre f3 07 b 34580 lbs o O T3 m O How Spaced 2S 1 4x4 single rows First Acre 2200 2 6x4 double rows 2657 3 2327 4 2379 5 19 30 6 2316 7 6x4 double rows 2441 8 2354 9 6x4 double rows 2343 10 2158 11 2358 1 Second Acre 24 43 2 2935 3 2520 4 2838 5 2104 6 2289 7 26 52 8 2197 9 2482 10 2316 11 2484 Averages 2313 25 56 ix4 double rows 4x4 single rows and 2017 Unfertilized It should be noted that in each of the 4foot single rows there were distributed 62 pounds of the fertilizer while in the 6foot double rows the amount of fertilizer required for each row was 930 poundsmaking a total of 3458 pounds per acre in each184 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA case The usual dose of nitrate of soda was applied to all the plots excepting the unfertilized plotsamounting to 234 pounds per acre In the second acre the plan and arrangement was precisely as in the first acre The whole arrangement is shown in Table No V together with the resulting yields which are consolidated and summarized for the two acres RESULTS The 4x4 single rows yielded at the average rate of 2313 bush els per acre The 6x4 double rows yielded at the rate of 2556 bushels per acre The unfertilized plots which were planted 4x4 single rows yielded at the rate of 2017 bushels per acre CONCLUSIONS STo certain or safe conclusion may bo drawn from this one years experiment There is strong reason to suspect that the greater yield of the 6x4 double rows was due altogether to the fact that there was a larger number of stalks to the acre This suggestion is strengthened by the results in the next detailed experiment No 5 in which a larger number of stalks to the acre differently ar ranged gave an increased yield The experiment will be repeated the coming year with such modification in the details as will elimi nate the suspected source of error above alluded to EXPERIMENT NO 6DISTANCE BETWEEN HILLS OF CORN This experiment was projected for the purpose of testing tin merits of a method of spacing the stalks of corn long practiced by Mr H J Dunton of Smyrna Ga and claimed by him to give better results The method consists essentially in laying off the corn rows at a moderate width distributing the fertilizers con tinuous along the rows then spacing the hills at double the usual distance apart and leaving two or more plants in each hill The theory of the plan is this The hills being twice the usual dis tance apart and containing two plants instead of one and the ferANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 185 tilizer being distributed continuously along the row the latter will not be so readily accessible to the plants and will therefore be more gradually appropriated along through the growing season instead of all becoming accessible and being taken up during the early stages of the crop growth TABLE No VI Experiment No 6Distance between Hills EtcCorn is o at 12 a O 51 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 FERTILIZER FORMULAPER ACRE Acid Phosphate 15600 pounds Muriate of Potash 1040 Cotton Meal 15500 Nitrate of Soda 2340 34580 pounds Cost per Acre 3 07 How Spaced Rows 4 feetHills 6 feet 2 stalks in a hill Rows 4 feetHills 3 feet 1 stalk in a hill Rows 4 feetHills G feet 2 stalks in a hill Rows 4 feetHills 3 feet 1 stalk in a hill Rows 4 feetHills 6 feet 2 stalks in a hill Rows 4 feetHills3 feet 1 stalk in a hill Rows 4 feetHills 6 feet 2 stalks in a hill Rows 4 feetHills 3 feet 1 stalk in a hill Rows 4 feetHills 6 feet 2 stalks in a hill Rows 4 feetHills 3 feet 1 stalk in a hill Averages Averages Fertilized Plots Unfertilized Plots M 0 M GO a W o ffl 3 a 4 1 per dCo ill T3 2A 0 i C r5QH e 3026 2673 2304 2746 2642 Plots 5 and 6 were not fertilized 2772 2304 o2 Is a x i So D i 03 52 2922 2907 2654 2797 27 04 2832 2054 One acre of land adjacent to and of the same character and his tory sections 5 and 10 covered by the preceding Experiment No 5 was selected for the work The land was thoroughly broken fertilizers distributed and the corn planted in the same way and on the same dates as in Experiment No 5 with the following ex ceptions The section was laid off in rows four feet wide and the same formula in the same amounts was distributed along each openso DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA ing furrow The plots each contained five rows plots Xos 5 and 6 unfertilized The oddnumbered plots were planted in hills six feet apart and two stalks left in each bill The evennumbered plots were planted in hills three feet apart and one stalk to each hill In each series of plots there was one stalk to every 12 scpiare feet or 3640 stalks to the acre Table No VI shows the details of the arrangement and the re sulting yields of each of the two series and the averages RESULTS There is not much difference not enough to be considered sig nificant In but one instance did an oddnumbered plot 4x62 stalks among those that were fertilized return a larger yield than the adjacent following evennumbered plot The average yield of the even numbered plots 4x31 stalk was 610 of a bushel greater than the average yield of the oddnumbered plots 4x62 stalks Of the two unfertilized plots the one planted 4x31 stalk gave 240 bushels more than the plot that was planted 4x62 stalks This last result would seem to indicate that that method of planting is more effective when no fertilizer is used CONCLUSIONS As in the previous experiment no satisfactory conclusion can be drawn from the results of this experiment so far as the question at issue is concerned It can only be said that the results do not favor the correctness of the theory involved NoteComparing the average yield of the fertilized plots in all of which there were 12 square feet of soil area to each stalk of corn with the average yield of all the fertilized plots in sections 10 and 15 on which Experiment No 4 was located in which the corn was planted 6x4 double rows giving also 12 square feet to each stalk and then comparing these yields with the average of the 4x4 single rows in Experiment No 4 which allows 16 square feet to each stalk the suggestion occurs that 4x4 was too wide and that 4x3 would have resulted in a larger yield Possibly the im proved condition and greater capacity of the soil of the FarmANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 187 which have resulted from the rotation practiced during the past six years would now justify closer planting of corn This will be carefully investigated next year EXPERIMENT NO 7SEED CORN FROM DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE EAR This was to determine whether there would he any difference in the yield of corn taken from different parts of the ear The aver age length of the seed ears selected was 10 inches The grains from about one inch of the small ends of the ears were shelled off and rejected Two inches of the butt ends two inches from the middles and two inches of the small ends were carefully shelled and planted in 8 plots of 5 rows each as follows 1st plot seed from the butts 2d plot seed from the middles 3d plot seed from the small ends 4th plot seed from the butts 5th plot seed from the middles This covers the 40 available rows and the plantings from the small ends were not repeated Experiment No TABLE No VII Seed Corn from Different Parts of the Ear Fertil ZER FORMULA Per AcRi 15600 pounds 1040 pounds 15600 pounds 2340 pounds 34580 pounds 307 o w 3 C S Meal Nitrate of Soda 2 3 T3 Seed From what part of Ear 2 m 1 2 2 inches of middles 2686 26 24 27 37 Table No VII gives the results reduced to average yields of the respective plots183 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA RESULTS The one plot of 8 rows planted with grains from the small ends gave a slightly larger yield than the two plots of 8 rows each plant ed with grains from the butts and these last gave a little larger yield than those planted in grains from the middles CONCLUSIONS The experiment is by no means conclusiveone experiment rarely leads to conclusionbut it will probably be a surprise to most farmers many of whom have been wont to reject the grains from an inch or so of each end of the eara surprise because the little difference that resulted was in favor of the small ends rather than the middles and butts EXPERIMENT NO SEFFECT OF MURIATE OF POTASH ON CORN Careful observers have long known that there is some peculiar property in muriate of potash that produces a deleterious effect on some crops especially when used in liberal quantity This has long been noticed in connection with tobacco and potatoes impairing the burning quality of the former and the mealy and starchy quality of the latter For seven years past the experiments on this Station Farm have indicated that when muriate of potash is used in excess of the ascertained demands of a crop of corn or cotton the effect is generally not simply negative but positive actually reducing the yield This has been observed incidentally in study ing the results of general fertilizer tests without special regard to positive injurious effects of any particular fertilizing element or the form in which such element was applied The toxic element if it may be so called in muriates of potash is understood to be the gas chlorine a constituent of all muriates or chlorides A fractional section of area sufficient for 28 rows 4 feet wide and 209 feet long was prepared and planted in the usual way one series of plots receiving a double ration of acid phosphate muriate of potash and cotton meal and another receiving the same minus the muriate of potash Every row received nitrate of soda atANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 189 the time of planting Plot 4 received no fertilizer except the nitrate of soda Table No VIII explains the arrangement and tells the story of RESULTS It appears clearly that the plots that received no muriate yielded better than those that received 208 pounds of muriate to the acre the difference in favor of the nopotash plots being nearly two bush els of shelled corn per acre The potash plots received in addi tion a full ration of acid phosphate and cotton meal and yet pro duced only 46 of a bushel more corn per acre But it is equally clear that the value of the increased yield in both sets of plots fell far short of the cost of the fertilizer TABLE No VIII Experiment No 8Efftct of Muriate of Potash C o 8 Fertilizes Formula S 1 00 JS at 73 2 o Ph w P3 M O o e 03 M2 a Q QJ3 QJ 0 u a OS OQ 0 2S 3 02 g o X 1 3 4 s e 1 312 208 312 26 2335 2 312 312 312 312 26 26 2656 o O 20 8 2582 4 2363 5 312 208 312 26 25 82 6 312 312 312 312 26 26 2548 7 20S 2138 24 uv 2602 2363 CONCLUSIONS 1 That this soil if it needs potash at all for corn objects to it in the form of muriate190 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA 2 Incidentally that the value of the increased crop from the use of the fertilizerseither with or without potashfell far short of the cost of the fertilizers NoteObserve that in this experiment the ration of fertilizers was double the usual amount applied in other experiments EXPERIMENT NO 9COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF SULPHATE AND MURIATE OF POTASH This experiment was naturally suggested by Experiment No 8 If muriate of potash does not give satisfactory results when ap plied to corn on the soil covered by that experiment the question at once arisesWould potash in some other form be more effective and satisfactory Hence this experiment which is a direct com parison of the effect of sulphate of potash with that of muriate of potash on a soil adjacent and similar in character and history to the soil covered by Experiment No 8 The section comprised one square acre which was laid off in 52 4foot rows divided into 13 plots of 3 rows each Each of the fertilizer plots received the same amounts of acid phosphate cottou meal and nitrate of soda Plots 1 5 and 10 received 208 pounds of sulphate of potash per acre plots 2 6 and 11 received 101 pounds of muriate of potash per acre plots 3 8 and 12 received 312 pounds of sulphate per acre and plots 4 9 and 13 received 156 pounds of muriate per acre Table No IX gives the ar rangement and the RESULTS It appears at a glance that no very pronounced effect was pro duced by increasing the amount of sulphate yet there was an in creased yield of 027 bushel from such increased amount of sul phate On the other hand where the muriate was increased 50 per cent the product of corn was actually diminished 057 bushel per acre Moreover it also appears that the average yield of the plots to which sulphate of potash was applied was 095 bushel per acre greater than the average yield of the plots to which muriate was applied Still more striking is the incidental result that the average yield of all the fertilizer plots including both the sulANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 191 phated and the muriated was only 148 bushels per acre greater than the yield of the unfertilized plots TABLE No IX Experiment No 9Comparative Effects of Sulphate and Muriate of Potash CO o 6 1 A Fertil zer FormulaPer Acre CD U CD CO 0 A CO A Ma CO o 9 A a a o A P4 5 O o CD C8 3 o Ph o CD cd 5 CD n o 03 O o CD C3 m o 1 S go A CD CD CuA s 3 ft 3 CO 3 o o CO o O 3o 1 3 s 4 5 0 r 8 1 155 2080 156 23403 20 2933 2 156 ioio 156 2340 3 07 2876 3 156 3120 156 2340 3 37 2945 4 156 1560 156 2340 3 18 2727 5 156 2080 156 2340 3 20 2710 a 156 10 40 156 23 40 3 07 2617 7 2571 8 156 3120 156 2340 3 37 2702 0 156 15 60 156 23 40 3 18 25 40 10 156 2080 156 2340 3 20 2594 11 156 1040 156 2340 3 07 2586 12 156 3120 156 2340 8 37 2671 13 155 15 60 156 2340 3 18 2640 Averages Plots 1 5 10 received 1 ration of Sulpha Plots 3 8 12 received IV rations of Sulr 3 20 3 37 27 46 hate 27 73 S 28 7 59 Plots 2 6 11 received 1 ration of Muriat Plots 4 9 13 received V rations of Mui e 3 07 3 18 26 93 2636 Plot Mean of Muriated Plots 26 64 25 71 CONCLUSIONS 1 That muriate of potash not only did not increase the yield of corn but actually decreased the yield and hence is not a suitable form in which to apply potash to corn 192 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA 2 Sulphate of potash produced no harmful effect on corn 3 That this soil does not require the addition of potash for corn NoteIt is evident so far as this experiment goes that the ap plication of concentrated fertilizers to corn or the character of the soil covered by this experiment is not profitable except possibly in very small quantities EXPERIMENT NO 10EFFECTS OF SULPHATE AND MUEIATE OF POTASH This experiment may be well considered in connection with Ex periment No 9 just considered The difference between this and the last preceding one is that here the normal ration of 156 pounds of acid phosphate 1040 pounds of muriate or 2080 pounds of sulphate and 156 pounds of cotton meal is not changed relatively but the total is increased by 50 per cent in alternating pairs of plots as shown in Table No X the ration of nitrate of soda remain ing constant RESULTS The table shows that the normal ration with muriate of potash produced a yield of 2632 bushels per acre the normal ration with sulphate of potash produced a yield of 2873 bushels a difference in favor of the sulphated plots of 241 bushels The H normal ration with muriate of potash produced a yield of 2804 bushels per acre the H normal with sulphate of potash produced only 2770 bushels a difference in favor of the muriated plots of 034 The average yield of all the muriated plotsnormal and 1 nor malwas 2718 bushels the average yield of all the sulphated pl0tsnormal and 1 normalwas 2821 bushels a difference in favor of the sulphated plots of 103 bushels per acre The aver age yield of all the fertilized plots was 2769 bushels the yield of the unfertilized plot was 2706 bushels a difference in favor of the fertilized plots of only 063 bushels CONCLUSIONS If the results be carefully examined in detail comparing one plot with another they will be found rather inconsistent and theANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 193 inconsistency cannot be explained but must be ascribed to some obscure variation in the soil or some unobserved differences of treat ment It is not an uncommon occurrence that the results of an experiment are either inconsistent or contradictory in detail and as a whole insignificant and misleading TABLE No X Experiment No 10Comparative Effects of Sulphate and Muriate Plots 1 5 10 Plots 2 6 11 Plots 3 8 12 Plots 4 9 13 Plot 7 Averages 156 156 234 234 20 3120 1040 1560 156 156 234 234 2340 2340 2340 2340 is o n Fertilizer FormulaPer Acre o Plot of 4 Rows Each4 feet by 209 feet oi a J3 ft QQ o ja CM 3 1 a 02 C5 3 O Pm o a CO GO cc O Oh O C3 3 03 a o o O 03 O co o 33 U a hi v o a5 o J3 00 3 1 a C w C o p T3 1 3 3 5 6 y 8 1 2 3 156 156 234 234 156 156 234 156 156 234 23 2080 1040 1560 156 156 234 234 156 156 234 234 156 156 234 234 2340 2340 2340 2340 2340 2340 2340 2340 2340 2340 2340 2340 2559 2829 4 3120 2802 5 1040 15 60 2822 6 7 8 9 2080 3120 2702 3007 2706 3061 2818 10 1040 11 2080 2636 12 1560 2783 13 3120 2548 2671 2632 2873 2804 2770 2706 EXPERIMENT NO llKITRATE OF SODA AT PLANTING TIME The object of this experiment was to make a direct test of the194 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA effect of a light application of nitrate of soda at the time of plant ing the seed corn The section fraction was laid off into 40 rows 4 feet wide and 209 feet long The normal ration consisting of 156 pounds of acid phosphate 208 pounds of sulphate of potasli and 156 pounds of cotton meal per acre was applied to each alter nate plot of 4 rows each six days before planting The other plots received at the same time the same amounts of acid phosphate and sulphate of potash but only 104 pounds cotton meal At planting time these plots received 234 pounds of nitrate of soda dropped close to the grain of seed corn This 238 pounds was approximately the equivalent in nitrogen content of the 52 pounds of eotton meal left out of the formula The theory upon which the experiment was based was that the young plants of corn would be permanently benefited if supplied with a portion of the nitrogen in a more soluble and immediately available form than that of organic matter as in the cotton meal It will be observed that the 234 pounds of nitrate of soda cost only 3 cents more than the 52 pounds of equivalent cotton meal RESULTS Notwithstanding the unfavorable season and the general mi satisfactory or at least unprofitable economic results of fertilizers on corn the results are consistent and at the same time significant Observe and compare the yield of plot 1 without nitrate with plot 2 with nitrate plot 3 with plot 4 plot 5 with plot 7 plot 8 witii plot 9 In every caseexcept plot 7the nitrated plots gave a larger yield than the immediately preceding aonnitrated plot In the case of plot 7 there was an intervening plotNo 6which may explain this divergency from the general tendency The average yield of all nonnitrated plots was 2829 bushels of the nitrated plots 2886 bushels a difference of 57 of a bushel in favor of the nitrated plots at a cost of 3 cents Of course this appears a very small consideration but it is certainly significant If the cotton meal had been still further reduced and the nitrate correspondingly increased the result would probably have been still more significantANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 TABLE No XL Experiment No 11Nitrate of Soda at Planting Time 195 o M 1 CD s COM to o 5 Fertilizer FormulaPer Acre 8 CO 03 JS Oh 00 o CM o 0Q 93 O Oh o CD 3 a a O o O sic a a 03 o D o Q Pi 03 u h S O o CD CO 3 a flQ s1 O WO CD CD 3 tiC a OQ 2 CD 1 2 3 4 5 e r 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 156 156 156 156 156 156 156 156 156 2080 2080 2080 2080 20 80 2080 2080 2080 2080 156 104 156 104 156 104 156 104 156 2340 2340 2340 2 72 2 75 2 72 2 75 2 72 2 75 2 72 2 75 2 72 2798 2814 2798 2876 2926 2656 2918 28 41 9 10 2340 2937 27 83 AVERAGES Plots 1 3 5 8 10 156 156 2080 2080 156 104 2 72 2 75 28 29 Plots 2 4 7 9 Plot 6 2340 2886 2656 CONCLUSION That it is expedient to apply at least a portion of the nitroge nous element of the fertilizer in a highly soluble form in order to promptly supply the immediate needs of the young corn plants NoteThe experiments on the Farm for seven years past indi cate that cotton meal dried blood tankage raw bone flour etc are comparatively slow in action but continuous throughout the growing season while nitrate of soda nitrate of potash saltpetre and sulphate of ammonia are quick in action and not so lasting in effect 196 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA GENERAL REMARKS Having detailed fairly and fully all the experiments in cornr culture made during the year 1896 a few concluding remark seem to he proper It will have heen observed by the careful reader that in most of the experiments one or more plots were unfertilized in order to show the unaided capacity of the soil so that the absolute as well as the relative effects of different fertilizer formulas and different methods of culture etc The cost value of the normal ration of complete fertilizers was in most cases 300 per acre The increased yield of corn to be credited to the effect of the fertilizer has in most cases fallen con siderably short of enough to pay for the fertilizer It should be considered however 1 That in no case has the value of the increased yield of corn blades and stalks been credited to the fertilizer This was because of the inconvenience and in creased liability to error which would have resulted from cutting and shocking the corn Moreover as a fact the stalks were so pros trated and the blades so split and torn by a heavy wind storm and rainfall that occurred July 7th that it was impracticable to har vest the crop in that way 2 In every section planted in com cowpeas were sown broadcast at the last plowing and these have not been brought into the accounts to the credit of the fertilizers used 3 A more important consideration than either of the fore oing is the fact that it has been an unfavorable year for corn be of badly distributed rainfallexcessive drouths at one period and excessive wet weather at another together with the un precedented heat of the sun especially in May July and August Every farmer knows that an excessively dry season is unfavor able to the full beneficial effect of fertilizers on the corn crop A very wet season is hardly less sogiving great promise in the blade and stalk but poor performance in the ear causeANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 197 INTERCULTURAL FERTILIZING EXPERIMENT The question of intcrculturcd fertilizing or successive applica tions of fertilizers during the period of cultivation of a crop has xcited much interest among the farmers of Georgia The idea prevails to a considerable extent that if all the fertilizer be ap plied in one dose at or near the time of planting the seed it will be exhausted or in some way dissipated before the plants have had time to appropriate all the plant food thus applied Reason ing from the analogy that exists in many points between animal life the idea is not unreasonable The object of this experiment then was to find the effect of dividing a given amount of fertilizer into two or more portions and applying these portions successively at stated periods A plot of gray sandy nearly level soil was selected The sec tion was divided into five plots of three rows each the rows being one acre 209 feet long and 497 feet wide Each row of the fertilizer plots received during the whole sea son the following amounts of fertilizers Superphosphate A A C S Meal Pounds Muriate of Potash 2 This was at the rate per acre of cTfcpoud Muriate Potash 64 Total per acre On plot No 1 the whole amount was applied March 27 before planting and well mixed with the soil On plot 2 onehalf was applied before planting and onehalf at first plowing April 29 scattering the fertilizer in both siding furrows On plot 3 onethird was applied before planting onethird at first plowing and onethird at the second plowing May 17 in siding furrows On plot 4 onethird before planting onethird at second plow ing and onethird at third plowing in siding furrows 198 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA On plot five no fertilizers were applied The results are plainly shown in Table IV Intercultural Fertilizing Fertilizer Formula per acre g 5b 32 o 6 fc5 How and When Applied All before planting Onehalf before planting j 187 Onehalf at first plowing o H Yield per acre Bushels Shelled Corn 227 Onethird before planting Onethird first plowing Onethird second plowing Onethird before planting Onethird second plowing Onethird third plowing Not fertilized 186 19 135 While not decisive the results indicate that one undivided ap plication at or before the time of planting will give as large a final yield as when divided into two or more portions While tins may be finally shown to be true as a rule when the total amount of fertilizers applied is moderate say less than 500 pounds per acre it may not be true when the amount is greater and especially when a very large quantity is applied per acre The character of the seasons would also prove a material factor in influencing the result Cotton Meal vs Cottonseed as a Fertilizer on Corn Many farmers still insist that the removal of the oil from cotton seed detracts from or reduces the fertilizing value of the seed They are not willing to exchange cottonseed for meal even on the basis of 3000 pounds of meal for 2000 pounds of seed 1 he pur pose of this experiment was to find out the truth or falsity of this idea Two acres nearly of cotton land were selected and laid off into 28 plots of three rows each 209 feet long The oddnumbered plots were fertilized with 312 pounds of acid phosphate IS pounds of muriate of potash 289 pounds of cotton meal and 364 pounds of hulls per acre The evennumbered plots received the sameANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 199 quantity of acid phosphate and muriate of potash hut instead of the meal and hulls these received 764 pounds of crushed green seed The 764 pounds of green seed after the oil is expressed would leave just 289 pounds of meal and 364 pounds of hulls The difference then between the fertilizersapplied to the odd and evennumbered plots was simply that the oil had been removed from the seed in the oddnumbered plots Table No V gives the arrangement and also the results in de tail RESULTS These are unmistakable The yield of the oddnumbered plots on which the cotton meal and hulls were used was 3072 bushels of shelled corn per acre against 2986 bushels produced by the plots receiving the crushed seeda difference of 086 bushel in favor of the cotton meal and hulls Hence the following CONCLUSIONS 1 That cotton meal and its corresponding quantity of hulls are at least equal in fertilizing quality to an equivalent quantity of crushed seed 2 It necessarily follows that the oil of cotton seed is of no ap preciable value as a fertilizing material 3 From the fact of the slightly larger yield from the use of cotton meal and hulls it is inferred that the cotton meal and hulls are superior as a fertilizer to the original seed This small in crease was probably due to the better mechanical condition of the meal and hulls compared with the crushed seed NoteIt is not probable that the hulls in either case exerted any material effect But making due allowance for the small quantity of plant food in the hulls and basing the estimate on the analysis of the different parts of the seed the following may be relied on as of equal fertilizing value 700 pounds of meal equals 2000 pounds of whole or crushed cottonseed This is calculated on the basis of nitrogen 13 cents phosphoric 5 cents potash 5 cents per pound 200 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA Cotton Meal and Hulls vs Crushed Cotton Seed s xi M o a o FormulasPer Acre o O a a CO S8 a aj O as Xi CO J3 CO d a a o a o o o CO XI OT5 m o OJ a a 3 a Ph XI 9 3 W S 65 1 2 co d Xi CO 3 h o a cS 1 9 s 5 6 7 1 312 18 289 364 2553 2 312 312 18 18 289 764 2265 3 364 2588 4 312 312 18 18 764 2388 5 289 304 2964 ti 312 312 18 18 764 2607 7 289 364 2618 8 312 18 764 2500 9 312 18 289 364 26 33 10 312 IS 764 2713 11 312 18 289 364 2633 12 312 312 18 18 764 2747 13 289 364 2717 14 312 312 312 312 312 312 18 18 18 18 18 18 764 29 41 15 289 364 27 85 16 764 27 81 17 289 364 3678 18 764 37 01 19 289 364 4218 20 312 312 18 18 764 3914 21 289 364 39 14 22 312 312 312 18 18 18 764 36 25 23 289 364 34 88 24 764 3507 25 312 18 289 364 3272 26 312 312 18 18 364 764 29 84 27 289 3047 28 312 18 764 3154 30 72 Eve Diflffirennfi n Plots 29 86 0 86 ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 201 COKN CULTURE Com delights in a deep mellow rich and moist loam Any of the ordinary soils of the country that are either naturally of the above characters or can be brought into the required condition Im proper rotation deep and thorough preparation and liberal manur ing and can be maintained in this condition by frequent and thorough surface culture will produce satisfactory yields of corn with a moderate welldistributed rainfall Perhaps the most essential requirement for an abundant yield of corn is plenty of moisture in the soil Without this plenty of moisture such a yield is absolutely impracticable It is not indispensable that the moisture shall be supplied directly by abundant rains dur ing the period of the growth of the crop but the requirement must be met in some way The supply of moisture from rainfalls may be supplemented or entirely substituted by irrigation as is done m and and semiarid regions or the farmer may trust to the clouds for a generous supply but the demand for moisture must be met or the crop will be more or less a failure Without resorting to expensive irrigation methods and not will ing to rely on the rainfall from the heavens the farmer may select the lowlying naturally moist and deep soils along the watercourses the bottom lands These soils are moister than the uplands not solely because of their being lower and near a watercourse but and perhaps chieflybecause of their greater depth and their loamy character or large content of humus or decayed vegetable matter These soils become thoroughly saturated with moisture during the winter and spring rains and on account of their depth and quantity of humus they retain the moisture during a much longer period In the absence of such soils if the farmer wishes to produce regularly profitable crops of corn he must bring bis uplands as nearly as practicable into the condition of the loamy bottom lands Moisture moisture is the prime essential and moisture he must provide or he will certainly fail of a crop if the clouds with202 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA hold their accustomed supply Every intelligent farmer under stands the importance of deep and thorough breaking of the soil early in the spring or even earlier JSTot so many appreciate the importance of fining the soil by harrowing until the clods dis appear into fine soil It is also desirable to keep the soil in this fine friable condition especially the superficial layer But a more valuable and only permanently effective means is to fill the soil as rapidly as possible with vegetable matter or humus This may be done in two ways 1 By actually transporting from elsewhere the necessary vegetable matter in the form of stable manure composts leaves muck etc Under the present system of farming in the South this method is impracticable except on a small scale and often it cannot be profitably followed even on i small scale because of the cost of the labor involved in handling and hauling of leaves muck and other coarse and crude materials 2 The other and most practicable method and one that is adapt ed to any scale of operations is regular rotation of crops includ ing small grain red clover cowpeas or other renovating crop A judicious wellmanaged rotation may be made profitable at every stage and every crop as well as profitable in the long ran An experience of seven years in directing the operations of the Station Farm has served only to confirm and deepen the convic tion that the uplands of Georgia do not as a rule produce profit able crops of corn unless farmed in accordance with the sugges tions here given Farmers are prone to base their calculations of the loss and gain in farming almost solely on the cotton crop probably because it is the crop that actually requires the greatest outlay of capital and labor and it is the one crop that is always converted into cash But a careful account of the loss and gain of other crops would probably reveal the fact that many farmers lose as large a per cent or secure as small a profit in producing corn oats potatoes and other provision crops as in the cotton crop Force of habit and the traditions of the past have brought the farmers to rely too much on corn as the great provision crop When the soils were choice and in an almost virgin condition it was a most convenient satisfying and profitable crop But the continued clearing up and the wearingout process of continuedANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 20S cultivation of these soils in cotton and corn have so deprived them of soluble plant food but above all the original supply of humus that they no longer respond generously as in the days of our fore fathers unless the seasons prove to be very favorable or unless a more rational and restorative system hasbeen adopted ROTATION SYSTEM Along with the variety of experiments that have been con ducted on the Farm for the past seven years a regular system of rotation has been closely followed in the main Seven years is entirely too short a period in which to thoroughly test the merits of different systems of rotation But the plan now to be de tailed has worked well and conveniently and is recommended for general adoption each farmer modifying the details according to the special requirements of his own farm or the character of the leading crops to be grown The system covers a period of three years which may be ex tended to four or even five under some conditions The following arrangement exhibits the scheme of rotation in a comprehensive form PLAN OF ROTATIONTHREE YEARS Years Division 1 Division 2 Division 3 Division 4 First Year Small Grain and Cowpeas Cotton Corn and Cowpeas Orchards Truck Foraee et Second Year Cotton Corn and Cowpeas Small Grain and Cowpeas Same Third Year Corn and Cowpeas Small Grain and Cowpeas Cotton Same In the above plan the farm for convenience is supposed to be divided into four approximately equal divisions to commence with and to be maintained in future First YearDivision 1 is to be planted in small grain fol lowed by cowpeas the cowpea vines to be made into hay and the stubble turned under about November 1 Division 2 is to be204 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA planted in cotton and liberally fertilized Division 3 in corn and cowpeas the latter to be picked for seed and pastured with cattle and hogs Division 4 includes the area near the farm buildings and may be planted in a variety of crops orchards vineyards truck patches forage patches potatoes etc and may have a rota tion of its own and may include some of the leading crops planted on the other divisions Second and Third YearsThe table indicates distinctly the succession of crops for these two years This brings us to the fourth year which is a repetition of the first year and recom mencement of the series It will be observed that after the first year the plan will have been developed and the further progression will be easy There after cotton will follow small grain and cowpeas corn and cowpeas will follow cotton and small grain and cowpeas will follow corn On many farms the divisions might be extended to five the fifth to include a more or less permanent pasture MODIFICATIONS OF THE PLAN The Modifications alluded to may be 1 The substitution of other crops than those mentioned Where tobacco is grown it may substitute in whole or in part cotton Where red clover does well it may in whole or in part take the place of cowpeas or vetches crimson clover or other renovating crop may be planted In some sections buckwheat may to some extent be sown in the cornfields at last plowing instead of cowpeas and so on 2 On farms hav ing a good proportion of bottom lands these may be planted every alternate year in corn or two years in corn one in oats and pea and one in cotton and so on Of the above crops it will be found advisable to fertilize each and every one until the whole farm has been brought up to a de sirable degree of productivenesssome liberally others lightly each with a properly balanced fertilizer suited to the particular requirements of the particular crop and the needs of the particular soil A further modification or amendment of the plan may be in sowing rye or other small grain or crimson clover in the cottonANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 205 fields and on the pea stubble in order to bold the soil from wash ing and leaching to take up and retain the soluble plant food left by the crop just harvested and to add to the store of vegetable ZZ2 soiL Such catch crop may be lf dry weather in winter and promptly turned under not later than February 1 for the benefit of the succeeding crop This amend t7wash 6 aPP WhCTe the SOil is brken and liaW DEEP VS SHALLOW CULTURE OF CORN deevlfKV eXperiment was to Pare the results of deep and shallow culture of corn five plots of three rows each the rows 497 feet wide and 209 fee long were laid off on a piece of sandy gray soil with hard betitvr onefoot beneath the surface T1 been m weeds the prev10us year which were well turned under i September The corn was fertilized with 68 pounds of superphosphate 84 muriate of potash 89 cotton seed meal per acre March 27 and planted the same day with seed of ordi nary field corn Bates The entire section was plowed the fit tame deep and close with scooter plows April 29th Plowed second tame Kay 17th plots 1 3 and 5 very shallow with PI net J cu tivator with small sweeps attached plots 2 and 4 very deep with scooters out and out Plowed third time June 2d plots 1 3 and 5 very shallow as before plots 2 and 4 very deep with shovel plows Fourth plowing June 24th same as third plowing August 13th the blades were stripped from all the plots curel and weighed separately October 17th the corn being perfectly field dry was pulled shucked and weighed in the field Seventy pounds of ears were assumed to yield one bushel of shelled corn of St as MW reSUltS f SMed COm 1 208 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA Shallow f8 Deep CultureCorn YIELD PER ACRE a a a o 5 METHOD OF CULTURE Shelled Cora Bushels Cured Fodder Pounds SO 570 J2 V io Shallow Culture Deep Culture Shallow Culture Deep Culture Shallow Culture Bushels 285 Busheis Pounds 39 276 Average yield per acre Increase per centCorn Increase per centFodder 280 292 285 92 246 261 470 485 ea Pounds 479 500 451 489 54 NOTES ON EXPERIMENT Comment is hardly necessary to a full understanding of the re sults and their teachings The shallowculture plots received dur ing the four cultivations seven scooter one plowing and six cul tivator furrows to each rowthirteen furrows in all The deep eulture plots received fourteen scooter furrows and eight shovel furrows to each row or twentytwo furrows in all The shallow culture plots would probably have done just as well if they had received only two furrows of the cultivator at the first cultivation which would have saved five furrows But as it was we have thir teen furrows to the row in one case and twentytwo furrows in the other representing the relative cost of cultivation The shallow culture plots at the rate of 285 bushels and the deepculture plots at the rate of 261 bushels of shelled corn per acrea difference 111 favor of the much less expensive shallow culture of 24 bushels per acre The remarkable and perhaps unexpected feature of the results is that the deepculture plots gave the larger yield of fodder Whether this would be a constant result of deep culture it would be interesting to find outANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 CORNSTALK HAY 207 In Bulletin No 30 containing the results of Experiments in Corn Culture made in 1895 the attention of farmers was espe cially called to the advantages of the method of utilizing the corn stalks for stock food It is the almost universal practice in the South to gather and cure the blades and harvest the ears of corn leaving the entire stalks in the field to prove an almost unmiti gated nuisance and obstruction in the preparation and cultivation of the land in the succeeding crop and winter homes and hiber nating retreats for insects that will be ready to attack such crops especially if it shallbe another crop of corn Farmers have habitu ally considered this large part of the crop as of no practical value Indeed corn stalks especially of the large types of corn planted in the South are of little available food value because of theiv mechanical condition Even in the North the old method of feed ing the stalks stover without any mechanical preparation was but little less wasteful and slovenly than leaving them in the fields But the use of machinery for preparing the corn stalks shredding them into a coarse hay is rapidly extending A number of very effective machines may now be had at moderate prices tbat will convert the hard flinty stalks into a soft easilymasticated substance very similar in mechanical condition to coarse hay that is readilyeven greedilyeaten by horses mules and cattle In Bulletin No 30 already referred to the whole subject was discussed at some length showing by experiments made and by analysis that the value of the naked stalks that are generally left in the field after harvesting the ears shucks and blades amounts to fully onesixth of the total value of the crop as shown in the fol lowing table from Bulletin No 30208 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA Totals of Digestible Matters in Each Part of the Entire Corn Plant in a Yield of 40 Bushels of Corn per Acre Constituents BQ 3 pa 3 GO a 0 H 0Q c4 s a 0 0 03 00 V o m 0 0 H m O 3 X m OS QQ 03 H c 5 tO CD O Lbs 795 48500 917 Lbs 390 9541 186 Lbs 592 10619 208 Lbs 352 6874 134 Lbs 740 19881 383 Lbs 105 2031 40 Lbs 159 1604 3280 Lbs 896 24900 480 Nitrogenfree Extt The experiments of 1895 were repeated the present winter All the corn stalks were harvested and shredded and the corn hay resulting is now and will be for some time to come the only roughage fed to the horses mules and cattle on the farm There are a number of shredders on the market but my friend Mr T B Brady of Marietta who has tried several says that the Keystone is the best Write to him for information as to prices capacity etc and he will cheerfully give you informationANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 209 WHEAT SOMETHING OF ITS HISTORY CULTIVATION DISEASES ETC Xo crop is more universally grown in the whole world than wheat Throughout the Temperate zone it is grown successfully and even in the Torrid zone it grows well in elevated situations It is a staple crop in Siberia as well as in New Zealand in Texas and also in Manitoba and in South Africa India and Argentina large crops are raised Indeed wheat harvesting is going on in some parts of the world during each month in the year The origin of wheat is not positively known though it is very generally supposed that Central Asia is its native home from whence it has spread over the civilized world furnishing food to the enlightened nations of the earth from the earliest period of antiquity to the present time In the Bible mention is made of wheat during the time of Jacob and Moses tells us that when the plague of hail was sent upon the land of the Egyptians the wheat and the rye were not smitten In the worlds history civilization enlightenment and refinement have followed the introduction of wheat culture As has been said by an eminent agricultural writer As truly as did flocks of sheep in the primitive ages lead the shepherds to the threshold of that truly magnificent science Astronomy just so certainly did the wheat plant in yet earlier ages induce man to forget his savag ism abandon his nomadic life to invent and cultivate peaceful arts and lead a rural and peaceful life There is not on the vast expanse of the face of the globe a savage barbarous or semicivilized nation that cultivates the wheat plant The ancients who had burst the bonds of savagism and scarcely more than escaped from the confines of barbarism and through the magic influence of the fruit of the wheat stalk barely reached the threshold of civilization retained a grateful memory of the plant whrch was the prime cause of their amelioration They erected temples and instituted an appropriate rite for the worship of the goddess Ceres who was by them regarded not only as the patron210 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA goddess of the crops but the propitiator of sound morals and the promoter of peace and peaceful avocations The culture of the wheatbearing plant compelled the cultivator to abandon the wild or nomadic life which it is not unreasonable to suppose lie mus1 Have led and the time which otherwise would have been spent in roaming through the forests was now spent in cultivating and using indispensable implements First and prominent among these were the plough and harrow rude beyond question in mechanical structure and uncouth in appearance yet they were the tirst peace ful and at the same time utilitarian products of civilization Wheat was unknown in America when Columbus first discovered the country and now the United States alone produces onefourth of the worlds crop and about twice as much as any other country The worlds crop of wheat is about 2500000000 bushels of which the United States makes 600000000 or over The other chief wheat growing countries are Kussia France Germany India and Argentina The chief exporting countries are the United States Kussia and Argentina The largest buyers of wheat are the United Kingdom which though raising a crop of some sixty million bushels of wheat re quires to import about two hundred millions more to supply her wants France Germany Belgium Holland Italy ami Switzer land These countries of Western Europe import annually from 350 to 400 million bushels of wheat and furnish the market for the surplus of this country Georgia I regret to say raises very little wheat not near enough to supply the wants of her people and is therefore compelled to eat flour shipped from the west most of which is largely adulter ated with corn flour potato starch or soapstone This is absolutely inexcusable and wrong for fully one half of the lands of Georgia are capable of producing good wheat and can be made to do so with more profit to the farmer than can possibly accrue from cent cotton Wheat delights in a good clay loam and there is much of thatANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 211 kind of soil in Georgia The time was when this State raised most of the wheat she consumed and ground it at home too hut tha tday has passed and now cotton cotton cotton is the crop that absorbs the energies and labor of our people even though the sad experience of recent years has demonstrated that too great devotion to cotton means ruin to the farm Let us return to the only safe way of farming viz raising all our supplies at home and our people will then be prosperous and happy North and Middle Georgia should not only raise wheat enough for their own con sumption but also enough to supply from their surplus the rest of the State The continued very low price of cotton is causing more attention to be paid to wheat raising and I hope the time is near at hand when Georgia will cease to import wheat or any of its products In preparing for this crop the land should be well broken from four to six inches deep and if possible subsoiled then harrowed and reharrowed if necessary until the soil is thoroughly pulverized There is no hope of getting a good crop of wheat from poor or badly prepared land The soil must be good and the preparation of the land thorough or the resulting crop will be disappointing In this State the crop should be planted from the middle of October to the middle of November and should be put in with a drill as experience has proved that drilled wheat produces a heavier crop than that sowed broadcast Cover from an inch to an inch and a quarter with soil experiments having shown this to be the best depth at which to place the seed Where a crop of field peas is followed by wheat sufficient nitro gen will have been gathered by the roots of the pea vines and it will only be necessary to furnish phosphoric acid and potash for the wheat crops The following fertilizer formulas are good for this crop and may be used at the rate of 250 to 500 pounds per acre Acid phosphate 700 lbs Nitrate of soda 600 Kainit 700212 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA or Acid phosphate 800 lbs Cottonseed meal1050 Nitrate of potash I50 There are many varieties of wheat but there is no doubt that the bearded varieties are best suited to our State as they seem less liable to rust than the smooth varieties and rust is the chief enemy to be dreaded in wheat raising here Early manuring is also an important factor to take into consideration in selecting seed as there is thus a shorter term of exposure to damage from any source to which wheat may be liable In sowing broadcast one bushel of wheat to the acre is quite enough where planted with a drill half that quantity is sufficientANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 213 OATS HISTORY PRODUCTION DISEASES ETC The native country of this grain is not absolutely known though it probably was first cultivated in Central Asia No mention of it is made in the Old Testament though wheat rye and barley are all spoken of there This grain was known to the Greeks and Romans and was called by the former Bromos Taut its cultivation in those early times was very limited Now it is known and grown among all the civilized nations of the earth and in some of them is the principal grain product Among the cultivated grains oats are the easiest and surest to make and on suitable land no other grain can approach them in productiveness The crop of the world amounts to nearly 3000 millions of bushels a year exceeding in bulk the wheat crop The United States leads the world in the production of this grain with Russia not far be hind her Germany France and Austria also produce large crops though they each import considerable quantities to supply their demands Great Britain though producing annually some 200 million bushels is the largest purchaser from foreign countries im porting from this country and from Russia chiefly from the latter The crop of this country runs from 800 to 900 million bushels annually most of which is consumed at home only from 20 to 30 million bushels being exported Iowa produces more oats than any state in the country followed by Illinois and Wisconsin Geor gia makes but few oats and is forced to import largely from the western states This condition comes from our being so wedded to cotton that we give it our entire attention and make but little proper effort to raise either oats or wheat There is no feed as good for horses mules and poultry and if cut at the proper time the straw will be eaten with relish by horses and cattle Oats can be raised cheaper than corn and with equal certainty and this State should produce at least five times as much as she does at present For this crop a light soil is better than one that is heavy or stiff though with thorough preparation the latter will produce good214 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA crops Oats will not grow upon wet land and are quickly killed by standing water Like all the grain family they require good land to produce heavy crops and there is no crop that will better repay the farmer for the labor and expense of preparing and fer tilizing the soil Break the land deeply and pulverize well with the harrow Before harrowing broadcast from two to four hun dred pounds of the fertilizer recommended for wheat which by the harrowing will be thoroughly incorporated with the soil Then with a graindrill put in from a bushel to a bushel and a peck of seed to the acre or if preferred broadcast from a bushel and a half to two bushels of seed to the acre and harrow them in They should be covered about an inch to an inch and a half deep If anywhere in Georgia oats are planted from the 1st to the 1 5th of October on fair land and by the above directions the grower can reasonably expect a crop of from 20 to 30 bushels to the acre and if cut at the proper time the straw will be worth for feeding purposes the entire cost of the crop The objection will at once be raised that Fall oats are liable to be winterkilled This is true but do we plant any crop that is not liable to disaster from some source Is it any worse to lose the crop from cold than to lose a crop planted in the spring by dry weather How many farmers in the State this year made as much as three bushels to the acre from spring planted oats Very few I think while those who planted in the fall made fair crops despite the spring drouth Again where one depends on a spring oat crop a failure leaves him without remedy as it is too late for him to sow again whereas if his crop is winterkilled he may till save himself by planting a spring sowing If we admit which I do not that two out of five fall sown crops are killed by the cold and one out of five spring sown crops is ruined by drouth still the three spared fall sown crops will far exceed in productiveness the four successful crops that were sown in the spring Appreciating as 1 do the value of this crop to the farmers 1 am anxious to see them return to our old practice of sowing oats in the fall Of course they will he killed occasionally by the cold ami so will be our corn and our cotton1 ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 215 and our garden vegetables Do we not lose our fruit crop at least two years out of three by late frosts and shall we on that account cease to plant out fruit trees Solomon says in the Good Book He that observeth the wind shall not sow and he that regardeth the clouds shall not reap This I take to mean that as we can not look into the future we should take no thought of the weather probabilities but at the proper time sow our seed and leave the re sults to that Providence whose immutable laws govern and control all things For diseases and remedies of both wheat and oats the fol lowing article will well pay perusal by the farmers216 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA THE GRAIN SMUTS THEIR CAUSES AND PREVEN TION By Walter T Swingle Assistant Division of Vegetable Pathology U S Department of Agriculture To the ordinary observer nothing could seem more unlike a definitely organized plant than the black dusty mass filling the kernels of wheat or replacing an entire head of oats Yet as a matter of fact the black dust is composed of thousands of germs of a minute parasitic plant These germs or spores which have the same function as the seeds of higher plants are blown about by the wind and lodge on the healthy ker nels of the grain When the kernel sprouts the spores adhering to it germinate and send a slender thread into the young plant The slender threads of the parasite follow the growth of the plant but their presence can scarcely be detected until the head begin to develop The flower or grain is then filled by a mass of the threads which absorb the nourishment intended for the grain and are soon converted into a mass of spores again ready to fly about and infect next years seed The enormous amount of damage caused by these parasites has attracted attention since the time of the Greeks and Romans and the history of the study of smuts and of the discovery of remedies for them within the last eight years forms one of the most fasci nating pages in the records of vegetable pathology In the few pages at command it is hoped to present in brief out line the present state of our knowledge of smuts and to give some account of the latest and best methods of preventing their ravages There are two classes of smuts which attack our common ce reals viz the stinking smuts which destroy only the kernel and which have a pronounced disagreeable odor and the loose smuts which destroy not only the kernel but also more or less of the chaff and which are more dusty and loose The stinking smuts occur on wheat only while the loose smuts are found on wheat oats andANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 217 barley As the different smuts have to be treated differently it is of advantage to the agriculturist to be able to recognize them readily Wheat for instance is attacked by three speciestwo stinking smuts and one loose smut STINKING SMUTS OF WHEAT The two species1 are very similar and can usually be distin guished only by the aid of a microscope The smutted kernels Fig 1Head of beardless wheat affected with smut Fig 2Head of bearded wheat affected with smut usually all in the head are affected are slightly larger and more irregular in shape than healthy grains and are easily broken open disclosing a darkbrown powder which possesses a disagreeable 1 Tillelia fceteiu B C Schroeter which is the more common in this country with globose or oval smooth spores and Tillelia tritici Bjerk Winter having globose spores with netlike ridges on the outer surface of the wall Harwood states that wheat attacked by the latter species ha8 shorter stalks than healthy grain while that attacked by the former species grows as tall as unaffected wheat218 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA penetrating odor Even a small per cent of smutted kernel will give a whole bin of wheat this characteristic odor The stinking smuts are thus easily recognized if present in any considerable quantity in the thrashed grain This is not true of any other grain smuts however Figures 92 and 93 show the appearance of heads of wheat attacked by the stinking smuts These smuts occur more or less abundantly in all wheatgrowing countries They are widely distributed in the United States though fortunately there are many regions where they are still unknown There are no accurate statistics as to the amount of damage caused by these smuts In many localities the loss is very large and it cannot be doubted that in the whole United States it amounts to many millions of dollars annually Sometimes 50 or even 75 per cent of the heads are smutted and besides the sound grain is so contaminated with the fetid spores as to be nearly worthless for flour and worse than useless for seed The disease is often spread from farm to farm by thrashing machines When once intro duced if left unchecked it increases year by year until a large per centage of the crop is destroyed Tt can usually however be more or less held in check by some form of bluestone treatment of the seed but the treatment very rarely gives entire protection Direc tions will be given at the close of this article for entirely pre venting the smuts no matter how bad they may have been in the crop used for seed LOOSE SMUT OF WHEAT1 This is very different from the stinking smuts Tt has no fetid odor attacks both kernel and chaff ripens when the healthy wheat is just flowering and is composed of a loose dusty mass of spores These spores are usually entirely blown away by harvest time leaving only the naked stalk where the head should be Figure 94 shows the appearance of a head of wheat at flowering time 1 Usiilago triiici Pers Jensen A variety of this smut which attacks the leaves and sheaths as well as the heads has recently been reported from EgyptANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1S98 219 which has been attacked by this smut while figure 95 shows the appearance of another head at harvest time Loose smut is known to occur in Europe North America north Africa central Asia and the East Indies It occurs in many parts of the United States though fortunately it is rare or entirely ab sent in many localities It does not usually destroy so large a pro portion of the crop as do the stinking smuts still it often causes a Fig 3Head of wheat affected with loose smut in the lower half Fig 4Head of wheat affected with loose smutharvest time loss of 10 per cent or more of the crop and has even been reported as destroying over 50 per cent of a crop in Michigan It may be present in considerable amount and yet be entirely overlooked since the smutted heads are reduced to bare stalks at harvest time and there is no trace of it visible in the thrashed grain The only way the agriculturist can be sure his crop is free from it is to ex amine carefully his fields when the wheat is flowering The loose220 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA smut is to be feared not so much on account of the great damage it causes but because it is very difficult to prevent and if once introduced into a field it is likely to remain year after year for as has long been known the old bluestone treatments though often very effective against stinking smuts do not affect this species It has also been shown by Kellerman and Arthur that the ordinary forms of hotwater treatment are not effective against it From the experiments of Professor Kellerman and the writer it can however be safely concluded that certain forms of the hot water treatment are effective against loose smut but injure the germinative power of the seed Wheat growers should therefore be on their guard against this enemy and try to secure seed wheat from fields known by careful examination at flowering time to be free from loose smut It can however be combated by treating enough wheat to furnish seed for the following year and this should be done when any considerable per cent of the crop is af fected LOOSE SMUT OF OATS1 This smut is very similar in general appearance to the loose smut of wheat and like that species it ripens when the grain is in flower and is blown about by the wind At harvest time the head is often entirely bare There is however a form2 of this smut which de stroys only the kernel and leaves the outer chaff unaffected This is very hard to recognize since the smutted heads look almost like those of healthy plants and can be detected only by cutting open the husks when a mass of smut will be found in place of the ker nel Sometimes more than twothirds of the smut is of this hidden form This is likely to cause the grower to greatly underestimate the amount of smut The appearance of the ordinary form of oat smut at flowering time is shown in figures 96 and 97 its appearance at harvest time 1 Ustilago aveniv Pers Jensen 2 Ustilago avenx levis Kell and Swing All bidden smuts belong to this variety but not all levis is hidden smut This variety seems to be what Wille has called U kiillevi Jensen however infected oats with covered smut spores and obtained onesixth completely naked smutANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 221 is shown in figure 98 The hidden smut can not be distinguished from a healthy head in an illustration Fig 5 Head of oats affected with smut but having the chaff only partially de stroyed Fig 6Head of oats affected with smut having the chaff only partially destroyed decidedly smutty Fig 7Final stage of smut showing con dition of head at harvest time This smut has probably the widest distribution of any of the thousands of species known to students of the group It is known on every continent and occurs all over the United States In fact222 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA it is an uncommon thing to find a field of oats entirely free from it and the amount of damage it causes is very great Xot one in a thousand of those engaged in growing oats has any adequate idea of the extent of its ravages Hundreds of examinations have been made in oat fields in various parts of the United States and as a result we have very reliable estimates as to the amount of this smut in various localities Estimates made by Professor Keller man and the writer put the actual loss from oat smut in Kansas at 1382328 in 1888 850554 in 1889 and 91129 in 1890 Dr Arthur estimates the damage in Indiana at 797526 in 1889 and 605352 in 1890 Harwood estimates the damage in Michi gan at 800000 in 1891 and 1000000 in 1892 In these States the average amount of smutted heads varied from 65 per cent to 15 per cent The only State where decidedly lower per cents of smutted oats have been reported is Vermont Here Jones found an average of 16 per cent smutted in 1892 This would represent a loss of 2i441 It is undoubtedly a conservative es timate to place the direct loss from oat smut at 8 per cent of the crop Even at this estimate the loss in the United States is over 18000000 annually averaging 1804140 for the years 1890 to 18932 This however though it represents the amount that would be saved if every smutted head of oats were replaced with a sound one does not by any means represent what would be saved by a universal system of seed treatment It has been conclusively proved that a much greater increase in yield is obtained by treat ing the seed than would result from merely replacing the smutted heads with sound ones This will be explained later It should be remembered that it costs as much for every farming operation to raise a badly smutted crop as a clean one The smul does not thin out the stand and give the healthy plants more soil and better light a smutted plant takes up as much room and re quires as much moisture and nourishment from the soil as 1 Using the estimates of this department putting the value of the crop at l62944 see Annual Report of Secretary of Agriculture for 1892 p 429 2 Using the estimates made by this department putting the average value of the oat crop for these years at 212797614 see Annual Report of the Sec retary of Agriculture for 1893 p 483ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 223 does a healthy plant The loss by smut can therefore be said to be taken directly from the profit on the crop Moreover the seed from a badly smutted field is likely to produce a badly smutted crop the following year while that from a clean field will produce a crop almost if not entirely free from smut By means of two newlydiscovered treatments of the seed viz with potassium sulphide and with hot water oat smut can be com pletely prevented at very little expense The methods will be explained hereafter Fortunately both the common and hidden forms of smut can be eradicated with equal ease It is certain that oat growers could save many millions of dollars annually above all expenses by treating their seed oats SMUTS OF BAELEY EYE AND COEN Barley is attacked by two loose smuts both very similar to the loose smut of oats In the covered barley smut1 the spores are often retained till harvest by a thin membrane inclosing the smut ted kernel and chaff The naked barley smut2 on the other hand is like the ordinary form of oat smut and is usually all blown away long before harvest Both kinds of barley smuts can be com pletely prevented by the treatment recommended further on Bye smut3 attacks the leaves and stems of this cereal and some times weakens the plants considerably Jensen thinks it can be prevented by treating five minutes with hot water at 127 F Corn smut4 is of widespread occurrence but rarely causes more than a fraction of 1 per cent loss No method of prevention is as yet known PEACTICAL DIRECTIONS FOE TEEATING SEED FOE SMUT POTASSIUM SULPHIDE TREATMENT FOR OAT SMUT The potassium sulphide should be of the fused form known as liver of sulphur It can be obtained of any druggist for from 25 to 50 cents per pound depending on the quantity purchased Tt should be kept in a tight glass vessel protected from the air 1 Ustilagohordei Pers Kell Swing Orocystis occulla Wallr Eabenh 2 Uslilago nuda Jens Kell Swing Ustitago maydit DC Cda214 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA until ready for use Dissolve 1 pounds in 25 gallons of water in a wooden vessel a tight barrel is very good for the purpose The lumps of potassium sulphide dissolve in a few minutes making the liquid a clear yellowish brown color After thoroughly stir ring put in about 3 bushels of oats and agitate well to insure wet ting every grain The solution must completely cover the grain and be several inches above it as the grain soaks up some of the liquid Leave the oats in this solution twentyfour hours stirring several times during the day to be sure every kernel is wetted Then spread out to dry In treating large quantities of seed a hogshead or a wooden tank might be used The solution should not be used more than three times In no case should any metal be allowed to come in contact with the liquid This treatment is thoroughly effective for oat smut and is worthy of trial for stink ing smut of wheat THE HOTWATER TREATMENT FOR STINKING SMUT OF WHEAT AND OAT SMUT Provide two large vessels preferably holding at least 20 gal lons Two Avash kettles soap kettles wash boilers tubs of even barrels will do One of the vessels should contain warm water say at 110 degrees to 120 degrees F and the other scalding water at 132 degrees to 133 degrees F The first is for the purpose of warming the seed preparatory to dipping it into the second Un less this precaution is taken it will be difficult to keep the water in the second vessel at the proper temperature A pail of cold water should be at hand and it is also necessary to have a kettle filled with boiling water from which to add from time to time to keep the temperature right Where kettles are used a very small fire should be kept under the kettle of scalding water The seed which is to be treated must be placed half a bushel or more at a time in a closed vessel that will allow free entrance and exit of water on all sides For this purpose there can ho used a bushel basket made of heavy wire inside of which is spread wire netting say L2 meshes to the inch or an iron frame can be made at a trifling cost over which the wire netting can be stretched This will allow the water to pass freely and yet prevent the passage of the seed A sack madeANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 225 of loosely woven material as gunny sack can be used instead of the wire basket A perforated tin vessel is in some respects preferable to any of the above In treating stinking smut of wheat the grain should first be thrown into a vessel filled with cold water then after stirring well skim off the smutted grains that float on top and put the grain into the basket or other vessel for treatment with hot water This skimming is entirely unnecessary with other grains and even with wheat when affected only by the loose smut Xow dip the basket of seed in the first vessel containing water at 110 degrees to 120 degrees F after a moment lift it and when the water has for the most part escaped plunge it into the water again repeating the operation several times The object of the lifting and plunging to which should be added also a rotary mo tion is to bring every grain in contact with the hot water Less than a minute is required for this preparatory treatment after which plunge the basket of seed into the second vessel containing water at 132 degrees to 133 degrees F If the thermometer indi cates that the temperature of the water is falling pour in hot water from the kettle of boiling water until the right degree is at tained If the temperature should rise higher than 133 degrees add a little cold water In all cases the water should be well stirred whenever any of a different temperature is added The basket of seed should very shortly after its immersion be lifted and drained and then plunged and agitated in the manner de scribed above This operation should be repeated six or eight times during the immersion which should be continued ten min utes In this way every portion of the seed will be subjected to the action of the scalding water In practice it will be found best to have a man or boy devote his whole time to keeping the tempera ture at the right point adding a little hot water if it falls below 132 degrees and a little cold water if it gets above 133 degrees F Another man should handle the grain and immerse and drain the portion being treated as directed above After removing the grain from the scalding water spread on a clean floor or piece of 1 A good thermometer should be used preferably one having the bulb pro tected against injury from striking the sides of the vessel The large ther mometer used in dairy work is very good for this purpose 15 a 226 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA canvas to dry The layer of grain should not be over 3 inches thick If it cannot be spread out at once dip in cold water and set to one side until it can be attended to It dries better if spread while still hot Another portion of grain can then be treated and so on until all the seed has been disinfected Directions for dry ing the seed will be given further on The important precautions to be taken are as follows 1 Main tain the proper temperature f the water 132 degrees or 133 de grees P in no case allowing it to rise higher than 135 degrees or fall below 130 degrees 2 see that the volume of scalding water is much greater at least six or eight times than that of the see1 treated at any one time 3 never fill the basket or sack containing the seed entirely full but always leave room for the grain to mov about freely 4 leave the seed in the second vessel of water ten minutes HOTWATER TREATMENT FOR LOOSE SMUT OF WHEAT AND FOR BARLEY SMUTS In treating wheat for loose smut the grain must be soaked four hours in cold water then set away about four hours more in wet sacks and finally treated as directed above but only for five min utes at 132 degrees T In planting use onehalf more seed per acre to compensate for the seed killed by the treatment Tor pre venting both of the smuts affecting barley the grain should be soaked as directed above and treated five minutes at 130 degrees T 2 degrees lower than for wheat COPPERSULPHATE TREATMENT FOR STINKING SMUT OF WHEAT This consists in immersing the seed wheat twelve hours in a so lution made by dissolving 1 pound of commercial copper sulphate in 24 gallons of water and then putting the seed for five or ten minutes into limewater made by slaking 1 pound of good lime in 10 gallons of water The treatment is cheap easily applied and very effective The wheat does not grow quite so well as when treated with hot water but the difference is inconsiderable This treatment is only for stinking smuts of wheat and covered barley smut It should never be used for oat smutANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 DRYING THE TREATED SEED 227 All of the seed treatments leave the seed wet and necessitate drying before planting The grain should be spread in a layer 2 or 3 inches deep and should be shoveled over twice or three times a day It will then dry very quickly A clean floor is a good P ace to dry the grain bnt a better method is to take canvas sheets about 5 feet by 12 or 15 feet and spread out in the sun Such sheets with the grain can be taken in at night If spread over an open lattice work a few feet from the ground drying is greatly facilitated Such sheets of the heaviest ducking should not cost over 175 each and can be used for years The grain can be sown broadcast long before it is thoroughly dry but for drilling it must be nearly dry The seed can be treated months before being used and dried and stored ready for planting In case of the stinking smut of wheat there is danger of the seed being reinfected by contact with living spores though with other smuts the danger is almost absent In treating wheat against this smut tools and sacks should be disinfected and if a floor is used for drving it should first be washed with a solution of bluestone 1 pound tolO gallons of water before spreading the grain Canvas sheets and sacks can be disinfected easily by plunging into boiling water EXTRA INCREASE IN YIELD AS A RESULT OF SEED TREATMENT One of the most remarkable and unexpected results of the hot water and potassiumsulphide seed treatments was an increase in the yield beyond the amount that would result from merely re placing every smutted head with a sound one This extra in crease was first noticed by Professor Kellerman and the writer in experiments made with oats in 1889 where the hotwater treatment u71TrrT m yiell mre tImn twice aS Sreat as H be cal culated from the per cent of smut in adjoining untreated plats Tins remarkable result was obtained in all subsequent trials and Tent tb JenS6n and In the de ments of the investigators named the extra increase in yield ranged frorn onehalf to six times the amount to be expected fromte Placing the smutted heads with sound ones and even higher ratios228 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA when the percentage of smut has been small On an average the increase in yield has been double or treble what would result from suppressing the visible smut In consequence of this remarkable benefit comparable with what Mr Galloway has shown to occur in using Bordeaux mixture on the potato and some other plants it will undoubtedly be profitable to treat oats for seed when only 1 or 2 per cent is smutted Potassiumsulphide treatment has given uniformly a large extra increase in yield when used in treating oats for seed The extra increase has been very decided almost equal to that resulting from treatment of seed with hot water The coppersulphate and lime treatment gives no extra increase whatever with oats Jensen has found a similar extra increase to resiilt from treating seed barley with hot water and Professor Kellerman has reported extra increase in yield in treating wheat for stinking smuts with hot water and also with several copper compounds There was however an enormous amount of smut present in many of the untreated plats reaching 75 to 80 per cent AVhere there is only a small per cent of smut in the untreated wheat it is probable that little if any extra increase in yield would result from treating the seed As to the cause of the extra increase in yield as a result of seed treatment opinions are divided It is probably due in part to an increased germinative power of the seed causing them to sprout sooner and the young plant to grow faster It has been shown that oats treated with hot water germinate much more quickly than do untreated oats even if the grain has been dried Pro fessor Kellerman has shown that potassium sulphide has the same effect on both oats and corn and further that even after five and onehalf months seed which had been treated with hot water or potassium sulphide germinated quicker than untreated seed Dv Arthur claims that this hastened germination is due to the libera tion at once of large quantities of diastase by the action of heat enabling the young plant to avail itself rapidly of the reserve of starch stored in the seed This does not however account for the action of potassium sulphide Another possible explanation of the observed extra increase in yield has been put forth by JensenANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 229 He suggests that the smut may attack many plants which it sim ply weakens and stunts without ever developing its spores in the head Such injury would of course he prevented by any treatment that killed all the smut adhering to the grain It is highly prob able that a part of the extra increase is due to the higher germi native energy of treated seed and a part to the prevention of all in jury however slight from the smut DUTY OF SEEDSMEN It is confidently believed that by the aid of these improved meth ods of seed treatment the enormous losses from the grain smuts will eventually be prevented in a great measure Every year more growers treat the grain intended for planting and others often profit by purchasing clean seed from the resulting crop for use the following year It is to be hoped that all reputable seed firms will treat the grain they sell for seed Oats purchased at high prices for seed have been known to yield crops more than half smutted In Kansas in 1890 Professor Kellerman and the writer found that nearly one fourth of the sorts of oats grown from seed obtained from dealers was badly smutted onefifth showing over 11 per cent of injury and onetenth over 20 per cent The danger exists in even greater degree with other cereals for the wheat smuts for instance do not occur at all in some regions and can readily be brought in by ob taining seed from infested fields SUMMARY 1 Smuts of cereals are caused by minute parasitic fungi the spores of seeds of which form the black dusty mass which re places the head of kernels of grain 2 These spores are very minute and blow about and adhere to the kernel before it is planted When the kernel sprouts the spores also germinate and send delicate threads into the young seedling These threads follow the growth of the plant and fill the head or kernel as soon as formed and there develop a mass of spores instead of kernels230 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA 3 Two stinking smuts attack the kernels of wheat filling them with a mass of fetid spores These smuts cause great damage but are easily prevented by treating the seed wheat 4 Loose smut of wheat attacks the whole head and converts it into a mass of loose and dusty spores It causes considerable dam age in some localities and is more difficuk to prevent than other smuts 5 Loose smut of oats is very similar to that of wheat It causes over 18000000 loss annually in the United States It can be prevented easily and cheaply 6 Barley is attacked by two smuts and rye by one all of which can be prevented Corn smut is widespread but fortunately causes only a very slight loss As yet no effective preventive is known 7 Oat smut can be most easily prevented by soaking the seed twentyfour hours in a 1 per cent solution of potassium sulphide 8 Stinking smut of wheat and oat smut can be easily prevented by treating with hot water at 132 degrees F for ten minutes By previously soakintr the seed in cold water loose smut of wheat barley smuts and rye smuts can be prevented by a shorter immer sion in hot water 9 Stinking smuts of wheat can be prevented by soaking the seed twelve hours in a 1 per cent solution of copper sulphate and then dipping the seed in limewater This treatment is useless for other smuts 10 In treating oats for smut by either potassium sulphide or hot water an increase in yield is obtained beyond and above the amount that would result from replacing the smutted heads with sound ones The increase in yield from seed treatment is usually Two or three times as much as the apparent loss from smut in un treated fields 11 Seed dealers should treat all cereals offered for sale both to increase the yield and to prevent the introduction of smuts into localities where they are now unknownANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 231 Bulletin of United States Department of Agriculture PEANUTS CULTURE AXD USE By R B Handy DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY The peanut Arachis hypogwa known also in different localities as the earthnut groundnut ground pea goober and pindar is a trailing straggling annual growing from 1 to 2 feet high with thick angular palegreen hairy stems and spreading branches and has the peculiar habit of maturing its fruit underground Strictly speaking it is not a nut at all and should more properly be called the ground pea Its blossom is at the end of a long pediclelike calyx tube the ovary being at the base After the fall of the flower the peduncle or spike elongates and bends downward pushing several inches into the ground where the ovary at its ex tremity begins to enlarge and develop into a pale yellowish wrink led slightly curved pod often contracted in the middle containing from 1 to 3 seeds Should the spike by accident not be enabled to thrust its point in the ground within a few hours after the fall of the flower it withers and dies When fully grown the pods are from 1 to 2 inches long of a dusky yellowish color with a netted surface More or less abundantly scattered over the roots of the peanut plant as well as those of other members of the same family are warts of about the size of a pin head or larger These tubercles as they are usually called play a very important part in the history of the plant Within them while in a fresh or growing state may be seen by the aid of a good microscope myriads of very minute organisms These bacterialike bodies live partly on the substance supplied from the roots and at the same time they take from the air and elaborate for the use of the plant considerable quantities of nitrogen Nitrogen is the most expensive element that must be supplied to plants in fertilizers232 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA The orgamsms h thege poroug tuberdes from the air of winch lt comprises about fivesixths and supply it to the plant without any cost In this way a total amount of nitrogen ts often acquired by the plant far in excess of the amount analyses show to be present and available in the soil For tin reason were the peanut cultivated as a green crop and turned under m the ground hke clover and cowpeasspecies of the same family would unprove the soil rather than exhaust its fertility as under the present method of culture notWnTnJ r11 6XtTiVely CllltiVated Pknt8 the Pea has not been found ln a truly wild state and hence it is difficult to fix te s that some botanists have attempted to trace its spread from China to Japan thence through the East India Islands to India and thence to Africa where in the seventeenth century ir walso extensively cultivated and had become such an important article of native food that the slave dealers loaded their vessels with it using as food for their cargoes of captives But the weight of author seems to be in favor of accepting it as a native of Brazil thus addmg the peanut to the four other plants of commercial in por ance that America has contributed to the agriculture of the worldnamely cotton Indian corn potato and tobacco Though may be a native of the Western Continent it early became a largely cultivated plant in the warmer portions of the Old World occupying a distinct place in the agriculture of those countries long before its merits were recognized in the land of its origin While he peanut has been cultivated in the United States to a limited ex tent for a number of years it is only since 1866 that the crop has become of primary importance in the eastern section of this coun try winch seems peculiarly adapted to its production Between 1865 and 1870 the rapid spread of the culture of pea nuts was phenomenal due probably to the knowledge of then ac qmred the dividual members of the various armies whie t one time or another occupied the eastern section of Virginia Each year doubled and at times increased timfo1 of the preceding year so that this country from being a large imANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 233 porter of west African nuts was soon able to supply the domestic demand with the homeraised article Virginia North Carolina and Tennessee produce a large part of the peanut crop of the United States This is due possibly to the fact that their soil and climate are admirably adapted to the successful cultivation of this plant and also no doubt because of the large profits which the farmer was able to secure from the culture of peanuts at a time when other agricultural industries were in a very depressed condition Within the last few years this crop has ceased to be profitable as heretofore The method of culturethe annual planting of nuts on the same land the lack of proper rotation of crops the complete removal of all vegetation from the land and the failure to replenish the soil by means of fertilizershas been a great factor in reducing the profits of the crop by reducing the ability of the land to produce such crops as were previously secured in that section so that now instead of an average of 50 bushels per acre with frequent yields of over 100 bushels the average in the peanut section is not over 20 bushels while the cost of cultivation has been but slightly reduced The composition of the different parts of the peanut plant from the standpoint both of food and fertilizing value is shown in the following tables compiled from the most reliable data at hand The results in the case of food constituents are calculated to a uni form waterfree basis in order to admit of a fair comparison It must be kept in mind that all of the substances in their original condition contained variable but considerable amounts of moisture and if allowance is made for this moisture the percentage of the food constituents will be lower than those reported in the tables The first column shows the percentages of moisture given in the original reports of analyses234 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA Food constituents in different parts of the peanut plant Water In waerfree sub larce Ash Pro tein Fiber Peanut kernels Alabama peanuts Tennessee crop 1888 Tennessee crop 1889 Georgia peanuts Spanish peanuts grown in Georgia Egyptian peanuts Bombay peanuts Congo peanuts Bufbque peanuts West African Japanese peanuts Nankinmame Japanese peanuts Tojmmame Average of all available analyses Peanut vines with leaves Japanese green Spanish rut before blooming Georgia cut before blooming Per ct 1088 387 486 125 1315 771 501 459 15 til 750 785 Average of last two Spanish ent when fruit was ripe Georgia cut when fruit was ripe Average Peanut hay Tennessee crop Peanut vines without leaves Egyptian Peanut leaves Egyptian Peanut roots Egyptian Peanut roots Spanih Georgia croD Peanut roots Georgia Peanut Hulls Spanish peanuts grown in Georgia Georgia ppanuts Tennessee crop 1888 Tennessee crop 1889 Coarse ground German analysis Pine ground German analysis Egyptian peanuts 7710 32 6 2 2978 3120 3143 3238 Per ct 426 241 251 218 272 285 332 273 253 193 195 277 705 996 1132 1061 3191 Average Peanut shucks inner coating of kernel Peanut meal average of 2786 analyses 2962 2874 1920 20 62 881 781 1050 1070 1294 1124 1291 Per ct 3537 2865 2707 3049 3218 2297 3373 2833 2973 3266 2649 2947 1600 1269 12 57 1263 Per ct 266 237 252 234 350 161 233 155 124 488 432 429 2011 2475 1989 Nitro gen free extct Fat Per ct 1933 1723 1980 2186 2043 20 27 1015 1451 1402 599 1264 Per ct 5537 4935 4860 4313 4117 5230 5047 5288 5248 5454 5460 1427 120 17 04 880 1090 665 975 958 463 300 203 363 313 358 370 1171 991 1081 22 32 2846 3610 3228 1175 625 1000 875 878 763 719 499 6 12 794 771 818 812 1080 1074 339 572 548 722 2511 5249 2211 3295 2161 2350 4166 4859 7178 7930 7307 6581 6937 66 64 4506 5001 4630 5038 4377 3586 3981 6729 2096 93 4695 4949 5409 5910 3550 3100 1432 1059 17 14 2045 1622 1790 3981 4920 Nitro gen Per rf EO 458 433 488 515 367 540 453 476 523 424 467 427 630 584 607 482 522 502 184 250 350 200 431 320 256 203 201 2 02 187 158 173 1942 2689 2720 208 212 134 217 357 3 70 381 268 2152 884 188 100 1 111 140 140 122 115 080 103 127 122 131 130 117 400 840 Fertilizing constituents in different parts of the peanut plant In fresh or air dry substance Water phos Nitrogen phoric acil Potash Lime Peanut kernels Peanut vines cured Peanut hulls Peanut cake meal Total ash Per cent 630 783 1060 1040 Per cent 451 176 114 756 Per cent 124 029 017 131 Per cent 127 098 095 150 Per cent 013 208 081 016 Per cent 320 15 70 300 397 As regards food value these tables show that peanut kernels with an average 0f 29 per cent of protein 49 per cent of fat and 14ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 235 per cent of carbohydrates in the dry material take a high rank and should be classed with such concentrated foods as soja beans cotton seed etc The vines are shown to be superior to timothy hay as a feeding stuff and but slightly inferior to clover hay The food value of the hay is of course higher the greater the percentage of nuts left on the vines in harvesting The hulls also appear to pos sess considerable value as a feeding stuff being much richer in valuable food constituents protein fat and carbohydrates than cotton hulls which are extensively used in some localities in the South as a coarse fodder and about equal to the poorer grades of hay The ground hulls are used to a considerable extent as a coarse fodder in European countries Peanut meal the ground residue from oil extraction is a valuable feeding stuff highly ap preciated and extensively used in foreign countries It contains as the averages of over 2000 analyses show about 52 per cent of protein 8 per cent of fat and 27 per cent of carbohydrates and is therefore one of the most concentrated feeding stuffs with which we are familiar ranking with cottonseed meal linseed meal etc and in some cases ahead of them As regards fertilizing constituents the tables show that the pea nut like other leguminous plants is rich in nitrogen and contains considerable amounts of phosphoric acid and potash The kernels are as rich in these constituents as the kernels of cottonseed and the vines are nearly as valuable as a fertilizer as those of cowpeas For the sake of completeness the fertilizing constituents of hulls and meal or cake are reported It will be seen that the former are comparatively poor while the latter is quite rich being nearly equal to cottonseed meal as a fertilizer VARIETIES The Virginia running variety of the peanut being most widely known and most popular with the trade may be taken as the typical American peanut Its vines are large with spreading branches growing flat on the ground and bearing pods over almost their entire length The pods are large and white weighing about 22 pounds to the bushel The Virginia bunch variety grows erect and fruits near the tapm 236 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA root but produces pods very closely resembling those above de scribed There are two varieties in Tennessee the white and red the white closely resembling the Virginia running variety and the red producing somewhat smaller pods with kernels having a dark red skin This variety matures earlier than the white yields fewer pops or imperfect pods has a less spreading habit and on account of this difference in growth is perhaps somewhat more easily cul tivated The North Carolina or African variety grown in the Winning ton section of the State has much smaller pods than those just de scribed weighing 28 pounds to the bushel the kernels containing more oil than those of other varieties The Spanish variety has a relatively small upright vine forms small pods near the taproot and can be planted much closer to gether than any of the others thus producing a very heavy crop to the acre The North Louisiana Station found the Spanish a desirable variety easily harvested all of the peas adhering to the vine It required a much shorter period to mature and planted as late as July 1 matured a full crop in that latitude before frost The pods filled out well forming few if any pops The Georgia red nut like the similar variety in Tennessee has mediumsized vines growing up from the ground and fruiting prin cipally near the taproot with three or four kernels to the pod These comprise all the varieties cultivated in this country but in Costa Rica there is a variety with long pods without division con taining four or five seeds and in the Argentine Republic a large sized variety with a deep orangecolored shell In the Malay Arch ipelago there are two varieties called the white and brown resem bling probably the white and red Tennessee varieties except as to size The peanut of India and Africa resembles the North Carolina variety in size and is raised principally for the oil which is contained in its kernelsANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 CLIMATE SUITABLE FOR PEANUT CULTURE 237 TJ hile the peanut requires a climate in which there is a season of five months free from frost it is not necessary that this should be a period of extreme heat as the seeds form during cool weather m the latter part of summer and early autumn This fact ha been developed by experiments with the crop during the past twentyfive or thirty years It was formerly supposed that being a native of mtertropical countries and flourishing most luxuriantlv in the warm moist atmosphere of Brazil India and Africa it would be impossible to successfully cultivate the peanut in the United States Contrary to this view the attempt to cultivate it in North and South Carolina was successful and step bv step it extended northward until the fortieth parallel of latitude had been reached It is probable that on suitable soil the peanut will grow in anv latitude where Indian corn will thrive hut whether it will he a profitable crop depends upon other considerations than its ability to withstand the climate The most favorable weather for the pea nut is an early spring followed by a warm summer of even temper ature with moderate moisture and free from drouth and an autumn or harvesting time with very little precipitation as rain injures the newly gathered vines and nuts These climatic con ditions are to be found on the Atlantic Seaboard from New Jersey southward in the Mississippi Valley as far north as southern Wis consin and on the Pacific Coast south of the Columbia River Again it is probable that the quality of the nut depends upon climatic conditions as it is true that the nuts grown in tropical coun tries contain much more oil than those of the same variety grown in temperate latitude so that the proposition has been laid down that the oil content of the nut is in inverse proportion to the dis tance from the equator The nuts most in demand bv the Ameri can trade are those raised between the parallels of 36 degrees and 37j degrees north latitude as they contain the least oil therefore being better for use as human food SOIL SUITABLE FOR PEANUT CULTURE A sandy loam neither too dry nor too sandy yet light and238 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA porous produces the most marketable peanuts because it is nearer the natural color of the peanut shell and the trade for which Amer ican peanuts are raised demands a lightcolored shell but equally sound and wellflavored nuts may be produced on other soils In fact almost any soil that can be put in a friable condition and kept so will produce peanuts provided it contains a sufficient quantity of lime As cultivation of the crop extends and more land is needed much of this crop will be planted in clayey soil and the result will be heavier peanuts Indeed more pounds per acre may be grown upon stiff land than upon light soil the chief objection to dark and tenacious soils being that they stain the pods Clayey soil is somewhat colder and more inert and the planting on such soil would therefore be somewhat delayed in the spring In more northern latitudes where the season is short this might cause the crop to be cut off by frost before maturity There is an abundance of good peanut land all along the Atlantic Seaboard from New Jersey to Florida and also in the Mississippi Valley not yet used for the crop MANURING It is not necessary that the soil on which peanuts are to be grown should be naturally calcareous but if it is not it must be bmed the lime being necessary both for the proper fruiting of the plant and for its mechanical effect upon the soil Much of the Virginia and North Carolina land has in times past been heavily marled and there are parts of Tennessee and other State where there is already sufficient lime in the soil for the peanut plant Besides this addition of lime on soils where it is not naturally found the peanut needs a dressing 0f potash and phosphoric acid The potash is best supplied in the form of kainit the phosphoric acid by fineground phosphatie slag If the soil is heavy instead of the slag a dressing of superphosphate may be used The lime and other dressing would be more effective if plowed under early in the season but they may be spread down the furrowANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 239 in which the seed is planted or applied as a topdressing after plant ing Any land of hme may be used provided it is finely com Zlls tnTh S bef01e aPPHCatin TI byster shells which are very accessible to fanners living along the East rtheettommon limestoneor mari wm JvlTTV1 lime or marl t0 use at one application dep very much on he nature Qf the goil and fhe amount P uoZ17 r Genera 30 bllshels of lime fe 100 to 150 bushels of marl are safe applications but if the soil is quite Inn and contazns but little vegetable mold more than this at on mall annual applications of lime and also of vegetable matter manure compost woods earth etc continuing this until a suf oZ rT limhas been applied w quantizes of marl with perfect safety if kept well stocked with ome vegetable matter to subdue its caustic effects But mo ZLezrisoiHs deficient in and the mTCTT f fertiHzing COnstitue quired bv a crop of 60 bushels of peanuts is shown in the following table calculated from data reported by the Tennessee Experiment Station Fertilizing constituents requircdby a crop of 60 bushels of peanuts Pounds per acre Nitro gen Total crop 3380 pounds per acre Phos phoric acid Potash Lime 422 4049 8471 908 572 1480 1273 IS57 466 4164 3230 4630 It does not follow that these figures show the exact proportion of mtrogen phosphoric acid and potash which a fertilizer for peanuts should contain They are useful only as guides in cal culating formulas for a fertilizer for this crop and must not be lollowed too closelv240 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA In the formulas given below the amounts of phosphoric acid and potash correspond approximately with those given in the last table but nitrogen is reduced to onefourth for the reason that the application of nitrogenous manures to leguminous plants does not make any appreciable return for the outlay since they are able to obtain a large part of their nitrogen from the atmosphere Each of the mixtures contains about 21 pounds of nitrogen 15 pounds of phosphoric acid and 32 pounds of potash in available forms and will be sufficient for one acre Fertilizer mixture for peanuts FORMULA I Cottonseed meal 300 pou n d s Cottonhull ashes 130 pounds FORMULA II Acid phosphate 80 pounds Cottonseed meal 300 pounds Kainit 240 pounds FORMULA III Barnyard manure 2 tons Cottonseed meal 150 pounds Kainit 100 pounds Acid phosphate 50 pounds FORMULA IV Acid phosphate 100 pounds Dried blood 185 pounds Muriate of potash 65 pounds When phosphatic slag which generally appears in the American market under the name of Odorless Phosphate can be obtained if may be substituted with advantage for acid phosphate at the rate of 120 pounds in Formula II 75 pounds in Formula III and 150 pounds in Formula IV Few of the peanut planters pay sufficient attention to the rota tion of their crops but year after year plant peanuts in the same land or at best change from peanuts to corn and then to peanuts again with the result that the land rapidly deteriorates Not only does the crop of nuts become smaller and smaller but the vines after a year or two of this treatment lose their leaves before ma turity and thus the hay or forage part of the crop is practically lost When the land is kept in a good physical condition by the use of lime and proper culture and a systematic rotation of crops is followed it will not only retain its fertility and produce good crops for many years but it will constantly increase its ability to produce peanuts in paying quantities A good rotation is sojaANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 241 beans or cowpeas to be followed the succeeding year by peanuts and the next year by sweet potatoes or the following one that will keep the land well covered and is perhaps more convenient for the average peanut planter is recommended Peanuts followed in the fall by winter rye or oats and the next summer the land sown to crimson clover or cowpeas to be followed the succeeding year by peanuts again so that every other year peanuts will be the crop The advantage of this would be an increased forage crop for the farmera muchneeded addition in the peanutraising sections of the United Statesthe covering of the land during nearly the whole year with a growing crop and the rotation of a cereal with a leguminous crop Even in this system of rotation fertilizers should be used until the soil is brought into good condition and no longer responds profitably to fertilizers It should be clearly understood that constant cropping without the use of proper rotations or manures must eventually impoverish both the soil and the planter CULTURE Preparation of the landThere is no mystery connected with the culture of the peanut crop or any special secret knowledge as to the preparation of the land Any mode of preparation that will reduce the soil to a finely pulverized seed bed light and friable to the depth of 4 or 5 inches will be safe to adopt Peanuts being planted usually after corn it is necessary to remove from the soil the butts of the cornstalks together with all other roots clods etc The ordinary course followed by successful planters in various sections where peanuts are a prominent crop is to break up the land with ordinary turn plow as soon in the spring as the soil is in condition to be worked and then use a harrow and roller or smoothing hoard in such a way as to leave a level surface and seed bed such as is above described all roots stumps stones and clods having been carefully removed Seed selectionWhile there is among all planters a certain amount of selection of seeds for planting more or less carefully 16 a242 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA done according to the skill of the farmer and to the nature of the crop which he is about to plant and in some cases extending to an elaborate and longcontinued selection from the most prolific plants vet in the case of peanuts where good seed is of paramount importance there seems to be but little more than ordinary care taken in the selection of seednot mere than in the saving of that portion of the crop which is to be sold on the market The seed should not only be carefully selected at the time of planting carefully prepared so as not to break the skin of the ker nel and all immature shriveled or musty seeds rejected but especial care should be exercised at the harvesting of the previous crop so that the seed may be of as great vitality as possible The slightest frost upon the peanut vines either before digging or after they have been dug and before they become thoroughly dried will affect to a greater or less degree the vitality of the kernel Over heating or mustiness is also detrimental to the kernel as a seed consequently the seeds should be selected in the field before dig ging They should be allowed to sun longer than peas intended for sale that they may be drier and even should the pods lose color it does not matter as the kernels will not be affected They should be so stacked as to be kept very dry and should be picked and allowed to dry thoroughly before being packed away for the winter The best plan is to put them in bags in a cool dry loft where they will neither heat nor collect moisture Not more than two bushels should be placed in one sack and great care should be taken to have the air circulate freely among them As it requires 2 bushels of nuts in the pod to give seed enough for an acre and some farmers plant from 50 to 100 and even more acres it is necessary to begin to shell the seed nuts several weeks before the time of planting This requires some skill and care both in opening the pod to avoid the breaking of the skin of the kernel and in selecting the sound and rejecting the imperfect ker nels as they are shelled and the seed thus shelled must be kept in a dry cool airy place until the time of planting PlantingThe time of planting depends upon the latitude theANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 243 distance from the sea and the elevation of the section in which the seed is to be planted In Virginia from May 1 to 20 is prob ably the time during which the larger part of the crop is planted danger of killing frosts being past by that time although some farmers plant the last week of April and others not until early in June In more southern latitudes planting takes place in April and farther north not before June In no section should the seed be planted until all danger of the young plants being injured by a late frost is over As soon as the farmer lias satisfied himself that the propitious time for planting has arrived his land being in fine condition and his seed already prepared for planting the question for him to de cide is the distance between the hills which is best suited to the strength and fertility of his soil and to the variety of peanuts he intends to plant As a part of this question he has to determine whether he will plant his seed in checks or in drills both of which methods are in use in nearly every section where the peanut is grown The advantages of one method over the other will depend upon the freedom of the soil from weedseed and upon the cost of labor In checks the cost of planting is probably greater than in drills but if the ground is somewhat full of weed seeds the cost of cultivation in checks would probably be less than in drills be cause of the ability of the horse implements to more successfully keep down the weeds as the field can be worked in both directions very close to the young plants leaving but little for the hoe to do The distance between the drills or hills is as above stated de pendent upon the variety to be planted and the fertility of the soil In very fertile soil and with the running Virginia nut from 3 to 3 feet square each way is the required distance between the hills with 2 kernels to the hill while with other varieties or on less fertile land the distance between the hills can be reduced until on poor land with the Spanish nut the distance will be determined by convenience in using horse implements between the rows In drills the causes stated above would affect the choice of dis tance that most frequently chosen by the planter being 3 feet be tween the drills and 14 inches between the hills down the drill 2 seeds to the hill244 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA In checking the land for peas a simple and inexpensive marked is m common use for the first narking out of the field This consists of a piece of scantling 4 by 4 inches and 6 or more feet long through winch are inserted at distances equal to the required dil tance between the hills wooden pegs 2 by 3 inches and 18 inches long shod at the ends with iron To the main bar are attache a pair of shafts and handles to be used in drawing and guiding the implement The cross marking is usually performed with a small turn plow the droppers following it putting 2 seeds to the hill covering them over with the hoe or probably more commonly the foot to the depth of H or 2 inches although some cover the seed with a small plow There is in use among peanut fanners a planter planned some what after the manner of a cottonseed planter It is drawn by one horse and is fitted with a shoe at the base of which the kernels are dropped at distances from 8 to 20 inches apart accord ing as the machine is geared and are covered by a concave wheel winch passing over the furrow presses the soil firmly down upon the seed Tilla9eThe object of all plant cultivation is to keep the soil in proper condition for the growth of the plant An important means to that end is the destruction of all weeds Many crops are injured by the lack of cultivation more by improper cultiva hon and some undoubtedly by too frequent cultivation The 7Xnni that the st cultivation is that given before a crop is planted and the next best the one that is not given it at the latter Part of its growth is perhaps as true of peanuts as of any other crop If the fanner has prepared his land having it porous pul verized and free from all weedseeds there will be need of vrv ittle cultivation It is not so much a matter of how many times the crop has been worked as in what condition the crop is at an given time that should determine the farmer in his management of The implements of cultivation are the plow harrow or cultivator and hoe all of which are used by some fanners others dispensing 7th U tW0 0f them ere the peanuts are planted in checks the larger part of the cultivation is done with the harrowANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 945 or cultivator while some cultivate peanuts even when in drills solely with the aid of the turn plow Hoe work being very ex pensive the farmer should strive to have his land in such condition as not to require much of it and to so cultivate his crop in its early stages as to prevent the growth of grass necessitating the use of the hoe One method of weed destruction as practiced by a large number of peanut planters is just before the plants are coming through the ground say two weeks after they have been planted to go over the field with a small turn plow throwing the soil from both sides over the drill or hill or where the seed was first covered with a plow throwing the second furrow over them and then blocking oft these ridges with light wooden scrapers or blocks thus de stroying the first weed crop with very little or no injury to the peanut plants Another method is to bar off the soil from the vines throwing it into the balk and then a few days afterwards to send the harrow and hoes through the field leveling the ride m the balk and scraping off the narrow ridge between the plants as m cotton culture After this use a double shovel every ten days or two weeks until the field has been gone over five or six tmies For the first two or three plowings the shovels may lie run deep and after that very shallow each working being a little far ther from the plant than the preceding one to avoid disturbing runners The pods are laid by the middle of July or the first of August and the cultivation is finished by the latter date liter the peas begin to spread it is difficult to clean them and therefore they should be thoroughly cleaned while they are youm Two methods of peanut culture in vogue may be distinguished as the level and the ridge methods In level cultivation the turn plow has no place but the work is done almost entirely with the cultivator the field when laid by presenting a flat appearance much resembling a clover field In the ridge method the soil is by use of either the cultivator or the turn plow gradually worked rom the balk to the vine so that after the last working the peanut held very much resembles a sweet potato patch Which of these two methods is of greater merit is perhaps not definitely decided or mdeed which may be more advantageous upon certain soils and246 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA with certain varieties although the level cultivated field will prob ably stand drouth Letter than the ridged The Nebraska Experiment Station made an experiment on this subject Eleven rows were drilled 3 feet apart and seeded 10 jnches apart down the row Every other row was ridged and the bloom was covered while the alternate rows were left level The 5 ridged rows yielded at the rate of 2944 pounds to the acre the 5 level rows at the rate of 5368 pounds to the acre This would seem to indicate level culture as best for the peanut and certainly demonstrates that there is no need of following the old practice of covering the bloom of the plant The eleventh row was planted With unshelled seed ridged the bloom covered and yielded at the rate of 1870 pounds HARVESTING The nuts should be out of the ground before the first frost as it is mpous both to the vines when regarded as fodder and tc the kernels It may be necessary to dig the crop some time before frost is feared because early formed nuts when frost is long de kvedbegm fo tQ K Mould be greater than the gainfrom the maturing of the later nuts Besides if peanuts have been cultivated in the same land for sev 7e th es ofte will drop their leaves and are thus greatly injured for use as hay cronT IT3 haVP 3 PW f0r htin thb crop winch has no moldboard and has a bar 3 feet long and an up right the same as the other plows The foot piece is welded 12 indies from the rear end and extends up 5 inches with a smal hole through it to which is fastened the hind helve of the plow The beam is as usual with handles fastened to either side of it ZlmZ tZ g Wdded t0 the S inches behind th bill and extending out to the right side diagonally and back ward so as to run under and cut the taproot of the vine This plow with two horses attached is passed up each side of the i deep enough to escape the peas the long win cutting the tapANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 247 roots rendering them easy to remove from the soil Following this plow laborers with pitchforks remove the plants from the ground carefully shaking off all loose soil and piling then in wind rows three rows in one They are usually plowed in the morning and then in the afternoon are stacked or shocked around poles 7 feet high set in the ground at convenient places in the field In shocking care is taken to keep the vines from the ground the usual practice being to lay a couple of fence logs on each side of the center pole and the plants are so arranged around the pole as to have the pods inside and also to leave some space next to the pole for the circulation of air The shocks are usually capped with corn fodder or hay to keep out the rain After being thus stacked from fifteen to twenty days the pods are ready to be picked This operation is usually performed by women and children who are paid so much per bushel and are expected to pick only the mature and sound pods It is slow and tedious work and one of the largest items of expense to the peanut farmer Some farmers leave their nuts unpicked until spring but this subjects them to the depredations of birds and animals many of which readily eat either the nuts or the vines In the Wilmington section there is some variation from the above in the method of harvesting thecrop The vines after being allowed to remain in the ground two days after plowing are then pulled out and shaken free from soil and stacked around poles 12 to 14 feet high where they are allowed to remain about a week or ten days and are then removed to large barns and stored away like clover hay until it is convenient for the planter to have his nuts picked This peanut being much smaller than the Virginia or Tennessee nut and also more completely filling the shell is not so easily injured as the larger varieties and thus can be picked by machinery of the general nature of a thrashing machine Some dealers object to machinepicked nuts but the experience of those who follow that practice in harvesting their crops shows but little if any difference in the price of hand or machine detached pods of the North Carolina variety and what difference there may be in price is offset by the saving in cost and the rapidity with which they can be put upon the market at any desired time Besides it is248 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA claimed that the hay after passing through the picker or thrashing machine is in better condition for fodder than the hay from the handgathered peanuts After the peanuts are picked they should be cleaned before being sacked The necessity of cleaning is of course not so great as it was prior to the establishment of recleaners or factories but still the cleaning f the nut would not only leave a large number of pops and saps on the farm for the feeding of stock but would doubtless cause the nuts to bring a price sufficient to justify the ex pense of cleaning The sacks used for peanuts are either 56 or 72 inches long and wide enough to hold 4 bushels or 100 pounds Even should the farmer not intend to sell his nuts at once he should at least sack them as an attempt to keep them in bulk might cause them to heat In filling the sacks care must be taken to fill each corner and the entire sack should be well distended yet not tight enough to crush the shells Put away in a dry airy place peanuts will keep in these sacks several years should it be necessary so to do FieldAccording to the Eleventh Census Bulletin Xo 378 p 9 the average yield of peanuts in the Tnited States in 1889 was 17fi bushels per acre the average in Virginia being about 20 and rennessee 32 bushels per acre This appears to be a verv low average especially as official and semiofficial figures give 50 or 60 bushels as an average crop and 100 bushels is nut an uncommon yield Jair peanut land properly manured and treated to intelli gent rotation of crops should produce in an ordinary season a yield Of 50 bushels to the acre and from 1 to 2 tons of excellenthav Of course better land with more liberal treatment and a favorable season will produce heavier crops the reverse being true of lands wiuch have been frequently planted with peanuts without either manuring or station of crops Besides the amount of peas gath ered there are always large quantities left in the ground which have escaped the gathering and on these the planter turns his herd of nogs so that there is no waste of any part of the plant The yearly production of peanuts in this country is about 4 000 000 bushelsrf 22 pounds Virginia Georgia Tennessee and North arolma being according to the Eleventh Census the larg IANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 249 est producers in the order named These 4000000 bushels while fully supplying the present demand in the United States constitute but a small portion of the peanut crop of the world as the exporta tion from Africa and India to Europe in 1892 amounted to nearly 400000000 pounds Marseilles taking 222000000 pounds most of winch were converted into oil The peanut crop of the world may be safely estimated as at least 600000000 pounds Preparation for marketSince theestablishment of peanut factories or recleaners in nearly every community in which much attention is paid to this crop the planter has ceased to especially prepare his nuts for market selling them as farmers stock to those factories or recleaners where they are subjected to a treatment of fanning polishing and sorting before being put upon the market This process is simple and inexpensive The machinery neither costly nor intricate is placed in a four story bmldmg in such a way that the peanuts are not handled from the time they are put in their uncleaned condition in the hopper on the fourth floor until on the first floor they are sewed in bags branded and marked ready to ship with the exception that in the course of tins process they have passed over a movable table in the form of an endless belt between two rows of operators somewhat ski Jed m the detection of immature and faulty nuts which are picked out and put into a separate receptacle only the good and merchantable nuts being allowed to pass into the bag beneath these are the handpicked factory stock of the trade USES In describing the uses of peanuts it is scarcely necessary to more than refer to that use to which fully threefourths of the American raised crop is devoted The nut is sorted in the factory into four grades the first second and third being sold to venders of the roasted peanut either directly or through jobbing houses The fourth grade after passing through a seller is sold to confectioners to be used in the making of burnt almonds peanut candy and cheaper grades of chocolates The extent of the use of the peanut by the American people will be more fully appreciated when it is remembered that they use 4000000 bushels of nuts yearly at a250 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA cost to the consumers of 10000000 which do not form a part of the regular articles of food but are eaten at odd times The nut is used by the planter as a fattener for his hogs and ref erence to the analyses of the plant table p 5 will at once indicate its value for that purpose The planter also makes use of the vine under the name of peanut hay which is carefully saved and fed to all kinds of live stock furnishing the best and cheapest hay to be found in the peanut section The chief objection to it is that it is apt to contain considerable dirt which may produce coughs in the animals eating it It should therefore be fed from low troughs or managers and never from racks overhead If frosted it may cause colic but wellcured hay will not do this If many immature pods are left on the vines stock that is not worked much would need no other food during the winter Care must be exercised however when beginning to feed it to horses as there is danger of the saps or immature pods left on the vines foundering them if too much is fed at once An analysis of this hay as compared with hay from clover timothy cowpea and alfalfa is found in the fol lowing table taken from Bulletin Volume IV Xo 2 of the Ten nessee Experiment Station Feeding value of peanut hay as compared with hay of other crops Moisture Dry Matter Protein Fats Carbohydrates Crude fibre Crude ash Per cent 783 625 1430 1350 1029 695 Percent 1175 1348 1284 717 1972 1648 Per cent 1 81 1506 211 197 401 203 Per cent 4695 3628 4831 5294 4515 4262 Per cent 2211 2916 2927 3341 21 99 31 38 Per cent 1704 602 747 1 51 Cowoca Hay Alfalfa 910749 These analyses show peanut vines to be of high feeding value comparing favorably in this respect with the most highly esteemed forage plants When some of the nuts are cured and fed with the hay the feeding value is greatly increased as the second analysis in this table shows These are uses to which the peanut crop is commonly put in this country but it is not improbable that in the course of time theANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 251 peanut may subserve other valuable ends here Millions of bush els are being used in the countries of the Old World for the pro duction of oil in which the nuts are very rich This oil is re garded as equal to olive oil and may be employed for every purpose to which that is applied This oil forms from 30 to 50 per cent by weight of the shelled nut it has an agreeable taste and smell and is more limpid than olive oil which it very much resembles Examinations of peanut oil manufactured in Tennessee show it to be very similar in character to cottonseed oil and olive oil It is sweet palatable and clear and in fact great quantities are used unknown to the consumer instead of olive oil To quote Consul Thomas of Marseilles in a report to the Department of Stater Much of it is usel for eating purposes both as a salad oil and in the com position of margarin When made from a superior class of nuts not too finely ground the oil is said to be of fairly good flavor and in the case of dearth of olives might serve as an excellent substitute for the more popular though possibly not more widely consumed extraction Indeed the people of all others best able to give an expert opinion as to the merits of peanut oil for table purposes and who annually consume considerable quantities under the name of and perhaps too faintly diluted with olive oil reside in the United States i In India Europe Brazil and this country it is used medicinally in the place of olive oil and it is also employed by manufacturer as a substitute for the latter in fulling cloth As a lighting fluid it lasts a long time but does not give as clear a light as other burn ing oils It is a durable nondrying oil of a light straw color and it is for its oil that the nut is imported into Europe many gallons being used in the manufacture of soap and as a lubricant in ma chine shops ConsulGeneral Mason of Erankfort says Coldpressed oil of the first pressing of African or the best American pea nuts is used in Germany as salad oil and for various culinary purposes It ranges in price wholesale from 1475 to 26 per 100 kilograms 220 pounds or approximately from 56 cents to 1 per gallon which is far cheaper than any edible quality of olive oil that can be imported and sold in that country The American peanut is larger sweeter and when roasted better flavored than any of the others but its oil is of medium quality and ranks below the African being worth about 1550 per 100 kilograms or 59 cents per gallon252 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA A practical treatise on animal and vegetable fats and oils by W T Brannt London 1888 says The kernels yield from 38 to 45 per cent of oil The first cold pressure yields 1G to 18 per cent of very fine table oil The residue is then broken up moistened with water and again cold pressed yielding 7 to 8 per cent more or less valuable oil to be used for table purposes and burning the resi due from this is heated and then pressed giving 7 to 8 per cent more of oil unfit for table use but used for soap and lubricating I mtcd States Consul Trail at Marseilles in a report on manu factures of vegetable oils dated April 4 1892 says regarding the process in that city These nuts are subjected to two pressings the seed firt being triturated and then heated to between 70 and 80 C The yield of oil from the first pressing is about 50 per cent of the seed crushed Whether oil extraction from peanuts will ever beeome an es tablished industry in this country depends upon 1 whether suffi cient quantities can be secured to keep the mills at work and 2 whether peanuts can he raised at a price low enough to compete with the other oil seeds which already have control of this marker To the average peanut planter who for the past few years has been told that the market is overstocked and the supply greater than the demand the intimation that the supply is not large enough for almost any purpose would meet with small credence but a mo ments reflection and calculation of the amount of nuts necessary to supply the demands of a firstclass oil mill would at once show how comparatively small is the average crop At 50 tons per day 300 tons a week or 15000 tons a year as a requisite amount to supply one mill we find that nearly the whole American crop would be consumed by two mills But under present conditions the mills could not pay the price demanded for primes or extra fine stock therefore the part of the present crop which could be utilized in oil making would be limited to the amount of the third or fourth class stock produced which would not supply one mill six months The question of prices is one which can be answered only by fu ture improvement in the methods of culture an increased proANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 253 duction per acre and the invention of more economical means of harvesting and handling the crop The most important secondary product of peanutoil manufac ture is the oil cake or meal which remains after the oil has been extracted by pressure This sells for from 30 to 33 per ton in Germany where it is used for feeding cattle and sheep After all the oil which can be expressed has been secured there still remain considerable fatty matter in the cake which together with its other contents makes a most valuable animal food An average of over 2000 analyses collated by German authori ties is shown on page 5 A recent analysis of peanut cake fur nished by an oil factory in Tennessee gave the following results V ater 658 per cent ash 421 per cent protein 5319 per cent faber 315 per cent nitrogenfree extract 2401 per cent and fat 826 per cent This shows a nutritive value for the American product somewhat superior to the German average Dtrich and Konig give the average coefficient of digestibility oi this cake as follows Protein 0024 fats 8566 nitrogenfre extract 9287 B An experiment was made at the Woburn Experimental Farm m England to compare peanut cake at 4072 a ton with bean meal at 4580 for steers Each was fed iu a grain ration with equal parts of oats and barley and the animals received beside 45 pounds of roots and 15 pounds of cloverhay chaff per head The trial lasted 107 day The peanut cake proved to be a useful feeding material for cattle and to have a feeding value just about equal to that of beans2 Dr W R Robertson in his experiments with peanut cake as a food for horses at the India farm of which he was manager found that 6 pounds of cake per day was sufficient to keep a horse in good working condition and describes the method of feeding thus The cake was broken into small pieces and steeped for twentyfour hours mldwater just sufficient to make a stiffish paste This paste is white and 1 Analysis made by the chemist of the Department of Agriculture Royal Agricultural Society of England No 3 1892 ser 3 pp 77730 Jour Roy Agr Soc Eng Vol IV Part III 1893 p 650254 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA has a rather agreeable nutlike smell and taste it is readily eaten by most horses In reference to its use as feed for other animals Dr Robertson says I have used the cake very extensively in feeding working cattle an allow ance of 4 pounds per head per day with forage kept the animals in perfect health and condition For fattening cattle I do not know of any better food in regard alike to its feeding value and to the superior quality of the beef produced As a food for dairy cows it is admirable both in increasing the yield of milk and improving its quality The butter of cows so fed is firmer and keeps mch better than that of cows fed on any of the ordinary oil cakes A daily allowance of 4 to 6 pounds of the cake given in the form of paste and mixed with 2 or 3 pounds of wheat bran constitutes a perfect food for milch cows 1 have had cows so fed for several years yielding well and breeding regularly For sheep there is no better food than earthnut cake but for these animals I found it best to give the cake dry and broken into small pieces I had a large flock fed on the cake for several years and never knew any bad results at tending its use The ewes so fed bred regularly milked well and reared ex cellent lambs while the mutton of these cakefed sheep was of superior quality Many experiments have proved the value of the cake as a feed for pigs For these animals it was usually made into a thin gruel and given mixed with bran The same preparation but in not quite so thin a condition constitutes a superior food for fattening poultry The flesh of poultry fatted on the cake is white fine and of superior quality From the above and as a result of the various analyses it can be concluded with certainty that the peanut cake is an excellent cattle food and can be made extremely valuable if judiciously mixed with other foods less rich in oil and nitrogenous constituents A grade of food for animals known as peanut meal is made by grinding the hulls immature peanuts and those of inferior grades such as pops and saps and a certain proportion of sound nuts mixed with other ingredients This is carefully prepared having all the dirt and foreign matter eliminated The fiber is also to a large extent extracted as well as the fluffy matter and the meal is probably in a favorable condition for stock The composition compares favorably with that of many foods now on the market There is nothing in this preparation which cannot be secured by the farmer himself without any expense if he will take ordinaryANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 255 care in separating Ins marketable peas from the refuse stock before selling which latter would be a valuable addition to the somewhat meager supply of winter fodder ordinarily provided bv the farm ers m the South for stock other than their work animals Although the experiment made with peanut meal and biscuits as food for the German army was not so successful as to induce the authorities to adopt it as a part of the rations still analvsis has shown conclusively that it is a most nourishing food for man and as compared with other wellknown forms of vegetable and animal food it has a high nutritive value During the years between 1S61 and 1865 peanut oil was manu factured by at least four mills in the Southern States and used a a lubricant by railroads for locomotives by wool and cotton spin ners for their spindles and by housewives instead of lard as short ening m bread and pastry The cake was eaten bv many living in the vicinity of the mills and was very highly spoken of bv those who used it as a palatable and nutritious food for man The following is a comparison made bv Professor Konig based on the price in Germany of the following twelve principal foods reduced to units of nutrition Comparison of the nutritive mine and cost of twelve principal foods Nutritive i Cost per units j 1000 units per pound I in cents Skim milk Skim milk cheese Full milk Kacon Butter Veal Beef Peas Potatoes Rye flour Rice Peanut meal 982 8700 1455 12577 11863 5259 5309 7786 1382 6036 5346 14250 104 110 115 155 204 222 260 42 51 60 100 30 It follows therefore that peanut meal is not only the most nutri tious but by far the cheapest of this whole list of food materials SUMMARY 1 The peanut is anative of Brazil but early after the discov256 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA ery of that country it was introduced into Africa and other tropical parts of the Old World where it became a staple article of food It was only in the second half of this century that it became an im portant crop in this country 2 The varieties grown are the Virginia running and bunch the Tennessee and Georgia white and red the North Carolina and the Spanish The Virginia varieties being most widely known and popular with the trade are the ones commonly planted There is little difference between the Virginia and Tennessee nuts both being sold as Virginia handpicked peanuts The Spanish nut has a small kernel of fine quality and is in de mand as confectioners stock being worth several cents per pound more than any other shelled stock 3 The climate of the Atlantic Seaboard and Mississippi Valley has proven very congenial to this plant which needs an early and warm spring followed by a hot and moist summer with but little rain in the harvesting season to injure the mature crop 4 While an open sandy soil which does not stain the shell i the ideal one for the peanut it thrives on any friable soil that con tains a sufficient quantity of lime and humus The presence of lime is necessary for the development of the nuts as without lime there may be luxuriant vines bearing nothing but pops If the soil does not already contain lime in sufficient quantities the defi ciency must be supplied by the use of some form of commercial lime such as burnt oyster shells burnt limestone or marl 5 The peanut plant draws a large part of its nitrogen from the air but it draws a considerable amount of phosphoric acid and pot ash from the soil If the entire plant is removed from the soil the crop becomes an exhausting one and the fertility of the soil must be restored by the use of manures and rotation of crops 0 Peanuts should be planted in wellpulverized soil to a depth of 4 inches The distance between the rows should be from 28 to 36 inches varying with the fertility of the soil and the variety Fertilizers should be applied broadcast before planting Care fully shelled and selected kernels should be used for seed The seeds should be planted from 12 to 20 inches apart two to the hill and covered about an inch deep either with a hoe or a small turnANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 257 Plow All grass and weeds must be kept out of the field and the I kept loose and open that the tender spikes may Let w h 2 stance in penetrating the ground ExperJenT h s o nd L n t 1 TUltS faVring eithe1the 1el cultu an the nature of the field selected for the crop will be the best bg rj ormethod tobe adoptedThe S h or as soon as the vines have spread sufficiently to keep down the weeds or to make the passage of the harrow between the i ows dangerous to the developing pods sidfof th WtT CrP the PraCtice is to P down each ut a moMb T aiPlW made eSpecla11 fr PPoee wh taproot withonTdLI ir S f i fe poets 1 he vmes are then Hfrd f m the ground with pitchforks and placed in rows W P in bags hokling 4 5 11ventlated sheds or at once sold to the factories whe e th vendersuSIir1011 is SW V enders but small amounts are used by confectioners chocolate manu acturers and for the manufacture of oil Peanu oil is use far nbncatmg and soapmaking and is a good substitute oroHve ndtotr oti7vniniary purps titi lard and cottolene and butter in cooking The residue W 8Uffid tlv tet to make regular article of dW ti t useim as a 8 article ol diet The vmes when dried become a very nutri258 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA Bulletin of Georgia Experiment Station SWEET POTATOES BY HUGH N STARNES HORTICULTURIST CULTURE Five cent cotton has served at least one good purposeit has emphasized the importance of those crops presenting a margin be tween their selling price and cost of production One of the most noticeable of these is the Sweet PotatoBatatas edulis In view of the frequent inquiries received by the Station regard ing its cultivation a few words in explanation of the methods here pursued may not be amiss Sweet Potato culture is fortunately extremely simple no great mystery surrounds it and almost every one measurably succeeds with it There are however degrees of success and difference in location soil and surroundings must nec essarily modify all methods and even render the suggestions here given extremely elastic while the judgment of each individual must adapt them with more or less change to his own case DRAMS The simplest form of bed is found the best Make it of 1x12 plank on edge of the desired size the plank being laid on the sur face of the ground Inside of the frame thus formed which though made as long as desired should not be more than four feet wide for convenience in reaching excavate the top soil down to the clay throwing it aside Put in eight or ten inches of stable manure treading down firmly Cover with four or five inches of top soil and leave for three or four days Place the potatoes on the layer of top soil after having stirred it up to freshen it as closely as they can be placed without touching and cover with three or four inches of good top soil Sand is unnecessary and is more trouble than it is worth The draws will come so quickly and so thickly that weeds will stand no chance The bed should be prepared to plant in sufficient time to have the slips commence to sprout as soon as danger of frost is over As they will begin toANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 259 appear in from teu days to three weeks after being bedded depend ing of course on temperature the calculation as to proper time oan be made to suit each individual The top soil used should have sufficient humus to prevent bak ing and hardening at least under the mild sun of early spring hence watering the beds previous to sprouting is unnecessary and in fact should be avoided Occasionally after the first draw ing they require water It is generally conceded that the size of the bedded tuber in no wise affects the size of the potatoes produced by its sprouts hence small potatoes are preferable to large ones in bedding for obvious reasons SOIL AND LOCATION Almost any land will produce potatoessome potatoes A light sandy loam is the best soil they can be given The potato abhors stiff red soil and proves it by splitting cracking and roughen ing up when planted in stiff land The cracking is of course due to the suspension of growth tempora rily during dry weather followed by a period of rapid growth on the return of wet weather These conditions appear to be exagger ated in clay soilhence the necessity for a loose light soil Thorough drainage is also necessary Bottom land is not suitable but what is known as second bottoms composed of light sandy loam washed from the surrounding slopes make admirable potato land FERTILIZER Commercial fertilizers are preferable to stable manure Recent investigations have developed the fact that the Sweet Potato feeds much more grossly on both nitrogen and potash and requires less phosphoric acid than was formerly supposed Hence any GEORGIA YAAV260 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA high grade complete fertilizer with a liberal addition of both ammo nia and potash will do very well The amount that can be used per acre varies considerably depending directly upon the character of the soil The richer the land in humus the greater the quantity that can be safely used Thin soil will of course only stand very moderate manuring and necessarily produce a proportionally small yield The formula found most effective for several years past on the Station consists of 320 lbs Acid Phosphate 360 lbs Cotton Seed Meal 640 lbs Kainit 1320 lbs in all per acre This will cost about 1139 and on land that with ordinary manuring will produce a bale of cotton will produce a yield in potatoes of from 200 to 400 bushels per acre depending of course upon the season and the variety of potato planted It will not pay to waste money on socalled special potato fertilizers It is best to purchase the materials mentioned above and compound at home PREPARATION This of course should be deep and thorough as should indeed the preparation of land for any crop The potato however re sponds abnormally to deep plowing and perfect pulverization Rows should be normally four feet apart though in extra good soil they may be reduced to three and a half feet After thorough breaking and harrowing lay off rows with a long shovel plow two trips to the row Put in fertilizer and mix with two trips of a scooterthus again subsoiling the row Bed with a turnplow four furrows break out middles and level beds with a board Make a stepper or gauge with three teeth on a crossbar attached to handle eighteen inches intervening between the teeth This will mark off the places for the slips 118 to the row 6136 to the acre if fourfoot rows are used 8556 if the rows are three and a half feet PLANTING It is always best to defer planting until there is a good seasonANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 261 as it is called in the ground This may be easily done as good results can be secured from plantings ranging all the way from April 15th to June 1st according to latitude Asa rule it is best not to plant too early in Lower Georgia as the season is thus made too long and the tubers reach maturity before frost when they are liable especially in wet weather to take a second growth which affects their keeping quality There is not so much danger of this BUNCH YArA In North Georgia the season of course being shorter Hence the earlier potatoes are put out in that part of the State after all danger of frost is over the better On the contrary it is probably best in Southern Georgia not to put out slips during the month of April at all In Middle Georgia the last week in April or the first of May will be soon enough to begin262 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA No exact rule can be given for setting out slips or draws Much depends upon the conveniences at hand Slowly and surely is a good motto and pays in the end therefore it is advised that a dipper full of water be used to each hill and the grower should make this an invariable rule as is done here at the Station with a decided saving of labor in the long run When the soil is wet enough not to require water it is too wet to tramp over and opera tions should be suspended until the next afternoon But more im VINELE55 TfTX portant by far than water and resulting in a much greater per centage of living slips is a bucket of THICK MUD BATTEB into which the ends of the draws are thrust before setting This should never be omitted The batter should be kept so thick that the ends of the draws will barely penetrate without snapping off in this condition when withdrawn a gob of mud as thick asANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 263 a thumb will adhere Before this dries the slip will have started rootlets and can shift for itself CULTIVATION should be maintained during the season on a level with a Planet Jr cultivator if this is not obtainable by heel scrapes There is no need for the hoe to touch the crop For the last plowing it may VINELE55LA be necessary to turn the vine This can be done with a light stick turning rows right and left into alternate middles plowing the exposed middles and then reversing It results in no good to keep the vines from rooting in the middle after laying by In a dry year it will prove a positive loss No benefit accrues from the practice of pinching back the ends of the vines periodically to two feet or so At all times and in all seasons this is injurious264 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA or is it advantageous to ridge up with the hoe except in excessively wet seasons and these in Georgia are rare The added cost is excessive and the increased yield even in wet summers hardly sufficient to pay the cost of ridging Moreover it is obvious that no one can foretell at the beginning of the cultivating whether the season will be wet or dry Therefore it clearly follows that the safest plan is to stick to level culture The proper distance of slips in the row depends also upon the TICOTEA season Necessarily the wetter the summer the closer they can bear crowding and inversely the dryer the season the farther apart must they be placed within certain limits to secure the maximum yield A good average distance is that already laid downeVhteen inches DIGGING should be effected invariably during dry weather and as soon as the tubers have reached maturity before they have an opportunity ofANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 265 commencing a second growth independently of frost Frost is merely an indicator of arrested growth it performs no other func tion Maturity in the tuber may generally be as ce r ta i ned by breaking it If the sap oozes freely it is of course i m m a ture experience soon teaches bet ter than precept Of course many varieties mature early in the sea son while others are much later Orleans Red or NiggerChoker YELLOW YAM is an instance of the first class Georgia Yam of the second Where an early and a late variety are planted in the same field it follows that the one may be dug safely weeks before the other As a general thing the last week in Oc tober if all conditions are favorable is a good time to dig in Middle Georgia Too much care cannot be taken in handling the potato when dug Sunning while bene ficial is not essential SPANISH YAM but careful handling 266 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA is It must also be remembered that tubers cut by the plow stepped on by the mule or otherwise broken or bruised must be rigidly excluded These mutilated potatoes will keep for a while and can be used first of all or sold at a reduced figure and so be gotten rid of for they will be the first to succumb to rot as the abraded sur face furnishes a point of easy lodgment and ready penetration to the mycelium of the potatorot fungus thereby causing rot among BARBAPOES the sound tubers which perhaps would otherwise have resisted attack PRESERVATION This is the most important feature by far in potato raising Al most every one can make potatoes Few succeed invariably in keeping them through the winter but to these few they become a source of great profit as sweet potatoes will usually bring double the price in March or April that they sell for before Christmas Many methods of potato keeping have been devised aud pracANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 267 ticedsome effective some ridiculous but after all is said perhaps the ordinary method of hilling or banking is for the aver age grower the safest and most economical No other method re quires less previous outlay but care should be taken in banking to observe the following precautions 1 The bank should be located under a cheap shed long enough to accommodate the hills in a row wide enough to keep the rain ORLEANS rtP off and high enough at least at the rear to enable a man to move about It should run east and west and be closed on the north side Roughedge lumber may be used for side and cover 2 A flue made of sixinch stuff perforated with inch auger holes on two sides should be used as a standpipe in the center of the heap and the tubers arranged around it This in cold weather should be stopped with a wisp of straw268 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA 3 The hill should have a foundation of dry sand then a few inches of dry pinestraw on which the potatoes are hilled from thirty to forty bushels to the hill Covering should be of pine straw several inches thick on which should be laid cornstalks to form a framework to sustain the weight of the dirt on opening the hill for a portion of its contents later in the season 4 Dry sand should A u u l De Pied on the stalks unti h dden t so X from sight or nearly 5 After this 1 without further cov J V i wpfl10 iKih enaS until freezing weather is imminent V LyA uilon A i r I en a coating of several inches Ov I c K Ei r A A 1U0re of any sort of soilmay be V Hi L At i added and im mediately b the mouth a s previous fore every freeze the flue stopped indicated Gen BLACK SPANISH erally by the first of December the potatoes will have thrown off all surplus moisture through the flue or gone through their sweat as it S termed and the flue may then be permanently stopped without danger This cannot safely be done earlier and while potatoes often keep perfectly well if banked up hermetically from the beginning the flue method is unquestionably safer on the average When potato raising for market is undertaken as a business andANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 26 not as an incidental to general farming an equally safe and more economical method though one requiring some special preparation and a little outlay is recommended as worthy of more extensive trial This method may be termed THE BIN SYSTEM and has been practiced for over eighteen years with uniform success by Mr H J Dutton of Cobb county who draws from sweet po tatoes his main income The system is briefly as follows A close shed with an alley running through double doors at either end of the alleyway so vehicles may pass through On either side of the alleyway a bin eight feet interior width and as long as the alleyway or shed the bin four feet high and constructed of double walls of inch and a quarter plank the walls fifteen inches wide between the boards the iuterstitia space filled with dry sand This is the permanent structure The potatoes are banked in bulk cross divisions however being run for the purpose of pre RE NAN5EM0NP KANSAS venting the possibility of rot in one portion of the bin extending to the entire mass Dry pinestraw is placed on the bottom of the bin which 1S on a level with the natural surface of the groundno ex cavation The potatoes are piled carefully by hand in the bin straw keeping them from touching the plank sides They are piled nearly as high as the side walls of the bin and are heaped in the center say two feet above the sides A horizontal cleat is tacked on the sides of the bin just below the top of the side walls on the inside to afford a resting place for a series of roofboards which are made of 1x12 plank cut with a bevel at each end and about 270 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA four feet eight inches long One beveled end of each board rests on the horizontal cleat of the side walls the other bevels make a mitered joint in the center of the bin touching each other and form ing solid and substantial though removable raftersor rather rafters and roof in one After the potatoes are piled up in the bins straw is placed several inches thick on top and the rafters put in place as stated The bin is then left until cold weather sets in the potatoes meanwhile going through their sweat On permanently cold weather setting in several inches of dry sand are placed on top of the roof thus making the bin airtight though access can be easily had at any time to the interior by scrap ing away a portion of the sand and removing a couple of the boards The sand once hauled and the roofboards once cut only the straw remains to be annually renewed thus reducing the yearly cost almost to the interest only on REP NAN5EMONP LA the plant A large quantity of potatoes can thus be safely and economically stored with reasonable assurance of immunity from rot This method is being now tested at the Station and if the re sults prove as favorable as their present promise a more detailed description with full illustrations of the method will be published Meautime the system is suggested as worthy of trial Experiment LFERTILIZER TESTS These cover the operations of two years For several years prior to 1893 results had been quite consistent and it had gradually de ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 271 veloped that probably the most effective fertilizer was a combina tion of 320 lbs superphosphate 360 lbs cotton seed meal and G40 lbs kainit1 This was adopted as the normal standard in the scheme for 1893 and several variations were introduced differing in quantity but slightly from this formula in order to approximate if possible still closer the exact proportion of each ingredient Fourteen different plats in duplicate composed the scheme cov ering the greater portion of an acre which the previous year had been in sorghum The land was broken in March but lay untouched until the sec ond week in June owing to the death of the former Horticulturist At this late date the preparation was completed and the slips put out in fourfoot rows two feet apart in the row on June 14th and 15th Not finding on hand a sufficient number of slips of any one variety each plat of three rows had two rows set out in South ern Queen and the middle row in Georgia Yam Twothirds of the plat was thus in Southern Queen and onethird in Georgia Yam As the latter is notoriously unproductive its use together with the late date of planting reduced to a very moderate yield what would otherwise have been owing to the seasonable weather and abundant rains an unusually large crop Notwithstanding the result as an experiment was quite con sistent and most satisfactory The following are the tabulated results 1 The chemicals used atlhe Station for compounding fertilizers will analyzeabout as follows Acm Phosphate high grade 14 per cent of available phosphoric acid Cotton Seed Meal 7 per cent of nitrogen Nitrate of Soda 15 per cent of nitrogen Muriate or Potash 50 per cent of potash Kainit 12 pfir cent of potash272 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA TABLE I Experiment 1Fertilizer Tests Sweet PotatoesPart I Sec 5 Div P 1893 Plat FERTILIZER 32C 36C 320 i S 10 II 12 13 Unfertilized 320 lbs Superphosphate 360 lbs Cotton Seed Meal 320 lbs Kainit 320 lbs Superphosphate I 360 lbs Cotton Seed Meal i 640 lbs Kainit I Normal 364 lbs Superphosphate j 364 lbs Cotton Seed Meal j 650 lbs Kainit I Variation on Normal f 364 lbs Superphosphate j 338 lbs Cotton Seed Meal 1 650 lbs Kainit I Variation on Normal 320 lbs Superphosphate 360 lbs Cotton Seed Meal 11280 lbs Kainit 320 lbs Superphosphate 360 lbs Cotton Seed Meal 80 lbs Muriate of Potash 320 lbs Superphosphate 360 lbs Cotton Seed Meal 160 lbs Muriate of Potash f 364 lbs Superphosphate j 364 lbs Cotton Seed Meal 156 lbs Muriate of Potash I Variation on No 8 364 lbs Superphosphate 331 lbs Cotton Seed Meal 1 lo6 lbs Muriate of Potash L Variation on No 8 320 lbs Superphosphate j 360 lbs Cotton Seed Meal I 320 lbs Muriate of Potash 320 lbs Superphosphate 160 lbs Nitrate of Soda I 640 lbs Kainit 320 lbs Superphosphate 160 lbs Nitrate of Soda 160 lbs Muriate of Potash Calculated Yield per Acre in Bushels Market able 9576 21437 21663 21613 23351 21058 21894 20574 22262 267 93 19583 Small 3749 4862 5353 Total 133 25 26298 2701ft 47 96 264051 4475 4418 4547 4900 27828 2547ft 26441 25474r 3101 25363 20390 4469 4970 18904 I 4106 24865 25763 23010 4489 24072 Inspecting the foregoing table it is readily seen that all of the fertilized plats the average of which is given in the tableall being in duplicate show a decided increase over those unfertilized ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 273 and that while all of the combinations used were of great value the normal plat No 3 320 lbs Superphosphate 360 lbs Cotton Seed Meal and 640 lbs Kainit again asserted the superior merits of this combination only one other plat producing a greater yield and that one a slight vari ation only on the normalPlat 5 364 lbs Superphosphate 338 lbs Cotton Seed Meal and 650 lbs Kainit This variation was therefore adopted as the normal formula for the next years ex periments Half rations of Potash both in the form of Kainit and Muriate produced practically as good re suits as whole rations the differ WH I NANSEMQNP ence being very slight while double rations of Potash in either form fell still farther behind apparently indicating that the limit of availability in the use of Potash had been reached with one ration or about 640 lbs of Kainit or 160 of Muriate of Potash If the economical result is figured the balance will fall on the side of the half ration The superiority of Cotton Seed Meal over Nitrate of Soda as a source of Nitrogen is very clearly manifest due more to its gradual and steady action through the season than to the presence of the slight amounts of Phosphoric Acid and Potash in addition to its Nitrogen which it contains As a source of Potash Kainit seems to be preferable to Muriate in nearly every combination JERSEY SWEET though the difference is not great 18 a 274 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA YELLOW JERSEY In this connection it may be stated that for all slow grow ing crops Kaiuit seems to be preferable to Muriate as a source of Potash and Cotton Seed Meal to Nitrate of Soda as a source of Nitrogen When immediate action is desirable however the re verse is the case For the present season 1894 a rather more elabo rate scheme was devised the normal formula being changed as stated from 320 lbs Superphosphate 360 lbs Cotton Seed Meal and 640 lbs Kainit to 364 lbs Superphosphate 338 lbs Cotton Seed Meal and 650 lbs Kainit The main purpose of the test however was to contrast Florida Soft Phosphate unacidulated ground rock directly with Superphosphate Acid Phosphate Consequently every formula into which Acid Phosphate entered had its duplicate in which equal weight of Soft Phosphate replaced the Acid Phosphate in the combination The section consisted of one acre which the previous year had been in cow peas followed by rye and which was rather above the average soil of this part of the State in quality though not sufficiently sandy for the best results with potatoes The section was thoroughly broken in midwinter several harrowings being necessary to put it in good condition on ac ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 275 ount of the heavy growth of rye turned under when the land was broken Rows were four feet wide three rows to the plat Draws were set out eighteen inches in the row commencing May 14th and continuing for some days until completed Variety used was Pumpkin Yarn The season was not a very propitious one at the start too much dry weather in May followed by a phenomenally cold wind on May 19th which froze the sap in many of the grow ing slips thus necessitating replanting and materially retarding those which survived The latter part of the season was all that could be desired and a very good crop for clay land was har vested The experiment however was not as satisfactory as it might have proved had the loss of the 19th of May been avoidable The following are the tabulated results Experiment I TABLE II Fertilizer Tests Sweet PotatoesPart II Sec 3 Div P 18941 Calculated Yield per Acre in Bushels Small Total 10 Un 364 338 650 364 338 650 364 158 650 f 364 158 650 364 338 162 364 I 338 162 364 168 1162 364 158 162 364 338 325 fertilized lbs Superphosphate lbs Cotton Seed Meal lbs Kainit lbs Florida Soft Phosphate lbs Cotton Seed Meal lbs KainitJ lbs Superphosphate lbs Nitrate of Soda I lbs Kainit J lbs Fla Soft Phosphate lbs Nitrate of Soda lbs Kainit lbs Superphosphate lbs Cotton Seed Meal lbs Muriate of Potash lbs Fla Soft Phosphate lbs Cotton Seed Meal lbs Muriate of Potash lbs Superphosphate lbs Nitrate of Soda lbs Muriate of Potash lbs Fla Soft Phosphate lbs Nitrate of Soda lbs Muriate of Potash lbs Superphosphate lbs Cotton Seed Meal I lbs KainitJ 1922 2549 3096 2877 2719 335 3161 3110 3315 3489 107 154 201 145 132 182 116 135 113 105 2029 2703 3297 3022 2851 3535 327 7 3245 3428 3594276 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA TABLE II Continued Plat TTTTTJTTT JVW Calculated Yield per Acre in Bushels Marketable Small Total 11 364 lbs Fla Soft Phosphate 338 lbs Cotton Seed Meal 325 lbs Kainit 3126 3277 3340 2997 2800 2M9 313 2 3129 3315 2672 2830 3274 2814 94 88 113 132 161 129 98 107 132 157 189 138 211 3220 1 158 lbs Nitrate of Soda 336 8153 13 1 325 lbs Kainit f 364 lbs Fla Soft Phosphate 158 lbs Nitrate of Soda 325 lbs Kainit f 364 lbs Superphosphate 14 J 338 lbs Cotton Seed Mealj 312 81 lbs Muriate of Potash 364 lbs Fla Soft Phosphate 15 338 lbs Cotton Seed Meal 2961 81 lbs Muriate of Potash I 364 lbs Superphosphate 16 158 lbs Nitrate of Soda 1 81 lbs Muriate of Potash 2978 17 364 lbs Fla Soft Phosphate 158 lbs Nitrate of Soda 3230 81 lbs Muriate of Potash IS 676 lbs Cotton Seed Meal 323fr 3447 lit 162 lbs Muriate of Potash 364 lbs Fla Soft Phosphate 676 lbs Cotton Seed Meal 162 lbs Muriate of Potash 20 2829 21 f 364 lbs Fla Soft Phosphate 316 lbs Nitrate of Soda j 162 lbs Muriate of Potash 3019 22 338 lbs Cotton Seed Meal 162 lbs Muriate of Potash 3412 23 728 lbs Fla Soft Phosphate 338 lbs Cotton Seed Meal 162 lbs Muriate of Potash 3025 There is some contradiction in the foregoing table and the con clusions to be drawn from it do not harmonize altogether with the results of the experiments of previous years The normal formula for instance does not assert its superiority as usual The largest yield 3594 bushels was produced by a formula containing the same amounts of Acid Phosphate and Cotton Seed Meal but only half the quantity of Kainit As half rations of Potash have not1 ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 277 HAYMAW been previously fully tested it may be that on the oak and hickory lands of Middle Geor gia where there is a larger supply of Potash than on the pine lauds of South Georgia a full ration of Potash either in the form of Muriate of Potash or Kainit presents an over supply This is not likely to be the case however on the sandy soil of the lower portion of the State BIG STEM JERSEY278 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA BERMUPA REP An investigation with reference to the main object of the test the comparison of Florida Soft Phosphate with Acid Phosphate forces the conclusion that they are about equally balanced in effects with a slight preponderance if any in favor of Soft Phosphate though this can only be accounted for by the assumption that the potato is decidedly indifferent to either Six out of eleven plats in which the two were pitted against each other in equal quantities and combined in similar proportions with other elements result in favor of Soft Phosphate An average of the plats on which Acid Phosphate was used shows 3186 bushels per acre while an average of the Soft Phosphate plats shows 320 bushels Its extremely fine pulverization however renders it very dis agreeable and inconvenient as well as expensive to handle andANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 279 reduces its practical value to the farmer in consequence More over only one brand of Phosphate has been tested by the Station so we are not prepared to give Soft Phosphate our indorsement with out more extended trial As in the experiments for 1893 the results of this season indicate a preference for Kainit compared with Muriate as a source of Potash and for Cotton Seed Meal compared with BRAZILIAN YAM Nitrate of Soda as a source of Nitrogen 5PAJSI5H BUNCH280 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA Experiment IIRIDGE VS LEVEL CULTURE Unquestionably results under this head depend upon the season In a wet season or in one with even a full sufficiency of moisture Ridging will be found to pay even taking into consideration the extra cost of the hoe work necessary In a dry season or in one with even a slight in sufficiency of rain Level Culture will be found preferable The experiments for 1893 and 1894 exactly re verse each other though carefully con SOUTHERN QUEEN KANSAS ducted The follow ing are the tables TABLE III Experiment Ridge vs Level CulturePart I Sec 5 Dir P 1893 Plat METHOD Calculated Yield per Acre in Bushels Market able Small Ridged 14 inches high Level Culture Total Difference in favor of Ridging 221b3 18474 5092 5234 27175 2370 3507 Variety two rows Southern Queen one row Georgia Yam Fer tilizer normal The present season being very dry and unfavorable at the start with a month or so of wet weather intervening and then dry again during September almost precisely the reverse is noticeable ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 281 SOUTHERN QUEEN LA TABLE IV Experiment IIBidge vs Level CulturePart 11 Sec 3 Div P 18941 Plat METHOD Calculated Yield per Acre in Bushels Marketable Small Total 1 Ridged 14 inches high 2257 2549 115 154 39 2372 Level Culture 2703 292 331 Variety used Pumpkin Yam Fertilizer normal Experiment IIIPINCHING BACK TEST Strangely enough the idea has become quite prevalent even among certain practical potato growers that the periodical pinching back of the vine to eighteen inches or two feet is conducive to the282 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA more rapid growth and development of the tubers While con trary to all recorded experience and founded on no scientific basis REP NOSE this impression has become so general as to warrant the attention of the Station It is only covered however by one years experi mentation the result of which is shown below TABLE V Experiment IIIPinching or Pruning Test Sec 3 Div P 1894 Plat METHOD Calculated Yield in Bushels er Acre Marketable Small Total 1 2 3 Undisturbed for check piat Pinched weekly to two feet through season Pinched weekly to two feet after Sept 1st 1957 851 378 56 198 123 2013 1049 501 Variety used Pumpkin Yam Fertilizer normal The result of this experiment is definite and unmistakable but nothing more than was expected since the function of the leavesANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 283 in extracting carbonic acid from the atmosphere is indispensable By aid of this carbonic acid the various carbohydrates are formed among them glucose dextrine and starch in which the potato is rich Therefore the destruction of the leaves or any curtailment or suspension of their functions must operate in diminishing both the size and number of the tubers The fact of Plat 3 upon which the vines were allowed to run as usual up to September 1st at which date and weekly thereafter EARLY GOLPEN they were pinched back having recorded such a wretched yield is probably due to the fact that the Pumpkin Yamthis variety hav ing been used in the testis not an early potato and makes its heaviest growth during the month of September The sudden call upon the recuperative power of the vine following the severe amputation then the first time made probably consumed the greater portion of its vitality at that critical period of tuber making whereas Plat 2 having been pinched weekly all the summer had284 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA by September 1st adapted itself to a certain extent to this treat ment and the process of root growth went on more normally Experiment IVDISTURBANCE TEST In this experiment a plat of three rows was not suffered to root along the vines at any period From the time the vines com menced to run until harvesting the vines were loosened each week NORTON where they had rooted in order to test the assertion not quite so unfounded as that made the subject of the foregoing experiment that the result would increase the yield The experiment covers a period of only one year but the result is emphaticit does not pay to loosen the vinesANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 TABLE VI Experiment IVDisturbance Test 285 Sec 3 Div P 1891 Plat METHOD Calculated Yield per Acre in Bushels Marketable Small Total 1 Not allowed to root along vines 1481 2549 82 154 1563 2 Check plat normal treatment 2703 Difference in favor of normal treatment 106 8 72 114 0 Variety used Pumpkin Yarn Fertilizer normal PEABOPY Experiment VDISTANCE TEST This covers a period of two years The experiment for 1893 only included three distances18 24 and 30 inches the fertilizer being the normal formula The following is the table286 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA TENNESSEE YAM TABLE VII Experiment VDistance Test Sec 5 Div P 1893 Plat DISTANCE Calculated Yield per Acre in Bushels Market able Small Total 18 inches lft 24 inches 2 ft 30 inches 2 ft 20204 18474 17964 658 5234 5011 26702 23708 22975 This test was made with two rows Southern Queen aud one of Geogia Yam in each plat and seeming sufficiently definite in favor of eighteen inches over two feet this distance was adopted for the entire crop of 1894 with very satisfactory results though the sea son was much drier than that of 1893 The experiment for 1894 while more elaborate than that for 1893 and covering a greater range of distance was not sufficiently definite in its results to warrant insertion and it is hence omittedANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 287 Experiment VIDOUBLING SLIPS This experiment covers a period of only one year and was made to ascertain if there was any value in the practice of planting two slips or draws in a hill instead of one The result appears to indi cate some advantage in it though the test is necessarily inconclu sive It will be continued the next season merged however in the Distance tests The following is the table MR AS BURG TABLE IX Experiment VIDouble Sups Sto 3 Div P 1894 Plat METHOD AND DISTANCE Calculated Yield per Acre in Bushels Market able Small Total 1 11 slip at 18 inches 2 2 slips at 18 inches 3 11 slip at 9 inches Variety Pumpkin Yam Fertilizer normal 1097 1560 1191 113 189 178 1210 1749 1369288 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA Experiment VII VARIETY TESTS In grouping the different varieties of Sweet Potato we have fol lowed at the Georgia Station the general custom of arrangement with reference to the leaf in default of a better system Indeed it can scarcely be called a system at all for the reason that the same vine will sometimes hold half a dozen different shapes of leaf and while a distinction appears to exist between the split leaf varieties and all others it is by no means easy to determine with SHANGHAI OR CALIFORNIA some varieties whether the round or shouldered form of leaf prevails Yet when we endeavor to classify by other forme of re semblance as shape size color or quality of tuber we are met by even worse incongruities and are forced to fall back on the leaf classification clumsy and unsatisfactory as it is Attempts have been made to erect in addition to the three forms of leaf generally accepted to wit Split leaf Shouldered and Round a fourth form Semislwiddered but the difficultiesANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 289 are too great in the way of its adoption and hence the regular division into Split Leafed Shouldered and Round must suffice According to this division the varieties tested were as follows Split Leafed Georgia Yam Ticotea Yellow Yam Spanish Yam Barbadoes Vineless Tex Orleans Red Black Spanish Shouldered Red Nansemond Kansas Red Nansemond Louisiana Jersey Sweet Yellow Jersey Yellow Nansemond Bermuda Red Hayman Big Stem Jersey Brazilian Yam Spanish PUMPKIN YAM Bunch Southern Queen Kansas Southern Queen Louisiana Red Nose Early Golden Norton Peabody Tennessee Yam Strasburg Rousd Leafed Shanghai or California Pumpkin Yam Boones White Boones Red White St Domingo Heckler Yam Two other varieties were added Vineless from Louisiana and Bunch Yam from Alabama for the purpose of determining their probable identity but the error of a workman mixed the two plats after digging and before weighing and thus the comparison was lost The section was prepared at same time and in same manner 19 a290 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA as the Fertilizer Sectionfertilizer normal that is at the rate of 364 lbs Superphosphate 338 lbs of Cotton Seed Meal 650 lbs Kainit to the acre The section was planted May 1418 and dug October 2324 Beneath is a table of the calculated yield per acre in order of productiveness TABLE X Experiment V1LVariety Test of Sweet Potatoes Sec 7 Dv P 1894 VARIETY 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 It 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 2G 27 28 29 30 31 32 White St Domingo Shanghai or California Boones White Hayman Early Golden Tennessee Yam Boones Red Norton Peabody Red Nose Red Nansemond La Southern Queen La Black Spanish Red Nansemond Kan Bermuda Red Orleans Red Choker Southern Queen Kan White Nansemond Brazilian Yam Big Stem Jersey Yellow Yam Yellow Jersey Ticotea Pumpkin Yam Heckler Yam Yineless Tex Yellow Nansemond Jersey Sweet Spanish Yam Spanish Bunch Barbadoes Georgia Yam Strasburg Calculated Yield per Acre in Bushels Market able 3394 327 1 3120 3139 2448 2315 246 7 2099 2118 1824 2042 2004 2042 1626 1758 203 0 1522 1304 1711 1512 156 9 1049 1172 1607 1286 1446 115 3 1189 1380 1304 907 860 S32 Small Total 425 472 321 264 643 699 302 435 378 586 32 1 340 246 652 510 22 7 614 784 321 491 340 860 71 8 282 454 29 3 567 454 208 264 37 8 321 198 3819 3743 344 1 3403 3091 3015 2769 2534 2496 2410 2363 2344 2288 22 7 S 2268 2257 2136 2088 2032 2003 1909 1909 189 0 1889 1740 1739 1720 1643 1588 1568 1285 1181 1030 A glance at the above table shows that the Split Leaf vari eties are among the most unproductive standing 32 31 29 26 23 2116 and 13 respectively on the list They are also gener ally characterized by bright yellow flesh when cooked finenessANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 291 of fiber and delicacy of flavor They are also as a rule excellent keepers The heaviest yielders are generally those whose chief character istics are unusual size and shape coarse flavorless white flesh want of saccharine matter and general insipidity An exception appears to be the Tennessee Yam which stands sixth on the list in point of productiveness and yet it is a smooth shapely pretty tuber with bright yellow flesh and in quality almost if not quite up to the Georgia Yam the standard of quality which it resem B0ONE5 WHITE bles in all respects except that it is larger in size has a shouldered not a split leaf and outyields the Georgia Yam three to one Prof Price of the Texas Station reports this variety as splitleafed or lobed If this is the case we have different potatoes under the same name The Jersey Strain under which head may be classed most of the mealy varieties as the different Jerseys and Nansernonds292 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA appears about the middle of the list in productiveness Notwith standing the fact that Henry Grady used to refer to all potatoes of this type as New Jersey Punk they are quite agreeable to some palates even at the South and are the only kind finding a ready sale in the Northern markets on account of their dry mealy character Below is given a brief detailed description of each variety clas sified by leaf BOONE5 RFP 1 SPLIT LEAFED Geokgia Yam Foliage pale green vines light Tubers small to medium oblong pointed average weight 87 of a pound color of skin yellow color of cooked flesh bright yellow quality Outlines of Leaves as shown throughout the Bulletin are twothirds natural sizeANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 293 estdelicate sweet sugary and delicious Improves on keeping and slips its jacket readily A good keeper and the standard for quality at the South but unfortunately a very light producer Late Vineless Foliage dark green leaf very large for a split leafed variety Vines vigorous but short Tuber small to me dium oblong weight 104 color skiu yellowish white color flesh whitish yellowcoarse fiber taste immature rather poor cooks hard and harsh Very light yielder Early WHITE 5TPOMINQO Ticotea Foliage rather light green not very heavy vines Tuber very large round and irregular weight 369 an irregular grower making in places a large number of small tubers in the row and then averaging quite large ones for some distance color skin light buff color flesh pure white quality mealy granular flavorlesssomewhat similar in taste to a mealy Irish potato poorest in quality of all Light yielder Yellow Yam Foliage dark green vine moderately vigorous Tuber small to medium oval weight 118 color skin whitish294 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA yellow color flesh bright yellowsmooth fiber quality excellent sweet and delicate Rather light yielder Medium early Spanish Yam Pale green foliage rather light vine Tuber small to medium round weighl 127 color skin yellow color flesh rich golden yellow rather delicate hut slightly insipid in quality Very light producer Late Barbadoes Foliage pale green vine light Tuber small to medium round weight 109 color skin yellowish white rich bright yellow flesh with smooth fiber quality rich delicate and deliciousalmost as good as Georgia Yam Very light yielder Late Orleans Red Syn t Nigger Choker Foliage dark green sagitate vines red and very light leaves thin and scattering very long and slightly indented Tuber small long and twisted weight 88 dark purple or lake colored skin yellowish gray flesh quality poor dry and choking though sac charine Very early and only a moderate producer HECKLER YAM t Black Spanish Vine and foliage almost identical with Orleans Red Tuber medium long and crooked weight 157 skin dark purple or lake in color flesh whitish gray insipid dry mealy and choking Moderate producer Early 2 SHOULDERED Red Nansemond Kansas Foliage pale green vines mod erately vigorous Tuber medium ovoid weight 147 skin red or dull pink flesh dull whitish yellow gummy quality harsh and dry but rather agreeable has the regular Nansemond or Jer sey flavor and is rather better than same variety from Louisiana Moderate yielder Late ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 295 Red Nansemond Louisiana Foliage and growth similar to Red Nansemond from Kansas Size medium shape ovoid weight 178 color skiu red or deep pink flesh clear whitish yellow quality rather harsh but nice Fair producer Late White Nansemond Foliage light green vine moderately vigorous Tuber small long weight 80 rich yellow skin whitish yellow flesh quality dry but delicate sweet and good Moderate yielder Late Jersey Sweet Foliage small and light green vine mod erately vigorous Tuber small to medium ovoid or oblong weight 108 rich yellow skin dull yellow flesh quality dry fibrous and tasteless though with the regular Jersey or Nane mond flavor relished by some Late Poor yielder Very uni form in size however and worthy of further trial Yellow Jersey Foliage pale green rather light vine Tuber small oblong pointed weight 73 rich yellow skin bright yellow flesh quality gummy and tasteless Poor producer Medium early Yellow Nansemond Foliage deep green vines light Tu ber small long pointed weight 66 color skin rich yellow color of flesh grayish yellow quality dry hard but sweet and good Medium early Poor yielder Bermuda Red Foliage pale green vines vigorous Tuber very large round and irregular weight 430 color skin deep pink or light purple color of flesh bright yellow quality very dry though smooth in fiber and rather delicate but wanting in flavor Late Produces only moderately Hayman Light green foliage vigorous vine Tuber quite large top shape fluted like a poplar root weight 291 creamy yellow skin flesh deep yellow fibrous very stringy but rather soft and delicate in quality well flavored and sweet Late Heavy yielderfourth on the list Big Stem Jersey Foliage pale green vines vigorous Tu ber small long weight 87 rich yellow skin flesh dull yellow quality hard dry and gummy Medium early Moderately pro ductive Brazilian Yam Foliage reddish at first afterwards deep green leaves heavily shouldered almost sagitate vines reddish296 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA vigorous Tubers very large topshape ribbed or fluted weight 315 color skiu purple or deep pink color flesh dull yellowish white quality gummy and choking but well flavored Mod erately productive Spanish Bunch Foliage dark green vines moderately vig orous Tuber medium to large round weight 207 yellowish white skin greenish yellow flesh of fairly good qualityslightly granular Medium early Very poor producer Southern Queen Kansas Foliage deep green vines quite vigorous Tuber quite large both round and ovoid weight 278 color skin white color flesh grayish white quality very poor stringy and fibrous Eather early and moderately productive Southern Queen Louisiana Foliage and growth similar to that of the Kansas varietyso also shape weight 116 color skiu white color flesh grayish yellow quality coarse fibrous and tasteless Better yielder than Kansas variety Red Nose Foliage pale green vine vigorous Tuber me dium long weight 134 skin rich yellow or cream color flesh dull yellow Dry but rather delicate aud of pleasant flavor Me dium early Quite productive Early Golden Foliage pale green vine moderate grower Tuber medium to large ovoid and roundedpointed weight 194 color skin white color flesh bright yellow dry but of fairly good flavor Medium in season Very productivestands fifth on the list Norton Foliage pale green vine vigorous Tuber large irregular in shape weight 228 white skin dull yellow flesh fibrous and coarse grained quality dry and poor Late Quite productive but rots more readily than any other variety Peabody Foliage pale green vines very vigorous Tuber medium to large ovoid weight 160 color skin light purple color flesh clear yellow quality soft smooth rather delicate but insipid not sweet enough Late Quite productive Tennessee Yam Deep green foliage vine vigorous Tuber medium to large oblong weight 236 yellowish white skin flesh bright yellowsmooth fiberslips skin readily saccharine Quality excellent sweet rich delicate aud well flavoreda goodANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 297 second to Georgia Yam Surpasses it in yield however three to one Late Strasisueg Foliage deep green vine vigorous Tuber large roundish weight 197 color skin yellowish white color flesh yellowish whiteglutinous gummy and hard with a pleasant though not pronounced flavor Late Least productive of all 3 ROUND Shanghai or California Foliage pale green vines vig orous Tuber immense ovoid weight 459 color skin yellow ish white color flesh grayish yellow quality rather coarse and gummy but saccharine not badly flavored Late Very pro ductivesecond on the list Pumpkin Yam Foliage deep green very vigorous and sappy Tuber large oblongsometimes rounded and irregular weight 246 color skin creamy pink flesh pumpkin red quality excel lentrich and sugary with slight pumpkin flavor not relished by some Improves with keeping Late Productivemore so normally than the present test would indicate Boones White Foliage deep green vine vigorous Tuber large top shape and rounded weight 250 skin yellowish white flesh whitish yellow with a peculiar greenish tint fibrous and tasteless though moderately saccharine Late Heavy yielder Ranks third on the list Boones Red Leaves deep green or olive with purple veins vines purple and very vigorous Tuber very large and solid round or ovoid smooth weight 333 color skin deep lake or purple color flesh bright yellow smooth dry and pleasant with pronounced Jersey flavor Medium early Quite productive though not as much so as Boones White White St Domingo Foliage large light green vine vig orous and very sappy Tuber large roundish weight 161 color skin white color flesh pale yellow quality dry and tasteless Early Extremely productive standing first on the list Heckler Yam Foliage small and light green vine rather weak grower Tuber medium oblong weight 136 color skin rich yellow color flesh dull buffcoarse grained dry mealy and choking like Orleans Red Very poor Late and unproductive298 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA Bulletin issued by Florida Experiment Station But mhich will apply equally well to South Georgia CAKE SYRUP SUGAR THE CROP Sugarcane is more restricted in habitat by climatic condition than is the case with most farm crops Of East Indian origin it can be made to thrive only in tropical or semitropical latitudes ami the two predominating essentials of its growth are warmth and moisture Its successful cultivation however widely distributed over the earth has never been carried beyond certain welldefined limits of variation A mean average temperature of 70 degrees and a minimum annual rainfall of about 60 inches are essential to the normal development and satisfactory cultivation of the crop Both of these requisites are furnished by nearly all parts of the Florida peninsula The mean annual rainfall for the latitude of Lake City is 5586 inches and the mean annual temperature is 687S degrees As Louisiana is recognized as the chief sugarproducing State of the Union it is interesting and important that a comparison of the climatic conditions prevailing there be made with those belonging to our own State This comparison shows that our average annual rainfall exceeds that of Louisiana that our mean temperature is higher and that the period of immunity from frosts is longer It is moreover an accepted fact that ideal weather conditions for cane developing demand that about 75 per cent of the total rainfall should be during the growing season This ideal rainfall is 45 inches It is interesting to note that the rainfall of Louisiana for this period averages 5474 inches while that in Florida is 4358 The adaptation of the climate of Florida to the normal develop ment and therefore successful production of the crop is estab lishedANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 299 SOIL CONDITIONS As might be inferred from the origin of the plant abundance of moisture and of organic matter are essential conditions in all soils upon which sugarcane is to be successfully grown Alluvial bot tom lands and muck soils are preeminently adapted to the require ments of the crop It must be particularly specified however that wherever muck soils or bottom lands are utilized for cane growing thorough drainage is an absolute and indispensable prerequisite to success since although large quantities of water are needed by so rankgrowing and foliaceous a plant excess of moisture at its roots is almost certain destruction There are pine and high hammock lands in our State which though producing lighter yields of cane possess a material advantage for its production The cane of the pine lands is higher in its sugar content and also possesses greater immunity from frost PREPARATION OF THE LAND The first essential toward proper preparation of the land for the growing of cane is thorough breaking or plowing to the depth of the arable soil and this is true irrespective of the character of the soil in question The manner of plowing however must vary with the nature of the land which fact is also true as to the time of plowing Bottom lands shoidd be plowed as soon as possible after the crop has been removed in the fall that the action of the atmosphere upon the soil for the longest possible period may be secured Lighter upland soils however need not necessarily be plowed until the time approaches for actually putting in the crop Heavier and moister soils must be plowed with particular reference to winter drainage which is best secured by throwing the soil into beds about six feet wide the middles of which should be broken out with a turn plow and the quarter drains cleared sufficiently deep to assure drainage for the surplus water With upland soils this precaution is not necessary but simple plowing with a turn plow to the depth of the arable soil is all that is needed The next consideration previous to actual planting of the cane is that of sup plying the plant food necessary for its growth300 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA FERTILTZIXG THE CROP Cane is a particularly rankgrowing plant and demands liberal feeding for the most satisfactory results Comparisons of the composition of cane grown upon upland and bottom soils how ever abundantly demonstrate that the unquestioned adaptation of the crop to lower lands results as much from the necessity of abundant water supply for this foliaeeous crop as upon the demands of the same for any particular form or quantity of nutriment In deed the very best results in cane growing have been secured on upland soils where the demands for moisture were artificially sup plied by irrigation Observation of the conditions under which cane best thrives supported by practical experience in all success ful canegrowing countries and by the experiments conducted upon the plantfood requirements of this crop demonstrate that nitrogen preferably from organic sources is the predominating or chief plantfood requirement to be considered in artificially fertilizing sugarcane The success of the common practice of cow penning for this crop upon the light Florida soils and of turning under heavy crops of cowpeas upon the cane lands of Louisiana give indisputable evidence of the truth of this assertion The most satisfactory results of sugarcane culture however demand atten tion to the other two plantfood ingredients phosphoric acid and potash the latter particularly having a material influence and bene ficial effect upon the sugar content of cane If artificial fertilizers therefore are to be used they should provide the three essentials phosphoric acid nitrogen and potashand experience shows that the relative proportions of supply under average normal conditions should be approximately one part of phosphoric acid to three parts of nitrogen and two parts of potash The quantity of the appli cation must depend upon the fertility or previous crop of the soil and if leguminous crops have been grown and turned under on the same onehalf of the nitrogen may be omitted from older lands while newer soils would probably require no other nitrogen than the turning under of good crops of cowpeas or velvet beans The time for applying fertilizers must necessarily depend upon localitv Much sugarcane particularly in the State of Louisiana is plantedANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 301 in the fall in which event a part of the fertilizer may advan tageously be applied at that time Under prevailing Florida con ditions the bulk of the crop is and doubtless should be planted in the spring Acid phosphate cottonseed meal and muriate of potash are the most economical and effective forms of supply of plantfood for cane and these materials are best applied immediately preceding actual planting of the cane The best method of application is strewing in the furrow and mixing with the soil with a single trip of a scooter by which means the fertilizer will be near enough to the seed cane to supply the immediate demands of the young plant and yet will be sufficiently diluted by incorporation with the fur row soil to avoid the danger of killing the buds or tender rootlets PLANTING CANE As a rule February and March may be accepted as the cane planting months for our State The variety of cane which shall be selected is also open to little question experience having abun dantly demonstrated that of the many varieties tested red cane from its sweetness and hardiness stands incontestably at the front though for syrupmaking the softer and less hardy green cane is not without advocates while for the purpose to which all children and many adults naturally prefer to devote the plant its softness and the ease of mastication give it first place The distance of planting is an allimportant consideration which experience and experiment have proved is of vital significance in controlling re sults The general principle may be stated that the nearer the rows the greater the yield The cost of seed however is a modify ing influence which would effectually control practice Xarrow ing the rows beyond the fivefeet limit does not compensate in ad ditional yield for the expense of the increase of seed It may be accepted therefore that the most profitable distance for cane rows is five to six feet the former distance having preference The amount of seed cane which shall be used is likewise of material in fluence upon the economy of practice one row two rows and three rows of seed canes in the furrow each having advocates302 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA Two rows of seed cane laid parallel and without intervals between their ends may be accepted as productive of best results upon moderately fertile soils The canes for planting should not be tipped but should be used as long as possible without being cut ex cept where their crooked character necessitates cutting to facili tate covering with a plow and continuity of row In this connec tion it is well to recall the fact that the upper third of the cane stalk which is least desirable for either sugar or syrup is really the best part of the cane for seed and might with advantage be saved for this purpose A shovel plow turning a furrow four or five inches deep is the best means of preparation for the seed cane which when laid in the furrow is easily covered with a double trip of the turn plow Though stubble cane may be used for seed the result is so infe rior that the practice should only be a last resort in event of acci dent or dearth of supply of seed cane CULTIVATION The depth and frequency of cultivation will largely control re sults To effect the desired end the plow should be rigorously dis carded and be exclusively supplemented by the use of some form of tooth cultivator Two advantages are secured by this change in implement economy through the increased area which can be worked by a single implement and conserving moisture at the time it is indispensable to the proper development of the crop The twohorse cultivator is preferable where large areas are involved though the onehorse implement will easily and thoroughly work five acres of cane per day which is fully double the amount pos sible from the most successful use of plows When the marked difference in the amount of available moisture secured to the crop by the two methods of cultivation is considered the experience of Dr Stubbs of the Louisiana Station on which he bases the asser tion that it is almost impossible to estimate correctly the annual damage to the cane crop of this State by the use of turn plows in its cultivation seems entirely reasonable The frequency of culti vation must depend upon the season The rule however shouldANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 303 be to keep the surface soil thoroughly pulverized and friable and cultivate as often as it becomes compacted at the surface In June or July the suckering should be finished and the growth so far advanced and the ground so shaded that further cultivation is imnecessary and the crop may be laid by HARVESTING On small plantations or with small areas which is the condition which this Bulletin is chiefly intended to meet the actual harvest ing of the crop should be preceded by stripping the stalks some two weeks before grinding is to begin This practice has two advan tages First ripening of the cane and consequent storing up of sugar is furthered Second as the leaves must inevitably be re moved before the cane can be ground by performing the labor at this time economy is effected by reducing the amount of labor actually required at the time of harvest It is even problematical if this practice would not be best under all circumstances though on large plantations stripping of the cane is performed by means of the cane knife at the time the stalk is actually cut THE PRESERVATION OF SEED CANE For the Spring planting advised seed cane must be kept over Winter This may be easily done by throwing two or more rows together on the ground so that the foliage of one plant covers the stalk of the other and protects it The earth is then turned toward the row on both sides by a plow and the covering completed by hoe Care must be taken to provide for drainage and on wet soils the seed cane is best removed to the driest available place The green tips too low in sweetness for other use make superior seed and should be preserved for the purpose EFFECT OF TIME OF HARVEST UPON YIELD OF SUGAR We come now to the consideration of a most important point indeed one on which the entire success of canegrowing may not infrequently depend It is a universally recognized fact that the longer the period of growth or time during which the cane maySOI DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA be allowed to stand in the field that is up to the time of actual freezing weather which shall convert sucrose into glucose the bet ter In this connection therefore it is well to suggest that the cane need not necessarily be taken to the mill and crushed at the time of cutting but that it may be allowed to remain standing as long as serious danger from frost will permit and then be cut and windrowed in the same way that seed cane is preserved in which condition it may be kept intact and uninjured long after frost oc curs and from the windrow be removed to the mill and worked up at leisure As bearing upon the point of the effect of longer standing and continued ripening upon the siigar content an experiment was made with three varieties of cane at hand stalks being cut and polarized for sugar at tenday intervals with the following results Nov 20 Nov 30 Dec 10 Red cane1422 1534 1560 Green cane1010 1141 1515 Ribbon cane 1034 12 36 Comparison of these figures shows that an increase of ten days in the period of growth is followed by an increase of 12 per cent and an increase of twenty days in the period of growth results hi an average increase of 43 per cent in sugar contentthe differ ence between a possible losing crop and an extremely profitable one so that the inevitable conclusion is that with the precautions against frosts suggested cane should be left standing growing and ripening as long as possible and that for our latitude December 10 is a reasonably safe and the most profitable time for beginning the harvest Not only is this fact of vital importance as controlling our own practice but it sheds great light upon the question of the relative adaptation of our State to the successful and profitable production of sugarcane as compared with the prevailing conditions in Louisi ana the recognized sugarproducing center of the country In that State conditions are such that most sugar planters actually be gin harvesting their crop in October while Dr Stubbs in a land able endeavor to extend the period of ripening and thus increase the sugar yield advises that Nov 1st would seem from experienceANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 305 to be the best time to begin the harvest There would seem however to be no question that a period of growth five to six weeks longer than that advised for Louisiana is available to the cane grower of Florida even in the latitude of Lake City and Jacksonville which localities however are far north of the actual center of probable profitable cane production in Florida In fur ther support of this assertion I refer to the weather statistics cover ing a period of ten years of observation at the Louisiana Sugar Experiment Station whereby it appears that during five years of the ten included injurious frosts have appeared there during the month of Xovember while the records of the United States Weather Service Station at Jacksonville covering a period of twenty years show no occurrence of killing frosts during this month the average lowest temperature of which for this period is 541 degrees1 When it is further remembered that the data for Louisiana are from the State Sugar Experiment Station the location of which is in the very center and presumably the most favored portion of the State for cane development while those for Florida are from Jacksonville a locality on the very northern confines of the cane producing portion of Florida and more than 100 miles north of the real cane area of the State south of which there is an enormous extent of cane lands below the 28th parallel and recognized as practically below the frost line there can be no question that Flori da possesses advantages for cane growing and sugar producing pos sesses by no other State in the Union II SYRUP THE REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD SYRUP Before proceeding to the particular consideration of the experi ments undertaken in the making of syrup it is essential that the characteristics of such syrup as is found in the market be under stood and that the properties of the syrup that is desired or that secures most ready sale be compared with the same that the neces 1 The average date of the first frost at Jacksonville is Dec 4 20a306 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA sity for change or improvement and the objects of the same may be noted The first essential in any article to be placed upon the market is that it possess a stable or fixed character composition or quality without which the uncertainty attendant upon its purchase or use is so great as to materially diminish the demand for the same if not to actually ruin its commercial value The highest grade of syrup must have a density or thickness so regular or constant that variations are not detected by superficial or ordinary physical means and which if tested by a saceharometer shows a density of approximately 33 degrees Beaume In color it must be entirely devoid of any tinge of green be distinctly am ber clear and with a perceptibly reddish tint It should not crys tallize and should be so permanent in composition as to not readily undergo fermentation OBSTACLES That so little syrup possessing the properties here described i actually on the market is selfevident proof of the fact that obsta cles to the attainment of the desired results exist to such a degree as to have been thus far insurmountable in practice Yet syrup With the characteristics described does actually exist and whenever found commands a ready premium which fact is sufficient incen tive toward further striving to an end so unquestionably desirable Among the causes conducive to the present condition of Florida syrup may be mentioned as of importance and demanding special consideration the effects of different soils upon the character of the cane produced the effects of varying conditions of climate and season and the fact that practical and efficient means for control ling results affecting the stability have heretofore been inaccessible VARIATIONS IN DENSITY OR THICKNESS OF SYRUP It is a thoroughly accepted fact that syrup varies so greatlv and constantly in density or thickness as to destroy its character as a stable market commodity It was not expected that changes or modifications in method which might be suggested would necesANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 307 warily result in the production of syrup superior to any heretofore known the object being rather to devise such means of control as would result in constancy of composition whereby all syrup pro duced by any individual maker would be the same It is true that most syrup boilers claim that the product produced by them is al ways constant Consumers however are well aware of the fact that a barrel of syrup obtained from any individual grower of cane today may be wholly unlike that engaged for delivery tomorrow and that the product of one farm may be as unlike that from a neighboring place as molasses is unlike honey To demonstrate the fact that the most skillful sugar boiler could not judge of the thickness of his product sufficiently accurately to make two consecutive runs of syrup identical in density when brought to the test of the saccharometer the best available sugar boiler a man with long experience who had made syrup annually on the Station farm for eleven years was put to the test of com paring his judgment or opinion of the proper density of syrup with the actual test of the Beaume saccharometer He was cautioned to make no drawing until to the very best of his judgment the syrup was ready and that each drawing was to be subjected to a scientific test to determine the degree of his accuracy He was therefore placed on his guard with every incentive to care de liberation and the best possible action Different drawings of syrup each of which was to the best of his judgment perfect and in his opinion of the same density as the preceding drawing were taken and tested with the following results expressed in readings of the Beaume scale 348 33 335 315 37 325 335 32 335 34 33 342 It thus appears that instead of being as he and most other syrup boilers would affirm constant in composition that no two consecutive drawings of syrup were alike in density and that the variations extended under every possible precaution from 32 to 37 a maximum variation of five degrees It must be borne in mind in this connection that 33 degrees Beaume is the accepted proper consistency density or thickness for cane syrup and that in the most skillful hands when personal judgment is depended on va riations of five degrees are possible and that in the hands of care308 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA less or unskilled makers the variation must be even greater The variation in the thickness is demonstrated and the desirability in deed indispensability of a feasible means for securing evenness or constancy of quality is established Recognizing that some simple means for ascertaining the thick ness of syrup was the first essential toward securing stability of product and further that the means utilized in the laboratory was wholly impracticable for common farm use much time and experimental testing was given to this phase of the subject in the hope of devising a simple easily available cheap and nondestructi ble method for determining the density of syrup with scientific accuracy so that the maker could be assured that every drawing would be exactly like every other drawing and that the product should be stable and to be depended on The thickness of a syrup depends upon its density and density is controlled by specific gravity or relative weight The thicker or more dense a fluid is the less deep will a given solid substance sink therein because the greater the density of the fluid the greater its supporting power or buoyancy The more salt for in stance which may be present in water the greater is the floating power of that water The same fact is true of solutions of sugar The more sugar present and consequently the less water in a given sugar solution or syrup the greater is the supporting or floating power of that syrup This is the principle on which saccharome ters and other specific gravity or density tests are based and it is this principle which was utilized as the basis for a simple appara tus devised to meet the requirements of the case and which is illus trated in Fig 1 It consists of any common bottle which will hold a pint or more of syrup a pint beer bottle admirably answering the purpose In the syrup with which this bottle is to be filled a stick is made to float having first been so weighted at one end with lead that it stands upright in the liquid instead of lying down or resting against the sides of the bottle This is essentially a specific gravity tube or Beaume saccharometer the only difference being that the latter instrument consists of a hollow glass tube with a graduated scale at the bottom of which mercury is introduced as counterpoise for securing uprightness and equilibriumANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 MAKING A SIMPLE TESTER 309 The abovementioned apparatus see Fig 1 may be constructed as follows Take any ordinary glass bottle of a capacity not less 6 Fig 1A A point indicating proper density of syrup than one pint Take a straight dry thoroughlyseasoned hard wood stick about onequarter of an inch in diameter and from I310 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA twelve to fifteen inches long Fill the bottle with syrup Roll ft narrow piece of sheet lead around one end of the stick or intro duce a few shot into a hollow in the bottom of the same Drop the stick into the bottle filled with syrup and increase or decrease the amount of lead used until the stick floats upright in the syrup with at least two inches of space between its lower end and the bottom of the bottle The apparatus is now complete except for supplying its scale or gauge To do this make a run of syrup carefully and continue the boiling until by cooling a small quantity you are positive that it has attained the degree of thickness that is perfectly satisfactory and which you are willing to accept as a sample or standard for your entire product Then fill the bottle with this syrup while boiling drop the weighted stick into the syrup and let it settle carefully until it has reached equilibrium Mark the place upon the stick at the line reached by the surface of the syrup preferably by cutting a notch therein or by a black thread tied about the stick The apparatus is now completed and is ready for use Test every drawing of syrup or different draw ings sufficiently often to give a fair sample of the whole continu ing the boiling until our improvised saccharometer or syrup tester sinks into the syrup to the mark or notch made By this means every sample of syrup drawn or thus tested will be of the same density or thickness as the original sample used as a standard and there will be no variation in quality so far as density is con cerned but the entire output will be uniform with scientific exact ness EFFECTS OF VARIETY Among the factors or conditions modifying the composition and quality of the syrup the variety of cane used exerts great influence Two varieties only are sufficiently well known and commendable to demand consideration in this connection A few facts con cerning their relative characteristics however seem to be impor tant as furnishing assistance toward governing their selection These varieties aie the common red cane and the green cane The former is unquestionably much the more hardy and is thereforeANNUAL PUBLICATION iOR 1898 311 preferable for more northern localities It moreover possesses the advantage of ripening earlier This latter fact is well demon strated by the analyses made of our own crop this year Moreover the red cane contains considerably more sugar than the green but at the same time because of the greater amount of coloring matter present in the stalk gives a darker colored syrup The average su gar content of the red cane tested at four different periods of ripen ing the present season was 1185 per cent while the green cane showed but 1194 per centa difference of 291 per cent in favor of the red cane The first test of the red cane during the season on Xovember 20th showed 1422 per cent of sugar while the green cane on the same date contained but 1010 per cent a difference of 412 per cent in favor of the red cane At the end of the sea son however the last test made December 10th showed the red cane to contain 1560 per cent and the green cane 1515 per cent a difference of but 45 per cent in favor of the red cane These facts demonstrate that for small areas and the manufacture of syrup in moderate quantities where the full period of ripening can be allowed the green cane is preferable inasmuch as the slightly greater degree of sweetness attained by the red cane does not com pensate for the darker color of the syrup produced On large areas however where sugar content hardiness and early ripening are essential the red cane stands preeminent THE EFFECTS OF SOIL UPON QUALITY It is an accepted fact that quality and texture of soil materially influence the character of the syrup produced this being particu larly true of the effect of the heavier quality of soils and also of certain organic constituents sometimes applied as fertilizers which result in imparting an undesirable flavor to the product The only fact in this connection however which seems worthy of con sideration here is the influence of soil upon sugar content Our analyses show an average of 1660 per cent of sugar in up land cane and 1499 per cent in bottom cane a difference of 161 per cent in favor of the upland product It should however be remembered that this decrease in sugar content in the cane grown312 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA upon bottom lands is explained by the greater luxuriance of growth so that the loss in proportion of sugar is more than compen sated for by the increase in yield of cane a fact wholly in keeping with the universal preference of cane growers for bottom lands for their cane fields MAKING THE SYRUP The first step toward making syrup from cane is the freeing of the juice from the stalk and the means by which this is to be ac complished is the key to the economy of the process Although the crudest appliances even wooden rollers are capable of express ing juice from which syrup or sugar may be made still the more juice which can be expressed from a given amount of cane the greater is the success of the operation For domestic and smaller manufacturing purposes the simple horsepower mill is commend able This mill however should consist of three rollers the two roller mill being so imperfect in action and expressing so small a part of the juice as to be extremely wasteful A good threeroller mill with the rollers screwed tightly together is capable of express ing from seventy to seventyfive per cent of the actual juice in the cane This matter of keeping the rollers screwed tightly together is one of such importance that it should be regularly looked after and the screws tightened whenever necessary till the bagasse or crushed cane comes through in short pieces The juice having been expressed from the cane the first process in actual syrupmaking is at an end and the next stop is that of freeing the juice as largely as possible from foreign substances In common farm practice this consists simply in straining it through a gunnysack as it comes from the mill This however although desirable only suffices to remove from the juice the small particfes of cane that pass from the rollers There remain many other for eign substances the presence of which is detrimental to the quality of the syrup and the removal of which is indispensable to securing of the best product Chief among these are coloring matters and the socalled nonsugar carbohydrates and albuminoid compounds The method which has been universally recommended by the ExANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 313 periment Stations for accomplishing this removal consists of sul phuring and liming the juice the first process being to subject the juice as it comes from the mill to the action of sulphurous acid fumes obtained from the burning of sulphur in a fur nace constructed for the purpose and then the removal of sulphurous acid by defecation of the juice with milk of lime in a separate pan or boiler before the actual process of evaporation begins That the method accomplishes the object sought and re sults in a superior quality of syrup there can be no question That it is comparatively expensive inconvenient and impractical for general domestic use is however equally true and is abundantly demonstrated by the fact that though the method has been recom mended by every publication issued by an Experiment Station treating of syrupmaking during the past decade the method has not actually been adopted by one syrupmaker in a hundred In view of these facts a series of experiments was undertaken in the hope of devising a simple and practical means so inexpen sive as to be within reach of all and so easily available that the means for using the same might be secured without effort on any Florida farm These experiments were divided into two classes first the filtering or freeing of the juice from foreign materials by purely physical means and second the defecation or precipitation of impurities remaining in the juice after filtering FILTERING THE JUICE The experiments in filtering included the use of every material which has ever been suggested for the purpose by reliable authori ties and a trial of numerous new materials which it was conceived might possibly accomplish the end sought It is not deemed necessary to go into particulars as to the effect of each material used but to simply give the list of these materials and the details recommended to be followed with the article having shown most satisfactory results The filtering materials tried in cluded straw hay seedcotton cottonlint sand shavings excel sior sawdust ground excelsior charcoal fullers earth and Spanish moss The last material was so unquestionably superior to any314 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA other used that it was adopted as the hest and most feasible article for the purpose and was used exclusively after its advantages were demonstrated The method of use was as follows Dry moss such as can be ob tained anywhere in the State of Florida was carefully picked and freed from leaves sticks and foreign matter and thoroughly washed A tub or halfbarrel through the bottom of which a hole for the outlet pipe was bored was taken and a piece of perfo rated tin was placed over this outlet on the inside of the bottom of the tub The tub was then filled with the cleansed moss which was packed as solidly as it could be crowded in by the weight of a man until it was filled It was then placed under the outlet gutter from the mill and the juice was conducted upon the moss in the center of the tub by a tin trough This juice therefore sank by gravity through the entire thickness of moss till it found outlet through the pipehole in the bottom through which by means of a halfinch iron pipe it was conducted by gravity to the skimming pan The passage of the juice through the moss not only freed it of all coarse and floating foreign particles but filtered out a very large proportion of the nonsugar contents and coloring matter so that the juice passing through the outlet pipe was nearly as clear and colorless as water The only precaution necessary in using this method is that the moss naturally occasionally becomes clogged and requires renewing once in two or three days of con stant running but in warm weateher it was found that the juiec adhering to the moss in the tub was liable to ferment over night and be sour in the morning under which circumstances it is necessary to replenish the filter with fresh moss before beginning work in the morning The advantages claimed for tins method are its simplicity cheap ness and effectiveness It accomplishes all that has been claimed for the sulphuring process and yet is so easily available as to be accessible to any farmer in Florida practically without either trouble or expense CLARIFYING THE JUICE Satisfactory and effective as the above described method provedANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 315 itself it is not sufficient for securing such results as we aimed at further clarifying of the juice being still desirable For this pur pose the usually recommended method is the use of three different pans or vessels in the first of which after sulphuring the juice is treated with milk of lime The objections to this method have al ready been stated in connection with the sulphuring process at a whole A simpler method was deemed indispensable if the same was to be recommended for general domestic use The first recom mendation in this connection which is offered as that securing the finest product whatever may be the means by which the juice is finally converted into syrup whether the evaporation be conducted in an iron kettle or an evaporating pan is that clarifying or skim ming of the juice should be effected in a different vessel from that in which the final condensation of the syrup takes place Our expe riments were made with the use of a common shallow Chattanooga evaporator The filtered juice as it came from the filter was con ducted into an open pan of the same size as the evaporator but about eioht inches deep such as can be made by any tinsmith This was placed upon a brick furnace side by side with the evaporator with a space of about six feet between the two so that both pans and fires could be tended by one man with no material increase in labor It should be added however that there was very little if any increase in fuel needed inasmuch as the heat required for raising the juice to the boiling point in the first pan was not required in the evapora tor hot juice instead of cold being introduced into the latter there being a halfinch connecting pipe extending from the bottom of the first pan to the evaporator This introduction of a second pan is deemed in every way indispensable to the securing of best results whatever may be the treatment of the juice or the method of final evaporation even in the event a common iron kettle is used for finishing the syrup The advantages of this supplementary pan lie in the fact that where the boiling skimming evaporating and condensing all take place in one kettle or evaporator it is abso lutely impossible except where work is conducted on the smallest possible scale and with constant personal care to prevent the mix ing of unskimmed fresh juice with the partially finished syrup or of imperfectly removed scum with the nearly completed syrup316 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA These contingencies however are wholly avoided when the syrup is raised to its boiling point in a separate pan in which all of the skimming is to be done so that only perfectly clear hot juice is introduced into the finishing pan kettle or evaporator A further precaution is to be recommended viz that the juice from the mill instead of being conducted directly into the first pan be reservoired or held back in a trough or barrel so that the contents of the pan may be allowed to flow into the evaporator as required in which uo skimming whatever will be necessary and the syrup produced will be entirely free from all contamination resulting from the presence of unremoved coloring matter PRECIPITATION BY FULLERS EARTH A modification of the above method was resorted to experiment ally by the introduction of fullers earth into the first pan at the rate of one pound of earth to five gallons of juice and bringing the contents to the boiling point when all the coloring matter and albuminous impurities ordinarily forming a scum upon the surface were immediately precipitated to the bottom of the pan leaving n perfectly clear and almost transparent fluid behind which is easily drawn off with siphon or through an outlet pipe placed about one inch above the bottom of the pan The cost of this method with fullers earth worth 14 per ton is very slight and the earth exists in large deposits in several parts of the State So far as actual results are concerned the syrup produced by this modifi cation compares in every way favorably with that obtained by the simple skimming of the juice but it does not possess advantages over the same The method therefore possesses merit but is hardly yet to be recommended for general use except in cases of highly colored juices from which inferior syrup is produced by the other method FINISHING AND TESTING THE SYRUP However clear the clarification may have been the quality of the syrup will be largely controlled by the final boiling to which it is subjected For this purpose because of the very much greaterANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 317 control possible steam heat is preferred It is however recog nized that on most farms circumstances will prevent the utilization of steam for evaporation and that open fires under kettles and evaporators must continue the chief recourse Care however must be exercised that the syrup shall be kept boiling at as near as possible an even temperature and that the supply of syrup in the evaporator be so constant that scorching is impossible slight scorch ing being detrimental both to taste and color of the product The point at which the boiling should cease and the finished product be removed from the evaporator is the crucial test of the skill of the operator and the quality of his product As has already been shown however the best human judgment will frequently fail on this point and the only safeguard lies in subjecting the syrup to the actual test of the apparatus or tester already described and illus trated by means of which all variation in density of product is ren dered absolutely impossible It is well to add however that the approximate finishing of the process may be easily recognized by allowing the syrup to drip from the edge of the skimmer or paddle and if the drops flow together and stretching out form a thin film upon the edge of the skimmer as they fall the time for actual testing with the appa ratus mentioned has arrived PRESERVING THE SYRUP As already mentioned the heretofore nearly insurmountable ob stacle toward placing the syrup upon the market as a commercial product has resulted from the fact that as ordinarily made and marketed it was so unstable as to undergo fermentation deteriora tion or destruction within a comparatively few weeks or months at most There have been many methods proposed for overcoming this difficulty all of which however including the sulphuring and liming already mentioned have rested upon the introduction of a foreign substance into the syrup to counteract its natural ten dency rather than upon the removal of the actual cause of this tendency Our experiments and methods have been conducted on the supposition that this fermentation or destruction of the syrup was due not so much to any inherent property of the syrup itself318 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA as to the presence of imparities the elimination of which would necessarily be followed by a disappearance of the trouble In other words that thorough purification and clarification of juice and syrup would necessarily result in improved keeping qualities in the product The methods already described as practised by us have appar ently demonstrated the correctness of this supposition indeed at the time of the present writing we have samples of syrup made bv the method described which have been exposed in open vessels in a warm room for three months without the slightest fermentation crystallization or deterioration It is recognized however that the process of decomposition resulting in the deterioration of the quality of the syrup depends for existence upon access of air and that in the absence of air the process is materially checked or abso lutely prevented The natural suggestion therefore is that syrup for preservation should be put up in some receptacle in which it may be hermetically sealed when hot Bottles jugs and similar articles have been more or less used for the purpose but a careful consideration of all the facts involved leads to the conclusion that the ideal syrup receptacle is a tin can of moderate size which may be sealed airtight and afterwards handled easily with no possibilitv of injury to contents This brings us to a matter worthy of special consideration MARKETING OF SYRUP Unless preservation of the product is assured it is recognized that there will be little syrup to market and therefore preservation and marketing are most intimately associated Moreover except for domestic consumption upon the farm where produced the mar keting returns from the product must control the success of the process This phase of the subject therefore is deemed of special importance The syrup made by the process described has not only leon pronounced by exports to be superior to anything here tofore available but it lias actually been placed on the market for the express purpose of determining its actual relative commercial value on which the merits of the process must finally restANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 319 Preservation ease of handling and cost of marketing were the points considered The different forms of receptacle or package heretofore utilized were tried and one by one discarded as faulty Barrels are bulky and imperfect preservers in them fermentation is probable The common cypress barrel moreover with all its advantages should be rigorously discarded as the receiver for first class syrup such as is aimed at If the syrup is turned in while hot and the barrel as is usually the case is new the contents almost invariably acquire a foreign easily detected taste very materially Fig 2 detrimental to the value of the article This is true also of old barrels and cold syrup it being even then sufficiently perceptible1 to detract from the quality of the syrup Bottles are expensive destructible inconvenient to fill and difficult of transportation and though good preservers when tightly stoppered and sealed are recommended only for home use Some form of tin can therefore seems to be the only commendable recourse After careful consid eration of the advantages presented by different forms and sizes320 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA the onegallon square can with a wide orifice closed airtightly by a cap surrounded by a rubber ring and fastened by the socalled lever action was adopted by us and is recommended In this the syrup should be introduced while hot first being strained through a thickness of cotton flannel to prevent the possible introduction of specks or accidental impurities These cans are obtained in boxes or crates containing six cans each in which they should be shipped and syrup thus put up will maintain its quality uninjured indefinitely possessing moreover very great convenience for handJ ling storing and shipping The can and its construction are well represented in the accompanying illustration Fig 2 As to the commercial value of the method followed a few facts are important The common syrup of the farm for which the county in which the Station is located is well known has averaged during the season in the markets of Lake City 15 cents per gallon in barrel lots Our syrup in barrels is sold in any quantity we have been willing to market for 25 cents per gallon net barrels being returnable to us Shipments of syrup in cans have netted 50 cents per gallon the cost of the cans being 10 cents each though larger quantities could have been secured at much lower rates Of the profits of the process of making and the method of shipping there fore there can be no question It is only necessary to add further that the process having been put to the test of actual remunerative returns can be recommended to others without hesitation or reser vation III SUGAR Although the making of syrup was the chief experimental work undertaken incidentally some attention tvas given to the process of sugarmaking with the object of further developing this domestic industry in the State It is not to be expected that the home manufacture of sugar can take its place as an important commer cial undertaking upon many Florida farms the capital and acre age required making sugar production essentially a manufacturing rather than an agricultural enterprise It is believed howeverANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 321 that conditions of climate and soil if properly utilized would natu rally place Florida in the lead as a commercial sugarproducing State and that capital invested in this business in Florida would certainly be more remunerative than is possible in any other part of our country As bearing on this point a comparison of the sugar content of Florida cane with the average for the State of Louisiana is important Dr Stubbs Director of the Louisiana Experiment Station places the average for his State at 12 per cent1 This amount is somewhat above the average of available analyses but is adopted as sufficiently high Our analyses of Florida cane from eighteen different localities covering the entire State the present season show an average of 1569 per cent of sugar and an average coefficient of purity for the juice of 8630 per cent The Louisiana comparison is 12 per cent of sugar and a coefficient of purity of 8050 per cent a difference of 369 per cent of sugar and 580 per cent of purity in favor of the Florida product There is no question of equally heavy crops in our state so the superiority of Florida for sugar production can hardly be longer questioned This Bulletin however is devoted essentially to the interests of the average farmer of Florida rather than to the consideration of exceptional conditions So far therefore as it can touch upon the question of sugar production it will deal solely with the domes tic phase of the industry in the hope of enabling intelligent grow ers of sugarcane in our State to utilize a portion of the same for more economically and satisfactorily supplying their own home and local requirements It must be borne in mind that all that has thus far been recorded pertaining to the growing of cane and the making of syrup is equally applicable when the ultimate end in view is sugar rather than syrup the essential difference being that the process is continued farther The Spanish moss doublepan method recommended for syrup is also equally applicable and commendable for sugar 1 From a very kind personal letter to the Author 21a322 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA BOILING FOR SUGAR After the syrup stage lias been reached if sugar is desired great care should be exercised that all danger from scorching or overheat ing may be avoided Indeed the lower the temperature the less the actual amount of boiling till the density necessary for sugar forming is reached the better High temperature and vigorous boiling having a tendency to invert the sugar and thus prevent crys tallization should be carefully guarded against Indeed so import ant is this fact that the crude iron kettle with all its faults posses ses some advantage as the finishing receptacle in sugar boiling he cause of the less surface exposed to direct heat and consequently the diminished danger from over boiling After the syrup stage has been reached as determined by our improvised syrup tester the process should be continued according to temperature for twenty or thirty minutes at which time the density should have proceeded about onetenth beyond the syi up stage In other words the volume of the syrup should have been diminished by about one tenth The final test for determining when the proper consistency lias arrived does not rest entirely upon density or thickness and there fore the saccharometer is useless The test must be the actual crystallization of the sugar If however a sample of syrup is found to grain and it then be tested with the syrup tester and an additional or lower mark be placed upon the stem of the same this will serve as the safest indicator of the proper time to stop boiling for future runs When the syrup has been condensed as mentioned it should be removed to a barrel tub or trough or where a kettle is used it may be allowed to remain in the same after withdrawal of the fire GRAINING The condensed syrup is now ready for graining or crystallization whirl process will inevitably take place in ir hut may he advanta geously hastened by stirring the mass while cooling with a stick or wooden paddle Not only is the process of crystallizati ion or suerarANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 303 formation thus hastened but the quality of the product particu larly its degree of whiteness is very materially improved thereby The time which will be required for completing this graining pro cess will depend upon density amount of impurities present and Hie relative sucrose or sugar content of the syrup With reason able success in quality the period however should rarely con tinue over one hour and may be completed in a very few minutes When the graining or crystallizing has been thus effected the pro cess is for the time being at an end PURGING The soft sugar thus formed is a mixture of sugar and molasses and the next step in the process is the separation of these two con stituents This is best and most simply effected by turning the soft mass the socalled masse citit into flour barrels through the bottom of each of which three or four oneinch auger holes have been bored into each of which a stalk of cane as long as the barrel and from which three peelings have been taken their entire length should be thrust The barrels filled with the masse cuit should then be placed on blocks benches or tables so that they are raised sufficiently from the floor or ground to allow the placing of a pan tub or crock under each barrel for catching the molasses as it runs off Time alone will now complete the process the purging going on by gravity without human assistance It is complete when the molasses has so drained off as to leave the sugar reasonably dry and free from all sticky tendency If the process is successful such sugar will be of a light brown or yellowish color and thoroughly adapted to most domestic uses and will find ready sale for local consumption or for refining WHITENING THE SUGAR The demand of the market and perhaps unfortunately of most consumers is for sugar entirely free from all natural cane flavor or taste and perfectly white in colorin other words the granu lated form of commerce This product however is the result of the refining process involving the use of complicated machinery324 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA and great capital There are however simpler means by which on a small scale with a moderate expense the sugar may be so materially whitened as to approach the character of granulated sugar and find more ready sale The simplest of these methods is one devised by us but based on a modification of an old process used in the days when loaf sugar was a standard article of com merce It consists simply in removing the sugar from the purging barrel and placing it in a tub or halfbarrel with an outlet at the bottom The sugar is then covered by a single thickness of com mon cheese cloth on top of which is placed a waterbucketful of moist clay stirred to a thick paste The result will be that the sugar will absorb the moisture from the clay and become washed thereby in a few days time the sugar will have become so ma terially whitened as to better meet the popular demands indeed will approach in character and appearance the very best product of commercial sugar below the grade of granulated A modification of this method may be advantageously used based on the practice in many sugar refineries and in all laund ries viz Blue is optically complementary to yellow and conse quently where blue and yellow are brought together in opposition the neutral or white optical effect follows Consequently the laundress uses bluing with yellow clothing to make it appear white and the sugar refiner uses ultramarine upon his yellow sugar where by it appears white Ultramarine is wholly harmless and inex pensive and can be secured of most druggists If the water there fore that is used for mixing with the clay is verij slightly blued by the introduction of a little powdered ultramarine the effect is an apparently white sugar really no purer or whiter than the yellow article but which meets the public demand and sells for a better price YIELD AND RETURNS FROM SYRUP AND SUGAR The final value of any crop must rest upon its commercial re turns whether the same is actually placed upon the market or is used for home consumption since in the latter case expenditure is prevented and a penny saved is a penny earned In the parANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 325 ticular case of sugarcane however it lias been as already expressed my desire to show that the growing of cane for the manufacture of sugar offered a remunerative crop thoroughly adapted to Florida conditions and therefore a most valuable substitute in regular farm practice for other staple crops which have been unremuner ative The yields and value of the returns from a crop of cane therefore are of particular interest My own experience and the various replies received from the letters sent to many cane growers in the State indicate that 500 gallons of syrup per acre is a reason able product which may with intelligent management be counted on as almost certain while exceptional crops are known to some times return fully twice this quantity of syrup Such syrup as I have described and have shown can be easily made with certainty finds constant and ready demand in the market at a net return of 25 cents per gallon or a gross return of 125 per acre of cane I believe that this acre of cane can be grown and its products can be manufactured into syrup at an average cost of 75 per acre leav ing a net profit on a very moderate basis of 50 per acre from the crop The same syrup if marketed in the condition I suggest will easily double the returns If sugar is the product in which the crop is finally marketed an estimate made on the same basis and from the same data leads me to place the reasonable yield at 3000 pounds of sugar per acre with the simple domestic methods described This sugar finds ready sale at 44 cents per pound net or a gross return of 135 per acre In addition to this the molasses obtained must be taken into consideration although its quality does not give it a fixed commer cial status The expense of producing sugar is nearly onetenth greater than that of making syrup or 82 per acre leaving a net profit per acre of cane manufactured into sugar of 42 Although it therefore appears that the crop is more profitable when con verted into syrup than when manufactured into sugar still the combination of the two is commendable at least to the extent of supplying home demand It will therefore be seen that the sugar cane crop on a purely commercial basis can be made one of the most profitable resources of the Florida farmer aside from the mere advantage of domestic independence326 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA Bulletin of the Georgia Experiment Station By Hugh N Stabnes Watermelons PART lCULTURE VER the entire area covered by the yellow pine forests of Georgia known locally as the Wire grass region and in the main corresponding geologically with the Tertiary formation the watermelon Citrullus vulgaris appears to be always and impressively at home to its friendsand who has the hardihood lo admit that he is not ranked amon them g WM J 0ther regions may produce certain cala gjlipr bashes which through courtesy are styled watermelons but to see and know the gen uine watermelon arrayed like Solomon in all his glory one must come to Georgia Here the melon is indeed king and its empire is the Wiregrass In no other section of the State m no other State of the South in no other division of the Union does this luscious cucurbit flourish as it does on the gray Tertiary sands between the Savannah and the Chattahoocbee Yet in spite of thisor possibly because of itvery little has ever been written on the watermelon Its bibliography is strangely barren A small handbook by W Atlee Burpee Co containing some valuable suggestions casual mention in a few textbooks and a page or so in each of half a dozen Station Bulletins cover so far as the writer can ascertain all that has ever been penned on the subject It cannot be however that no one needs infor mation thereon The commercial growers of the great melon centers of thi and other States are doubtless so well posted in every detail of melon culture that they are practically independent of outside information and this BullANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 327 tin would consequently prove to them of little value But where one man grows melons for market a hundred plant for home consumption and this Station is constantly in receipt of letters asking for definite information con cerning varieties fertilization distance cultivation and other ordinary de tails Hence it is for the better instruction of the grower on a small scale for him who plants his halfacre or his square rod in the rear of the kitchen garden and not for the melon prince who ships by the trainload that this Bulletin is prepared But it must be distinctly understood before going further that when in Georgia a melon is referred to it means a Watermelon not a Cantaloupe or Muskmelon Whatever may be the proper conception of the term to the average citizen here there is but one production worthy of either the dignity or glory of the name Melonto wit the Watermelonand that is the sense in which the word will be used in this Bulletin We would not wittingly do violence to the feelings of anyone 1 SOIL AND LOCATION As previously stated a warm sandy soil is the melons delight but it mus be light and dry not damp and soggy Like the grape the watermelon is a veritable cat in its abhorrence of wet feet Yet at the same time the soil should not be too dry Sufficient capillarity must exist to keep the roots of the plant well supplied with their proper modicum of moisture during a drouthy periodyet not enough to evaporate the entire reservoir of water in the subsoil into the atmosphere Any land wanting in this nice adjustment of consistency is almost if not quite as badly adapted to melon culture as a soil that is sodden For all that the watermelon is extremely cosmopolitan and will readily ac commodate itself to a variety of soils and particularly in its own native re gion will stand a great deal of rough and unscientific I had almost said un sympathetic treatment without rebelling But a warm lightgray welldrained topsoil with a strong clay subsoil that will daily give up its moisture little by little when called on affords an ideal location for a melon plat The latter requisite however it has to fore go over a considerable portion of the melon belt yet somehow it appears to dispense with it quite philosophically and will notwithstanding produce profitable crops A soil too rich in humus is not desirable Sufficient nitrogen for its use can be readily supplied artificially when it does not exist naturally A sur plus may and generally does produce larger melons but at the expense of quality They will prove soft watery and insipid poor shippers and with a small per cent of saccharine matter Rotation is all important too In no case should melons follow melons the next season and at least four years should intervene before the land is again planted in this crop By that time insect depredators attracted by the first melon crop will have probably become exterminated and the drain from the soil of specific plantfood especially potash will also have been to a certain extent at least made good328 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA 2 PREPARATION This should be thorough though not necessarily deep The roots of the watermelon while sometimes extending quite a distance laterally are always close to the surface The deeper the land is broken the deeper the roots will penetrate and this perversion of habit will cause the plant to grow off slower and while in case of a drouth it might passibly withstand the season better it would certainly entail a series of complications that could easily be avoided Deeper breaking would be permissible with red land in Upper Georgia than on the gray sandy soil of the Wiregrass though the general consensus of opinion appears to be that shallow preparation is preferable for any locality But while the plowing need not be deep for that very reason the pulveri zation must be thorough and effective What is saved on the subsoiler should be expended on the harrow After breaking two or even three pul verizations with a cutaway harrow will leave the plat in excellent condi tionespecially if a crop of cowpeas has been grown on the land the previous year as is always advisable In such case the soil is well stocked with nitro gen and filled with vegetable matter is loose and friable and pulverizes like an ash bank 3 DISTANCE The richer the soil or the higher the fertilization the more luxuriant will be the growth of vines and hence the distance apart at which the hills should be located must correspond On very rich land twelve feet apart each way is none too much in fact many growers prefer this distance even on poor land Each planter must determine for himself in the matter according to circum stances Probably ten by ten is the distance most frequently employed and in no case should it be less than eight by eightand this very rarely What ever the distance the land should be checked in squares so that the hills will be equidistant in both directions 4 LAYING OFF After thorough pulverization with the harrow and for the last working a smoothing harrow is preferable to a cutaway the plat should be checked by running a light scooter furrow in two directions Then in one direction with a wide shovel plow a deep furrow should be opened in which the fer tilizer should be drilled and thoroughly mixed with a scootertwo trips to the row Next with a turn plow or twister this row is listed onfour furrows being thrown up The middles should be broken out later This forms the bed for planting and will warm up sooner than the surrounding soil When planting time comes the place for the hills on the bed is indicated by the cross scooter furrow first run thereby insuring regularity in their location and enabling the planter to cultivate the plat both ways if he so desires Many persons still prefer to the modern plan of bedding on the fertilizer in the row the oldfashioned method of dragging up the dirt into individualANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1S98 329 A hills with the hoe as is done in squash culture in the garden and to concen trate the fertilizer in these hills but the many advantages of the modern plan are so apparent that it needs no argument to support it 5 FERTILIZATION The beet fertilizer for melons is a crop of cowpeas on the land the year pre vious to planting After cutting for hay or ensilage the stubble should be left to die and turned under in the fall This leaves the soil light and open stored with a good supply of nitrogen and ready for the harrowing in the spring Next to this preparatory cowpea treatmentand indeed supplementary to itnothing perhaps is better than stable manure applied in the furrow in the fall and listed on as described under a previous head But stable ma Dure is always variable in its composition and content of plantfood and the probability is that used by itself in considerable quantity especially when following a cowpea crop there will be a disproportion of phosphoric acid and potuh which must consequently be artificially supplied Therefore an addi tion per acre of some 400 pounds Acid Phosphate and 400 pounds Kainit or 100 pounds of either Muriate or Sulphate of Potash would in great measure balance the fertilizer and make a vast deal of difference in the result In Upper Georgia or anywhere that a retentive clay subsoil is found these mixed minerals as we may term themmay be drilled in along with the stable manure in the fall In this way not only will the stable manure have rotted by spring rendering its content of plant food immediately available but the phosphoric acid and potash of the commercial fertilizer will also have become completely soluble and ready for use But where the soil is light and porous and no subsoil exists within a reason able distance from the surface as is the case over alarge portion of the Wire grass the land in consequence leaching badly it has been found best not to manure in the fall with either stable manure or commercial fertilizers but to wait until late winter or early spring This of course minimizes the loss from leaching but the crop also fails to receive the full benefit of the fertilizer Where slight but not severe leaching takes place it will perhaps prove best to split the difference and while putting in the stable manure in the fall in order to have it well rotted by spring even with some loss of its manurial content to reserve the commercial fertilizer and after reopening the beds to drill it in just before planting time Pulverization should precede the re opening of the furrows During this process the beds will not be so torn down or obliterated as to be indistinguishable and it will generally be found easy enough to run the furrow in the proper place The labor of opening out twice will be more than compensated for by the decay the manure will undergo and its consequent capability for ready assimilation as soon as the rootlets ot the plants reach it alwavs provided the loss from leaching is not excessive If stable manure is not available in sufficient quantity and the grower is forced to depend entirely on commercial fertilizers the following will be found an excellent formula for Middle and North Georgia Q 400 lbs Nitrale of Soda sm h Acid Phosphate High Grade mibl Muriate of Potash or Sulphate of Potashjuujds Total 14001b9330 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA Apply at the rate of 700 pounds and upward per acre Tins formula will analyze about Nitrogen Ammonia equivalent 51 per cent 43 per cent Phosph me Acid available80 percent PotashV 71 percent This is a very high grade fertilizer with a heavy proportion of nitrogen es pecially when following a leguminous crop Yet it is well suited for big mel ons as the watermelon needs a good percentage of nitrogen But it wants the supply of this element in the earlier stages of the growth of the plant not so much when the fruit is setting Overdosing with nitrogen at this stage will tend to make the melons soft and watery poor shippers and insipidnot crisp and sweet as will prove to be the case when the mineral elements are more in balance with the nitrogen In addition to the formula given it may also be well to drop a pinch of nitrate of sodasay a thimbleful on each hill just after the plants are well up especially just after or in advance of a raincare being taken not to al low any of the salt to touch the tender leaves of the young plants For larger but later melonsand it must be confessed melons not so good in quality though perhaps more showy the following formula may b3 substi tuted Cotton Meal 800 lbs Acid Phosphate High Grade 800 lbs KainitZVV 800 lbs TotaI2400 lbs This forms quite a low grade fertilizer and will analyze approximately Nitrogen Ammonia equivalent 27 percent23 percent Phophoiic Acid available53 per cent PoaSQZsle pr cent If double the amount of this formula were used pound for pound of that first given about the same percentages of plantfood would be presented the difference consisting only in the medium by which they were conveyed For the Wiregrass region the soil of which is more deficient in potash than that of Upper Georgia it would be well to slightly change the formula first given as follows Nitrate of Soda 525 lbs Acid Phosphats High Gradej lbs Muriate of Potash or Sulphate of Potash 450 lbs To al2000 lbs This would analyze about as follows Nitrogen Ammonia equivalent49 percent 39 per cent Phosphoric Acid available 71 percent Potah112 per cent It could be safely used at the rate of 700 pounds and upward per acre In the proportions given in the foregoing formulas quite a discrepancy ex ists when compared with the amounts of plantfood ascertained by Dr Geo F Payne State Chemist to be abstracted by a melon crop per acre on an analysis of its ash It requires in the first place no argument to prove that much heavier gross applications of fertilizer must be made for successful reANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 331 suits in the field than any croo yields up on an analysis of its ash since it is necessarily impossible for the plant to possess itself of and assimilate every pennyweight of fertilizer presented for its consumption Secondly actual soil tests which after all are the only ones to be absolutely relied on when carried sufficiently far to establish a definite conclusion have proved time and again that the capacity of a plant to assimilate any one of the main food elementsNitrogen Phosphoric Acid or Potashdoes not parallel by any means the amount of such element it finally succeeds instoring up in its structure And thirdly it is equally well established that different plants though their ash may show precisely or at least approximately the same chemical analysis yet differ materially in their capacity to assimilate plant foodsome flourishing under soil and manurial conditions in which others would perish outright A plant may for instance to make an ideal growth be found by field tests to require a minimum application of 75 pounds of Phosphoric Acid and 50 pounds Potash per acre while its ash on analysis mayshow that it has act ually assimilated 30 pounds of Phosphoric Acid and 40 pounds of Potash Yet it may be found by repeated experimentation that a smaller amount of Phosphoric Acid than 75 pouuds per acre represented say by 540 pounds Acid Phosphate produces very unsatisfactory resultsand the same way in regard to the Potash The conclusion is inevitable that in such case the crop in question requires a considerable excess of both of these elements presented to it over the amount of either it finallv succeeds in appropriating and that it experiences greater difficulty in assimilating the one than the otherstoring up finally in its structure more of one element from a smaller supply and less of another element from a greater supply Therefore while an analysis of the ash mav be a partial index to the manurial needs of a plant the true index is and must always remain field ex perimentation As a source of Potash for the watermelon Sulphate of Potash is said to be preferable to either Muriate of Potash or Kainit This Station has as yet made no experimentation on this line but will do so another year Sulphate of Potash is certainly coming into favor more and more each yearmainly perhaps on account of the deleterious action of the chlorides in the two other Potash salts when applied in large quantities 6 PLANTING On putting in the seed they should not be spared Field mice crows pigeons poultry and other depredators frequently prevent a perfect stand when but few seed are used and the time lost when renlanling is found nec essary can never be regained Twenty seed to the hill is not too many thirty would be preferable to less than twenty They should be planted by hand and the method ordinarily pursued is to push each seed separately down into the mellow soil with the forefinger The seed is scattered loosely over an area on the center of the bed as large as the crown of a hat and then each seed punched in where it lies to the depth of about an inch While this appears to be from the description a rather slow process it is astonish ing how rapidly a skilled darkey can operate as he shuffles down the row332 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA This forces the depredating agent to discover and destroy each seed in suc cession which gives some a chance to escape whereas if planted together as soon as the pocket was found the seed would all be scattered or devoured at once Some growers instead of making one planting of a large number of seed prefer to put in half a dozen seed only at a time say on the south side of the hill and in a week or so without waiting for the first seed to come up making another planting on the west side followed by a third and fourth planting at intervals on the other two sides until a stand is secured Thus no time is lost Be sure to plant shallow Pushing the seed in to too great a depth is a very common fault even with experienced manipulators It must be remembered that the ground is comparatively cold at planting time and as the surface of the soil of course warms up sooner than the lower strata the seed should re ceive the benefit of the daily increasing temperature as soon as possible Therefore an inch U abundantly deep this will ensure sufficient moisture and yet leave the seed close enough to the surface to respond readily to the suns warmth as the season advances Frequently after planting a few weeks of drouth follow accompanied by heavy winds which parch and bake the surface This is more apt to be the case in Upper Georgia than in the Wiregrass region and in such case to secure rapid germination it is sometimes necessary to go over the plat and with a hoe to throw a dab or two of dirt on each hill This presents a new surface for evaporation and drying out and secures the retention of sufficient moisture in contact with the seed to induce germination It of couise pre vents the hill from warming up as soon as it otherwise would but between two tvils it is advisable to choose the lesser The dab of soil should ol course be removed after sprouting has taken place and before the young plants begin to push up through the mounds 7 FORCING FOR EARLINESS AND SIZE If very early melons are wanted it is necessary to start the plants under glass Of course this process is only permissible on a small scale or where the assurance of a market for a fancy pro duction of this sort will justify the expense The simplest method of procedure consists in emptying a cold frame in which small pots are sunk after the seed are planted in late winter or early springsay from January 15th to March 1st according to locality Protected by glass watering may be frequent and the plants thinned gradually down to one vigorous vine in each pot will be ready to transplant as soon as all danger of frost is over The root sys Nefonskt Pot tern of each vine will be strongly developed by this time and a rapid growth will commence as soon as it is set out Clay pots can of course be used but they are not nearly so inexpensive or serviceable as a manufacture known as the Neponset pot made of stiff ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 333 paper or pasteboard with an adjustable side flap or catchas in accompanying figurewhich may be slipped out readily and the transfer to the hill effected without the slightest danger of rupturing a rootlet This is their main ad vantage but they are also cheap light and sufficiently durable to be used for several seasons The use of bellglass after transplanting which of course is too expensive for any thing but the fanciest of w7ork will enable the grower to gain a few more days in field planting Papiermache covers will do as a substitute for bellglass and even the crude protection of a newspaper over each hill held down by a handful of dirt at the corners will be found much better than nothing To continue the process of forcing for earliness and in addition to secure greater size the vine must never be permitted to suffer a suspension of growth from want of an adequate and regular supply of moisture Of course in forcing for size it is necessary primarily to thin the fruit downsometimes even to one melon per vineand for best results it is also necessary to ferti lize in the hill instead of in the drill When this concentration of manure is effected it is quite a simple matter though of course one involving some ex pense to render the concentrated fertilizer available or assimilableand con tinuously soas well as to prevent the hill from firing by applying water artificially whenever the rainfall proves insufficient For this purpose a joint of twoinch terracotta sewerpipe should be perpendicularly sunk in the hill before planting to the depth of six or eight inches bell upwards as indicated in the figure The seed should be planted around the pipe and the stand subse quently thinned down to one vine whose roots will eventually sur round the bottom of the pipe for quite a distance in all directions The pipe itself should be filled with water late in the afternoonevery day if the weather is dry or as often as may be found necessary The continuous supply of moisture thus afforded will have a most noticeable effect by rendering every particle of plantfood within reach capable of assimilation A dilute solution of manure or of chemical or commercial fertilizers may be made to take the place of pure water if desired but great care must be observed in its application and it should be sufficiently diluted not to endanger the vine by firing Ordinary drain tile may be used in place of sewer pipe and will prove much less costly 8 CULTIVATION As soon as the sed are well up they should be thinned down to three or four plants to the hill and a little later to one vigorous plant Some growers Neponset pots 2Vi inches in diameter may be obtained irom E J Farquhar Co Bos ton Mass at about 200 per thousandother sizes in proportion 334 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA are in the habit of leaving two vines to the hill but while by this practice they certainly get more vines and sometimes too more melons the latter are always smaller and less salable than when one lusty vine has the hill and the fertilizer all to itself After the first heavy rain following planting with its compacting effect it will be well to break out the middles This should be done with a twister throwing the furrow to the bed on either side and finishing with a water row which will serve on low level land to thoroughly drain the beds After this the crop should be worked entirely with the cultivator or scrape and very lightly The first working may be across or at a right angle to the rows the next parallel with them These two workings will if the vines grow rapidly probably be all that can be given for as soon as the vines have run sufficiently to gat in the way cultivation should cease Old melon growers never plow their plats while the dew is on the vines but wait until midday before putting in the plow To what extent the crop would be injured if at all by early morning cultivation yet remains to be provedand to search for the cause before the fact is established would be useless Yet general customs can usually be traced to some logical cause and it is just as easy to observe this practice of our forefathers as to violate it until it is proved to be unnecessary or inadvisable Never under any circumstances turn a vine More will be lost by so doing than will be gained by giving the plat an extra cultivation This is another ancestral practice and doubtless arises from the fact that vines when turned are apt to be carelessly handled If returned gently and deftly to their orig inal position it is difR ult to realize how they would be injured Any weed ing that is found necessary after this time should be effected with a scythe blade lopping off the tops of the weeds above the vines They should not even be pulled outby hand on account of the danger of mutilating the vines which generally hold them in a tight embrace with their tendrils Indeed rather than risk disturbing a vine it would be preferable to leave the weeds and the melons to have it out between them for a few wellanchored weeds here and there prove rather a benefit than a detriment since they prevent the winds from rolling up and matting the vines But better than weeds is a light sowing of cowpeasa peck to the acre broadcasted just before the last cultivation and plowed in thereby The best pea for this purpose is some upright slowgrowing variety as Whippoonoill or New Era Besides the anchorage which the peas give the vines they also serve to partially shade the melons from the scorching midsummer suns and are of great benefit manurially to the ensuing crop whatever it may be The watermelon bears its fruit directly on the main vinenever on its laterals as does the muskmelon For this reason some growers make a prac tice of clipping off the laterals as they form thinking that thereby they throw the strength of the vine more into the main stem This is of very doubtful benefit It must not be forgotten that the leaves of a plant are its lungs and it is highly probable that the practice will be found of no more value than the now obsolete custom of pinching back sweet potato vinesANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 335 9 HOW TO TELL A RIPE MELON vZiihlf thffruitBij indeed the melon ay be termed a fruit and not a vegetableand it would be treason in this section to doubt it a change of rSnil 6 aTaCh f rpening Peri0d With Pecie the ripemng process continues after gathering without detrimen to quality With the melon it is different Appearance to the uninitiated indicates 111 tie and it cannot be shipped half green like a Le Conte pear for it resembles vinXV1 nM 1TrVing mUch after PuIia8 U mut be taken from the confld nee T Jt mu8t b sent to market with absolute confidence as to its proper state of maturityfor it would never do to risk the ruin of a shipment and the reputation of the shipper by bungling green or overripe melons into it 8 B g Fortunately the knowledge of a ripe melon to a native Georgian appears to nriaV7VntUiti0n r inSpirain Which is almost infalble He may Znn y0U iWt hW he kDOWS a melon t0 be IP t he will go nto a field and pick them out as fast as he comes to them and not miss one n a thousand It seems to be largely an inherited instinctthis in sober meThrdTdi0ritiaHdiffi0Utf0r 6Ven Uie ad6pt toputinwordsareliabl method for dstingushing a properly ripe melon The knowledge is mainly mTvlT y 6XfHenCe and ob8evation d doubtless through ThTL T r errrS f Udment and humilig mistakes coupled with Suit Irk er7rraiSlng melnS at tbeoutset Boys and sometimes an adult darkey often resort to the nefarious practice of pluggingfeeling their inability to wrestle successfully with the problem Many persons claim Sit 7 Tu i6 ln8Pection of tb curl tendril on the stem if his is dead he melon is ripe if green so is the melon It is needless to say that this is altogether unreliable Aside from intuition possibly the simplest advice that could be given after all would be that of the old negro mauma in the ballad rating he grandson for stealing a green melon Be shore When you thumps em dey allus soun plunk Unquestionably the flat dead sound emitted by a melon when thumped is the readest indction of ripeness and the one most universally depended maturity reSnaaCe T mU8iCa1 tt is a Certaiu Proof of iarXhfVw meln and eXp08iDg the llnder side tbe gu ar white blotch formed where the melon has rested on the ground affords an in ication of maturity When this begins to turn yellowish and become rough pimply or warty with the surface sufficiently hard to resist the finger nail when scratched it is usually a fair sign of ripeness BUt ul13 ne mre t6St that is corroborative After the melon looks ripe and thumps ripe if on a steady pressure of the upper side or top by the palm of the hand while the melon lies on the ground instead of re sisting solidly the interior appears to have a tendency to yielda givey sort of feeling as it wereaccompanied by a crisp cracklinghalf heard half felt33G DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA as the flesh parts longitudinally in sections under the pressure the melon may be pulled with absolute confidence It is certainly ripe This test should never be resorted to with melons intended for shipment as their carrying quality is necessarily impaired thereby Yet all this as stated comes largely by instinct to the expert and it is rarely that one finds it necessary to thump much less to press a melon before deciding as to its maturity When overripe there begins to creep over the surface of the melon in places an unmistakable faint sicklywhite tinge turning later to a bilous yellow pervading the texture of the skin and mingling with the grays light greens and dark mottled shadings which characterize a normal condition This tendency to a change in color may be so faint as to be undiscernible to the layman but the expert will detect it a rod off 10 GATHERING AND MARKETING As with the grape so with the melon the length of the wag m haul to the point of shipment is one of the main factors affecting profits The industry would be a lucrative one despite high freights glutted markts and unrelia ble middlemen if this item could be always eliminated Hence the impor tance of locating the field within easy distance of a station or siding in order that the haul may be reduced to a minimum Skillful handling in the field the use of bolster springs careful selection and judiciom loading in the car often reverse the narrow margin between loss and profit Undersized melons never pay for shipment No crop responds more emphat ically to severe culling Uniformity in size or weight is an essential and should be in all cases strictly enforced In the second place in loading the smaller melons should be laid down first on the floor of the carthe larger when there is any noticeable differ ence racked on topnot for the purpose of deception or the sake of appear ance but because the smaller sizes better withstand jolting and pressure and there is also less loss if undue bruising should ensue But the chief point in shipping is to select an advantageous market Ship ments cannot be made blindly A glutted market means always that a be lated shipment will not pay freight The melon is by far the most sensitive of all perishable horticultural products A cold northeaster over lake Mich igan has dumped many a tine carload into the Chicago river On a chilly day in summer the public will not invest largely in watermelonsand hence on such occasions an insignificant shipment of a few carloads will glut beyond hope a market that on a hot dry day would swallow them by the trainload and eagerly call for more In order to secure a sale at all it is absolutely ne cessary to select the market from day to clay and to divert shipments en route without hesitation The telegraph is therefore indispensable and many a melon shippers account with the Western Union runs up to over ten dollars a day during the seasonand this is the sort of man too who generally comes out ahead But much better than attempting to singly wrestle with the problem of se lecting a market judiciously would be a reliance for this purpose on some one of the cooperative shippers unions of which the American Fruit Grow ers Union is decidedly the most prominent and to Georgia growers the mostANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 337 convenient This association which is national in its scope and operation has recently absorbed the Georgia Fruit Growers Association which has been in the past of such inestimable value to our fruit men and shippers The new American Union is doing some excellent work for our people and section Full information in regard to its methods and operations may be obtained by addressing its PresidentHon John D Cunningham Marietta Georgia 11 CHRISTMAS WATERMELONS Under a previous head forcing for early melons was discussed He who is successful therein is sure of a good price for his product but it will not com pare with the fancy figures which the Christmas Watermelon commands One would think their appearance at this season decidedly out of placethat they would be in about as much demand as overcoats on the fourth of July but strange to say the public buys themwith avidity too and at enormous prices So it seems that late watermelons ought to be an achievement much more worth striving for than early ones while the cost and labor of their at tainment are considerably less Mr David F Verner of Gwinnett county Georgia is noted for the fine melons which he markets at Christmas and his process is simplicity itself That it will prove equally easy to all who try it is by no means to be expected and there will doubtless be many failures and disappointments if others at tempt to imitate his methods But the fact remains that he does raise and save late watermelons and on the 23d of last December sold them in quan tities and at good figures on the streets of Buford Mr Verner is sufficiently unselfish to be willing to share the knowledge of his process with the public and his methods are consequently given in his own words as follows The variety of watermelon used by me for late keeping is the Georgia RaMemalce The plan which I pursue is as follows I prepare the ground thoroughly during Maynot in the usual way by digging holes but by opening deep furrows with a twohorse plow I use stable manure in the drill but not too much j coyer with two furrows and leaye till planting Tf 7V aPart8ft drill I leave only one vine to the hill Plant between 18th and 30th of June cultivate with sweep run very shallow Dont let the plow touch vines Melons matured before vine begins to die around root are the only ones easily preserved For preservation place in dry cellar on cotton seed I still have eight fine melons on hand January 4th perfect condtion chat I intended saving till spring but in neglecting cellar in which they were stored in order that meat in same cellar should get cold they have frozen I aim to raise melons this summer that I can save till melons come again 12 SAVING SEED Notwithstanding the fact that the watermelon is moncecioushaving sepa rate male and female flowers on the same vineit generally managesafter a week or so of wasted energy in developing staminate or male flowers to bring both sexes on together in practically equal numbers although the males always predominate and as a result of the intermingling of the vines of dif ferent varieties planted in juxtaposition there is always a considerable amount of cross fertilization taking place This makes it very difficult to keep any given strain of seed pure In fact it can only be done by complete isolation or block planting and this must always be resorted to in order to avoid deterioration 22 a338 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA Yet no fear need be entertained that the watermelon will cross with other cucurbits as muskmelons squashes cucumbers or pumpkins Attempts to artificially hybridize them though carefully made have invariably failed The various cucurbits can be successfully intergrafted but they resolutely refuse to respond to interpollination The Alabama Experiment Station some years since established the fact that while the seed were practically as good from all parts of the melonthat is to say the seed from the central portion of the melon gave no better results than those from either the stem or blossom endsthey were yet more apt to be fully matured and hence to that extent at least preferable Therefore in saving seed it is best to follow the oldfashioned plan of cut ting off a portion of each end of the melon after the proper selection of the melon itself from the forcing plat has been made Of course the commercial planter seldom goes to the trouble of specially preparing a forcing plat for seed melons although there is no doubt but that it would well pay him so to do and result eventually in the development of much finer melons than any strains we are now acquainted with Yet for all ithat the finest melons are generally saved for seed where cupidity does not overweigh policy and after being truncated as described are cut open and the interior scouped out into a barrel until it is filled After a few days fer mentation dissolves and decomposes the pulpthe fibrous matter floating on top of the liquid The scum is then removed the liquid drawn off and the eeed are washed and dried If fancy melons are sought the seed should be carefully handpicked and all immature and undersized seed rejected Good melon seed possess con siderable viability and sometimes germinate after the lapse of many years They are said to be not at all impaired by keeping for five or six years or even longer 13 OTHER USES OF THE MELON The Chinese regard the kernels of melon seed as a great delicacy and in consequence they are valued much more highly than the melon itself which is frequently offered gratuitously to the wayfarer on the condition that he eat it then and there and surrender the seed While the flavor of the dried kernel is rather nutty and quite pleasant so far as it goes an American palate would consider it not sufficiently pronounced in characterscarcely indeed escaping insipidity Add to this the trouble of extracting the kernel from the huska task too tedious and laborious to be voluntarily undertaken by other than an orientaland it is not difficult to understand why the melon eeed as a delicacy has never become a commodity on the market Attempts have been made on a small scale to utilize the kernels in the manufacture of confectionery but there is little prospect of their ever coming into general use for this purposeANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 339 While watermelon seed tea has always been recognized as a domestic specific in kidney troubles pumpkin seed are a much more potent and equally available diureticand yet it is doubtful if either is given a place in the U S Dispensatory Too small a percentage of sugar is found in the juice of the melon to render it an economical possibility in the manufacture of sugar while the syrup it produces turns dark in color and readily ferments Attempts have frequently been made to turn melon juice into a marketable article of vinegar but with very slight success The trouble seems to be that complete acetic fermentation does not take place the process is only partial and is supplemented by a species of putrefactive fermentation which is of course ruinous to the commodity As food for cattle and swine the melon while a good digestive and diuretic contains little in the way of nutriment and appears on the whole to be oather a luxury than a necessity but for which nevertheless thousands of households during the scorching weather of the dog days throughout the length and breadth of the land are most unfeignedly thankful 14 AFFECTIONS AND REMEDIES After a stand is once obtainedspontaneously and promptlyand this when all is said is perhaps the main problem underlying the culture of the watermelonits affections are comparatively few and simple Indeed it may really be said to be subject to no vital disease and its maladies are almost entirely confined to those resulting from the attacks of a few insect pests ome of them however quite troublesome First among them is a The Melon WormMargaronia hyalinata Linn This is a small moth the larva of which of a light yellowish green color and about an inch long nearly transparent and slightly hairy do even more damage to muskmelons than to watermelons With the latter their point of attack is confined almost entirely to the leaves which they devour ravenously and generally web up and ruin those they do not eat With muskmelons their damage is primarily confined to the fruit which they puncture and destroyusually from the underside but if the melon is protected from their ravages by sacking in paper bags mounting on chips or otherwise they devote themselves at once to the leaves and vine which they destroy in short order As the worms belong to the division of chewers and are not suckers the arsenites prove quite a serviceable remedy as the damage is generally efftcted while the fruit is young The vines may then be safely sprayed with Paris Green one pound to 200 gallons of water or four ounces to the barrel Later spraying if found necessary does not affect the edibility of the melons but might perhaps injure stock if the rinds are fed to them in considerable quantity b The Melon LouseAphis gossppii Glover While this insect has been honored with only the second place on our list it is questionable if the damage it does is not fully as great as that inflicted by the Melon Worm The active member of the community in this instanceis 340 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA small winged green fly which appears in early springviviparous or giving birth to living young instead of laying eggs These young are wingless and strongly resemble other plant lice or aphides They also possess the same amazing appetite and digestive capacity and secrete the honey dew usually accompanying this class of insects This honey dew is merely the excrement of the aphisthat is the extracted juices of the plant on which it feeds after passing through its digestive system and usually serves as the host of a fungus which gives the vines a blackened or sooty appearance when the lice are present in large numbers The wingless aphids attain maturity in about a week and immediately be gin to reproduce their kind In this way a very rapid multiplication takes place and the immense quantity of sap extracted from the plants soon ex hausts the vines This insect probably winters both in the winged viviparous form or in that of eggs deposited by a sexed form developing late in the seasonthus com pleting the circuit According to Dr Smith this species in fests many other common forms of vege tation as cotton the strawberry pepper grass dock dandelion plantain chick weed red clover etc This being the case it is very difficult to exterminate the pest by preventive measures so long as such convenient winter quarters and propagating grounds exist in every fence corner It is useless to advise that all such vegetation be cleaned up This sounds very nicely in theory but is almost impossible to put thoroughly into practice Rotation of course is of great assistance in this case as well as in every other instance where either insects or fungous affections are to be met and battled with and is strenu ously urged While quite effective however in most cases it becomes less so when the pest is of such a nature as to be independent of the protection which the area of the field itself affords and may rest securely through the winter along every fence row or roadway The only direct remedies are Carbon bisulphide Kerosene or Whale Oil Soap Aphids are of course suckers not chewershence the arsenites are with them of no value 1 Carbon bisulphide This is said to be a swift and certain remedy but re quires some previous preparation to administer as well as some little outlay A teaspoonful to the hill is sufficient to exterminate every louse on the vines the cost is not great it comes in liquid form in bottles or carboys if desired is not difficult to apply and is entirely harmless to human beings when its fumes are inhaled though its odor is far from pleasant Any small vessel the size of a diminutive saucer or even a butterplate is sufficient to hold the dose for a hillin new Jersey they use clam shells The preparation and chief cost consists in the covers necessary to confine its vapor for it is ex tremely volatile As the application has usually to be made while the vines are small two barrel hoops will make a convenient frameone cut in two Tbe Melon Louse after SmithANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 341 and the pieces crossed in the shape of a dome or a dish coverthe second used whole as a rim Cover with 8 oz duck steeped in linseed oil A hundred or so of these covers will enable a couple of men to go over quite a large area very rapidly as by the time they have set the last cover the liquid under the first will have evaporated and it may be removed This remedy is better adapted perhaps to the use of the large commercial grower than to the small planter as he can more readily afford the expense of the preparationespecially when the process is certain to prove effective and he will probably save his crop thereby 2 Kerosene This may be uaed either in the form of Kerosene Emulsion though this is now beginning to fall into disuseor pure by the Weed Mix ing Process The standard formula for Kerosene Emulsion is as follows KEROSENE EMULSION 8 ounces hard soap Ivory or Whale Oil 1 gallon boiling water 1 quart kerosene Dissolve the soap in the water add the kerosene and pump back into itself over and over again vrith a cheap force pump in a barrel until the mixture emulsifies or thickens to the consistency of cream Then dilute with zy2 gallons of hot water This gives a M5 proportion of kerosene and this formula will readily emulsify in ten minutes with either hard or soft water which will not be the case if a larger proportion of kerosene to water is used than that given Better however than the emulsion form because more simply prepared is a 1 to 15 mixture of Kerosene and water forming a temporary emulsion as it issues from the nozzle of the sprayer by means of the Weed Kerosene Tank manufactured by the Deming Co of Salem Ohio and attached to either a knapsack sprayer or an ordinary bucket pump It is such an infinite improvement over the wearisome churning necessary to prepare Kerosene Emulsion that it cannot be too earnestly recommended though a little more care should be taken with it in guarding against damage to tender foliage This method of temporarily emulsifying Kerosene is the invention of Prof Howard Evarts Weed formerly of the Mississippi Experiment Station and is accomplished by filling the sprayer with pure water and the tank attachment with Kerosene regulating the proportion of the latter by the graduated lever or scale accompanying the attachment Temporary emulsification or a condition approaching it is thus effected automatic ally as the combined flow of oil and water issues from the nozzle and while pro ducing practically the same results attained by the use of the standard emulsion is much more speedy simple and economical Bucket Form of Weed Kerosene Sprayer342 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA and is for these reasons destined to largely if not entirely supersede the latter This Station has employed it the past two seasons with marked suc cess against the aphis on apple trees whose leaves appear to stand a mix ture of even I to 6 without injury 3 Whale Oil Soap This preparation is even less costly than Kerosene and almost as effective A proportion of 1J lbs soap to a gallon of water is fre quently found sufficiently strong to clear the plants of the lice Should it not do so increase to 2 lbs Use hot water in making the solution but do not spray until cooled down to a temperature below bloodheat c The Striped Cucumber BeetleDiabroiica vittala Fabr This is a small beetle about a quarter of an inch long yellow with three longitudinal stripes The insect appears early in the spring and attacks the young vines as they come up The larvse also burrow into the roots inflicting great damage in this way Tobacco dust and airslaked lime dusted on the young plants are fairly satisfactory remedies Paris Green is better either dusted dry with airslaked lime plaster or flour one part of Paris Green to twenty of the mediumor sprayed as previously described4 oz of Paris Green to 50 gal lons of water Mixed with Bordeaux Mixture in the same proportion as with water Paris Green can be more safely sprayed than with water alone as the lime by its neutralizingcucuMBER effect renders the application less injurious to foliage This fterLowe will not of course affect the larvre while in their burrows and hence the pinch or so of Nitrate of Soda advised under the head of Fertil ization will prove of great service as a safeguard against this pest by giving the young plants a quick send off d The Flea Beetle Crepidodera cucumeris Harris This beetle like all of its kind is diminutivefrom jV to TV of an inch in lengthblack or practically so to the naked eye with very powerful hind legs rendering it extremely active It feeds on the young plants in the spring after maturing under rubbish and stones The mature insect eats the upper surface of the leaves in irregular patches and the larva are said to burrow their way through the interior of the leaf structure under the surface Remedies are the same as for the Striped Cucumber Beetle SCHEDULE OP PRECAUTIONARY OPERATIONS From the foreging it will be readily inferred that the lot of the commercial melon grower is not a happy one and that in order to protect himself with certainty against all insect depredators he must take it for granted that they will each visit him in turn and will hence find it advisable to put into operation the following synopsized schedule ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 343 1 Apply a pinch of Nitrate of Soda to each hill as soon as the young plants are up This to insure full vigor and power of resistance to all enemies as they arrive on the scene 2 Spray with Paris Green4 oz to 50 gals waterat intervals of a week for two or three sprayings This for the Melon Worm striped Cucumber Beetle and Flea Beetle 3 Spray intermediately at intervals of a week midway between the arsen ite sprayings with a 1 to 15 mixture of kerosene and water Kerosene Emulsion same strength or Whale Oil Soap 2 lbs to the gallon may be used instead if the Melon Louse is found to have located on the plants Carbon bisulphide may be used in obdurate cases or where the planting is sufficient large to justify it Should these steps be taken the grower may be reasonably certain of saving his crop and as they are not very costly it will be found to well rfpay the effort and outlay 15 VARIETIES For shipping many different varieties have from time to time contested for first place Perhaps the melon best known to the markets of the North and West is the Georgia Rattlesnake and at the head of this strain stands the sub variety known the country over as the Augusta Rattlesnake This distinction it has enjoyed for many year and deservedly but of late its popularity has begun to subside and other famous shippers are coming to the front For a long time the Kolb Gem seemed destined to to supersede it as a popular ship per But in its turn it has had to share the market with Jones Jumbo and Duke Jones followed by Lord Bacon which is unquestionably the most notable recent introduction and appears to have come to stay It is a solid thick rined excellent shipper and keeper and of good quality If forced to list the three best melons for shipping purposes it would be safe to rank Lord Bacon at the head closely followed by Kolb Gem and Augusta Rattlesnake with Jones Jumbo a good fourth None of these are of first qual ity but they will all get thereif its anywhere within a thousand miles and sell too after they have arrived It is not so easy a task to decide on what variety is best in quality and superior for the local market or the home table Taste varies greatly and so do the characteristics of the different varieties from season to season while soil local climatology and other conditions present another set of disturbing factors The following are recommended as from very good to excellent in quality of good size and sufficiently reliable in productiveness and other features to warrant a careful test Sibleys Triumph Seminole Dixie Jordans Gray Monarch Phinneys Early Part III of this Bulletin contains a descrip tive list of melons which may be consulted for details The Station has this year no seed for either sale or distribution344 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA SUMMARY 1 Soil and LocationA warm light sandy loam well drained is the SShetSleS Wat6rmel0n 1S mUCh mre Pelar 2 RoTATioNThis is allimportant Under no circumstances should mel ons follow melons and at least four seasons should intervene before the land is again devoted to this crop 3 PREPAEATioNShould be thorough but not necessarily deep as the onosb P ke rsufacefeederscompete iSLZ One breaking and two effective harrowings with a cutaway or even a memal fertilizer u a compound of 400 pounds nitrate of soda 800 pounds add phosphate and 200 pounds muriate or sulphate of potash ulTh rate of 700 pounds and upwards per acre AntrapinL of nitrate of soda to each hill mt after the plants have appeared will give them a good send 6 PiANTiNGShould be done by hand and should be shallow Plentv of 1 tr8 beffe hn gr thLCnrTA7KfnerthepantSare UP ty should be thinned down to ion sho Th l d afterwards to one or at most two vines Cultiva ted nir be8ha7wllh culvator or scrape Vines should never be turned nor should the crop be plowed during the early forenoon When it cTeSATTytGtUrnVineS t0g6t tbe Plow through cultivation should 72 i V brtadaStlng of cowpeas at last cultivation is advisable to pre ent winds from tumbling and rolling the vines 8 Gathering and MarketingPlantings for shipment should be directly on a line of railroad the melons should always be hauled on springs to the oTZZZty Cff lhB Prflt d6PendS abS0UteI Q tbe PPerfele on ZmLT ff r thlS PUrpSe the American Fruit Growers Union will be found ot inestimable value to the shipper 9 Early MelonsThese may be forced by starting under glass in paper A rtion oS8H traDSpanting mediately after danger from frost isTer iuUhl I SeW6r Plpe SUnk PePendiculary into the hill through 10 Late MELONsMelons may be had at Christmas by selecting a thick rinded vanety planting late in June handling carefulhwhen pulled nl storing on some dry yielding substance like cottonseed hulls in acoofceilar here the temperature is uniform and can never drop below f eezingANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 345 12 Economic ValueThe watermelon must be considered essentially a luxury It has not proved of practical value for anything but table use It cannot be profitably converted into either syrup sugar or vinegar and is almost worthless except as a digestive in stock feeding 13 Insect EnemiesThese are mainly four a The Melon Wormdestroying only the leaves of the watermelon but both the foliage and fruit of the cantaloupe b The Melon Louseinjuring the foliage only c The Striped Cucumber BeetleThe mature insect attacking the young vines as they come up and the grub attacking the roots d The Flea Beetleattacking in its mature state the surface of the leaves while its grub burrows into their interior structure 14 Remedies1 A pinch of Nitrate of Soda at each hill when plants come up to give them a good send off and put them rapidly beyond reach of damage 2 Spray with Paris Green4 ounces to 50 gallonsat intervals of a week for three weeks against the melon worm striped cucumber beetle and flea beetle or dust with Paris Green one part to 20 of flour or lime 3 Spray intermediately with Kerosene Emulsion or a 1 to 15 mixture of kerosene and water for the melon louse AVhale Oil Soap may also be used 2 pounds to the gallonor carbon bisulphide in obdurate cases 15 Varietiesa For shipping Lord Bacon is recommended as first choice followed by Kolb Gem and Augusta Rattlesnake b For family use Seminole Sibleys Triumph Jordans Gray Monarch and Ramsay c For early melons Memphis Augusta Sugarloaf Augusta Rattlesnake d For late melons Boss Scalybark Sweetheart HUGH N STARNES Horticulturist346 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA Bulletin issued by Georgia Experiment Station By H N Staknes Horticulturist IRISH POTATOES PART ICTJLTURK INTRODUCTORY North of the Potomac and the Ohio whenever use is made of the word potato it is universally understood to refer to the Irish potatoSolatium tuberosumwhiv at the South a very different meaning is attached Here the word potato always refers to the Sweet potatoBatatas echriis Speak to a Yermonter or a Michi gander of potatoes and his mind instantly reverts to Irish pota toes no suggestion of Sweet potatoes is conveyed unless they are specifically mentioned To him a potato is a potatoan Irish potatoand he only attaches the generic term to the Sweet potato through courtesy To a Georgian or Louisianaian a potato is also a potatoa Sweeet potatoand that any reference is intended to the Irish potato does not occur to him though like his Northern brother he is also ready on occasion to apply the generic term potato as a matter of court esy to Sir Walter Raleighs invaluable contribution to the dietary of the world Nor is this surprising when we consider causes At the North Irish potatoes are everywhere a field cropin some sections the staple money cropwhile Sweet potatoes when grown at all are merely an incidental At the South exactly the reverse is the case The Sweet potato is here much more extensively grown than the Irish potato though seldom rising to the dignity of a staple except in trucking centers or around the larger cities where its importance is also contested by the Irish potato Yet through theANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 347 rural districts the latter dwindles always to a small garden plat for home use while there are few farmers who fail to plant enough Sweet potatoes to afford a small surplus for market after the family table is supplied All general customs are founded on some rational basis At the North the short summer throws the harvesting of the Irish potato crop into the fall when the weather is cool and the question of preservation a simple problem Marketing too at living figures is also possibleat least by shipping southward for the Southern crop harvested in early summer and at that time a local drug on the market has by fall become exhausted The Sweet potato crop on the contrary like cotton has the advantage of growing and thriving through the long Southern sum mer and harvested in the late fall is in such abundance as tc preclude the possibility of a sale of Northern grown Sweet potatoes at the South While this has probably been the cause of the difference of choice by the two sections in their respective selections a gradual tenden cy at the South to plant more largely in Irish potatoes has of late developed This to a great extent is due to the dis covery in this section of the possibilities of the second or summer erop An increasing demand from the North for seed tubers of the summer planting for the spring crop in that section is yearly becoming more manifest and this has doubtless stimulated effort in this direction Formerly it was considered almost an impossibility to secure a regular and uniform stand for the second crop but the practice of bedding selected tubers of the spring crop for seed and the intro duction of the Lookout Mountain potato which will keep in per fect condition from October to August seem to have entirely re moved the problem of securing a uniform stand and now bid fair to render the Southern fall crop a rival of no mean pretensions to the first and only crop of the North in the winter markets of the South348 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA PREPARATION The Irish potato responds abnormally to deep and thorough plow ing and pulverizationso abnormally as to lead a few years since to the development by that distinguished agricultural writer and experimenterElbert S Carman of the Rural New Yorkerof the trench system which he regarded as destined to completely solve the problem of successful potato culture To those familiar with the habits of the potato this appeared quite probable though many apparently misunderstanding Mr Carmans suggestions have found fault with his system alleging that it calls for the con struction of an open trench or ditch from five to seven inches deep and from twelve to fifteen inches wide the bottom well pulverized that the seed pieces are to be planted on this bottom and covered some two inches deep with soil upon which the fertilizer is applied and the trench filled Such is the popular idea of Mr Carmans trench and the public so impressed holds and justly were it true that a ditch of these dimensions could not be constructed by the plow or any other known implement or machine and the work would hence have to be done entirely by hand which would render it absolutely impracticable on account of the enormous ex pense attached to such an excavation It is true that the trenches constructed by Mr Carman in his individual experimentation as detailed in his very comprehensive work on the Irish potato were made by hand but this was in the prosecution of an important test and on a comparatively small scale He is not to be understood however in advising the public to undertake shovel work in field culture Practical trenching as advocated by him for large areas appears to be merely a process of thorough subsoiling and opening out in which the plow alone figures With this interpretation the trench system will find no lack of endorsers Two trips along the row with a turn plow throwing out the dirt to the right and left followed by three trips with a subsoiler or long scooter breaking the soil thoroughly for ten or twelve inches and the row subsequently opened out by two trips with a wide shovel plow woidd not only prove feasible but intenseANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 34 ly practical and while probably appearing to the average cultivator a needless waste of good mule power would triumphantly vindi cate itself in the end and substantially fulfil the requirements of Jlr Carmans trench1 No land that is not peculiarly adapted to Irish potatoes should be employed in their culture It will not pay to try to raise them on a poor thin stiff soil Select a good loose sandy loam with a stiff clay subsoil Turn this in the fall or early winter thor oughly subsoilingif possible with two mules It is better to break with one animal and subsoil with two than to reverse the process if three animals are available At planting time harrow and well pulverize the surface soil Lay off furrows as previously indicated After the second shovel furrow is run the trench will be about four or five inches deep and ready for planting soft and mellow to a depth of six or seven inches more The fertilizer or half of it as described under the next head should be put in before the subsoiling is commenced in order to secure thorough mixing during the process When the seed tubers are placed in position the simplest way 1 The following extract from a letter from Mr Carman to the writer since the foregoing was penned may throw additional light on the matter Thanks for the interest you take in our Trench system I would not per haps subsoil as you state except upon clay or heavy soils About eight inches is as deep as we spade or plow In field culture a drag may be used to return an inch or so of the soil to the bottom of the trenches so that the seed pieces may be about six or even but four inches below the surface when the trenches are filled I would sow the fertilizer just after trenching and before the drag is used to return several inches of soil to the bottom Really the cost of this method when one has suitable implements is little more than an excellent fitting of the soil for potatoes in the old way The trench seems to conserve moisture to distribute the fertilizer just where the plant needs it and to insure in a measure against the pressure and compactness of the soil after alternate rain and drouth I do not pretend to understand just why this method gives me from twice to four times as much crop as my neigh bors get who generally fertilize in the hill hilling up with every cultivation It is however the truth Again the tubers raised by the trench method seem to be more shapely and less affected with scab Many people who try it do not give it a thorough test A simple trench wide furrow or ditch is not enough I have often wished that the Experiment Stations would give it careful trial beside potatoes planted fertilized and cultivated in the usual way With best wishes Sincerely yours E S Carman350 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA will be to cover by a board on the end of the plowstocka familiar and effective implement for covering purposes to most Georgia farmers The board should be run very lightly on one side of the furrow only sifting in about two inches of soil and just covering the potatoes On this the remaining fertilizer should be drilled and the furrows filled with the board by brushing in the undis turbed dirt on the other side of the row FERTILIZER The Irish potato requires a complete fertilizer but one very rich in Potash The formula succeeding best at this Station has been found to be High Grade Acid Phosphate 1200 lbs Nitrate of Soda 500 lbs Muriate of Potash 300 lbs 2000 lbs 1ms would analyze Phosphoric Acid about 80 per cent Nitrogen about 37 per cent Potash about 75 per cent This should be applied at the rate of 1000 lbs per acre costing per ton about 2340 half in the furrow before planting mixing thoroughly with the scooter furrows run while subsoiling before the row is opened up for planting with the shovel plow and the other half after planting and covering but before the furrow is quite filled up thus dividing the fertilizer equally above and below the seed If the crude ingredients specified are not all obtainable the same proportions of plant food may be practically supplied by taking any good highgrade standard commercial fertilizer analyz ing some S per cent Phosphoric Acid 3 per cent Nitrogen and 1 per cent Potash or more and to each ton adding 250 lbs Muri ate of Potash If Muriate cannot be obtained conveniently 1 000 lbs Kaimt may supply its place Stable manure is not advised It has generally been consideredANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 351 conducive to scab and it is probably true the germs of the bacter ium causing this affection are quite frequently conveyed by it At any rate it certainly harbors myriads of woodlice which oftentimes complete the work of the deep scab by increasing the size and depth of the holes it produces in the tubers Land already rich in humus or vegetable mold from previous treatment with cowpeas is much to be preferred Such land with the commercial fertilizer recommended should produce excellent results Dividing the fertilizerhalf under before planting and half over at the time of coveringappears to give better results than when applied either all over or all under though under application is pref erable to over application when all of the fertilizer is put in at one time SEED PIECES AND DISTANCE Rows three feet apart and seed pieces cut to a weight of 1 ounces or an equivalent sizeapproximating quarter medium tubers or twoeye piecesappear to give the best results Two and a half foot rows is too close a distance for the drouthy spring weather of this part of the South and four foot rows is a waste of ground As for seed pieces while authorities and experience vary greatly it is probable that what are generally known as twoeye pieces or pieces whose weight will approximate an ounce or an ounce and a halfwill taking into consideration the amount necessary for seed produce the largest net results The yield of tubers appears to be within certain limits directly dependent upon the number of stalks in the hill and the number of stalks is again dependent upon the size of the seed piece whether a whole or a divided tuber and not upon the number of eyes con tained in the seed piece While at the North whole tubers up to four or five ounces in weight seem to make the heaviest yields at a distance of two and a half feet in the hill it is found that a closer distance diminishes the proportion of merchantable tubers to small tubers while increasing the total yield At the South one foot352 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA in the drill is found preferable to hill culture and hence it will not pay to use very large seed pieces either whole or divided at this distance Therefore the use of quarter medium potatoes or pieces averaging an ounce or an ounce and a half in weight irrespective of the number of eyes is recommended This would require from 12 to 18 bushels per acre for seeding while whole tubers averaging six ounces each would require at the same distance 72 bushels Nevertheless where very early potatoes are desired it may pay to use whole tubers exclusively of a size ranging from four to six ounces Such seed at a moderate distancesay 18 to 20 inches would produce a very heavy crop and a very early one since there is an abundance of plant food readily available in the starchy mat ter of the potato which will last the young shoots until their fibrous rootlets have developed sufficiently to reach out and forage for themselves in the surrounding soil In this way the crop is pushed rapidly forward in its infancy On the other hand the smaller the seed pieces the sooner this natural reservoir of plant food is exhausted and hence the soil where small seed pieces are used must be proportionately richer and in better condition than is neces sary with larger pieces in order to give them a good send off An appreciation of this fact will be of vital importance to the trucker In this connection it is well to state that it is far better to cut to a uniform weight in ounces or fractions thereof than to use the old standard of measurement by eyes Experiments have proved that the number of stalks springing from a seed piece is not depen dent upon the number of eyes the piece contains but upon its weightthat is its reservoir of immediately available plant food If the seed piece is small and there are many eyes only as many as the piece can sustain will develop surplus eyes will remain dor mant Therefore weight or size in the seed piece is all important and eyes become a secondary consideration Nor will the fact that an eye is bisected while quartering a tuber necessarily destroy the eye If divided at all evenly both sides of the dissected eye will grow and each put out about as many shoots separately as the undivided eye would have done reinforced by the same sized seed pieceANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 353 This is readily explainable by taking into consideration the fact that the Irish potato tuber is not an enlarged root as usually sup posed but a thickened stem of which the eyes are embryo buds not simple but compound budsin effect a group of buds of which ordinarily only one or two will grow and develop On divis ion however if even one perfect embryo is left on either seed piece as strong a growth will take place as if the eye had been un touched Therefore in cutting seed pieces it will be well so sort the me dium tubers averaging from four to six ounces and divide into quarters without regard to mutilated eyes or their number or any thing else except expedition In sorting to size an effective implement will be found in the Hoover Potato Sorter whose work of operation is fully indicated in the subjoined figure It can be obtained from Messrs Hoover Prout Co of Avery Ohio and costs about 1500 The Hoover Potato Sorter 23 a354 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA CUTTING SEED PIECES There is a popular fallacy that stalks from the seed end of tha tuber the end farthest froiu the stalk produce fewer and smaller potatoes than those from the stem end or end nearest the stalk though some growers claim precisely the reverse As a matter of fact it makes not the slightest difference whether the seed piece is taken from one end or the other or from the middle of the tuber or even if it is cut longitudinally and contains portions of all three The only governing factor is weight Therefore all efforts to divide the tuber in such manner as to throw a portion of the eyes from either end into each seed piece cut is just so much thrown away To fully understand this it may be well to give some idea of the general construction and formation of tbe potato tuber Phis according to Prof Jos C Arthur of the Indiana Experiment Sta tion is found when split sectionally to consist mostly of starchy material but extending around the edge of the section at a short distance from it and bending up to meet the eyes at all points is a WOdy fibrous ring or diaphragm whose principal function is to serve as an available channel for the transmission or conduction of water but which also gives strength and support to the tuber This wood ring extends not only through the structure of the tuber but through that of the entire plant both inside and out side the wood ring is the starchbearing part of the tuberthe reservoir of plant food previously referred to Extending from the stem end to the terminal eye or bud is a pithy cellular tract containing little starch but a great deal of water Eadiating from this central tract to the different eves are subtracts which Prof Arthus terms pith rays Now it is quite frequently asserted by unscientific writers posses sing only a partial knowledge of the structure of the potato here detailed that in preparing seed pieces the tuber should be cut slant ingly from the center toward the terminal group of eyes in such manner that the lateral pith ray leading to each eye shall be preserved intactANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1S98 355 This theory originated under the mistaken impression that the pith rays were ducts or conduits for the transmission of nutri ment from the starchy portions of the seed pieces to the growing hud This as Prof Arthur states lias led to the invention of a concave and curved knife for cutting seed potatoes for planting which is really a convenient and serviceable knife for the purpose The value of the knife depends upon the fact that it permits the potato to be cut in such shape that each eye is provided with the Humphreys Potato Knife1 largest practicable portion of the tuber in the most compact form and not that there is any special vital tract to be preserved If any one part beside the eye is more essential to full growth than another it must be the wood ring which facilitates the passage of nutrient juices from the seed tuber to the young plant All the common methods of cutting potatoes preserve this except the occasional and unsatisfactory one of taking their parings Therefore the conclusion is obvious and inevitable that sufficient size is all that it is necessary to consider in cutting seed pieces Before the tubers are cut however they should be immersed in a solution of Corrosive Sublimate as described in detail hereafter for the purpose of preventing scab 1 This illustration was kindly lent by Mr D S Humphrey of 2298 Euclid Ave Cleveland O the inventor of the Curved and Concave Potato Knife Tvhich is however now handled by J C Vaughn seedsman Chicago356 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA DEPTH TO PLANT Tour inches appear to give the best results closely followed by a depth of three five and six inches in the order named Little difference however is observable between any of these depths which is contrary to the long conceived opinion that for the first crop the deeper the seed were planted the better With the second crop the conditions are entirely changed It was formerly deemed necessary to both plant and cover deep under the impression that only in this way could sufficient moisture be obtained for germination and growth But experience has proved that tubers so planted fail in many instances to germinate at all On the other hand if planted too shallow the tubers sunscald Hence it is best with the second crop to plant deepsay five inches but to cover lightly at first with perhaps two inches of soil gradually working the dirt in around the growing plants as cul tivation proceeds This will be again referred to under the head of Summer Planting TIME TO PLANT This is a matter for individual determination depending of course upon climatic conditions as affected by latitude or location and season It is desirable that potatoes be planted as early as possible in this latitude not only to secure early tubers but in order to have the crop matured before the hot weather of early summer Hence it is well to get them in as soon as possible after all reason able danger from heavy freezes has passed In lower Georgia the latter part of February will do on the averageand the time ranges through the four weeks of March for Middle and Upper Georgia into the first days of April for the mountains CULTIVATION This should be rapid and thorough and on a level The best implement for the purpose is the Planet Jr Cultivator shown in the cut below This simple but effective implement has been be fore recommended by the Station not only for horticultural andANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 357 trucking use but for field crops as well It may be obtained of the Southern Farm Tool Co of Atlanta Mulching in the row without cultivation does not with any material yield a sufficient increase over clean culture to pay for the extra expense of hauling the material and harvesting the crop With the fall crop it pays much better than with the spring crop Ridging is also less profitable than level culture Mulching with pine straw oak leaves or with stable bedding in the row after the seed have been covered to the depth of an inch or so and subsequent cultivation in the ordinary manner gives a better yield than clean culture but it is doubtful if it will pay for the extra labor required in accumulating the material un less in a very dry season Cotton seed hulls as a mulch are not satisfactory They are not sufficiently absorptive A common mode of planting garden patches which is of course not practicable in field culture is what may be termed the broad cast method and consists in running a furrow after the land is prepared with a turn plow and dropping the seed therein at 18 inch intervals This is covered with the plow by running another furrow alongside the first in which seed are also droppedand so on through the plat which is mulched with pine straw of whatever material may be most available for the purpose and left unculti vated through the season The yield by this method is greater than the same area would produce under ordinary culture owing In great measure to the conservation of moisture by the mulch but there is not a very great net difference after deducting the excess of seed used while the labor of harvesting which must be done entirely by hand is terrific It is a good plan for the second crop in gardens but will never prove available for field areas HARVESTING Ordinarily in tbis state except in lower Georgia from the first to the last of June the crop is ready for digging Of course on the coast and near the Florida line it matures earlier However if not particularly wanted for early marketing it may be well to wait until the first of July before diggingor at all events until358 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA the hot weather and the Hacrosporium a fungus which will be referred to in its proper place combine to put an end to active growth Experiments have proved that much loss is entailed by the pre mature harvesting of the potato crop and that the size of the tubers increases daily during the last month of this growth which of course means a daily increase in the amount of the crop up to the period of arrested growth It has also been shown that where they are affected by Scab there is little if any increase of the fungus after growth has ceased Therefore a maximum yield will be realized by deferring harvesting to full maturity Planet Jr Cultivator Necessarily when a planting is made for early sales time is of vastly more importance than a maximum yield and the tubers should be dug as soon as marketable The usual method of harvesting in this section is with the plow assisted sometimes by pronghoes used by hand This is of course a crude process and suitable only for small areas Tt will be found economical to employ a potato harvester if planting is done on a large scale There are many different patents of potato harvesters but perhaps the best will be found to be that manufact ured by Hoover Prout Co of Avery Ohio as shown in theANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 35 91 above figure This implement cannot be used in stumpy or very rocky ground and is difficult to manipulate in stiff soil but in an unobstructed deep sandy loamthe only kind of soil naturally adapted to the potato burrows under the row without difficulty and sifts the soil through its ribs which arrest and turn the tubers out behind in a continuous stream clear of dirt vines or other trash A much cheaper and simpler digger though of course not so efficient is the Planet Jr manufactured by Messrs S L Allen Co 1107 Market St Philadelphia This however will do the work and is within the means of small growers The former costs about 12500 the latter 1600 Hoovek Potato Digger In digging one point should be observed the sun should be al lowed to fall on the tubers as little as possible It is better to transfer as gathered direct to barrels which should stand in the shade or be conveyed to a dark cool place If not convenient to do this the potato piles should be made in the shade and never heaped in the sun on any account Instead of baskets which bruise the tubers unmercifully with the keen edges of the woven whiteoak splits of which they are formed shallow wooden boxes or trays with handholes should be used in picking up This holds good for sweet potatoes as well as for Irish360 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA Planet Je Potato Digger SUMMER CROP As previously stated this crop has recently assumed great prom inence for several reasons 1 It has been demonstrated that it can be grown successfully 2 A steady demand has sprung up for fall grown seed for the spring crop from both North and South 3 Its possibility as a competitor with the Northern crop for consumption in Southern markets is beginning to be realized Formerly the difficulty was to obtain a perfect stand The planting of the second crop was generally accomplished by throw ing back the culls whole into the furrow made at digging time As many of the tubers so used were immature they failed to sprout and even matured tubers were usually covered so deep that stand more or less imperfect was obtained Moreover the first crop was dug in early summer generally in June and this was too early for planting in this latitude as the almost inevitable mid summer drouths were of course prejudicial to vigorous develop ment Hence the general complaint in regard to the failure of this crop irrespective of the imperfect stand Afterwards partial attempts were made to select matured and perfect tubers for planting by spreading the potatoes from the first crop on barn or cellar floors under houses or even in the open air in shady places for some weeks and then choosing such tubers as appeared sound and viable This while producing an improve ment in the stand was by no means entirely satisfactory ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 361 Of late however that distinguished horticulturist W F Massey of the North Carolina Experiment Station has urged upon the pub lic the advisability of bedding selected potatoes from the first crop in a manner somewhat similar to that employed for sweet potatoes in the spring JSTo hotbed however is prepared the manure used for this purpose in sweet potato bedding being omitted The tubers are merely covered with a couple of inches of dirt after drying for a few weeks in a cool place and about the middle of August are exhausted arid only those showing a tendency to sprout selected These are planted whole in the row in the usual way but covered at first with only two inches of soil The dirt is worked in gradually afterwards during the process of cultivation In this way a perfect stand may be obtained and the growing crop set at a time when there is usually enough moisture to start a vigorous growth besides ena bling it to escape the Macrosporium or Early Blight which in variably affects the first crop if untreated and which would prob ably also fasten on the second if planted earlier than here advised Prof Massey at first advocated the planting of whole tubers ex clusively for the second crop but afterward qualified this advice What his final conclusion was does not appear but experimentation in this State seems to point to the use of whole tubers only and this course is unhesitatingly recommended A peculiar advantage of the fall crop consists in the fact that the potatoes may be left in this latitude in the rows where they are grown the greater portion of the winter and marketed at leisure simply by throwing on each row a heavy list with a turn plow as many of our farmers are now in the habit of keeping their turnips and beets But where planting is conducted on a large scale or where the time of the trucker is occupied in midsummer by other and exact ing work rendering the careful preparation and selection neces sary in the bedding process a matter of serious loss of time and extreme inconvenience another alternative is presented This is the use of seed from the fall crop of a local variety known as the Lookout Mountain and which is attracting much attention in this State at present This variety will wdien dug in October keep362 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA unsprouted through the entire spring and well into the summer and if allowed to remain undug in thje listed furrow well into the winter and then carefully stored in tight barrels in a cool dark cellar will be almost entirely unsprouted at planting time in August The use of this variety is of special value to those who plant a large fall crop hut find a spring crop unprofitable Such growers are enabled atsmall cost to secure seed that will produce a perfect stand without undergoing the expense and annoyance of raising and bedding them The Lookout Mountain is a potato said to have originated in Northwest Georgia as its name indicates and is probably a seedling from the Hoosier which it much resembles and which shares with it to some extent its remarkable keeping qualities It is quite large oblong and of excellent qualitypure white mealy and of unsur passed flavor and richness If it has a fault it is unproductiveness though in its native locality this is denied and there are current stories of its marvelous yields Its peculiarity however is that it will not do well planted as a spring crop but seems to be espe cially predestined for its present missionsummer planting Its growth is extremely upright and vigorous with dark green foliage almost entirely exempt from the inroads of the Macrosporium fun gus As stated it is not recommended for spring planting but put in in the middle of August cut to seed pieces as in the spring plant ing it germinates freely produces a perfect stand and is in every way desirable It may be obtained of II II Arrington seedsman Summerville Chattooga county Qa at prices no greater than those ruling in season for the different standard varieties Of course if not kept in a cool dark place it will begin to sprout by August 1st but if so kept will prove perhaps even more satisfac tory than bedded seed tubers of the first crop A careful com parison of the one with the other until the question of their re spective availability is definitely settled will be a part of the work of this Station the next and succeeding yearsANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR J898 363 PART IIAFFECTIONS AND REMEDIES These are of two kinds Fungoid affections and those produced by insects As is the case with nearly all vegetable life the former class is by far the most injurious and hence a few of the maladies arising therefrom will be first discussed Perhaps the most widespread of all is the POTATO SCAB OospOra Scabies For a long time the cause of this maladyas extensive as the cultivation of the potato itselfwas unknown and various agen cies were charged with producing it By some it was supposed to be caused by an excess of lime in the soil or because the land was too wet too stiff or otherwise unsuitable by others it was as cribed to the free use of stable manure while from time to time divers insects have been erroneously saddled with the blame It is due mainly to the investigations of Prof IT L Bolley of the North Dakota Experiment Station and of Dr Roland Thaxter of the Connecticut Station that the origin of the Scab is now under stood and the means of successfully combating it simplified Briefly it is found to be due to the inroads of a bacteroid fungus Oospora scabies This fungus or perhaps more properly bacter ium is generally conveyed and communicated to the growing crop by the seed tubers in which it has made a lodgment and this may be the case even when the tubers are perfectly smooth and apparent ly free from affection At first there were supposed to be two distinct kinds of Scab the Surface and Deep Scab but of late they have been re garded as merely separate phases of the same malady though pos sibly in the case of Deep Scab exaggerated by the operations of wood lice in the pits or holes which the bacteria form Both ap pear to be identical with a similar affection of the beet Either if at all advanced serves to render the affected tubers more or less unfit for market and in many severely contaminated sections operates as a veritable scourge Fortunately the remedies though preventive only are quite sim ple and effective In the first place as the bacteria of Scab may364 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA remain some time in the soil it is necessary to adopt a strict system of crop rotation Potatoes should never occupy the same plat two years in succession and it would be better if the rotation could be so effected as to avoid the necessity for planting the same land in this crop oftener than every four or five years Tn the second place only perfectly smooth and apparently un affected tubers should be selected for seed These should be well washed If it is not intended to treat them further they should be lightly scoured with a scrubbingbrush though not bruised or scratched This alone will doubtless to a great extent diminish the evil The tubers however when washed if complete immun ity is intended should be immersed before cutting in a solution of Corrosive Sublimate Mercuric bichloride Prof Arthur who has closely investigated the subject advises a strength of 1 to 1000 parts of water or cz to 7 gallons and immersion therein for If hours with sound tubersa somewhat shorter time with sprouted ones that their germinating power may not be destroyed However Prof Byron D Halstead of the New Jersey Stationhas come to the con clusion after repeated tests that a weaker solution and a longer im mersion are productive of better results He recommends a solu tion of onefourth the strength advised by Prof Arthur or 1 part of Corrosive Sublimate to 4000 parts of water which is equal to 1 oz Corrosive Sublimate to 30 gallons water and an immersion of four hours It must be noted that Corrosive Sublimate is a vio lent poison when taken internally though harmless to the skin and should hence be handled with extreme jcare Only wooden earthen vessels should be used in the preparation of the solution and these should be locked up when done with and kept for this purpose only To make the solution purchase one ounce of the pul verized Sublimate or the exact quantity in proportion that is in tended to be usedno more in order that none may be left over It will cost at most druggists 15 cents per oz Thoroughly dissolve hi two gallons of hot water in a cheap wooden bucket Take a 50 gallon barrel and pour into it 28 gallons water into which pour ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 305 the concentrated solution stirring thoroughly It is then ready for use and the barrel will have enough empty space 20 gals to accommodate quite a number of potatoes without overrunning The seed potatoes may be suspended in gunny sacks in the barrel and removed after soaking four hours when their place can be sup plied by others Perhaps a simpler way would be to have two bar rels each provided with a wooden faucet in order that the solu tion may be drawn from one to the other when the potatoes have soaked the requisite time In this case there is no need for sacks as the tubers can be dumped into the barrel while empty and turned out when the solution is drawn off into the second barrel After removal the potatoes should of course be dried before cutting If desired they may be cut before soaking though the reverse is usually the practice While all this appears to entail some trouble it will be found well worth the while to take it since if persisted in after a few years time the dreaded Scab may be entirely eradicated on any farm The process cannot be too strong ly recommended though at the same time the closest care must be observed while handling the solution in the disposal of the vessels and liquid when the work is over If any soaked seed remain im planted they should be buried and care taken that mules do not nibble at the cut tubers in the field during planting There is no danger however of the poison affecting the tubers of the resulting crop In place of Corrosive Sublimate a much safer and almost as effective a preparatiqnBordeaux Mixturemay be used The preparation of this fungicide will be given in detail under the next head It should be used for steeping potatoes in quite a dilute formsay onehalf the strength of the normal formula and the potatoes soaked for three or four hours EARLY BLIGHTMacrosporium solani This is the next most important fungoid affection This like the Scab is very widely distributed over the country It confines its attacks however to the leaves and stems but never affects the tubers Prof B T Galloway Chief of the Division of Vegetable 366 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA Pathology at Washington from whose descriptive treatise the accompanying illustration as well as that of the Late Blight is copied describes its appearance as follows At first the older leaves show grayishbrown spots the affected parts becoming hard and brittle The disease progresses rather slowly the sjots gradually becoming larger especially along the edges of the leaflets At the end of ten days or two weeks half of the leaf surface may be brown withered and brittle while the rest is of a pale yellow color Three weeks or a month may elapse before all the leaves succumb the stems in the meantime remaining green until they finally perish through lack of nourishment The tubers stop growing almost as soon as the leaves are attacked and as a result the crop is practic ally worthless At the Georgia Experiment Station it is found that much less than a month is required to finish up an untreated plat after the Macrosporium first makes its appearance especially when the fun gus is reinforced by a baking drouth nut that dry weather stimu lates the fungus but because the heat f the sun on the partially defoliated and enfeebled stalks quickly completes what the disease has begun When there is also a combination of the Flea Beetle the work of destruction is speedy indeed An effective remedy for the Macrosporium is spraying with Bor deaux Mixture as soon as the plants are well upthat is some sixANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 367 inches highand continuing at intervals of two weeks up to the first of June Other preparations have been used successfully such as Modified Eau Celeste but Bordeaux Mixture appears to fee the universally approved application though sometimes combined with either a soap solution for the benefit of the Flea Beetle or with Paris green for other biting insects Bordeaux Mixture is a combination of Bluestone Copper Sul phate Quick Lime and water the amount and proportion of each varying with the haint purpose or experience of the user The formula here suggested as safest and practically as effective as stronger combinations is as follows 4 lbs Copper Sulphate Bluestone 5 lbs Quick Lime 50 als water Dissolve the Bluestone in two gallons of hot water in an ordinary pine bucket and pour through the copper strainer accompanying every sprayer into a 50gal barrel Slake the Lime slowly in another bucket When all ebullition is over fill up the bucket with water thus diluting to the consistency of a thick whitewash Stir thoroughly and strain slowly into the Bluestone in the barrel stir ring the mixture steadily as the Lime is poured in Fill up the barrel with water and the mixture is ready but must be carefully stirred whenever used and kept constantly agitated in the spraver during the process of spraying This formula will cost less than a cent per gallon The function of the Lime is to prevent the injury to the foliage that would ensue if Bluestone alone was used The latter however is the active fungicide For small field areas and garden work a knapsack sprayer will be found sufficient These hold some six gallons Perhaps the Per fected Galloway Sprayer with Vermorel Nozzle as manufactured by Albinson Co 1689 Gale street X E Washington D C Avill be found the most convenient Other well known dealers in spraying outfits are William Stahl Quincy TIL The Deming Co Salem O and the Goulds Mfg Co Seneca Falls X Y For an extensive acreage a larger outfit will be required and any36S DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA one planting on a large scale will do well to correspond with these or other firms before purchasing since barrel and cart or horse power sprayers are of many sizes patterns and prices and each purchaser must decide for himself what will best meet his require ments While there can be no question as to the efficacy of spraying for the Early Blight it must be confessed that the experiments on this line at the Georgia Station have been disappointingso much so that those for 1894 were not considered sufficiently encouraging to warrant publishing The results for 1895 are scarcely more con clusive as will be noticed further on under the head of Spraying Tests LATE BLIGHT Ptiytopthora infestans Much more serious at the Northespecially in the Eastern States than the Early Blight is the Late Blight because unlike the former it does not confine its attack to the tops but affects the tu bers as well producing rot and widespread loss It is fortunately almost if not quite unknown at the South and hence of no serious importance to growers in this section Here the main crop is har vested in hot weather and it is the Early Blight only that is to be feared How long this will remain the case it is impossible to say for with the increased area now gradually being devoted to the summer crop which matures at about the same time with the spring crop North and under practically the same climatic condi tions it is very probable that this fungus may become in the near future quite a serious factor in our calculations Prof Galloway says of it Generally the first noticeable effect upon the leaves is the sudden appearance of brownish or blackish areas which soon become soft and foul smelling So sudden is the appearance of the disease in some cases that fields which one day look green and healthy may within the next day or two become blackened as though swept by fire The rapid spread of the dis ease is dependent in large measure upon certain conditions of moisture and heat A daily mean or normal temperature of from 72 degrees to 74 degrees E for any considerable time accompaniedANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 369 bv moist weather furnishes the best conditions for the spread of disease On the other hand if the daily mean or normal temper ature exceeds 77 degrees for a few days the development of the disease is checked This fact explains why the potato blight fun gus seldom occurs to any serious extent in sections where the mean or normal daily temperature exceeds for any length of time 77 degrees And this too explains the present exemption of this State from the malady The remedy for the Late Blight is the same as for Early Blightrepeated sprayings with Bordeaux Mix tureand systematic treatment for the one generally results in immunity from the other INSECT PESTS These are more numerous than fungoid affections though per haps not so destructive Among the most troublesome may be ranked in their order 1 The Flea Beetle Ilaltica cucumeris This insect is quite370 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA small its length being about onesixteenth of inchno larger than a good sized fleawhich it also resembles in the extreme enlarge ment of its hind legs and its capacity to leap with such agility and power that like its namesake it is difficult to locate It feeds on the foliage of other cultivated plants besides the potato notably cucurbits from which it derives its scientific name Much of the damage ascribed to the Macrosporium fungus may perhaps be properly charged to the Flea Beetle which sometimes drills the leaves so full of holes that they are very nearly all hole and no leaf Fortunately however it is not so prevalent North as South For a long while it was found difficult to combat it as neither arse nites buhach hellebore nor any other common insecticide seemed to avail Prof S A Beach of the Xew York Geneva Station first dem onstrated that the use of hard soap in solution with Bordeaux Mixt ure would successfully resist their inroads by forming a thin film or coating over the leaf which would remain for weeks or until re newed Six pounds of soap to the barrel 50 gals of Bordeaux is the proper proportion The soap should be mixed with a sufficiency of hot water to thoroughly dissolve it and the soap solution so obtained used to fill up the barrel during the process of Bordeaux manufac ture detailed under a previous head In this way the sprayings made for Early Blight will prove with little additional cost a pre ventive for the Flea Beetle if it chances to be prevalent 2 Blister BeetlesThere are some five different species of these beetles all belonging to the Lytta family of which the Spanish Fly well known to the pharmacopoeia is a member Any of these will blister almost as intensely as tincture of cantharides if similarly prepared For all practical purposes the five separate species may be regard ed as one They feed upon the foliage in the perfect or beetle state only and are harmless as larvae They are difficult to got rid of when prevalent to any great extent It has been BUggested that perhaps the easiest plan is to spread straw between the rows and set it on fire as in this manner vast numbers of the beetles mav be deANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 371 stroyed while the straw is said to burn off so quickly that there is little danger of injuring the growing vines This remedy has never been tried at this Station and we entertain very decided doubts as to its safety The arsenites are much to be preferred to it 3 The Colorado BeetleDoryphora decemlineata This scourge of the West has as yet appeared only sporadicallyat the South and fortunately for the present at least need not be viewed with apprehension Very frequently an alarm is created in certain localities by the announcement that the Colorado Beetle has made its appearance but in nearly every case it turns out that the scare originated by mistaking for him his first cousinthe Bogus Colo Tado Beetle Lema trilineataan insect doing little damage When prevalent however they can be kept in check by the use of the arsenites Baris Green and London Burplepreferably the former either in the form of separate spraying solutions or in con junction with Bordeaux Mixture when used as a fungicide which is by far the most economical method of application Four ounces lb of Baris Green to a barrel 50 gals of Bor deaux is a full strength solution not only for this particular pur pose but for a general insecticide and fungicide combined The Baris Green powder may be either dissolved sepa rately in hot water and added to the Bordeaux Mixt ure in a fluid state or the powder can be mixed with the lime before slaking which is perhaps to be pre ferred Let it be noted that Baris Green like all arsenites is a violent poison and must be handled with the utmost care 4 Potato Stalk WeevilTrichaboris trinotata Only the larvas of this beetle are injurious They bore into the potato stalk and core it out thereby producing premature wilting and death As from their habits and mode of attack it is evident that they can not be reached by ordinary insecticides the remedy that naturally suggests itself is the collection and destruction by fire of the potato 372 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA tops in which the larvae hibernate in vast numbers As they also infest the Jamestown or Jimpson weed Datura stramonium and the Horse Nettle Solarium Carolinense these weeds should be eradicated as far as possible on this account as well as on their own The Jamestown weed however while harboring and propa gating one enemy of the potato may be made while living an ef fective ally in warring against another as will be shown a little further on Therefore it is well to leave a few bushes standing in places where they will not be in the way but the dead stalks after frost should be carefully burned 5 The Potato SphinxSphinx quinque maculata It is the larva of this moth which does the damage Under the name of Tomato Worm which is quite frequently confounded with a closely allied speciesthe Tobacco Wormits fat heavy green body is a familiar object to all gardeners On account of its large size and easy detection handpicking is the simplest remedy As its moth however after sundown haunts the flower of the Stramo nium Jamestown weed it can be poisoned in great numbers by ft few drops of a solution of cobalt in sugared water deposited in the flowers every afternoon PRESERVATION Whatever may be the kind or cause of decay and there are many forms from Dry EndRotFusariumsolanithrough the various wet rots and molds through Bundle Blackening and Inte rior Spotting down to the Internal Brown Rot where the outside is sound while the interior is a mass of putrefaction there seems to have been discovered no remedy that may be either specifically or universally applied with any certainty of success If the tubers through careful spraying have been preserved from the germs of the Late Blight and also contain no traces of Scab the chances are that they will if dug subsequent to full maturity keep free from decay of any kind provided they are handled carefully and stored where they will enjoy a cool uniform temperature Nothing else is apparently of avail and in fact any remedial agent employedANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 373 would be used as it were at haphazard since we would be entirely in the dark as to what specific fungus if any might be lying dor mant in the tubers until it began to make its presence manifest when in all probability remedies would be too late Too much stress cannot be laid on careful handling since a bruised or abraded surface furnishes a much more convenient place of lodgment for the spores of any fungus than where it is sound and unbroken while the mycelium or root is of course enabled lo penetrate such a surface much more readily Care too should Tie taken to have the temperature of the place of storage even and lowas close to 32 degrees as possible provided it does not fall below it Hence cellars are always to be preferred to receptacles above ground It is also much better to barrel than to pile the po tatoes in bulk since subdivision reduces the tendency to overheat and a closed package lessens the probability of the subsequent lodg ment of fungus spores if they are not already present Later on too both the cellar and the closed barrel by shutting off all light delay the tendency to sprout Therefore the best advice that can be given on this head is to sort carefully and then store in barrels in a cool dark cellar Quite a satisfactory method however of winter preservation is banking out of doors or under an open shed just as is done with Sweet potatoes Irish potatoes will keep much more readily than Sweet potatoes treated in this way Little straw should be used and a perforated wooden flue should be placed upright in the center of the bank which should never contain more than thirty bushels The top of the flue should be stopped in very cold weather with a wisp of straw Of course when the hills are located out of doors a rough shielding of refuse plank should be so constructed as to ward off the rain SUMMARY 1 PreparationThis should be deep and thorough and the tows trenched six or seven inches deep by means of a subsoilplow 2 FertilizerSix hundred lbs High Grade Acid Phosphate374 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA 250 lbs Nitrate of Soda and 150 lbs Muriate of Potash per acre in all 1000 lbsapplied either all under and mixed with the subsoil in trenching or half under and half over after covering the seed but before the furrow is entirely filled is suggested as the most reliable formula 3 Seed PiecesThese should be cut to weight not eyes ancf pieces of from f of an oz to 1 ozs each are to be preferred to larger or smaller sizes The most expeditious way to prepare seed is to quarter tubers weighing from 3 to 6 ozs without reference to eyes 4 DistanceRows three feet apart and pieces twelve inches in the row is the safest distance 5 Depth to PlantFour inches deep in a thoroughly mellow subsoiled furrow may be regarded as the standard Three inches is slightly preferable to five though little difference is observable between any depth from three to seven inches 6 Time to PlantThe earlier the spring crop is put in the bet ter provided late killing freezes are avoided The second or sum mer crop will mature if planted as late as the middle of August in most parts of the State 7 Cultivation should be rapid thorough and on a level It does not pay to ridge up with a hoe nor on a large scale to mulch 8 Harvesting should not be effected until full maturity has been attained by the tubers which continue to grow as long as the tops are alive For extra early sales the crop should of course be dug as soon as marketable The sun should not be allowed to fall on the tubers any longer than can be avoided and wooden trays not split baskets should be used in handling 9 Surface MulchingThis method of cultivation effected by planting in the covering furrow with subsequent surface mulching without cultivation produces a heavier yield than the ordinary plan but not sufficiently greater to pay for the extra cost of mulch ing and harvesting and hence only recommended for garden platsANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 375 10 Second CropThis also called the summer or fall crop may be made a success by either bedding selected whole tubers of the first or spring crop and using only such as show signs of sprouting after six weeks burial or else by the use of Lookout Mountain potatoes of the fall crop of the previous year cutting to 1 oz pieces as for the spring crop With either plan a perfect stand may be obtained 11 Potato Scabboth Surface and Deep Scab which are merely phases of the same maladyis due to a bacteroid fungus conveyed by the seed tubers and may be destroyed by immersing them before planting in a solution of Corrosive Sublimate1 oz to 30 gals waterfor four hours Corrosive Sublimate is a deadly poison taken internally and must be carefully used 12 Early Blight is produced by the Macrosporium fungus and generally in connection with drouthy weather prematurely de stroys the tops cutting short the full development of the tubers It may be controlled by spraying with Bordeaux Mixture 3 3 Late Blight affects both stalk and tuber producing rot in the latter but is fortunately almost unknown in this State It also is controlled when prevalent by spraying with Bordeaux Mixture 14 The Flea Beetle sometimes assists the Early Blight and drouth in prematurely destroying the potato tops It can be con trolled by a compound of Bordeaux Mixture and Soap6 lbs soap to 50 gals Bordeaux 15 Other Insects as the Colorado Beetle Potato Stalk Weevil Potato Sphinx etc are not sufficiently damaging as yet in this State to prove a serious obstacle to potato growing 16 PreservationDecays and rots of all kinds can best be pre vented by keeping Scab from the field digging only after full ma turity handling carefully excluding the sun and storing in a cool uniform temperaturepreferably in a dark cellar which later on willalso prevent sprouting For this purpose too it is well to bar rel The tubers if possible should never be stored in bulk Out side hilling as with Sweet potatoes is also a most satisfactory method of winter preservation The foregoing suggestions apply370 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA chiefly to the second or fall crop as the spring crop cannot be in definitely kept in this latitude with any certainty The second crop may also be kept well by merely throwing a heavy list with the plow on the rows in the field and digging only as needed 17 VarietiesThe following list appears to be well adapted to almost all portions of the State and is given for the spring crop as first choice in the order of their maturity Pride of the South Early Rose Beauty of Hebron Carman No 1 and Peerless As second choice the following may be selected with confidence E Pride E Washington E Puritan Late Puritan King of the Roses Tloulton Rose Pride of America American Giant and Maine Pearl As quite promising there might be added Early Market Cream City Bill Nye Thunderbolt German Rose Walls Maggie Murphy Empire State Lightning Express and White May Queen For the second crop Lookout Mountain 18 Starch ContentsFor varieties very rich in starch and tence especially desirable for stock any of the Rose strain may be selected as this type is uniformly rich in starch Nearly all Geor gia grown potatoes show a very high percentage of starchANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 377 FBUIT CULTUEE Georgia possesses a climate well adapted to the cultivation of fruits of all kinds She stands among the first in the products of her orchards The labors of the State Horticultural Society have been wisely directed towards the elimination of worthless varieties and the propagation of the best and most profitable varieties for the different sections of the State This society composed of men of culture and experience whose presiding officer is a standard authority on horticultural matters in this country and in Europe have given their approval to a large variety of the various fruits that can be and are successfully raised in Georgia We accept them as the most reliable authority on the subject In the prosecution of their work the society divided the State into four sections The section between the 34th and 35th degreed of latitude north comprising the counties of Banks Bartow Ca toosa Chattooga Cherokee Dade Dawson Elbert Eloyd Forsyth Eannin Franklin Gordon Gilmer Hart Hall Habersham Lump kin Jackson Murray Milton Madison Pickens Babun Towns Union Walker White and Whitfield is designated as the upper or mountain region The section between the 32d and 34th degrees including the southwestern portion of the 32d degree except the counties named for the southern regioncomprising the counties of Appling Bald win Bibb Burke Butts Bulloch Calhoun Clay Coffee Chatta hoochee Crawford Coweta Columbia Campbell Carroll Clay ton Clarke Cobb Decatur DeKalb Dougherty Douglas Dooly Dodge Effingham Emanuel Fayette Fulton Greene Glasscock Gwinnett Houston Harris Hancock Heard Henry Haralson Irwin Johnson Jones Jefferson Jasper Lee Laurens Lincoln Montgomery Marion Macon Muscogee Monroe Meriwether McDuffie Morgan Newton Oconee Oglethorpe Pike Pulaski Putnam Paulding Polk Quitman Bandolph Rockdale Eich mond Sumter Stewart Schley Screven Spalding Tatntll Tel fair Terrell Twiggs Taylor Talbot Troup Taliaferro Upson378 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA Worth Wayne Wilcox Wilkinson Warren Washington Wilkes Walton Webster is known as the middle region The Southern region comprises the counties of Baker Berrien Brooks Charlton Clinch Colquitt Early Echols Lowndes Mil ler Mitchell Pierce Thomas Ware The lower or coast region comprises the counties of Bryan Chatham Camden Glynn Liberty Mclntosh This explicit information is given in order that the result of the labors of the State Horticultural Society may be more readily un derstood It will be noted that nearly twothirds of the counties in the State are embraced in the middle region We will consider the fruits and the sections best adapted to them APPLES The famous Downing remarked that the apple is the world renowned fruit of temperate climates From its great hardiness easy cultivation productiveness its long continuance through the whole twelve months and its various uses it possesses an import ance not equaled by any other fruit In the middle region the following varieties have stood the test of time and bear approval Bed Astrachan Buncombe Black Warrior Carters Blue Carolina Greening Chattohoochee Early Harvest Elgin Pippin Equinetelee Etowah Familv FarrarV Summer Gravenstein Hileys Eureka Homonv Julian Ken tucky Red Streak Mamma Mangum Mavericks Sweet Moultrie Mrs Bryan Palmer or Pear Red June Rome Beauty Rhodes Orange Simmons Red Shockley Summer Cheese Summer Queen Striped June Sweet Bough Taunton Winesap Yates Stevensons Winter Yellow Transparent In the mountain region the following varieties are approved Red Astrachan Ben Davis Black Warrior Carolina Greening Cullasaga Disliaroon Early Harvest Equinetelee Etowah Fall Pippin Farrars Summer Grimes Golden Pippin Homonv Horse Hocketts Sweet Horn Julian Kinnard Mangum Moultrie Mrs Bryan Niekajack Romanite Red June Rome Beautv ShockleyANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 37 Stevensons Winter Striped June Sweet Bough Webbs Winter Whites Winter Pearmain Winesap Yates Yellow Transparent In the Southern region the following are approved Eed Astra chan Carolina Greening Horse Mitchells Cider Eed June Shockley In the Coast region the following are approved Eed Astrachan Early Harvest Etowah Family Mitchells Cider Eed June The Eed Astrachan and Eed June are approved for all sections For market orchards the following are approved for summer Astrachan Eed June Early Harvest Gravenstein Family Striped June Horse Julian Homony for autumn Buncombe Carters Blue Equinetelee Eome Beauty Fall Pippin Mrs Bryan Taun ton for winter Black Warrior Ben Davis Chattahoochee Caro lina Greening Etowah Hocketts Sweet Mangum Wickajack Eo manite Sauta Shockley Stevensons Winter Yates The following are good for the uses named DryingHorse Summer Cheese CookingHorse Simmons Eed Summer Cheese CiderJulian Mitchells Cider Yates THE APPLE DISEASES AND REMEDIES BlightDistinguished by the blackening of the entire leaf and the blackening of the entire bark It attacks the flower clusters It may destroy the branches or the whole tree As soon as the dis ease is discovered cut off the affected parts a foot below the point of lowest visible attack and burn them Bitter Rot Ripe RotApples are often seriously injured by a rot which causes a softening of the tissues of the fruit and changes them from their normal color to a brown This rot takes fruit at any stage of its growth from the time it is about threefourths of an inch in diameter until it is ripe It appears to be particularly destructive to the early varieties Early Harvest Sweet Bough and other varieties are very subject to it Any part of the apple may first be attacked and when the fungus has once gained a foot380 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA hold it spreads very rapidly The older portions or the part first attacked soon bear small black pimples and it is said that the tissue beneath them has an exceedingly bitter taste which has given the disease its name TreatmentGarman recommends the use of Bordeaux Mixture for preventing the development of the disease lie obtained the greatest benefit from applications made as follows First before the leaves expanded second soon after the apples had set third about fourteen days later fourth four weeks after the preceding In this manner 31 16 per cent of the whole number of apples borne by the sprayed tree during the season was saved from rot The disease has also been successfully treated by the use of sulphide of potassium The ammoniacal carbonate of copper gave similar re sults The first application was not made until the middle of Au gust Earlier applications are however advisable Black RotThe external characters of this disease are practi cally identical with those of the bitter rot The remedies to be used are the same Brown RotThis is a serious fungous disease It causes the rotting of the fruit about the period ripening begins It increases rapidly in warm moist weather Apples which touch each other are first to suffer from the disease This is mainly due to the fact that a certain amount of moisture is retained at the point of contact and with such favorable conditions the fungus easily succeeds in gaining an entrance The affected fruit turns brown and appears as if decayed it then becomes covered with an ashcolored coating which consists of myriads of spores each one capable of spreading the disease The fungus also attacks the small twigs causing their death This disease should be closely watched and thoroughly controlled TreatmentThe first application should be made in badly in fested districts just before the buds begin to swell at this time spray with a simple solution of copper sulphate using one pound of the sulphate to twentyfive gallons oi water While the buds are swelling spray with Bordeaux Mixture and repeat when the fruit has set When the fruit is grown spray with the ammoniANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 381 acal carbonate of copper using one ounce of copper carbonate to twelve gallons of water and repeat at intervals of six or eight days until the fruit is harvested Powdery MildewThis fungus attacks the foliage of young apple seedlings very soon after the unfolding of the leaves and con tinues its growth throughout the summer weakening the plants very much and making them unfit for budding purposes The dis ease is especially serious in the Southern States The affected leaves have a grayish appearance which is caused by a powdery substance This gray powder consists of the parts of the fungus which project beyond the leaf tissue The leaf soon dries up and is rendered worthless TreatmentThe trouble has been successfully controlled by the Section of Vegetable Pathology at Washington D C and the following are the conclusions reached by them The disease can be effectually prevented by the application of the ammoniacal solution of carbonate of copper In the nursery the total cost of treatment need not exceed twelve cents per one thousand trees The first application should be made when the leaves are about onethird grown and should be followed by at least five others at intervals of ten or twelve days RustThe fungus which causes the rust of the apple is very peculiar Unlike many fungi this one lives upon two hostplants hiring its course of development These hostplants are the apple or the cedar or juniper There are probably several species of rust which attack cultivated apples but the histories of all are es sentially the same The effects of this fungus upon the apple are first noticeable during the latter part of May or in early June The leaves are then dotted with bright yellow spots the socalled rust the fruit is also attacked about the same time Such fruit becomes worthless as the growth is increased at the diseased point and the swollen part produces spores which ruin the apples Spores are also produced on the under side of the leaves They appear during mid summer They will not germinate and grow upon either the leaves or fruit of the apple but they will develop the fungus upon the cedar There the mycelium enters the tissues and as growth382 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA advances enlargements appear upon the branches of the trees Such swellings or cedar apples as they are called are from half an inch to almost two inches in diameter they become full grown early in spring During April and May hornshaped masses an inch or more in length are produced by the cedar apple They are of a bright yellow color and can readily be seem among the green branches of the cedars Upon these soft yellow bodies the spores are borne these spores will not grow upon cedars but only upon the leaves or fruit of the apple They ripen in spring and consequently it is at this season of the year that the apple tree must be protected Unfortunately when a tree has once become infected it seems that the mycelium of the rust may re main in the buds and branches for years and in the spring when the young leaves have formed the characteristic yellowspots may again appear although no new infection has taken place The disease is sometimes so serious that the tree loses all its foliage and this alone would ruin all the crop although the apples them selves may not be attacked TreatmentIt is difficult to control the apple rust successfully Since apple trees are attacked by spores which are produced upon cedar trees it naturally follows that by removing all cedars we may remove the source of the disease Cutting and burning the cedar apples before the appearance of the yellow horns will an swer the same purpose The removal of all badly diseased trees in the orchard as well as the worst branches on the trees which are not seriously attacked is advised by some Then to prevent fur ther injury from the fungus spray both large and small trees with some good fungicide as the Bordeaux Mixture The application should he made as soon as the first leaves appear Two applications should be sufficient the second one being made eight or ten days after the first During rainy seasons it may he well to repeat the operation a third time The plan of planting resistant varieties is one of the best methods of escaping the disease ScabThis fungus attacks the fruit and leaves of the apple Upon the fruit it forms dark circular spots the largest being about half an inch in diameter These spots are often close together or unite to form surfaces which mav extend over a considerable areaANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 383 The centres of the spots are dark brown or black in color but at the edges there is a light gray or white circle This appearance is due to the separation of the outer skin or cuticle from the tissue beneath When the diseased area is large it generally cracks and then the hard brown tissue within the apple may be seen Growth is checked in the diseased portions and the fruit is gener ally onesided sometimes to such an extent that the blossom end and the stem are close together Isolated spots do not injure the apple but frequently its market value is thereby considerably re The appearance of the disease upon the leaves is similar to that upon the fruit but the light colored edge is wanting The parrs attacked are circular or oval and when several spots have run to gether the outline is irregular The first indication of the pres ence of the fungus on the foliage is the appearance of small light green areas which are easily distinguished when the leaf is held up to the light In a few days the central portions of these areas become razsed causing the leaf to become more or less distorted I he color at the same time changes to a dull brownish black which leaf tTcn w UPn the UPPer Skle f thG leaf This the of he If TaVG r hll0W SidG beinS Un9th edges of the leaf often becomes brown and torn The scab is undoubtedly the most serions fungous disease with v Inch the apple grower has to contend No other disease annually rums such a large percentage of the crop From the fact that the fungus also grows upon the leaves it frequently occurs that entire orchards are defoliated The result is that th Lc lesuit is mat tne tree receives so htt e nourishment that itmay not bear a profitable crop for sev dteasewr11 thUg iS fre the disease Wherever apples are grown they suffer more or less from the par site Some years the injury may be so slight that it and during others ft mav attack a tree ntens ty that there is scarcely enough fruit or foliage left to tell the tale of the cause of the destruction Treatment treatment of applescab should begin early in the season Tins was forcibly shown at Cornell Station New ork The first application using Bordeaux Mixture was made381 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA June 13th about one week after the blossoms had fallen from the trees At the time of the second application June 22d a small portion affected with the Scab fungus could occasionally be found upon the apple in places thickly covered with the Bordeaux Mix ture previously applied These portions were undoubtedly at tacked before the first application was made as this occurred soon after the blossoms fell it is clear that the trees were sprayed too late They should receive at least one application before the blos soms open The value of this has been demonstrated in another way D G Failchild observed the growing mycelium upon apple twigs even before the buds broke and this would indicate that for very susceptible varieties it may be well to spray with a solution of the sulphate of copper when the buds are swelling A second application should be made before the blossoms open and a third as soon as the blossoms have fallen from the tree but for these as well as for all later ones it is advisable to use the Bordeaux Mix ture or some similar preparation Such applications may be made at intervals of ten or fifteen days depending upon the weather until from two to six have been made The number necessary will depend largely upon the variety treated In comparatively dry seasons two applications will afford almost complete protection to resistant varieties while those subject to the disease would re pay as many as four or five When so treated the fruit and foli age will be practically perfect as regards injury from Scab The amount of liquid necessary to protect an appletree from the Scab will vary with the size of the tree and with the season A well grown appletree twentyfive years old will require from two to three gallons of liquid when sprayed before the blossoms open Later in the season when the tree is in full leaf it will be necessary to use four or perhaps five or even six gallons to cover the leaves and fruit thoroughly INJURIOUS INSECTS There are a number of insects that prey upon the apple The root is attacked by one the trunk by seven the branches by four teen the leaves by fortysix and the fruit by nine ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 385 These will be considered devoid of technical terms and the remedies for them given as intelligently and succinctly as possible ATTACKING THE ROOTS Appleroot PlantlouseThe appleroot plantlouse works under ground and produces on the roots wartlike swellings and excrescences of all shapes and sizes These deformities seriously diminish the normal supply of nourishment for the tree and where very numerous induce gradual decay of the roots and occasionally result in the death of the tree Upon close examination the ex crescences are found to contain in their crevices very minute pale yellow lice often accompanied by larger winged ones The former have their bodies covered with a bluishwhite cottony matter hav ing the appearance of mold the filaments of which are five or six times as long as the insects themselves and are secreted from the upper part of the body more particularly from the hinder part of the back The appletree plantlouse is nourished by sucking the juices of the tree piercing the tender roots with its proboscis Their bodies are covered with a bluishwhite cottony matter having the appear ance of mold If this covering be forcibly removed it will be re newed within two or three days Occasionally the appletree plant louse will crawl up the branches of the trees during the summer where they form colonies and then are known as the Woolly Aphis of the apple Where a tree is sickly from an unknown cause and no borers can be found sapping the vitals the presence of this pest may be suspected In such case the earth should be removed from the roots about the surface and these carefully examined when if warty swellings are discovered no time should be lost in taking steps to destroy the insidious foe RemediesThe most successful means yet devised for destroy ing these rootlice is the use of scalding In it water freely poured around the roots of the tree If the trees arc to remain in the soil the roots may be laid hare and the water used nearly boiling with out injury but where they have been taken up for the purpose of transplanting and are to be dipped into hot water the tempera 25 a386 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA ture should not exceed 150 degrees F Under these circumstances from 120 to 150 degrees would suffice for the purpose A mulch placed around the tree for sometime previous to treatment has been found useful in bringing the lice to the surface where they can be more readily reached by the hot water Drenching the roots with soapsuds has also been recommended to be followed by a liberal dressing of ashes on the surface There are several friendly insects which prey upon the rootlouse which the farmer should become acquainted with and encourage A minute fourwinged fly is parasitic on it and the larva of a small beetle belonging to the Ladybird family feeds on it This friend it is difficult to recognize among the lice from the fact that its back is covered with little tufts of wooly matter secreted from its body these larvae are much larger than the lice and much more active The woolly matter is of an even length and ar ranged on the back in transverse rows The perfect beetle is very small being but onetwentieth of an inch long with a darkbrown body and a lightbrown thorax this beetle has been observed prey ing upon the lice about the surface of the ground Another friendly insect and probably the most efficient check upon the increase of the lice is known as the Eootliee Syrphus fly which in its larval state feeds upon them It is then in the form of a footless maggot which when full grown is about a quarter of an inch long of a dirtyyellow color and usually so covered with dust and with the woolly matter of the lice that it has de voiirAl thftt it is not easily discerned The eggs from which the larvae are produced are laid by the fly in the spring ATTACKING THE TRUNK Roundheaded Applefree BorerSeven kind of insects prey upon the trunk of the appletree The Roundheaded appletree borer in its perfect state is a very handsome beetle about three fourths of an inch long cylindrical in form of a palebrown color above with two broad creamywhite stripes running the whole length of the body the face and the undersurface are hoarywhite the antenna and legs grey The females are larger than the malesANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 387 and have shorter antennae The beetle makes its appearance dur ing the month of June and July usually remaining in conceal ment during the day and becoming active at dusk The eggs are deposited late in June during July and most of August one in a place in an incision made by the female in the bark of the tree near its base Within two weeks the young larvae are hatched and at once commence with their sharp mandibles to gnaw their way to the interior It is generally conceded that the larva is three years in reaching maturity The young ones lie for the first year in the sapwood and inner bark excavating flat shallow cavities about the size of a silver dollar which are filled with their sawdust like castings The holes by which they enter being small are soon filled up though not until a few grains of castings have fallen from them Their presence may however often be detected in young trees from the bark becoming daikcolored and sometimes dry and dead enough to crack some of the castings generally protrude and fall to the ground in a little heap this takes place in the spring of the year when with the frequent rains the heaps become swollen by the absorption of moisture On the approach of winter the larva descends to the lower part of its burrow where it doubtless remains inactive until the following spring During the next season it attains about half its growth still living on the sapwood wdiere it does great damage and when as often happens there are several of these borers in a single tree they will sometimes cause its death by completely girdling it After another winters rest the larva again becomes active and towards the end of the fol lowing season when approaching maturity it cuts a cylindrical passage upwards varying in length into the solid wood afterwards extending it outward to the bark sometimes cutting entirely through the tree at other times turning back at different angles The upper part of the cavity is filled with a sawdust like powder after which the larvae turns round and returns to the part nearest the heart of the tree which portion it enlarges by tearing off the fibers with which it carefully and securely closes the lower por tion of its gallery so as to effectually protect it from the approach of enemies at either end Having thus perfected its arrangements it again turns round so as to have its head upwards when it rests388 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA from its labors in the interior of the passage until the following spring when the mature larva sheds its skin and discloses the pupa In this condition it remains about two or three weeks when the perfect beetle escapes RemediesThe young larvae may be detected by the discolor ation of the bark In such instances if the outer darkcolored sur face be scraped with a knife late in August or early in September so as to expose the clear white bark beneath the lurking enemy may be discovered and destroyed Later they may be detected by their castings which have been pushed out of the crevices of the bark and have fallen in little heaps upon the ground AVhen first discharged these look as if they had been forced through the bar rels of a minute doublebarrel gun being arranged together in two parallel strings Those which have burrowed deeper may some times be reached by a stout wire thrust into their holes or by cut ting through the bark at the upper end of the chamber and pour ing scalding water into the openings so that it may soak through the castings and penetrate to the insect Among the preventive measures alkaline washes or solutions are probably the most efficient since experiments have demonstrated that they are re pulsive to the insert and that the beetle will not lay her eggs on trees protected by such washes Soft soap reduced to the con sistency of a thick paint by the addition of a strong solution of washing soda in water is perhaps as good a formula as can be sug gested this if applied to the bark of the tree especially about the base or collar and also extended upward to the crotches where the main branches have their origin will cover the whole surface uable to attack and if applied during the morning of a warm day will dry in a few hours and form a tenacious coating not easily dissolved by rain The soap solution should be applied early in June and a second time during the early part of July Flatheaded Appletree BorerThe flatheaded appletree borer also attacks the trunk This borer in its mature state is a beetle very active courting the light of delighting to bask in the hot sunshine running up and down the bark of a tree with great ra pidity but instantly taking wing if an attempt be made to captureANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 389 it It measures from threeeighths to half inch or more in length is of a flattish oblong form and of a shining greenishblack color each of its wing cases having three raised lines the outer two inter rupted by two impressed transverse spots of a brass color dividing each wing cover into three nearly equal portions The under side of the body and the legs shine like burnished copper the feet are shining green It does not confine its attacks to the base of the tree but affects the trunk more or less throughout and sometimes the larger branches The eggs yellow and irregularly ribbed are about onefifteenth of an inch long and are fastened by the female with a glutinous substance usually under the loose scales or within the cracks and crevices of the bark sometimes singly at other times several in a group The young larva soon hatches and having eaten its way through the bark feeds on the sapwood within where boring broad and flattish channels a single speci men will sometimes girdle a small tree As the larva approaches maturity it usually bores into the more solid wood working up ward and when about to change to a pupa cuts a passage back again to the outside eating nearly but not quite through to the hark Within its retreat it changes to a pupa which is at first white but gradually approaches in color to that of the future beetle and in about three weeks the perfect insect emerges and having eaten through the thin covering of the bark escapes and roams at large to continue the work of destruction Healthy wellestab lished trees are not exempt from its attacks sickly trees or trees newly transplanted are more liable to suffer especially on the southwest side where the bark is often first injured by exposure to the sun resulting in sunscald RemediesCarefully examine all trees early in the fall when the presence of the larvse may be detected by the discoloration of the bark or a slight exudation of sap or by the presence of the saw dustlike castings Whenever such indications are seen the parts should be at once cut into with a knife and the intruder destroyed As a preventive measure there is nothing better than coating the hark of the trunk and larger branches with a mixture of soft soap and solution of soda as recommended for the Houndheaded borer390 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA The Longhomed BorerThis beetle while distributed over a wide area is by no means a comftnon insect and seldom appears in sufficient numbers to cause fruitgrowers uneasiness This borer is rather elegant in form with long tapering antennae of a gray color prettily banded with black It is a little more than a third of an inch long of a brownish gray color with many small thornlike points upon its wingcovers There is also a Vshaped band margined with black a little behind the middle of the wing cases The perfect insect appears about the last of Au gust when it occasionally deposits its eggs upon the trunk of appletrees which shortly hatch into small grubs and these eat their way through and burrow under the bark They are very similar in appearance to the young larvae of the Roundheaded Borer but differ in their habits they form long narrow winding tracks under the bark but upon the outer surface of the wood which are made broader as the larva increases in size RemediesShould the insect at any time prove destructive it ravages may be prevented or controlled by the ue of the alkaline wash applied to the bark as recommended for the Roundheaded Borer applying it in the early part of August The Stag BeetleThis beetle affects only old or decaying trees The alkaline wash recommended in the case of the Roundheaded Borer will prevent the Stag Beetle from depositing its eggs on the trunk and thus injury to the tree will be prevented Applebark BeetleThis is a small insect about onethird of an inch long cylindrical in form smooth and slender and varies in color from dark chestnut brown to nearly black Its legs and antennae are pale yellowish and its thorax minutely punctated the posterior end of the body is abruptly notched or excavated This insect bores under the bark of the appletree sometimes at tacking young thrifty trees which when badly affected are apt soon after putting forth their leaves to wither suddenly as if scorched by fire the bark becomes loosened from the wood and soon after these small beetles appear crawling through minute per forations in the bark like large pin holes It usually appears in July So little is known of its history that it is difficult to say what would be the best remedy for itANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1S8S 391 The Eyed ElaterThis is the largest spring beetle and is found with its larvae in the decaying wood of old appletrees It is an inch and a half or more in length of a black color sprinkled with numerous whitish dots On the thorax there are two large vel vety black eyelike spots which have given origin to the name of the insect The thorax is about onethird the length of the body and is powdered with whitish atoms or scales The wing cases are ridged with longitudinal lines and the under side of the body and legs thickly powdered with white It is found in the perfect state m June and July It mainly feeds on decaying wood and is not given as a destructive insect but simply to mention The Rough Osmoderma also feeds on decaying wood ATTACKING THE BRANCHES The Woolly Louse of the AppleThe Woolly Louse of the apple is the same as the appletree plantlouse In this form it at tacks the trunk and limbs living in clusters and secreting over themselves small patches of a cottonlike covering They are often found about the base of twigs or suckers springing from the trunk and also about the base of the trunk itself and around recent wounds in the bark In autumn they commonly affect the axils of the leafstalks towards the ends of the twigs and sometimes mul tiply to such an extent as to cover the whole undersurface of the limbs and also of the trunk the tree looking as though white washed They are said to affect most those trees which yield sweet fruit Both young and old derive their nourishment from the sap of the tree and the constant punctures they make give rise to warts and excrescences on the bark and openings in it and where very numerous the limbs attacked become sickly the leaves turn yellow and drop off and sometimes the tree dies RemediesThe small fourwinged chalcid fly the Lady Birds and their larvaealso the larvae of the lacewing flies and Syrphus flies feed on all species of plant lice The vigorous use of a stiff brush wet with the alkaline solution of soap will be found very effi cient or a solution made by mixing five pounds of fresh lime with one pound of sulphur and two gallons of water and heating until392 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA the sulphur is dissolved After destroying all those on the trunks and cutting away all suckers the earth should be removed from about the base of the trunk the parts below the surface cleared and fresh earth placed about the roots The Apple LiopusThis is a longhorned borer found in the larval state in decaying limbs of appletrees It is a rare insect in America and is not likely to prove a serious trouble Apple Tree PrinterA longhorned beetle cylindrical in form with brownish wingcases It chiefly affects the oak but attacks the apple It is easily disposed of by gathering the branches and burning them before the insect has time to mature Parallel Elaphidion in its larval state this insect occasionally bores into apple and plumtrees It is rather a rare insect and is not likely to become injurious to any considerable extent The Appletwig HornThis is a small cylindrical beetle from onefourth to onethird of an inch in length of a dark chestnut brown color above black beneath The insect works in the beetle state boring into branches of the apple just above a bud ami work ing downwards through the pith in a cylindrical burrow one or two inches long They work throughout the summer months causing the twigs operated on to wither ami the leaves to turn brown Upon examination a perforation about the size of a knitting needle is found near one of the buds from six inches to a foot from the end of the twig The only remedy is to search for the bored twigs in June and July and cut them off and burn them Imbricated Snout BeetleThis is more of a weevil and is found mostly in the Western States Very little is known of its history The only remedy suggested is to jar the trees on which they are collect them and destroy them Seventeenyear LocustsThis insect is very well known The female deposits her eggs in the twig puncturing and sawing small slits in them Her beak is composed of three portions the two outer are beset with small teeth like a saw while the center one is a spearshaped piercer She passes from limb to limb and from tree to tree until her 400 or 500 eggs are deposited and dies The punctured limbs are so weakened by the operations of the insectANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 18SS 393 that they frequently break off when swayed by rough winds and the injury thus caused to fruit trees and orchards is sometimes very serious In most cases if the trees are vigorous they eventually recover from their wounds The eggs hatch in about six weeks or less It is active and rapid in its movements and shortly after its escape from the egg drops to the ground and by means of its broad and strong forefeet buries itself in the soil Once under the surface these larvae attach themselves to the succulent roots of plants and trees and puncturing them with their beaks imbibe the vegetable juices which form their sole nourishment They do not usually descend very deeply into the ground but remain where the juicy roots are most abundant and the only marked alteration to which they are subject during the long term of their existence under ground is a gradual increase in size As the time for their transformation approaches they ascend towards the surface making cylindrical burrows about fiveeighths of an inch in diameter often circuitous seldom exactly perpendicular and these are firmly ce mented and varnished so as to be watertight As the insect pro gresses the chamber is filled below with the earthy matter removed in its progress but the upper portion to the extent of six or eight inches is empty and serves as a dwellingplace for the insect until the period for its exit arrives Here it remains for several days ascending to the top of the hole in fine weather for warmth and air and occasionally looking out but descending again on the oc currence of cold or wet weather Finally when fully matured they issue from the ground crawl up the trunk of a tree or any other object to which they can attach themselves securely by their claws and having rested awhile prepare to cast their skins After some struggling a longitudinal rent is made on the back and through this the enclosed Cicada pushes its head and gradually withdraws itself leaving the empty pupa skin The escape gen erally occurs between the hours of six and nine oclock in the even ing and about ten minutes are occupied by the insect in entirely freeing itself from the enclosure Before morning the insects are ready for flight RemediesVarious enemies attack them on escaping from the ground Birds and preclaceous insects devour them hogs and394 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA poultry feed on them greedily in the winged state they are subject to the attacks of parasites Human agency apparently is ineffect ual in staying their progress the only time when anything can be done is early in the morning when the winged insects newly es caped are comparatively in a feeble and helpless condition they may be crushed and destroyed When they acquire full power of wing it is a hopeless task to attempt to arrest their course The Oystershell BarklouseThis is a very destructive and per nicious insect prevailing throughout the Northern United States and Canada and in some of the Southern States It appears in the form of minute scales about onesixth of an inch long of a brownish or grayish color closely resembling that of the bark of the tree and somewhat like the shell of an oyster in shape adhering to the surface of the bark and placed irregularly most of them lengthwise of the limb or twig with the smaller end upwards In some instances the branches of appletrees may be found literally covered with these scales and where thus so prevalent they seri ously impair the health and vigor of the tree and sometimes cause its death Under each of these scales will be found a mass of eggs varying in number from fifteen or twenty to one hundred or more these during the winter or early spring will be found to be white in color but before hatching they change to a yellowish hue soon after which the young insects appear This usually occurs late in May or early in June and if the weather be cool the young lice will remain several days under the scales before dispersing over the tree As it becomes warmer they leave their shelter and may be seen running all over the twigs looking for suitable locations to at tach themselves Their actual length is the onehundredth of an inch to the unaided eye they appear mere specks A large pro portion of them soon become fixed around the base of the side shoots of the terminal twigs where inserting their tiny sharp beaks they subsist upon the sap of the tree By the middle of August the female louse becomes little else than a bag of eggs and the process of depositing them now begins the body of the parent shrinking day by day until finally when the work is completed it becomes a mere atom at the narrow end of the scale and is scarcely noticeableANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 395 Only one brood is produced annually at the North the eggs remain ing unchanged under the scale for about nine months but in some parts of the South the insect is doublebrooded the first brood hatching in May the second in September During the winter the trees should be examined and the scales scraped off and thus a large proportion of the insects may be de stroyed Still it is almost impossible to cleanse the tree entirely in this way especially the smaller branches hence the insects should be fought also at the time when the eggs are hatching and the young lice crawling over the limbs as then they are tender and easily killed With this object in view the time of hatching of the remnants left after the winter or spring scraping should be watched and while the young larvas are active the twigs should be brushed with a strong solution of soft soap and washing soda or syringed with a solution of washing soda in water made by dis solving half a pound or more of soda in a pailful of water Paint ing the twigs or branches with linseed oil has been tried with suc cess Scurfy BarklouseThis has long been known under the name of the Harris barklouse In some respects it resembles the oyster shell barklouse yet it is sufficiently dissimilar to be readily dis tinguishable from it The scale of the female is oblong in form pointed below very flat of a grayishwhite color about onefourth of an inch long The eggs are purplish red and hatch about the same date as those of the oystershell barklouse but the larva are red or reddishbrown in color The eggs are not fully developed until the middle of September The original home of this louse is the crabapple In the warmer parts of the South it is more common than the oystershell barklouse but not so injurious The remedies are the same as recommended for the oystershell barklouse Buffalo TreehopperThe Buffalo Treehopper is an active jumping creature about onethird of aninch long of a light grass green color with whitish dots and a pale yellowish streak along each side On the front there is a sharp process or point jutting out horizontally on each side reminding one of the horns of the396 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA Buffalo or Bull Its body is threesided not unlike a beechniit in form and is furnished with a sharppointed beak with which it punctures the bark and sucks the sap from the trees It is common on apple and many other trees from July to the end of the season The eggs are said to be laid in a single row of slits in the hark and when hatched the young larvae are grassgreen like their parents feeding also on the sap of the leaves and twigs In the larval state before the power of flight is acquired the insect is easily caught and destroyed It cannot be killed by any poisonous appli cation as it feeds only on sap Thornbusk TreehopperThis is an insect similar in appear ance and habits to the Buffalo Treehopper It is a little more than onethird of an inch long with a threesided body The PearbUght BeetleFor description and remedy see under head of Pear The New York WeevilFor description and remedy see under head of Peach The Redshouldered SinoxylonFur description and remedy see under head of the Grape ATTACKING THE LEAVES Appletree Tent CaterpillarThe moth is of a pale didl red dish or reddishbrown color crossed by two oblique parallel lines the space between these lines being paler than the general color although sometimes quite as dark or darker In the male the antennas are featherlike and slightly so in the female It has no hollowlike tongue like other moths or butterflies hence has no power of taking food and lives in the winged state but a few days yet long enough to deposit eggs and provide for a future genera tion The moth remains at rest concealed during the day but be comes very active during the night when it enters lighted rooms attracted by the glare1 and becomes so dazzled and bewitched that it darts crazily about here and there thumping itself against the walls furniture and floors of the room in the most erratic manner then circles around the lamp or gaslight with great velocity finally dashing into the flames when with wings and antennse severelyANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 397 singed it retreats into some obscure corner The moths are most abundant during the first two weeks in July The eggs are deposited during July upon the smaller twigs of the tree in ringlike clusters each composed of from fifteen to twenty rows containing in all from two hundred to three hundred The eggs are conical and about onetwentieth of an inch long firmly cemented together and coated with a tough varnish im pervious to rain The young caterpillars are fully matured in the egg before winter comes and they remain in this enclosure in a torpid state throughout cold weather hatching during the first warm days of spring They usually appear during the last week of April or early in May depending much on the prevailing tem perature Their first meal is made of portions of the gauzy mate rial with which the eggmasses are covered and with the strength thus gained they proceed at once to work At this time the buds are bursting thus providing the young larvaa with an abundance of suitable tender food It sometimes happens however that after they are hatched cold weather returns and vegetable growth is temporarily retarded To meet this emergency they have also the power of sustaining hunger for a considerable time and live from ten to twelve days when wholly deprived of food but severe frost is fatal to them in this tender condition and multitudes some times perish from this cause These larva are tentmakers and soon after birth they begin to construct for themselves a shelter by extending the sheets of web across the nearest fork of the twig upon which they were hatched As soon as they increase in size they construct also additional layers of silk over those previously made attaching them to the neighboring twigs and leaving between the layers space enough for the caterpillars to pass In five or six weeks they become fullgrown and then measure one and three quarter inches in length They are wry voracious and devour the leaves of the trees they are on with great rapidity It is estimated that each larva when approaching maturity will consume two leaves in a day so that every day a nest is permitted to remain there is a sacrifice of about five hundred leaves When there hap pens to be several nests in one tree or if the tree is small they often398 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA strip every vestige of foliage from it and in neglected orchards the trees are often seen as bare of leaves in June as they are in mid winter As the caterpillars arrive at maturity they leave the tree and wander about in search of suitable places in which to hide dur ing their chrysalis stage A favorite place is the angle formed by the projections of the capboards of fences or fence posts RemediesThe tent caterpillars seldom leave the nest to feed until after nine oclock a m and usually return before sundown Hence early and late hours of the day are the best times for de stroying them With a ladder and a gloved hand the living mass may be seized and crushed in a moment or the nest may be torn from the tree and crushed under foot When a ladder is not at hand the nests may be removed by a pole with a bunch of rags tied around the end of it This work is most easily done while the larva are young and should be attended to as soon as the coblike vebs appear The eggclusters may be sought for and destroyed during the winter months when the trees being leafless a prac ticed eye will detect them Foresttent CaterpillarThis insect closely resembles the com mon tent caterpillar The moth is of a similar color but paler or more yellowish The space between the two oblique lines is isuallv darker than the rest of the wings and the lines themselves are dark brown instead of whitish The eggs of this species may be dis tinguished by their almost uniform diameter and by their being cut off squarely at each end The number of eggs in each cluster is usually between three hundred and four hundred They are white about onetwentyfifth of an inch long and onefortieth of an inch wide rounded at the base gradually enlarging towards the apex where they are margined by a prominent rim and have a sunken spot in the center The eggs are deposited in circles and with each one is secreted a mall quantity of gummy matter which firmly fastens it to the twig and also to the adjoining egg and upon becoming dry forms a coating of varnish over the pale egg Like the tent caterpillar the young become fully formed in the eggs before winter and remain within them in a torpid conANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 399 dition until spring The larva hatch out about the time of the bursting of buds and in absence of food are endowed with similar powers of endurance They are said to have been known to sur vive a fast of three weeks duration From the time they are half grown until they approach maturity they seem to have a great fondness for exercise and delight to travel in rows along fence boards which they do at a very brisk pace when in search of food In about six weeks the larva becomes full grown and is then an inch and a half or more in length of a palebluish color sprinkled all over with black points and dots On the back is a row of ten or eleven oval or diamondshaped white spots by which it may be at once distinguished from the common tent caterpillar while on the sides there are pale yellowish stripes somewhat broken and mixed with gray It attains full growth about the middle of June Occasionally during the latter part of May when about half grown and extremely voracious these caterpillars will appear in swarms and attract general attention During the latter part of the day and frequently also in the morning they collect on the trunks and larger branches of the trees in large black masses which are so easily reached that they invite destruction While they attack the trees of the forest they are particularly injurious to the apple RemediesThe eggclusters should be sought for and destroyed luring the winter months When the caterpillars are young they will drop suspended by a silken thread in midair if the branch on which they are feeding be suddenly struck advantage may be taken of this habit and by swinging a stick around the threads may be gathered in with the larvse attached to them When the caterpillars have become half grown the trees should be frequently inspected early in the morning and the congregated masses crushed and destroyed with a stiff broom or some other equally suitable implement During the day they are so constantly on the move that a young tree thoroughly cleansed of them in the morn ing may be crowded again before evening To avoid the necessity of constant watching strips of cotton batting three or four inches wide should be tied about halyway up the trunk these bands should be tied tightly in the middle Each caterpillar is furnished400 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA with four pairs of fleshy prologs which are fringed with mall horny hooks and on its trying to pass over the cotton batting these hooks get so entangled in the fiber that further progress becomes very difficult and is seldom persisted in A shower of rain will pack the fibers of the cotton somewhat but where the string fasten ing it is tied around the middle the upper half washes down and makes a sort of roof overhanging the lower portion which in a great measure protects it from the weather These larvae are sel dom abundant for many years in succession for in times of great plenty their natural enemies multiply with amazing rapidity Whitemarked TussockmothThe orchardist walking among his fruit trees after the leaves have fallen or during the winter months will frequently find a dead leaf or leaves fastened here and there to the branches of his trees on examination these will usually be found to contain a gray cocoon with in most instances a mass of eggs fastened to it On breaking into the mass which is brittle it will be found to include from three hundred to five hun dred eggs about onetwentyfifth of an inch in diameter of a white color nearly globular and flattened on the upper side They are placed in three or four layers the interstices being tilled with a frothy gelatinous matter which makes them adhere securely to gether and over all is a thick coating id the same material with a nearly smooth grayishwhite surface of a convex form which ef fectually prevents the lodgment of any water upon it About the middle of May the eggs hatch when the young caterpillars at once proceed to devour the leaves of the tree upon which they are placed when disturbed letting themselves down by a silken thread remain ing suspended until danger is past when they climb up the thread and regain their former position When mature they are more than an inch long of a bright yellow color There are two broods during the season the first completing their larval growth and spin ning their cocoons about the middle of Inly the second hatching towards the last of July and completing their growth by the end of August the moths from the latter depositing the eggs which re main on the trees during the winter Tt is partial to the apple at times stripping the trees almost hare of leaves and disfiguring the fruit by gnawing its surfaceANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 401 RemediesThe increase of this insect may be prevented easily by collecting and destroying the eggsduring the winter months Yellownecked Appletree CaterpillarAlthough the yellow necked appletree caterpillar is sometimes very abundant and de structive this insect is not usually very common The firstlaid eggs of the moth begin to hatch during the third week in July while others are three or four weeks later The young larva eat only the under side and pulpy part of the leaves leaving the veins and upper side untouched but as they increase in size and strength they devour the whole of the leaf except the stem They are found invariably clustered close together on a limb on which beginning with the tender leaves at the extremity they gradually devour all before them leaving the branch per fectly bare RemediesThe nakedness of the limb they attack soon at tracts attention when the caterpillars may be easilv destroyed by crushing them on the tree or by cutting off the branches and throwing them into the fire Redhumped Appletree Cater pillarThis insect very much re sembles the yellownecked appletree caterpillar The female moth deposits her eggs in a cluster on the under side of a leaf dur ing the month of July where they shortly hatch into tiny cater pillars which at first consume only the under side of the leaf leav ing the upper surface unbroken but as they increase in size thev eat the entire leaf They come to maturity during August or earlv m September When full grown it measures about an inch and a quarter long In the South they are said to be doublebrooded They are very generally distributed but seldom abundant They prefer to feed on the apple RemediesAs theymaintain their gregarious habits during their entire larval existence they can be easily gathered and de stroyed either by cutting off the limb and burning it or by dis Jodgmg them by suddenly jarring the limb when they fall to the ground and may be trampled under foot CankerwormsThe eggs of the fall cankerworm are flattened above have a central puncture and a brown circle near the border402 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA are laid side by side in regular masses often as many as a hundred together and generally plaqed in exposed situations on the twigs or branches of the tree They usually hatch about the time when the young leaves of the apple push from the bud when the little cankerworms cluster upon and consume the tender leaves and on the approach of cold or wet weather creep for shelter into the bosom of the expanding bud or into the opening flower When full grown it measures about an inch in length These caterpillars are called loopers because they alternately loop and extend their bodies in motion and are also known as measuring worms They vary in color from greenish yellow to dusky or even dark brown with broad longitudinal yellowish or paler stripes along each side When not eating they usually assume a stiff posture either flat and parallel with the twigs on which they rot or at an angle of fortyfive degrees in either case since they closely resemble in color the branch on which they rest they usually elude detection When full grown they leave the tree either by creep ing down the trunk or by letting themselves down by silken threads from the branches The Spring Cankerworm has an ovalshaped egg of a delicate texture and pearly luster they are laid in masses without any regu larity or order in their arrangement often as many as a hundred together usually hidden in crevices of the bark of trees They hatch at the same time as the fall species They are about an inch long when full grown They resemble the fall species their habits are similar and they attain full growth about the same time RemediesIf the females who are wingless can be prevented from crawling up the trees to deposit their eggs a great point will be gained Various measures have been employed to secure this end all belonging to one or the other of two classes first those that prevent the ascension of the moth by entangling her feet and holding her there second those looking to a similar end by pre venting her from getting a foothold and causing her to fall repeat edly to the ground until she becomes exhausted and dies In the first class are included tar mixedwith oil to prevent its drying ami applied either directly or around the body of the tree or on stripsANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 403 of old canvas or stiff paper about five or six inches wide and tied m the middle with a string refuse sorghum molasses printing ink and slowlydrying varnishes are used in a similar manner Tin lead and rubber troughs to contain oil also belong to this class of remedies and have all been used with more or less effect In the use of any of the firstnamed sticky substances it should be borne in mind that they must be kept sticky by frequent renewal of the surface in mild weather or the application will be useless They should also be applied as early as the latter part of October and kept on until the leaves are expanded in the following spring It must also be remembered that some of the moths defeated in their attempts to climb the tree will deposit their eggs near the ground or anywhere in fact below the barrier and that the tiny young worms hatched from them will pass without difficulty through a very small opening Hence whether troughs or bandages are used care must be taken to fill up all the irregularities of surface in the bark of the trees so that no openings shall be left through which they may pass Cotton batting answers well in most cases for this purpose The second class of remedies consists of various ingenious de vices in the way of collars of metal wood or glass fastened around the tree and sloping downward like an inverted funnel These although they prevent the moth from ascending the tree offer but little obstacle to the progress of the young caterpillars unless the openings between the collar and the tree are carefully packed and hence they often fail of entire success Those belonging to the first class are said to be the surest and best and while it must be ad mitted that it involves much time and labor to renew so often and for so long a period the tar or other sticky application so as to make it an effectual barrier to the ascent of the insect still it will pay where the cankerworm abounds to give the matter the attention required to insure success Fall plowing is recommended to de stroy the chrysalids by turning them up to be killed by exposure or devoured by birds Fall WebwormAfter the webs of the tent caterpillars have been carefully removed in the spring towards the end of summer404 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA the orchardist may be mortified to find his trees again adorned with webs enclosing swarms of hungry caterpillars devouring the foli age This is the fall webworm an insect totally different in all its stages from the common tentcaterpillar The moth of this species deposits her eggs in broad patches on the under side of the leaves near the end of a branch during the latter part of May or early in June These hatch in the months of June July or Au gust during the earlier period in the warmer districts and later in the cooler ones As soon as the young larvae appear they begin to eat and to spin a web over themselves for protection They devour only the pulpy portion of the leaves leaving the veins and skins of the under surface untouched When full grown they are an inch or more in length and vary greatly in their markings These larvae do not wander from their nests to feed until nearly full grown but extend the web over their whole feeding ground con stantly enclosing fresh portions of the branch occupied until some times the web covers a space several feet long the whole enclosed portion having a scorched or withered look as if it had been blighted When nearly at their full growth they suddenly aban don their social habits and scatter far and wide feeding on almost any green thing they meet with They are very active and run briskly when disturbed In the South this insect is frequently doublebrooded the first brood of the larvae appearing in June the second in August RemediesAs soon as seen they should be removed by cutting off the twig or branch and destroying it if beyond ordinary reach the branch may be cut off by attaching a pair of pruning shears to a pole and pulling one handle with a string As they remain con stantly under the web for so long a period the removal of the branch insures in most instances the destruction of the whole colony Cecropia Emperor MothDuring the winter months when the appletrees are leafless the large cocoons of this insect are fre quently found firmly attached to the twigs The cocoon is about three inches long and an inch or more broad in its widest part formed of two layers ofllk The chrysalis remains uninjured in it by the variations of temperature during the winter Late inc c ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 405 May or early in June after repeated struggles the occupant comes out and the female commences soon after to deposit her eggstwo hundred or three hundredand they are usually laid in pairs The duration of the egg state is usually from a week to ten days when the young larva eats its way out making its first meal out of the empty eggshell With a ravenous appetite its growth is very rapid and from time to time its skin becomes too tight for its com fort and it is thrown off At each of these changes or moltings the caterpillar appears in an altered garb until finally a gigantic creature makes its appearance three to four inches long ana1 nearly as thick as a mans thumb During its growth from the diminutive creature as it escapes from the egg to the fullgrown specimen it consumes an immense amount of vegetable food and especially a it approaches maturity is this voracious appetite apparent When one or two have been placed on a young appletree thev mav in a short time strip it entirely bare the loss of foliage during thegrow ing period prevents the proper ripening of the wood and often en dangers the life of the tree RemediesThe natural increase of this insect is great and wise provisions have been made to keep it within due bounds There are numerous birds and insects that prey on it During the winter their cocoons should be looked for and destroyed the larvae may also be subdued by handpickingtheir work as well as their ap pearance being so conspicuous that they are readily detected Unicorn ProminentThis insect is doublebrooded in the South the moth of the first brood appearing early in June and those of the second in August In August and September the larvai may be found nearly full grown At first eating a notch about the S1ze of its body in the side of the leaf on which it is feeding and placing itself in this notch with the humps on its body some what resembling the irregularities in the margin of the partlyeaten leaf it is not easily detected Eventually it consumes the entire leaf except a small portion of the base It is rarelv present in suf ficient numbers to do any material damage No parasites have been recorded as preying upon it though doubtless it suffers in this way m common with most other insects406 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA Turnus SwallowtailThe eggs are deposited singly on the leaves of the apple they are about onetwentyfourth of an inch ia diameter nearly round of a dark green color with a smooth sur face In about ten or twelve days the eggs begin to change color becoming darker and growing very dark just before the escape of the larvae When full grown the caterpillar is an inch and a half to two inches long with a rather large red dishbrown head and a green body which is thicker towards the head and tapers posteriorly It feeds on the apple and other trees As it is always solitary in its habits it is never likely to cause much injury The Blindeyed SphinxWhile partial to the appletree this is comparatively a rare insect and has never been known to cause any serious injury The Apple SphinxThis belongs to the same family as the Blindeyed Sphinx and there is a general resemblance between the two in all their stages The American LappetmothWhile this insect feeds on the apple it is not at all common and will probably never be a source of much annoyance to the fruitgrower The Velleda LappetmothThe caterpillar of this species is very similar in appearance and habits to that of the American Lappet moth with some slight difference in color and markings It is a rare insect and one never likely to appear in sufficient numbers to be troublesome Obliquebanded LeafrollerSoon after the buds of the apple tree begin to open the caterpillars of the obliquebanded leafroller commence their labors They coil up and fasten together the small and tender leaves which thus furnish them at once with shelter and food When full grown they are about threefourths of an inch in length of a pale green or yellowishgreen color sometimes reddish or brownish Besides consuming the leaves this leafroller is very fond of gnawing the skin of the young fruit and such abraded spots soon become brown and rusty and sometimes crack When mature the larva lines the inner surface of its dwelling place with a web of silk and then changes to a chrysalis of a darkANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 407 brown color Towards the end of June or early in July the chrysalis wriggles itself halfway out of the nest and shortly after the imprisoned moth escapes The caterpillars are found on the apple pear and other fruit trees RemediesThe depredations of this foe are sometimes serious especially when it selects as its abode the terminal branches of the tree and thus checks its growth Whenever practical the curled and twisted clusters of leaves should be pinched and the lame crushed if out of reach syringing with powdered hellebore and water in the proportion of an ounce of the hellebore to a pailful of water or with Paris green and water in the proportion of a tea spoonful of Paris green to a pailful of water will destroy many of them Lesser Appletree FolderThe caterpillars of this species some times occur in great numbers destroying the leaves of appletrees particularly young trees giving them the appearance of being scorched by fire Those of the first brood make their appearance with the opening foliage in spring the opposite edges of the tender leaves are drawn together upwards and fastened with a silken web thus forming a roof over the insect which serves the double purpose of shelter and protection The second brood hatching later in the season from eggs laid on the surface of the mature and lessyield ing leaf do not draw its edges together but simply construct a web over the surface of the leaf When mature the caterpillars eat off the upper cuticle of part of a leaf and bring the edges together tying them with silken threads and then line the enclosure with fine white silk Within this curled leaf the caterpillar changes to a brown chrysalis about threetenths of an inch long RemediesWhen it becomes necessary to destroy them the remedies suggested for destroying the obliquebanded leafroller should be promptly applied The Leaf CrumplerThe fruitgrower will frequently find on examination of his appletrees in winter clusters of curious little cases partly hidden by portions of crumpled and withered leaves The cases resemble long miniature horns wide at one end tapering almost to a point at the other and twisted in a very odd manner408 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA The withered leaves are firmly fastened to the cases and to the twigs of silken threads and the case itself which is attached to the bark of the twig on which it is placed is curiously constructed of silk interwoven with the dried castings of the Leaf Grumpier The inner surface of the case is whitish and smooth the exterior rougher and of a yellowishbrown color These odd little cases are the work of the larvae of the Leaf Grumpier the young of which appear late in the summer and attain about onethird of their growth before winter sets in After constructing their places of abode they re main in them all winter in a torpid state As soon as the warmth of thespring sm caxises the buds to expand the caterpillar resumes its activity and leaving its case in search of food for which purpose it usually takes the night Dime it draws the opening leaves towards its case so as to secure a safe retreat should clanger threaten and fastening them by threads of silk enjoys its meals in comparative safety Its length when full grown is about sixtenths of an inch the body tapering slightly towards the hinder extremity Its growth is completed about the early part of June It then shuts itself up in its case and changes to a reddish brown chrysalis about fourtenths of an inch long from which in about two weeks the perfect moth escapes The moths deposit their eggs in July There is only one brood RemediesThis insect is not very often very numerous in any one orchard Where it is abundant it sometimes inflicts a con siderable amount of damage consuming the young foliage and re tarding the growth of the trees The only way to destroy them is to pick the cases with the crumpled leaves off the trees during the winter and burn or crush them The Eyespotted BudmothThe caterpillar of the Eyespotted Budmoth selects the opening bud as its point of attack It is a small cylindrical naked larva about threefourths of an inch long of a pale dull brownish color with small warts on its body from which arise fine short hairs Its tenement consists of a dried blackened leaf portions of which are drawn together so as to make a rude case the central part of which is lined with silk It is very partial to the blossoms of newlyformed fruit thereby causing greatANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR IS 409 disappointment to fruitgrowers who perhaps have waited patiently for years for the fruit of some new or interesting variety and have their hopes excited by seeing it may be a single set of blossoms set well and appear promising when this mischiefmaker commences its depredations on the young fruit drawing the several portions together with threads of silk and partly devouring them It some times contents itself with injuring the leaves only drawing one after another around its small inside case until there is formed a little cluster of withered and blackened leaves Another of its tricks is to gnaw a hole into the top of the branch from which a bunch of blossoms issue and tunneling it down the center cause its death These larvae are generally full grown by the middle of Tune when they change to darkbrown chrysalids within their nests from which the perfect moth escapes in July Remedies Small and insignificant as it appears this insect is capable of much mischief The only remedy suggested is to pull off and crush the withered clusters of leaves containing the cater pillars or chrysalids early in the Spring Applehud FormThe eggs from which the applebud worms hatch are deposited singly upon the terminal buds The young larva after devouring the bud fastens the leafstalk of one of the leaves growing near the tip to the side of the branch and thus forms for itself a kind of burrow between the leafstalk and the branch in which it hides during the day issuing from its retreat at night to feed on the leaf so secured When this is consumed it is said to feed for a time on the newly formed wood and some times eats its way a short distance into the twig The caterpillar about this time deserts its burrow on the branch and constructs a yellow woolly tube or case upon one of the leaves in which it lives issuing at night to feed as heretofore and when the leaf on which it is placed is almost consumed the larva drags the case to an adjoining leaf When full grown it measures about half an inch in length it then closes its case with a silken lid and changes to a chrysalis within it from which the moth appears about a week or ten days later The tips of the infested branches of the appletree die back as410 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA far as the base of the first perfect leaf where a new bud forms which takes the place of the terminal bud As the branch from this newly formed bud is late in starting and does not grow straight the injury caused by this insect interferes seriously with the growth of the tree and also mars its beauty RemediesWhere these insects are very troublesome they may be destroyed by syringing the trees with Paris green or London purple mixed with water in the proportion of one or two teaspoon fuls of the poison to two gallons of water The numbers may also be lessened by handpicking gathering them while still in their burrows near the tops of the twigs Greenapple LeaftyerThe greenapple leaftyer is a slate colored variety of the lesser apple leaf folder and the same re marks and remedies apply Appleleaf SewerIn the perfect state this insect is a small moth belonging to the Leaf Rollers It passes the winter in the larval condition in rolledup appleleaves which lie on the ground Early in April the larvae change to chrysalids and about ten days afterwards the moths begin to appear and continue to issue for several weeks The moth lays its eggs in June and the larva is found throughout the summer and autumn on appleleaves It folds the leaves together making the edges meet so that the whole leaf forms a hollow case within which it lives and feeds on the softer tissues RemediesThis caterpillar sometimes prevails to such an extent as to seriously injure the foliage of appletrees in such cases the most obvious remedy is to gather carefully in the autumn all the leaves with the enclosed larvae and burn them Appleleaf SlceletonizerThis insect occurs in the larval state in the autumn and sometimes during the summer also and is spe cially injurious to young orchards giving the foliage a rusty blight ed appearance caused by the larvae devouring the green pulpy parts of the upper surface of the leaves and leaving the closely net ted veins with the under skin untouched It sometimes feeds singly and sometimes in groups in the latter case a number of the leaves are drawn together and the caterpillars live and feed within this shelterANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 411 I RemediesThis pest may be subdued by handpicking if begun in good season Manydotted Apple Worm In June and again in August or September there is sometimes found on apple leaves in considerable number a rather thick cylindrical lightgreen larva an inch or more in length These are the larvae of the manydotted apple worm They eat irregular notches in the margins and holes in the middles of the leaves and do not feed in groups but are solitary in their habits scattered among the foliage They begin to appear about the last of May and live openly exposed on the under side of the leaves without furnishing any web or fold in the leaf for protection on reaching maturity which for the early brood is about the last of June the larva selects a leaf and draws together a portion of it with silken threads forming a hollow tube within which it spins a slight silky cocoon and changes to a brown chrys alis In this inactive condition it remains for three or four weeks sometimes longer when the moth appears RemediesThe larvae are seldom sufficiently numerous to be troublesome but if at any time a remedy is required they may be destroyed by syringing the leaves with Paris green or hellebore mixed with water as recommended for the obliquebanded leaf roller When the trees on which these caterpillars are feeding are suddenly jarred the caterpillars drop to the ground and by taking advantage of this peculiarity they may be captured and destroyed The Palmer WormThis larva appears in appletrees during the latter part of June and at times it is excessively numerous and destructive It lives in societies making its home in a mass of halfeaten and browned leaves drawn together by silken threads from which it drops when the tree or branch is jarred suspended in the air by a thread of silk While young the caterpillars eat only the green pulpy tissue of the leaves leaving the network of veins entire later on they consume the whole of the leaf except the coarse veins They also frequently gnaw holes or irregular cavities in the young apples When full grown they are about half an inch long They then change to chrysalids within the mass of eaten leaves occupied by the larvae and ordinarily spin a412 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA slight cocoon in a fold of the leaf but when they are very abun dant the foliage is so entirely consumed that they have to look for shelter elsewhere Their chrysalids are then often found under dry leaves on the surface of the ground in crevices in the bark of the tree and in other suitable hidingplaces In ten or twelve days the perfect insect is produced There are two other insects found on the appleleaves resembling the Palmer Worm and having similar habits which are described by Dr Asa Fitch as distinct but which are probably varieties only of the common Palmer Worm It is described as the com rade Palmer Worm It differs from the Palmer Worm only in color The other insect is described as the tawny striped Palmer Worm differing in color from the other varieties It appears in the early part of July which is a little later than the ordinary Palmer Worm The habits are similar RemediesShowering the trees with whaleoil soap and water has been recommended but the use of Paris green and water as directed for the obliquebanded leaf roller would prove more effect ual the water would dislodge many of the larvae and the remain der would be destroyed by eating the poisoned leaves The treat ment will serve for any of the varieties Climbing CutwormsThese are the caterpillars of the various flying moths Most of the species are very destructive to young cabbage plants and similar young and tender vegetables cutting or severing the plants when but three or four inches high just above or below the ground They are active only at night remaining concealed during the day just under the surface of the earth in the immediate neighborhood of their feeding grounds Some of them have the habit of ascending fruit trees at night and com mitting great havoc among the expanding buds and young foliage and it is to these that we particularly refer Orchards having a light sandy soil are much more liable to attack than those with a stiff and heavy soil When the buds and foliage of trees are being destroyed without apparent cause climbing cutworms should be searched for when the lurking foes will usually be found buried in the soil not far from the base of the trees or vines injured TheANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 413 several species while differing in size color and markings are much alike being all smooth naked larvae of some shade of gray green brown or black with grayish or dusky markings The young larvae of the variegated cutworm when hatched are very small and of a dull yellowish color with darker spots At first they do not hide themselves under the ground but acquire this habit after their first molt which takes place about a week after they are hatched They become full grown before the middle of June When mature the larva enters the ground where it forms an oval smooth cavity within which it changes to a chrysalis of a deep mahoganybrown color pointed at the extremity The darksided cutworm is another of the climbing species The caterpillar is a little over an inch in length of a dingy ashygray color above much darker along the sides of the body The larva of the climbing cutworm is a very active climber and does a great deal of injury to fruit trees When full grown it is nearly an inch and a half long when it enters the earth and there changes to a brown chrysalis The Wmarked cutworm has also been found feeding on apple buds The family of cutworms is a large one and embraces many other destructive species but none of them except those above mentioned are known to have the habit of climbing trees The Limetree WintermothThe caterpillar of this species is a span worm not unlike the Cankerworm but large and differ ently marked When full grown it is about an inch and a quarter long The head is a dull red with a Vshaped mark on the front the body yellow above with many longitudinal black lines the under side is paler The larvae hatch early in the spring and some times prove very destructive to the foliage They complete their growth amout the middle of June when letting themselves down from the tree by a silken thread they burrow into the ground forming a little oblong cell five or six inches below the surface within which the change to a chrysalis takes place and from which the moth usually comes out late in October or early in No vember but occasionally this latter change does not take place until spring414 BEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA RemediesThe habits of this insect are similar to those of the Cankerworm and the remedies recommended for the latter will prove equally efficient in this instance The White EugoniaThe White Eugonia has long been known as destructive to shadetrees In late years it has been discovered to be injurious to the foliage of appletrees especially in some parts of Georgia The eggs of the moth are usually deposited on the under side of the limbs near the top of the trees in patches consisting often of many hundreds They are smooth irregularly ovoid slightly flattened on the sides rounded at the bottom while the top is depressed with a whitish rim or edge forming a perfect oval ring The egg hatches about the first of May The cater pillar is dark brown with a large red head it lives in this state about forty days and then changes to a chrysalis in which con dition it remains about ten days when the moth escapes RemediesWhen abundant these insects may be poisoned and the orchard protected by syringing the trees with Paris green and water in the proportion of a teaspoonful of the poison to two gallons of water Hagmoth CaterpillarThe caterpillar of this moth is a curious sluglike creature of a darkbrown color flattened oblong or nearly square in form with singular fleshy appendages protruding from the sides of its body The three middle ones are longest measuring about half an inch long and have their ends curved Hitherto this insect has been rare and is never likely to do mnch injury Saddleback CaterpillarThis caterpillar is of a reddishbrown color rounded above flattened beneath armed with prickly thorns which are longest on the fourth and tenth segments and with a bright peagreen patch somewhat resembling a saddle in form over the middle portions of the body centered with a broad ellip tical reddish spot the red spot and green patch both being edged with white This moth is on the wing from the middle to the end of June but is a rare insect and seldom captured by collectors It has never been known to do any material injury Appletree CasebearerWith the opening of spring there willANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 415 sometimes be found on the twigs of appletrees curious little pistol shaped cases Each of them on examination will be found to contain a larva possessing the power of moving from place to place and carrying its protecting case with it These cases are very tough almost horny in their texture and seem to be proof against the attack of insect enemies As the buds begin to swell these cases will be found here and there sticking on them while the active little foe within is busily devouring the interior In this way many of the fruit buds are destroyed nothing but hollowshells being left As the season advances the caterpillars leave the twigs and fasten on the leaves on which they also feed sometimes re ducing them to mere skeletons Late in June the change to a chrysalis takes place and the moth appears on the wing in July They fly at night and deposit their eggs on the leaves these eggs hatch during August and September the larvas living and feeding on the under side of the leaves until frost comes when before the leaves fall they migrate to the twigs and fastening their odd little cases firmly with silken threads remain torpid until the following spring then aroused to activity by the first warm days they attack the swelling buds Resplendent ShieldbearersOccasionally there may be found on the limbs of appletrees during the winter clusters of little oval seedlike bodies which on examination will be found to be formed of minute portions of appleleaves and on opening one of them it will be found to contain a small yellowish larva or if the season be advanced perhaps a chrysalis During the month of May a small but very beautiful moth escapes from each of these enclosures It is an active little creature running about on the upper surface of the leaves in the sunshine with its wings closely folded to its body The eggs are laid on the appleleaves and the young larve when hatched penetrate to the interior of the leafj mining it leaving its upper and under surface unbroken but forming after a time an irregular darkcolored blotch upon the leaf When mature it forms from the leafy blotch its little case and crawling with it fastens it securely to a near twig or branch of the tree There are two broods during the season the moth appearing in May and again in July and August the first brood of the larvre being found in June the second at the latter part of the season416 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA RemediesIn the event that these insects prevail to any great extent the cases might be scraped from the branches and destroyed during the winter or the limbs brushed with the alkaline wash or the mixture of sulphur and lime recommended for the woolly applelouse The Appletree BucculatrixThe larva of this insect feeds ex ternally on the leaves of the appletree and is very active letting himself down from the tree by a silken thread when disturbed When fill grown it is nearly an inch long with a brown head and a dark yellowishgreen body When full grown the caterpillar spins an elongated whitish cocoon attached to the twig on the leaves of which it has been feeding this cocoon is ribbed longitudi nally and within this enclosure the larva changes to a brown chrysa lis The second brood is found late in autumn the insect remain ing in the chrysalis state during the winter The moths issue the following spring when they lay eggs for the first brood of cater pillars which are found injuring the foliage during the month of June Sometimes this insect appears in immense numbers and then becomes injurious RemediesAs the cocoons of the second brood remain attached to the tree all winter abundant opportunity is afforded to destroy them Any oily or alkaline liquid brushed over them will usually penetrate and destroy the enclosed insect The Apple LyonetiaThe apple lyonetia is a tiny and beauti ful moth which appears early in the summer The larva which feeds on appleleaves is small flattened and of a green color It constructs from the skin of the leaf a flattened oval case in which it lives the case is open at each end and is drawn about bv the larva as it moves from place to place The larva becomes full grown about the end of August and attaches its cocoon to the bark of the tree on which it is feeding changing there to a chrvsalis in which condition it remains until the following spring The Rosy IlispaThe Eosy Hispa is a small flat rough coarsely punctated beetle its wing covers forming an oblong square the head small and the antennae short This beetle is found from the latter part of May until the middle of June and deposits itsANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 417 eggs on the leaves of appletrees These are small rough and of a blackish color fastened to the surface of the leaves sometimes singly and sometimes in clusters of four or five The larvse when hatched eat their way into the interior of the leaf where they feed upon its green pulpy substance leaving the skin above and below entire which soon turns brown and dry forming a blisterlike spot The larva when full grown which is usually during the month of July is about onefifth of an inch long oblong in form rather broader before than behind flattened soft and of a yellowish white color with the head and neck blackish and of a horny con sistence The larva changes to a pupa within the leaf from which in about a week the perfect insect escapes Within these blister like spots the larva pupa or freshly transformed beetle may often be found This insect never occurs in sufficient numbers to be a source of much trouble The Cloaked ChrysomelaThis is another beetle which devours the foliage of the appletree It is of a thick cylindrical form about onethird of an inch long with its head sunk into its thorax and the thorax narrower than the body It is of a pale ashgray color No remedy is suggested The Appletree AphisDuring the winter there may often be found in the crevices and cracks of the bark of the twigs of the appletree and also about the base of the buds a number of very minute oval shining black eggs These are the eggs of the apple tree Aphis known also as the appleleaf Aphis They are depos ited in the autumn and when first laid are of a liglit yellow or green color but gradually become darker and finally black As soon as the buds begin to expand in the spring these eggs hatch into tiny lice which locate themselves upon the swelling buds and the small tender leaves and inserting their beaks feed on the juice All the lice thus hatched at this period of the year are females and reach maturity in ten or twelve days when they com mence giving birth to young producing about two daily for two or three weeks after which the older ones die The young locate about the parents as closely as they can stow themselves and they also mature and become mothers in ten or twelve days and are as 27 a418 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA prolific as their predecessors They thus increase so rapidly that as fast as new leaves expand colonies are ready to occupy them As the season advances some of the lice acquire wings and dis persing found new colonies on other trees When cold weather approaches males as well as females are produced and the season closes with the deposit of a stock of eggs for the continuance of the species another year When newly born the apple Aphis is almost white but soon be comes of a pale dull greenish yellow Their females are said to be always wingless The leaves of trees infested by these insects become distorted and twisted backwards often with their tips press ing against the twig from which they grow and thus form a cover ing for the Aphides protecting them from rain It is stated that the scab on the fruit of the appletree often owes its origin to the punctures of these plant lice RemediesScraping the dead bark off the trees during the winter and washing the trees with a solution of soft soap and soda as recommended for the roundheaded appletree borer would be beneficial by destroying the eggs Syringing the trees about the time the buds are bursting with strong soap suds weak Lye or to bacco water the latter made by boiling one pound of the rough stems or leaves of tobacco in a gallon of water will destroy a large number of the young lice The Tarnished PlanthugFor description and remedies see under head of pear The Peartree Leaf MinerTor description and remedies see under head of pear The Gray Bagger MothFor description and remedies see under head of plum Waved LagoaFor description and remedies see under head of plum The Bluespangled Peachtree CaterpillarFor description and remedies see under head of peach The Io Emperor MothFor description and remedies see under head of cherry The Ursida ButterflyFor description and remedies see under head of cherrvANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 419 The Basketworm or BagwormFor description and remedies see under head of quince The Whitelined DeilephilaFor description and remedies see under head of the grape The Rose BeetleFor description and remedies see under head of the grape The Smeared DaggerFor description and remedies see under head of the strawberry ATTACKING THE FRUIT The Codling MothThe codling moth is one of the most troublesome insects with which fruit growers have to contend The early brood of moths appear on the wing about the time of the opening of the appleblossoms when the female deposits her tiny yellow eggs singly on the calyx or eye just as the young apple is forming in a few instances they have been observed in the hollow at the stalk end and occasionally on the smooth surface of the cheek of the apple In about a week the egg hatches and the tiny worm at once begins to eat through the apple to the core Usually its eastings are pushed out through the hole by which it has entered the passage being enlarged from time to time for this purpose Some of the castings commonly adhere to the apple hence before the worm is full grown infested fruit may generally be detected hy the mass of reddishbrown exuvia protruding from the eye Sometimes as the larva approaches maturity it eats a passage through the apple at the side and out of the opening thrusts its castings and through it the larva when full grown escapes In three or four weeks after hatching the early brood of larvae attain full growth when the occupied apples generally fall prematurely to the ground sometimes with the worm in them but more com monly after it has escaped The larvae which leave the apples while still on the trees either crawl down the branches to the trunk of the tree or let themselves down to the ground by a fine silken thread which they spin at will In either case whether they crawl up or down the greater portion of them find their way to the trunks of the trees where under the rough bark and in cracks420 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA and crevices they spin their cocoons After the cocoon is com pleted the change to the chrysalis takes place in the early brood in about three days The insect remains in this condition about two weeks when the moth escapes Each moth is capable of lay ing at least fifty eggs but these are not all matured at once they are deposited successively extending over a period of probably from one to two weeks or more Sometimes the later specimens from the first brood will not have escaped from the fruit before some of the young larvae of the second brood make their appear ance the broods thus as it wereoverlapping each other and very much extending the period for the appearance of the winged insects RemediesOne of the most effective methods yet devised for reducing the numbers of the insect is to trap the larvae and chrysa lids and destroy them This is best done by applying bands around the trunks of the trees about six inches in width strips of old sack ing carpets cloth or fabric of any kind will serve the purpose and although not so durable many usebrown paper Whatever ma terial is used it should be wound entirely round the tree once or twice and fastened with a string or tack Within such enclosures the larva hide and transform The boards should not be applied later than the first of June and visited every eight or ten days until the last of August each time taken off and examined and all the worms and chrysalids found under them destroyed they should also be visited once after the crop is secured Some persons pre fer to use narrow bands not more than four inches wide and fasten them with a tack while others secure them in their place by merely tucking the ends under Usually the cocoons under the bandages are partially attached to the tree and partly to the band age so that when the latter is removed the cocoon is torn asunder when it often happens that the larva or chrysalis will fall to the ground and if it escapes notice may there complete its transforma tions Widemouthed bottles partly filled with sweetened water and hung in the trees have been recommended as traps for cod ling moths A large number of moths can be captured in this man ner but it is rare to find a codling moth among them Another is theANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 421 plan of lighting fires in the orcharclbut it is not of much avail since codling moths are rarely attracted by light Spraying the trees soon after the fruit has set and while it is still in an upright con dition with a mixture of Paris green and water in the proportion of a teaspoonful of the poison to a pailful of water will deter the moths from placing their eggs on the apples and thus protect much of the fruit from injury The fallen fruit should be promptly gathered and destroyed Where hogs can be kept in orchards without injury to the trees or other crops they will prove useful in removing the fallen fruit and the insects Apple CurculioThe apple curculio is a beetle smaller than the plum curculio of a dullbrown color having a long thin snout which sticks out more or less horizontally and cannot be folded under the body as is the case with many species of curculios In cluding the snout its length is a quarter of an inch or more It is single brooded and passes the winter in the beetle state The bee tle appears quite early and the larvae may often be found hatched before the middle of June and in variousstages of its growth in the fruit during June July and August With its long snout the beetle drills holes into the young apple much like the puncture of a hot needle the holes being round and surrounded by a blackish margin Those that are drilled by the insect while feeding are about onetenth of an inch deep and scooped out broadly at the bottom those which the female makes for her eggs are scooped out still more broadly and the egg is placed at the bottom As soon as the larva hatches it burrows to the heart of the fruit where it feeds around the core which becomes partly filled with rustred excrement In about a month it attains full size RemediesThe habit of the insect living within the fruit through all its stages renders it difficult to destroy Fortunately it is not found in such numbers as to do much damage to the fruit crop Apple MaggotThis is a footless maggot The fly appears in July and by means of a sharp ovipositor inserts its eggs into the substance of the apple It frequently attacks apples which have been previously perforated by the codlingworm and it pre422 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA fers the thinskinned summer varieties It is frequently found in apples that have been stored The Apple MidgeThe apple midge is a small maggot found devouring the flesh of ripened and stored apples and hastening their decay It appears to attack chiefly if not wholly those specimens which have been previously perforated by the codling moth The larva are long and slender tapering gradually to a point at the head When present they are generally found in great numbers and they burrow many channels through the flesh of the apples converting it into a spongy substance of a dull yel lowish color The change to a pupa takes place within the fruit The perfect insect very much resembles the Hessian fly It has not thus far proved very destructive and from its habits is scarcely likely to become so The AppleflyThis is a two winged fly known as the vine loving pomacefly very similar in its habits to the apple midge but it usually attacks the earlier varieties showing a preference for such as are sweet The larva generally enters the apple where it has been bored by the codlingworm or through the puncture made by the apple curculio and sometimes through the calyx when the apple is quite sound In August the fly matures and deposits eggs for another brood and successive generations follow until winter begins Apple ThripsThe apple thrips is a very small insect about oneeighteenth of an inch long It is slender of a blackishpurple color with narrow silverywhite wings Occasionally apples are found early in August small and withered with a cavity near their tip about the size of a pea and the surface of a blackened color appearing as if the cavity had been gnawed out Within this may be found one of these apple thrips which had probably taken up its residence in the fruit while it was very small and In frequent puncturing day after day the apple has become stunted in growth and finally withered While this insect has never yet proved very injurious its possibilities for mischief are great and it will be a difficult one to exterminate The Ashgray PinionThe ashgray pinion is a moth the larva ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 423 of which has occasionally been found boring into young apples during June The caterpillar when full grown leaves the fruit and works its way under the surface of the ground where it forms a very thin cocoon within which it changes to a reddishbrown chrysalis The moth escapes in the autumn The Melancholy CetoniaFor description see under head of the Pear The Plum CurculioFor description and remedi s see uudir head o Plum TEACHES The varieties of peaches approved by the State Horticultural Society for the mountain region are Alexander Austin Berenice Bustians October Baldwins Bate Chinese Cling Church Colum bia Crawfords Early Crawfords Late Darby Early Tillotson Eatons Golden Elberta Emma Heaths White Indian Blood Cling Lemon Cling JSTewington Cling Oldmixons Freestone Old mixons Clingstone Bicquets Late Rivers Sneed Stump the World Susquehannah Tuskeena Those tested and approved in the middleregion are Alexander Amelia Austin Berenice Baldwins Late Chinese Cling Church Columbia Crawfords Early Darby Duff Yellow Early Tillotson Early Golden Elberta Emma Eleitas St John Foster Globe Gen Taylor Heaths White Indian Blood Cling Lady Ingold Lemon Cling Louise B E Lee Mountain Rose Muscogee Mys tery Oldmixons Free Oldmixons Cling Oriole Plant Bicquets Late Rivers Sneed Stump the World Susquehannah Triumph Thurber Tinsleys October Cling Tuskeena In the southern section the following varieties have been ap proved Elberta Mountain Rose Thurber In the coast region the following have been approved Alex ander Amelia Hales Early Mountain Rose Rivers The following are the leading market varieties in order of ma turity Sneed Alexander Louise Hales Early Early Tillotson Fleitas St John Tuskeena General Taylor Mountain Rose Lady Ingold Early Crawford Robert E Lee Chinese Cling Oldmixons Free Susquehannah Elberta Emma Stump the World Columbia Lemon Cling Muscogee Indian Blood Cling Picquets Late 421 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA White Heath Cling Eatons Golden Baldwins Austin Darby Bustians October Stinsons Octoberthe last promising as a late clingstone For shipping to northern and western markets the following are commended Sneed Alexander Fleitas St John Early Tillot son Crawfords Early Crawfords Late Mountain Rose Stump the World Susquehannah Elberta Globe Georgia is adapted to peachgrowing and the area in peach growing is annually being enlarged It is considered one of the leading peachgrowing States DISEASES OP PEACHES AND REMEDIES Black SpotThis surface fungus is generally more severe upon late varieties It forms small dusky brown or black spots upon the side of the fruit and although the spots scarcely exceed oneeighth of an inch in diameter when several run together large areas of the peach may be affected In such cases all growth of the dis eased portion is stopped and frequently the flesh cracks down to the pit As a rule the disease is not very troublesome TreatmentSpray the trees with the Bordeaux mixture be ginning the treatment early in July The mixture should not be made stronger than one pound copper sulphate to ten gallons of the liquid and an abundance of lime should be added otherwise the foliage may be seriously injured Two applications may be required after the first of August For these a clear fungicide such as the ammoniacal carbonate of copper should be used but there is again danger of burning the foliage For this reason the solution should not be made stronger than one ounce to twelve gallons of water Some injury may result even from this diluted preparation but it will be so slight that no serious loss need be feared Powders have proven unsatisfactory in the treatment of peaches as the leaves are so smooth that but little of the material adheres to them Peachtrees should at all times be treated cau tiously P H Rolfs said in a paper read before an agricultural society in 1895 that in spraying peach orchards with the resin wash recommended by the division of Entomology it was found that the insecticide was excellent when used during drv weather WhenANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 425 the wash was used late in the year and early in the spring it was liable to destroy the fruit buds In no case did the insecticide affect the leafbuds Insecticides advised for the winter use should not be used in winter in Florida but may be used in September and October BrownrotThis disease is more severe upon early varieties and in the Middle Atlantic States the fungus is extremely preva lent and serious It is probably the most serious fungous disease peachgrowers have to contend with It causes the rotting of the fruit about the time the period of ripening begins It increases rapidly in warm moist weather and peaches which touch each other are among the first to suffer from the disease This is mainly due to the fact that a certain amount of moisture is retained at the point of contact and with such favorable conditions the fungus easily succeeds in gaining an entrance The affected fruit turns brown and appears as if decayed it then becomes covered with an ashcolored coating which consists of myriads of spots each one capable of spreading the disease The fungus attacks the small twigs causing their death It is no uncommon sight to see dried peaches attached to the branches upon which they grew the latter having been destroyed as well as the fruit by the disease It ap pears to be certain that the blossoms may be affected and ruined so that no fruit will set This disease therefore should be closely watched and strongly controlled TreatmentThe first application should be made in badly in fested districts just before the buds begin to swell at this time spray with a simple solution of copper sulphate using one pound to twentyrfive gallons of water While the buds are swelling spray with the Bordeaux mixture Repeat the last when the first has set When the fruit is grown spray with the ammoniacal carbonate of copper using one ounce of copper carbonate to twelve gallons of water and repeat the application at intervals of six or eight days until the fruit is harvested Curl Leafcurl FrenchingThe name curl has been given to this disease on account of the appearance of the affected leaves As soon as the first leaves have become grown they frequently show a curled or puckered appearance the ridges may extend across the426 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA leaf or in a longitudinal direction They appear as if puffed up and the normal green color is replaced by shades of yellow or red Such foliage generally falls from the trees before July when an other set of leaves is produced The mycelium of the fungus appears to live through the winter upon the buds and twigs for when buds are taken from diseased trees and inserted in nursery stock the resulting shoots generally show the disease although there was no apparent infection when the budding was performed TreatmentSome think to control the disease by spraying thoroughly with the copper sulphate solution before the buds break and following this after the trees have blossomed with applications of the Bordeaux mixture at intervals of about two weeks until July 1st Burning affected leaves and giving good cultivation may also decrease the severity of the trouble LeafrustThe affected areas are dull red upon the upper sur face of the leaf and yellowish brown on the lower surface but the spots are small and frequently cause the foliage to drop prema turely TreatmentSpray the trees with the Bordeaux mixture as soon as the leaves appear the application being repeated at intervals of two or three weeks until about the middle of July Clear fun gicides should be applied early in the season to avoid staining the fruit although the Bordeaux mixture can be continued longer with the crop Four applications should be sufficient even under very bad seasons Two or three will generally be found sufficient MildewEarly in the season before the peaches are onehalf grown they are occasionally attacked by a mildew which produces white powdery patches upon their surface These may be very small or they may enlarge until they are fully half an inch in diam eter As the season advances these parts become brown and hard sometimes causing the peach to crack The foliage is also attacked by this fungus here it produces a thick covering of white mycelium which entirely obscures the green color underneath TreatmentIt is probable that the disease can be checked by spraying the trees with the Bordeaux mixture as soon as the fruit has set and following this at intervals of two weeks by two treat ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 427 ments of one ounce of the carbonate of copper dissolved in ammo nia and diluted with twelve gallons of water RoseUeThis disease causes the growth of affected trees to be come compressed and bunched in the form of a rosette The dis ease is found only in the Southern States The causes as well as the remedies are unknown It is contagious Affected trees should be destroyed at once YellowsPeach yellows is a disease which so far has baffled all researches as to its cause or the methods of curing affected trees The trees first ripen their fruit prematurely the peaches possessing distinct red streaks extending from the surface towards the pit The following years the new growth is generally tufted and branched shoots are produced from wood that is more than two years old Such growths have narrow horizontal leaves which are yellowish in color The disease is contagious and affected trees should be burned as soon as the disease is discovered No cure is known INSECTS INJURIOUS TO PEACHTEEES ATTACKING THE TRUNK Peachtree BorerThe peachtree borer is destructive to peach orchards and is widely disseminated The parent insect belongs to the family of moths known as the Egerians which have trans parent wings and slender bodies and fly in the daytime The moth appears in the Southern States in some localities as early as the lat ter part of May The female moth deposits her eggs on the bark of the tree at the surface of the ground They are about onefif tieth of an inch long with a sculptured surface oval in form slightly flattened and of a dullyellowish color They are deposited singly are fastened to the surface of the bark by a gummy secre tion As soon as the larva is hatched it works downwards in the bark of the root forming a small winding channel which soon be comes filled with gum As it increases in size it devours the bark and sapwood and causes a copious exudation of gum which even428 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA tually forms a thick mass around the base of the tree intermingled with the castings of the worm When full grown the larva meas ures over half an inch in length and nearly a quarter of an inch in diameter The larvae may be found of different sizes all through the fall and winter months some quite young associated with others nearly full grown During the winter the larger ones rest with their heads upwards in smooth longitudinal grooves which they have excavated the back part being covered with castings mingled with gum and silken threads forming a kind of cell the cavity of which is considerably larger than the worm inhabiting it the smaller ones usually lie in the gum or between it and the wood of the trunk or roof In badly infested trees the whole of the bark at the base or collar is sometimes consumed for an inch or two below the surface or does the insect always confine itself to the base of the tree occasionally it attacks the trunk further up and sometimes the fork of the limbs but the exuding gum invari ably points out the spot where the foe is at work When about to become a pupa the larva crawls upwards to the surface of the ground and constructs a podlike case of a leathery structure it is fastened against the side of the root often sunk into a groove gnawed for that purpose with its upper end protruding slightly above the surface of the ground The pupa state lasts some three weeks or more Bemediesmien the larvae are present the exudation of gum affords ready means for their detection Early in Spring the trees should be carefully examined a little of the earth removed from above the base and if masses of gum are found the larvae searched for and destroyed Hot water is said to be very effectual in killing them it should be used very hot and after the earth has been re moved so as to insure it reaching the culprits before it cools Among the preventive measures much has been written in favor of mounding the tree banking the earth up around the trunk to the height of a foot or more and pressing it firmly about the tree borne allow the mounds to remain permanently but the better plan seems to be to mound up late in the Spring or towards mid summer and level off the ground again in September afterANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 429 egglaying has ceased and the moths have disappeared This treatment is said to make the bark very tender and liable to injury during the winter and it is recommended by some to defer its appli cation until the fourth year by which time the bark will have be come sufficiently thickened and hardy to endure the treatment without injury Placing around the roots a bed of cinders ashes or lime plastering the base of the trunk with mortar or clay and covering it with stout paper coating the tree with an application of soap or tobaccowater have all had their advocates but the weight of testimony is with the removal of the larvte with the knife late in the autumn or early in the Spring and subsequently mounding the trees in the manner already described Another remedy proposed is to cover the trunk with straw in the following manner Scrape the earth away from the collar place a handful of straight straw erect around the trunk fastening it with twine then return the soil which will keep the ends of the straw in their place The straw should entirely cover the bark and the twine be loosened as the trunk increases in size Trees so protected are said to have remained uninjured while all around them suffered from the borer The Elmlark BeetleThis insect while common on elmtrees only occasionally attacks peachtrees especially when from any cause it becomes diseased In August or September there appear small perforations like pinholes in the bark from which issue minute cylindrical beetles about onetenth of an inch long of a dark brown color with the wing cases deeply impressed with punc tated furrows and covered with short hairs the thorax is also punctated This insect has never occurred on the peach in suffi cient numbers to attract attention or to require the adoption of special remedies The Roundheaded Appletree BorerThis also attacks the peach For description and remedies see under head of apple The DiraricMed BuprestisThis insect also attacks the trunk of the peachtree For description and remedies see under head of the cherry430 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA ATTACKING THE BRANCHES Peachtree BarklouseThis is an insect very similar in appear ance and habits to the peachtree barklouse It is found attached to the smooth bark of the peach twigs frequently beside a bud or at the base of a twig appearing as a black hemispherical shell about the size and shape of a split pea its surface is uneven shin ing commonly showing a pale margin and a stripe upon the mid dle It feeds upon the sap piercing the bark with its proboscis and imbibing the juices When mature the removal of the scale discloses a multitude of eggs which in due time hatch and the young larvae scatter over the twigs and fastening themselves to the bark become permanently located and live the full term of their lives without changing their position The New York WeevilThis is a snout beetle or curculio the largest species we have It appears in May or June and injures fruit trees by eating the buds and gnawing into the twigs at their base often causing them to break and fall it also gnaws off the tender bark early in the season before the buds have expanded and later eats the leaves off just at their base and devours the tender shoots It is from four to sixtenths of an inch long of an ashgray color marked with black The beetle is said to be more active at night than in the day and seems to show a preference for the tender succulent shoots of the apple although it makes quite free with those of the peach pear plum and cherry It is very common in the Mississippi valley RemediesThere seems to be no other remedy than to catch and kill the mischiefmaker This beetle has the habit of falling to the ground when alarmed and hence may be captured by jarring the trees in the manner directed for the plum curculio under the head of plums The Buffalo TreeHopperFor description and remedy see under head of apple The Redshouldered BynoseylonFordescription and remedies see under head of the grape The Tree CricketFor description and remedies see under head of raspberryANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 431 The Strawberry Boot BorerFor description and remedies see under lead of strawberry The Stalk BorerFor description and remedies see under head of strawberry ATTACKING THE LEAVES Peachtree LeafrollerEarly in Spring when the young leaves are expanding a small worm sometimes attacks them and drawing them together with fine silken threads secretes itself within and feeds upon them This larva is rather slender of a pale green color with a pale dull yellowish head and a whitish streak along each side of its back When full grown it changes to a chrysalis within its nest where it remains about two weeks and then escapes as a moth It has never yet been reported as very destructive any where and is scarcely likely to require the application of any spe cial remedy Bluespangled Peachtree CaterpillarVery early in Spring there may sometimes be found sheltered under the loose bark of peachtrees small black caterpillars covered with short stiff hairs and studded with minute blue spots As soon as the leaves begin to expand these larvae issue from their hidingplaces and feed upon them They grow rapidly and soon attain their full size when they are nearly an inch long The fullgrown caterpillar is of a velvety black color above and pale bluish speckled with black below The larva selects some sheltered spot and there spins a slight cocoon of white silk within which it changes to a chrysalis RemediesWhen these larvae are numerous they sometimes do considerable damage to the young foliage of the peachtree They may be subdued by handpicking or by shaking them from the trees and crushing them under foot or syringing the leaves of the tree with Paris green and water in the proportion of a teaspoonful to two gallons of water Peachtree AphisThis aphis begins to work upon the young leaves of the peachtree almost as soon as they burst from the bud and continues throughout the greater part of the season unless swept off as sometimes happens with surprising rapidity by insect enemies These lice live together in crowds under the leaves and432 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA suck their juices causing them to become thickened and curled forming hollows with corresponding reddish swellings above fre quently the curled leaves fall prematurely to the ground RemediesThe remedies given for the appletree aphis are ap plicable in this case The following also attack the branches The Obliquelanded Leafroller the Leaf Grumpier the many dotted ApplewormTor description and remedies see under head of apple The Saddled LeafhopperTor description and remedy see under head of plums The Basketworm or BagwormTor description and remedy see under head of quince The Rose BeetleTor description and remedy see under head of the grape The Smeared DaggerTor description and remedy see under head of the strawberry ATTACKING THE FRUIT The Codling MothTor description and remedy see under head of apple The Ashgray PinionTor description and remedy see under head of apple The Indian CetoniaTor description and remedy see under head of pear Plum CurculioTor description and remedy see under head of plum NECTARINES Reports from every section state that Xectarines are unreliable owing to the attacks of the curculio and unless carefully sprayed are unproductive The varieties are Boston Downton Early Xewington Early Scarlet Early Violet Elruge Golden Cling Hardewick Hunts Tawny New White Eed Roman Stanwick Victoria The insects that prey upon them are the same as on the peachANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 433 APRICOTS Apricot trees are liable to be killed by Spring frost They are only desirable for city gardens or where protected by surrounding buildings Breda and Early Golden have not proven entirely satis factory in the mountain region the same may be said of Breda Early Golden Moorpark Peach and Boyal in the middle region The same insects that prey upon the nectarine prey upon the apricot and to these may be added the Pearblight Beetle POMEGRANATES The mountain region is too cold to grow this plant The acid variety has done well in the middle southern and coast regions So has the large sweet The dwarf variety is suited only to pot culture PEAKS In the mountain region the following varieties of pears have been approved Bartlett Belle Lucrative Beurre dAnjou Beurre Easter Beurre Giffard Buerre Langelier Buerre Superfln Duchesse dAngouleme Howell Kieffer LeConte Onondaga Petite Marguerite St Michael Archangel Seckel Wilder The following varieties have been tested in the middle region and approved Bartlett Belle Lucrative Beurre dAnjou Beurre Giffard Buerre Superfin Clapps Favorite Dayenne dEte Duchesse dAngouleme Flemish Beauty Garber Howell Kieffer Lawrence LeConte Onondaga Petite Marguerite St Michael Archangel Seckel Winter ISTelis In the southern region the following varieties are approved Howell Kieffer LeConte St Michael Archangel Seckel Smiths In the coast region the following varieties have been approved Bartlett Beurre Clairgeau Duchesse dAngouleme Flemish Beau ty Howell Kieffer LeConte St Michael Archangel Seckel Best varieties for market in order of maturityon Quince Buerre Giffard St Michael Archangel Buerre Superfiin How ell Duchesse dAngouleme Seckel Beurre dAnjou on Standard Doyenne dEte Clapps Favorite Bartlett Belle Lucrative Le434 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA Conte Flemish Beauty Beurre Clairgeau Lawrence Kiefferr Beurre Easter and Winter Nelis oriental type Garber DISEASES OF THE PEAR TREE AND TREATMENT Leaf Blight Fruit SpotThe leaves stems and fruit of the pear are subject to the attack of the leafblight fungus The dis ease appears as soon as the first leaves are developed or if the weather is dry it may not cause any injury until midsummer The leaves become dotted with reddishbrown spots which gradually increase in size coalesce and eventually destroy large areas The leaves finally fall to the ground and if the fungus is very prevalent the trees may be entirely defoliated Upon the stems the affected parts appear black and dead The fruit first shows reddish spots which later turn dark If the pears are attacked while small the diseased parts grow but slowly the tissues become hard and corky and the result is an irregular fruit generally cracked upon the dwarfed side and more or less marked by isolated spots which ap pear after the first serious affection There is a bacterial disease which is frequently mistaken for the leafblight but is entirely distinct It is commonly known as hig hlight or twigblight It is very serious upon pears and quinces It causes the foliage to turn to a uniform brown the change taking place sometimes in two or three days The leaves do not fall from the tree but remain upon the branches giving the parts the appear ance of having been scorched by fire The bark of affected stems becomes brown and sunken The bacterium enters the tree through the blossoms and also through the growing tips There is no known remedy the only method of checking the malady being to cut out affected parts and to burn them as fast as they appear TreatmentThe leafspot of pears and quinces may be pro vented by spraying the trees with the Bordeaux mixture as soon a the first leaves have developed The application should be re peated at intervals of two to four weeks more treatments being made during moist weather until the first of August Later treat ment will rarely be required In case it should appear to be necessary the ammoniacal carbonate of copper should be appliedANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 435 Other clear fungicides will answer the same purpose for late treat ment RuslFor description and treatment see under head of apple ScabFor description and treatment see under head of apple ATTACKING THE ROOT Broadnecked PrionusFor description and remedy see under head of grape ATTACKING THE TRUNK Peartree BorerThis is a whitish larva resembling that of the peachtree borer but much smaller which feeds chiefly on the bark of the peartree Its presence may be detected from its habit of throwing out its castings resembling fine sawdust which are readily seen upon the bark of the tree Before the larva changes to a chrysalis it eats a passage through the bark leaving only the thinnest possible covering unbroken Eetiring towards the interiorr it changes to a chrysalis and late in the summer the chrysalis eventuates into a moth RemediesThe trees should be examined in the Spring and if the evidences of the presence of these larva are found they should be searched for and destroyed As a preventive measure paint the trees with a mixture of soft soap and solution of soda as recom mended for the roundheaded borer of the apple or mound the tree about midsummer with earth as recommended for the peachtree borer ThePigeon TremexThe female pigeon tremex is a large wasplike creature which measures with its wings expanded nearly two inches across The male is smaller and has no borer The fe male bores into the wood of the tree with her borer and when the hole is made deep enough drops an egg into it The larva is soft yellowish white and of a cylindrical form It bores deeply into the interior of the wood From its secluded habits this insect is a difficult one to cope with It is however seldom present in suffi cient numbers to be very injurious The Poundheaded Appletree Borer and the Flatheaded Apple tree BorerBoth injure the pear and are often found under the bark especially about the base of the trunk For description and remedies see under head of the apple436 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA ATTACKING THE BRANCHES The TwiggirdUrThis beetle nearly amputates pear twigs dur ing the latter half of August and the early part of September The female makes perforations in the smaller branches of the tree upon which she lives and in these deposits her eggs She then pro ceeds to gnaw a groove about onetenth of an inch wide and about a similar depth all around the branch when the exterior portion iies and the larva when hatched feeds upon the dead wood The girdled twigs sooner or later fall to the ground and in them the insect completes its transformation and finally escapes as a perfect beetle RemediesTo subdue this insect the dead and fallen twigs should be gathered and burned The Pvarblight BeetleDuring the heat of midsummer twigs iof the peartree sometimes become suddenly blighted the leave and fruit wither and a discoloration of the bark takes place fol lowed by the speedy death of the part affected Most frequently these effects are the result of fireblight a disease produced by a species of micrococcus but occasionally they are due to the agency of the pearblight beetle In these latter instances there will be found on examination small perforations like pinholes at the tbase of some of the buds and from those issue small cylindrical Ibeetles about onetenth of an inch long of a deep or black color with antennas and legs of a rusty red The beetle deposits her egg at the base of the bud and when hatched the young larva follows the course of the eye of the bud towards the pith around which it passes consuming the tissues in its covirse thus interfering with the circulation and causing the twig to wither The larva changes to a pupa and subsequently to a beetle in the bottom of its burrow and makes its escape from the tree in the latter part of June or the beginning of July depositing its eggs before August has passed The hole made by the beetle when it is escaping is a little more than onetwentieth of an inch in diameter It was formerly sup posed that these insects infested only such trees as wove unhealthy or were already dying but it has been stated that sound and healthy trees are attacked and severely injured by them Neither areANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 437 they limited in their operations to the twigs hut sometimes attack the trunk also It is said that there are two broods each year the early one nurtured in the trunk and when these reach maturity the newlygrown twigs offering a more dainty repast are subse quently invaded and destroyed The injuries inflicted by this in sect are not confined wholly to the pear occasionally it is found oq the apple apricot and plum The fire blight on the pear is a dis ease totally different in its character and is entirely independent of insect agency RemediesThe only remedy which has been suggested is to cut off the blighted limbs below the injured part and burn them before the beetle has escaped The Peartree BarklouseThis insect is found on the under side of the limbs of young and thrifty peartrees adhering closely to the bark It appears in the form of a hemispherical scale about onefifth of an inch in diameter of a chestnut brown color some times marked with faint blackish streaks and having on its surface some shallow indentations The outer margin is wrinkled These scales when mature are the dead bodies of the females covering and protecting their young some are darker in color than others and there are some smaller ones which are of a dullyellow hue Under the scales the young lice are interspersed through a mass of white cottonlike matter which subsequently increases in volume and protrudes from under the scale Early in the season they crawl out and distribute themselves over the smooth bark appear ing as minute whitish specks The young lice attach themselves to the bark which they puncture with their beaks living on the sap and during the season materially increase in size They pass the winter in a torpid state and in the spring the males enter the pupa condition and subsequently appear as twowinged flies while the females gradually grow to the size and form of the scales re ferred to and after depositing their eggs die when their dried bodies remain to serve as a shelter for their offspring RemediesFortunately these insects are of such a size that they are easily to be seen They should be looked for during the latter part of June at which time the females will have attained their full438 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA size and when discovered should be promptly removed The under side of the limbs should also be well scrubbed with a brush dipped in some alkaline solution L The Peartree PsyllaDuring the middle of May when growth is rapid the smaller limbs and twigs of peartrees are sometimes observed to droop a close examination reveals a copious exudation of sap from about the axils of the leaves so abundant that it drops upon the foliage below and sometimes runs down the branches to the ground Flies and ants gather around in crowds to sip the sweets and by their busy hustle draw attention to the mischief progressing This insect known as the peartree psylla is a small yellow jumping creature flattened in form and provided with short legs a broad head and a sharp beak With the beak are made the punctures from which the sap exudes In rare instances they occur in immense numbers when almost every leaf on the tree wiil seem to be affected all growth is at once arrested and frequently the tree loses a considerable portion of its leaves Towards the end of the summer they attain maturity when they are furnished with transparent wings They are onetenth of an inch long RemediesPaint the twigs with a strong solution of soft soap as recommended for the flatheaded appletree borer or syringe the trees with strong soapsuds The Appletwig BorerFor description and remedy see under head of the Apple The Oystershell BarkloweFor description and remedy see under head of the Apple The Scnrfy BarklouseFor description and remedy see under head of the Apple The Netv York WeevilFor description and remedv see under head of the Peach ATTACKING THE BUDS The Tarnished PlantbugThis insect about onefifth of an Inch long varies in color from a dull dark brown to a greenish or dirty yellowish brown the males being generally darker than the females It passes the winter in the perfect state taking shelter among rubbish or in other convenient hidingplaces and early inANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 439 Hay as soon as vegetation starts it begins its depredations Con cealing itself within the young leaves of the expanding buds of the pear it punctures them about their base and along their edges ex tracting their juices with its beak The puncture of the insect seems to have a poisonous effect and the result is to disfigure and sometimes entirely destroy the young leaves causing them to blacken and wither These insects are also partial to the unopened buds piercing them from the outside and sucking them nearly dry when they also become withered and blackened Sometimes a whole branch will be thus affected being first stunted then with ering and finally dying Early in the morning these plantbugs are in a sluggish condition and may be found buried in the expand ing leaves but as the day advances and the temperature rises they become active but when approached dodge quickly about from place to place drop to the ground or else take wing and fly away When handled they have a disagreeable odor It is stated that they deposit their eggs on the leaves and that later in the season the old and the young bugs may be found together RemediesFirst of all clean culture so as to leave no shelter for the bug in which to winter over When they appear in spring shake them from the trees very early in the morning while they are in a torpid state and destroy them The Oak PlatycerusThis is an insect belonging to the family of stagbeetles which has occasionally been found injurious to pear trees by devouring the buds It matures and appears as a beetle about the time that the buds of the pear are bursting and con tinues feeding for many days completely eating out the swelling buds and the ends of the new shoots Hitherto a rare beetle it is scarcely likely ever to prove generally troublesome to peargrowers ATTACKING THE FLOWERS The Peachtree Blister BeetleThis is a greenishblue or brassy looking beetle rather more than half an inch long which has been found injurious to pear blossoms They begin their work by devouring the corolla then the pistil and calyx and a portion of440 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA the forming fruit but are said to avoid the stamens They will occasionally eat small portions of the tender foliage hut are usually found most abundant on the tops of the trees and about the ex tremities of the limbs RemediesThis pest is easily controlled On jarring the trees they drop at once to the ground and if taken in the cool of the morning are very sluggish in their movements Later in the day in the heat of the sun they become much more active and fly readily ATTACKING THE LEAVES The Peartree Leaf MinerThe larva of this insect mines the leaves of the pear and also those of the apple It is very small of a paler reddishcolor with a black head and a black patch on the upper part of the next segment It usually draws two leaves together and fastens them with silken fibers or else folds one up and eats the surface making unsightly blotches which disfigure and injure the leaves About the middle of August the larva changes to a long slender chrysalis within the mine The moth appears a few days afterwards As the season advances these insects some times become very abundant and towards the end of autumn a large proportion of the pear and appletrees become blotched and disfigured from their work Since they pass the winter in the larval or chrysalis condition in their leafy enclosure their numbers may be materially reduced by gathering the fallen leaves in the autumn and burning them Peartree SlugThe peartree slug passes its winter in the pupa state under ground the flies their progenitors are of a glossyblack color Most of the females are provided with a sawlike appen dage at the end of the body by which slits are cut in the leaves of the trees shrubs or plants on which the larvae feed in which slits the eggs are deposited In about a fortnight these eggs hatch The newlyhatched slug is at first white but soon a slimy matter oozes out of the skin and covers the upper part of the body with an olivecolored sticky coating After changing its skin four times it attains the length of half an inch or more and is then nearlv fullANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 441 grown It is a disgusting looking creature with the anterior part of its body so swollen as to resemble a tadpole in form and having a disagreeable and sickening odor After the last molt it lose its slimy appearance and dark color and appears in a clean yellow skin entirely free from slime its form is also changed being proportionately longer In a few hours after this change it leaves the tree and crawls or falls to the ground where it buries itself to the depth of from one to three or four inches Here it forms a cell where it changes to a chrysalis and in about a fortnight breaks open the enclosure and appears in the winged form about the third week in July the flies are actively engaged in depositing eggs for a second brood the young slugs appearing early in August They reach maturity in about four weeks then return under ground change to pupae and remain in that condition until the following spring Pear and cherry growers should be on the lookout for this de structive pest about the middle of June and again early in August and if the young larvaj are then abundant they should be promptly attended to since if neglected they play havoc with the foliage feeding upon the upper side of the leaves and consuming the tissues leaving only the veins and under skin The foliage deprived of its substance withers and becomes dark colored as if scorched by fire and soon afterwards it drops from the trees In a badly in fested pear orchard whole rows of trees may sometimes be seen as bare of foliage during the early days of July as they are in mid winter In such instances the trees are obliged to throw out new leaves and this extra effort so exhausts their vigor as to interfere seriously with their fruitproducing power the following year RemediesHellebore in powder mixed with water in the pro portion of an ounce of hellebore to two gallons of water and ap plied to the foliage with a syringe or a wateringpot promptly des troys this slug and Paris green applied in the same manner in the proportions of a teaspoonful of the poison to two gallons of water would doubtless serve a similar purpose Fresh airslaked lime dusted on the foliage is said to be an efficient remedy It has been recommended to dust the foliage with sand ashes and road dust but these areunsatisfactory measures and of but little value442 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA The Green Peartree SlugAnother species of sawfly also at tacks the peartree The larvae appear from about the first to the middle of June and eat holes in the leaves or semicircular por tion from the edge They are about half an inch nearly cylindri cal in form About the middle of June the larva seeks some suitable hidingplace such as a crevice in the bark of a tree or other shelter and there makes and fastens firmly a small brownish paperylooking cocoon in which it undergoes its transformation and remains until the following spring when the perfect fly appears RemediesThese insects are seldom found in abundance but should they be so found the remedies applicable to the peartree slug would serve equally well in this instance The Goldsmith BeetleThis is the most beautiful of the leaf eating beetles It is nearly an inch in length of a broad oval form with the wing case of a rich yellow color and pale metallic luster while the top of the head and the thorax gleam with burn ished gold of a brilliant reddish cast This insect appears late in May and during the month of June and is distributed over a wide area although very seldom abundant rarely does a season pass without some of them being seen During the day they are inactive and may be found clinging to the under sides of the leaves of trees often drawing together two or three leaves and holding them with their sharp claws for the purpose of concealing them selves At dusk they issue from their hidingplaces and fly about with a buzzing sound among the branches of trees the tender leaves of which they devour Like the common Maybug this beautiful creature is attracted by light and often flies into lighted rooms in summer evenings dashing against everything it meets with In some seasons they are comparatively common and may then be readily captured by shaking the trees on which they are lodged in the daytime when they do not attempt to fly but fall at once to the ground This beetle is short lived The female deposits her eggs in the ground at varying depths during the latter part of June and hav ing thus provided for the continuance of the species dies The lives of the males are of still shorter duration The eggs are laid during the night not exceeding twenty in about three weeks theANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 443 young larva is hatched The mature larva is very similar in ap pearance to the Maybugknown as the White grub It lives in the ground and feeds on the roots of plants and is sometimes very destructive to strawberry plants It is said that the larva is three years reaching its full growth finally it matures in the autumn and late in the season or early in the following spring changes to a beetle The Iridescent SericaThis beetle is injurious to peartrees devouring the leaves Like the Goldsmith beetle it will drop to the ground when the trees are jarred or shaken The larva prob ably dwells under ground and feeds on the roots of plants If it becomes troublesome it may be collected by jarring or shaking the trees and destroyed Peartree AphisAn undetermined species of Aphis sometimes attacks the leaves of the peartree early in June causing them to twist and curl up very much RemediesThe remedies recommended for the appletree Aphis will be serviceable for this insect also The Grasshoppers or LocustsSeveral species of grasshoppers or locusts attack the leaves of the pear and when abundant will often entirely strip young trees of their foliage The redlegged locust and the greenfaced serve to illustrate the family all the members of which are destructive especially during the latter part of summer When young trees are deprived of their leaves in the midst of their growth they fail to ripen their wood properly and their vitality is weakened so that they are more liable to injury from winter and also more prone to disease Grasshoppers also devour the leaves of young apple plum and other trees RemediesTo destroy these pests trees when not fruiting may be syringed with Paris green and water in the proportion of two teaspoonfuls of the poison to two gallons of water The Whitemarked Tutwck MothFor description and remedies see under head of the Apple The Redhumped Apple tree Caterpillar For description and remedies see under head of the Apple The Fall WebwormFor description and remedies see under head of the Apple444 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA The Cecropia Emperor MothFor description and remedies see under head of the Apple The Obliquebanded LeafRoller For description and remedies see under head of the Apple The Eyespotted BudmothFor description and remedies see under head of the Apple The Bluespangled Peachtree CaterpillarFor description and remedies see under head of Peach The Basketworm or BagwormFor description and remedies see under head of Quince ATTACKING THE FRUIT The Indian CetoniaThis insect appears towards the end of April or in the beginning of May when it flies about in dry fields on the borders of woods on sunny days making a loud buzzing sound like a bee It is little more than half an inch in length The early brood is fond of sucking the sweet sap which exudes from wounded trees or freshly cut stumps in September a second brood appears and these injure fruits burrowing into ripe pears almost to the middle reveling on their sweets and inducing rapid decay They also attack peaches and grapes RemediesThe only remedy suggested is to catch and destroy them They are seldom very abundant The Melancholy CetoniaThis insect belongs to the same genus as the Indian Cetonia is very similar in appearance and habits but is somewhat smaller This beetle has been found eating into ripe pears and occasionally in apples It is found in cotton bolls in the holes left by the bollworm It appears to frequent the boll for the purpose of consuming the exuding sap The Codling Moth so destructive to the fruit of the apple is almost equally injurious to the fruit of the pear For description and remedies see under head of the Apple The Plum CurculioFor description and remedies see under head of the Plum The Quince CurculioFor description and remedies see under head of Quince PLUMS In the mountain region the Damson and Wild Goose plums have been approved Of the Japanese plums the AbundanceANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 445 Sweet Botart Burbank Cliabot Hatan Kayo Maru Ogon and Red June or Long Fruit are commended In the middle region the Cumberland Missouri Newmans Wild Goose Damson and Red Gage have been approved of the Japanese plums the Satsuma the Blood Honsmomo Hale Wick son Abundance Sweet Botan Burbank Chabot Hatan Kayo Maru Oaon and Red June are commended In the southern region Harpers is approved and of the Japanese plums the Georgeson Kerr Kelsey and those enumerated in the middle region are commended In the coast region the DeCaradeuc is approved of the Japa nese plums the Georgeson Kerr and Kelsey are commended DISEASES OF THE PLUM AND TREATMENT Brown RotFor description and treatment see under head of peach Leafblight Shothole FungusThe foliage of plums and cherries is often disfigured in early summer by small circular spots about oneeighth of an inch in diameter The spots are at first of a purple color but later as the tissue dries the color changes to brown and the affected areas become loosened and drop out This causes the leaves to appear as if pierced by shot as they are frequently full of these round holes In such cases the foliage turns yellow drops during the summer and the trees are unable to mature their fruit If unchecked the fungus may cause serious losses but fortunately the disease is easily controlled TreatmentThe trees should be sprayed with the Bordeaux Mixture as soon as the leaves appear the application being re peated at intervals of two or three weeks until about the middle of July Clear fungicides should be applied early in the season to avoid staining the fruit The Bordeaux Mixture may be con tinued longer with plums Four applications should be sufficient even in very bad seasons and two or three will generally be found sufficient LeafrustIn general appearance leafrust is very similar to leafblight The affected areas are dullred upon the upper sur446 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA face of the leaf and yellowishbrown upon the lower surface but the spots are small and frequently cause the foliage to drop pre maturely TreatmentGive the same treatment as for the plumleaf blight Plum Knot Black Knot Plum WartIt is a common opinion that the black knots found so generally upon plum and sour cherry trees are caused by insects but such is not the case These swell ings are caused by a fungus and the insects find them to be good breadingplaces which explains their presence in many old knots Enough is known of the history of this fungus to serve a a safe guide in the treatment of the disease Early in spring when growth starts these swellings begin to appear At first they are yellowish in color but later this changes to a darker shade During May and June a crop of spores is produced upon the sur face of the knots causing them to appear as if coated with a thin layer of velvet This soon disappears and then the knot becomes darker until winter when it is jet black In November and De cember the surface of the knot may be seen to be thickly covered with minute black elevations in which the winter spores are borne These are distributed during the latter part of winter The spores generally gain entrance into the trees at the crotches of small limbs and at the junction of annual growths They cause swellings which extend along the younger branches to a distance of four to five inches the first year All the mycelium does not die during the winter so the following spring the formation of new swellings may be seen at the edges of the old knots In this manner the disease may live from year to year or until the limb dies TreatmentThe general recommendation has been to cut out the knots and destroy them as soon as discovered It should be done before a crop of spores is matured In addition to this the trees are thoroughly sprayed with the Bordeaux Mixture during the warm days of each spring before the growth starts and again when the buds are about to burst it is probable that the winter spores may be rendered harmless If the crop of spores matured during May and June is similarly disposed of no infection need be feared Consequently the trees should be sprayed for the thirdANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 447 time with the Bordeaux Mixture during the latter part of May and again about the middle of June These applications should be thoroughly made and if this is done the Black Knot fungus may be practically controlled In case a knot appears upon a large limb or upon the trunk of a tree where it cannot be easily removed it should be painted with pure kerosene oil This will destroy the knot and also the living tissue surrounding it care should therefore be exercised in the application of the oil that it is not too freely distributed By mixing some coloring matter with the kerosene the treated parts may easily be distinguished Plum Pockets Plum BladdersPlums are frequently attacked by this fungus soon after they blossom The affected fruit begins to swell and it is from one to two inches in length At first the plums are very smooth but they are yellow in color Later this changes to gray the appearance being caused by a thick cod ing of the spores of the parasite This color is then replaced by darkbrown or black and towards the end of June the fruit falls to the ground It is then nearly hollow and rattles like inflated bladders The walls of the plum are fairly thick but no stone or pit exists Wild cherries and plums are also attacked by other closely related fungi The mycelium of these fungi are peren nial so that the disease appears year after year on the same tree It attacks the leaves and stems as well as the fruit and causes the affected parts to become swollen and distorted TreatmentNo careful work appears to have been done in con trolling the fungi that causes plum pockets From the fact that the mycelium has been found growing upon the twigs and extend ing to the young leaves and fruit it seems probable that the copper compounds would prove valuable in controlling the disease The trees should be sprayed when the buds begin to swell and again just before the blossoms open The disease may also spread by means of spores and this would probably necessitate applications at the time when the affected fruit is of a gray color Powdery MildewFor descrfption and treatment see under head of Apple Rot For description and treatment see under head of Peach448 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE PLUM AND REMEDIES Plumtree SphinxThe Plumtree Sphinx on the wing much resembles hummingbirds It is a handsome insect appearing as a moth during the month of June its body is about one and a half inches long This moth deposits her eggs singly on the leaves of the plum It hatches in from six to eight days when the young larva eats its way out through the side of the egg its first meal is usually made from the eggshell which it partly or wholly devours The fullgrown caterpillar is about three and a half inches long of a beautiful applegreen color After satisfying its rapacious appetite it assumes for a time a peculiar rigid appearance It is perfectly harmless and may be handled with impunity it may be found on the trees from the middle of July to the end of August When mature the caterpillar descends to the ground and having buried itself under the surface to the depth of several inches pre pares a convenient chamber which it lines with a gummy water proof cement and there changes to a chrysalis The insect remains in the ground in this condition until the following June The ravages of this insect are never extensive yet in some locali ties it appears in sufficient numbers to cause annoyance The denuded twigs promptly attract the attention of the fruitgrower who will soon search out and exterminate the destroyer The Gray Dagger MothThe first brood of this pretty silvery gray moth appears on the wing late in May or early in June The moths deposit their eggs on the leaves of the plum cherry and appletrees and the caterpillar becomes full grown during the first or second week in July It is then about one and a half inches long AVhen full grown the larva spins a slight cocoon in some sheltered spot and there changes to a chrysalis seventenths of an inch long From these the second brood of moths appear late in July and shortly after eggs arc again deposited from which the later brood of larvas mature about the middle of September which then become chrysalids and produce moths the following spring This insect seldom occurs in sufficient numbers to prove very des tructive Should it ever do so it may readily be destroyed by syringing the trees with powdered hellebore or Paris oreen mixedANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 449 with water as recommended for the peartree slug The larvae are often captured under the bands set as traps for the larvae of the codling moth The Mottled Plumtree MothThe caterpillar of this moth also feeds on the leaves of the plum and is solitary in its habits It ap pears about the middle of June It is a green caterpillar about one inch long with its body seeming as if laterally compressed mak ing it appear higher than it is wide About the middle of July the moth escapes from the cocoon This species is doublebrooded The moths that appear in July deposit eggs from which larvae hatch which reach maturity in September enter the chrysalis state and remain in this condition until the following spring They are seldom numerous and will never be likely to prove very trouble some The Homed SpanwormThis singular looking caterpillar is frequently found on plumtrees devouring the leaves It is about seventenths of an inch long It may be found during the first half of June and sometimes later During the latter part of the month it constructs a slight cocoon composed of pieces of leaves fastened together with silken threads and within this enclosure changes to a reddishgray or pale brown chrysalis in which state it continues about ten days when the perfect insect escapes The moths are on the wing in July and early in August This insect is never likely to become very injurious The Disippus ButterflyThe larva of this butterfly is occasion ally found feeding on the leaves of plumtrees It appears on the wing during the latter half of June and in July and deposits its eggs sometimes on the plum but more frequently on the willow and poplar There are two broods during the year The larvae from the eggs deposited by the second brood of butterflies hibernate when less than half grown and complete their growth the following spring The Polyphemus MothThe caterpillar of this insect which is often found feeding on the leaves of plumtrees is also known as the American Silkworm in consequence of its having been exten sively reared for the sake of its silk When mature the caterpillar 29 a450 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA proceeds to spin its cocoon within an enclosure nearly oval in form and within it the larva changes to an oval chrysalis Usually the cocoons drop to the ground with the fall of the leaves remaining there during the winter Late in May or early in June the chrysalis escapes as a moth Within a few days the female deposits her eggs Each female will lay from two hundred to three hundred eggs which hatch in ten or twelve days RemediesWhile in the larval state this insect falls prey to insectivorous birds and insect enemies Should it even appear in numbers sufficient to prove troublesome handpicking will readily subdue it The Waved LagoaThe larva of this species reaches maturity during September when it makes an oval cocoon fastened to the side of a twig of the plumtree on which it has been feeding and within this changes to a brown chrysalis The moth escapes from it the following July It is comparatively a rare insect and is not likely to ever give much trouble The Streaked TheclaThis is a small butterfly which has never been known to inflict any material damage but as it has been found feeding on the leaves of the plumtree t is deserving of mention The Plumtree CatocalaAbout the middle of June when jar ring the plumtrees for Curculios a very curious leechlike cater pillar often drops on the sheet spread beneath It is flattened with its body thick in the middle and tapering towards each end and of a grayishbrown color About the third week in June this larva becomes full grown when fastening together a few leaves with some silken fibers it changes within this enclosure to a brown chrysalis from which the perfect insect escapes in about three weeks The moth is on the wing during the greater part of July and August during which period eggs are deposited for the suc ceeding brood Two other moths have been observed devouring plumtrees but not in sufficient numbers to attract attention 77te Leafcutting BeeThis is a four winged fly a species of bee which curls up the leaves of plumtrees and further disfigures i r by cutting circular pieces out of other leaves to line the coils andANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 451 form chambers within them in which its eggs are deposited and where the larvse remain until they reach maturity The larvse do not feed on the leaves but on pollen or beebread stored up in their cells by the parent insects This bee is not abundant and is not likely ever to prove very injurious The Plumtree AphisThis insect resembles in appearance and habits the Appletree Aphis but is much less common It infests the under side of the plumleaves puncturing them and sucking their juices causing them to become wrinkled and twisted RemediesThe remedies given for Appletree Aphis are equally applicable to this species The Appletree CaterpillarTor description and remedies see under head of apple The Forest Tent CaterpillarFor description and remedies see under head of apple The Whitemarked TussockmothFor description and remedies see under head of apple Canker WormsFor description and remedies see under head of apple The Fall WebwormFor description and remedies see under head of apple The Cecropia Emperor MothFor description and remedies see under head of apple The Unicorn ProminentFor description and remedies see under head of apple The Blindeyed SphinxFor description and remedies see under head of apple The Obliquebanded LeafrollerFor description and remedies see under head of apple The Leaf GrumpierFor description and remedies see under head of apple The Eyespotted BudmothFor description and remedies see under head of apple The Tarnished PlantbugFor description and remedies see under head of pear The Peartree SlugFor description and remedies see under head of pear The May BeetleFor description and remedies see under head of the cherry The Basket Worm or Bag WormFor description and remedies see under head of the quince452 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA The Ursula ButterflyFor description and remedies see under head of the cherry The Pyramidal Grapevine CaterpillarFor description and remedies see under head of the grape The Grapevine Flea BeetleFor description and remedies see under head of the grape The Rose BeetleFor description and remedies see under head of the grape Peartree Blister BeetleThis eats both leaves and blossoms For description and remedies see under head of pear ATTACKING THE FRUIT The Plum CurculioThis insect is without doubt the greatest enemy the plumgrower has to contend with for when allowed to pursue its course unchecked it often destroys the entire crop The perfect insect is a beetle belonging to a family known under the several names of Curculios Weevils and Snoutbeetles It is a small rough grayish or blackish beetle about onefifth of an inch long with a black shining hump on the middle of each wingcase The female lays her eggs in the young green fruit shortly after it is formed proceeding in the following manner alighting on a plum she makes with her jaws which are at the end of her snout a small cut through the skin of the fruit then runs the snout ob liquely under the skin to the depth of about onesixteenth of an inch and moves it backward and forward until the cavity is smooth and large enough to receive the egg to be placed in it She then turns round and dropping an egg into it again turns and pushes it with her snout up to the end of the passage Subsequently she cuts a crescentshaped slit in front of the hole so as to undermine the egg and leave it in a sort of flap her object apparently being to wilt the piece around the egg and thus prevent the growing fruit from crushing it The whole operation occupies about five min utes The stock of eggs is estimated at from five to ten a day her activity varying with the temperature The egg is of an oblong oval form of a pearly white color and large enough to be seen with the naked eye By lifting the flap with the finger nail or with the point of a knife it can be readily found In warm and genialANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 453 weather it will hatch in three or four days but in cold and chilly weather it will remain a week or even longer before hatching The larva a tiny soft footless grub with a hornyhead imme diately begins to feed on the green flesh of the fruit boring a tor tuous channel as it proceeds until it reaches the center where it feeds around the stone It attains its full growth in from three to five weeks when it is about twofifths of an inch long of a glassy vellowishwhite color with a lightbrown head The irritation arising from the wound and the gnawing of the grub causes the fruit to become diseased and gummy and it falls prematurely to the ground generally before the larva is quite full grown Within the fallen plum the growth of the larva is completed when for saking the fruit it has destroyed it enters the ground burying it self four to six inches deep where turning round and round it com presses the earth on all sides until a smooth oval cavity is formed within which in a few days the larva changes to a pupa and in from three to six weeks is transformed to a beetle which soon makes its way through the soil and escapes The insect is singlebrooded the beetle hibernating under the loose bark of trees and in other suitable places About the time that plumtrees blossom curculios are on the alert and as soon as the fruit is formed the work of de struction begins Both males and females puncture the fruit to feed on it but only the females make the peculiar crescentshaped marks described They are much more numerous during the early part of the season than later on and when the weather is warm they are active at night and deposit eggs as well then as in the day time During the middle of the day and also on warm nights the beetle readily takes wing it is less active during the morning and evening RemediesWhen the plumtree curculio is alarmed it suddenly folds its legs close to its body turns its snout under its breast and falls to the ground where it remains motionless feigning death Advantage is taken of this peculiarity to catch and destroy this in sect a sheet is spread under the tree and the tree and its branches are suddenly jarred when the beetles fall on the sheets where they mav be gathered up and destroyed A convenient form of sheet454 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA may be made with two or four widths of cotton depending on the size of the tree of the requisite length stitched only halfway up the middle to allow the trunk of the tree to pass to the center and having each of the sides tacked to a long strip of wood about an inch square so that the sheet may be conveniently handled and spread Small trees may be jarred with the hand larger ones should have a branch cut off leaving a stump several inches long which may be struck with a mallet or a hole may be bored in the trunk and a broadheaded iron spike inserted which is to be struck with a hammer avoiding as far as possible any bruising of the bark As it is important to catch as many of the beetles as possible before any mischief is done jarring should be begun while the trees are in blossom and continued daily morning and evening if the insects are abundant for three or four weeks or until they be come very scarce A form of Curculio catcher known as Dr Hulls is an excellent contrivance where a large orchard has to be cared for It consists of a wheelbarrow on which is mounted a large inverted umbrella split in front to receive the trunk of the tree against which the machine which is provided with a padded bumper is driven with force sufficient to jar the Curculios down into the umbrella where they are collected and destroyed It is very important that the fallen plums should be promptly gathered and burned or scalded so as to destroy the larva before it has time to escape Another remedy which is less laborious and has been found very effectual is to syringe or spray the plumtrees as soon as the young fruit has formed with a mixture of Paris green and water in the proportion of a teaspoonful of the poison to two gal lons of water and repeating the application after a week or ten days If the weather is very showery a third spraying may be necessary The remedy either poisons the Curculios or is obnoxious to them so as to deter them from working on trees so protected When alter nate trees in a plum orchard where the Curculio is common are so treated the protecting influence of the Paris green is very marked The placing of hogs in plum and peach orchards to destroy the fal len fruit is said to have proved in some instances a very successful and inexpensive way of disposing of a large portion of the CurculiosANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 455 Hens with their broods of chickens enclosed within the plum orch ard will devour a large number of the larvse of the Curculio Hanging bottles of sweetened water on the trees to attract the bee tles scattering airslaked lime through the foliage and smoking it by burning tar occasionally under the trees have also been advised Plum orchards should not be planted near a wood as the Curculio finds shelter there and is likely to be more numerous than in more open ground also avoid giving shelter by removing and burning all rubbish that may accumulate about the trees The Plum GougerWhile this insect has some points of re semblance to the Curculio it is in other respects so different as to be easily distinguished The beetle is about fivesixteenths of an inch long It appears in Spring about the same time as the plum Curculio but instead of making a crescentshaped slit in the plum it bores a round hole like the puncture of a pin The eggs are deposited in the following manner with the minute but pow erful jaws at the tip of the snout of the female a hole is made about fourfifths as deep as the snout is long which is enlarged at the end and gouged out somewhat in the shape of a gourd The egg is placed in the excavation and pushed down with the snout until it reaches the receptacle prepared for it After being deposited it swells from absorption of the surrounding moisture and within a few days the young larva escapes On escaping from the egg it makes an almost straight course for the kernel of the plum through the soft shell of which it makes its way and feeds upon the contents until full grown When nearly mature the larva by a wise in stinct prepares a way for the escape of the future beetle by cutting a round hole through the now hard stone The larva enters the chrysalis state within the plumstone and when mature the beetle passes through the hole bored by the larva makes its way through the flesh and escapes While the normal habit of the plum Cur culio is to feed on the flesh outside the plumstone which latter it only occasionally penetrates the Plumgouger lives and matures within both sexes of the Plumgouger bore cylindrical holes in the fruit for food and where the insect abounds the growing fruit will be found covered with these punctures from which more or less gum exudes and the fruit becomes knotty and worthless but does456 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA not readily drop as do those which have been injured by the Plum Curculio The insect is singlebrooded and requires a longer time to mature than the Plum Curculio eggs deposited in June do not produce beetles until the end of August or early in September Ir is much less common and does far less injury than the Plum Cur culio Although it does not drop quite so readily it takes wing quickly and hence is not so easily secured Saddled LeafhopperThis insect is occasionally injurious to the plum by puncturing the stems of the fruit and sucking the fluids which should go to nourish and mature it It is a small leaf hopper about onefifth of an inch long It is unlikely that this in sect will ever occur in sufficient numbers to cause much injury The Codling MothFor description and remedies sec under head of apple ATTACKING THE ROOTS The Peachfire Borerft sometimes burrows about the collar of the plumtree and into the larger roots adjacent without causing an exudation of gum as in the peach Young trees are most liable to injury For description and remedies see under head of peach ATTACKING THE TRUNK The Flatheaded Appletree BorerFor description and reme dies sec under head of apple ATTACKING THE LIMBS AND BRANCHES The Parallel ElaphidionFor description and remedies sec under head of apple The Pearblight BeetleFor description and remedies see under head of pear The New York WeevilFor description and remedies see under head of peach The Tree CricketFor description and remedies sec under head of raspberryANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 457 GEABES The following varieties of grapes have been approved in the mountain region Brighton Concord Delaware Ives Niagara Nortons Virginia Scuppernong Thomas In the middle region the following varieties have been approved r Eerckmans Concord Delaware Diana Goethe Hartford Ives Moores Diamond Missouri Eiesling Niagara Nortons Virginia Perkins Black July Triumph Thomas Scuppernong Worden Welcome The following varieties have been approved for the southern region Concord Delaware Ives Niagara Scuppernong Thomas In the coast region the following have been tested and approved Concord Delaware Ives Nortons Virginia Flowers Scupper nong Thomas Warren FUNGOUS DISEASES OF THE GRAPE AND TREATMENT Anthracnose Scab Birdseye RotAnthracnose is perhaps the most formidable disease with which the vineyardist has to contend It does not yield to the same treatment which checks the other fun gous diseases of the grape and even when applications are made which are specially designed for its control the results are not in variably satisfactory The vines should therefore be watched that the first sign of the disease may lead to its timely treatment The fungus causing anthracnose attacks the fruit the leaves and the stems in fact all green parts of the vine It may appear any time during the growing season of the plant but most commonly affects the berries during the middle and latter part of summer The shoots of the grape are very subject to the attacks of the fungus The first indication of the trouble is a darkening and sinking of small oval areas which extend lengthwise of the stem These may be very abundant giving the shoots a speckled appearance The spots gradually enlarge and the center assumes a gray color the edges still remaining dark and having more or less a decided tinge of purple After the disease has progressed some weeks the stem is very seriously injured and if there have been several points of458 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA attack its growth may be entirely checked and the shoot destroyed Upon the leaf the disease causes changes very similar to those of the stem but there is a reddishbrown color in the affected areas which renders it more difficult to distinguish this disease from others But one peculiarity of anthracnose is that it generally at tacks the veins of the leaves as well as the leaf stems and so the identification is not always difficult The stems of the clusters are also injured and it frequently occurs that a part is completely girdled causing a ringaround as it is commonly called The berries below the ring do not ripen but remain green and gradually shrivel The berries of some varieties of grapes are always invari ably affected to such an extent as to render them unfit for market The Vergennes Diamond Salem Agawam and many others are very susceptible to its attacks The first indication of the presence of the fungus on the berries is the formation of distinct brown spots which are practically circular in outline The discolored part is sunken and may be bordered by a margin which has a tinge of red or purple If a berry is attacked in several places it becomes speckled in appearance until the spots grow into each other form ing considerable areas of irregular outline The portions first dis eased may change to a lighter or even to a gray color on account of the rupturing of the epidermis or outer skin forming a hard ened scab TreatmentIn Europe where the fungus has long been known it is the custom to wash the vines and the stakes during winter or early spring with the sulphuric acid and sulphate of iron solution The liquid is applied by means of swabs or brushes It blackens the canes and this is a test of the thoroughness of the work If after two or three days there remains portions which are unchanged in color the vineyard is treated a second time particular attention being paid to the parts omitted at the first treatment In addition to these winter treatments the vines are sprayed during the sum Tner months with the Bordeaux mixture European vineyardists seem to have perfect control of anthracnose by following the above line of treatment and the work done in America is also promising The cost of washing vines and stakes in this country scarcely exANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 45 ceeds 2 per acre as shown by actual trials and marked benefits appear to have followed the practice even under adverse circum stances The formula used by European vineyardists is hot water 100 parts iron sulphate as much as the water will dissolve sulphuric acid one part This mixture is exceedingly caustic and will in jure machinery clothes and nearly everything with which it comes in contact and therefore requires the greatest care in using it Dormant vines are uninjured by the treatment Black RotThe name black rot has been commonly applied to this disease on account of the appearance of the affected berries these being of a deep black color But the fungus causing the rotting of the fruit also attacks other parts of the plants on the shoots it forms dark oval areas which are slightly shrunken The centers of such spots are more or less thickly studded with very small elevations or pimples these being characteristics of the dis ease and by their aid the trouble can in most cases be identified Affected leaves turn to a dark reddish brown color at the injured part These portions are generally found between the larger veins and not centered upon them as in the case of anthracnose Their outlines are generally rounded There is probably no fungous disease of the grape which annually causes greater losses than the black rot Although each berry must be separately affected since the disease does not spread from one to the other by means of the stems yet the conditions are generally so favorable that a large percentage of the crop is annually lost This disease is much more virulent in Southern vineyards Grapes which show the at tacks of the blackrot fungus are generally nearly or quite full grown It is therefore during August and September that the disease is most to be feared If the berries are still green when the fungus gains an entrance the affected part turns a purplish brown this color extending gradually to the entire berry which still retains its form and firmness The part first attacked grad ually becomes blackened and characteristic primples appear At the same time the berry shrivels and becomes strongly ridged the seeds projecting prominently under the drawn skin and minute460 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA elevations may be seen scattered thickly over its surface These changes may take place very rapidly so that apparently in a few days a crop may be largely reduced It seems to require about a week for the disease to become noticeable after infection takes place the rapidity of the later changes depending very largely upon the condition of the weather A warm moist atmosphere is particularly favorable to the development of this fungus TreatmentAlthough the black rot appears late in the season it is always safe to begin early in treating the vines The copper compoimds especially the Bordeaux mixture have shown them selves to be practically specifics against this disease Applications should be made before the disease has appeared In the South where the rot is a regular visitor the treatments may be com menced to advantage as soon as the first leaves have fully ex panded The second application may be made after the vines have blossomed and the third from two to four weeks later de pending upon the season The Bordeaux mixture may be used safely up to the time when the berries are threefourths grown but if used later than this there is danger of staining the clusters and reducing their market value This may be partially avoided by reducing the strength of the normal mixture onefourth or one third although not so effective as the stronger mixture the dilute form still possesses much value as a fungicide and it may be used to advantage or the animoniacal carbonate of copper may be used in its place and this is the fungicide very commonly employed when the later applications are made If the weather be favorable to the disease applications should be made about every ten days after the fruit is grown Six or seven applications should practi cally prevent the appearance of the disease even in badly infested districts Everything depends upon the thoroughness with which the work is done It was formerly supposed that to spray the clusters was injurious to them but this is a fallacy The clusters should be treated as well as the foliage especially when they are young and if the practice can be continued without injury to the appearance of the fruit so much the better It is necessary that the growth from the spores which fall upon the berries should be ANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 461 stopped and this can only be accomplished by treating the clusters as well as the other parts of the vine Downy Mildew Brown Rot Gray RotThis fungus attacks the stems foliage and fruit of the grapevine The external char acters of the downy mildew are very distinct On the shoots it causes the formation of brown slightly sunken areas these mav easily be distinguished from the deeper and more distinctly marked spots caused by anthracnose But it is only in very severe cases that the shoots are affected to an injurious extent It is on the foliage and on the fruit that the greatest harm is done The foliage first shows the presence of the parasite by portions of the leaf turning a lighter green than that of the normal tissue Later these parts turn yellow and when the destruction of the tissue is complete the parts affected are of a brown color If the under surface of such leaves be examined it will be found that there is a frostlike substance projecting from the discolored part of the leaf after the upper surface has begun to turn yellow This appear ance is due to the formation of fungous threads which project beyond the leaf surface and bear the summer spores of the para site The appearance assists materially in identifying the disease The fruit is also susceptible to the attacks of the downy mildew but when that is affected the vine does not so much as the grower does In case of diseased foliage the crop of the next year as well as that of the present is threatened but with diseased fruit it is only a matter of the present year which is all sufficient to make the grower anxious to know what can be done In the Southern States the mildew appears during June The young berries suffer very extensively They are generally attacked be fore they are onehalf grown The name brown rot has been ap plied to such fruit on account of the brown color which supplants the green Later as the fungus matures the affected berries be come covered with a whitish powderthe fruiting threads and the spores of the parasitesand this gives the berries a gray color from which has come one of the popular names of the disease Both forms of the rot are nevertheless caused by the same organ ism although the external characters differ462 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA TreatmentThe downy mildew of grapes may attack the vines throughout the growing season and for this reason it is more es sential that applications be made earlier in the year than those necessary for the control of the black rot When downy mildew is found an application made when the shoots have grown from six to ten inches is a very important one The second one should be made after the vines have blossomed and later ones should succeed each other at intervals of two to four weeks taking the same precautions against staining the fruit as mentioned in black rot The treatments should be preventive rather than curative Powdery MildewThe fungus causing the Powdery Mildew of the grape differs from the preceding disease in the fact that it is a surface fungus the body of the parasite not being found in the tissues of the hostplant but upon the surface of the green parts The vines are attacked throughout the growing season but con trary to the general rule the disease develops more abundantly during comparatively dry weather Young shoots attacked by powdery mildew are checked in their growth and if the threads of the fungus are abundant they impart to the affected portion a grayish white color This color is particularly noticeable upon the leaves for the fungus almost invariably grows upon the upper sur face and if allowed to develop unchecked large patches soon be come covered so thickly that the green parts underneath can no longer be seen If these patches are firmly rubbed the white cov ering may be removed and the browning of the parts formerly covered will be seen This is especially distinct when the mildew has made an energetic growth The discoloration is due to the small suckers which the fungus has projected into the leaf cells for the purpose of obtaining nourishment and the greater the number of these suckers the more marked is the discoloration Affected berries show similar discolorations and the whitish cov ering may be removed as well As the berry grows the injured parts assume a brown scurfy covering which is composed of dried epidermis This golden brown film is very commonly seen upon green grapes it is often cracked so that the green tissue is visible Such disfigurements are however not alwavs caused by the powANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 463 dery mildew since any cause which destroys portions of the epi dermis will be followed by similar discolorations TreatmentThe powdery mildew is not a serious disease and as the body of the fungus is not within the hostplant there is little occasion for treating the vines until the fungus has put in an appearance Sulphur has been very generally recommended for its destruction the application being either made with the dry powder or after the sulphur has been mixed with water This remedy has not given uniformly good results out of doors and a safer plan is to use some of the copper compounds Carbonate of copper dissolved in ammonia is an excellent remedy and is easily applied All parts of the plants should be treated BattlesShellingIt frequently occurs that grapevines drop their berries just as the latter are ripening The outer extremi ties of the clusters are first affected This trouble is primarily caused by defective nutrition of the berries and although to a cer tain extent influenced by the action of fungi and insects the reme dial measures should be directed towards strengthening the plants by means of proper fertilizers potash being perhaps the most im portant element required Ripe Rot Bitter RotThe names given this disease are sug gestive of the time in which the berries are attacked and what ef fect the fungus has upon the fruit The disease may attack the fruit stems and cause the berries to wilt on account of the supply of nourishment being cut off But more commonly the berries are directly attacked Such fruit shows a reddish brown discolor ation at the affected point and this color soon extends over the entire berry The surface then becomes dotted with black pimples as in the case of black rot but here they are not so numerous they are also larger but much less elevated The berry also shriv els but the black color is wanting since those affected with ripe rot remain dark purplish brown although some assume a red tint As a rule they fall to the ground when this stage is reached while berries destroyed by black rot remain upon the vine even until the following spring Ripe rot will spread after the grapes have been harvested and care should therefore be exer 464 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA cised in selecting only sound fruit when it is to be stored See under head of apple TreatmentThe same treatment which serves to check black rot will also control this disease the later treatment being of special importance INJURIOUS INSECTS ATTACKING THE ROOTS The Broadneclced PrionusThe Broadnecked Prionus is a gigantic borer from two and a half to three inches in length of a yellowishwhite color with a small horny reddishbrown head and a bluish line down the back which cuts for itself a cylindrical hole through the center of the root of the vine a little below the surface and where the root is barely large enough to contain the larva nothing but a thin skin of bark is left but this is always found entire so that the insect cannot be easily discovered It is probable that it lives in the larval state about three years and that it changes to a pupa within the root towards the end of June The beetle appears about the middle of July The female meas ures from one and a quarter inches to one and threequarter inches in length and is of a brownish black color with strong thick jaws Little or nothing can be done in extirpating these underground borers as their presence is seldom suspected until the vine becomes sickly or dies from injuries they have caused When grapevines die suddenly from any unknown cause the roots should be care fully examined and if evidences of the presence of this borer are discovered it should be searched for and destroyed The Tilehorned PrionusThe larva of this beetle a species closely allied to the broadnecked prionus has also been found de vouring the roots of the grapevine The larvse of the two species resemble each other so closely that they are almost indistinguishable When full grown the borer collects together a few fibers and chips of the roots and with the aid of these constructs a loose co coon within which it changes to a pupa almost identical with thatANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 465 of the broadnecked prionus This beetle is called the tilehorned prioiius because the joints of the antenna of the male overlap one another like tiles on a roof It is very similar in appearance to the broadnecked prionus but the two species may be distinguished by the difference in the number of the joints in their antennas in the tilehorned the male has about nineteen joints and the female about six while in the broadnecked both sexes have twelvejointed antennae TreatmentAny remedial measures useful for one species will be equally applicable to the other Grapevine RootborerThis larva resembles that of the peach tree borer in appearance and habits but is a little larger in size The larvae of the prionus beetles have only six legs while this six teen legssix horny ones and ten fleshy onesand when full grown measure from one inch to one and a half inches in length It lives exclusively under ground and consumes the bark and sap wood of the grape roots eating irregular furrows into their sub stance sometimes it eats the bark and at other times works its way under the surface When full grown the larva forms a pod like cocoon covered with little bits of wood bark and earth and situated within or adjacent to the uninjured root Within this it changes to a brown chrysalis which when mature works itself out of the cocoon to the surface of the ground when the perfect insect escapes The moth resembles a wasp and appears in Au gust The female is said to deposit her eggs in the collar of the grapevine close to the earth and the young larvae as soon as hatched descend to the roots It is stated that the scuppernong grape and a variety of the fox grape are never attacked by this borer When it has been ascertained that the borers are at work on a vine the earth should be cleared away from above the roots and the invaders searched for and destroyed hot water applied about the roots is said to kill them As a preventive measure mounding the vines as recommended for peachtrees under the head of peachtree borer would probably be beneficial The Grape PhylloxeraThis tiny foe to the grapevine has at tained great celebrity during the past few years and much atten 30 a466 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA tion has leen paid to its life history and habits in the hope of de vising some practical measure for its extermination The de struction it has occasioned in France has become so great that it has become a national calamity It is a native of America Our native grapevines seem to endure the attacks of the insect better than do those of Europe The insect is found in two different forms in one instance on the leaf where it produces greenish red or yellow galls of various shapes and sizes and is known as the type gallinhabiting in the other and more destructive form on the root known as the rootinhabiting causing at first swellings on the young rootlets followed by decay which gradually extends to the larger roots as the insects congregate upon them Early in June there appears upon the vine leaves small globular or cupshaped galls of varying sizes They are of a greenishred or yellow color with their outer surface somewhat uneven and woolly On open ing one of these freshlyformed galls it will be found to contain from one to four orangecolored lice many very minute shining oval whitish eggs and usually a considerable number of young lice not much larger than the eggs and of the same color Soon the gall becomes over populated and the surplus lice wander off through its partlyopened mouth on the upper side of the leaf and establish themselves either on the same leaf or on adjoining young leaves where the irritation occasioned by their punctures causes the formation of new galls within which the lice remain after a time the older lice die and the galls which they have inhabited open out and gradually become flattened and almost obliterated hence it may happen that the older leaves on a vine will be empty while those on the younger ones are swarming with occupants These galls are very common on the Clinton grape and other varie ties of the same type and are also found to a greater or less extent on most other cultivated sorts They sometimes occur in such abundance as to cause the leaves to turn brown and fall to the ground and instances have been recorded where they have been defoliated from this cause The number of eggs in a single gall will vary from fifty to four hundred or five hundred according to its size There are several generations of the lice during the seaANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 467 son and they continue to extend the sphere of their operations throughout the greater part of the summer Late in the season as the leaves become less succulent the lice seek other quarters and many of them find their way to the roots of the vines and estab lish themselves on the small rootlets By the end of September the galls are usually deserted When on the roots the lice subsist also by suction and their punctures result in abnormal swellings on the young rootlets These eventually decay and this decay i not confined to the swollen portions but involves the adjacent tissue and thus the insects are induced to betake themselves to fresh portions of the living roots until at last the larger ones be come involved and they too literally waste away During the first year of the insects presence the outward manifestations of the disease are very slight although the fibrous roots may at this time be covered with the little swellings but if the attack is severe the second year the leaves assume a sickly yellowishcast and the usual vigorous monthly growth of cane is much reduced In course of time the vine iisually dies but before this takes place the lice having little or no healthy tissue to work on leave the dying vine and seek for food elsewhere either wandering underground among the interlacing roots of adjacent vines or crawling over the surface of the ground in search of more congenial quarters During the winter many of them remain torpid and at that season they as sume a dullbrownLsh color so like that of the roots to which they are attached that they are difficult to discover With the renewal of growth in the spring the young lice cast their coats and rapidly increase in size soon they begin to deposit eggs these eggs hatch and the young lice shortly become egglaying mothers like the first and like them remain wingless After several generations of these eggbearing lice have been produced a number of individuals about the middle of summer acquire wings These are also all females and they issue from the ground and rising in the air fly or are carried with the wind to neighboring vineyards where they deposit eggs on the under side of the leaves among their downy hairs beneath the loosened bark of the branches and trunk or in crevices of the ground about the base of the vine Occasionally8 468 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA individual rootlice abandon their underground habits and forirr galls on the leaves RemediesThis is an extremely difficult insect to subdue and various means for the purpose have been suggested none of which appear to be entirely satisfactory Flooding the vineyards where practicable seems to be more successful than any other measure but the submergence must be total and prolonged to the extent of from twentyfive to thirty days it should be undertaken in September or October when it is said that the rootlice will be drowned and the vines come out uninjured Bisulphide of carbon is stated by some to be an efficient remedy it is introduced into the soil by means of an auger with a hollow shank into which this liquid is poured Several holes are made about each vine and two or three ounces are poured into each hole Being extremely offen sive in odor and very volatile its vapor permeates the soil in every direction and is said to kill the lice without injuring the vines This substance should be handled with caution as its vapor is very imflammable and explosive Alkaline sulphocarbonates aie also recommended these are gradually decomposed in the soil and give off sulphuretted hydrogen and bisulphide of carbon Carbolic acid mixed with water in the proportion of one part of the acid to fifty or one hundred parts of water has also been used with advan tage poured into two or three holes made around the base of each vine with an iron bar to the depth of one foot or more Soot is also recommended to be strewed around the vines It is stated that the insects are less injurious to vines grown on sandy soil also to those grown on lands impregnated with salt Since large num bers of these insects both winged and wingless are known to crawl over the surface of the ground in August and September it has been suggested to sprinkle the ground about the vines at this period with quicklime ashes sulphur salt or other substances de structive to insect life The application of fertilizers rich in pot ash and ammonia has been found useful A simple remedy for the gallinhabiting type is to pluck the leaves off as soon as the galls appear and destroy them To guard against its introduction into new vineyards the roots of young vines should be carefullyANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 469 examined before being planted and if knots and lice are found upon them the latter may be destroyed by immersing the roots in hot soapsuds or tobacco water ATTACKING THE BRANCHES Grapevine BarklouseDuring the month of June there are sometimes found on the branches of the grapevine brown hemi spherical scales from under one end of which protrudes a cottonlike substance which increases in size until the beginning of July by which time it has become a mass about four times as large as the scale This cottony matter contains the eggs of the insect and very soon there issue from it minute oval yellowishwhite lice which distribute themselves and shortly become stationary sucking the juices These scales are not usually found in any great abundance and may readily be scraped off with a knife or other suitable instrument which should be done before the young lice escape Fourspotted Spittle InsectIn June there occasionally ap pear upon the branches spots of white frothy matter resembling spittle embedded in which is found a soft pale wingless insect which punctures the bark and sucks the juices from the branch at the same time secreting over and around itself this spittlelike cov ering The perfect or winged insect is a flattened treehopper of a brown color which occurs upon the vines in the early part of July It is about threetenths of an inch long Should this insect at any time prove injurious it may easily be destroyed by the band while in the soft wingless form enclosed in its frothy covering Signorets Spittle InsectThis insect is very similar in habits aud appearance to the fourspotted insect surrounding itself in the soft or larval condition with the same sort of frothy mass When perfect it is a little more than threetenths of an inch long of a tawny brown color clouded with dull white and thickly punctated with black dots The same remedies apply to this insect as to the fourspotted The Twospotted TreehopperThis is a small but very odd looking brown insect with two yellowish spots on the edge of the back and a prolongation in front like the beak of a bird It some470 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA times punctures the tender stems of the grape causing them to wilt and turn brown While this treehopper is occasionally found on the vine it is much more common in the redbud but its favorite home is on the water ash Bedshouldered SinoxylonThe larva of this insect bores into the stems of grapevines and sometimes also into the branches and trunks of apple and peachtrees It is a yellowish wrinkled grub about threetenths of an inch long head small and body arched or bent The only method suggested for destroying this insect is to burn the wood infested by it The Grapevine Wound GallThis curious gall is produced by the sesostris snoutbeetle The beetle is about oneeighth of an inch long of a reddishbrown color with a stout beak half as long as its body It appears during the early part of July when the female punctures the stem of the vine and deposits a egg therein which shortly hatches producing a tiny whitish grub which lives within the swollen part and feeds upon it At first the gall is small and inconspicuous but towards the end of the season it as sumes the form of an elongated knot or swelling this is generally situated immediately above or below a joint Usually there is a longitudinal depression on one side dividing that portion into two prominences which commonly have a rosy tint Within the gall the larva remains until June of the following year When full grown it is about onefourth of an inch long white cylin drical and footless with a large yellowish head During the month of June it changes to a pupa from Avhich the perfect beetle is produced in about a fortnight These galls do not appear to injure to any material extent the branches on which they occur Should they ever multiply so as to become injurious their increase may be readily checked by cutting off and burning those portions of the leaves on which they are situated before the beetles escape ATTACKING THE LEAVES Green Grapevine SphinxThe larva of this insect is one of the most common and destructive of the leafeating insects injurious to the grape The first brood of the perfect or winged insect ap pears from the middle to the end of May when the female deANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 471 posits her eggs on the under side of the leaves generally placing them singly but sometimes in groups of two or three The eggs are nearly round about onetwentieth of an inch long a little less in width smooth and of a pale yellowishgreen color changing to reddish before hatching The young caterpillar comes out of the eggs in five or six days when it makes its first meal of the empty eggshell and then attacks the softer parts of the grapevine leaves When first hatched it is onefifth of an inch long of a pale yellowish green color with a long black horn near its poste rior extremity half as long as its body As it increases in size the horn becomes relatively shorter and changes its color the mark ings of the larva also vary considerably at each molt When full grown it is about two inches long with rather a small head When full grown the larva descends from the vine and draws a few leaves loosely together binding them with silken threads usually about or near the base of the vine on which it has fed and within this rude structure changes to a chrysalis of a palebrown color The moths from this first brood of larvas usually appear during the latter part of July when they deposit eggs for a second brood which matures late in September passes the winter in the pupa state and emerges as moths the following May The caterpillars are very destructive to the foliage of the vine being capable of consuming an enormous quantity of food one or two of them when nearly full grown will almost strip a young vine of its foliage in the course of two or three days In some districts they are said to nip off the stalks of the halfgrown clusters of grapes so that they fall unripe to the ground RemediesThe readiest and most effectual method of dispos ing of these pests is to pick them off the vines and kill them They are easily found by the denuded canes which mark their course or where the foliage is dense they may be tracked by their large1 brown castings which strew the ground under their places of resort Nature has provided a very efficient check to their undue increase in a small parasitic fly the female of which punctures the skin of the caterpillar and deposits the eggs underneath where they soon hatch into young larvae which feed upon the fatty portions of their victim avoiding the vital organs By the time the sphinx caterpillar has become full grown these parasitic larvae have ma472 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA tured and eating their way through the skin of their host they construct their tiny snowwhite cocoons on its body from which in about a week the friendly fly escapes No larva thus infested ever reaches maturity it invariably shrivels up and dies The Pandorus SphinxThis is one of the most beautiful of our sphinx moths but is not common The moths appear in July when after pairing the female deposits her eggs singly on the leaves of the grapevine or Virginia creeper where they shortly hatch producing small green larvae of a pinkish hue along the sides and with a very long pink horn at the tail As the cater pillar increases in size the horn becomes shorter and after a time curves round As the larva approaches maturity it changes to a reddishbrown color and after the third molt entirely loses the caudal horn which is replaced by a glassy eyelike spot The mature larva when in motion will measure nearly four inches in length but when at rest it draws the head and two adjoining seg ments within the fourth which shortens its body nearly an inch giving it a very odd appearance It is a very voracious feeder and strips the vines of its leaves with such rapidity that it soon attracts attention When full grown it descends from the vines and buries itself in the ground where it forms an oval cell within which it changes to a chrysalis the insect usually remains in the chrysalis state until the following summer but occasionally it ma tures and escapes the same season Should these larvaa at any time prove troublesome they can readily be subdued by handpicking Tlie Achemon SphinxThe caterpillar of this sphinx is truly a formidable looking creature measuring when full grown if at rest about three inches and when in motion about three and i half inches It much resembles the pandorus and feeds also on the Virginia creeper as well as on the grapevine The egg is laid on the Tinder side of the leaf in July and the young larva when hatched is of a light green color with a very conspicuous reddisli brown horn half as long as its body which as the larva increases in size becomes shorter and finally disappears its place being oc cupied by a polished tubercle with a central black dot The ma ture larva varies from a pale strawcolor to a reddish brown the color growing darker down the sides becoming deep brown as it apANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 473 proaclies the under surface It becomes full grown during the latter part of August or early in September and just before under going its next change assumes a beautiful pink or crimson color Leaving the vine it descends to the ground where it buries itself to the depth of several inches and having formed for itself a smooth cell changes to a chrysalis of a dark shining mahogany color The insect usually remains in this condition in the ground until late in June the following year The insect is found in all parts of the United States where the grape is cultivated but has never occurred in sufficient numbers to be injurious It is so conspicuous in the larval state that it might easily be controlled by handpicking should it at any time prove troublesome The Abbot SphinxThis is not a common insect yet it is found occasionally over a large portion of the United States and Canada The caterpillar attains full growth about the end of July or the beginning of August when it measures nearly two and a half inches in length It varies considerably in color from a dull yel low to a reddish brown The chrysalis is commonly formed in a little cavity on the surface of the ground covered with a few pieces of leaves loosely fastened together and mixed with grains of earth but it is said sometimes to bury itself below the surface It is about one and a quarter inches long The insect remains in the chrysalis condition until the following spring The moth is found on the wing from the early part of April to the end of May and measures when its wings are spread two and a half inches or more across It is scarcely likely ever to prove destructive should it at any time become so it might be subdued by handpicking The Whitelined DeilephilaThis handsome moth is compara tively a common insect and has a wide geographical range It is doublebrooded appearing early on the wing in June and again in September Its period of activity begins with the twilight The larva is found occasionally feeding on the leaves of the grape vine but more commonly on purslane turnip buckwheat and apple leaves It is very variable in color When mature it buries itself under the surface where within a smooth cavity it changes to a light brown chrysalis the moth emerging early in September when it deposits eggs from which the second brood of larvae are474 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA produced which mature enter the ground and change to chrysa lids before winter sets in Since it feeds mainly on plants of little value and on these in no great abundance it is scarcely entitled to be classed with injurious insects yet on account of its being found occasionally feeding on grape leaves it is deserving of men tion here Darkveined DeilephilaThis moth closely resembles the white lined Deilephila but there are differences which will enable any one with ease to separate the two species The whitelined is much the larger insect measuring when its wings are spread three and a half inches while the darkveined Deilephila rarely exceeds two and threequarter inches The mature larva measures from two and a half to three inches in length The larvre feed on the grape vines early in July It is not so common as the whitelined nor is it likely to prove injurious to any considerable extent Beautiful WoodnymphThe larva of this lovely moth is quite destructive to the foliage of the vine upon which the moth is often found resting during the daytime its closed wings forming a steep roof over its back and its fore legs which have a curious mufflike tuft of white hairs protruded giving the insect a very singular appearance The moth appears during the latter part of June or early in July and is active at night The eggs are laid on the under side of the leaves singly or in small groups they are circular and very flat about onethirtieth of an inch in diameter and less than half of that in thickness On escaping from the egg the young larva are yellowishgreen dotted with black they eat small holes in the leaves as they grow larger they devour all parts of the leaf the framework as well as the softer substance When ma ture they are about one and a half inches long Although partial to the vine it feeds also on the Virginia creeper and occasionally on the hop AVhen full grown which is usually some time during the month of August or early in September the larva descends from the vine and seeks some suitable location in which to pass the chrysalis state It frequently bores into decaying wood and is fond of taking refuge in corncobs it is said also to burrow under ground sometimes Sometimes the moth escapes from the chrysalis late in the same season but commonlv it remains in this conditionANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 475 until the following spring This insect is subject to the attacks of a twowinged parasite a species of the common housefly in ap pearance Usually a large proportion of the caterpillars are in fested by this friendly parasite otherwise they would soon become a source of much annoyance to grapegrowers Where artificial remedies are required the vine may be syringed with hellebore and water or Paris green and water as directed for the larva of the eightspotted Forester Handpicking may also be resorted to Pearl WoodNymphThis is a very near relative of the beauti ful woodnymph and so closely do these species resemble each other in the larval condition that it is difficult to distinguish them Although the pearl has been regarded as a grapefeeding insect there seems to be some doubt on the subject The larva is nearly one and a quarter inches long The chrysalis is a reddishbrown The Eightspotted ForesterWhile the moth of this species is very different in appearance from the beautiful woodnymph and the pearl woodnymph the larva is very similar This larva may however be distinguished by its having eight black lines in each segment instead of six it has also a series of white spots along each side close to the under surface When nearly full grown it sometimes conceals itself during the daytime within a folded leaf Before effecting its next change it molds for itself an earthen cell upon or just below the surface which is not lined with silk and within this enclosure is transformed into a brown chrysalis from which in the early brood the moth escapes in a few days There are usually two broods each year the moths appearing on the wing in May and August the caterpillars in June and July and in September The insect is very generally distributed Where the larvse prove destructive they may be subdued by syringing the foli age with Paris green and water in the proportion of a teaspoonful of the poison to two gallons of water or powdered hellebore and water in the proportion of one ounce of hellebore to two gallons of water Grapevine EpimenisThere is still another grapefeeding in sect which in the caterpillar state bears a strong resemblance to the beautiful woodnymph and the pearl woodnymph The larva in this species is smaller of a bluish white color The young larva476 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA attacks the terminal buds of the vine in spring fastening the young leaves by a few silken threads and secreting itself within the en closure When full grown which is usually towards the end of May it bores into soft wood or any other suitable substance and there changes to a reddishbrown chrysalis about fourtenths of an inch long roughened on the joints having a curious flattened horny projection on each side of the tip Within this enclosure it remains until the following spring when the perfect insect es capes Should the insect ever prove destructive it may be subdued by the treatment recommended for the eightspotted Forester The American ProcrisThe larvae of this destructive insect feed in flocks arranged in a single row on the under side of the vine leaves The egg clusters from which these larvae proceed consisting of twenty eggs or more are fastened by the moth to the under side of the leaves While young the little caterpillars eat only the soft tissue of the leaves leaving the fine network of the veins untouched but as they grow older they devour all but the larger veins They acquire full growth in August when they measure about sixtenths of an inch in length and are of a yellow color When full grown they disperse and retiring to some shel tered spot or crevice construct their tough oblongoval cocoons within which in about three days they change to shining brown chrysalids about threetenths of an inch long from which the moths escape in about ten or twelve days and soon deposit eggs for the second brood which mature later in the season Some few produce moths before winter approaches but the greater por tion remain in the chrysalis condition during the winter the moths escaping the following Tune This insect is more common in the West and South than in the East and is sometimes very in jurious They may be destroyed by syringing the vines with Paris green and water as recommended for the eightspotted Forester Grapevine LeafrollerThis insect although most abundant in the Southern States is very generally distributed and will no doubt in its caterpillar form be familiar to most grapegrowers The moth measures when its wings are expanded about ninetenths of an ineh or more across There are two broods of the insect during the summer The first moths which have passed the winANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1S9S 477 ter in the chrysalis state appear early in June and deposit their eggs singly on the leaves of the vine which are soon hatched the young worm at once manifesting its leaffolding propensities by turning clown a small portion of the leaf on which it is placed and living within the tube thus formed As it increases in size a larger case is made often the whole leaf being rolled into a large cylinder wider at one end than at the other and firmly fastened with stout silken threads In this hidingplace the little active wingless creature lives in comparative safety issuing from it to feed on the surrounding foliage It is so very rapid in its movements both backwards and forwards that it frequently escapes detection by suddenly slipping out of its case when disturbed and falling to the ground The length of the fullgrown caterpillar is threequar ters of an inch the body is yellowishgreen at the sides The head is reddishyellow The first brood of caterpillars are full grown about the last of July when they change to chrysalids from which the moths escape early in August the second brood of larva are found on the vines in September The chrysalis is about half an inch long and of a dark brown color It is usually formed within the folded leaf hence the last brood which pass the winter in this inactive state may in a great measiire be destroyed bv going carefully over the vineyard late in the season before the leaves fall and picking off the folded leaves and burning them or the larva may be destroyed earlier in the season by crushing the folded leaves taking care that the active occupants do not escape Although this insect is usually common it is seldom very destruc tive anywhere Gartered Plum MothThe family of moths to which this insect belongs are called plum moths from their having their wings di vided into featherlike lobes The larva appears on the grape vines in spring as soon as the young foliage has fairly started fas tening the terminal leaves into a spherical form and living within the enclosure where it feeds on the tender leaves and young bunches of blossom It is usually solitary in its habits but some times two or three are found together When full grown which is usually early in June it is about half an inch long and is of a yellowishgreen color When matured it spins a few silken478 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA threads on the under side of the leaf or in some convenient spot and having entangled its hind legs firmly in the web of silk sheds its hairy skin and becomes a chrysalis It is an odd little thing about fourtenths of an inch long angular and rugged and when touched it wriggles about very briskly It remains in this condi tion from one to two weeks when the perfect insect appears The insect is singlebrooded Where troublesome it may be subdued by handpicking or by pinching off the clusters of leaves and crushing the larvae Grapevine CidariaThis is a pretty moth producing a geo metric or looping caterpillar which consumes the foliage of the vine The insect passes the winter in the caterpillar state hibemat ine in some secure retreat until aroused to activitv by the warmth of spring when after feeding a few days on the young vine leaves it becomes a chrysalis producing the moth about ten days after wards The moths within a few days deposit their eggs on the leaves of the vine which hatch early in June and the larva nearly complete their growth by the end of the month pass into the chrys alis state and appear as moths again in July and August These latter deposit their eggs for the second brood of larvae which be fore reaching maturity become torpid and remain in this condition until spring Early in June the reddish geometric caterpillars of this moth are found upon the leaves out of which they eat numerous pieces of various sizes and shapes By the middle of the month they become full grown when they measure about one and a quarter inches long When these larvae are sufficiently numerous to prove troublesome the vines may be syringed with Paris green and water as recommended for the eightspotted Forester Yellow WoollybearThis common caterpillar seems to have a special liking for the leaves of the grapevine It is very common and uniformly troublesome The moth from which the larva is produced is commonly known as the white miller It passes the vinter in the chrysalis state and appears on the wing late in April or early in May and when its wings are expanded measures from ne and a half to two inches across The eggs which are round and yellow are deposited on the under side of the leaves in large clusters and in a few days hatch into small hairy caterpillarsANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 479 which feed for a time in company devouring at this tender age the under side of the leaf only the outer skin over the center part soon becoming yellow and withered When partly grown they separate each one choosing his own course and by this time their digestive powers have become sufficiently strong to enable them to cat freely of all parts of the leaf The full grown cater pillar is nearly two inches long and usually of a yellowish color but the color varies greatly When mature it seeks some shel tered cranny or nook in which to pass the chrysalis state and having found a suitable location proceeds to divest its body of the covering and with this woven together by silken threads it con structs a slight cocoon within which the chrysalis is formed of a chestnutbrown color There are at least two broods of these in sects each year and these broods so intermingle that the insect may almost always be found in one or the other of its stages from May to October This species is subject to the attacks of several kinds of Ichneumon flies which destroy immense numbers of them every year Were it not for this the woollybears would soon become very destructive As it is they are sometimes very injurious when this is the case handpicking should be resorted to and if this be done while the larva are young and feeding in company their destruction is easily accomplished Pyramidal Grapevine CaterpillarThis caterpillar is frequent ly destructive to grapevines and may be found on the leaves full grown about the middle of June It is nearly an inch and a half long the body tapering towards the front and thickened behind When full grown the caterpillar descends to the ground and draw ing together some loose fallen leaves or other rubbish spins a slight cocoon within which it changes to a darkbrown chrysalis from which the perfect insect escapes in the latter part of July While partial to grapes the larva feeds also on thorn plum rasp berries redbud poplar and the like The insects are distributed over a wide area Where they are numerous enough to prove troublesome they may be collected and destroyed by jarring the trees or vines on which they are feeding when they will drop to the ground4S0 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA The Silky PyrophilaThe caterpillar of this moth is of a yellowishgreen color with a few very fine brownish hairs scattered over the upper surface of its body It is found feeding on the grapevine and sometimes in sufficient numbers to become a source of annoyance it attains full growth about the middle of June when it measures an inch and a quarter or more When mature it changes to a brown chrysalis a little under the surface of the ground from which the perfect insect escapes in July When found to be injurious the caterpillar may be subdued by hand picking The Spotted PelidnotaThis enemy to the grapevine is a large and handsome beetle which eats the leaves making numerous holes in them It measures about an inch in length and half an inch in width at its widest part is nearly oval in form of a dull reddish yellow color with a polished surface and three black spots on the outer side of each wingcover It appears during July and August and is active during the day flying from vine to vine with a heavy awkward flight and a loud buzzing noise The female deposit her eggs in rotten wood on which the larva when hatched feeds the decaying stumps and exposed decaying roots of pear hickory and other trees being selected for this purpose When full grown the larva measures nearly two inches in length It much resem bles the larva of the May beetle When mature it forms a slight cocoon into which are woven its own castings mixed with particles of the surrounding wood and within this it changes to a pupa irom which the beetle escapes about ten days afterwards Should it at any time prove injurious it can be easily reduced in numbers by handpicking Grapevine Flea BeetleThis pretty but destructive little beetle forces itself upon the attention of grapegrowers very prominently in the spring season when awakened by the reviving warmth of the sun from its winter state of torpidity and with appetite sharp ened by its long fast it commences its work of destruction by eat ing away the substance of the buds as soon as they begin to swell thus destroying many bunches of grapes in embryo It goes onANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 m with this work for about a month when it gradually disappears Before leaving however the beetle provides for the continuance of its race by depositing little clusters of orangecolored eggs on the upper side of the leaves riddling them and when numerous they devour the whole leaf except the larger veins and sometimes en tirely strip the vines of foliage In three or four weeks the larva attains full growth when it is a little more than threetenths of an inch long usually of a lightbrown color sometimes dark and oc casionally pale and yellowish When mature the larvae leave the vines and descend to the ground where they burrow under the earth and form small smooth oval cells within which they change to dark yellowish pupae After remaining two or three weeks in this condition the beetles issue from them and the work of de struction goes on but since they live at this season of the year al together on leaves of which there is an abundance the injury done is much less than in the spring The beetle is about threetwen tieths of an inch long and varies in color On the approach of winter the beetles retire to some suitable shelter as under leaves pieces of bark or in the earth immediately around the roots of the vines where they remain inactive until the following spring RemediesTo destroy the beetles it is recommended to strew in the autumn airslaked lime or unleached ashes around the in fested vines removing and destroying all rubbish which might afford shelter In the spring the canes and young foliage may be syringed with water in which has been stirred a teaspoonful of Paris green to each gallon Strong soapsuds has also been rec ommended and is deserving of trial On chilly mornings the beetles are comparatively sluggish and inactive and may then be jarred from the vines on sheets and collected and destroyed These insects are much more abundant in some seasons than in others The Rose BeetleThis beetle commonly known as the rose bug attacks the rose and is also very injurious to the grapevine the apple cherry peach plum etc Its body is a little more than one third of an inch long slender and tapering a little towards each extremity Its color is dull yellowish when fresh arising from its being covered with a grayishyellow down or bloom The down 31 a482 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA on the body of the beetle is easily rubbed off producing quite a change in its appearance the head thorax and the under side of its body becoming a shinyblack These beetles sometimes appear in swarms about the time of the blossoming of the rose they re main about a month at the end of which period the males become exhausted drop to the ground and perish while the females bur row under the surface deposit their eggs then reappear above ground and shortly afterwards die also Each female lavs about thirty eggs which are buried in the earth to the depth of from one to four inches the eggs are about onethirtieth of an inch in diame ter whitish and globular In about three weeks they hatch and the young larvae at once begin to feed on such tender roots as are within their reach They attain full growth in the autumn when they are about threefourths of an inch long and about oneeighth of an inch in diameter of a yellowishwhite color with a tinge of blue towards the hinder extremity which is thick obtuse and rounded In October the larva descends below the reach of the frost and passes the winter there in a torpid state in the spring it approaches the surface and forms for itself a little oval cell of earth within which it is transformed to a pupa during the month of May In form the pupa bears some resemblance to the perfect insect and is of a yellowishwhite color its whole body being en veloped in a thin film that wraps each part separately In June this filmy skin is rent when the enclosed beetle withdraws the body and limbs bursts open its earthen cell and forces its way to the sur face of the ground thus completing its various stages within the space of one year Although those insects have many natural foes such as carnivorous ground beetles insectivorous birds domestic fowls etc they often need the intervening hand of man to keep them within due bounds When numerous they may be detached from the vines with a sudden and violent jar falling on sheets spread below to receive them They arc naturally sluggish do not fly readily and are fond of congregating in masses on the foli age they are consuming and hence in the morning before the day becomes warm they can be easily shaken from their restingplace collected and destroyed burned crushed or thrown into scaldingANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 483 water This insect is very partial to the Clinton grape and where this is to he had will congregate on it in preference to other varie ties a peculiarity which may be made use of by planting Clinton vines as a decoy and thus materially lessening the labor involved in the destruction of the beetle The Grapevine FidiaThis enemy to the grapevine is a chest nutbrown beetle about onequarter of an inch long with its body densely covered with very short whitish hairs which give it a hoary appearance It is first seen in June and by the end of July has disappeared Its mode of operation is to cut straight elongated Iioles about oneeighth of an inch in diameter in the leaves and when the insects are numerous these are so thickly penetrated as to be reduced to mere shreds This is said to be one of the worst foes the grapegrower has to contend with in Missouri and Kentucky where at times it literally swarms and then almost entirely de stroys the foliage of large vineyards It is a native insect found in the woods feeding on the wild grape also on the redbud of the vines in cultivation it is said to prefer the Concord and Xortons Virginia Upon the slightest disturbance or when danger threat ens it has the habit of doubling up its legs and falling to the ground where for a time it remains motionless feigning death in the same manner as the plum curculio Advantage may be taken of this habit and the insects collected by placing sheets under the vines and jarring them with the hand The grapevine Fidia belongs to the great family Chrysomelidae which ineludes the grapevine Flea beetle the potato beetle and many other injurious species The Redheaded SystenaThis insect belongs to the Chrysom elida3 and although very generally distributed throughout the northern portion of America has not until of late been recorded as injurious This insect is furnished with stout thighs which enable it to jump like the fleabeetle of the vine to which it is closely allied The beetle is about onesixth of an inch long the thorax and wing cases black and densely but very finely punctated The head is pale red above the eyes The Lighkloving AnomalaThis insect is a beetle about one third of an inch long in form resembling the May beetle which appears late in June or early in July It is common on both the484 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA wild and cultivated grapevine feeding upon the leaves The beetle is of a pale dull yellow color the thorax black margined with dull yellow the hind part of the head and the under side of the body also black sometimes the abdomen is brown These beetles occasionally appear in swarms when they devour the foli age very rapidly the vine leaves soon resembling a piece of net work only the large veins with some of the smaller ones being left RemediesDusting the vines with fresh airslaked lime or syringing them with a solution of whaleoil soap or strong tobacco water has been recommended Probably hellebore or Paris green with water as recommended for the eightspotted Forester would be more effectual The Grapevine SawflyThis is a small fourwinged fly with a shining black body except the upper side of the thorax which is red the wings are semitransparent and have dark brown veins the front pair being clouded or of a smoky color The forelegs or under side of the other legs are pale yellow or whitish The body of the female measures about threetenths of an inch in length that of the male somewhat less The insect is doublebrood ed the first brood of flies appearing in the spring the second late in July or early in August The eggs are laid on the under side of the terminal leaves of the vine in small clusters and the larvae when hatched feed in company side by side from about half a dozen to fifteen or twenty in a group preserving their ranks with much regularity They begin at one end of the leaf and eat the whole of the leaf including the ribs to the stalk and proceed from leaf to leaf down the branch devouring as they go until full grown When mature they measure about fiveeighths of an inch in length are somewhat slender and tapering behind and thickened before the middle They are of a pale yellow color darker or greenish on the back After the last moult the larrse become entirely yellow When they leave the vine they descend to the ground and burrow under its surface There they form oval cells in the earth which they line with silk and within these enclosures change to pupa3r from which the perfect flies escape in about a fortnight The second brood pass the winter in the pupae state Occasionally this insect is very destructive sometimes entirely stripping the TinesANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 485 In such cases the foliage should be sprinkled with hellebore and water or Paris green and water in the proportions given under the head of the eightspotted Forester The Grapevine LeafhopperThis insect is commonly known as the Thrip It is rather more than oneeighth of an inch long crossed by two broad bloodred bands and a third dusky one at the apex These insects pass the winter in the perfect state hiber nating under dead leaves or other rubbish the survivors becoming active in spring when they insert their eggs in punctures in the leaves of the vine The larvas are hatched during the month of June and resemble the perfect insect except in size and in being destitute of wings During their growth they shed their skins which are nearly white several times and although exceedingly delicate and gossamerlike the empty skins remain for some time attached to the leaves The insects feed together on the under side of the leaves and are very quick in their movements hopping briskly about by means of their hind legs which are especially fitted for this purpose They have a peculiar habit of running sideways and when they see that they are observed upon one side of a leaf they will often dodge quickly round to the other They are fur nished with a sharp beak or proboscis with which they puncture the skin of the leaf and through which they suck up the sap the exhaustion of the sap producing on the surface yellowish or brown ish spots At first these spots are small and do not attract much attention but as the insects increase in size the discolored spots become larger until the whole leaf is involved when changing to a yellow cast it appears as if scorched and often drops from the vine Occasionally the vine becomes so far defoliated that the fruit fails to ripen As the leafhopper enters the second stage of its existence corresponding to the pupal state in other insects di minutive wings appear which gradually grow until fully matured the insects meanwhile becoming increasingly active With the full growth of the wings it acquires such powers of flight that it readily flies from vine to vine and thus spreads itself in all direc tions It continues its mischievous work until late in the season when it seeks shelter for the winter The Clinton Delaware and other thinleaved varieties suffer more from the attacks of these486 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA insects than do the thick leatheryleaved sorts such as the Concord These leafhoppers are sometimes quite abundant in a vineyard one season and comparatively scarce the next their preservation depending on favorable weather and suitable shelter for the perfect insects during winter RemediesVarious measures have been suggested as remedies Since the insect does not consume the outer surface of the leaf it becomes difficult to deal with it Syringing with strong tobacco water or soapsuds or fumigating with tobacco where the vines can be enclosed so as to prevent the free escape of the smoke are the most efficient remedies Dusting with lime sulphur and lime hellebore and Cayenne pepper have all been recommended Carrying lighted torches through the vineyard at night the foli age at the same time being disturbed with a stick will destroy a great many of them since they fly to the light and are burned As a preventive the ground in the neighborhood of the vines should be kept thoroughly clean and be several times raked or otherwise disturbed late in autumn and early in spring so as to expose any concealed insects to the killing influence of frost The glasswing soldierbug feeds on these leafhoppers and devours large num bers of them Grapeleaf GalllouseThis is described under the head of Phylloxera TreehoppersThe waved Proconia is a cylindrical jumping in sect nearly half an inch long which is said to lay its eggs in single rows in the wood of the canes Besides attacking the leaves this bug punctures with its beak the stems of the bunches of grapes causing the stems to wither and the bunches to drop off Some times it pumps out the sap so vigorously from the succulent branches that the drops fall in quick succession from its body The singlestriped treehopper is shaped much like a beech nut with a perpendicular protuberance on the forepart of its back higher than it is wide and its summit rounded The insect is of a chestnutbrown color tawny white in front and with a white stripe along the back extending from the protuberance to the tip It is about onethird of an inch in height and may often be seen on grapevines in JulyANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 487 The black treehopper is a small triangular shining insect with a smooth rounded back Its color is greenishwhite and it has a large black spot on its back from the anterior corners of which a black line runs off towards each eye the upper margin of the head and breast are also black The female is about onefifth of an inch long the male smaller This species is sometimes found in considerable numbers on grapevines about the last of July and a few stragglers usually remain until October Tree BugsThe large green tree bug is from six to seventenths of an inch long flattened in form of a grassgreen color margined with a lightyellow line which is interrupted at each point of the abdomen with a small black spot It occurs on grapevines in September The bound tree bug is a large green bug closely resembling the large green tree bug but is more broadlyedged all around except upon its head with palered and has a palered spot upon the mid dle of its back The insect is little more than half an inch long The modest tree bug is smaller being from four to four and a halftenths of an inch long of a tawny yellowish gray color thickly dotted with brown This insect is one of the commonest tree bugs and is found in the autumn on a number of different trees and shrubs The tree bugs infest grapevines and suck the juices The Grapevine AphisThis species of plantlouse which is destructive to the young leaves and young shoots of the grapevine is of a dusky brown or blackish color legs greenish marked with dusky Most of the lice are wingless but some have wings clear and glassy with brownish veins They cluster in thousands on the ends of the branches causing the leaves to curl up and the vine to appear unsightly They are seen early in summer and usually continue but a few weeks as their enemies the ladybirds and other predaceous insects increase so fast as to decimate them within that time They are common in the South and in the Middle States Should occasion require the application of a remedy the yines may be syringed with weak lye tobacco water or strong soapsuds The Brownwinged KatydidThis is perhaps our commonest species of katydid and may be distinguished from the older species by the greater breadth and convexity of its wingcovers which with488 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA their strong midrib and regular venation much resemble a leaf The insect is about an inch and a half long its body of a palegreen color with slightly darker wing cases The female has a pro jecting ovipositor or piercer with which the eggs are thrust into crevices and soft substances When in confinement the katydid is said to insert its eggs freely into pieces of cork and other soft substances The young katydids when hatched which usually occurs in the following spring eat almost any tender succulent leaves and have never been recorded as very injurious The ob longwinged hatvdid a very similar species is said to deposit its eggs also on grapetwigs The Trumpet GrapeGallThese are curious elongated conical galls about onethird of an inch long of a reddish or reddishcrim son color sometimes inclining to green growing in considerable numbers on the leaves of the vine Though usually only found on the upper surface they are occasionally found on the under side also They are produced by a gallgnat and on cutting into the galls they are found to be hollow each containing a paleorange larva It is probable that the larva enters the earth to transform to the pupa and that the fly is produced the following season Grapevine FilbertGallIn this instance a rounded mass of galls from one and a half to two and a half inches in diameter springs from a common center at a point where a bud would natu rally be found The mass is composed of from ten to forty opaque woolly greenish galls which have a fleshy juicy subacid interior each with a single central longitudinal cell about onefourth of an inch long and onefourth as wide containing a solitary orange yellow larva about oneeighth of an inch long This is also the larva of an undetermined species of cecidomyia a family the mem bers of which may be recognized in the larval state by the peculiar appendage known as a breastbone attached to the under side near the head In this species it is almost yshaped the diverging branches terminate in two projecting points which may be ex tended at will and which are probably used by the larva in abrad ing the soft tissues of the gall so as to cause an exudation of sap on which the larva feeds The flies belonging to this genus are usu ally of a dullblack color The gall is common in July the largerANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 489 sized specimens bear some resemblance to a bunch of filberts or hazelnuts hence its name Grapevine TomatoGallThese galls form a mass of irregular succulent swellings on the stem and leaf stalks of the grapevine very variable ia size and shape from the single round cranberry like swelling to the irregular bulbous protuberances which look much like a group of diminutive tomatoes They have a yellow ishgreen exterior with rosy cheeks and are sometimes entirely red the interior is soft juicy and acid Each gall has several cells and in each cell there is an orangeyellow larva which before the gall has entirely decayed enters the ground where it changes to a pupa and finally emerges as a palereddish gnat with black head and antenna and gray wings The larvae are liable to be attacked by a parasite and also by species of Thrip which invade the cells and destroy the inmates Grapevine AppleGallThis is a globular fleshy greenish gall about ninetenths of an inch in diameter which is attached by a roughbase like that of a hazelnut to the stem of the vine On its external surface there are longitudinal depressions which divide the gall into eight or nine segments The interior is fleshy for about oneeighth of its diameter then follow a series of elon gated cells each divided into two by a transverse partition the lower being the shorter of the two Each cell is occupied by a single larva of a bright yellow color with a chestnutbrown yshaped breastbone which eventually produces a gallfly When young the gall is downy on the outside succulent within and is said to have a pleasant acidulous flavor Should any of the galls described ever become a source of annoyance they may readily be destroyed by handpicking ATTACKING THE FRUIT The Grapeseed InsectAbout the middle of August some berries in the bunches of grapes may be seen shrivelling up on opening these many of them will be found to contain only one seed and that of an unusually large size other large berries will contain two seeds also swollen most of the seeds having a dark490 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA spot somewhere on their surface On cutting open these seel the kernel will be found almost entirely consumed and the cavity occupied by a small milkwhite footless grub with a pair of brown hooked jaws a small and glossy skin with a few very fine short white hairs The larva changes to a pupa within the seed during the spring months and in July emerges as a fly escaping through a small irregular hole The fly is black The parent in sect probably deposits her eggs on the skin of the grape and the young larvae as soon as hatched puncture the skin and work their way to the seed which they enter while it is young and soft Many of the affected grapes have a small scar on their surface which may indicate where the insect has entered Should this tiny foe ever become so troublesome as to require a remedy the best one suggested is that of carefully destroying the shrivelled fruit The GrapeBerry MothWhen abundant this insect is very destructive In some instances it is said to have destroved nearly fifty per cent of the crop The young larvrc are found injuring the grapes early in July when the infested fruit shows a discolored spot where the larva has entered When the grape is opened and the contents carefully examined there will generally be found in the pulp a small larva rather long and thin and of a whitish green color Besides feeding on the pulp it sometimes eats portions of the seeds and if the contents of a single berry are not sufficient two three or more are drawn together and fastened with a patch of silk mixed with castings when the larva travels from one berry to another eating into them and devouring their juicy con tents At this period its length is about an eighth of an inch or more the head is black the body is dull whitish or yellowish green As it approaches maturity it becomes darker in color and when about onefourth of an inch long is full grown When the larva is full grown it is said to form its cocoon on the leaves of the vine cutting out for this purpose an oval flap which is turned back on the leaf forming a snug enclosure which it lines with silk fre quently it contents itself with rolling over a piece of the edge of the leaf and within this retreat the change to a chrysalis takes place The chrysalis is about onefifth of an inch long and of aANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 491 vellow or yellowishbrown color There are two broods of this insect during the year the spring brood feed on the tender shoots of the common Iron weed and on the tuliptree RemediesAs it is probable that most of the late brood pass the winter in the chrysalis state attached to the leaves if these were gathered and burned a large number of the insects would perish The infested grapes might also be gathered and destroyed This insect is attacked by a small parasite which does its part in keeping the enemy in subjection The Grape CurculioThis is a small beetle belonging to the family of Curculios which passes the winter probably in the per fect state and lays its eggs on the young grapes sometimes in June or early in July It is a diminutive and inconspicuous insect only about onetenth of an inch long Its color is black sprinkled with grayish spots and dots and thickly punctated The young larva when hatched enters the fruit and begins to feed upon it its presence being indicated by the discoloration on one side of the berry as if it were prematurely ripening A dark circular dot soon appears in the middle of the colored spot showing the point where the insect has entered the fruit The affected berry does not decay but remains sound and plump but it sometimes drops to the ground before it is fully ripe Late in July or early in August the larva becomes full grown when it leaves the berry drops to the ground and burying itself in the soil changes to a pipa from which the beetle escapes late in August or early in September This is not a common insect It is rarely injurious to any con siderable extent When it it troublesome the vines may be jarred occasionally during the month of June placing a sheet or an in verted umbrella under them when the beetles will fall and can then be gathered and destroyed as in case of the Plum Curculio492 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA INSTRUCTIONS IN SPRAYING SOLUTIONS RECOMMENDED 1 Bordeaux Mixture Copper sulphate 4 pounds Lime fresh 4 pounds Water40 gallons Suspend the copper sulphate in fire gallons of water This may he done by putting it in a hag of coarse material and hanging it so as to be covered by the water Slake the lime in about the same quantity of water Then mix the two and add the remainder of the 40 gallons of water Warm water will dissolve the copper sulphate more readily than cold water If the lime is at all dirty strain the lime solution If the lime is good the above amount is likely to be sufficient It is an easy matter to know how much lime is required by using what is termed the ferrocyanide of potassium test This substance can be got at any druggists and very little is required Take a small bottle 2 oz and get it filled with a saturated solution of this compound If there it not plenty of lime in your mixture a drop of the test added to it turns it brown Add more lime and stir As soon as the test fails to color in coming in contact with your mix ture it indicates there is sufficient lime present to neutralize the effects of the copper sulphate Use wooden vessels in preparing the Bordeaux mixture 2 Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate Solution Cupram Copper carbonate 1 ounce Strong ammonia sufficient to dissolve the copper carbonate Water10 gallons This solution is not much used and is recommended only in cases where the fruit is so far advanced that it would be disfigured by using the Bordeaux mixtureANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 493 3 Paris Green Mixture Paris green 1 pound Water200 to 300 gallons Milk of lime 4 gallons Use 200 gallons water in a mixture for appletrees 250 for plum trees and 300 for peachtrees When Paris green is added to Bor deaux mixture so as to form a combined insecticide and fungicide add four ounces to every 40 gallons of the Bordeaux mixture 4 Hellebore White hellebore fresh 1 ounce Water 3 gallons 5 Pyrethrum Pyrethrum powder fresh 1 ounce Water 4 gallons 6 Kerosene Emulsion Hard soap pound or soft soap 1 quart Boiling water soft 1 gallon Coal oil 2 gallons After dissolving the soap in the Water add tie coal oil and stir well for 5 to 10 minutes When properly mixed it will adhere to glass without oiliness A syringe or pump will aid much in this work In using dilute with from 9 to 15 parts of water Kero sene emulsion may be prepared with sour milk 1 gallon and coal oil 2 gallons no soap being required This will not keep long NOTES 1 When there is danger of disfiguring fruit with the Bordeaux mixture use the ammoniacal copper carbonate solution 2 Experience in spraying during the past three years indicates that it is best to use the combined insectitude and fungicide com491 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA mencing as soon as the buds begin to swell again when the leaves appear and continue it at intervals of 10 to 15 clays until the trees Lave been sprayed 3 to 5 times which will depend upon the weather In the case of a rainy reason it may be necessary to spray at least five times while if dry and the mixtures have been allowed to remain on the foliage then three or four times may be sufficient In no case spray while the trees are in bloom but immediately after It is contrary to law and punishable by fine of from 100 to 500 3 The combined insecticide and fungicide containing Paris green and Bordeaux mixture is to be used for insects that chew and injurious fungi but kerosene emulsion alone for those insects that suck the juices of plants such as aphis thrip red spider clover mite oyster shell bark louse San Jose scale etc 4 A stock solution for the preparation of Bordeaux mixture may be prepared as follows Dissolre 25 pounds of copper sulphate in 25 gallons of water One gallon of this contains one pound of the copper sulphate In another barrel slake 25 pounds of good lime and add 12J gallons of water One gallon of this contains two pounds of lime To make the mixture take four gallons of the copper sulphate solution and two of the lime If there is anv doubt about there not being sufficient lime try the test already referred to under Bordeaux mixture Xow fill up the amount to 40 gallons with water 5 Prepare the mixture well apply it at the proper time and be as thorough as possible in the work Threefourths of the so called spraying done is not spraying at all The trees are only drenched When spraying is properly done the mixture is bro ken up like a mist and settles on every part of the plant A great deal more of the mixture will remain on the plant when applied in this way and there is also a saving of material as every drop which falls to the ground is lost 6 No mixture should be left in the pump or barrel and after using clean water should be pumped so as to clean the outfit This is important as some of the mixtures act chemically on the metal of the pumpANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 495 7 Use a Y and two nozzles or a triplehead and throe nozzles The work can be done just as well and much more expeditiously 8 To keep Bordeaux mixture off horses and harness use coarse linen or other cover 9 As most of the spraying mixtures are poisonous care should he taken in working with them They should not he used when there is any wound or abrasion of the skin exposed and care should be taken not to allow the spray to settle on the hands or face or to be inhaled Arsenites taken into the system by absorption or in halation produce symptoms of poisoning In mild cases they re semble the symptoms produced by poisoning in severe cases head aches nausea eruptions boils and ulcers are said to result The danger from arsenites which are soluble in water such as London purple are much greater than from Paris green which contains very little watersoluble arsenic There is more danger of poison ing by absorption when perspiring freely However by taking proper precaution there need be little fear A leather washer about four inches in diameter should be fitted just below the noz zle which will prevent the drip from reaching the hands As far as possible keep to windward of the nozzle When much work is to be done rubber gloves should be worn The face and ex posed parts should be washed immediately after spraying 10 The cost of spraying with Bordeaux mixture is not very great Copper sulphate of the best quality which is the only kind that should be used can be had at from 44c to 5c per lb by the barrel and Paris green at from 15c to 20c per lb The cost for material to properly spray an average appletree for the entire season skould not exceed from 4c to 5c TKEATMEXT 1 Apple Treatment for destroying codling moth bud moth tent cater pillar cankerworm apple spot leaf blight pistolcase bearer and powdery mildew496 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA First spraying Bordeaux mixture and Paris green 4 oz to the barrel of the mixture when the buds are swelling Second spraying Bordeaux mixture and Paris green before the blossoms open Third spraying Bordeaux mixture and Paris green when the blossoms have fallen Fourth and fifth sprayings Bordeaux mixture and Paris green at intervals of ten to fifteen days if necessary No definite date can be named after which it would be safe to cease spraying for apple scab The orchard should be watched after the third or fourth application and the treatment again ap plied if scab appears on the fruit or leaves Many apple growers who sprayed in 1897 until the end of June and neglected to watch their orchards afterward lost heavily The scab appeared very late in the season last year and all the ex perimental orchards were given an extra application in the early part of July which largely accounts for the splendid results ob tained 2 Pear Leaf blight scab and codling moth the same treatment as for the apple 3 Plum Curculio broivn rot and leaf blight First spraying Bordeaux mixture before the flower buds open Second spraying Bordeaux mixture and Paris green as soon as the petals have fallen Third spraying Bordeaux mixture and Paris green in seven to ten days after Fourth spraying Bordeaux mixture in ten to fifteen days after 4 Peach Brown fruit rot leaf blight plum curculio and ptach curl Exoascus spANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 497 Fir9t and second sprayings Same as for the treatment of the plum Third spraying Bordeaux mixture in two or three weeks Fourth spraying Ammoniacal copper carbonate if any danger of disfiguring the fruit with Bordeaux mixture 5 Cherry Aphis slug brown rot and leaf blight First spraying Bordeaux mixture as the buds are breaking if the aphis appears use kerosene emulsion alone Second spraying Bordeaux mixture and Paris green as soon as the blossoms fall Third spraying Bordeaux mixture and Paris green ten to fif teen days after 6 Grapes Mildew black rot flea beetle and leafeating insects First spraying Bordeaux mixture and Paris green when leaves are one inch in diameter Second spraying Bordeaux mixture and Paris green when flow ers have fallen Third and fourth sprayings Bordeaux mixture at intervals of ten to fifteen days Paris green alone when the beetle is attacking the buds in the spring 7 Raspberry Anthracnose leaf blight and sawfly larpce First spraying Bordeaux mixture and Paris green just before growth begins Second spraying Bordeaux mixture and Paris green about when first blossoms open Third spraying Bordeaux mixture when the fruit is gathered 8 Currant and Gooseberry Worms and mildew First spraying Potassium sulphide Bordeaux mixture and Paris green as soon as the leaves expand498 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA Second spraying The same ten to fifteen days later For worms alone hellebore or Paris green will be effective 9 Tomato Hot and blight Spray with Bordeaux mixture as soon as rot or blight appears for three times if necessary at intervals of ten to fifteen days 10 Potato Blight and beetles First spraying Paris green as soon as the beetles appear one pound to 100 gallons of water Second spraying Bordeaux mixture and Paris green when plants are six inches high Third and fourth sprayings Bordeaux mixture at intervals of ten to fifteen days if necessary 11 Cabbage Pyrethrum applied in solution one ounce to four gallons of water or dusted on one part pyrethrum to seven parts flour for the cabbage worm 12 Strawberry The rust or leafblight Bordeaux mixture when it can be applied without disfiguring the fruit will control this disease Apply at intervals of two or three weeks on new beds after they begin to make runners We have given the latest and best information on the subject of fruits derived from the proceedings of the State Horticultural So ciety of Georgia Insects Injurious to Fruits by Saunders and The Spraying of Plants by LodemanANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 499 EEPOET OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST Office of the State Entomologist Atlanta Ga August 15 1898 To Hon E T Nesbitt Commissioner of Agriculture of the State of Georgia SirI have the honor to submit herewith a report of my work as State Entomologist covering the time from the date of my ap pointment March 1 1898 up to the present date as required by Section 4 of an Act of the Assembly approved December 21 1897 entitled An Act to require the Commissioner of Agricul ture to establish a special department of Horticulture and Po mology to employ an Entomologist fix his salary and define his duties to provide for the inspection of fruit trees fruit vineyard melon and vegetable farms and prevent diminish and destroy con tagious diseases and destructive insects in orchards vineyards and other places to provide boards of arbitration fix their powers de fine their duties and provide for their costs to provide funds for the maintenance of said department to prescribe penalties for violations and for other purposes My work has been confined principally to the investigation of the San Jose scale as to its distribution in this State and experi menting with remedial measures for its control Our experience leads us to believe that although the San Jose scale is a very dan gerous and pernicious pest we can by persistently pursuing reasonable measures successfully control it and that fruit culture in Georgia will continue despite the perniciousness of this insect In addition to this special investigation notes have been made from time to time on various other injurious insect pests of the season the most important of which are mentioned in this report Eespectfully submitted W M SCOTT State Entomologist500 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST W M Scott M S I THE SAN JOSE SCALE Aspidiotus pertHciosusComstock The lifehistory of the San Jose scale its origin introduction into the Eastern States and distribution through these States have been repeatedly discussed in bulletins from the United States De partment of Agriculture and the various State experiment stations Hence it appears unnecessary to cover these points in this report and so I shall confine the discussion principally to the distribution of this insect in this State and how it may best be controlled It might not he amiss however to point out a few of the ex ternal characters with which the ordinary observer may detect it Seen through a pocket lens the individual female scale is dark gray in color circular and conical in outline and terminates at the cen ter by a nipplelike prominence surrounded by a distinct ring The male scales are elongated and smaller with the nipple near the an terior end A tree infested with the San Jose scale presents different appear ances according as it is badly or only slightly infested When thoroughly encrusted with this insect it takes on a gray ishbrown ashy appearance as though the trunk and limbs had been painted with dampened ashes By scraping the bark with a knife the scales may he removed cohering like a mass of wet bran If the tree is only slightly infested the bark will be found to be dotted here and there with dark gray often black objects about onesixteenth of an inch in diameter surrounded by a purplish tinge of the bark The blackish appearance of the scale is espe cially noticeable during the winter and spring and is character istic of the overwintering individuals Scales of the summer broods take on more of the grayish color In the summer season attention may often first be attracted to them on peachtrees fromANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 501 the effects produced on the leaves Even when a tree is only slightly infested the young insects take readily to the leaves espe cially along the mid ribs specking them over with scarlet or pur plish spots I have noticed this appearance of the leaves caused by the scale as soon as a tree was approached while it took the closest scrutiny to detect its existence on the bark In case of the apple and especially old trees the scales seem to prefer the fruit dwarfing it and covering the skin with purplish spots Just a point touching the lifehistory of this scale might not be out of place The young usually appear first about the middle of May and continue throughout the summer up to November or December Of course this varies according to climatic condi tions Some young larvse are present on trees in this State almost throughout the winter On twigs received at the Virginia Experi ment Station from Twiggs County Georgia January 18 1898 young scales were issuing in considerable numbers It is very probable however that the insects had been dormant but a few warm days in January had revived them and the mature females had commenced reproducing again On March 8 1898 and later dates I observed young scales more or less abundant crawling over infested trees in south Geor gia They were not observed to appear in very great numbers however until the 20th of April on and after which date infested trees wTere fairly alive with them These points while not seemingly of practical significance have their bearing on treatment as we shall see later According to my observation the Abundance plum is its favorite food plant It seems to take to this variety of plum more readily than to any other plant It thrives so well and reproduces so rapidly on this plum that only two seasons and even less time after first infestation is required to completely kill the tree The peach regardless of variety is not far behind the plum in susceptibility It takes almost as readily to this fruit and very little more time is required to destroy the tree Apples are more resistant and may survive several years after the date of the first attack The LeConte and Kieffer varieties of pears seem to be almost entirely exempt502 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA from its attack In one of the nurseries of thfs State those varie ties two and three years stock were standing in nursery rows alongside of rows of Japan plums and in some cases the twigs of the pears and plums touched The plums were thoroughly infest ed with the scales while scarcely a scale could be found on the pears Japan seedling pears in the same block of nursery stock however were as badly infested as the plums LeConte and Ivieffer pears used as border trees around large peach orchards badly infested with the San Jose scale were found to be almost free only a few scales being found on an occasional tree The rose also deserves mention as being among the heroes that have died in the cause It seems to be quite sensitive and yields quite readily to the attacks of the scale and because of this fact we often find it pays to carefully inspect the rose and frequently to destroy it en tirely that we may preserve the fruit interest of a community According to my observation this about covers the plants that have suffered seriously from the attacks of the scale in Georgia I have however found various other plants slightly infested among these are quinces English walnuts and cottonwoods Populus monilifera In this connection I wish to correct erroneous reports circulated more or less widely over the State that the forests swamps and parks of the cities are infested with the San Jose scale Such reports have a bad effect And so far as I have been able to de termine by careful investigation they are incorrect It is quite possible for the scale to leak out into the forests and swamps and it may be that it has but I have not yet been able to discover such to be the case It is unfortunately true that many of the shade trees and forest trees are badly infested with scale insects other than the San Jose scale and these are doing immense damage While in Randolph county I was told that the maples and oaks and seedling peaches miles away from any orchard w7ere infested with the San Jose scale I wanted to see these trees and on being taken to them found them to be badly infested with scales but not the San Jose scale The maples were infested with the gloomy scale Aspidiotus tencbricosus the oaks with the obscureANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 503 scale Aspidiotus obscurus and the seedling peaches with the cherry or forbes scales Aspidiotus forbesi A similar instance occurred in Wilcox county in regard to chestnuts and other trees the scale in every case proving to be some other species of the genus Aspidiotus These points bear upon the possibility of keeping the pest under control In order that I may not be misunderstood I will state further that there is danger of the San Jose scale spreading into the forests and that ex treme care should be taken and heroic measures adopted in order to prevent such a disaster Next I might mention a few facts that have come under my observation concerning the means of dissemination which also has to do with the possibility of suppressing this enemy to the fruitgrower Since the females cannot fly and since they lose their power of locomotion altogether after the young ones settle down and begin to secrete their waxy coverings they must be dis seminated by some outside agencies while in the unsettled larval state which only lasts a few hours with each individual When the scale becomes established in one part of an orchard it may soon be more or less distributed over the whole orchard by means of the plowmen and nudes I have a case on record where the scale was introduced into one part of an orchard of twelve thousand trees and from this center of infestation was soon distributed undoubt edly by the cultivators and teams principally from one end of the orchard to the other and throughout almost every part of the orchard In another case the scales were introduced from a nur sery on two or three trees in the center of three rows running through an orchard of 20000 trees and these three rows and a row on each side were soon slightly infested from one end to the other while the other part of the orchard had escaped This shows how a few infested trees may soon contaminate a whole orchard Scales I think have undoubtedly been earned from one orchard to another on mens clothes I have a case where a gentleman was interested in an orchard badly infested with the San Jose scale and owned two orchards several miles distant He became so worked up over the matter that he determined to find out if the scale was in his own private orchard Time and again he would go to504 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA the infested orchard and carefully examine infested trees to ac quaint himself with the scale then he would go directly to his private orchard and carefully inspect for the scale At first no scales could be found but by and by it developed He had un consciously carried it on his person and is now fighting it in his own orchards Be careful therefore in going from an infested orchard to an uninfested one that you do not carry the scale with you Even the entomologists themselves cannot be too careful about this point Other methods of distribution are by birds carrying the scale on their feet from tree to tree and from orchard to orchard by insects especially ants and grasshoppers by stiff breezes of wind carrying infested leaves and even the little animals alone and fruitpickers may distribute it throughout an orchard and into other orchards It may also be distributed on fruit However this plan has been doubted by many On July 2 I took a scaleinfested apple from a tree in north Georgia Dade county and on August 2 thirty days later young were issuing and settling down on the apple Should this apple have been brought in contact with the proper foodplant any time during these thirty days the scale could have easily transmitted to that plant It is now a wellestablished fact that nursery stock is the most common and effective medium of wide dissemination The scale is introduced from one nursery to another on stock graft buds and cuttings and after it once gets into a nursery it is next to im possible to get rid of it without digging up and burning every plant on the premises and starting a new nursery on other grounds From these infested nurseries the scale is sent out on the stock to the growers Only a few trees may be purchased to reset an orchard but if infested with scales these are sufficient to demolish the whole orchard In one case in this State a few trees were brought from an infested nursery and planted in an orchard of two thousand trees in three years the whole orchard was destroyed by the scale and the pest had spread to a neighboring orchard of twenty thousand trees It is now time for nursery inspection I have already commenced the work and will continue until I have inspected all the nurseries of the State that can be located beforeANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 505 the shipping season this fall Stock found infested will of course have to be destroyed Nurserymen whose stock is found ap parently free from the scales will be given a certificate to that effect when such certificate is desired EXTENT OF SPREAD IN THIS STATE Just here I am at a loss to know what course to pursue Some have urged me to let the facts be known while others insist that T should not make public the infested localities on account of the hurt it might bring to the nurserymen and real estate agents of those localities Honesty is the best policy however and in the end it would be better if the exact status of the matter were made known so that the nurserymen and fruitgrowers would understand each other and understand the situation perfectly After due consideration however I have decided to give infested counties without mentioning names or exact localities In fact most of the counties I will mention have been brought before the public as either infested or suspected through Prof Starness Bulletin No 36 Georgia Experiment Station I have only had about four months time to devote to this in spection work and consequently the work is yet incomplete It has been my aim to locate new infested localities visit localities already known to be infested and to determine the extent of in festation in these localities and to come to some agreement with the owners of infested premises as to the disposition of such premi ses Sometimes it has been necessary on account of conditions and situation to use the grubbing hoe and root up thousands of trees while in other cases conditions were such as to warrant treatment I wish to say that in this work I have been treated with the ut most courtesy and have met with the hearty cooperation of the fruitgrowers and nurserymen In almost every case the work has been done in an advisory way and it has not been necessary to resort to compulsory measures The principal source of infestation for south Georgia has been a mirsery situated at Waycross Georgia now extinct It seems that this nursery has been infested for at least six years during which time it has sent the scale broadcast over the southern por506 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA tion of the State The evidence is clear that they sent scalein fested stock into Bandolph county as early as the shipping season of 189293 Prior to this time it seems that they had purchased scaleinfested stock from a New Jersey nursery and thus intro duced the scale on their grounds Another nursery in Berrieu county also extinct seems to have played a prominent part in the distribution of the scale in a local way The originally infested stock is said to have come from New Jersey five or six years ago Suspicion has also been attached to two small nurseries in Thomas county These latter however have done little toward dissemi nating the pest A number of cases are traceable to three Mary land nurseries Other than the abovementioned nurseries the two most impor tant of which have gone out of business the nurseries of this State so far as has yet been determined are free from the San Jose scale Further inspection may reveal others and it is feared that some small nurseries in infested localities will be found infested Beginning with the extreme southern counties and giving a few general statements concerning the infested localities in each county the infested counties follow Becatur CountyThere are two localities in this county known to be infested three cases at one locality and one at the other in volving about ten thousand treesprincipally peaches some plums Stock from Waycros Georgia Some of these orchards have been dug up and others treated Thomas CountyThree widely separated localities of this county have the scale Seven different premises are involved but most of them are garden lots and only about a thousand trees are infested in all Stock from Waycross Ga Brooks CountyTwo localities are recorded for this county with one case at one locality and three cases at the other At the first locality an orchard of 1050 peachtrees four years old is badly infested so much so that treatment will not be attempted but the trees will be dug up and burned The cases at the second locality cover only private gardens and dooryards Every case traced to Wayeross Lowndes CountyOnly three cases are now known in this counANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 507 ty and they are confined to one locality involving about five hun dred treespeaches plums and quinces Such vigorous measures are being pursued by digging up and using soap washes that it is believed that these cases will be eradicated Source of infestation unknown in one case the other traced to Waycross Ware CountyIn this county was situated the wellknown hursery that has so widely disseminated the scale over south Geor gia On March 18 1898 I visited this nursery of about fifty acres and found it to be thoroughly infested with the San Jose scale throughout including a few hundred orchard trees It ap pears that infested stock was brought to this nursery from New Jersey possibly as early as 1890 It is now on the retired list The local spread and dissemination on nursery stock in the county is undoubtedly considerable The extent has not yet been deter mined Berrien CountyThe orchards of this county seem to have suf fered most from this pest There are two distinct centers of infes tation one of which however only involves two small premises The other according to our records involves thirtythree different premises ranging in grade from private gardens to orchards of 62000 trees principally peaches and plums in all covering prob ably about 200000 trees There has been a loss of thousands of trees but the growers have instituted such vigorous measures against the pest that it is believed they will keep it under control Hydrocyanic acid gas whale oil soap and kerosene have all been freely used The wide dissemination of scale in this county is due to a nursery of the county which became infested some five or six years ago having obtained infested stock from New Jersey This nursery is also on the retired list Worth CountyThis county has also suffered much from the ravages of the San Jose scale We have four different infested localities on record and these are situated in widely separated parts of the county so that it appears that the county is quite thoroughly infested throughout Investigation reveals seventeen different cases involving near 100000 treespeaches and plums Scaly stock has been dumped into the county from three different sources We have three cases charged to Maryland two to Waycross Geor508 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA gia one to the Berrien county nursery and eight to local spread Mitchell CountyThis county also has the distinction of beina one of the worst infested But since fruit is not grown so exten sively here the interests involved are not so great One man alone however says he has spent 500000 on his orchard and just as it should have come into bearing he abandoned it on account of the scale Our records show three localities infested involving twelve different premises upwards of fifty thousand trees principally peaches Infested stock from Waycross Irwin CountyWe have two localities recorded as infested in this county covering four premises Suspicion is attached to a number of other premises but investigation has not yet been made The infestation was introduced from the Berrien county nursery and from Waycross Wilcox CountyThis county furnishes two infested localities and seven cases Scale introduced from Maryland Here kero sene in mechanical mixture with water is being used with success Randolph CountyThis county is among the worst infested We have only one center of infestation recorded but the spread from this in a local way has been enormous Seven bad cases have been investigated and a number of others reported but not verified These involve upwards of 50000 bearing treespeaches and plums Waycross is the source of infestation The unfor tunate growers have been very energetic in the use of whale oil soap and lye washes with only partial success however Bee CountyLee county furnishes but one infested locality and two cases which are of little consequence Stock purchased from Waycross and a small concern in Randolph county Schley CountyWe have two localities recorded for this county with two cases at one and five at the other involving about 44100 trees in allpeaches principally some plums Source of infesta tion traced to a Maryland nursery Whale oil soap and kerosene have been extensively used as a remedy with apparent success Houston CountyIn this county two cases were discovered in one locality and one case in another involving about 20000 peach trees 10000 plums and some ornamental shrubs In this very important fruit section it was determined not toANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 o09 take any risk but that the most heroic measures should be pursued to eradicate the pest Every tree found to be infested was rooted up And not only so but several thousand trees apparently not in fested but adjacent to infested trees received the same treatment Tins done I made a thorough inspection of the orchards in this sec tion and found no more scales and it is hoped that the pest has been entirely eradicated Waycross furnished the infested stock Macon CountyIn one locality in this county three infested premises were discovered involving about 2500 plums and a few dozen peaches The same heroic measures were adopted here as in the cases in Houston county Total destraction of all infested trees with adjacent apparently uninfested one3 Careful inspec tion of neighboring orchards showed no further infestation and we have every reason to believe that the scale is eradicated Way cross again was the source of infestation Twiggs CountyInvestigation has been made in only one lo cality of this county where four cases were discovered involving some 20000 peachtrees Kerosene emulsion has been used here with some success The scale seems to have been introduced from a badly infested orchard five miles away in the adjoining county Laurens probably carried on the clothing of persons who fre quently went from this badly infested orchard to the others Laurens CountyThis county ranks among the worst infested and has sustained heavy losses from the ravages of the scale It has the distinction of having had probably the worst case on record in the east In one locality an orchard of 90000 peachtrees planted during the season of 18923 is now totally demolished 70000 of the trees were dug up last spring and the other 20000 are to be destroyed this winter The scales were introduced into this orchard on about 5000 trees from Waycross We have another locality of two cases recorded One of these involves about 3000 treesprobably due to local spread the other in volves about 14000 bearing trees In this case the scale was probably introduced from Thomas county Wilkinson CountyThis county furnishes only one case of about five thousand peachtrees Source of infestation unknown Coweta CountyWe have onlv one locality of two cases re510 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA corded against this county About two thousand trees involved Source of infestation unknown Bade county in northwest GeorgiaThis county has one infested locality involving only three adjoining garden lotsap ples pears and peaches The trees were condemned and de stroyed Maryland furnished the infested stock This concludes the infested counties as we have them recorded It will be seen from the above that the distribution is confined al most entirely to south Georgia as we have only two infested coun ties Coweta and Dade recorded north of Macon It must be understood however that our inspection work has been confined principally to the southern and central portions of the State But from correspondence and information gained otherwise it is cer tain that no such state of affairs exists in north Georgia as is ap parent in south Georgia And it is believed that further inspec tion will reveal comparatively few cases of the scale in this upper section NATURAL ENEMIES The San Jose scale is attacked by various enemies and it is boped that these will prove important factors in suppressing it The fungous disease of the San Jose scale Sphwrostilbe coco phila treated by Prof Rolphs in his Bulletin Xo 41 Fla Experi ment Station is well distributed throughout south Georgia Unfor tunately however this disease has confined its attacks principally to other scales than the San Jose Aspidioius obscurus seems to be its favorite host I have examined oaks that were thoroughly encrusted with this scale and found about 95 per cent were dead from the attacks of Sphwrostilbe It lias also been observed on the forbes scale A forbesi in different localities and on aspecies of Aspidiotus on oaks at Americus Georgia Strange to say I have found the forbes scale heavily infested with this disease on trees directly adjacent 4o trees badly infested with the San Jose scale and yet the San Jose scale was uninfected with the disease This disease seems to be doing good work on the San Jose scale in De catur county onlyANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 511 A Black FungusWhile in Semen county I was told that from some cause the San Jose scale was disappearing from some of the orchards of that county Upon close examination of infested trees I found black warty scabs which seemed to be scales swollen into black masses Supposing this to be a fungous disease of the scale I sent specimens to the U S Department of Agriculture for identification The department reported to me that it was a fun gous disease but on account of the absence of spores it could not be identified at that time A block of 100 peachtrees said to have been badly infested with the San Jose scale two years ago was examined May 12 1898 and found almost free The pitted appearance of the trunk and limbs and the presence of dead scales gave evidences of the trees having been formerly badly infested These are now almost clean and are taking on good growth and wherever scales are found the fungus is present In another wellknown orchard of this county there are several hundred trees said to have been almost encrusted with the scale two years ago and have never been treated Scarcely a scale could be found on these trees May 14th when they were exam ined The whole orchard of about 60000 trees is more or less infested with the scale and this fungus could be found on nearly every infested tree In Worth county an orchard of ten thousand trees was planted with stock from an infested nursery A scale supposed to be the San Jose scale was discovered on a plumtree in the spring of 1895 No particular notice was taken of it until a year later spring of 1896 when the owner discovered it on another plum tree and sent specimens to the United States Department of Ag riculture to be determined It proved to be the San Jose scale and the two trees were destroyed Spring of 1897 several trees were found infested and during that season about fifteen infested trees were destroyed On March 25 1898 I inspected these premises and found a tree here and there through the orchard dead with the scaleabut thirty in all There was very little spread from these now dead trees and scarcely a live scale coidd be found in the orchard512 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA Wherever there were scales the fungus could be found In some cases the scale had been removed indicating the work of a lady bird This is a remarkable case The scale has probably been in this orchard four years certainly two years and has made practically no progress On the other hand I have a case on record where the scale completely destroyed an orchard of 70000 trees in the same length of time The disappearance of the scale in the above mentioned orchard seems to be due to the presence of this black fungus I will not cite further cases but will simply state that with about four exceptions this disease has been found in every infested county in Georgia but not in every infested orchard The fungus is often found on trees dead from San Jose scales showing that the trees were too far gone before the scale were attacked or that the disease is too slow in its work It is also found infecting the forbes scale in middle and south Georgia and a species of Aspidiotus on oak Predaceous InsectsI have very little to say for the predaceous insects We have two species of ladybird that are preying on the San Jose scale but they occur in such small numbers as not to work any great destruction to the scale These friends are the twicestabbed ladybird Chilocorus bivulnerus and the pitiful ladybird ImIlia miseUa The former is quite abundant in most parts of the State but seems to prefer the juices of the English walnut scale Aspidiotus juggansregws and the forbes scale to that of the San Jose scale Where these scales exist it usually oc curs in great numbers and in some instances has almost extermi nated them Only in a few ease has it been found attacking the San Jose scale The PrutIIIn misella lias been found in several localities but oc curring in limited numbers and for that reason the result of its work is almost imperceptible These little insect friends however should not he disregarded but should lie introduced into every orchard and tenderly fos tered Not infrequently have I noticed articles in the papers and heardANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 513 statements to the effect that the San Jose scale is no longer a dreaded pest in California that fnngous diseases and predaceous insects together with the use of the lime salt and sulphur water have rendered it harmless and that the eastern growers need not be alarmed Some of the Georgia people seem to have taken up this idea and are inclined to let the scale run its course We are not growing fruit in California but we are growing fruit in Georgia and we have to fight the scale in Georgia If in the course of time nature comes in with her various agencies and in terferes in our behalf then we will have less fighting to do and more time to sit down and fold our arms As it is now we must fight and fight heroically or give up fruitgrowing in some sec tions This brings us up to the question of TREATMENT It must be conceded that the San Jose scale is with us to stay as a permanent pest forming an important factor in the art of fruitgrowing in infested sections of this State and all hopes of total eradication must be given up The question with which we must now deal is how it may best be controlled I will discuss three lines of treatment each of which has been tested and proved to be effective in a greater or less degree to wit 1 Hydrocyanic acid gas 2 Kerosene and water in Mechanical mixture 3 Whaleoil soap Hydrocyanic Acid GasIt was indicated in Prof Starness Bul letin as referred to above that the gas treatment of orchard trees would play an important part in suppressing the scale in this State and cases were cited in which almost absolute results were ob tained I regard this treatment as the most efficient remedy we have but at the same time it must be understood that it is the most expensive the most inconvenient and the most dangerous to the operator It also cannot be said to be absolutely effective Some 33 a514 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA of the scales may escape but it is certain that a less number escapes this treatment than any other we have tried This treatment consists in generating hydrocyanic acid gas under a tent enclosing the infested tree by treating potassium cyanide with dilute sulphuric acid About thirty yards of eight ounce duck is required to make a tent twelve feet high and ten feet in diameter at the base Cut off a width of duck 31 feet long and sew it securely to a hoop of onefourth inch gas pipe 31 feet in circumference To this first width sew a second somewhat shorter than the first and so on until the tent reaches the desired height cutting each width consider ably shorter than the preceding one in order to make the ten slope to about four feet across the top This clone cut out and make a circular cap to fit this opening at the top and sew it in se curely A ring is then sewed in the top strongly reinforced so as to bear the weight of the tent without pulling out The very closest seams should be made as it is desired to have the tent as nearly air tight as possible It should then be painted with two coats of linseed oil and lampblack From 12 to 20 such tents can be operated by four men one of whom should be leader directing the operation handling the chemicals alone It is a very dangerous operation and every de tail should be observed by the operator who should have previously seen the process of fumigation and acquainted himself with the de tails Both the chemicals and the gas are deadly poison Xinety eight per cent potassium cyanide and commercial sulphuric acid are the grades to be used The cyanide can be purchased by wholesale from manufacturing chemists at about 32 cents per pound and the acid at about 2 cents per pound The formula used is 1 oz of cyanide 1 oz of acid and 3 oz of water to every 150 cubic feet of space in the tent It is im possible to get the exact amount of space and it would be well fo al ways use chemicals a little in excess rather than to have a defi ciency The cubical contents of a tent in position over a tree may be approximated by guessing at the height and mean diameter and multiplying threefourths the square of the diameter by the heightANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 515 The operation is simple and no danger should result if the proper caution is taken Overlarge trees should be cut back and the branches drawn in by means of a rope in order to reduce the space to fit the tent The tent is lifted from one tree and placed over another by one man with a forked pole the forked end of Avhich is in the ring at the top of the tent and the other end against the ground assisted by one man on each side lifting at the hoop The tent being placed in position the acid and water are poured together in an earthen ware vessel and placed inside The cyanide in a longhandled ladle is reached under the edge of the tent and added to the con tents of the vessel Then the edge of the tent should be quickly let down and earth thrown over the hoop all the way round The tent should be left undisturbed for the space of about thirtyfive minutes during which time the gang is operating the other tents At the expiration of that time the men return and remove the tent to another tree and the work goes on The order of pouring the chemicals together given above should be strictly observed A gang of men complained to me that there was such sputtering of the chemicals when poured together that the tents were soon burned full of holes and that it was almost impossible to keep them patched Upon investigation I found that the acid was added last The water dissolves some of the cyanide before the acid can be added and when it is added it seizes the dissolved cyanide so violently that an ebullition against the sides of the tent is the result It is very important and absolutely necessary to good results to keep a close watch over the tents and strongly patch any hole that may be burnt or snagged in them It should also be added that in case the trees are damp from dew or rain an excess of chemicals should be used as the moisture con denses and absorbs some of the gas This treatment can be applied at any season of the year with reasonable safety to the trees Mr Hoffman of Tifton Georgia who was the first to use the gas treatment of orchard trees in Geor gia and probably the first to successfully use it in the east has ex perimented with it in many ways He has successfully treated peachtrees in full bloom in full foliage and in fruit with almost516 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA perfect safety to the trees the exception being a slight burning of the foliage and the ends of the twigs on occasional trees The best time however is in the winter season while the scales are dormant If the trees are treated in the summer season while the young scales are issuing the operators with their outfit will almost certainly communicate live scales to treated trees by removing the ropes or otherwise coming in contact with them It would also he better to work at nights or on cloudy days to avoid possible dan ger of scalding the foliage and burning the tips of twigs by actinic rays of the sun This injury is so slight however as not to war rant overmuch precaution As to the efficiency of this remedy I will cite a few instances in which gratifying results have been attained Premises of F II Jones Co of Tifton Ga Jake Harvey Manager 3000 Abundance plums 3000 Elberta peaches 3000 Snead peaches set in the fall of 1895 Scale was discovered in this orchard soon after it was set and allowed to take its course for two years un disturbed during which time the whole orchard became more or less thoroughly infested The gas treatment was taken up Jan uary 5 1898 and continued until the whole orchard was treated by March 8th Mr Harvey with three men and a boy operated twenty tents giving thirty minutes to the tree and using the or dinary formula The work was done at day March 21st I made a general inspection of the orchard care fully examining some trees and was unable to find a live scale May 14th assisted by Mr Harvey I selected ten of the trees for merly worst infested and carefully examined each from the ground to the ends of the twigs The trees were heavily encrusted with dead scales and under a mass of these I found one live scale on one tree and two on another On the other eight trees not a live scale could be found General inspection of the whole orchard revealed no more live scales This was accomplished without any apparent injury to the trees The work was undoubtedly thoroughly done and remarkably successful It will be nocossarv to watch for theANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 517 development of the pest in this orchard and when a tree is found infested again a tent must be drawn over it and the scales given another dose In two years it may be necessary to treat the whole orchard again Mr Hoffman treated his orchard of 10000 peach trees badly infested with scales with this gas during last winter Upon inspection of this orchard May 13th I found live scales breeding on a few trees that had been most heavily infested With these exceptions the treatment was quite successful Other or chards in Berrien county have been fumigated with good results but in no case has the scale been eradicated The fruitgrowers of Randolph county have been using the whaleoil soap treatment for two years but on account of lack of good results they concluded that they would have to resort to some thing else or give up I suggested the gas treatment and we made two tents to make a test and to demonstrate the method of treatment April 27th 1898 we went to an orchard and selected four peachtrees thor oughly infested with scale in full foliage and full of fruit After sundown we applied the treatment using the ordinary formula and leaving the tents on thirty minutes The next dajr April 28th we treated four others in the same manner between eleven and one oclock while the sun was shining hottest A committee of three growers was appointed to keep notes and report results These gentlemen were thoroughly acquainted with the scale to their sor row and were fully capable of distinguishing dead scales from live ones In due time the committee made the following report jSTotes taken up to May 9th 1898 show that no damage was done to either foliage or fruit and all scales dead so far as could be determined on Nos 1 2 3 and 4 which were treated at night The foliage at the ends of twigs on Kbs 5 6 7 and 8 was burnt a little but no damage done to fruit Nbs 5 6 and 8 entirely free from live scales No 7 however showed one live crawling scale which probably came from adjoining badly infested trees Prof W G Johnson of the Maryland Experiment Station has recently conducted an extensive series of experiments with hydro cyanic acid gas on orchard trees His results have not yet been518 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA published but Prof Johnson in a letter to me under date of April 19 1898 says My results so far are very gratifying and I feel confident as I have expressed it on several occasions that gas when properly handled is the only remedy for exterminating insects of the na ture we have to combat Cost per tree of fumigating is from three to five cents varying of course with the size of the tree and the economic manner in which the work is done Fumigation of Nursery StockI take this opportunity to urge upon the nurserymen of this State the importance of fumigating their stock with hydrocyanic acid gas In my opinion not only those nurserymen whose stock is grown within scaleinfested dis tricts but all nurserymen whether there is any suspicion attached to their premises or not should fumigate Thorough fumigation is not only a precaution against the San Jose scale but against the English walnut scale the cherry scale and in fact all insect life Fumigated stock is worth more to the purchaser He can be fairly sure that he is not introducing insect pests on his premises The house very widely used in Virginia for this work is built with two rooms each 10x10 feet on the ground 10 feet high in front and 7 feet high under the eaves In case there is little stock to be handled one room is sufficient It is built directly on the ground with the sills sunk a few inches in the earth and without floor The side walls and partition wall consist of double courses of sheeting lumber with building paper between nailed on a sub stantial frame and three inch stuff nailed over the cracks A door at each end and a ventilating window near the top of the front side of each room are sufficiently constructed and made to fit tightly The roof is constructed like the sides and covered with roofing paper Earth should be banked up a few inches around the sides as it is desired to make the house as nearly air tight as possible This building should be on the packing grounds and the stock fumigated as dug and brought from the nursery After fumiga tion it can be removed from the house and trenched in It might be well to puddle the roots before fumigating in order to preventANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 519 any probable injury although there is little danger of injury to the1 bare roots unless considerable excess of the chemicals is used or the room is left closed overtime The chemicals used to generate the gas are the same as given above 98 per cent potassium cyanide and commercial sulphuric acid with the same formula one ounce of potassium cyanide one ounce of sulphuric acid and three ounces of water for every 3 50 feet of cubic space in the room Care should be taken to ob serve the following order Pour the water into an earthen vessel just inside the door then add the acid and last the cyanide and immediately close the door The room should be kept closed about the space of 35 minutes then the door and windows thrown open to allow the fumes to escape Xo one should enter under five minutes after the house is opened While one room full of stock is fumigating the other one can be filled As above stated the chemicals and gas are dan gerously poisonous and extreme caution should be observed in using them Kerosene and Water in Mechanical MixtureNext to the gas treatment in efficiency is in my opinion kerosene and water in mechanical mixture and on account of its cheapness and simplicity can be more generally used Kerosene in some form has been used as an insecticide for many years and is known to be fatal to insect life Pure or undiluted kerosene has also been proved to be highly injurious to plants and for this reason cannot be recom mended without conditions In the hands of aeareful intelligent operator applied while the trees are perfectly dry in the finest possible spray on a bright warm day to insure rapid evaporation it may be used without injury to the tree and with certain death to every scale with which it comes in contact Dr John B Smith of New Jersey see Bulletin 125 New Jersey Experiment Station has unhesitatingly recommended it both as a summer and winter treatment and has obtained excellent results in his experiments in that State It has also been recommended by Prof F M Webster of the Ohio Experiment Station and Prof Win B Alwood of the Virginia Experiment Station and possibly others520 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA Many trees in this State have been sprayed with pure kerosene and come through the ordeal safely but as many more have been killed outright with the same treatment Judge H H Singletary of Schley county sprayed and almosr drenched 1000 fouryearold plnmtrees with pure kerosene in January 1898 and only about 100 were killed and on May 5th when I visited the orchard the surviving trees were in a healthy vigorous growing condition In February 1898 Mr W O Tift of Tifton Ga treated 6000 peachtreesElbertas and Chairs Choicewith pure kero sene applying it with an atomizer Examination May 13 showed 2000 trees dead principally Elbertas which variety seems to be most suspectible Most of Chairs Choice were uninjured In every case at least 98 per cent of the scales were killed Con sidering the fact that the peach the principal fruit grown in this State is most susceptible to injury from insecticides and that the climatic conditions of this State are such as to render plants more susceptible to penetrative insecticidal applications together with the results obtained with experiments in this State I hesitate tc recommend kerosene in undiluted form Two applications of the mechanical mixture of kerosene and water in the proportion of one part kerosene and three par water 25 per cent kerosene will be almost if not quite as effective as one application of pure kerosene and without damage to the tree and this is the remedy which I wisli to heartily recommend This applicationis made with a kerosene sprayer The kero sene is placed in a separate tank within the water tank Suction pipes connect the water and kerosene tanks with the pump cylinder so that both kerosene and water are forced through the pump at the same stroke of the plunger mixing as they pass through the nozzle The proportion of oil is regulated by means of an in dicator connected with a valve in the kerosene tank These sprayers may be obtained from the Denning Company Salem Ohio The Gould Manufacturing Company Seneca Falls 1ST Y are also about ready to put a kerosene sprayer on the market which however has not yet been testedANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 521 Iii order to prevent possible injury to the trees a very fine spray is desired A Vermorel nozzle with the exit orifice of the cap 120 of an inch in diameter is probably best suited for this work and such nozzle should be called for in ordering the sprayer The first application should bc made in the fall soon after the trees have ripened up and shed their foliage It can be made later on in the winter but is likely to be most effective in the fall while young are issuing In this climate the scales breed freely up to December and even later All scales breeding at the time of application are somewhat uplifted to allow the exit of the young from beneath the scale and the delicate bodies of the insects will be more exposed to the kerosene These breeding scales the young just issued and recently set scales will be readily killed The ap plication however can be made at any time during the winter with good results The trees should be thoroughly wet but not drenched and left dripping It must be remembered that even with only 25 per cent kerosene there is some danger of injury to the trees Care must be taken to get the spray well down around the base and in fact every part of the tree must be moistened In this case thorough ness is the secret of success The usual pruning of the trees can be done at any dme during the winter and at the same time cut out all the spurs twigs and limbs the trees can spare and cut it back as much as possible not to take off too many fruit buds Also clear away leaves that mayhe lodged in the crotches and any Other trash that may afford pro tection for the scale This decreases the surface to be sprayed and gets rid of the parts most likely to harbor scales in protected places In case some of the trees are crusted over with the scale and the limbs beginning to die it might be well to cut them back to stubs leaving the main branches only about two feet long Make the second application not long before the buds begin to swell in the spring say about the latter part of February and the first days of March Trees may be treated even after the buds begin to swell This will destroy the majority of the scales which mav have survived the first treatment522 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA A close watch should be kept over the orchard during the sea son however and whenever a tree is found with crawling young or live scales in any stage it should be treated at once with 15 per cent kerosene This will kill all the crawling young and in fact it kills the wellprotected insects in a great measure This will pretty well clean an orchard of the scale and it may not be necessary to give it a general treatment again for two years or more However if the work has not been thoroughly done and the treatment proves unsatisfactory the same course should be pursued the following winter If an orchard is found to be infested in the spring or summer season it would be unwise to wait for winter treatment Hun dreds of trees may be killed during that time and the spread of the scale is going on In this case the 15 per cent mixture should be used as a summer treatment One application may be sufficient to keep the pest in check until the winter treatment can be taken Tip Records of TreatmentPremises of Mr J W Shanley at Pine City Wilcox county 6000 bearing peachtrees more or less thor oughly infested with San Jose scale Last February Mr Shanley under the direction of Prof Starnes sprayed one tree with 50 per oent kerosene three with 25 per cent kerosene one with 20 per cent kerosene and one with 16 per cent kerosene all badly in fested On the 30th of April I examined these trees and found the one sprayed with the 50 per cent mixture apparently free from the pest Of the three sprayed with the 25 per cent mixture two appeared to be entirely free and the other about 98 per cent of scale killed On the 20 per centsprayed tree about 95 per cent of the scales were killed and the 16 per centsprayed tree showed about the same result The trees showed no ill effect from the treatment and were set full of fruit A second examination of these trees was made July 16 when the fruit was mature and still no signs of injury from the kerosene could be noticed Possibly a few fruit buds were killed by the 50 per cent mixture since this tree was not quite as full of fruit as the average tree in the orchard However this may be due to the offects of the scale as the tree was very badly infested and someANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 523 of the limbs in a dying condition when the application was made During the months of May and June this whole orchard except a few hundred Alexanders which the owner contemplated dig ging up was sprayed with the 15 per cent mixture Notes taken July 16th show that in general the trees were not injured but that some of the foliage of an occasional tree was burnt considerably and a good many of these leaves were shed This burning was greatest in the center of the tree and near the crotch where the leaves were most shaded and for that reason evaporation retarded No particular damage can come from this however and it should not be considered serious The fruit was not injured However I would not advise an application within ten days of the ripening of the fruit as it might give it a slight kerosene taste As for the scales a large per cent was killed but by no means were they eradicated In order to note the effect of the kerosene mixture on peach trees Mr Samuel H Eumph at Marshallville Ga on the 20th of April sprayed several trees with 20 per cent kerosene Up to July 17th no ill effect was noted on either the trees fruit or fo liage Mr P J Berckmans has also used the 15 per cent mix ture on peachtrees without injury to the foliage As to the effect produced on the bloom I am unable to say Prof W B Alwood of the Virginia Experiment Station has made some extensive tests in Virginia with dilute kerosene in water mixture on pears peaches plums cherries and crab apples and in Bulletin No 74 Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station page 32 he says On April 13 1S98 when the trees were in bloom except apple which was coming in foliage a second application of mixed kerosene and water was made to a set of trees like the above In this instance 15 per cent and 30 per cent mixtures were used Notes taken to April 22 show that the stronger per cent burned the bloom on the pear plum cherry and peach and slightly burned young foliage on apple The 15 per cent mixture dark ened the petals of the bloom on trees above mentioned but appar ently the injury will not be material This treatment was applied in bright warm weather524 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUREGEORGIA This kerosene treatment is far the simplest and cheapest remedy that has yet been recommended Xo time or trouble is required to prepare the mixture The kerosene and water are each poured into their separate tanks and the treatment is ready for application The oil in quantity costs about eight cents a gallon Onehalf gallon of the mixture sprayed with a fine nozzle is ample for a tree nine feet high and six feet through Since 25 per cent of this is kerosene one pint would be used making a cost of one cent a tree 1000 per thousand trees If any considerable number of trees are to be sprayed a barrel sprayer with two hose attachments mounted in a wagon driven between the rows should be used It will take three men to operate one sprayer one in the wagon to drive and pump and one on each side manipulating the hose In this manner two rows can be sprayed at a time The hose should be long enough to reach to the opposite side of the tree so that the whole tree may be sprayed before leaving it With this outfit 1000 trees or more could be sprayed in a day Important Points to be Observed 1 Bright dry days should be selected to insure rapid evaporation to prevent injury to the trees 2 Since a fine spray is desired a Vermorel or Xixon nozzle with cap of about 120 of an inch opening should be used with high pressure behind it 3 Every part of the tree above ground should be wet but not necessarily drenched 4 The liquid should not be allowed to run down and collect about the roots 5 Care should be taken that the desired per cent of oil and no more is being discharged Whaleoil SoapThe whaleoil soap treatment has been rec ommended and extensively iised throughout the eastern States where the San Jose scale exists and I think is familiar to all so I will not dwell on it long The results have been more or less un satisfactory and workers have turned their attention to experi menting with other substancesANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 189S 525 When this remedy is to be used the same generaldirections given above for pruning the trees in the case of the kerosene treat ment should be followed The application of whaleoil soap two pounds in one gallon of water should be made about the latter part of February It is thought best to spray at this time rather than in the fall since experiments have shown that greater danger of killing the fruit buds is incurred from the fall applications Better results can be obtained by washing the trunk and limbs by hand and afterwards spraying the whole tree with the same soap prepara tion A thorough application of this soap preparation will kill 90 per cent to 95 per cent of the insects but they multiply and develop so fast that at the end of the following summer after treatment the trees are again fully restocked If the trees are roughbarked or scaly as in the case of old peach trees the soap preparation will form a film over the rough places rather than reach into the deeper surface where the scale is pro tected Dr John B Smith in his bulletin referred to above recommends whaleoil soap against the San Jose scale but in the same connec tion on page 12 he says Peachtrees should always be treated with kerosene because the bark on bearing trees is rarely quite smooth and is apt to be scaly or wrinkled or rough so as to form protection from any material less penetrating than kerosene In this State whaleoil soap has been most extensively used in Kandolph county Here the growers have been spraying with this soap preparation for two years The results have been very unsatisfactory principally due I think to lack of thoroughness in application These energetic growers have determined to give up whaleoil and resort to something else possibly the gas treatment If it is desired to use whaleoil soap to kill the young scales in summer time I would not advise a solution stronger than one pound of soap to four gallons of water Strong preparations are highly injurious to growing plants In order to test the effect of whaleoil soap on peach foliage and fruit and as a precaution against some minor scale insects the Hale52G DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA people at Fort Valley on April 26 1898 sprayed 350 peachtrees in full foliage and fruit with whaleoil soap one half pound in one gallon of water As a result examination on May 9th showed the foliage to he full of holes turning yellow and falling badly And the fruit was very much retarded in development Just a word about kerosene emulsion This preparation dilu ted twelve times has been extensively used in Twiggs and Laurens counties as a winter treatment for the scale In some cases a large per cent of the scale was killed but in most cases the results were anything but good It was rather a weak solution but hun dreds of trees were killed by its use evidently on account of the improper emulsification of the substance Kerosene emulsion in the proportion of one to ten of water can be safely used in the summer time to keep the scale in check by the destruction of the young The 15 per cent mechanical mixture of kerosene and water is much simpler and more effective In conslusion it should be stated that all the recommendations made in this report apply particularly to the peachtree but to all other orchard fruit trees as wellapple pear plum cherry apri cot etcexcept perhaps in the case of the gas treatment for pear trees and overlarge appletrees which are apt to be too large for the treatment to be practicable II NOTES ON TWO SERIOUS SCALE INSECT PESTS OF GEOR GIA OTHER THAN irfE SAN JOSE While the main object of my inspection work has been to locate and take measures against the San Jose scale at the same time notes were made on such other insect pests and plant diseases as promised to be serious menaces to horticulture The most danger ous of these that our record shows are the cherry or forbes scale Aspidiotus forbesi Johnson and the new peach scale Diaspis amygdali M C The Cherry ScaleThis species was described by Prof W G Johnson in Bulletin Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History Vol 4 Art 13 He first discovered it on an English Morello cherry tree in Campaign 111 December 1894 and says that it is very generally distributed over Illinois Cherry being its favoriteANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 527 food plant in that State he gave it the popular name Cherry scale The female scale is rather convex circular in outlines and of a dirty grayish color but usually conforms closely in color to the bark to which it is attached The nipplelike prominence is a little to one side of the center and is of a brickred tinge The male scales are elongateoval with the nipplelike prominence near the anterior end The general color is about the same as that of the female with the purplish exuvfe very conspicuous The margin of the scale is delicate and lighter in color When a tree is crusted over with the cherry scale it takes on a dirty grayish appearance and the surface of the trunk and limbs becomes rough and pitted Infested trees are slow to put out in the spring and look as though they would die Later on they commence to grow the old scales are shed off and the trees may look as healthy as uninfested ones In the latter part of the sum mer when the summer broods are drawing heavily on them they give way again and take on the unhealthy appearance In Illinois according to Prof Johnson the species is twobrood ed the first brood beginning to appear early in May and the second in the first days of August Xotes taken in different parts of south and middle Georgia show that in this climate the first brood begins to appear during the last days of March and the first days of April and the second during the first week in July It is very probable that a third brood appears about the latter part of Sep tember or the first of October We would naturally expect this since the first brood appears a month earlier here than in Illinois It is probably both oviparous and viviparous and I am inclined to think it reproduces here principally viviparously or by bringing forth its young alive I have never observed the egg and micro scopic examinations show fully developed young within the body of the females They hibernate as mature and partially mature insects In my opinion this scale ranks next to the San Jose in economic importance The peach seems to be its favorite food plant in this State but I have also found it attacking the plum apple and pear It seems to be very well distributed over southern and central Georgia and is doing immense damage to a number of orchards528 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA In some orchards that I have visited hundreds of trees are killed by this scale We have one case on record of a peach orchard of several thousand trees in Taylor county where probably half of the trees are dead or dying from this pest Similar cases exist in Muscogee Macon and Dougherty counties Space will not permit details and I will simply mention those counties in which this scale is working injury to the orchards They are as follows Mitchell Dougherty Worth Randolph Terrell Sumter Wilcox Muscogee Taylor Schley Macon Houston Crawford Spalding Coweta Richmond and Columbia It has also been found in other counties but not to any great extent The same general directions for treatment of the San Jose scale apply also to the cherry scale and I will not go into details The cherry scale yields more readily to treatment and does not multiply and spread so rapidly and for these reasons is more easily con trolled Two applications of the twentyfive per cent mixture of kero sene and water as a winter treatment or three applications of the fifteen per cent mixture as a summer treatment ought to about clear an orchard of this pest In case of the summer treatment each brood should be watched for and the application made while the young are issuing The New Peach ScaleThe original home of this insect is probably either the West Indies or Japan In the United States it is recorded as existing at Washington I C at Los Angeles Cal in one locality in Ohio at Molino Fla and at Bainbridge Ga It is now also known to exist at Thomasville Ga and at Ashburn Ga It attacks the peach plum cherry pear grape persimmon and a few other plants Upon investigation of the case at Bainbridge premises of Mrs E Johnson March 12th 1898 I found that despite the vigorous treatment instituted against the pest it had destroyed most of the trees on the place Beaches plums and a sprout of Ailanthus fjrandulosvs were badly infested The case at Thomasville is on the premises of Mr T E Black shear Several plums in a small orchard are infestedANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 529 There are three different premises infested at Ashburn One premises of Mr J S Betts involves two small peach orchards of about five hundred trees each and a garden lot of a few old peach and plum trees and a hedge of young seedling plums along the fence A lilac bush in the yard is also badly infested and is dead Mr Betts has dug up several hundred trees and the rest are about dead Source of infestation is not known Two other infested premises are two lots of something over a hundred peach trees each belonging to J B Boazman and W K Jenkins Only a few trees in each lot are infested and the scales have probably spread from Mr Bettss place j The female scale is quite convex nearly circular and of a light gray color with exuvial point at one side The male scales are small elongated with sides parallel and are white in color A tree badly infested takes on a whitewashed appearance According to the observations of the Department of Agriculture at Washington these insects pass the winter as mature females and deposit eggs about the first of May which hatch about the middle of that month In Georgia its life history is somewhat different owing to the southern climate the first brood appearing about two months earlier On March 12th 1898 I observed the young to be issuing in small numbers at Bainbridge and on March 26th the infested trees at Ashburn were fairly alive with crawling young There are two or three more broods but I have not had an oppor tunity to observe the dates of their appearance It is evident that this is a very dangerous pest and my advice would be to promptly destroy all infested trees as soon as discovered If treatment is to be attempted watch for the different broods and apply fifteen per cent kerosene in mechanical mixture with water at the appearance of each brood Kerosene emulsion or whaleoil soap one pound in four gallons of water may also be used with good results Since the insect hibernates and does not pass the winter in the egg state two or three winter applications of the twentyfive per cent kerosene and water mixture might do the work530 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREGEORGIA III MISCELLANEOUS INSECTS The English Walnut ScaleThis insect is prevalent only in the extreme southern comities of the State Tt is not only found in festing peaches and plum orchards hut the wild plums in the woods and waste places are more or less badly infested In some cases it lias worked considerable injury to orchards killing a number of trees but the twicestabbed ladybird is quite successfully keeping it in check One application of whaleoil soap one and a half pounds in one gallon of water applied to the infested trees in the spring just be fore the buds begin to open is found sufficient to kill all but a very small per cent of these scales The Harlequin CabbagebugThis enemy to plants of the mus tard family is quite well known to most gardeners of the State and has been a serious pest this season Specimens have been received at this office from different parts of north and central Georgia which indicates that it is well distributed over these sections A correspondent in north Georgia states that for the last two years it has been almost impossible for him to grow cabbage and collards on account of this post The species is a very difficult one to combat while at work on the plants Insecticides of sufficient strength to kill the bugs will seriously injure the plants Hence we must look to the destruc tion of the overwintering individuals to prevent the deposition of eggs for the first brood in the spring This can be quite effectually accomplished by pursuing the following directions In the fall after the cabbage etc are gathered destroy the bugs by scatter ing straw or other dry material over the whole patch and burning it or by thoroughly spraying with pure kerosene This also may be accomplished by plowing deeply with a turning plow taking care to turn under all vegetation upon which the insect might be at work Then in the spring keep a watch over the first mustards that come up to detect any of the bugs that may have escaped the fall treatment Tt might be well to plant a trap crop of mustard for this purpose If they are seen to appear spray the mustard with undiluted kerosene If this course is pursued the succeeding crops will be troubled very little by the Harlequin cabbagebugANNUAL PUBLICATION FOR 1898 531 The Red SpiderThe socalled red spider Tetranychus tel arius is a very minute almost microscopic mite common in green houses and often very abundant on outofdoor plants in summer Since it thrives best in warm dry weather this season until re cently has been especially favorable to its multiplication Shade trees particularly oaks elms and locusts rose bushes and various ornamental shrubs have suffered seriously from this mite Cotton in some parts of the State has also been attacked and injured The heavy downfall of rain for the past three weeks has greatly di minished it and in some cases it has apparently disappeared About the only effectual remedy we have tried is to turn a hose of water on the plants and thoroughly drench them every day for several days Kerosene emulsion has been recommended but does not seem to be effective perhaps on account of the protection afforded the mites by the web they spinINDEX ACID PHOSPHATE Experiments with 173176178 Identieal with superphosphate of lime 84 ANSWERS To questions 921 2630 3339 4548 5356 6265 7175 8284 84a84l APRICOTS Varieties and diseases 433 APPLES Varieties approved in different sections of Georgia 378379 Diseases and treatment 379384 Injurious insects and remedies385423 ASH ELEMENT Fertilizer term in use 84 B BALE Standard cotton bale 7880 BEETLE Remedies for Colorado potato beetle 5355 BEETS Cultivation of sugar beets192730 Growing of sugar beets in Georgia and manufacture on a sm all scale 84c BEANS Remedy for rust in 74 BUGS Remedies for the harlequin cabbage bug 4748 530 Remedies for Colorado potato bug 5355 CANNING FACTORIES Value of to utilize crops 84i CHEMICAL Weed destroyer 75 CHICKENS Cause of diseases in1315 COMPOSTING Remarks on 6264 CORN Shredded stalks for cattle 2223 33 36 Fertilizer for corn3637 Proper distance for planting corn 38 History cultivation and fertilization of corn 164168 Fertilizing culture and variety experiments on corn 169208 COTTON History of8587 Culture of8896 Subsoiling 90 Rotation 91 Planting9194534 INDEX Period of growth 9495 Shedding of forms blooms and bolls 9596 Picking9799 Experiments in cotton culture 99109 Manuring of cotton110145 Scientific experiments manuring cotton 124125 Yield and profit cotton fertilized and unfertilized124125 Comparative value of commercial fertilizers and homemade manures126128 Kind of chemical manure best suited to cotton128134 Amount of fertilizer per acre giving best results135137 Best time of application of fertilizers to cotton13713S Methods of manuring cotton at present in the United States m 143144 Manuring cotton in other countries144145 Diseases of cotton 146163 General nature of cotton diseases 146 Mosaic disease or yellow leafblight 146150 Red leafblight 150 Shedding of bolls151 152 Sore shindamping offseedling rot152 154 Eoot rot of cotton154161 Cotton boll rot161163 Oznium 154 161 Insect enemies of cotton 163 Reducing the cotton area 57 How much cotton to plant 8 The cotton acreage 2324 Yield and prices of cotton during the past few years 26 Diversification and smaller area in cotton3132 Fertilizing cotton 3738 Reduction of cotton acreage 42 Loss from making too much cotton 4344 Future prospects of cotton4445 Effect of the war on cotton4445 What farmers should do to raise cotton at a profit6465 CROPS For fall 77 Condition of6061 6971 80S2 Forage corn as a fodder or silage crop5758 What our crops need 32 COW PEAS Different varieties of for different purposes1718 D DAMPING OFF In cotton152154 DEHORNING Not injurious1920 DISEASES Of apples and treatment3793S4 In chickens cause of 1315 Mosaic disease of cotton147150 Yellow leaf blight of cotton 147150 Red leafblight of cotton147150 Shedding of cotton bolls 151 Seedling rot in cotton 152154 Root rot of cotton154161 Rot of cotton boll 161 General diseases of cotton146 163 INDEX 5E5 EGGS Hens laying soft or thinshelled eggs ENTOMOLOGY Report of State Entomologist 500 San Jose scale and treatment 500 Important points to be observed Fumigation of nursery stock Hydrocyanic acid gas 513 Kerosene and water in mechanical mixture 519 Whaleoil soap 524 Cherry scale 526 New peach scale528 3839 529 524 524 518 518 523 526 528 529 FERTILIZERS Remarks on the use of fertilizers For potatoes For corn Composting 7 20 3637 6264 Fertilizer terms in general use 84 Floats a fertilizer term 84 Formula Dicksons Compound 120 Formula Furmans 121 Comparative value of commercial fertilizers and homemade ma nures on cotton 126128 Yield and profit fertilized and unfertilized cotton 125126 Kind of chemical manures best suited to cotton124134 Amount of fertilizer per acre on cotton giving besi results135137 Best mode of application of fertilizers to cotton137 Best time of applying fertilizers to cotton137138 Miscellaneous experiments in fertilizing cotton 138139 General conclusions as to fertilizing cotton139143 Fertilizing experiments on corn164208 Fertilizing sweet potatoes 259279 Fertilizing mixture for peanuts 240241 Fertilizer for Irish potatoes 350 FRUIT CULTURE Apples approved for different sections of Georgia377379 Diseases of apple trees and remedies379384 Blight 379 Bitter rot ripe rot379380 Black rot 380 Brown rot380381 Powdery mildew 381 Rust 381382 Scab382384 Injurious Insects and Remedies Appleroot plantlouse385386 Roundheaded appletree borer386388 Flatheaded appletree borer388389 Longhorned borer 390 Stagbeetle 390 Applebark beetle 390 The eyedelater 391 Woolly louse of the apple391392 Apple liopus 392 Appletwig borer 392 Appletree pruner 392 Parallel elaphidion 392536 INDEX Imbricated snout beetle 390 Seventeenyear locusts 392394 Oystershell barklouse 394395 Scurfy barklouse 395 Buffalo treehopper 395396 1 hornbush treehopper ogg Apple tree tent caterpillar 396398 Forest tent caterpillar 399400 Whitemarked tussock moth 400401 Yellownecked appletree caterpillar 401 Redhumped appletree caterpillar 491 Cankerworms 401403 Fall webworm 4Q3 jq Cecropia emperor moth 404405 Unicorn prominent 405 Turnus swallowtail qq Blindeyed sphinx 4Qg Apple sphinx qq American lappetmoth 4gg Yellow lappetmoth 4Qg Velleda lappetmoth 4gg Obliquebanded leafroller 406407 Lesser appletree folder 407 Leaf crumpler 407408 Eyespotted bud moth 408409 Applebud worm 409410 Greenapple leaftyer 4jq Appleleaf sewer 4 Appleleaf skeletonizer 410411 Manydotted apple worm 4jj Palmer worm 411412 Climbing cutworms 412413 Limetree winter moth 413414 White eugonia 414 Has moth caterpillar 414 Saddleback caterpillar 414 Appletree casebearer 414415 Resplendent shieldbearers 415416 Appletree bucculatrix 4ig Apple lyonetiaV 416 Rosy hispa 416417 Cloaked chrysomela 417 Appletree aphis 417418 Codlingmoth 4ig 421 Apple curculio 49 Apple maggot 4i4oo Apple midge 422 Apple fly 402 Apple thrips 402 Ashgray pinion443 Grapes varieties approved in the different sections of Georgia 457 Fungous Diseases and Treatment Vnthracnose scab birdseye rot 457459 nlackrotv 459461 U wny mildew brown rot gray rot 431410 Powdery mildew 462463 Kattles shelling 4g3 Ripe rot bitter rot 463464 Injurious Insects Broulnecked prionus 4g4INDEX 537 Tilehorned prionus 454 Grapevine rootborer irape phylloxera465 Grapevine barklouse Fourspotted spittleinsect Signorets spittleinsect Twospotted treehopper 469 Eedshouldered sinoxylon Grapevine wound gall Green grapevine sphinx 470 Pandoras sphinx Achemon sphinx 472 Abbott sphinx Whitelined deilephila473 Darkveined deilephila Beautiful wood nymph 474 Pearl wood nymph Eightspotted forester Grapevine epimenis 475 American procris Grapevine leafroller476 Ganered plum moth 477 Grapevine cidaria Yellow woolly bear478 Pyramidal grapevine caterpillar Silky pyrophila Spotted pelidnota Grapevine flea beetle480 Bose beetle481 Grapevine fidia Eedheaded systena Lightloving anomala 483 Grapevine sawfly 484 Grapevine leafhopper 485 Treehoppers 486 Tree bugs Grapevine aphis Brownwinged katydid 487 Trumpet grape gall Grapevine filbert gall 48S Grapevine tomato gall Grapevine appletree gall Grapeseed insect489 Grapeberry moth490 Grape curculio Pches Varieties approved in different sections of the State423 Diseases and Eemedies Black spot 424 Brown rot Curl leaf curl frenching 425 Leaf rust Mildew 426 Kosette Yellows Injurious Insects Peachtree borer 427 Elmbark beetle Peachtree barklouse New York weevil Peachtree leafroller 465 465 469 469 469 469 470 470 470 472 472 473 473 474 474 475 475 475 476 476 477 478 478 479 479 4S0 480 481 483 483 483 484 485 486 487 487 487 488 488 489 489 489 490 491 491 424 425 425 426 426 427 427 427 429 429 430 430 431538 INDEX Bluespangled peachtree caterpillar 43 Peachtree aphis431432 PomegranatesRemarks on 433 PearsVarieties approved for the different sections of the State 433434 Diseases of the Pear and Treatment Leaf blightFruit spot434435 Inj urious Insects Feartree borer 435 Pigeon tremex 435 Twiggirdler 436 Pear blight beetle436437 Peartree barklouse 437438 Peartree psylla 438 Tarnished plant bug 438439 Oak platycerus 439 Peachtree blister beetle 4S9440 Peartree leafminer 440 Peartree slug440441 Green peartree slug 442 Goldsmith beetle442443 Iridescent serica 443 Peartree aphis443 Grasshoppers or locusts443 Indian cetonia 444 Melancholy cetonia 444 PlumsVarieties approved for the different sections of the State 444445 Diseases of the Plum and Treatment LeafbligbtShothole fungus 445 Leafrust445446 Plum KnotBlack KnotPlum Wart446447 Plum pocketsPlum bladders 447 Injurious Insects and Remedies Plumtree sphinx448 Gray dagger moth448449 Mottled plumtree moth 440 Horned span worm 449 Disippus butterfly 449 Polyphemus moth449450 Waved lagoa 450 Streaked thecla 450 Plumtree catocala 450 Leatcutting bee 450451 Plumtree aphis 451 Plum curculio 452 455 Plum gouger 455456 Saddled leafhopper 456 NectarinesRemarks on 432 ApricotsRemarks on 433 G GRAIN Louse remedy for 48 Moth and weevils8283 Smuts their causes and prevention216230 GRAPES Varieties approved in different sections of the State 457 Fungous diseases and treatment 457464 Injurious insects and treatment464491INDEX 5S3 H HARLEQUIN CABBAGE BUG Remedies for 4748 o30 HENS QO Laving soft or thinshelled eggs dSrfy HYDROCYANIC ACID GAS Remedy for the San Jose Scale 518518 I INJURIOUS INSECTS Of the appleJSHsS Of the peach 427432 Of the pear12 Of the plum4484o6 Of the grape464491 INSECT ENEMIES Of cotton 163 L LANDS What they need Utilizing wet land 5o56 LICE On poultry LIME Time and quantity to apply to land 2i M MANURES Value of homemade manures 8y Value of leaves as manure 910 Leaving manure in the stable 1011 Composting 56 Effect of mineral manures MILLET Time of seeding 27 150 MITES On poultry MOSAIC DISEASE Of cotton 14 MOTHS Remedy for grain mothsjms N NESBITT R T False statement concerning him nailed 52 Reviews his stewardship 84a84c History production and diseases of t Looe smuts of oats 2for Potassium sulphide treatment for oat smut224226 Hot water treatment for stinking smut of oats 224226 Sowing spring oats late 37 Spring oats suffer from drouth 6 OZONIUM Of cotton154161540 INDEX PARIS GREEN Cheap substitute for 5960 PEACHES Treatment of peach orchards where last years crop failed 1516 Are peaches reproduced from seed 1617 Size of peach crop of 189884h84i Varieties approved for different sections of the State4344 Diseases and treatment 42447 Injurious insects and remedies 47 43 PEARS Varieties approved for different sections of the State 433434 Diseases and treatment 414435 Injuri us insects and remedies 435414 PEANUTS History culture and use 93 233 Food constituents in different parts of the peanut plant 234 Fertilizing constituents in different parts of the peanut plant 34235 aneties of peanuts 235236 Climate suitable for peanut culture 237 Soil suitable for peanut culture 937038 Manuring peanuts 23839 Food constituents required by a croo of 60 bushels of peanuts 239240 Fertilizer mixture for peanuts 4024 Culture of peanuts 941945 Harvesting peanuts 24649 Uses of peanuts 24951 Feeding value of pea nut hav 950 PLANS For the year PLOWING Importance of good plowing Advantages of deep over shallow plowing 4i S41 PLUMS Varieties approved for different sections of the State 443444 Diseases and treatment 444447 Injurious insects and remedies 448456 POTATOESSWEET Culturedraws258259 Soil and location 9cj Fertilizers 259260 Preparation planting oqoq3 Cultivation 263264 Rigging264266 Preservation oiy270 Fertilizer tests 27079 Ridge vs level culture 9gQ9gi Pinching back test 8184 Disturbance test 284285 Distance test 285286 Doubling slips 87 Variety tests 288297 POTATOESIRISH 346347 ulture34034 1 reparation38350 ertilizer 350351 Seed pieces and distance 351353 Cutting seed pieces 354355INDEX 541 Depth to plant time to plant 356 Cultivation356357 Harvesting 357359 Summer crop360362 Affections and remedies 363369 Insect pests369372 Preservation372373 Summary373376 a QUESTIONS Asked of the Commissioner and answered by him 921 2630 3339 4548 5356 6265 7175 8284 84aS41 E ROOT ROT 0i cotton154161 ROT Of cotton boll 161 Seedling rot in cotton 152154 RED SPIDER Remedy for 531 S SCALE Cherry scaleremedy for 526528 New peach scale remedy for528529 San Jose scale remedy for500512 English walnut scale to distinguish from San Jose 54530 SHALLOW PLOWING Advantages of deep plowing over shallow 84i841 SILAGE Advantage of and best way of putting it up and best crops to plant for it 1113 SMUTS Cause of grain smuts and prevention 216230 Stinking smuts of wheat 217218 Loose smut of wheat218220 Loose smut of oats220223 Bmuts of barley rye and corn 223 Practical direction for treating seed for smut 223224 Hot water treatment for stinking smut of wheat and oat smut 22ii26 Hot water treatment for loose smut of wheat and for barley smut 226 Copper sulphate treatment for stinking smut of wheat 226 Drying the treated seed 227 Extra increase in yield as a result of seed treatment 227228 Duty of seedsmen 229 Summary229230 SOAP Whaleoil soap for treatment of fruit trees 524526 SOUTH CAROLINA ROCK Fertilizer term in use 84 SORGHUM For syrup and for forage5859 As a forage plant 7273 SPRAYING Instructions for spraying 492498 Solutions recommended492495 Treatment of appletrees495496542 INDEX Treatment of pear and plumtrees 49 Treatment of peachtrees 496197 Treatment of cherry grapes raspberry and currants 497 Treatment of gooseberries 497498 Treatment of tomato potato cabbage and strawberry498 SUBSOILING Meaning of subsoiling 7374 SUGAR Boiling graining purging whitening sugar 320324 Yield and return from sugar and syrup324325 Remarks on beet sugar 19 SUGAR BEETS Cultivation of 2730 Growing of in Georgia and manufacture in a small way 84c SUGARCANE Soil conditions preparations fertilization planting harvesting pre servation of seed cane 298303 Effect of time of harvesting up n yield of sugar303305 SYRUP Requirements of good syrup305306 Obstacles 306 Variations in density of syrup306308 Making a simple tester309310 Effects of variety 310311 Effects of soil upon quality 311312 Making the syrup 312313 Filtering the juice313314 Clarifying the juice314316 Precipitation by fullers earth 316 Finishing and testing the syrup 316317 Preserving the syrup 317318 Marketing the syrup318320 T TIMBER Best season to cut 84gS4h TOMATOES To develop early and give them uniform color 55 Instructions for spraying 498 TOPICS For soil tillers 59 VETCHES When to sow W WATERMELONS Culture4547326327 Soil and location 32 Preparation distance laying off 328329 Fertilization 329331 Planting331332 Forcing for earliness and size332333 Cultivation 333334 How to tell a ripe melon335336 Gathering and marketing 336337 Christmas watermelons 337 Saving seed337338INDEX 543 Other uses of the melon338339 Affections and remedies The melon worm 339 The melon louse339342 Striped cucumber beetle 342 Flea beetle 342 Schedule of precautionary operations342343 Varieties 343 Kerosene emusion 341 Summary 344345 WEEDS Chemjcal destroyer of 75 WEEVILS Remedies for granary weevils 89S3 WHEAT History cultivation diseases etc209212 Stinking smuts of217218 Loose smuts of218220 Hot water treatment for stinking smuts 224226 WHITE ARSENIC Cheap substitute for Paris green 5960 WORK For February og For July 6869 Brain work essential on the farm 78 FOR DUE DATE INFORMATION CHECK MY ACCOUNT IN GIL httpsgilugaedu