A comprehensive wildlife conservation strategy for Georgia [Aug. 31, 2005]

Table of Contents

Foreword

iii

Acknowledgements

iv

Executive Summary

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I. Introduction and Purpose

1

A Plan To Protect Georgia's Biological Diversity

Essential Elements Of A Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy

Species Of Greatest Conservation Need

Scales Of Biological Diversity

Wildlife Diversity Databases

II. Approach and Methods

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Organizational Structure

Public Involvement And Partnerships

Coordination With Other Agencies And Organizations

Coordination With Other Planning Efforts In Georgia

Identification Of Priorities, Problems, And Actions

Plan Review And Revision

III. State Overview - Ecological Framework

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Physiography

Geology

Climate

Ecoregions Of The State

Patterns Of Wildlife Diversity

Species Of Conservation Concern

Land Use Patterns And Human Impacts

IV. Conservation Landscape Assessments and Conservation Strategies

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Southwestern Appalachians and Ridge & Valley Ecoregions

Blue Ridge Ecoregion

Piedmont Ecoregion

Southeastern Plains Ecoregion

Southern Coastal Plain Ecoregion

V. Statewide Wildlife Conservation Themes and Strategies

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Wildlife Conservation On Private Lands

Wildlife Conservation On Public Lands

Assessments Of High Priority Habitats And Species

Conservation Of High Priority Habitats And Species

Environmental Education And Public Outreach

Increasing Capacity For Wildlife Conservation

Reducing Impacts From Development And Other Activities

Wildlife Laws And Regulations

Monitoring And Adaptive Management

Public-Private Partnerships For Land Conservation

VI. Procedures for CWCS Review and Revision

196

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Table of Contents

List of Acronyms and Abbreviations

197

References

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Appendix A. High Priority Species - Summary Data Appendix B. Species Technical Team Reports Appendix C. High Priority Habitats - Descriptions and Summary Data Appendix D. Wildlife Resources Division Education Plan FY05-09 Appendix E. Environmental Education Team Report Appendix F. Direction for the Decade Report Appendix G. Laws and Regulations Affecting Wildlife in Georgia Appendix H. Land Evaluation/Protection Programs in Georgia and Other States Appendix I. Georgia Land Conservation Partnership Plan Appendix J. Georgia Historic Vegetation Reconstruction Pilot Project Appendix K. Identification of Conservation Opportunity Areas in Georgia Appendix L. High Priority Conservation Actions Appendix M. Summaries of Comments from Regional Stakeholder Meetings Appendix N. Landowner's Guide to Conservation Incentives

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Foreword
Georgia is blessed with a tremendous amount of natural diversity. The largest state east of the Mississippi River, Georgia contains portions of five major physiographic provinces and a wide variety of habitats ranging from mountain peaks to underground caverns, from dry granite outcrops in the Piedmont to pitcherplant bogs in the Coastal Plain, and from headwater streams to the mouth of the mighty Altamaha River. This impressive environmental diversity supports an equally impressive diversity of native plants and animals. Conservation of this wildlife diversity is extremely important to the Georgia Department of Natural Resources (DNR), its conservation partners, and the people of Georgia, and is the goal of this Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy.
A strategy is not a blueprint or a path chiseled out of stone. It is a set of prioritized methods and approaches to reach an identified goal. This conservation strategy articulates a set of interrelated wildlife conservation goals and prioritizes methods and approaches to reach these goals. This strategy also identifies specific actions, resources, and partnerships that are necessary for achievement of these goals. Through the development of this conservation strategy, Georgia DNR and its conservation partners have indicated their commitment to maintain the natural heritage of this great state and have further indicated how this objective will be met.
Implementation of this conservation strategy will provide tangible benefits for Georgia's wildlife species and citizens alike. In addition to providing eligibility for continued funding under the State Wildlife Grant Program, this strategy will help DNR and other organizations prioritize conservation efforts based on need and opportunity, resulting in more effective wildlife conservation programs. Additional funds will be made available to conserve imperiled and declining species and their habitats through interagency and public-private partnerships. Funding for land acquisition will provide more opportunities for public recreation, including hunting, fishing, hiking, and wildlife observation. In addition, funds made available for habitat restoration will benefit a wide variety of game and nongame species on public and private lands.
This document is the product of many individuals currently working in Georgia DNR and other organizations. In addition, it reflects decades of previous work by hundreds of researchers, conservationists, educators, and wildlife enthusiasts who helped establish the foundation upon which this strategy is based. In developing the strategy, we consulted representatives from a wide range of agencies and organizations and sought input from the citizens of the state through public meetings, targeted presentations, and other methods. To these contributors, past and present, and to the people of Georgia, we dedicate this document.
Noel Holcomb, Commissioner
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Acknowledgements
A great many people provided input into the collective knowledge base that served as the foundation of this strategy. The Steering Committee members listed in Section II of this report lent critical support and guidance throughout the planning effort. In addition, we would like to thank the following individuals who served on or provided information to the CWCS Technical Teams (see pages 195-197 for explanation of acronyms and abbreviations used in this list).
Birds Greg Balkcom, WRD; Chris Baumann, WRD; Giff Beaton, Atlanta Audubon Society; Bob Cooper, University of Georgia; Dean Demarest, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Matt Elliott, University of Georgia; Chuck Hunter, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Nathan Klaus, WRD; Joe Meyers, U.S. Geological Survey/University of Georgia; Jim Ozier, WRD; Bob Sargent, Georgia Ornithological Society; Georgann Schmalz, Atlanta Audubon Society; Todd Schneider, WRD; Jim Wentworth, U. S. Forest Service; Emily Jo Williams, WRD; Brad Winn, WRD
Reptiles and Amphibians Carlos Camp, Piedmont College; Jay Cantrell, WRD; Mark Dodd, WRD; Matt Elliott, University of Georgia; Ken Fahey, Brenau University; Thomas Floyd, WRD; Laine Giovanetto, Georgia State University; Bob Herrington, Georgia Southwestern University; Mark Hughes, International Paper; John Jensen, WRD; Steve Kyles, WRD; Robert Moulis, Savannah-Ogeechee Canal Museum; Mark Patterson, Lanier Museum of Natural History; David Rostal, Georgia Southern University; Lora Smith, Joseph W. Jones Ecological Research Center; Dirk Stevenson, Ft. Stewart; Amanda Subalusky, Joseph W. Jones Ecological Research Center; Rebecca Yeomans, South Georgia College
Mammals Wilson Baker, private consultant; Brad Bergstrom, Valdosta State University; Larry Brown, Environmental Studies, Inc.; Hal Bryan, Eco-Tech; Martha Jane Caldwell, Savannah State University; Steven Castleberry, University of Georgia; Brian Chapman, Sam Houston State University; Art Cleveland, Columbus State University; Mike Conner, Joseph Jones Ecological Research Center; Les Davenport, Armstrong State College (retired); Mark Ford, U.S. Forest Service; Milton Hopkins, private consultant; Susan Loeb, U.S. Forest Service/Clemson University; Elizabeth McGhee, University of Georgia; Alex Menzel, University of West Virginia; Hans Neuhauser, Georgia Environmental Policy Institute; Nick Nicholson, WRD; Jim Ozier, WRD; Carol Ruckdeschel, Cumberland Island Museum; Kathy Sakas, Grays Reef National Seashore Doug Waid, Abraham-Baldwin Agricultural College; Cindy Wentworth, U.S. Forest Service; Charles Wharton, Georgia State University (retired)
Fishes and Aquatic Invertebrates Brett Albanese, WRD; Giff Beaton, Georgia Dragonfly Survey; Gary Beisser, WRD; Holly Blalock-Herod, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service; Broughton Caldwell, EPD (retired); Bud Freeman, University of Georgia; Mary Freeman, University of Georgia/U.S.
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Geological Survey; Robert Jenkins, Roanoke College; Paul Johnson, Tennessee Aquarium Research Institute; Gene Keferl, Coastal Georgia Community College; Patti Lanford, WRD; Christopher Rogers, EcoAnalysts Inc.; Chris Skelton, Georgia College and State University; George Stanton, Columbus State University; Ellie Sukkestaad, Fort Stewart; Jim Williams, U.S. Geological Survey; Jason Wisniewski, WRD
Terrestrial Invertebrates James Adam, Dalton State College; Peter Adler, Clemson University; Chris Canalos, WRD; Chris Carlton, entomologist; Jan Ceigler, entomologist; Steve Hall, The Nature Conservancy; Phillip Harpootlian, entomologist; David Jenkins, University of Georgia; Nathan Klaus, WRD; Bob Matthews, University of Georgia; John Morse, Clemson University; Jerry Payne, USDA and WRD (retired); Terry Price, Georgia Forestry Commission; Will Reeves, Clemson University; Brian Scholtens, entomologist; Dale Schweitzer, The Nature Conservancy; Cecil Smith, University of Georgia; Bob Matthews, University of Georgia
Plants Marshall Adams, private consultant; Jim Allison, WRD; Loran Anderson, Florida State University; Wilson Baker, private consultant; Julie Ballenger, Columbus State University; Steve Bowling, private consultant; John Bozeman, WRD (retired); Paul Brown, private consultant; Bill Buck, New York Botanical Garden; Jim Candler, Georgia Power Co.; Richard Carter, Valdosta State University; Jennifer Ceska, State Botanical Garden; Linda Chafin, Florida Natural Areas Inventory; Kathy Chapman, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service; Paul Davidson, University of North Alabama; Carol Denhoff, Atlanta Botanical Garden; Brian Dickman, private consultant; Don Drapalik, Georgia Southern University; Willard Fell, Georgia Forestry Commission; George Folkerts, Auburn University; Chick Gaddy, private consultant; Laurie Gawin, The Nature Conservancy; Angus Gholson, private consultant; Judy Gordon, Augusta College; Tom Govus, private consultant; Dana Griffin, University of Florida; Richard Harris, New York Botanical Garden; Robert Haynes, University of Alabama; Dana Heil, Georgia Transmission Corporation; Malcolm Hodges, The Nature Conservancy; Phil Hyatt, U.S. Forest Service; Kay Kirkman, Joseph Jones Ecological Research Center; Robert Kral, Vanderbilt University (retired); Ron Lance, private consultant; Richard LeBlond, North Carolina Natural Heritage Program; Bob McCartney, Woodlanders, Inc.; Ed McDowell, Georgia Native Plant Society; Allison McGee, The Nature Conservancy; Mincey Moffett, WRD; Wayne Morris, North Georgia College; Robert Naczi, Delaware State University; Carl Nordman, NatureServe; Mike Owsley, U.S. Department of Agriculture; Tom Patrick, WRD; Pete Pattavina, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service; Rich Reaves, private consultant; Anton Reznicek, University of Michigan; Jimmy Rickard, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service; Carol Schneier, Georgia Botanical Society; Phil Sheridan, Meadowview Biological Field Station; Frankie Snow, South Georgia College; Bruce Sorrie, private consultant; Ray Spencer, Natural Resources Conservation Service; Dena Thompson, Ft. Stewart; Richard Ware, Georgia Botanical Society; Cindy Wentworth, U.S. Forest Service; Harriet Whipple, Georgia College and State University; Mark Whitney, WRD; Wendy Zomlefer, University of Georgia
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Habitat Restoration/Historic Vegetation Tim Beaty, Ft. Stewart /Hunter Army Airfield; David Belcher, WRD; Shan Cammack, WRD; Clarke Dirks, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service; Neal Edmunson, Georgia Forestry Commission; Malcolm Hodges, The Nature Conservancy; Nathan Klaus, WRD; Chuck Rabolli, CCR Environmental, Inc.; Cindy Reittinger, PRHS; Vic Van Sant, WRD; Jim Wentworth, U.S. Forest Service; Donald Wood, MeadWestvaco Corporation; Keith Wooster, Natural Resources Conservation Service
Database Enhancements & Improvements Sarah Berckman, WRD; Bill Birkhead, Columbus State University; Joe DeVivo, National Park Service; Ben Dickerson, Georgia Department of Transportation; Mike England, WRD; David Giannasi, University of Georgia; Tom Govus, private consultant; Steve Holzman, U.S Fish & Wildlife Service; Greg Krakow, WRD; Lissa Leege, Georgia Southern University; Erika Mavity, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service; David Mixon, WRD; Dennis Schmitt, WRD; Larry West, National Park Service; Lisa Westin, DCA; Christina Wright, National Park Service
Environmental Education and Outreach Kim Bailey, EPD; Deron Davis, EPD; Jason Diem, Georgia Wildlife Federation; Kitty Esco, WRD; Mary Gazaway, EPD; David Gipson, P2AD; Petey Giroux, EPD; Walter Lane, WRD; Becky Marshall, P2AD; Kim Morris-Zarneke, EPD; Cindy Reittinger, PRHS; Ken Riddleberger, WRD; Carol Weight, EPD
Conservation Tools and Wildlife Regulations Scott Frazier, WRD; Ted Hendrickx, WRD; Phil Spivey, WRD; Eric VanDeGenachte, WRD; Jeff Weaver, WRD; Terry West, WRD
Ecological Systems Jon Ambrose, WRD; Steve Bowling, private consultant; John Costello, EPD; Tom Govus, private consultant; Leslie Edwards, Georgia Botanical Society; Kay Kirkman, Joseph Jones Ecological Research Center; Hugh and Carol Nourse, Georgia Botanical Society; Tom Patrick, WRD; Milo Pyne, NatureServe; Jim Renner, Golder & Associates; Carol Schneier, Georgia Botanical Society
GIS/Mapping Support Chris Canalos, WRD; Matt Elliott, University of Georgia; Liz Kramer, University of Georgia; Thom Litts, WRD
Media Relations/Public Affairs Robin Hill, WRD; Ben Johnson, WRD
Finally, we would like to thank the following individuals for providing comments on earlier versions of this document: Glenn Dowling and Rashida Stanley, Georgia Wildlife Federation; Bobby Cochran, Jeff Lerner, Julia Michalak, and Sara Vickerman, Defenders of Wildlife; Lowell Pritchard and Laura Hartt, National Wildlife Federation; Gordon Rogers, Satilla RiverKeeper; and Wes Abler, John Biagi, and Reggie Thackston, WRD.
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Executive Summary
In December 2002 the Wildlife Resources Division (WRD) of the Georgia Department of Natural Resources (DNR) began a process to develop a comprehensive wildlife conservation strategy. Through the Wildlife Conservation and Reinvestment Program, WRD made a commitment to develop and begin implementation of this comprehensive wildlife conservation strategy (CWCS) by October 1, 2005. Funding for this planning effort came from a federal grant to WRD through the State Wildlife Grant program; matching funds were provided through Georgia's Nongame Wildlife Conservation Fund. The goal of the strategy is to conserve Georgia's animals, plants, and natural habitats through proactive measures emphasizing voluntary and incentive-based programs on private lands, habitat restoration and management by public agencies and private conservation organizations, rare species survey and recovery efforts, and environmental education and public outreach activities.
The best available wildlife data were used to develop this CWCS. The strategy included an assessment of habitats required by these species, as well as problems affecting these habitats. Further, this strategy addressed research and survey needs, habitat restoration needs, and monitoring needs. It also included an evaluation of existing programs and policies for wildlife conservation in Georgia and recommendations for improvements in these areas. Coordination with other organizations that manage land or administer conservation programs in Georgia was a key component of this effort.
The planning process involved staff within DNR, representatives of private and public conservation organizations and land managers and owners in Georgia. A Steering Committee composed of representatives of various agencies, organizations, and land management groups provided project oversight. Technical teams addressed specific components of the conservation strategy; these teams included WRD staff and representatives of other agencies and organizations. Input from the Steering Committee, stakeholders, representatives of other conservation organizations, consulting biologists, academic researchers, and the public was used in the development of the conservation strategy. Educational materials were developed to inform the public about the project's goals and milestones; these materials were posted on a website developed specifically for this project and distributed at public meetings.
Components of this planning effort included: 1) development of databases on rare species and natural communities; 2) identification of high priority species and habitats; 3) identification of high priority research and biological inventory needs; 4) surveys for rare species on public and private lands; 5) development of databases of conservation lands and high priority watersheds and landscapes; 6) prioritization of conservation, education, and habitat protection needs; 7) collaboration with state and federal agencies on habitat protection/restoration plans; 8) technical assistance to private conservation organizations and local governments; 9) review of existing conservation laws, rules, and policies; and 10) public input and educational outreach.
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Three technical teams focused on biodiversity database development and use, GIS/mapping support and land cover assessments, and environmental education, respectively. The GIS support team developed and distributed a survey to WRD staff to determine priority needs for geographically based dataset needs. Team members also reviewed the land cover database produced by the Georgia Gap Analysis Program, continued development of a statewide conservation lands database, and produced land cover and vegetation maps. The database support/enhancements team discussed uses of biological diversity data. This team developed specific recommendations for exchange and application of biodiversity information, including improved Web-based access to rare species/natural community information, region-specific rare species datasets for WRD law enforcement personnel, and watershed-based datasets. The environmental education team developed recommendations for improvements in wildlife-related education programs, and was assisted by the Environmental Education Alliance of Georgia.
Six technical teams focused on the following groups of species: birds, amphibians and reptiles, mammals, fishes and aquatic invertebrates, terrestrial invertebrates, and plants. Although conservation efforts for plants could not be addressed under this grant, a parallel conservation planning process was undertaken, funded in part through a federal grant to the Wildlife Resources Division, with matching funds provided from the Nongame Wildlife Conservation Fund. These technical teams consulted numerous data sources and used a variety of criteria to identify high priority species for Georgia; these included critically imperiled species, habitat indicator species known to be in decline, species endemic to Georgia, and rare or uncommon species in need of further research to determine conservation objectives.
Results of the various biological and ecological assessments undertaken in this planning effort are presented in this document. Many of the details of these analyses can be found in the appendices that follow the main report. Ranges of distribution, habitat associations, conservation needs, and research priorities for 296 species of high priority animals and 323 species of high priority plants are outlined in Section IV and in appendices A and B. Similarly, high priority habitats are defined for each ecoregion and management needs for these habitats are discussed in Section IV and Appendix C.
In this document, conservation goals are defined broadly, while discussions of strategies and partnerships more specifically address the objectives that must be met to achieve these goals. Conservation goals, strategies and partnerships are identified for each of the five ecological regions of the state in Section IV of this report. In addition, statewide wildlife conservation themes and strategies are addressed in Section V. Lists of specific high priority conservation actions were also developed. These conservation actions were first identified by the technical teams, Steering Committee, and other stakeholders and included specific programs for improvements in habitat protection, conservation of high priority habitats and species, research and surveys, and environmental education and public outreach. These identified conservation actions were then evaluated by the Steering Committee using a set of seven ranking criteria. The complete set of 78 prioritized conservation actions can be found in Appendix L of this report. Summaries of existing programs and resources for habitat protection and recommendations to increase
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capacity for wildlife conservation in Georgia are provided in Section V of this document. The following goals represent important conservation themes in this document:
Maintain known viable populations of all high-priority species and functional examples of all high priority habitats through voluntary land protection and incentive-based habitat management programs on private lands and habitat restoration and management on public lands.
Increase public awareness of high priority species and habitats by developing educational messages and lesson plans for use in environmental education facilities, local schools, and other facilities.
Facilitate restoration of important wildlife habitats through reintroduction of prescribed fire, hydrologic enhancements, and vegetation restoration.
Conduct statewide assessments of rare natural communities and habitats that support species of conservation concern.
Improve efforts to protect vulnerable and ecologically important habitats such as isolated wetlands, headwater streams, and caves.
Combat the spread of invasive/noxious species in high priority natural habitats by identifying problem areas, providing technical and financial assistance, developing specific educational messages, and managing exotic species populations on public lands.
Minimize impacts from development and other activities on high-priority species and habitats by improving environmental review procedures and facilitating training for and compliance with best management practices.
Update the state protected species list and work with conservation partners to improve management of these species and their habitats.
Conduct targeted field inventories of neglected taxonomic groups, including invertebrates and nonvascular plants.
Continue efforts to recover federally listed species through implementation of recovery plans, and restore populations of other high priority species.
Establish a consistent source of state funding for land protection to support wildlife conservation, and increase availability and use of federal funds for land acquisition and management.
Continue efforts to monitor land use changes statewide and in each ecoregion, and use predictive models to assess impacts to high priority species and habitats.
Monitoring needs for species, habitats, and conservation programs are also addressed in Sections IV and V of this document. Monitoring programs are acknowledged as critical components of adaptive management efforts in wildlife conservation, and specific recommendations are provided to improve existing monitoring programs. In addition, partnerships with other organizations involved in monitoring efforts are recommended. Specific high priority monitoring projects are mentioned in the body of the report and in Appendix L. The approach taken in this planning effort was to identify the types of data to be collected and relevant performance indicators for every high priority conservation action as a first step to development of monitoring programs.
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Several projects undertaken as components of this planning project represent efforts to develop new analytical tools and methods that can inform future conservation plans at various geographic scales. A pilot project to develop historic vegetation maps was completed by researchers at the University of Georgia. Using land lot survey data from the 1800s, researchers developed historic vegetation maps for three state-owned wildlife management areas. This pilot project produced analytical tools and data that will facilitate development of habitat management plans for public lands. A second pilot project utilized land cover data from the Georgia Gap Analysis Program and occurrence data for rare and declining species to identify regions of the state that may represent important areas for conservation work in the future. These two projects are described in appendices J and K, respectively.
Project staff began development of a new natural community classification system that will serve as a standard for habitat mapping on public lands. The new classification system is based on ecosystems and vegetation alliances described by NatureServe and the Natural Heritage Network. WRD staff also collaborated with a group of volunteers working on a detailed guide to Georgia's natural environments. This document will be based on the NatureServe ecosystem classification and written for a broad audience including teachers, science students, and practicing biologists. Development of this document will facilitate mapping and tracking of natural communities consistently across the state and increase public awareness of Georgia's ecosystems.
Public involvement in the development, review and revision of this document was facilitated by a series of fourteen public meetings undertaken over the project period. These included regional stakeholder meetings as well as traditional public meetings. In addition, public input was solicited through materials posted on the CWCS website, news releases, brochures, fact sheets, and presentations given to various groups and organizations around the state. These public outreach efforts will continue as we begin to implement the conservation strategy.
The CWCS reflects an assessment of wildlife conservation needs and programs to address those needs based on data available in 2003-2005. Our understanding of the conservation needs of Georgia's species and habitats is likely to change based on the result of additional surveys, results of monitoring efforts associated with management efforts, or new trends in land uses. In addition, the development of new analytical techniques, funding programs, or legislative mandates may result in a need to reassess some of the conservation priorities described in this document.
The intent of the Wildlife Resources Division is to begin a formal process of reviewing the current wildlife conservation strategy within the next five years and to adopt revisions to the strategy as deemed necessary based on this review. In order to do this, we propose to reconvene the technical teams and Steering Committee and hold public meetings to assess and address changing conservation needs for species and habitats in Georgia. The proposed procedure for this review is outlined in Section VI of this document.
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The first piece of legislation to be approved by the 2005 session of Georgia General Assembly was the Georgia Land Conservation Act and on April 14, 2005, Governor Perdue signed into law this important piece of legislation. The bill enjoyed overwhelming public and legislative support and was generally lauded throughout the state. The intent of the Act is to provide funding options and a flexible administrative framework to conserve land resources, recognize the values of the State's natural and cultural resources, and promote land conservation partnerships.
The Wildlife Resources Division of the Georgia Department of Natural Resources views this new state land conservation program as an important and timely component of the Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy that will aid significantly in its implementation. This Act directs some $100 million for land conservation efforts in the state of Georgia and makes available $45 million in state and private funding that can and will be used to match and leverage various federal wildlife conservation grants consistent with the strategies and priorities included in this document.
The changes that are occurring in the Georgia landscape as a result of population growth and increasing development pressures present daunting challenges to those involved in wildlife conservation. The trend of increasing fragmentation and degradation of natural habitats is likely to continue in the coming decades, driven by local, national, and global economic and demographic factors. Many scientists believe that the next fifty years will be a critical period in the struggle to protect our remaining biological resources.
The following elements are critical for conservation of Georgia's natural heritage: (1) increased emphasis on field research focused on the identification and assessment of species, biotic communities, and ecosystems; (2) greater commitment of resources to identify and protect those habitats that contribute most significantly to biodiversity; (3) further development and funding of conservation programs that emphasize public-private partnerships for broad-scale conservation of "working landscapes"; (4) greater emphasis on land use planning to minimize impacts of future developments on natural habitats; and (5) increased collaboration between researchers and educators to heighten public awareness of the magnitude and significance of biodiversity decline in the state. The Department of Natural Resources will continue to work with a wide array of public agencies, private conservation organizations, research institutions, sportsmen's groups, educators, local governments, and landowners in the coming years to address these critical elements of wildlife conservation.
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I. Introduction and Purpose
A Plan to Protect Georgia's Biological Diversity
This document represents the summary of a conservation planning effort that began officially in December of 2002, but which builds upon many years of research and data accumulation by staff of the Georgia Department of Natural Resources and other organizations (see Appendix H). In 2000 the Wildlife Resources Division, Nongame Wildlife & Natural Heritage Section produced a document entitled "Georgia's Wildlife Diversity: An Overview". This unpublished technical report provided a summary of the biological diversity of the state and described some of the problems affecting this biological diversity within each physiographic province. It also gave examples of important habitats and landscape features, provided summaries of laws and regulations pertaining to wildlife in Georgia, and described some of the essential components of wildlife conservation (e.g., monitoring, habitat management, and land protection). This report incorporates some of the background material presented in "Georgia's Wildlife Diversity" and other assessments by the Georgia DNR, as well as more recent analyses of wildlife diversity patterns and threats by DNR and other cooperating agencies and organizations.
Funding for the current planning effort came from the State Wildlife Grant program administered by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service; matching nonfederal funds came from the Nongame Wildlife Conservation Fund administered by the Wildlife Resources Division (WRD).
The goal of this effort was to develop a conservation strategy based upon the best currently available data on the distribution and abundance of wildlife species in the state, particularly rare and declining species. The strategy assesses the extent and condition of habitats required by these species, as well as existing and potential problems and conservation opportunities for these habitats. Further, this strategy addresses research and survey needs, habitat restoration needs, and monitoring needs. It also includes an evaluation of existing policies and programs for wildlife conservation in Georgia. Existing and potential partnerships are outlined, and priorities for implementing specific conservation actions are provided.
Coordination with other agencies and organizations that manage land or administer wildlife conservation programs in Georgia was a key component of this effort. The planning team included Georgia DNR staff as well as representatives of private and public conservation organizations and land managing entities in Georgia. A Steering Committee composed of representatives of various agencies, organizations, and land managing groups provided general oversight for the project. Technical teams were formed to address specific components of the conservation strategy; these teams included Wildlife Resources Division staff as well as representatives of other agencies and organizations. Input from the Steering Committee, representatives of other conservation organizations, consulting biologists and academic researchers was used in the development of the conservation strategy
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The goal of this planning effort is to provide an informational and strategic framework that will support the conservation of Georgia's biological diversity. While it builds on the work of previous planning efforts, it attempts to define a set of prioritized conservation strategies that may be applied locally and statewide to achieve the goal of maintaining Georgia's diversity of native species and natural habitats.
The purpose of this document is to outline objectives and partnerships for wildlife conservation in Georgia. It is a broadly focused strategy that indicates areas in which resources should be concentrated and emphasis placed to facilitate the conservation of Georgia's animals, plants, and natural communities. Where data are currently lacking to provide a clear picture of conservation objectives, research priorities to provide needed data are indicated. Where the data are sufficient to provide direction for species and habitat protection, restoration, or management, these recommendations are stated.
This document is not intended to be a blueprint for local land use ordinances or a statewide land use plan. It is not intended as an evaluation or indictment of land use practices by any segment of society. We acknowledge that nearly every activity by humans on the Georgia landscape has positive or negative impacts on wildlife populations and their habitats. The purpose of developing this strategy is to provide information that may help minimize negative impacts and maximize positive impacts. Finally, the emphasis of this document is not on development of new regulations, but on more effective implementation of existing regulations and development of new cooperative relationships to protect and maintain habitats for native wildlife species.
Essential Elements of a Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy
In enacting the authorizing legislation for the State Wildlife Grants program, Congress provided guidance on the essential elements that comprise a Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy (CWCS). These elements are as follows:
(1) Information on the distribution and abundance of species of wildlife, including low and declining populations as the State fish and wildlife agency deems appropriate, that are indicative of the diversity and health of the State's wildlife; and,
(2) Descriptions of locations and relative condition of key habitats and community types essential to conservation of species identified in (1); and,
(3) Descriptions of problems which may adversely affect species identified in (1) or their habitats, and priority research and survey efforts needed to identify factors which may assist in restoration and improved conservation of these species and habitats; and,
(4) Descriptions of conservation actions proposed to conserve the identified species and habitats and priorities for implementing such actions; and,
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(5) Proposed plans for monitoring species identified in (1) and their habitats, for monitoring the effectiveness of the conservation actions proposed in (4), and for adapting these conservation actions to respond appropriately to new information or changing conditions; and,
(6) Descriptions of procedures to review the strategy at intervals not to exceed ten years; and,
(7) Plans for coordinating the development, implementation, review, and revision of the plan with Federal, State, and local agencies and Indian tribes that manage significant land and water areas within the State or administer programs that significantly affect the conservation of identified species and habitats; and
(8) Broad public participation in the development and implementation of the conservation strategy.
Species of Greatest Conservation Need
Congress further directed that the strategies must identify and be focused on "species in greatest need of conservation," yet address the "full array of wildlife" and wildlife-related issues. No definition of "species of greatest conservation need" was provided in the authorizing legislation; instead, the task of defining and identifying these species was left to each state wildlife agency working in collaboration with its conservation partners. The purpose of focusing on species of greatest conservation need is to ensure that those most imperiled species are adequately addressed in the conservation strategy.
The directive to emphasize species of greatest conservation need is not meant to imply that these species are of greater intrinsic value than other species. The ultimate goal of a comprehensive wildlife conservation strategy is to protect and maintain the full complement of species native to a state or region. While many species of wildlife (particularly generalists, species adapted to a wide range of conditions and habitats) are able to maintain viable populations in spite of significant land use changes, other species (particularly those species adapted to a narrow range of habitat conditions) are becoming increasingly imperiled due to loss or degradation of natural habitats, direct mortality from human activities, and other factors. It is intuitively logical that in developing a set of conservation strategies to maintain the whole of Georgia's natural heritage, one should prioritize conservation actions based upon an objective assessment of need.
Species that are globally imperiled and clearly threatened with extinction are an obvious choice for conservation action. However, there are many other species that are experiencing significant population declines in Georgia. The directive to address the "full array of wildlife" requires that the agency consider these species as well, to ensure that the conservation strategy meets the dual objectives of "keeping common species common" as well as preventing or minimizing further extirpations or extinctions of the more imperiled species.
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The approach taken in this planning effort has been to define species of greatest conservation need based on a number of factors, including global and state rarity rankings, population and habitat trends, range of occurrence, number of protected populations, and importance of Georgia efforts to the global conservation of the species. Some species that are not globally imperiled but are considered indicators of habitat quality over a large area or region were included as well. Finally, rare or uncommon species for which additional research is needed in order to develop specific conservation strategies were included, since one of the required elements of the planning process is identification of high-priority research and survey needs. The term used in this document for this more inclusive group is "high priority species". A discussion of the procedures used in selecting these species can be found in the "Approach and Methods" section.
Scales of Biological Diversity
In general terms, diversity means variety or heterogeneity within some defined group or area. Biological diversity can be expressed at several scales of concern, from subcellular to global. For example, genetic diversity refers to the variety of genes or genotypes within a species, population, or subpopulation. This diversity is often measured or indicated by laboratory research methods such as electrophoresis. Individual populations within a species may exhibit high or low levels of genetic diversity. The amount of genetic diversity within a population is a reflection of various biological and physical environmental factors operating over time on the genetic resources of that population (e.g., spontaneous mutations, interbreeding, isolation, habitat variability). The level of genetic diversity within a population is often reflected in variability in form or function (e.g., body structure, metabolism, blood type, leaf shape, hair color or disease resistance) and may have important implications for the capability of that population to sustain itself through time.
Another type of biological diversity is expressed in terms of the number of species in a given habitat. This has been referred to as "alpha diversity" by some researchers. The simplest type of alpha diversity is known as "species richness", and is based on presence/absence data. Species richness is simply the number of species observed within a given habitat. Other measures of within-habitat diversity are based on formulae that take into account the relative abundance of different species within the habitat. These diversity indices require counts of individuals within species, and are often used for purposes of comparison across habitat types within certain taxonomic groups.
A great deal of ecological research has been devoted to investigation of the patterns of species richness, and development of theories to explain why some habitats support great numbers of species, while other support relatively few. Some of the factors that are important in determining alpha diversity include successional stage of the habitat, structural complexity in the habitat, climatic stability, nutrient availability, degree of isolation from other similar habitats, variability of natural disturbance patterns, competition, predation and parasitism. As with most things in nature, it is difficult to detect the relative importance of these various factors for a given habitat.
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A third type of diversity, known as "beta diversity", refers to the amount of biological diversity across habitats within a given region or landscape. Beta diversity is a reflection of the variety of habitats within the landscape, which in turn is indicative of the heterogeneity of topography, soils, climate, geology, disturbance patterns, etc. in the region. Regions with more complex environmental gradients typically have greater beta diversity, even though the alpha diversity values for each habitat may be relatively low.
In this document, we are mostly concerned with beta diversity, that is, the diversity of wildlife species across the entire Georgia landscape. However, reference is made at various points to habitats that are particularly rich in species ("alpha diversity"). It is important to keep in mind that the diversity of life forms represented in a particular habitat depends on many factors. Nevertheless, conservation planners agree that the best approach to maintaining biological diversity over a broad region is maintenance of the full suite of natural communities on which native species depend.
Wildlife Diversity Databases
Our knowledge of species diversity patterns in Georgia and elsewhere is based on a long history of field studies and taxonomic research. Occurrence data for species are derived from a variety of sources, including natural history museums, herbaria, published scientific literature, and reports prepared by field researchers. In each state, natural heritage programs compile and analyze data on species and natural communities to develop a picture of biological diversity. An international network of natural heritage programs known as NatureServe provides a standardized data framework for assessing the global distribution of these species and natural communities.
The Nongame Wildlife & Natural Heritage Section (NWNHS) of WRD develops and maintains information on animal and plant species and the natural communities they comprise within the state of Georgia. The NWNHS staff maintains manual and digital files on approximately 600 plant species and 400 animal species, including 223 stateprotected species. The section's databases currently include over 11,500 documented occurrences of rare species and significant natural communities in Georgia. The NWNHS staff also maintains digital landcover databases as well as a GIS database of conservation lands.
Database management programs developed and maintained by NatureServe are used within WRD and throughout the United States by natural heritage programs to manage diversity data and to generate detailed, site-specific information. Significant natural communities and plant and animal species of special concern are termed "elements of biodiversity", and one of the central data features of WRD biodiversity databases is the element occurrence record. These records contain information on occurrences of rare species or natural communities at particular sites, including location, size, and condition of the population or community and date of observation.
Rarity ranks are used to characterize elements and to facilitate conservation planning. These ranks are assigned after reviewing pertinent status information at the state level and globally. Rarity ranks are based on a scale of 1 to 5; the higher the number, the more
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secure that species is thought to be at the state (or global) level. Therefore, an S1 species is considered very rare or imperiled in the state, while an S5 species is considered common and secure. A species with a rarity rank of G5 S1 is globally secure but occurs in very small numbers in the state. Thus it is not of global conservation concern, but may be considered a priority for conservation within the state, depending on other factors. This ranking system helps to assure that conservation efforts are directed to those species needing the most help in order to maintain biological diversity in a state or region. More detailed information on global rarity ranks and state rarity ranks can be found at the following website: http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/ranking.htm.
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II. Approach and Methods
The guidelines for development of the CWCS stipulate that the state wildlife agency will review and update the wildlife conservation strategy at least once within a ten-year period. Thus, while the current strategy is based upon the best available information and analyses, we recognize that it is part of an iterative process that allows adaptation to changing conditions and newly identified conservation needs. The general approach taken in this planning effort was to emphasize activities that would help build an infrastructure to ensure more efficient and effective conservation planning in the future. Emphasis was placed on upgrading and expanding the biodiversity databases and conservation lands databases maintained by WRD and taking advantage of existing information networks, monitoring programs, and land conservation programs wherever possible. The objective was to build capacity for consistency in conservation efforts and to take advantage of methodologies that would facilitate development of broader-scale (e.g., regional or national) wildlife conservation strategies. Information from previous wildlife assessments completed by DNR, The Nature Conservancy, the Georgia Gap Analysis Program and other organizations was utilized in the current planning effort, and an effort was made to share information on approaches and products with neighboring states in the Southeast.
At the same time, some novel analytical approaches and methods were utilized to explore new ways of identifying and addressing conservation priorities for species and habitats in Georgia. Examples include the development of datasets and analytical tools to allow historic vegetation mapping, the use of GAP-derived land cover data along with specieshabitat models and documented rare species occurrence data to identify potential "conservation opportunity areas", and development of recommendations for new ways of sharing biodiversity information and conservation messages with other public agencies, private conservation organizations, educators, land managers, and the general public.
Organizational Structure
The primary responsibility for developing the conservation strategy was assigned to the Nongame Wildlife & Natural Heritage Section of WRD. Early in the planning process a Steering Committee was established. The purpose of this committee was to provide general guidance and direction for the development of the conservation strategy. An attempt was made to include representatives from all major conservation agencies and organizations operating within the state, as well as many of the major land-managing entities. The Steering Committee met periodically throughout the course of the project and provided feedback to the CWCS project staff on the objectives, methods, and products of the planning effort. Representatives of several other organizations attended these meetings.
Representation on the Steering Committee changed during the course of the planning effort due to staff changes in the participating organizations and identification of additional organizations that could facilitate the planning process. Individuals serving as
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members of the Steering Committee and other participants in Steering Committee meetings are listed below:
Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy Steering Committee
Ron Bailey, Wildlife Resources Division, Georgia DNR Sam Breyfogle, Temple-Inland Forest Laura Bryant, Georgia Wildlife Federation Anthony Burns, Natural Resources Conservation Service Jim Candler, Georgia Power Chuck Coomer, Wildlife Resources Division, Georgia DNR Jason Diem, Georgia Wildlife Federation Bill Fletcher, Wildlife Resources Division, Georgia DNR Dan Forster, Wildlife Resources Division, Georgia DNR Laurie Fowler, UGA Institute of Ecology Mike Harris, Wildlife Resources Division, Georgia DNR Rick Hatten, Georgia Forestry Commission Todd Holbrook, Wildlife Resources Division, Georgia DNR Noel Holcomb, Wildlife Resources Division, Georgia DNR Mike Hurst, U.S. Forest Service Alice Miller Keyes, Environmental Protection Division, Georgia DNR Susan Kidd, The Georgia Conservancy Kevin McIntyre, Joseph W. Jones Ecological Research Center Steve McWilliams, Georgia Forestry Association Paul Michael, Hampton Island Preservation, LLC Hans Neuhauser, Georgia Land Trust Service Center Cindy Reittinger, Parks, Recreation & Historic Sites Division, Georgia DNR Andrew Schock, The Conservation Fund Curt Soper, The Nature Conservancy Sandy Tucker, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service J Wade, Real Estate Office, Georgia DNR Larry Walker, Weyerhaeuser (retired) Terry West, Wildlife Resources Division, Georgia DNR Spud Woodward, Coastal Resources Division, Georgia DNR Keith Wooster, Natural Resources Conservation Service
Others attending Steering Committee meetings included:
Rex Boner, The Conservation Fund John Brent, U.S. Department of Defense Ben Dickerson, Georgia Department of Transportation Bob Donaghue, Pollution Prevention Assistance Division, Georgia DNR Michael Fuller, U.S. Department of Defense Susan Gibson, U.S. Department of Defense Wade Harrison, The Nature Conservancy Joy Hinkle, National Wildlife Federation
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Laura Hartt, National Wildlife Federation Julie Mayfield, The Georgia Conservancy Jerry McCollum, Georgia Wildlife Federation Rashida Stanley, National Wildlife Federation Julie Thompson, Georgia Department of Transportation
Technical teams were formed to address various components of the plan. These technical teams were chaired by WRD staff members and included representation from a wide variety of organizations and agencies. These teams and their leaders are listed below:
Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy Technical Team Leaders
Birds: E.J. Williams, Brad Winn, Todd Schneider Mammals: Jim Ozier Fishes and Freshwater Invertebrates: Brett Albanese Reptiles and Amphibians: John Jensen Plants: Tom Patrick, Jim Allison, Mincy Moffett Terrestrial Invertebrates: Nathan Klaus Ecological Systems: Jon Ambrose, Tom Patrick Habitat Restoration and Historic Vegetation: Shan Cammack Conservation Tools and Wildlife Regulations: Eric VanDeGenachte, Phil Spivey GIS and Mapping Support, Land Cover/Land Use: Chris Canalos Database Support and Enhancements: Greg Krakow, Sarah Berckman Outreach/Communications: Robin Hill Environmental Education: Kitty Spivey
Complete lists of technical team members can be found in appendices B and C and in the Acknowledgements section.
Public Involvement and Partnerships
In March 2003 a public meeting was held at the Georgia Forestry Commission state headquarters office near Macon. The purpose of this initial public meeting was to explain the project objectives and the timetable for development of the strategy, and to obtain input from the public concerning the project.
A second series of public meetings was undertaken in October and November 2004. A database of over 450 stakeholder groups and individuals was used to generate a mailing list for invitations to these regional stakeholder meetings. In addition, invitations were sent to all Steering Committee members and regional WRD offices, and members of the various technical teams were asked to distribute invitations through e-mail. The primary purpose of the regional stakeholder meetings was to provide summaries of high priority species and habitats identified in each of five ecoregions, factors impacting these species and habitats, and general conservation objectives for these species and habitats, and to solicit input from the participants on specific conservation actions and partnerships that might be effective in achieving these conservation objectives.
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The regional stakeholder meetings were held at the following locations:
Amicalola Falls State Park, Dawsonville, Georgia Georgia International Horse Park, Conyers, Georgia The Forum, Rome, Georgia Stellar Conference Center, Brunswick, Georgia Little Ocmulgee State Park, McRae, Georgia Oxbow Meadows Environmental Learning Center, Columbus, Georgia
A total of 127 individuals attended the regional meetings (not including WRD staff). Over 60 organizations were represented at the meetings. The list of organizations represented at the regional stakeholder meetings is found below: Summaries of comments from the stakeholder meetings are found in Appendix M.
Organizations Represented at Regional Stakeholder Meetings
Alston and Bird LLP Altamaha Riverkeeper Berry College Bron Cleveland Associates Cabin Bluff Land Management Callaway Forest Chattahoochee Hill Country Chattahoochee Nature Center Coastal Georgia Community College Columbus State University Columbus Waterworks Georgia 4H Environmental Education Program Georgia Appalachian Trail Club Georgia Bass Chapter Federation Georgia Botanical Society Georgia DNR Coastal Resources Division Georgia DNR Parks, Recreation, & Historic Sites Division Georgia DNR Wildlife Resources Division Georgia ForestWatch Georgia Land Trust Georgia Native Plant Society Georgia Ornithological Society Georgia Outdoor Network Georgia Power Company Georgia Regional Transportation Authority Georgia River Network Georgia Southern University Georgia Wildlife Federation International Paper Jekyll Island Authority
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Jekyll Island Foundation Lee County Board of Commissioners MeadWestvaco National Park Service Southeast Regional Office Oconee River Land Trust Oxbow Meadows Environmental Learning Center Plum Creek Timber Company Rockdale Water Resources Satilla Riverkeeper Sea Island Company Sierra Club Southern Conservation Trust State Soil & Water Conservation Districts Sustainable Urban Villages Outdoor Activity Center Tall Timbers Research Station Temple-Inland Forest The Georgia Conservancy The Langdale Company The Nature Conservancy The University of Georgia Institute of Ecology The Wilderness Society U.S. Air Force REO Atlanta U.S. Department of the Army Ft. Benning U.S. Department of the Army Ft. Gordon U.S. Department of the Army Ft. Stewart U.S. Department of the Navy Kings Bay Naval Base U.S. Department of the Navy Southeast Region U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Athens, Ft. Benning, and Brunswick offices U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Okefenokee/Banks Lake National Wildlife Refuge USDA Forest Service Chattahoochee-Oconee National Forests USDA Forest Service Southeast Regional Office USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service Wildlife Action of Georgia, Inc.
Other Presentations and Meetings
In addition to these public meetings, numerous presentations on the Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy were given at meetings held around the state. These included meetings of professional organizations (The Wildlife Society, Georgia Chapter; Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Conservation; Society of American Foresters); advisory boards (Georgia DNR Board; NatureServe Board of Directors; Environmental Education Alliance Executive Board); and other groups (Young Harris College Continuing Education Institute; statewide DNR staff meetings; DNR-USFS annual coordination meetings; Environmental Education Alliance; Georgia Forestry Association Environmental Committee; National Park Service Southeastern Regional Meeting). Presentations on the CWCS effort and related wildlife conservation activities were given
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at a meeting of forest landowners coordinated by the Georgia Forestry Association in February 2005. This meeting provided an opportunity to address landowners' concerns about endangered species regulations, discuss various land use issues impacting private forest lands, and provide information on some programs offering financial and technical assistance for wildlife conservation on private lands.
Following completion of the CWCS public review draft, a second series of regional meetings was held in June 2005 to gain public input on the draft conservation strategy. These were organized and conducted as traditional public meetings, but included opportunities for participants to review and make comments on maps and other documents. The meetings were held in the following locations:
Charlie Elliott Wildlife Center, Mansfield, Georgia The Forum, Rome, Georgia Georgia Mountain Center, Gainesville, Georgia Okefenokee Technical College, Waycross, Georgia Lee County Library, Leesburg, Georgia Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, Georgia
A website dedicated to the CWCS effort was developed by DNR staff and maintained during the course of this project. The website (www.gadnr.org/cwcs) was used to post information about the comprehensive wildlife conservation strategy and State Wildlife Grants, to advertise public meetings, and to post CWCS documents and related documents. This website was linked to the DNR main web page and the WRD web page. An email link provided an opportunity for individuals to request information or make comments about the project or documents. WRD Public Affairs staff provided logistical support for public meetings, developed news releases, brochures, and fact sheets, coordinated media contacts, and provided information to the DNR website manager.
Coordination with Other Agencies and Organizations
Development of the conservation strategy was accomplished through coordination with a variety of public wildlife agencies, private conservation organizations, and corporate land managers operating in Georgia. This coordination was ensured by inclusion of representatives of these agencies and organizations on the Steering Committee and technical teams. Other interested parties were involved through participation in the regional workshops held in the fall of 2004. A list of agencies and organizations that provided input in the development of the wildlife conservation plan follows:
Federal agencies: National Park Service Natural Resources Conservation Service U.S. Department of Defense U.S. Geological Survey U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service U.S. Forest Service
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State agencies: Coastal Resources Division, Georgia DNR Environmental Protection Division, Georgia DNR Georgia Department of Transportation Georgia Forestry Commission Georgia Soil & Water Conservation Commission Parks, Recreation, and Historic Resources Division, Georgia DNR Pollution Prevention Assistance Division, Georgia DNR Wildlife Resources Division, Georgia DNR
Private conservation organizations: Atlanta Audubon Society Defenders of Wildlife Georgia Botanical Society Georgia Environmental Policy Institute Georgia Forestry Association Georgia Native Plant Society Georgia Ornithological Society Georgia Wildlife Federation International Association of Fish & Wildlife Agencies National Wildlife Federation NatureServe The Conservation Fund The Georgia Conservancy The Nature Conservancy
Corporate landowners: Cabin Bluff Land Management Georgia Power Company The Langdale Company International Paper MeadWestvaco Plum Creek Timber Company Temple-Inland Forest Weyerhaeuser
Academic / research institutions: Atlanta Botanical Garden Auburn University Augusta College Berry College Brenau University Clemson University Coastal Georgia Community College Florida Natural Areas Inventory
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Florida State University Columbus State University Georgia College & State University Georgia Southern University Georgia State University Joseph W. Jones Ecological Research Center Lanier Museum of Natural History Meadowview Biological Field Station New York Botanical Garden North Georgia College North Carolina Natural Heritage Program Roanoke College Savannah-Ogeechee Canal Museum South Georgia College State Botanical Garden of Georgia The University of Georgia Tennessee Aquarium Research Institute University of Florida Valdosta State University
In addition, WRD staff interacted with representatives of wildlife agencies and conservation organizations from other states through regional and national meetings. The Division hosted a regional workshop in Atlanta for development of comprehensive wildlife conservation strategies in April 2003, and co-hosted the Southeast Region Natural Heritage Conference at Callaway Gardens in November 2003. Both of these meetings included discussions and presentations of conservation planning approaches and procedures. WRD staff also participated in four meetings (July 2003, Cary, North Carolina; September 2003, Montgomery, Alabama; July 2004, Atlanta, Georgia; January 2005, Ridgeland, South Carolina) of an ad-hoc committee of the Southeastern Association of Fish & Wildlife Agencies (SEAFWA) to facilitate development of comprehensive wildlife conservation strategies in the Southeast, as well as a national "One Year Out" meeting (August 2004, Nebraska City, Nebraska) for CWCS planners coordinated by the International Association of Fish & Wildlife Agencies.
At each of these meetings, state CWCS planners shared information on designation of high priority species and habitats, identification of problems affecting wildlife, opportunities for collaboration with other agencies and organizations, and techniques for encouraging public involvement. Within the SEAFWA ad-hoc committee meetings, efforts were made to share information and approaches with other southeastern states to promote greater consistency in the plans of adjacent states. These efforts were only partially successful due to varying administrative responsibilities, interagency relationships, and planning mechanisms of different state wildlife agencies as well as time constraints on the planning process. However, representatives of the southeastern state wildlife agencies are continuing discussions in this area with a goal of achieving greater consistency across state boundaries, allowing the eventual development of regional conservation strategies for high priority species and habitats.
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Because Georgia has no federally recognized Indian tribes or tribal lands, there was no opportunity for coordination with federally recognized tribal governments. The State of Georgia officially recognizes three tribes (the Georgia Tribe of Eastern Cherokee, the Lower Muscogee Creek Tribe, and the Cherokee of Georgia), but these tribes do not manage significant areas of land or water within the state.
Coordination with Other Planning Efforts in Georgia
The CWCS effort was initiated shortly after completion of two internal Wildlife Resources Division Planning efforts, and shortly before the start of a Departmental strategic planning effort and a statewide land conservation assessment. All of these efforts provided opportunities to share information and improve coordination of agency functions that contribute to wildlife conservation efforts in Georgia.
Direction for the Decade
The organizational planning effort known as "Direction for the Decade" represented an attempt to assess the Division's existing efforts in wildlife conservation and establish priorities and benchmarks for future success. This strategic planning effort involved surveys of WRD staff, conservation stakeholders, and the general public. The surveys and associated demographic analyses were conducted by Responsive Management, Inc.
"Direction for the Decade" included workshops in which WRD staff representatives received information on changes in Georgia's demographics and land use as well as national trends and issues related to wildlife management. Regional meetings were also held to inform other WRD staff members of these issues and to gain input on the future direction of the Division. A final two-day workshop was then held to summarize and rank 37 priority responsibilities previously identified through the planning process.
Several of the high-priority items identified in the "Direction for the Decade" planning effort relate directly to CWCS objectives. The top ten Division-level priorities identified through this process included the following six elements:
Protecting threatened and endangered species and other nongame wildlife through conservation, management, and recovery efforts
Managing and/or restoring habitat on state-owned lands to meet the diverse needs of Georgia's wildlife
Enforcing environmental laws and regulations to protect Georgia's natural resources
Educating the public about the importance of land acquisition and working to develop future initiatives that encompass wildlife conservation and recreational needs
Providing meaningful input into development activities that will negatively impact wildlife resources
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Educating and informing legislators and other decision-makers about wildlife conservation and recreation issues to encourage informed decisions for the future of the state's natural resources
These objectives are being implemented through specific programs within the Wildlife Resources Division over a ten-year period (2003-2013). Many of these programs are funded in part through the State Wildlife Grants program or other federal aid programs, while others are funded entirely through non-federal sources. Examples include ongoing efforts to enhance and restore habitat for high priority species on wildlife management areas, state parks, and natural areas; improving capacity for coordinated environmental review of development projects, improving WRD biodiversity databases, and sharing GIS technology and facilities; continuing survey and recovery efforts for federally listed species and other high priority species; and conducting outreach activities for state legislators to provide background information on wildlife conservation and recreation programs. Many of these activities are listed and described as ongoing high priority conservation actions in Appendix L of this document. The "Direction for the Decade" final report is included at the end of this planning document as Appendix F.
WRD Five-Year Education Plan
A second planning effort within the Wildlife Resources Division was the development of a five-year environmental education plan. This plan was developed by WRD staff, and involved an assessment of existing educational programs and recommendations for future improvements. The planning team identified five resource-related themes for emphasis over a five-year period. These Annual Conservation Themes are as follows:
Georgia's rich diversity of natural resources is important and must be conserved, managed, and protected.
Conserving, managing, and protecting quality habitat is essential for the survival and health of Georgia's wildlife resources.
Clean and sufficient water resources are essential to both wildlife and humans. Wildlife is managed for the benefit of wildlife and people. People are an integral part of natural systems and our quality of life is linked to
the health of these systems
In addition, the team identified and prioritized specific action items for each WRD work unit to achieve success in three broad areas:
1) To cultivate an appreciation and understanding of Georgia's wildlife resources; 2) To foster wise stewardship of these resources; 3) To promote safe and ethical natural resource-based recreation.
Several of the members of this planning effort were participants in the CWCS Environmental Education team and helped to develop more specific goals related to conservation priorities identified during the CWCS planning effort. These include development of targeted wildlife conservation messages focusing on high priority species
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and habitats in each ecological region, assessing the current level of environmental literacy of Georgia residents, and development of a network of environmental educational facilities with regional staff. The WRD Five-Year Education Plan can be found in Appendix D and the CWCS Environmental Education Technical Team report can be found in Appendix E.
DNR Strategic Planning Process
In 2004 a planning team composed of representatives of all divisions within the Georgia Department of Natural Resources was organized to begin the process of updating the Department's Strategic Plan. This group began addressing priority activities in all major program areas within DNR. A presentation on the CWCS planning effort was provided to the DNR Strategic Planning Team at a kick-off meeting held at Red Top Mountain State Park in June 2004.
During this initial meeting, participants identified high priority department-level themes and discussed cross-functional activity areas. The ten top cross-functional areas identified by the planning team included:
Outreach and communications related to the general public, volunteers, etc. Educational activities pertaining to stewardship of natural resources Research activities, including field based inventories, database development, and
monitoring efforts for natural, environmental, and cultural resources. Land conservation efforts using a variety of approaches (e.g., land acquisition,
smart-growth planning and greenspace protection). Recreation management Management and stewardship of state-owned lands and facilities Resource inventories and database development. Regulatory and voluntary compliance programs and environmental monitoring Environmentally responsible business and economic development Internal administration of programs, personnel, and policies
Many of the CWCS objectives described in this document will be reflected in programlevel priorities outlined in the updated DNR Strategic Plan, which is scheduled to be completed by October 2005. The DNR Strategic Plan will emphasize cooperative interdivisional activities and programs that are critical for achievement of high priority CWCS objectives in the areas of environmental education and outreach, assessment and conservation of high priority habitats and species, restoration and management of natural habitats on state lands, reducing impacts from development activities on wildlife populations, improving environmental monitoring programs, and increasing capacity for wildlife conservation. Though it is focused broadly on conservation and management of natural, cultural, and recreational resources, the DNR Strategic Plan will provide guidance and organizational support that is necessary to achieve some of these specific wildlife conservation objectives.
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Georgia Land Conservation Partnership
In the fall of 2003 Governor Sonny Perdue announced his intention to establish a new conservation initiative based on public-private partnerships. An advisory council for the Georgia Land Conservation Partnership (GLCP) was created by Executive Order. The Council was charged with overseeing the development of the state's first comprehensive, statewide land conservation plan. The plan, which was completed in August 2004, emphasized 1) State acquisition of large, strategic parcels of land, including fee or less than fee interests; 2) State grants to counties and cities for greenspace acquisition and protection; and 3) State support and incentives to increase land conservation by private landowners, land trusts, and philanthropic organizations.
Several Georgia DNR staff members involved in the development and implementation of the CWCS provided technical support to the GLCP Advisory Council and assisted in the development of this report. The CWCS was envisioned as the primary component of the Georgia Land Conservation Partnership relating to wildlife conservation and maintenance of biological diversity. Other major goals outlined by the Council included maintenance of clean and abundant water supplies, maintenance of clean air, protection of cultural resources, and providing opportunities for outdoor recreation and education. A copy of the Georgia Land Conservation Partnership report is found in Appendix I.
In January 2005 Governor Perdue announced the Georgia Land Conservation Act (H.B. 98), a legislative initiative to permanently protect land in Georgia. The initiative highlights many of the recommendations of the Partnership and builds a framework for implementing the state's land conservation efforts. Passed by the Georgia General Assembly, this piece of legislation established a funding mechanism for land protection involving both fee-simple land acquisition and purchase of conservation easements. It also established the Georgia Land Conservation Council, an advisory body that provides guidance on conservation priorities, as well as the Georgia Land Conservation Trust Fund and Georgia Land Conservation Revolving Loan Fund to handle expenditures of monies to meet conservation goals. The land conservation program is intended to "promote partnerships for the conservation of land resources that are identified by cities or counties as locally valuable or identified by the Department of Natural Resources as having statewide significance."
The Georgia Land Conservation Act provides a mandate for DNR to participate with other state organizations, local governments, and private conservation groups to identify and protect various types of lands to meet natural, cultural, and recreational resource protection needs. In addition, the Act directs DNR to develop a state land geographic information system that will serve as a comprehensive database of all conservation activities, and to provide technical support to local governments to facilitate the protection of important lands. This new initiative provides a legislative mandate for continuation of several activities that were undertaken or expanded by WRD staff as components of the CWCS planning effort. Specific recommendations of the Act and their relation to the CWCS are discussed in Section V of this document.
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Federal Agency Planning Efforts
The CWCS planning effort provided opportunities to share information and ideas with individuals involved in various conservation efforts at the federal level. These included U.S. Forest Service staff involved in the recently-completed Forest Management Plan for the Chattahoochee-Oconee National Forests; staff of the National Park Service involved in development of NPS site management and monitoring plans and biodiversity databases; staff of the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service involved in revision of management plans for the Savannah, Okefenokee/Banks Lake, Piedmont, and Bond Swamp National Wildlife Refuges; U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service staff involved in listed species recovery efforts and environmental project reviews; and Department of Defense staff involved in management of lands at Ft. Stewart, Ft. Gordon, Ft. Benning, and Kings Bay Naval Base. In addition, information from studies funded by the U.S. Geological Survey and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (e.g., the Southeastern Ecological Framework) was consulted in the development of the CWCS.
Other Planning Efforts
During the course of the CWCS project staff from the Game Management and Nongame Wildlife & Natural Heritage sections of WRD met to discuss ways to more effectively incorporate conservation objectives for rare species and significant natural communities into management plans for Division-managed lands. Annual work plans were developed for all Wildlife Management Areas and Natural Areas. WRD biologists also provided technical assistance to the Parks, Recreation, and Historic Sites Division to facilitate development of habitat restoration and management plans for state parks. These efforts continued throughout the course of the project period.
Identification of Priorities, Problems and Actions
High Priority Species
Six of the technical teams were focused on taxonomic groups birds, amphibians and reptiles, mammals, fishes and aquatic invertebrates, terrestrial invertebrates, and plants. Although conservation efforts for plants could not be addressed under this grant, a parallel conservation planning process was undertaken. This effort was funded in part through a federal grant to the Wildlife Resources Division, with matching funds provided from the Nongame Wildlife Conservation Fund.
Members of the species technical teams are listed in Appendix B. Over 130 individuals were contacted and invited to participate on the technical teams. The majority of these individuals accepted the invitation and provided assistance and expertise.
The species technical teams were provided initial lists of uncommon or rare species from databases maintained by the Nongame Wildlife & Natural Heritage Section of WRD. All animals and plants currently designated "Special Concern Species" were included on the
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initial species lists. The "Special Concern Species" list includes species currently protected by state or federal law as well as those species considered imperiled at the state or global level with no formal protection under state or federal law. In recognition of the fact that many species in the lesser-known taxonomic groups have not received adequate attention, other globally imperiled (G1 and G2) species of terrestrial invertebrates, aquatic invertebrates, and nonvascular plants were added to the list. The technical teams evaluated these and other species to develop draft lists of "high priority species". Factors considered in these assessments include global and state rarity, range in Georgia, endemism, threats, population trends, and importance of Georgia efforts to conservation of the species. These technical teams also identified research, management, and monitoring needs for these species of conservation need.
In order to make this assessment an exercise that would improve the quality of the WRD biodiversity databases, an effort was made to use existing criteria found within the Biotics database management system used by the Nongame Wildlife & Natural Heritage Section. Fields and field descriptions were exported from this database, and some additional criteria were added to augment the assessment. These were populated as spreadsheets and relational databases. Guidance was provided to the technical teams as to the important criteria for selecting high priority species, but the decision to include or exclude species was up to each team. The technical teams developed recommendations for revisions to the "Special Concern Species" list during the assessment process.
Population sizes and recovery objectives for all Georgia species protected under the federal Endangered Species Act were considered in the assessments. However, these species were not automatically afforded higher priority in the planning process due to their status as federally listed species. Instead, the emphasis of this process was on selection of highest priority taxa based on the factors listed above and described in more detail in Appendix A. The technical teams also developed specific recommendations for changes to state and global rarity ranks and state protected status as part of this assessment process. Further review and assessments will be undertaken for all species for which changes in state protected status have been recommended.
A list of 296 high-priority animal species and a list of 323 high-priority plant species were developed as a result of this process. The animal list included 33 birds, 23 mammals, 22 amphibians, 22 reptiles, 74 fishes, 75 mollusks (freshwater mussels and gastropods), and 47 aquatic arthropods (insects and crustaceans). Each list was reviewed by the technical teams and by other experts and formed the core group of species upon which components of the conservation strategy were based. The complete lists of high priority animals and plants are found in Appendix A. High priority species identified for each ecoregion are listed in Section IV (Conservation Landscape Assessments and Conservation Strategies), along with descriptions of their range and habitat in Georgia.
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Marine Species Not Addressed in This Strategy
Several marine species and species groups occurring in Georgia waters are covered by federal or multi-state agency conservation plans. The following list includes the administrative organization and the Georgia species that are covered under these plans:
Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission (effective in Georgia's territorial waters) American Eel Atlantic Croaker Atlantic Menhaden Atlantic Sturgeon Bluefish Horseshoe Crab Red Drum Shad and River Herring Spanish Mackerel Spiny Dogfish and Coastal Sharks Spot Spotted Seatrout Weakfish
Management plans for these species can be found at http://www.asmfc.org/
South Atlantic Fishery Management Council (effective in Exclusive Economic Zone) Calico Scallop Coral Coastal Migratory Pelagics (king and Spanish mackerel, cobia) Dolphin-Wahoo Golden Crab Sargassum Shrimp (penaeid and rock) Snapper-Grouper Spiny Lobster
Management plans for these species can be found at http://www.safmc.net/library/
United States Secretary of Commerce (effective in Exclusive Economic Zone) Atlantic tunas Billfish Sharks
Management plans for these species can be found at http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/sfa/hms/
Specific conservation priorities for these species are not addressed in this strategy, since their needs are addressed in plans developed under the direction and auspices of the aforementioned organizations. (Note: While Atlantic sturgeon and American eel are not listed as high priority species in this document, they are considered species of conservation concern for Georgia DNR. Similarly, ongoing efforts by DNR to conserve shad and red drum constitute conservation priorities that are not specifically addressed in
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this document). The Coastal Resources Division of Georgia DNR is the primary state agency responsible for management of marine fisheries and shellfish populations.
High Priority Habitats
In this planning effort, habitats were addressed using four separate approaches. The brief habitat descriptions developed by the species technical teams were used to develop lists of high priority habitats for each ecoregion. These habitat types generally have nontechnical names and correspond to habitats or groups of similar natural communities. In some cases, these high-priority habitats represent groups of small-patch habitats or edaphically controlled communities that are not easily mapped. The high priority habitat types identified for each ecological region are listed in Section IV of this report. A summary of the Habitat Restoration/Historic Vegetation team's assessment of high priority habitats and their management needs can be found in Appendix C.
The species technical teams also assigned each high priority species to one or more habitat associations using an hierarchical classification system contained in Biotics, the biodiversity database system used by the Georgia Natural Heritage Program in the Wildlife Resources Division. This system, while useful for sorting species by physical/structural habitats, is not linked directly to any specific mapping program. However, many of the habitat types can be referenced to mapping units derived from aerial photography or satellite imagery. In addition, this system provides a level of detail and consistency for addressing aquatic habitats that is lacking in some other habitat classifications. These habitat associations are found in Appendix A.
The land cover types used for the Georgia Gap Analysis Program (GAP) represent a statewide GIS land cover dataset derived primarily from 1998 satellite imagery with augmentation from aerial photographs and other sources. This 44-class dataset has great value for broad-scale mapping and assessment of vegetation types and land use changes, but cannot be used to address the quantity or condition of most small-patch habitats. The GAP land cover types do not adequately address the variety of Georgia's aquatic systems, but do work well for mapping and assessment many of the large-patch terrestrial habitats.
Georgia also has an Aquatic Gap Analysis Program. Aquatic GAP is focusing on two centers of aquatic biodiversity, the Alabama-Coosa-Tallapoosa (ACT) and ApalachicolaChattahoochee-Flint (ACF) river basins. The ACT and ACF basins span broad ranges of physiographic settings and harbor exceptionally high levels of species richness and endemism. Aquatic GAP is based on the assumption that watershed characteristics (e.g., soils, vegetation, elevation, relief, land use) and geomorphic history directly influence stream structure and function, and that these factors influence aquatic communities. One of the goals of this project is to develop probabilistic models using historic and current empirical data on the distribution of aquatic species in these basins and ultimately provide a decision support system for resource managers. Aquatic GAP is similar to the CWCS effort in its emphasis on prioritization of streams and watersheds based on aquatic community composition. However, the approach taken in the CWCS effort is based
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primarily on documented occurrences of species and high-quality streams rather than on probabilistic models.
One of the long-term goals related to this wildlife conservation strategy is revision of the natural community classification system used by WRD and its conservation partners. During the course of this planning effort WRD staff began working with a volunteer group involved in development of a new natural community classification system based on the ecological systems classification system used by NatureServe and the international network of natural heritage programs. This effort will continue over the next several years, and will involve development of natural community descriptions and species lists based on fieldwork, scientific literature, and expert review. In addition, the classification will be field tested to assess its utility for habitat mapping at a local level. It is hoped that this revised natural community system will become the standard for habitat mapping on state lands as well as the basis for education and outreach activities relating to natural habitats in Georgia.
The emphasis of this wildlife conservation strategy is on protection, restoration, and maintenance of natural habitats. We acknowledge that data on abundance and condition of these natural habitats are not sufficient to assign quantitative scores or values for most habitat types. In addition, the correspondence of these habitats to mapped units derived from satellite imagery is often problematic, as is a strict correlation of high priority species with a particular habitat type (this is especially true for those species that have received little attention from field researchers to date). However, we can state generally that conserving viable examples of all representative natural habitats in a given ecoregion will provide the greatest benefits for the widest variety of native species. The approach taken in this planning effort was to describe the general location and condition of high priority habitats, with the recognition that much more field inventory and mapping work must be done in the coming years in order to provide a more accurate picture of the specific status of most of these habitats in a given ecoregion. Increased emphasis on statewide assessments of rare or declining natural communities is one of the highest priority conservation actions identified in this strategy.
While this strategy emphasizes conservation of natural habitats, we recognize that many habitats that are heavily influenced by human activities (e.g., agricultural fields, pine plantations, suburban forests) provide benefits for native wildlife, including some high priority species. These habitats may provide nesting sites, foraging areas, or migration corridors for wide ranging species. In addition, they often provide a landscape context or matrix that is compatible with protection of embedded natural habitats, especially if care is taken to limit impacts from human activities on these natural habitats. There are many opportunities to provide benefits to native species and natural habitats by modifying management of these human-altered systems. For example, minor modifications of field border management practices can provide significant benefits for birds that require early successional habitat. These issues are discussed in more detail in Section V.
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Problems Affecting Species and Habitats
One of the tasks of the technical teams was to identify problems affecting high priority species and their habitats. There are several different approaches noted in the literature, but most rely on identification of "stresses" and/or "sources of stress" in the environment (Salafsky et al., 2003). For example, a stress might be excess sediment in streams that chokes out mussel beds and interferes with fish reproduction. The source of this stress might be any number of activities, including road construction or maintenance, residential development, lack of stream buffers adjacent to agricultural fields, or any other type of land disturbing activity that is accompanied by inadequate sediment control.
It is important to note that these problems may be historic, current, or potential. For example, conversion of natural forest stands to agricultural uses in Georgia represents an impact that is mostly historic. Little conversion to agricultural uses is occurring today, and in fact many agricultural lands have been converted to forestry or residential uses in recent decades. However, it is important to mention that wildlife populations have been impacted by these past land uses in the context of a long-range conservation plan that considers potential for recovery of these species. Similarly, the impacts of past land practices on soils and vegetation greatly influence our consideration of the potential restoration of natural communities.
The plan must also take into account predicted patterns of land use changes in Georgia. Most people recognize that the primary long-term threat to wildlife populations in Georgia and elsewhere is loss of habitat due to development pressures. This development pressure is fueled by a tremendous increase in the state's human population. The Georgia Land Use Trends report indicated that the largest increase in land use from 1974 to 1998 by percentage occurred in the high-density and low-density urban categories (Natural Resources Spatial Analysis Laboratory, 2001). While still a relatively small fraction of the total landscape of Georgia, the wildlife impacts related to these land uses are disproportionately high. A recent nationwide study found that although the 35 fastestgrowing large metropolitan areas comprise just 8% of the land area of the lower 48 states, they are home to nearly one-third (29%) of the imperiled species analyzed--nearly 1,200 species. And remarkably, 553 of these imperiled species (13%) are restricted to these fast-growing large metro areas (Ewing et al 2005). While this study included several metropolitan areas in California with particularly high densities of rare species, it is true that the rate of expansion of "sprawl zones" in Georgia represents an ominous trend in terms of future impacts on wildlife species and habitats.
In order to assess the historic, current, and potential impacts of various sources of stress on high priority species and habitats, a list of 25 general problem categories was developed. This list was derived from several different assessment approaches found in the scientific literature. The technical teams were asked to assign each high priority species to one or more of these general problem categories, which in turn correspond to sources of stress. For some of the high priority species, especially those that represent priorities for future research, no problem category could be assigned. The 25 general problem categories used in this assessment are listed below.
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1. Acidified Rainfall and Other Atmospheric Pollution Includes acid deposition from the atmosphere (both wet and dry) and other air-borne pollutants or nutrients. Acidified rainfall generally has a pH lower than 5.5. It is typically, but not exclusively, related to aerosols, volatile compounds, and semi-liquid pollutants. Impacts include acidifying aquatic systems, impairing plants' ability to evaporate water and exchange gases, and nutrient leaching and toxic accumulation in soil.
2. Agricultural Practices Not Meeting BMPs Includes agricultural practices that impact the environment well outside the actual agricultural operation through releases of excess nutrients, toxins, or sediments. Includes practices that degrade stream or wetland habitat quality.
3. Altered Fire Regimes Includes fire exclusion, fire suppression, alteration of habitats through unnatural timing, frequency, or intensity of prescribed burns, and other incompatible fire management practices. Fire regimes are affected by altered community composition (e.g., increase of non-pyric species such as oak) and habitat fragmentation. Fire is an important ecological process that drives many of the terrestrial habitats in Georgia.
4. Altered Hydrology Includes construction and use of ditches, levees, dikes, and drainage tiles, flow diversion, dredging, channelization, filling of wetlands and headwater streams, destabilization of stream banks or channels, head-cutting, and other alterations to stream morphology or hydrologic regimes. Results in degradation or destruction of aquatic and wetland habitats.
5. Altered Water Quality Includes various forms of point and non-point source pollution, such as herbicides, pesticides, sediments, nutrient loading, and thermal modifications that directly impact water quality. Sources are quite varied and include wastewater discharges, excessive soil disturbance near streams, increased impermeable surface area resulting from development, and loss of vegetation in riparian buffers.
6. Commercial/Industrial Development Includes development of structures and infrastructure (buildings, utilities, driveways and roads) for commercial or industrial purposes, usually in an urban setting. Impacts may include direct habitat destruction, fragmentation, altered thermal regimes, and indirect pollution sources that alter water quality.
7. Conversion to Agriculture or Silviculture Includes the conversion of natural habitats to anthropogenic habitats managed for agricultural crops, pasture, horticulture, or silviculture. Usually involves removal of native vegetation, site preparation, and planting of off-site or non-native species. Results in habitat destruction or fragmentation and may impact water quality.
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8. Dam and Impoundment Construction Includes the construction of dams and impoundments (from agricultural ponds to large reservoirs) that directly affect stream flows and fragment aquatic habitat. Results in impacts to the impounded portion of the stream as well as habitats above and below the dam.
9. Development of Roads or Utilities Includes construction of new roads (interstate highways, state highways, and county roads) and utility right-of-ways (e.g., electrical transmission lines, water/sewer, gas pipelines) that result in habitat destruction or fragmentation and creation of new avenues for invasion by exotic species.
10. Disease Includes fatal or debilitating disorders resulting from infections, poisons, pathogenic microorganisms, or parasites. The most serious impacts generally result from introduced vectors or pathogens (e.g., sudden oak death, hemlock wooly adelgid, chestnut blight). Impacts can be devastating to the species directly attacked as well as natural communities.
11. Excessive Groundwater and Surface Water Withdrawal Includes direct groundwater and surface water withdrawals for agricultural, industrial, and municipal water supplies. Excessive withdrawal can result in lowered water tables, diminished local aquifer discharges, and reductions in water available to sustain stream base flows, spring discharges, isolated wetlands, karst environments, and seepage communities.
12. Excessive Herbivory Involves high, generally unsustainable rates of herbivory that intensively affect species or entire natural communities. Usually attributed to the impacts of herbivorous species that are either non-native or native but have been released from typical natural population limiters (e.g., white-tailed deer in areas of limited hunting).
13. Excessive Predation Includes impacts to animal populations caused by predators that extensively and intensively impact the demographics of either a select species or entire species assemblages. These predators may either be non-native species or native species that are released from typical natural population limiters.
14. Forestry Practices Not Meeting BMPs Involves poor forestry BMP implementation and site management activities that result in altered structure and composition of adjacent natural habitats or degraded stream or wetland habitats.
15. Global Warming/Climate Change Defined as consistent, directed change in climatic conditions at regional scales. Such changes may include increases or decreases in average temperatures, changes in the rates,
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distribution, frequency, or timing of precipitation, and frequency and intensity of storm events. Local effects are often difficult to quantify.
16. Illegal Dumping Includes all forms of illegal dumping of by-products, ranging from household trash to light industrial waste, to chemical toxins, as well as the impacts resulting from the movement of these wastes from the original site of dumping. Effects on high-priority habitats may range from minor to serious (e.g. dumping in an ephemeral pool on a granite outcrop).
17. Incompatible Fisheries Practices Includes harvest or management of fish or shellfish by methods that are destructive to native species or aquatic habitats. Includes forms of harvest that result in heavy rates of by-catch, losses of reproductively critical age classes, or increased mortality of imperiled species.
18. Incompatible Mining/Mineral Extraction Includes extraction of minerals, oil, or gas or similar activities that result in the disturbance or destruction of natural habitats as well as secondary impacts such as sedimentation or releases of toxins. Impacts may include increased sediment loads, downstream scouring, habitat destruction and disturbance, fragmentation, and creation of migration routes for invasive exotic species.
19. Incompatible Road/Utility Management Includes management of roads or utility corridors that results in excessive releases of sediment or provides access for non-native species, as well as vegetation management practices that are environmentally "unfriendly" (e.g. indiscriminant use of herbicides).
20. Industrial/Municipal Pollution Includes toxins and air-borne pollutants, thermally altered effluent, and other point source pollutants derived from industrial/commercial land uses in an urban or suburban setting. Involves direct impacts in the form of chemical or thermal stresses to species or natural communities.
21. Invasive/Alien Species Includes exotic species as well as native species that have become invasive due to past habitat alterations (e.g. hardwood encroachment of longleaf pine habitats following fire suppression). Impacts include competition, hybridization, and predation as well as longterm alterations of ecological systems and processes (e.g. hydrologic changes, changes in soil attributes, altered fire regimes).
22. Poaching or Commercial Collecting Includes commercial exploitation, poaching, and unscrupulous or excessive collecting of animals or plants by individual or corporate operators. Impacts may include mortality of individuals, population declines, and changes in community composition.
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23. Residential Development Includes primary and secondary home construction as well as development of associated infrastructure (e.g. subdivision roads and driveways, sewer and stormwater utilities). Impacts may include habitat destruction, disturbance, fragmentation, and introduction of invasive species.
24. Unmanaged Recreation Includes recreational overuse, particularly by ATVs (all terrain vehicles), but also hiking, biking, caving, horseback riding, rock climbing, and boating (or use of jet skis) in sensitive areas or at rates considered unsustainable in the environments where they occur. Impacts may include habitat destruction and disturbance as well as impaired water quality.
25. Vehicle-Induced Mortality Includes mortality of animals resulting from collisions with automobiles, boats, or other vehicles. Also includes impacts to plants resulting from vehicular traffic along roadsides, trails, or waterways.
Database and Information Needs
The Database Support and Enhancements technical team included representatives from WRD, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, U.S. Forest Service, National Park Service, Georgia Department of Transportation and the University System of Georgia, as well as biological consultants. This group met to discuss ways in which the biodiversity databases maintained by WRD and other conservation partners could be used more effectively for wildlife conservation. Specific items discussed in these meetings included providing financial and technical support for statewide atlas projects, developing better access to generalized location data for conservation planners, researchers, biological consultants and the general public, providing funding for field surveys, and developing Web-based templates for provision of species or habitat data to WRD.
The need to provide protection for site-specific data on rare species or sensitive natural habitats was a recurring theme in these discussions. Participants discussed methods for ensuring the protection of these data as well as the rights of private property owners under provisions of Georgia's Open Records Act. The group also discussed implementation of standards for documenting the types of data produced and maintained by each organization (i.e., metadata standards). A summary of recommendations from this team is provided in Section V of this document (Statewide Wildlife Conservation Themes and Strategies).
Some funds from this planning project were used to upgrade the database management system for biodiversity data used by WRD, and to provide training to WRD staff in the use of this system. In addition, members of the Nongame Wildlife & Natural Heritage Section added hundreds of new occurrence records for rare species, developed natural habitat descriptions, and updated information on rarity for all high priority species.
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GIS Support and Mapping
Wildlife Resources Division staff and staff of the Natural Resources Spatial Analysis Laboratory (NARSAL) at the University of Georgia provided GIS and mapping support for this project. WRD staff continued efforts to build data layers for conservation lands and sites in Georgia. These data layers included polygons representing ecologically significant sites (e.g., high priority watersheds and streams) identified from field research and previous conservation planning projects. Information on land cover developed by the Natural Resources Spatial Analysis Laboratory at the University of Georgia was used in an ecoregion-based analysis of land use trends. Data from the Georgia Land Use Trends project (Natural Resources Spatial Analysis Laboratory, 2001) were used to assess land use changes from 1974 to 1998 in each ecoregion. This change detection was based on an 18-class land cover dataset derived from Landsat Thematic Mapper imagery. Maps and statistics on land cover for each of four reference years (1974, 1985, 1992, and 1998) were developed for each ecoregion.
A pilot project aimed at developing data and analytical tools to facilitate the construction of maps of historic vegetation was initiated in the spring of 2004. This project was undertaken through a contract with NARSAL, the State Archives Office, and the Information Technology Outreach Services office at the University of Georgia. Land lot surveys from the 1800s were scanned and georectified, and information on witness trees documented in these surveys was used to develop maps showing general vegetation patterns for three areas of the state. These areas were centered on three state-owned wildlife management areas in three different physiographic provinces Dawson Forest WMA (Blue Ridge), Joe Kurz WMA (Piedmont) and Mayhaw WMA (Coastal Plain). A summary of this project is provided in Appendix J.
Another pilot project was undertaken with NARSAL to identify potentially important conservation areas in the state, using land cover data in combination with information on documented and predicted occurrences of rare species. The objective of this project was to complement the expert-driven approach to identification of important habitats and sites with a broad-scale assessment of existing natural habitat facilitated by GIS.
Land cover data for a "natural vegetation subset" of the 44-class statewide data layer were used to identify areas of the state with significant acreage of natural vegetation. A computer program known as FRAGSTATS was used to categorize and rank these patches of natural vegetation based on size, shape, contiguity, and proximity. Species-habitat models developed for the Georgia GAP project as well as documented occurrences of rare species from the WRD databases were also used to prioritize the patches. One product of this project was a map of "potential conservation areas", areas that may represent important sites or regions for wildlife conservation emphasis. A summary of this project is provided in Appendix K.
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Environmental Education and Outreach
The Environmental Education technical team included members of DNR's Wildlife Resources Division, Environmental Protection Division, Pollution Prevention Assistance Division, and Parks, Recreation and Historic Sites Division as well as a representative of the Georgia Wildlife Federation. This team was charged with development of environmental education objectives related to the CWCS effort. Specifically, this group was asked to:
Identify and describe existing educational programs and sources of information relating to wildlife conservation in Georgia.
Assess the effectiveness of existing environmental education programs in promoting wildlife conservation statewide and develop recommendations for improving the effectiveness of existing programs.
Develop recommendations for future programs or areas of emphasis in environmental education and identify major resource needs (funding, staff, facilities, etc.).
Suggest ways to overcome existing resource limitations.
The Environmental Education Technical Team report can be found in Appendix E.
High Priority Conservation Actions
Technical team leaders, Steering Committee members, and other stakeholders contributed draft recommendations for high priority land protection, habitat restoration, rare species recovery, research, survey, database development, and education efforts. For each high priority conservation action, target habitats or species, watersheds, and ecoregions were listed as appropriate (many of the recommended actions were statewide in scope). In addition, information on lead organizations, potential partners, performance measures and funding sources was compiled. This draft list was provided to the Steering Committee for review and comment, and was revised based on the committee's input. Each conservation action on the list was evaluated and assigned an importance score using the following seven criteria:
1) Providing Multiple Benefits for High Priority Species/Habitats The conservation action provides direct, measurable benefits for several high priority species and/or globally rare natural communities. (Rating =1 to 3; Weight: = 2)
2) Addressing Un(der)funded Needs: The conservation action represents a significant improvement or advance in wildlife conservation in that it provides support for a conservation effort that is not addressed by other funding sources, programs, or organizations. (Rating =1 to 3; Weight = 1)
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3) Overall Importance of Georgia Efforts The conservation action addresses wildlife conservation needs that are unique to Georgia (e.g., endemic species) or for which Georgia serves a key role geographically or strategically. (Rating =1 to 3; Weight = 3)
4) Timeliness or Urgency The conservation action addresses a problem that is particularly urgent. If this specific action is not implemented or continued in the next ten years, Georgia will experience a significant loss of biological diversity or habitat quality. (Rating =1 to 3; Weight = 3)
5) Connections with Other Conservation Actions The conservation action serves as a critical component that enables or facilitates one to several other important conservation measures. Without this component, other efforts will be crippled or made ineffectual. (Rating =1 to 3; Weight = 2)
6) Building Public Support for Wildlife Conservation The conservation action is likely to increase overall public support for wildlife conservation. The benefits of the action will be readily apparent to the public, or the project itself will focus on increasing public support for conservation. (Rating =1 to 3; Weight = 2)
7) Probability of Success The conservation action is likely to succeed because it employs tested methodologies, has strong support from stakeholders, and has clearly identified and readily achievable objectives. (Rating =1 to 3; Weight = 2)
In this rating system, the score assigned to a particular conservation action indicates the relative contribution or significance of that action for a particular criterion (1 = Low; 2 = Medium; 3 = High). The weight is a multiplier of the rating and indicates the relative contribution of that criterion to the total score (maximum total score = 45 points).
Numeric scores totaled for all criteria were used to assign each conservation action to one of three levels of priority: Very High (41-45 points); High (36-40 points); and Medium (27-35 points). The complete table of prioritized conservation actions is found in Appendix L. Highest priority conservation actions identified for each ecoregion are summarized in Section IV (Conservation Landscape Assessments and Conservation Strategies), and highest priority conservation actions for the state as a whole are discussed in Section V (Statewide Conservation Themes and Strategies).
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High Priority Conservation Areas
Several different approaches were used to identify high priority areas for conservation action in Georgia. The Freshwater Fishes and Aquatic Invertebrates technical team identified 212 high priority waters in Georgia. Selected streams were those considered important habitats for at least one high priority aquatic species or examples of high quality aquatic communities. Information used in this analysis included rare species occurrence data in biodiversity databases maintained by WRD and other organizations, recommendations provided by participants in CWCS stakeholder meetings, data from the WRD Stream Assessment Team, and information from a previous aquatic assessment completed by The Nature Conservancy (Smith et al 2002).
The majority (172) of these identified high priority waters are considered important for conservation of at least one high-priority species, and roughly one-third are important to the conservation of three or more species of conservation concern. A large number of high priority waters (119) were designated because they were representative of an aquatic system and its associated communities, but most of these were also important for high priority species. In order to emphasize the importance of watershed-level protection, all HUC 12 watersheds that contained these high priority stream segments were identified and mapped. The complete list of high priority waters can be found in Appendix B.
Many of the other high priority conservation areas mentioned in this document were identified previously through a series of ecoregion-based conservation planning projects coordinated by The Nature Conservancy with assistance from WRD and other organizations. These are listed and described briefly for each ecoregion in Section IV of this document. As shown in Figure 1, some of these sites correspond to or contain existing conservation lands, while others represent lands with no formal protection. While the general locations of these sites are mentioned in this document, no attempt has been made to show detailed boundaries for these priority conservation areas at the ecoregional level in this document, for two reasons. First, the boundaries for many of these priority conservation areas represent an initial attempt to delineate major landforms or hydrologic features of biological significance, and we recognize that additional work needs to be done to refine these preliminary delineations to a level that could be considered "conservation site boundaries." Secondly, some of these high priority areas represent specific sensitive habitats whose precise locations should not be made part of a publicly accessible document.
Still another approach to delineation of high priority conservation areas involved the aforementioned GIS-informed pilot project completed by NARSAL and WRD. First, we identified a set of potential "conservation opportunity areas" based on analyses of the size and configuration of natural vegetation patches derived from 1998 Georgia GAP land cover data as well as documented and predicted occurrences of species of conservation concern. Next, a prioritization scheme was devised to sort these conservation opportunity areas into general categories of significance using combinations of these three factors.
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Original values for three GIS layers were recoded for each of three data layers before combining these to produce the final potential conservation opportunity area layer. The three data layers used in this prioritization scheme included core area of natural vegetation patches, weighted density of rare species (plant and animal) occurrences, and predicted occurrences of terrestrial vertebrate species of conservation concern. The use of these three factors together provided a mechanism for ranking patches of natural vegetation based on combinations of size, predicted value for species of conservation need, and documented value for species of conservation need. Finally, the prioritized patches identified from this analysis were mapped along with existing conservation lands. The resulting map is shown in Figure 2. Details of this analytical approach and intended uses of the potential conservation opportunity areas are provided in Appendix K.
While useful as broad-scale depictions of biologically significant areas, the delineated high priority streams, watersheds, and other conservation areas are not intended to represent a "conservation blueprint" for Georgia. Each of these approaches to delineation of high priority conservation areas has its own limitations, and these maps should be considered aids to conservation planning rather than conservation plans. For example, limiting future conservation activities to designated high priority waters would ignore the very real need to address opportunities for habitat improvements in the remaining waters of Georgia. Similarly, the potential conservation opportunity areas delineated in this project are based on analyses of existing natural vegetation, and therefore ignore many habitats that represent important restoration or enhancement opportunities. Further, in no instance should these maps be seen as an attempt to limit, expand, or define regulatory authority of the Georgia Department of Natural Resources or any other agency. While many of the high priority conservation areas mentioned in this document are considered deserving of special emphasis for habitat protection, we do not mean to imply that other areas should be ignored or considered unworthy of protection, or that state or federal laws protecting wildlife should be applied unevenly over the Georgia landscape.
The depiction of high priority conservation areas in this document represents the compilation and assessment of large volumes of biological and ecological data. However, it must be acknowledged that any such delineation of biologically important areas inevitably reflects the quality and quantity of data available at a given point in time. Given the large number of high priority species for which additional field research has been identified as a conservation emphasis, the picture of high priority conservation areas must be considered subject to change. We expect to be able to provide a clearer and more precise picture of the most biologically significant areas of Georgia in coming years as implementation of this conservation strategy continues.
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Figure 1. Existing conservation lands and priority conservation areas. 34

Figure 2. Potential conservation opportunity areas 35

Plan Review and Revision The first draft of the Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy was submitted to the Steering Committee in March 2005. Comments and recommendations from the Steering Committee members were addressed and a public review draft was completed at the end of May 2005. This public review draft was posted on the CWCS website on June 1, 2005 and its availability was publicized through email notices and statewide news releases. The public comment period for this draft of the strategy extended from June 1, 2005 to July 15, 2005. Six public meetings were held from June 2 to June 28, 2005 to provide the public an overview of the planning process and major findings and to solicit public input on the draft CWCS. Dates and locations of these meetings are listed below.
June 2 Mansfield, Georgia June 14 Rome, Georgia June 16 Gainesville, Georgia June 21 Waycross, Georgia June 23 Leesburg, Georgia June 28 Statesboro, Georgia Comments received from participants in the six public meetings as well as written responses received by mail or email were addressed in developing the final CWCS document. This final draft was provided to the CWCS Steering Committee for review in August 2005. The executive summary of the final draft of the CWCS was presented to the Board of the Department of Natural Resources in a final project briefing on August 23, 2005, prior to submission of the strategy to the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. On August 24, 2005, the DNR Board unanimously passed a resolution supporting the CWCS and urging the Department to implement this strategy.
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III. State Overview- Ecological Framework

Physiography
The variety of species and natural communities found in Georgia is in part reflective of its physiographic diversity. The boundaries of Georgia include portions of five physiographic provinces. Each physiographic province has its own distinctive representative habitats and landforms (Clark and Zisa 1976), and the history of human land use and resulting impacts on species and habitats vary by province.

The Cumberland (Appalachian) Plateau in extreme northwest Georgia is composed of nearly flat-topped mountains capped with sandstone, with the valleys between them underlain by limestone. Escarpments on the margins of the mountains drop more than 1000 feet to the valley floor, and are breached by numerous streams that have their sources on top of the upland and reach the valley through deep notches in the cliffs. This province supports forests dominated by chestnut oak and white oak, with shortleaf and Virginia pine also present.

To the south and east of the Cumberland Plateau lies the Ridge and Valley Province, characterized by the low, linear, parallel ridges of the Chickamauga Valley district and the more prominent, narrow ridges of the Armuchee district. Farther east, the Great Valley district is typically broad and open with a few scattered ridges and hills, underlain with shales and limestone, as are the valleys between the linear ridges to the west. The relatively flat, fertile valleys are dominated by agriculture, such that the province is only about 65% forested. These range from mesic forests to those composed of dry-tolerant species. Longleaf pine is found at its northernmost extent in Georgia on some of the ridges in this district, and other examples of coastal plain biota can be found in the valley of the Coosa River and its tributaries (Wharton 1978).

Figure 3. Georgia Physiographic Provinces and Districts

The Blue Ridge Province is characterized by the rounded, eroded crystalline rock masses of

the Blue Ridge and Cohutta mountains with dendritic drainage patterns, contrasting with

the linear, steep-sided elevations of the Ridge and Valley Province with its trellis

drainage patterns. Forests account for more than 90% of the landcover in this province, a

higher percentage than any other Georgia physiographic province. Examples of forest

types found in this province include broadleaf deciduous cove forests on moist, cool

north-facing slopes, the stunted oak forests of the ridges, and the oak-hickory forests that

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comprise the bulk of the Appalachian slope forests. Agriculture and other land uses are limited primarily to the flat floodplains of creeks and rivers in this province.
While containing slightly higher percentages of forested landcover than the Ridge and Valley Province, the forests of the Piedmont are more fragmented, as agricultural land uses are more or less evenly distributed throughout a matrix of second-growth and industrial forests. Urban land uses reach their greatest extent in the Upper Piedmont. Although this province is characterized by gently rolling topography throughout, some areas of high relief are found in the Upper Piedmont, on slopes associated with river valleys, and in the Fall Line area of transition to the upper Coastal Plain, where the metamorphic rock of the Piedmont gives way to sedimentary rock and sandy soils. Rivers and creeks in this transitional area are characterized by shoals and rapids.
South of the Fall Line, streams open into the wide floodplains characteristic of the Gulf and Atlantic Coastal Plains. In the former, upland forested landcover decreases to 38%, as nearly half of the province is in agricultural and other open landcover types. Bottomland forests associated with the broad, meandering streams of these provinces provide contiguous wildlife habitat to a greater extent than do the streams traversing the Piedmont in narrower floodplains. The Atlantic Coastal Plain province contains a higher percentage of wetlands than the Gulf Coastal Plain, due in part due to the presence of the Okefenokee Swamp in the former and the relative lack of surface waters in the karstinfluenced lower Flint River basin. Broadleaf evergreen forests are found in areas not converted to pine monoculture, although remnants of the original longleaf pine matrix are few and widely separated.
The lowest elevations in the state and highest percentage of wetlands are found in that part of the Atlantic Coastal Plain known as the Barrier Island Sequence. This district is composed of the barrier and marsh islands, the extensive saltwater and brackish marshes, and the low-lying forests immediately to the west. Only the Cumberland Plateau and the Blue Ridge provinces have a lower percentage of non-forested landcover types, as many of the soils of the Barrier Island Sequence are too wet for agriculture. In addition to bottomland hardwoods along the rivers flowing to the marsh, and the extensive industrial pinelands, maritime forest types can be found on the barrier islands and on upland bluffs in this district. The terraces from ancient shorelines account for some relief in this otherwise flat and lowlying district.
Geology
Georgia is divided into five major geologic provinces (Georgia Geological Survey 1976). These provinces are the Cumberland Plateau, Valley and Ridge, Blue Ridge, Piedmont, and Coastal Plain. Because of their geological similarity, the Cumberland Plateau and the Valley and Ridge provinces are considered together in this summary, as are the Blue Ridge and the Piedmont provinces. The Cumberland Plateau and Valley and Ridge provinces, in northwest Georgia, are composed of folded and faulted Paleozoic sedimentary rocks. The Blue Ridge and Piedmont provinces, in the northeast and uppercentral part of the state are composed of Precambrian to Paleozoic igneous and
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metamorphic rocks. The Coastal Plain Province, in South Georgia, is composed of Cretaceous to Holocene sediments.
Cumberland Plateau and Valley and Ridge Provinces
The Cumberland Plateau and Valley and Ridge Provinces of northwest Georgia are composed of folded sedimentary rocks that range in age from Cambrian to Early Pennsylvanian (approximately 570 to 326 million years ago) (Georgia Geologic Survey 1976, Patchen et al 1984). They are predominantly composed of ridge-capped cherts and sandstones alternating with valleys underlain with carbonates (limestone and dolostone), shales and slates. These strata are strongly folded and locally cut by relatively shallow thrust faults in the Valley and Ridge, and only gently folded with little faulting in the Cumberland Plateau. Fold axes in the area have varied orientations, but they generally trend northeast to southwest as evidenced by the trends of major ridge lines. Thrust fault surfaces generally dip at relatively shallow angles to the southeast. The major episode of faulting and folding occurred late in the Paleozoic Era (approximately 286 million years ago) at which time the Paleozoic strata were overthrust by igneous and metamorphic rocks of the Blue Ridge Province along the Great Smoky-Cartersville fault.
Blue Ridge and Piedmont Provinces
The Blue Ridge and Piedmont provinces are composed of igneous and metamorphic rocks: gneisses, amphibolites, schists, phyllites, slates, quartzites, and granites of Late-Precambrian to Pennsylvanian age (approximately 1,100 to 305 million years ago) (Higgins 1986, Georgia Geologic Survey 1976). These rocks were intensely folded and faulted during at least three episodes of mountain building during the Paleozoic Era. During these episodes older sedimentary, volcanic, and plutonic igneous rocks were highly compressed, very tightly folded, thrust-faulted, intruded by several pulses of magma, and metamorphosed at high pressure and temperature several miles below the surface of the earth. At the peaks of these metamorphic episodes, some of these rocks were partially melted. The axes of folded layers generally trend northeast-southwest and metamorphic layering is almost invariably inclined at low angles to the southeast. As in the Valley and Ridge, these features reflect a predominant compression from southeast to northwest during metamorphism.
Fine-grained metamorphic rocks, especially slate and phyllite, are most typically found along the western flank of the Blue Ridge and at the eastern portion of the Piedmont Province. Tectonically sheared rocks (e.g., mylonite, phyllonite, and button schist) are locally well-developed along the major faults and shear zones within these Provinces (especially the Brevard, Towaliga, and Goat Rock faults). Elsewhere, coarser grained rocks such as gneiss, schist, and amphibolite, as well as granite and gabbro, are more typically encountered.
Locally, there are narrow vertical dikes of diabase (a dark grey, fine-grained, intrusive, igneous rock) of probable Jurassic age (190 to 170 million years ago) (Higgins 1986). These represent the youngest rocks of these provinces as they cut across all the other
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metamorphic and igneous rocks. These dikes are generally basaltic in composition and almost invariably trend in a northwest-southeast direction (roughly perpendicular to the regional trend of the metamorphic layering). Individual dikes are rarely more than a few tens of feet wide but can be traced for tens of miles. They represent the intrusion by mafic magma into the rock of the region as a result of tensional rifting of the crust during the Mesozoic Era (245 to 66 million years ago) (Palmer 1983). Much of the bedrock in this area is blanketed with a thick residual clay mantle (saprolite). Quaternary to Recent alluvium is common along the major drainage basins.
Coastal Plain Province
The Coastal Plain Province occupies the southern three-fifths of the State and is composed of poorly consolidated sediments (predominantly clays, sands, and marls). Sediments exposed at the surface range in age from Late Cretaceous to Holocene (approximately 97 to 0 million years ago) (Georgia Geologic Survey 1976, Huddlestun et al 1988). Older rocks, including possible Jurassic sediments, Triassic basin fills, and Paleozoic sediments of African origin occur in the deep subsurface (Huddlestun et al 1988). The sediments of the Coastal Plain are essentially undeformed and dip very gently toward the coast to the south and southeast. These sediments form a wedge with the thin edge of the wedge at the Fall Line and the thick edge at the Atlantic Ocean.
There are four broad subareas of the Georgia Coastal Plain. Within each of these subareas, sediments are generally similar but differ markedly from adjacent areas of the Coastal Plain. These are the Fall Line Hills area, The Dougherty Plain area, Coastal Georgia, and the large intervening region that may be called the Altamaha Upland area. The Fall Line Hills, Dougherty Plain, and Coastal Georgia geologic areas approximately correspond to the Fall Line Hills, the Dougherty Plain, and the Barrier Island Sequence physiographic districts, respectively. The Altamaha Upland geologic area approximates the combined Tifton Upland and Vidalia Upland physiographic districts.
The Fall Line Hills area is predominantly underlain by soft, unconsolidated sands and clays that are of late Cretaceous and Early Tertiary age. Because the Fall Line Hills area lies adjacent to the more uplifted Piedmont, this sequence of sediments is the most deeply dissected region in the Georgia Coastal Plain. West of the Flint River, Cretaceous and early Tertiary sediments consist mostly of nearshore marine sands and grey clays. However, east of the Flint River these same deposits become more coarsely sandy (and locally gravelly) and the clay consists predominantly of kaolins. The kaolinitic sediments east of the Flint River were originally deposited by rivers, and they consist of channel-fill deposits and floodplain deposits along a narrow Cretaceous and early Tertiary Coastal Plain.
In southwestern Georgia the Dougherty Plain is underlain by limestones of middle Tertiary age (mostly upper Eocene and Oligocene limestones). These limestones were deposited when sea levels were unusually high and the Piedmont was deeply eroded into a low-lying, undulating plain. At that time, the shoreline of the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico approximated the present-day Fall Line Hills. The limestones in southwestern
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Georgia were deposited on a relatively shallow water continental shelf similar to that of the modern Bahamas and Florida Bay, north of the Florida keys.
In western Georgia, between the Fall Line Hills area to the north and the Dougherty Plain area to the south, there is a band of moderately rolling and dissected hills. This region has commonly been included in the Fall Line Hills area, although the geology and topography differ. The deposits of this region consist mainly of variably limey, locally fossiliferous, shallow-water, marine sands and clays of early Tertiary age.
To the south of the Fall Line Hills and east of the Dougherty Plain is a large, rolling upland area known as the Altamaha Upland. This region is mostly underlain by the Altamaha Formation of late Tertiary, Miocene age. The sediments of the Altamaha Formation consist chiefly of sand and kaolin and are very similar to some upper Cretaceous and lower Tertiary deposits of the Fall Line Hills area. However, the Altamaha Upland deposits contain more sandstone and claystone phases and are more resistant to physical erosion than sediments in the Fall Line Hills.
East of the Altamaha Upland and adjacent to the Atlantic Ocean is a band of thin, comparatively young sands and clays of late Tertiary and Quaternary age that compose the Coastal Georgia area. These sediments represent paleo-barrier island sequences that are analogous to modern deposition along the Georgia coast. These thin sands and clays are underlain by phosphatic, shallow water, marine deposits of Miocene age that may be seen in the Savannah, Altamaha, Satilla, and St. Marys river basins.
Climate
The climate of Georgia can be described generally as humid and temperate. Summers are warm to hot, with much of the annual precipitation occurring in the summer. Winters are cool to cold, and moist. Average annual precipitation varies significantly across the state, from less than 45 inches to over 70 inches. In northern Georgia, monthly precipitation totals are highest in late winter to early spring (March to April). A secondary peak in precipitation occurs in July, due to thunderstorm activity. In southeastern Georgia, maximum rainfall occurs in late summer to early fall. Southwestern Georgia locations typically experience two relatively even peaks of precipitation in March and July, with a third peak in December.
For the state as a whole, October is the month of lowest rainfall, but this monthly precipitation minimum also varies significantly across the state. For example, monthly precipitation totals are lowest in March in east-central Georgia, and in November in the extreme southeastern portion of the state.
Severe weather events occur primarily in the warmer months. Tornadoes spawned by intense thunderstorms are most likely in March, April, and May, and least likely in September and October. While tornadoes have historically been recorded from nearly every county in the state, the most violent tornadoes have been concentrated in northcentral Georgia. Extreme northeastern Georgia and the coastal areas of the state have the
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lowest incidence of tornadoes. Severe tropical storms and hurricanes are caused by development of large masses of warm, moist air over the tropical oceans. Most tropical storms affecting Georgia reach the state from the Gulf of Mexico. These storms pass over the panhandle of Florida and lose much of their energy in the process. Storms originating in the South Atlantic are more likely to provide hurricane-force winds to the coastal region of the state. The peak period of occurrence of tropical storms and hurricanes along the Atlantic coast is from August to October.
Average daily January temperatures vary from 25 to 60 degrees Fahrenheit across the state. Similarly, average daily July temperatures range from 60 to 90 degrees Fahrenheit. Locations in southcentral Georgia average 90 days per year with maximum temperatures above 90 degrees Fahrenheit, while sites in northermost Georgia experience less than 10 such days per year. High-elevation sites in the mountains of northern Georgia average 120 days with minimum temperatures below 32 degrees Fahrenheit, while locations along the coast and the southeastern border experience less than 30 such days per year.
Ecoregions of the State
The discussion of land use trends, high priority species and habitats, and conservation objectives in this report is organized by ecological region, or ecoregion. The major divisions used in this report are as follows: 1) Southwestern Appalachians/Ridge & Valley; 2) Blue Ridge; 3) Piedmont; 4) Southeastern Plains; and 5) Southern Coastal Plain. Boundaries of the first three of these entities approximate those of corresponding physiographic provinces discussed above, while the combined boundaries of the fourth and fifth ecoregions together comprise the Coastal Plain physiographic province. Figure 4 shows the major (Level III) ecoregions used in this report as well as subunits of those ecoregions (Level IV) that reflect distinctive landscape features or regions. Although the Southwestern Appalachians and Ridge & Valley are separate Level III ecoregions, they are treated as one unit in this document because they share many topographic, geologic, soil, and biotic components.
Descriptions of Georgia ecoregions are found in the corresponding sections that follow under "Conservation Landscape Assessments and Conservation Strategies". The text is modified from Griffith et al. (2001).
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Figure 4. Level III and IV Ecoregions of Georgia 43

Patterns of Wildlife Diversity
Biogeographic factors such as latitude, topography and continental position are basic to an understanding of Georgia's biodiversity as compared to other areas of similar size. A well-known relationship exists between biodiversity and latitude in that species diversity generally increases from the poles to the equator, with far more species of plants and animals found in the tropics than in higher latitudes (Brown and Gibson 1983). Georgia's location within the temperate zone is associated with moderate to high levels of biodiversity. The variety in climate due to the latitudinal span of Georgia is augmented by its topography.
The effect of elevation on climate is similar to that of latitude, so that in terms of climate, Georgia effectively spans more than the four to five degrees of latitude it actually covers. Due to the elevation of the mountains in the northern part of the state, biotic elements of northern latitudes can be found within Georgia. This location has served as one of several refugia during the most recent glacial events, shaping our existing complement of life forms. Extreme variability in temperature for a given location is related to lower levels of biodiversity in that fewer life forms have adapted to such conditions. The centers of continents, distant from the moderating effects of oceans, have the greatest extremes in annual temperatures, and in general, fewer numbers of species compared to coastal areas with moderate climate.
Georgia's position on the Atlantic Slope affords a relatively moderate climate associated with a more diverse flora and fauna. Unlike the uplifted western edge of the North American continent, the Atlantic coast is submerged and highly irregular. The lower reaches of rivers that drain the Atlantic Slope transition into estuaries, and elevation and topographic diversity decline gradually toward the coast. This results in a varied physiography associated with diverse terrestrial and aquatic habitats.
Plant species diversity in Georgia is high due in part to two distinct elements of biogeography, the "rich and ancient flora covering the Southern Appalachians, and the many unusual insectivorous plants that inhabit our bogs and wetlands" (Stein et al, 2000). Both the Appalachian region and the Southern Coastal Plain have high levels of endemism. A number of narrowly endemic plant species are also associated with the granite outcrops of the Georgia Piedmont. Nationally, Georgia ranks seventh in terms of overall diversity of vascular plants.
Georgia ranks second among all states in amphibian diversity, third in freshwater fish diversity, seventh in reptile diversity, fifteenth in bird diversity, and seventeenth in mammal diversity (Stein, 2002). Based on a recent nationwide assessment of 21,395 species, Georgia ranks sixth in the nation in overall biological diversity based on numbers of vascular plants, vertebrate animals, and the better known invertebrate groups. Georgia also ranks twelfth in the nation in terms of endemic species, eighth in percentage of species considered globally imperiled (12.9%), and fifth in terms of number of known or suspected extinctions (Stein et al., 2000).
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Species of Conservation Concern
The distribution of species of conservation concern across the state generally reflects overall patterns of wildlife diversity (See Appendix A). However, the distributions of high priority animals and plants by ecoregions reflect diverging patterns of critical habitat distribution as well as geographic patterns of imperilment. The greatest numbers of high priority animal species can be found in the Southwestern Appalachians/Ridge & Valley ecoregions (121), followed by the Southeastern Plains (85), Southern Coastal Plain (75), Blue Ridge (67) and Piedmont (55). For high priority plant species, the numbers are as follows: Southeastern Plains (145 species), Southern Coastal Plain (88), Blue Ridge (72), Piedmont (71), and Southwestern Appalachians/Ridge & Valley (59). This lack of correlation between high priority animal and plant distributions reflects divergent patterns of rarity and imperilment.
The large number of high priority animals in the Southern Appalachians/Ridge & Valley ecoregions reflects the extremely high number of rare or imperiled fish and freshwater invertebrates in this region. The Southeastern Plains region is second highest in number of high priority animals, and this total reflects a number of rare animal species distributed over several taxonomic groups. In contrast, the high number of rare plant species associated with the Southeastern Plains reflects associations with isolated wetlands, rock outcrops, wet pine savannas and seepage bogs, calcareous swamps, and several other discrete or edaphically controlled habitat types. The second-ranking ecoregion for rare or imperiled plants, the Southern Coastal Plain, is also characterized by a number of important natural habitats including sandhills, isolated wetlands, pine flatwoods, barrier island beaches and dunes, and maritime forest. Patterns of landscape and species diversity within each ecoregion will be discussed under "Conservation Landscape Assessments and Conservation Strategies".
While all of these high priority species are of conservation concern, the recommended conservation emphasis varies within the group. For one species or group of species, the most effective approach may be broad-scale habitat management over a large portion of its range, while for another species the most important goal, at least in the short term, is protection of a relatively small number of known viable populations by protecting specific sites or critical habitats. A third subset of high priority species represents the "worst case scenario" in which a species is extirpated or nearly extirpated from the state, and in which case the emphasis must be on maintenance and/or restoration of critical habitats as well as reintroduction or augmentation of populations. Unfortunately, several freshwater mussel species fall into this category. A fourth group of high priority species represents a subset for which there is evidence of rarity or decline, but for which there is currently not enough information on range, threats, or specific conservation needs to formulate a specific conservation strategy. For these species, research and survey efforts are the conservation actions proposed (See Appendix A).
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Land Use and Human Impacts

The increase in human population in Georgia over two centuries (Figure 5) through 1980

can be extrapolated to indicate increasing pressures on natural resources as more natural

habitat is impacted through an expanding population. The percentage change in

population by county for the last ten years of this period signifies a trend of population

expansion out from urban centers

into the traditionally more rural

Figure 5. Human population in Georgia, 1790-1980

counties. Various studies have been undertaken to elucidate the

impacts of this trend on natural

processes and habitats.

In 1987, the Kellogg Physical Resources Task Force published a final report entitled "The Georgia Landscape: A Changing Resource", documenting the effects of land use change in Georgia from 1935 to 1985 (Odum and Turner 1987). Changes during this time period were characterized as extensive and dramatic. In the 1930's, the Georgia landscape was very fragmented with many small, irregularly shaped tracts of open and forested land. Today the landscape is much less patchy with field and forest tracts larger and more regular in shape, and urban areas larger. Because of their very high-energy consumption per unit of area, metropolitan areas increasingly impact the life-supporting resources in the surrounding countryside. The amount of "edge" between land types has decreased over this 50-year period, a change that has had a major effect on many populations of birds and other animals.

Changes in major categories of land use differ by physiographic province. All regions show a decrease in the proportion of land in farms from 1935 to 1985, but the Piedmont and Mountains had the largest declines. Cropland declined most in the Piedmont where the average size of a crop field stayed the same, but there was little change in the Upper and Lower Coastal Plain aside from the average size of crop fields increasing. Forest area increased during the 50-year period in each region except the Upper Coastal Plain.

For this research, the task force calculated landscape richness, defined as the number of natural community types, and landscape evenness, defined as the equitability of the distribution of community types, for characterizing differences between physiographic provinces in Georgia. Their results showed that, in general, the Coastal Plain had the most diverse landscape, characterized by intermediate evenness and high richness. The high diversity was attributed to the greater range of habitat conditions which exist in the Coastal Plain. The Piedmont landscapes express an intermediate level of landscape diversity, with a high degree of evenness, but the lowest values for richness. The relatively even distribution of community types might be attributed to extensive human

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impacts and prior fragmentation. In their analysis, the Blue Ridge Mountains province exhibited low landscape diversity, having both low evenness and richness. However, many other investigators, including those participating in the Southern Appalachian Man and the Biosphere project (SAMAB, 1996) have characterized the Blue Ridge as one of the most diverse areas in the temperate region.
Since the time of the studies conducted by the Kellogg Physical Resources Task Force, urban sprawl has increased dramatically in the Piedmont and other physiographic provinces. The habitat losses and modifications attributed to increases in suburban areas, including stream habitat losses due to construction of the water supply reservoirs accompanying suburban growth, represent the primary long-term threats to wildlife diversity in Georgia. Other important stressors of wildlife habitats and species include conversion of natural habitats for agricultural or silvicultural uses, as well as activities associated with existing agricultural and forestry operations that do not meet the standards of best management practices.
In addition to converting natural habitats into agricultural or urban environments, humans have had a pervasive influence on regional and local natural processes in seemingly natural settings, altering the natural processes of the land. Perhaps the most obvious example is fire suppression. Fire is one of the most potent forces in the natural landscape. It influences species composition of both plant and animal communities over a wide range of habitats. Wildfires caused by lightning or set by humans are believed to have been important factors sustaining biological diversity in the Georgia landscape for at least the last several thousand years. The timing, scale, frequency and intensity of these wildfires varied from site to site, and this variability, in combination with other local environmental gradients, influenced the diversity of natural communities and species found in this area.
In Georgia today there are an average of 8,000 wildfires annually, which burn a total of approximately 32,000 acres, based on a ten-year average over the period 1990 through 1999. Of this annual total, some 240 fires were caused by lightning. During drought years this number may increase substantially; however, with advanced monitoring and firefighting techniques the average wildfire burns an average of only four acres, making little impact on the modern landscape. While roughly one million acres of prescribed burning is conducted in Georgia annually, the majority of this burning is site preparation for silviculture. Nearly all of this burning is conducted outside of the parameters (i.e., timing, frequency and intensity) of natural burning regimes. However, restoring natural fire regimes is rarely an option today. Wildfires allowed to burn naturally would encounter artificial firebreaks such as roads, decreasing their scope and duration.
Increasing human populations and continued urban sprawl prohibit the restoration of natural fire regimes on a broad scale. As a result, the Georgia landscape of today contrasts sharply with the open oak woodlands, park-like longleaf pine, extensive canebrakes and other fire-dependent habitats described by William Bartram, John Muir and other early naturalists. The maintenance of many species of plants and animals in the Georgia landscape depends on restoration and maintenance of fire-dependent communities. Implementation of these management programs remains a daunting task in
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the face of continued suburban sprawl, increased restrictions on prescribed burns to meet air quality standards, and concerns about smoke management along highways.
Economic growth and development in the state have also resulted in profound changes to aquatic and wetland habitats. These hydrologic alterations vary from region to region, but include construction of hydropower dams, water supply reservoirs and other types of impoundments on large and medium-sized rivers, channelization of streams, drainage of wetlands by ditches or drainage tiles, and withdrawal of groundwater and surface water. These types of activities often result in impacts to a wide variety of species in an area much larger than the footprint of the construction area. For example, construction of dams on major rivers can impact aquatic and wetland systems miles upstream and downstream of the impoundment through alteration of instream flows, changes in water quality, and physical isolation of populations of aquatic species. Similarly stream channelization affects not only the aquatic habitat in the channelized segment, but also downstream areas and adjacent floodplain habitats.
Point and non-point pollution of aquatic systems resulting from residential, commercial, and industrial development and various forms of land-disturbing activity represent serious challenges for many of Georgia's species and habitats. According to 2002 data from the Environmental Protection Division, some 2,870 of 11,359 miles of monitored streams in Georgia (25.2%) did not support designated uses due to some form of impaired water quality. The distribution of those streams is shown below in Figure 6. The percentage of streams failing to meet designated uses varies greatly by ecoregion. In the Blue Ridge ecoregion, some 76% of monitored streams supported designated uses, while only 17% of streams monitored in the Southern Coastal Plain were judged to fully support designated uses. These ecoregional variations are shown in Figure 7.
The southern pine beetle (Dendroctonus frontalis) has the potential to influence hundreds of thousands of acres of pine and mixed forests in Georgia. The economic impacts of southern pine beetle outbreaks on local forestry operations can be severe. However these outbreaks can create canopy gaps, snags, and downed woody debris that are important for a wide variety of wildlife species. In addition, these outbreaks can facilitate the transition from recovering loblolly pine stands to more diverse pine-hardwood or hardwood stands in appropriate sites. In some cases, the impacts of control measures for this species may be more significant than those of the episodic outbreak. For this reason, decisions on control measures for this and other native pest species should be made carefully based on local conditions and long-term management objectives.
In many areas of the state, reforestation of former agricultural fields has resulted in generally improved conditions for a number of forest and woodland species. This transition has produced relatively homogenous, even-aged forests with lower species diversity than corresponding forests on sites that were never cultivated. Most regenerating stands today are composed primarily of shade intolerant pioneer species rather than the mixture of shade tolerant and intolerant species associated with old growth forests. Average tree age is uniformly low, resulting in low natural mortality, few canopy gaps, and low structural diversity. In particular, the diverse shrub and/or herb layers
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found in natural stands are often lacking. However, there is evidence that these regenerating forests are capable of developing significantly greater levels of diversity over time if managed to facilitate or mimic natural succession and if habitats representing source areas for native plants and animals have been maintained nearby.
Figure 6. Streams Evaluated for Support of Designated Uses - 2002 49

SA/RV = Southwestern Appalachians/Ridge & Valley

PD = Piedmont

SP = Southeastern Plains

BR = Blue Ridge SCP = Southern Coastal Plain

Figure 7. Percentage of Monitored Streams Meeting Designated Uses, 2002

Human activities have resulted in the introduction of many nonnative species into the Georgia landscape. Some of these species were deliberately introduced as crop or horticultural plants, livestock, or pets and later escaped from cultivation or domestication. Others, like kudzu, autumn olive, Japanese honeysuckle, and bicolor lespedeza, were introduced to control erosion or provide food for wildlife. Still other exotic species were accidentally introduced by importation of food and other materials. While many of these species are relatively benign or serve as pests primarily of crops, lawns, or orchards, a number of exotic species are capable of invading natural communities and causing severe negative impacts to wildlife. For example, the fire ant has been found to cause mortality to gopher tortoises and southern hognose snakes. Many exotic pest plants have been identified for the Southeast (Miller 2003), and techniques for control of these pests are being explored and implemented in various habitats. Severe infestations of exotic species exist on public conservation lands as well as on private lands, and responding to this form of "biological pollution" will be a major task for land managers in the future.
The amount of land considered to be in permanent or long-term conservation use varies greatly from region to region, as indicated in Figure 8. This fact influences the types of challenges faced by wildlife as well as the conservation objectives and strategies that will be emphasized in a particular region.
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Figure 8. Percentage of land in conservation use by ecoregion. 51

IV. Conservation Landscape Assessments and Conservation Strategies
Southwestern Appalachians/Ridge & Valley
Ecoregional Overview
The Southwestern Appalachians and Ridge & Valley ecoregions cover approximately 1,982,245 acres in northwestern Georgia. Approximately 124,825 acres (six percent of the total area) are in some form of permanent conservation ownership. Georgia DNR manages approximately 22,250 acres owned in fee simple by the State of Georgia and an additional 35,300 acres in short-term leases or management agreements. Federal land ownership includes 66,160 acres managed by the U.S. Forest Service, 6,363 acres managed by the National Park Service, and 95 acres managed by the Department of Defense. These two ecoregions are treated as one unit in this report because they share many characteristics relating to geology, topography, soils, and vegetation.
The Southwestern Appalachian region stretches from Kentucky to Alabama and is characterized by low, flat-topped mountains containing a mosaic of forest and woodland with some cropland and pasture. The eastern boundary of this ecoregion is relatively smooth and notched by small eastward flowing streams; the western boundary has a rougher escarpment that is more deeply incised. The deeper ravines and escarpment slopes of this ecoregion contain mixed mesophytic forest, while the top of the plateau has more xeric mixed pine-oak forests and woodlands characterized by mixed oaks. Subdivisions of the Southwestern Appalachians include the Plateau Escarpment and the Southern Table Plateaus.
The Plateau Escarpment is characterized by steep, forested slopes and high gradient streams. Local relief is often 1000 feet or more. The geologic strata include Mississippian-age limestone, sandstone, shale, and siltstone, and Pennsylvanian-age shale, siltstone, sandstone, and conglomerate. Vegetation in the ravines and gorges includes mixed oak and chestnut oak forests on the upper slopes and more mesic forests on the middle and lower slopes and along streams and floodplain terraces.
The Southern Table Plateaus include Sand Mountain, Lookout Mountain, and Pigeon Mountain. While similar in some respects to the Cumberland Plateau in Tennessee, this region is lower in elevation, has a slightly warmer climate, and has more agriculture. It is mostly forested with mixed oak and oak-hickory communities. The plateau surface is less dissected with lower relief compared to the Plateau Escarpment, and it has slightly cooler temperatures and higher precipitation than the adjacent Ridge and Valley.
The Ridge & Valley is a relatively low-lying region situated between the Blue Ridge and the Southwestern Appalachians. Its roughly parallel ridges and valleys contain a variety of geologic materials, including limestone, dolomite, shale, siltstone, sandstone, chert, mudstone, and marble. Springs and caves are relatively numerous in this ecoregion. Ridges and slopes in this ecoregion are mostly forested, while pasture and row crops dominate the valleys. Subdivisions of the Ridge & Valley in Georgia include the
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Southern Limestone/Dolomite Valleys and Low Rolling Hills, the Southern Shale Valleys, the Southern Sandstone Ridges, and the Southern Dissected Ridges and Knobs.
The Southern Limestone/Dolomite Valleys and Low Rolling Hills comprise a heterogeneous region underlain primarily by limestone and cherty dolomite. Landforms are mostly undulating valleys and rounded ridges and hills, with many caves and springs. Soil productivity is variable and land cover includes oak-hickory and oak-pine forests, pasture, row crops, and urban/industrial.
The Southern Shale Valleys consist of undulating to rolling valleys and low, rounded hills and knobs underlain by shale. The soils in this area formed from shale, shaly limestone, and clayey sediments, and tend to be deep, acidic, moderately well-drained, and slowly permeable. The steeper slopes are used for pasture or have reverted to brush and mixed forest. Small fields of hay and row crops are grown on the toe slopes and along streams.
The Southern Sandstone Ridges encompass the major sandstone ridges of the Ridge & Valley, but also include areas of shale, siltstone, and conglomerate. The steep, forested ridges tend to have smooth, narrow crests, and soils are typically stony, sandy, and low in fertility. The chemistry of streams flowing down the ridges varies greatly depending on underlying geologic material. Oak-hickory-pine forests are the dominant land cover.
The Southern Dissected Ridges and Knobs contain interrupted or hummocky ridges. Although shale is common, there is a mixture and interbedding of geologic materials, including cherts, siltstone, sandstone, and quartzose limestone. Oak forests and pine forests are typical for the higher elevations of the ridges, with more mesic forests on the lower slopes, knobs, and draws.
The predominant land cover types in the Southwestern Appalachian/Ridge & Valley ecoregions are deciduous forest, mixed forest and row crop/pasture (Kramer and Elliott, 2004). An analysis of land use changes from 1974 to 1998 based on satellite imagery indicate the following general trends:
A decrease in row crop/pasture (from 32.94% of total land cover to 27.90%) An increase in high-intensity and low-intensity urban (from 4.41% of total land
cover to 6.42%) An increase in deciduous and mixed forest (from 37.21% of total land cover to
44.18%) A decrease in evergreen forest (from 18.30% of total land cover to 14.52%) A decrease in clearcut/sparse vegetation (from 6.54% of total land cover to
5.82%)
These trends indicate a general decline in the total acreage devoted to active agricultural uses, an increase in hardwood and mixed forest types, an increase in residential and commercial development, and a decline in evergreen (pine and redcedar) forest types.
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High Priority Species and Habitats
The technical teams identified 121 high priority animal species in the Southwestern Appalachians/Ridge & Valley ecoregions. These include 8 birds, 3 reptiles, 2 mammals, 7 amphibians, 52 mollusks, 36 fish, and 13 aquatic arthropods. These species are listed in Table 1, with information on global and state rarity ranks, protected status (if any) under federal or state law, and habitat and range in Georgia. In addition, 59 species of high priority plants were identified for the Southwestern Appalachians/Ridge & Valley. These are listed in Table 2.
High priority habitats for the Southwestern Appalachians/Ridge & Valley ecoregions are described below:
1. Acidic Meadows Over Sandstone or Shale Open, grassy habitats over shallow acidic soils; edaphic factors control species composition and diversity. May be moist or dry, depending on topographic setting. These small patch habitats are relatively rare in Georgia.
2. Calcareous Flatwoods (Hardwood Flats) Relatively open, flat, shallowly and seasonally wet forested habitats dominated by hardwoods and including rare or uncommon species such as nutmeg hickory and Alabama leatherflower. Shrub and herb diversity is high. A small patch habitat restricted to low-lying areas with clayey calcareous soils.
3. Calcareous Prairies (Coosa Valley Prairies) Open grass- and forb-dominated communities over clayey calcareous soils that inhibit growth of woody species. Groundlayer plant species diversity is high, and includes disjunct species known primarily from midwestern prairies. Includes wet and dry prairie subtypes. These habitats require periodic fire for maintenance.
4. Canebrakes Thickets of native river cane found along rivers and creeks under sparse to full tree cover. Canebrakes represent important wildlife habitat for a variety of neotropical birds and insects. These habitats require periodic fire or other form of disturbance for maintenance.
5. Caves, Rock Shelters, Talus Slopes These habitats share certain structural characteristics, such as a bedrock component with a variety of microhabitats that provide cover for priority animal species. They are typically embedded in a larger matrix of forest habitats. Caves are unique in their lack of sunlight and vegetation and dependence on outside materials for energy flows. Rock shelters can be found under cliffs (vertical exposures of rock). Talus slopes are accumulations of rock beneath cliffs and steep slopes. This region contains the majority of Georgia's caves and provides habitat for rare species such as gray and Indiana myotis.
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6. Forested Limestone Slopes and Terraces This forest type is found at middle elevations along Lookout and Pigeon Mountain. Characterized by submesic hardwood forest, with species composition dependent on aspect and slope position. Includes partially forested limestone ledges along streams.
7. High Gradient First- and Second-Order Streams Small, clear, cold, tumbling streams with bedrock riffles and sandy pools. Found at higher elevations and upper ends of steep ravines and slopes. These streams typically experience wide seasonal variations in flow; some receive substantial input from groundwater.
8. Limestone Glades and Barrens (Cedar Glades) Open habitats dominated by grasses or forbs, with scattered eastern redcedars and other trees. These habitats contain a large number of endemic plant species. Glades occur on thin, rocky soils, and are typically dominated by forbs; barrens are in areas with deeper soils and are dominated by grasses. The largest and most important area of cedar glades/barrens in Georgia is centered on Chickamauga-Chattanooga National Military Park.
9. Mesic Hardwood Forests Mesic forests of bluffs, ravines, and colluvial flats, characterized by a diverse canopy of hardwood species such as yellow poplar, black cherry, white oak, shagbark hickory, northern red oak, bigleaf magnolia, sugar maple, and American beech. Hemlock and loblolly pine may be minor components in some areas. Mature examples are characterized by a rich understory of shrubs and herbaceous plants. This large patch habitat includes a rich mesic hardwood forest subtype found on calcareous soils.
10. Medium to Large Rivers Lower gradient streams of valley bottoms, characterized by sandy, silty, or gravelly substrates. Typically surrounded by agricultural lands on the broad, fertile floodplains. Nearly all examples of large river floodplain forest in the Ridge & Valley region have been converted to other types of land cover.
11. Montane Longleaf Pine-Hardwood Forests Dry forests composed of longleaf pine and mixed hardwood species, including mountain chestnut oak, southern red oak, and various scrub oaks. Significant examples occur in the Ridge & Valley region near Rome. Nearly all Georgia examples are fire-suppressed and exhibit lower species diversity than corresponding habitats in Alabama.
12. Oak Woodlands An uncommon subxeric vegetation type found at higher elevations, oak woodlands are usually surrounded by xeric pine or pine-oak forest. Canopy dominants may include southern red oak, scarlet oak, post oak, and blackjack oak, with persimmon, blackgum, and other hardwood species. Probably maintained by a combination of infrequent fire and edaphic factors. Pigeon and Lookout Mountain contain good but narrow ecotonal examples.
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13. Pine-Oak Woodlands and Forest Relatively open subxeric to xeric forest or woodland, typically dominated by shortleaf pine, Virginia pine, and post and blackjack oaks, often with a diverse grass and shrub layer. May also include chestnut oak, scarlet oak, and other dry-site hardwood species. Includes typical shortleaf pine-post oak woodlands as well as mixed pine-oak scrub and dry pine-oak forest.
14. Red Maple/Blackgum Swamps Nonalluvial or small stream swamp forests dominated by red maple and swamp blackgum. These are often found along small low-gradient streams, in shallow depressions, or on wet flats. Often boggy, with a layer of peat, these wetlands have been impacted by construction of drainage ditches.
15. Sagponds (Isolated Depressional Wetlands) Depressions formed by subsidence of soil due to groundwater percolation in the underlying rock. Contain a variety of vegetation types from freshwater emergents to swamp forest, depending on hydroperiod and other factors. Forested types are usually dominated by willow oak, swamp blackgum, and red maple. These unusual wetlands may include disjunct coastal plain species.
16. Sandstone Barrens and Outcrops This edaphic habitat type includes sandstone boulders and outcrops of the Appalachian (Cumberland) Plateau as well as scoured sandstone ledges near streams. These open, rocky habitats are typically bordered by Virginia and shortleaf pine, chestnut oak, and a variety of shrubs.
17. Springs and Spring Runs; Gravelly Seeps Springs are highly localized points of groundwater discharge that typically feed spring runs, while seeps may be broader or less defined areas of perennial or seasonal flows. The Ridge & Valley region contains a number of high-discharge springs. The waters of springs and associated habitats can be highly variable, depending on hydrology. These perennially cool and clear waters provide important habitat to a number of animal species, particularly salamanders and fish such as the coldwater darter.
18. Streams Moderate to low gradient streams running through lower coves and valleys. Riffle, pool, and shoal habitats may be present. Substrates include gravel, pebbles, boulders, and bedrock. Aquatic plants may also be present. Pools are often silt-bottomed. These streams become turbid after rain. These are generally more productive than headwater streams because of limestone valley bottoms.
19. Underground Streams Includes streams of all sizes flowing through caves and other underground passages. These aquatic systems are important for rare species such as the southern cavefish and Tennessee cave salamander.
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Problems Affecting Wildlife Diversity
One of the factors impacting wildlife diversity in the Southwestern Appalachians/Ridge & Valley region is an increase in residential and commercial development along major highways and on the outskirts of metropolitan areas. This has resulted in loss of both agricultural and forest land, and has resulted in habitat fragmentation as new roads and utility corridors have been constructed. Much of the development of industrial and commercial sites has occurred along Interstate Highway 75 and other major highways. Expansion of the Chattanooga metropolitan area has resulted in significant residential development in several counties in Northwest Georgia, with associated subdivisions, roads, utility corridors, and retail centers. Other metropolitan areas experiencing significant growth in this region include Rome, Dalton, Calhoun, Chatsworth and Trenton. Much of the industrial development in this region has occurred in the valleys near major streams and roads. Residential development has occurred in these same areas, but increasingly houses and subdivisions are being constructed in more remote locations, including secluded coves, steep forested slopes and along the brows of Lookout Mountain and Sand Mountain.
Past conversion of forest and woodland habitats to agricultural uses has resulted in the loss of virtually all river floodplain forest and associated habitats such as canebrakes in this region. The fertile valleys and river bottoms are employed for a wide variety of agricultural uses, including row crops, pasture, and hay fields. In several watersheds (e.g., West Chickamauga Creek) vegetated stream buffers are often too narrow to provide adequate erosion control, and in some areas livestock have unrestricted access to streams. These practices result in a general degradation of water quality and habitat for aquatic species. Expanding vegetated stream buffers and restricting livestock access to streams would provide significant benefits to some of Georgia's most imperiled aquatic species.
Based on Environmental Protection Division monitoring data for 2002, approximately 46% of monitored streams in the Southwestern Appalachians/Ridge & Valley ecoregions support designated uses (as measured by percent of total monitored stream miles); 20% partially support designated uses, and 34% do not support designated uses. The percentage of monitored stream miles not supporting designated uses is the second highest of all ecoregions, surpassed only by the Southern Coastal Plain. Point-source discharges into streams in this region include effluent from carpet mills and other industrial facilities and treated wastewater from municipal treatment facilities. Other stressors of water quality include sedimentation from roads, cultivated fields, and pastures. Given the high number of imperiled mollusks in this ecoregion, improvements in water quality are a high priority for maintenance of wildlife diversity.
Groundwater withdrawals for industrial, municipal, and residential uses as well as contamination of groundwater represent potential impacts to sensitive karst environments such as caves. This region contains the vast majority of Georgia's 400+ caves. Most of these caves are found on private land, and only a few have been adequately surveyed for rare cave fauna. However, occurrences of several rare species have been documented from these caves, including gray myotis, Tennessee cavefish, and Tennessee cave
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salamander. All of these species are particularly sensitive to changes in the quantity or quality of water in underground streams.
Construction of dams or other structures altering stream flow represents another significant problem for aquatic species in this region. Most of the major river impoundments (e.g., Lake Allatoona, Carter's Lake, Weiss Lake) affecting streams in this area lie outside the Southwestern Appalachians/Ridge & Valley ecoregions, but the impacts of these impoundments extend upstream and downstream of the dams. These impacts include loss of stream habitat, creation of migration barriers, isolation of subpopulations, and degraded water quality (low dissolved oxygen, altered water temperatures).
Conversion of upland hardwood and pine-hardwood forests to pine plantations has also resulted in impacts to wildlife diversity. While not as prevalent in this region as in other areas of the state, this conversion has resulted in a decrease in habitat for a number of declining bird species. Specific problems associated with this forest conversion include loss of vegetative structure and nesting sites, decline in hard and soft mast production, loss of understory and groundcover diversity, and physical disturbance of habitat for organisms found in leaf litter or soil.
Fire suppression is a significant problem in this region. Extension of residential and commercial development from urban centers into surrounding suburbs has resulted in many fire-dependent habitats being surrounded by highways, subdivisions, or retail centers. Concerns about smoke management, air quality, and damage to structures make it difficult to implement prescribed burn plans for some of these important habitats. For example, while a fire plan has been developed for Chickamauga-Chattanooga National Military Park, concerns about smoke management problems along heavily traveled U.S. Highway 27 and potential damage to historic structures and monuments in the park represent impediments to implementation of the plan. Throughout the region, a lack of fire has resulted in the decline in the extent and quality of habitats such as limestone terrace woods, sagponds, longleaf pine-mixed hardwood forest, oak and pine-oak woodlands and forests, calcareous prairies, canebrakes, and limestone glades and barrens.
Invasive/alien species pose significant problems to habitats in this region. The red shiner is an introduced fish suspected of having a serious impact on several native fish in the Coosa River system through competition and hybridization. Other exotic aquatic species of concern include the Asiatic clam and the zebra mussel (the latter is currently not known from Georgia, but is a very serious aquatic pest in other states, including Tennessee). Notable examples of exotic plant species of concern in this region include Nepalese browntop, Chinese privet, Japanese honeysuckle, oriental bittersweet, royal paulownia, silvergrass, and autumn olive.
For some high priority species and habitats, unmanaged recreational use represents a serious problem. High levels of use by rock climbers may threaten habitats such as sandstone barrens and limestone ledges and impact associated rare species. Similarly, cave exploration by careless or inexperienced cavers can result in significant impacts to
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cave formations and populations of rare cave fauna. Indiscriminant use of all-terrain vehicles (ATVs) and other vehicles in or adjacent to streams, springs, calcareous flatwoods, or rare edaphically controlled communities such as calcareous prairies and limestone glades can result in significant impacts to high priority species and habitats.
Incompatible road and utility corridor management pose problems for some high priority plant species such as Cumberland rose gentian, royal catchfly, and prairie purple coneflower. For these species, use of herbicides and other vegetation management tools should be planned and implemented in a way that minimizes impacts to rare plant populations occurring in the road right-of-way or utility corridor.
High Priority Sites and Landscape Features
The current assessment and previous conservation planning efforts have identified a number of important sites and landscape features in this region of the state. A recent assessment of the Cumberlands/Southern Ridge & Valley ecorgegion conducted by The Nature Conservancy in cooperation with state natural heritage programs in Alabama, Georgia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia identified 29 high priority terrestrial conservation areas in Georgia representing approximately 459,428 acres (The Nature Conservancy, 2003). In addition, this study identified 16 aquatic conservation areas comprising over 1,289,800 acres and 16 high priority cave sites totaling approximately 385,625 acres. The following are some of the most important sites and landscape features of the Southwestern Appalachians/Ridge & Valley ecoregions.
Blacks Bluff
This steep-sloped bluff located along the Coosa River near Rome contains populations of limerock arrowwood (Viburnum bracteatum) and large flowered skullcap (Scutellaria montana), as well as examples of mesic hardwood forest. The Nature Conservancy owns and manages this site as Blacks Bluff Preserve. Similar environments are found nearby and are in need of long-term protection.
Carbondale Swamp
This relatively small wetland site surrounded by residential and industrial development is notable for containing the state's only known population of least trillium (Trillium pusillum) and an example of calcareous flatwoods habitat. This habitat is considered globally rare, and no examples are currently protected in Georgia.
Chickamauga-Chattanooga National Military Park
This 5,100-acre tract is owned and managed by the National Park Service. Important natural communities contained in this site include examples of cedar glades and open redcedar woodlands. High priority species include Leavenworthia exigua var. exigua, Dalea candida, and several other rare calciphiles found in Georgia only from this area. Cedar glade habitats in this area are suffering from fire suppression, which results in the
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encroachment of woody vegetation (redcedars and shrubs) and reduction in the extent of limestone glade and barren habitats.
Coosa Valley Prairies
These remnant patches of prairie habitat contain several globally rare species of plants. Both dry prairie and wet prairie types are present within the area; these represent very distinctive and imperiled natural communities. The best examples of these prairies known in Georgia are now protected through a conservation easement donated by the landowner, Temple-Inland Forest. A long-term monitoring and management plan developed by staff of The Nature Conservancy will help restore these prairies along with adjacent shortleaf pine-post oak woodland habitats.
Drummond Swamp/Sagponds
Drummond Swamp is an 700+ acre site containing a large sagpond as well as the only Georgia population of seaside alder (Alnus maritima). A portion of this site is protected through a conservation easement. Other sagponds are located in scattered locations in the Southern Shale Valleys area of the Ridge and Valley and are in need of long-term protection and restoration.
Lavender Mountain/Horseleg Mountain
This landscape feature contains examples of montane longleaf pine-hardwood forest, pine-oak woodland and forest, limestone glades and barrens, and mesic hardwood forest. Rare species known from this area include flatwoods rattlesnake-root (Prenanthes barbata), Alabama leather-flower (Clematis socialis), large-flowered skullcap (Scutellaria Montana), and Tennessee yellow-eyed grass (Xyris tennesseensis).
Lookout/Sand Mountain
These two mountains make up the main portion of the Southern Table Plateaus in Georgia. Important conservation sites within this 50,000+ acre landscape include Johnson Crook, Cloudland Canyon State Park, and Zahnd Natural Area. The Johnson Crook area contains approximately twenty caves, reportedly the highest density of separate caves in Georgia. The slopes of Johnson Crook also contain limestone outcrops, mesic hardwood forest, and redcedar-pine woodland. At least five rare plant species have been documented from this area and the potential for discovering other rarities is high. Cloudland Canyon, owned by the State of Georgia and managed as a state park, contains many rare plants and animals. Significant natural communities include limestone outcrops, caves, mesic hardwood forest, redcedar-pine woodland, seeps and springs. Zahnd Natural Area, the largest state-owned natural area in North Georgia, contains examples of sandstone barrens/outcrop, sagponds, pine-oak woodlands and forest, and underground streams.
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Pigeon Mountain
Pigeon Mountain represents the easternmost segment of the Appalachian Plateau in Georgia. This site is approximately 20,000 acres, 13,300 acres of which is owned by the Georgia DNR and managed as Crockford-Pigeon Mountain Wildlife Management Area. More than two dozen rare plant species are known from this site. High priority habitats include forested limestone slopes and terraces, high gradient first- and second-order streams, mesic hardwood forests, sagponds, sandstone outcrops, underground streams, and caves. The Pigeon Mountain salamander (Plethodon petraeus), a state-protected animal, is known only from the eastern slopes of Pigeon Mountain. Other high priority species include green salamander (Aneides aeneus), limerock arrowwood (Viburnum bracteatum), three-flowered hawthorn (Crataegus triflora), and Alabama snow-wreath (Neviusia alabamensis).
Southern Sandstone Ridges
The Southern Sandstone Ridges, also known as Armuchee Ridges, comprise the major sedimentary ridges of the Ridge & Valley; notable examples include Dick Ridge and Taylor Ridge. Much of this area is owned by the federal government and managed as the Armuchee Ranger District of the Chattahoochee National Forest. These steep, forested ridges are typically stony, sandy, and low in fertility. Oak-hickory-pine forests are the dominant land cover, but at least one example of montane longleaf pine-hardwood forest is known on Taylor Ridge. Rare species known from these landscape features include Frasier loosestrife (Lysimachia fraseri) and large-flowered skullcap (Scutellaria montana). Problems affecting this landscape feature include forest conversion, residential development, and fire suppression.
High Priority Waters
Figure 9 shows the high priority streams and watersheds identified by the Fishes and Freshwater Invertebrates team. These streams were chosen on the basis of documented occurrences of high priority aquatic species, high water quality rankings based on Index of Biotic Integrity scores, and designation as exemplary streams in a previous study by The Nature Conservancy. Examples include Conasauga River, Holly Creek, Mills Creek, Rock Creek, Sugar Creek, Sumac Creek, Little Armuchee Creek, West Armuchee Creek, Johns Creek, Teloga Creek, Euharlee Creek, Chatooga River, Cedar Creek, Chattanooga Creek, Crawfish Creek, Dry Branch, East Chickamauga Creek, West Chickamauga Creek, South Chickamauga Creek, Peavine Creek, and Tiger Creek. Refer to Table 1 of the Fishes and Freshwater Invertebrates Technical Team report in Appendix B.
Conservation Goals
Maintain known viable populations of all high priority species and function examples of all high priority habitats through land protection, incentive-based habitat management programs on private lands, and habitat restoration and management on public lands.
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Increase public awareness of high priority species and habitats by developing educational messages and lesson plans for use in environmental education facilities, local schools, and other facilities.
Encourage restoration of important wildlife habitats through reintroduction of prescribed fire, hydrologic restoration, and revegetation efforts.
Combat the spread of invasive/noxious species in high priority natural habitats by identifying problem areas, providing technical and financial assistance, developing specific educational messages, and managing exotic species populations on public lands.
Minimize impacts from residential and commercial development on high priority species and habitats by providing input on environmental assessments
Continue efforts to recover federally listed species by implementation of recovery plans and restore populations of other high priority species.
Improve water quality throughout the region, with special emphasis on high priority streams
Conasauga River
The Conasauga River watershed, which covers over 750 square miles, is home to 76 species of native fish, 26 species of freshwater mussels, 20 snails, and 20 salamanders. Priority species include Cherokee clubtail (Gomphus consanguis), the federally threatened blue shiner (Cyprinella caerulea), and the federally threatened finelined pocketbook (Lampsilis altilis). The river flows out of the Chattahoochee National Forest in Georgia up into the Cherokee National Forest in Tennessee. It then drops out of public land into private lands and flows back south into Georgia, passing Dalton, before merging with the Oostanaula River near Resaca.
The Nature Conservancy has been working in the Conasauga River Watershed since 1997. A large portion of the organization's focus is on restoration of key reaches of the river mainstem as well as significant tributary streams such as Holly and Sumac Creeks. Restoration projects include activities such as riparian buffer re-planting, bank sloping, cattle fencing, alternative watering sources for cattle, and access controls. All of these activities are directed toward the reduction of erosion and sedimentation entering streams. Protection is also an important focus of work in the watershed. Since 1997, The Nature Conservancy has protected over 150 acres on Holly Creek and over 80 acres on the Jacks River, with upcoming protection of over 630 acres on Holly Creek in 2005. Annual aquatic insect surveys take place to assess the health of the river. The Nature Conservancy provides annual funding to the Tennessee Aquarium Research Institute for salaries and mussel propagation, and is in its second year of funding sediment toxicity research through North Carolina State University. The Nature Conservancy also participates in education and outreach in the watershed community, serves on the board of Keep Dalton/Whitfield Beautiful, and co-coordinates the annual river cleanup. It is hoped that through these efforts the species diversity of the watershed and the well-being of the people that utilize the river can benefit together.
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Strategies and Partnerships to Achieve Conservation Goals
Provide financial incentives and technical expertise to encourage prescribed burns, through Interagency Burn Team and other means
Work with NRCS staff to identify high priority habitats and sites for implementation of habitat enhancement/restoration projects through Farm Bill programs (e.g., restoration of oak and shortleaf pine-oak woodlands, longleaf pine-hardwood forest, and stream buffers.)
Use state lands and other public lands (USFS, NPS) to showcase habitat restoration efforts.
Control invasive exotic species populations on public lands and provide technical assistance to private landowners to discourage use of invasive exotics
Work with GDOT and local governments to minimize direct impacts to high priority species and habitats from road construction and maintenance.
Work with Georgia Power and private landowners to identify and conserve populations of rare species in and adjacent to utility corridors
Develop educational materials on high priority species and habitats in the ecoregion and provide these to environmental educators at WRD facilities (e.g., Arrowhead Education Center) and other facilities
Work with NRCS, GFC, and GFA to revise forestry BMPs for better protection of streams and wetlands and maintenance of important wildlife habitats
Utilize Landowner Incentive Program (LIP) funds to implement programs to establish or expand vegetated stream buffers along high priority streams.
Work with the Georgia Land Trust Service Center to apply monies from the Georgia Wetlands Trust Fund to provide protection for high priority wetlands and stream corridors
Highest Priority Conservation Actions
Highest priority conservation actions (ranked "Very High" or "High") identified by the technical teams, Steering Committee, and other stakeholders specifically for these two ecoregions include the following (see Appendix L for details):
Continue and expand monitoring of rare species throughout the Coosa Basin and evaluate this approach for use in other basins. Participate in TNC's "Measures of Success" analysis for the Etowah River. Continue DNR's Stream Team surveys throughout the Coosa River Basin and UGA fish distributional surveys in the Etowah and Conasauga River systems.
Continue long-term monitoring of Pigeon Mountain salamander populations as well as surveys for other high priority cave and outcrop species (e.g., green salamander). Conduct seasonal counts of salamanders at caves on Pigeon Mountain. Establish and implement long-term monitoring protocols at known Pigeon Mountain salamander sites.
Monitor populations of gray bats in caves. Conduct annual summertime monitoring of caves that harbor this species and assess threats to these bat populations.
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Restore lake sturgeon populations in Georgia. Reestablish lake sturgeon to its former range and conduct appropriate research into habitat uses, growth, survival, food habits, etc., to assure success in restoration efforts.
For highest priority conservation actions of statewide scope, see Section V of this report.
Bird Conservation in the Southwestern Appalachians/Ridge & Valley Ecoregions
The greatest bird conservation issue in these ecoregions is conversion of hardwood and mixed pine/hardwood forest to loblolly pine plantations, residential or commercial developments, or agricultural uses. A large percentage of natural vegetation has been converted for other uses, and mature forest and the birds dependent on mature forest are less secure here than in any other region in the Southern Appalachians. The long-term health of populations of priority birds including Acadian Flycatcher, Wood Thrush, and Yellow-throated Warbler will depend on maintenance and management of remnant forest stands as well as aggressive restoration efforts. It is recommended that at least eight upland hardwood forest patches greater than 4,000 hectares be sustained and that the number of such patches in the 4,000 to 40,000 hectare range be increased. More than 80% of the mixed mesophytic hardwood acreage within these patches should be managed for long rotation or old growth. Existing short-rotation pine, while of less benefit to birds than mature forest, is nevertheless much more valuable than more intensive land uses, and it is recommended that the current percentage of land in this cover type be retained. All existing southern yellow pine and mixed pine hardwood habitats should be actively and appropriately managed with fire to improve habitat quality, and acreage should be increased where possible by reforestation of abandoned agricultural fields. Priority species associated with mature pine forests in the Ridge and Valley include Bachman's Sparrow and Brownheaded Nuthatch.
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Table 1. Southwestern Appalachians/Ridge & Valley High Priority Animals (121 Records)

Group

Scientific Name

Common Name

Global State Federal State Rank Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

Range in Georgia

AA Acroneuria arida

Elegant stonefly

G3

S3

Streams/rivers in the northern portion of the state

Known from Chattooga Co., Summerville; Cherokee Co., Ball Ground; Clayton Co., Jonesboro; Gordon Co., Ranger

AA Apobaetis Etowah

A mayfly

G1

S1

Known only from adults, Etowah River, Rome, GA and Known in GA from two locations Chickamauaga River, Ringgold, GA

AA Cambarus cymatilis

Conasauga blue burrower

G1

S1

Sandy clay burrows up to 1 mile from nearest stream Murray County, GA; Bradley Co, TN

AA Cambarus distans

Faraway crayfish

G4G5 S1

Clear cool streams under debris

Known from 2 sites in Murphy Hollow Creek system (Dade Co.)

AA Cambarus extraneus

Chickamauga crayfish G2

S2

Small to medium shallow rocky streams with moderate Chickamauga Creek drainage current

AA Cambarus fasciatus

A crayfish

G2

S2

Lotic habitats under rocks in flowing water

Lumpkin, Dawson, Pickens, Cherokee, Bartow, & Polk Counties in Etowah River

AA Cambarus longirostris

Longnosed crayfish G5

S1

Riffle areas of streams under rocks

Hobbs (1981) indicated that the range is poorly defined; he reported it from headwaters of the Nottely River (Union Co.), Lookout Creek (Dade Co.), and Cane Creek (trib. to Chattooga River in Walker Co.).

AA Cambarus parvoculus

Plateau crayfish

G4

S1

Swift clear streams with substrate of bedrock, sand, or Few localities in Warren Creek (Dade Co.) gravel

AA Cambarus scotti

A crayfish

G3

S2S3

Rocky riffles in streams with moderate to swift current Walker and Chattooga Counties

AA Cambarus unestami

A crayfish

G2

S2

High elevation streams with bedrock or rocks

Dade, Walker, and Chattooga Counties

AA Gomphus consanguis

Cherokee clubtail

G2G3 S1?

Spring-fed moderately-flowing forest streams, especially Only found in extreme NW corner where they drain small ponds

AA Orconectes forceps

Gaping claw crayfish G4

S1

Prefers riffle areas under rocks in larger streams that flow over limestone deposits

Chickamauga Creek drainage

AA Stylurus notatus

Elusive clubtail

G3

S1?

Rivers (usually large) and large lakes, often with sandy GA on extreme se corner of species' range bottoms, sometimes also with silt and gravel

AM Aneides aeneus

Green salamander

G3G4 S2

R

Moist rock crevices; new information suggests Aneides Restricted distribution in GA; CU and BR

also frequents canopies of trees; within hardwood

forests

AM Cryptobranchus alleganiensis

Hellbender

G3G4 S2*

R

Clear, cool, mountain streams and rivers with large

TN drainage steams in BR, RV, CU

rocky substrates

AM Desmognathus aeneus Seepage salamander G3G4 S3

Seepage areas within hardwood forested ravines

Primarily BR and RV, but also PD

AM Gyrinophilus palleucus

Tennessee cave salamander

G2G3 S1

Streams in caves; substrates include rock, gravel, sand, CU, one site and mud

AM Necturus maculosus

Mudpuppy

G5

S1

Medium to large streams and associated impoundments RV, potentially in CU and BR

AM Plethodon petraeus

Pigeon mountain salamander

G1G2 S1

R

Moist, rocky woods; rock outcrops; cave entrances

CU, east side of Pigeon Mt., rocky outcrops associated

with cave entrances

AM Pseudacris brachyphona Mountain chorus frog G5

S2

Hardwood forests with fishless breeding pools

BR, RV, PD

BI

Aimophila aestivalis

Bachman's sparrow G3

S3 SAR R

Open pine or oak woods; old fields; grassy forest regeneration

RV, PD, CP: where appropriate habitat

BI

Ammodramus savannarum Grasshopper sparrow G5

S4

Grassland surrounded by open country (ag, grassland CP, PD predominantly, less common in CU, RV, rare in

etc.)

BR

Group Codes: AA = aquatic arthropod; AM = amphibian; BI = bird; FI = fish; MA = mammal; MO = mollusk; RE = reptile

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Table 1. Southwestern Appalachians/Ridge & Valley High Priority Animals (121 Records)

Group

Scientific Name

Common Name

Global State Federal State Rank Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

Range in Georgia

BI

Colinus virginianus

Northern bobwhite

G5

S4

Early successional mixed grass/forb habitat; longleaf pine savanna

CP most numerous; uncommon in PD, RV; scattered in CU, BR

BI

Haliaeetus leucocephalus Bald eagle

G4

S2 (PS:LT, E

Edges of lakes & large rivers; seacoasts

PDL)

CP - primarily and reservoirs and rivers PD, BR, RV

BI

Ixobrychus exilis

Least bittern

G4

S3

Freshwater and brackish marshes with tall, dense emergent vegetation. Nests close to open areas

Probably more common as a breeder in CP due to much more potentially suitable habitat than in PD

BI

Lanius ludovicianus

migrans

Loggerhead shrike

G4T3Q S? SAR

Open woods; field edges; savannas

CP - primary area of abundance; scattered and low number in the PD (none in 20-county metro Atlanta area); low numbers in RV

BI

Limnothlypis swainsonii Swainson's warbler

G4

S3 SAR

Dense undergrowth with heavy litter (CP,M); canebrakes Although found widespread, bulk of population

in swamps and river floodplains (CP)

restricted to river floodplains of CP and PD; small BR

population

BI

Tyto alba

Barn owl

G5

S3/S4

Grassland savanna with large cavity trees, also neighborhoods with large cavity trees, generally needs open country

Local: CP, PD, RV, CU, rare in BR

FI

Acipenser fulvescens

Lake sturgeon

G3

S1

Large freshwater rivers & lakes over clean firm substrate Coosa drainage in GA

FI

Cyprinella caerulea

Blue shiner

G2

S1 LT

E

Flowing runs and pools in streams with cool water and Current range is confined to upper Conasauge River

firm substrates

system; historically known from Coosawattee and

Etowah systems

FI

Erimonax monacha

Spotfin chub

G2

SX LT,PXN

Large creeks to medium-sized rivers; moderate to swift If extant, most likely in Chickamauga Cr system,

currents over gravel to bedrock

possibly in Betty Cr (Little TN system)

FI

Etheostoma brevirostrum Holiday darter

G2

S2

T

Small creeks to moderate sized rivers in gravel and

Four disjunct restricted populations: Con, Coosawattee,

bedrock pools

Etowah mainstem, Amicalola; range may be much

smaller if new taxa recognized (all A's)

FI

Etheostoma cinereum

Ashy darter

G2G3 SH

Medium to large upland streams in slackwater areas with silt-free substrate and cover such as boulders or snags

last collected in S Chickamauga in late 50's

FI

Etheostoma ditrema

Coldwater darter

G1G2 S1

T

Vegetated springs and spring runs or small streams with Moseley, Colvard, & Spring Cr PAB

spring influence

FI

Etheostoma duryi

Black darter

G4

S1

R

Small to medium streams, gravel to cobble bottoms; Chickamauga Cr. System; two records from Lookout

riffles and pools

Cr. System; 1 record from Little Chickamauga Creek

tributary.

FI

Etheostoma jordani

Greenbreast darter

G4

S2

Medium-sized creeks to rivers in riffle areas over gravel Upper Coosa only to bedrock substrate

FI

Etheostoma rupestre

Rock darter

G4

S2

Swift rocky riffles often associated with attached vegetation such as Podostemum

Etowah and Conasauga

FI

Etheostoma trisella

Trispot darter

G1

S1

T

Breeding: vegetated spring seepage areas.

Nonbreeding: clear streams in vegetated shallow

slackwater areas

Endemic to upper Coosa

FI

Etheostoma zonale

Banded darter

G5

S1S2

Swift riffles in medium-sized rivers over large gravel, cobble, or boulder substrate

Toccoa and Chickamauaga systems likely only pops in GA; periphery of range

FI

Fundulus catenatus

Northern studfish

G5

S1S2

T

Margins of small to medium streams in areas of sluggish Chickamauga Cr. System; a few records from Lookout

to moderate current

Cr. System

FI

Hemitremia flammea

Flame chub

G3

S1

E

Springs & springfed streams

Only known from Chickamauga Cr. System in GA;

Group Codes: AA = aquatic arthropod; AM = amphibian; BI = bird; FI = fish; MA = mammal; MO = mollusk; RE = reptile

66

Table 1. Southwestern Appalachians/Ridge & Valley High Priority Animals (121 Records)

Group

Scientific Name

Common Name

Global State Federal State Rank Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

Range in Georgia

FI

Hiodon tergisus

Mooneye

G5

S1

Usually found near the surface of large streams, rivers, Oostanaula River and swift tailwaters of locks and dams

FI

Hybopsis amblops

Bigeye chub

G5

S2

R

Small to medium rivers over silty-sandy substrates in Many records in Chickamauga Cr. System; also known

slow to moderate current

from Lookout, Nottely, and Hiwassee systems

FI

Hybopsis lineapunctata Lined chub

G3

S2

Upland creeks over sandy substrate with gentle current Endemic to Tallapoosa and upper Coosa

FI

Ichthyomyzon bdellium Ohio lamprey

G3G4 S1S2

R

Medium to large rivers, mud to gravel bottoms; riffles in Chickamauga Cr. System (only 2 records)

small tributaries

FI

Lythrurus lirus

Mountain shiner

G4

S3

Cool, clear streams in flowing water over sandy to rocky Conasauga, Coosawattee, Oostanaula, Etowah substrates

FI

Macrhybopsis hyostoma Shoal chub

G5

SP

Swift currents over gravel substrates

Possibly in Chickamauga Cr. System

FI

Macrhybopsis sp. Cf.

Coosa chub

S2

Swift currents over gravel substrates

Mainstem upper Etowah, mainstem Conasauga

Aestivalis

FI

Moxostoma carinatum

River redhorse

G4

S2

R

Swift waters of medium to large rivers

Oostanaula, Etowah below Allatoona, Conasauga, and Brasstown Cr of Hiwassee system

FI

Notropis ariommus

Popeye shiner

G3

S1

T

Large streams and small rivers in flowing pools areas All post 1980 records are from S. Chickamauga Cr.;

over gravel

historically known from Lookout, Chickamauga, and

Brasstown Cr. Systems

FI

Notropis asperifrons

Burrhead shiner

G4

S2

Small streams to medium-sized rivers in pools, riffles, Restricted to upper Conasauga and Oostanaula tribs and midwater areas

FI

Noturus eleutherus

Mountain madtom

G4

S1

T

Riffle areas in medium to large rivers over coarse gravel One recent specimen from S. Chickamauga Dr

and rubble

FI

Noturus flavipinnis

Yellowfin madtom

G1

SX LT,XN,P

XN

Pools and backwaters of medium-sized creeks; gravel One record from W. Chickamauga Cr. and pebble substrate

FI

Noturus sp. Cf munitus Coosa madtom

G3

S1

E

Shoals and riffles of moderate to large streams and

Mainstem of Etowah (upstream of Allatoona) and

rivers

mainstem of Conasauga River

FI

Percina antesella

Amber darter

G1G2 S1 LE

E

Riffles & runs of medium-sized rivers

Primarily mainstem of Etowah and Conasauga; also known from Holly Cr. (Conasauga), Shoal Cr. (Etowah system) and Sharp Mountain Creek (Etowah system)

FI

Percina jenkinsi

Conasauga logperch G1

S1 LE

E

Deep, fast-flowing chutes and pools over clean

substrates of gravel or cobbles

Mainstem of upper Conasauga River

FI

Percina lenticula

Freckled darter

G2

S1

E

Swift deep runs of main river channels probably over a Primarily mainstem of Etowah and Conasauga; also

rocky substrate

known from Coahullah Cr. (Conasauga system)

FI

Percina sciera

Dusky darter

G5

S1S2

R

Large creeks and rivers in moderate current associated Listed for Lookout Creek, Chickamauga Creek, and

with woody debris, undercut banks, or vegetation

Toccoa systems in protected animal book; only GNHP

record is from Chattanooga Creek

FI

Percina shumardi

River darter

G5

S1

E

Large to medium rivers, deep chutes and riffles, coarse Conasauga River (near TN state line) and 1 record in

gravel substrate

Oostanaula River

FI

Percina sp. 9

Upland bridled darter G1Q S1

Runs and flowing pools of medium-sized rivers

Etowah, Talking Rock, Conasauga

FI

Percina tanasi

Snail darter

G2G3 SH LT

T

Large streams to medium-sized rivers in riffle areas with 2 GNHP records (1980) in South Chickamauga Creek

sand or gravel substrate

FI

Phenacobius uranops

Stargazing minnow

G4

S1

T

Riffle areas in small to medium rivers

Known from 4 streams in Chickamagua Cr. System

FI

Phoxinus tennesseensis Tennessee dace

G3

S1

Headwater streams with rocky bed sediments, undercut Only known in GA from Wauhatchie Br (SST 2002) banks,

Group Codes: AA = aquatic arthropod; AM = amphibian; BI = bird; FI = fish; MA = mammal; MO = mollusk; RE = reptile

67

Table 1. Southwestern Appalachians/Ridge & Valley High Priority Animals (121 Records)

Group

Scientific Name

Common Name

Global State Federal State Rank Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

Range in Georgia

FI

Typhlichthys subterraneus Southern cavefish

G4

S1

R

Underground streams

Only known from 2 localities in Chickamauga Cr. System (Tennessee drainage)

MA Myotis grisescens

Gray myotis

G3

S1 LE

E

Caves with flowing water or with large creeks or bodies Found in and near caves in Catoosa, Walker, and

of water nearby, also storm sewers and artificial caves in Chattooga counties; also old records from a Polk Co

other states

cave, from tunnel in Clarke Co, and one netted in

Bartow Co.

MA Myotis sodalist

Indiana myotis

G2

SA LE

E

Limestone caves with pools; wooded areas near

Known only from Dade County

streams, upland forests, large snags in open areas

including ridge tops

MO Alasmidonta marginata Elktoe

G2

SH

Small to medium rivers with moderately fast current and Historically known from South Chickamauga Creek

substrates to fine gravel and sand.

(Athearn Lot 6392)

MO Alasmidonta viridis

Slippershell mussel G3

SH

Small to medium rivers in areas of swift current and stable sand/gravel substrate.

Historically known from South Chickamauga Creek (Athearn Lot 7972 )

MO Amblema elliottii

Coosa fiveridge

G3

S2

Medium sized-to large rivers

Known from Conasauga, lower Coosawattee, and Oostanaula

MO Campeloma regulare

Cylinder campeloma G3

S2

Small streams to large rivers and reservoirs

Current records are from Holly Creek, Armuchee Creek, Dykes Cr. (Etowah), Etowah River above Canton, and Conasauga River; historically widespread in Coosa system

MO Elimia capillaries

Spindle elimia

G1

SU

Riffle areas of clean headwater streams.

Known historically from Coosa River; Etowah river and tributaries at Rome, GA (Goodrich 1944d). Known recently from Etowah River in Bartow co. In GA. This species was once a regional endemic confined to Coosa system of GA & AL; it may now be a narrow end

MO Elimia ornate

Ornate elimia

G1

S1

Currently know from Conasauga River from GA Hwy 2 to Tibbs Bridge;

MO Elimia striatula

File elimia

GU

S1

Headwater streams; may live in ponds

Tributaries to Conasauga River and Coahulla Creek, Whitfield Co. GA

MO Elliptio arca

Alabama spike

G3

S1

Medium to large river shoals

Known from Oostanaula and lower Coosawattee; probably extirpated from the Conasauga River

MO Elliptio arctata (coosa form)

Delicate spike

G3G4 S1

Rapids under large rocks

Only 2 known localities in GA; both from Conasauga river, probably a single population

MO Elliptio dilatata

Spike

G5

SH

Firm substrate of coarse sand and gravel in moderately Historically known from TN basin (Lookout or

strong current

Chickamauga--See Athearns records

MO Fusconaia barnesiana

Tennessee pigtoe

G3

S1

medium sized streams to medium sized rivers

Extant in E. Chickamauga Creek; historically known from Lookout Creek and South Chickamauga Creek

MO Fusconaia subrotunda

Longsolid

G3

SH

Small streams to medium rivers with clean substrate and Historically known from TN portion of NW Georgia (see

current

Athearn data)

MO Lampsilis altilis

Finelined pocketbook G2

S1S2 LT

T

Gravelly medium to large rivers

Historic range included the Chattooga and Conasauga Rivers, and a few of their tributaries. Present range seems to be restricted to the Conasauga River and Tallapoosa system

MO Lasmigona complanata Alabama heelsplitter G5

S1

alabamensis

Slow moving water of medium-sized and large rivers in Current record in Oostanaula near mouth of Armuchee,

mud and fine sand substrate

historically known Chattoga, Conasauga and

Ooostanaula

Group Codes: AA = aquatic arthropod; AM = amphibian; BI = bird; FI = fish; MA = mammal; MO = mollusk; RE = reptile

68

Table 1. Southwestern Appalachians/Ridge & Valley High Priority Animals (121 Records)

Group

Scientific Name

Common Name

Global State Federal State Rank Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

Range in Georgia

MO Lasmigona complanata White heelsplitter complanata

G5

SH

Medium-sized rivers to backwater bays and lakes in quiet water with fine sand and mud substrate

Historically known from Lookout creek

MO Lasmigona costata

Flutedshell

G4

SH

Small streams to large rivers with moderate currenta and stable substrate

Historically known S. Chickamauga Cr (Athearn record from 1958) and Lookout Creek (1971 Athearn Record)

MO Lasmigona holstonia

Tennessee heelsplitter G3

S1

Shallow, sandy/muddy creeks & springs

Historic and present ranges include Coosa, Chattooga, And Etowah River Drainages.lost from mainstem of Conasauga and Chattooga; Tennesse form known historically from tiger creek (S. Chick trib), W. Chickamauga Cr. (Walker Co.), and South Chickamauga Creek

MO Leptoxis crassa

Boulder snail

G1

SH

Flowing areas of rocky streams

Historic records from South Chickamauga Creek

MO Leptoxis crassa anthonyi Anthony's riversnail G1

SH LE

Clean cobble-rubble substrate in flowing areas of large Only known from South Chickamauga Creek (Catoosa

streams and rivers

Co.); all records predate 1980

MO Leptoxis foremani

Interrupted rocksnail G1

S1

Shallow runs with clean, mixed substrate.

Currently known from 7 miles of Oostanaula River (Shipp Island Area); historically known from Coosawattee (Athearn 1980 record)

MO Leptoxis praerosa

Onyx rocksnail

G5

S1

mainstem of medium to large rivers

Extant in Lookout Creek; may occur in South Chickamauga Cr.

MO Ligumia recta

Black sandshell

G5

SH

Medium-sized to large rivers with strong current and coarse sand and gravel with cobbles

historically widespread in Coosa basin; no current records; need to examine Athearn records for possible TN basin occurrences

MO Lioplax cyclostomaformis Cylindrical lioplax

G1

SX LE

Occurring in moderate to swift current on mud-flats along streams or under flat rocks.

Historically known from Coosa river system in NW GA (clench and turner 1955). Presently none found in GA in recent gastropod survey of upper Coosa system (Bogan and Pierson 1993).

MO Medionidus acutissimus Alabama moccasinshell G1

S1 LT

T

Gravel-cobble shoals in moderately strong current in Historically occurred in the Coosa River and tributaries,

medium-sized rivers

including the Chattooga River. The last known

collections from the Coosa River were 4 lots collected

by Hurd (1974) (USFWS 1991). Service biologists

collected a single specimen from the Conasauga River

MO Medionidus conradicus

Cumberland moccasinshell

G2

SH

Small large rivers with moderate to strong current

Historically known from Lookout Cr (Athearn record 1971)

MO Medionidus parvulus

Coosa moccasinshell G1

S1 LE

E

Gravelly creeks and medium to large rivers

Described from the Chattooga river. Historic sites include the Coosa river and tributaries (Choccolocco Creek, Conasauga River) (USFWS 1991). The present existence of the Conasauga River population has been confirmed by Pierson (1991), Hartfield (pers. com.)

MO Obovaria subrotunda

Round hickorynut

G4

SH

Medium-sized to large rivers with moderate flow and sand and gravel substrates

Historically known from Lookout Cr. And South Chickamauga Cr (Athearn Records, 1960's and 1970's)

MO Pleurobema chattanoogaense

Painted clubshell

G1

S1 C

Coarse gravel and sand riffles in medium to large sized Current records from mainstem of Conasaug river;

rivers

historically widespread in Coosa system

MO Pleurobema decisum

Southern clubshell

G1G2 S1 LE

E

Sand, gravel, cobble substrate of small rivers and large Historical range includes the Coosa River and

streams.

tributaries (Oostanaula, Conasauga, Etowah,

Chattooga, and Coosawattee Rivers) (USFWS 1991).

The most recent Coosa river drainage records are from

the late 1960's and 1970's in the Conasauga river

(USFWS 1991)

Group Codes: AA = aquatic arthropod; AM = amphibian; BI = bird; FI = fish; MA = mammal; MO = mollusk; RE = reptile

69

Table 1. Southwestern Appalachians/Ridge & Valley High Priority Animals (121 Records)

Group

Scientific Name

Common Name

Global State Federal State Rank Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

Range in Georgia

MO Pleurobema georgianum Southern pigtoe

G1

S1 LE

E

Gravelly creeks and medium to large rivers

Historically widespread in the Coosa; only recent collections are from Conasauga River and Holly Creek

MO Pleurobema hanleyianum Georgia pigtoe

G1

S1 C

Medium-sized rivers in coarse sand and gravel with slow Unknown to moderate current

MO Pleurobema perovatum Ovate clubshell

G1

S1 LE

E

Sand and fine gravel with moderate current in small to Currently occurs in 5 mile stretch of Conasauaga River;

medium-sized rivers

Historically widespread in Upper Coosa system

MO Pleurocera foremani

Rough hornsnail

G1Q SH

Clean gravel and cobble in moderate currents

Historically known from the Cahaba river and the Coosa River basin from Etowah River downstream, and at the mouths of a few side streams (Goodrich, 1944d). None found in a recent survey of upper Coosa (Bogan and Pierson, 1993).

MO Pleurocera pyrenella

Skirted hornsnail

G2

SH

Mountain streams

Historical sites include little Chickamauga Creek; also Crawfish and Peavine Creeks. No recent observations made. Survey work needed, then reassessment

MO Pleurocera showalteri

Upland hornsnail

G1Q S1

Riffles and pools of medium sized rivers.

Current range is Oostanaula river and possibly Coosa river below Rome.

MO Pleurocera trochiformis Sulcate hornsnail

G2

SH

Historically known from Lookout and W. Chickamauga

MO Pleurocera vestita

Brook hornsnail

G3

S2

Currently known from Armuchee, Conasauga, and Chattooga

MO Potamilus purpuratus

Bleufer

G5

S1

Quiet or slow-moving waters in mud or gravel substrate Historically widespread in Coosa basin; only current record is Coosawattee (Williams and Hughes 1997)

MO Ptychobranchus fasciolaris Kidneyshell

G4

SH

Medium-sized to large rivers with moderately strong current in substrate of coarse gravel and sand

Historically known from Lookout Cr. And Chickamauga Cr. System

MO Ptychobranchus greenii Triangular kidneyshell G1

S1 LE

E

Gravelly creeks and medium to large rivers

Historic range included the Coosa Tiver and tributaries (Choccolocco Creek, Chattooga, Conasauga, and Etowah Rivers) (USFWS 1991). Current range appears to be restricted to the Conasauga River as documented by Hartfield (pers. com.) and Pierson (1991). Johnson has recent (2003) records from Conasauga River and Holly Creek (shell only)

MO Quadrula rumphiana

Ridged mapleleaf

G3

S3

medium to large rivers

Currently known from Oostanaula, lower Coosawattee, and Conasauga mainstems; also known from lower Armuchee

MO Strophitus connasaugaensis

Alabama creekmussel G3

S1

Small to medium-sized rivers in some current and substrate of fine gravel, sand, and silt

Currently known from mainstem Conasauga River and Holly Creek; historically widespread in Coosa System

MO Strophitus subvexus

Southern creekmussel G3

S1

Sand to sandy mud in slow or no current in small to large creeks

Currently known from Rock Creek (Murray Co.); historically widespread in Upper Coosa system

MO Toxolasma corvunculus Southern purple lilliput G1

S1

channel margins of small streams to large rivers

Currently known from 1 unnamed tributary to Coosa River in Floyd Co.; Historically widespread in Upper Coosa system

MO Toxolasma cylindrellus Pale lilliput

G1

SX LE

small to medium sized rivers

Only historic record is Lookout Creek, 1 mile NNE of Skyuka Spring on Chick. Military Park (Dade County Ga, August 12 1957

MO Toxolasma lividus

Purple lilliput

G2

SH

Small to medium sized rivers in mud, sand, and gravel Athearn has one record from Lookout Creek (presubstrates. Occasionally present on shallow sand/gravel 1980) bars in reservoirs.

Group Codes: AA = aquatic arthropod; AM = amphibian; BI = bird; FI = fish; MA = mammal; MO = mollusk; RE = reptile

70

Table 1. Southwestern Appalachians/Ridge & Valley High Priority Animals (121 Records)

Group

Scientific Name

Common Name

Global State Federal State Rank Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

Range in Georgia

MO Toxolasma parvus

Lilliput

G3

SH

Shallow areas of lakes and reservoirs and small to large Historically known from Chickamauga Cr. System rivers with mud, sand, and gravel.

MO Truncilla donaciformis

Fawnsfoot

G4

S1

Medium to large rivers at depths of 3 to 18 feet and sand/ mud substrates.

Most recent record in mainstem of Ooostanaula in 1997 (JDW)

MO Villosa nebulosa

Alabama rainbow

G3

S2

Sand and gravel riffle areas in moderate current

Current records from Conasauga mainstem, Conasauga tributaries and a few Etowah River tributaries; probably lost from mainstem Etowah, Coosawattee, and Chattooga

MO Villosa trabalis

Cumberland bean

G1

SH LE,XN

Small to medium rivers in swift current with sand and gravel substrates

Historically known from S. Chickamauga Cr. Near Graysville, last seen in 1958

MO Villosa vanuxemensis umbrans

Coosa creekshell

G4T2 S2

Small creeks to large rivers

Current records are from upper Conasauga River mainstem, Conasauga tributaries (Holly Cr., Rock Creek), Armuchee Creek (Ooostanaula System); historically widespread in Upper Coosa System

MO Villosa vanuxemensis

Mountain creekshell G4

S1

vanuxemensis

Small headwater creeks in gravel and sand riffles

Athearn has many records from Lookout Cr and Chickamauga Cr. System; current record is from E. Chickamauga Cr.

RE Graptemys geographica Map turtle

G5

S1

R

Large streams and rivers

RV, Coosa and Tennessee drainage; possible in CU

RE Graptemys pulchra

Alabama map turtle G4

S1

R

Rivers & large streams

RV, Coosa drainage

RE Pituophis melanoleucus Northern pine snake G4T4 S2 melanoleucus

Dry pine or pine-hardwood forests

BR, PD, RV

Group Codes: AA = aquatic arthropod; AM = amphibian; BI = bird; FI = fish; MA = mammal; MO = mollusk; RE = reptile

71

Table 2. Southwestern Appalachians/Ridge & Valley High Priority Plants (59 Records)

Scientific Name

Common Name

Global State Federal State Rank Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

Range in Georgia

Aesculus glabra

Ohio buckeye

G5

S2

Mesic forests in circumneutral soil

CU, RV, PD

Agastache nepetoides Yellow giant hyssop G5

S1

Alnus maritime

Seaside alder

G3

S1

Ridge and Valley spring runs in standing water

RV

Arabis georgiana

Georgia rockcress G2

S1

C

T

Rocky or sandy river bluffs and banks, in

circumneutral soil

PD, RV, UCP; along Coosa, Oostanaula and lower Chattahoochee Rivers

Asclepias purpurascens Purple milkweed

G4G5

S1

Openings in calcareous mixed oak-hickory flatwoods RV, Floyd Co.

Aureolaria patula

Spreading yellow

G3

S1

foxglove

Circumneutral alluvial bottoms

RV, limited to Coosa Valley, Floyd Co.

Baptisia australis var. aberrans

Glade blue wild indigo

G5T?

S2

Limestone glades and barrens

RV

Berberis canadensis

American barberry G3

S1

Cherty, thinly wooded slopes

BR, PD; few sites from Towns Co. sw. to Meriwether Co.

Buchnera americana

American bluehearts G5?

S1

Wet meadows; seasonally moist barrens and limestone glades

BR, CU, RV, UCP; only coastal plain site on Ft. Benning, Chattahoochee Co.

Carex purpurifera

Purple sedge

G4?

S3

T

Mesic hardwood forests over limestone

CU, RV, BR

Carya myristiciformis Nutmeg hickory

G4

S1

Calcareous flatwoods

RV, Floyd Co.

Clematis fremontii

Fremont's leatherflower

G5

S1

Moist prairie openings in Coosa Flatwoods

RV, Floyd Co.

Clematis socialis

Alabama leather

G1

S1

LE

E

Grassy openings in calcareous oak-red maple

RV, Floyd Co.

flower

flatwoods

Coreopsis pulchra

Showy tickseed

G2

SR

Sandstone outcrops

CU, if present at all

Crataegus triflora

Three-flower hawthorn

G2

S2

Hardwood forests on rocky, limestone slopes

CU, PD, RV; NW Georgia in Floyd, Bartow, Walker and Dade Cos.

Cypripedium acaule

Pink ladyslipper

G5

S4

U

Upland oak-hickory-pine forests; piney woods

CU, RV, PD, UCP

Cypripedium parviflorum Small-flowered yellow G5

S3

var. parviflorum

ladyslipper

U

Upland oak-hickory-pine forests; mixed hardwood BR, RV, PD, possibly CU?

forests

Cypripedium parviflorum Large-flowered

G5

S3

var. pubescens

yellow ladyslipper

U

Upland oak-hickory-pine forests; mixed hardwood BR, CU, PD, RV

forests

Desmodium ochroleucum Cream-flowered tick- G2?

S1

trefoil

Open, calcareous woodlands

CU, UCP

Echinacea simulata

Prairie purple coneflower

G3

S2S3

Remnant prairies in the Coosa flatwoods near Rome RV

Erigeron strigosus var. Limerock daisy

G3

S1

calcicola

fleabane

Limestone glades or cedar glades

RV (single Floyd Co. site)

Helianthus verticillatus Whorled sunflower G1Q

S1

C

Remnant prairies

RV, Floyd Co., W of Cave Spring

Hydrastis canadensis Goldenseal

G4

S2

E

Rich woods in circumneutral soil

BR, CU, RV, PD with some sites now naturalized from original cultivated stands

Jamesianthus alabamensis

Jamesianthus

G3

S1

Streambanks, in circumneutral soil

RV

Jeffersonia diphylla

Twinleaf

G5

S1

E

Mesic deciduous forests over limestone

RV

72

Scientific Name Juglans cinerea

Table 2. Southwestern Appalachians/Ridge & Valley High Priority Plants (59 Records)

Common Name

Global State Federal State Rank Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

Range in Georgia

Butternut

G3G4

S1S2

Floodplain forests, cove hardwoods

RV, BR, PD (barely); known from a few isolated stands; mostly in mountains, southern stations disjunct on Sharp Top Mountain, Pickens Co.and south of C

Leavenworthia exigua Least gladecress

G4T3

S2

T

var. exigua

Lilium michiganense

Michigan lily

G5

S1

Lilium philadelphicum Wood lily

G5

S1

Lysimachia fraseri

Fraser's loosestrife G2

S1S2

R

Marshallia mohrii

Coosa Barbara's- G3

S2

LT

T

buttons

Marshallia trinervia

Broadleaf Barbara's- G3 buttons

S1S2

Melanthium woodii

Ozark bunchflower G5

S2

R

Neviusia alabamensis Alabama snow-

G2

S1

T

wreath

Onosmodium molle ssp. Western marble-seed G4G5T4? S1 occidentale

Panax quinquefolius

American ginseng G3G4

S3

Philadelphus floridus

Florida mockorange G1Q

S1

Philadelphus pubescens Hairy mockorange G5?

S1

Platanthera integrilabia Monkeyface orchid G2G3

S1S2 C

T

Polymnia laevigata

Tennessee leafcup G3

S1

Prenanthes barbata

Flatwoods

G2

S2

rattlesnake-root

Rhynchospora thornei Thorne's beakrush G1G2

S2

Rudbeckia fulgida var. Big-leaf black-eyed G4T4T5 S1?

umbrosa

Susan

Rudbeckia heliopsidis Little River black- G2

S1

eyed Susan

Sabatia capitata

Cumberland rose G2

S2

R

gentian

Sagittaria secundifolia Little River water- G1

S1

LT

T

plantain

Scutellaria montana

Large-flower skullcap G2

S2S3 LE,PT E

Silene regia

Royal catchfly

G3

S1

R

Limestone glades

RV, vicinity of Fort Oglethorpe, Catoosa Co.

Remnant wet prairies and calcareous flatwoods

RV

Wet meadows over sandstone

CU

Moist, open, bouldery gravel bars and streambanks; CU, BR, PD, RV; widely scattered sites from Currahee Mountain,

edges of sandstone and granite outcrops

Stephens Co. To top of Pigeon Mountain, Walker Co.

Remnant Coosa Valley prairies; maintained rights-of- RV way

Streamsides in open, bouldery gravel bars and washed, sandy banks

CU, RV, PD

Mesic hardwood forests over basic soils

CU, PD, UCP

Along wet weather streams over limestone

CU, (Walker Co.) and RV (Floyd Co.)

Limestone glades and adjacent woods

RV, Catoosa and Walker Cos.;

Mesic hardwood forests; cove hardwood forests
Rocky slopes and banks of the Coosa River Limestone ledges and rocky banks Red maple-gum swamps; peaty seeps and streambanks with Parnassia asarifolia and Oxypolis rigidior Bouldery slopes Limestone glades and barrens

BR, RV, CU, PD, UCP; found, at least formerly, well into the coastal plain; now mostly in PD and across North Georgia RV CU CU, BR, PD ; few sites from Tallulah Gorge to Cumberland Plateau, south to , Carroll Co.
RV RV

Margins of limesink ponds; moist limestone barrens, RV, UCP wet prairies

Limestone woods near springs/seeps

RV

Limestone or sandstone barrens and streamsides CU, RV, PD

Meadows over sandstone or shale Crevices in sandstone in fast flowing streams

CU, RV; from Coosa Valley prairies in Floyd Co. to sandstone caprock meadows in Dade Co
CU

Mesic hardwood-shortleaf pine forests; usually mature forest with open understory, sometimes without a pine component
Limestone barrens; remnant prairies

CU, RV
RV, UCP; now found only in Dade Co.; historical in other sites
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Scientific Name Silphium mohrii
Spiraea virginiana
Spiranthes magnicamporum Thalictrum debile Thaspium pinnatifidum
Thermopsis fraxinifolia
Thermopsis villosa
Trillium pusillum
Viburnum bracteatum
Xerophyllum asphodeloides Xyris tennesseensis

Table 2. Southwestern Appalachians/Ridge & Valley High Priority Plants (59 Records)

Common Name

Global State Federal State Rank Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

Range in Georgia

Cumberland

G3?Q

S1?

Rocky hardwood forests

CU

rosinweed

Virginia spirea

G2

S1

LT

T

Bouldery gravel bars and ledges along major

streams

CU, both sides of Lookout Mountain

Great Plains ladies- G4

S1

tresses

E

Limestone glades

RV, Floyd and Catoosa Cos.

Trailing meadowrue G2

S1

T

Mesic hardwood forests over limestone

RV, Coosa River watershed; now found only in Gordon Co.

Cutleaf meadow-

G2G3

S1

parsnip

Limestone outcrops and barrens

RV, Catoosa Co.

Ash-leaved bush-pea G3?Q

S2?

Oak and oak-pine ridge forests

BR (only?), perhaps adjacent RV, PD, need summary from Mike Ivey.

Aaron's rod, Carolina G3?

S1?

golden-banne

Mesic forests, floodplains and roadsides; mostly in CU (only?) sandy soils

Least trillium

G3

S1

Red maple-blackgum swampy woods in sticky clay RV, Carbondale Swamp, Whitfield Co. soils

Limerock arrowwood G1

S1

E

Mesic hardwood forests over limestone

CU, RV; extremely local on Pigeon Mtn., Walker Co. and at Blacks Bluff, Floyd Co.

Eastern turkeybeard G4

S1

R

Xeric oak-pine forests

BR, PD

Tennessee yellow- G2

S1

LE

E

Seepy margins of limestone spring runs

eyed grass

RV, PD (barely)

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Figure 9. High Priority Waters, Southwestern Appalachians/Ridge & Valley Ecoregions 75

Blue Ridge
Ecoregional Overview
The Blue Ridge ecoregion of Georgia covers approximately 1,694,412 acres. This total includes approximately 659,894 acres in conservation ownership. Georgia DNR manages 19,960 acres owned in fee simple by the State of Georgia and an additional 34,620 acres in leases or management agreements. Most of the conservation land (612,954 acres) in the region is owned by the federal government and managed by the USDA Forest Service. Other federal land managers include the Department of Defense (8,605 acres) and the Tennessee Valley Authority (5,066 acres). This ecoregion has a higher percentage of land in conservation use (39%) than all other ecoregions combined.
Landforms of the Blue Ridge range from narrow ridges to hilly plateaus to more massive mountainous areas with high peaks. The mostly forested slopes, high-gradient, cool, clear streams, and rugged terrain occur on a mix of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary geology. High peaks in this region may have annual precipitation of over 70 inches. The southern Blue Ridge is one of the richest centers of biodiversity in North America. Characteristic vegetation includes northern hardwood forest, submesic oak forests, heath thickets, shrub balds, hemlock-hardwood-white pine forests, cove hardwood forests, and mountain bogs. The three subdivisions of the Blue Ridge ecoregion in Georgia are the Southern Crystalline Ridges and Mountains, the Southern Metasedimentary Mountains, and the Broad Basins.
The Southern Crystalline Ridges and Mountains include the highest and wettest mountains in Georgia. These occur primarily on Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks. The common crystalline rock types include gneiss, schist, and quartzite. Soils are well-drained, acidic, and loamy. Mafic and ultramafic rocks also occur, contributing to circumneutral soils. Elevations of this rough, dissected region range from approximately 1800 feet to over 4000 feet; Brasstown Bald, the highest point in Georgia is 4,784 feet above mean sea level. Although there are a few small areas of pasture, orchards, and other clearings, this region is mostly forested.
The Southern Metasedimentary Mountains contain rocks that are generally not as strongly metamorphosed as those in the Southern Crystalline Mountains. The geologic materials are mostly late Precambrian and include slate, conglomerate, phyllite, metagraywacke, metasiltstone, metasandstone, and quartzite, with some schist and gneiss. Although the highest peaks are lower than in the preceding region, there are some isolated rugged mountains, such as the Cohuttas, Rich Mountain, and Fort Mountain.
The Broad Basins region is drier, and has lower elevations and less relief than the two preceding regions. Soils in this region are generally deep, well-drained, and loamy to clayey. Although this rolling foothills region is mostly forested, it has more pasture than adjacent regions as well as areas of row crops and truck crops on terraces and floodplains. Much of the pasture and corn crops support local cattle, hog, or poultry operations.
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The predominant land cover types in the Blue Ridge ecoregion are deciduous/mixed forest and evergreen forest (Kramer and Elliott, 2004). An analysis of land use changes from 1974 to 1998 based on satellite imagery indicate the following general trends:
A decrease in row crop/pasture (from 7.31% of total land cover to 6.66%) An increase in high-intensity and low-intensity urban (from 1.26% of total land
cover to 4.81%) An increase in clearcut/sparse vegetation (from 1.20% of total land cover to
3.16%) A decrease in evergreen forest (from 17.25% of total land cover to 12.12%) A very slight increase in deciduous/mixed forest (from 71.25% of total land cover
to 71.69%)
These trends indicate a slight decline in the total acreage devoted to active agricultural uses, a significant increase in residential and commercial development, an increase in disturbance related habitats (probably representing harvest or loss of pine-dominated stands) and essentially no change in the predominant land cover type, deciduous/mixed forest.
High Priority Species and Habitats
The technical teams identified 67 high priority animal species in the Blue Ridge ecoregion. These included 7 birds, 11 mammals, 3 reptiles, 8 amphibians, 27 fish, and 11 aquatic arthropods. These species are listed in Table 3, with information on global and state rarity ranks, protected status (if any) under federal or state law, and habitat and range in Georgia. In addition, 73 species of high priority plants were identified for the Blue Ridge. These are listed in Table 4.
High priority habitats for the Blue Ridge ecoregion are described below:
1. Boulderfield Forests High elevation mesic hardwood forest; dominated by broadleaf deciduous trees, occupying north-facing areas with angular rocks or blocks of rock and little visible soil. Includes rich flora with northern affinities. Typically very mesic, with trees such as yellow buckeye, sweet birch, yellow birch, rosebay rhododendron. A rare community of the Blue Ridge; only a few examples are known.
2. Canebrakes Thickets of native river cane found along rivers and creeks under sparse to full tree cover. Canebrakes represent important wildlife habitat for a variety of neotropical birds and insects. These habitats require fire or other form of periodic disturbance for maintenance. Most examples in this ecoregion are small and fire-suppressed.
3. Caves, Rock Shelters, Talus Slopes These habitats share characteristics, such as a bedrock component with a variety of microhabitats that provide cover for priority animal species. These habitats are usually
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embedded in a larger matrix of forest habitats. The Blue Ridge contains relatively few caves; these are typically fracture-type caves rather than solution caves. Rock shelters can be found under cliffs (vertical exposures of rock). Talus slopes are accumulations of rock beneath cliffs and steep slopes.
4. Floodplain Hardwood Forests Forested wetlands characterized by a diverse association of deciduous hardwood trees, including both montane and low-elevation species. Generally lacking in the more floodadapted oaks and hickories prevalent in Piedmont bottomland hardwood forests. Many of these floodplain forests were converted to agricultural uses early in the history of settlement of this region.
5. Hemlock-Hardwood-White Pine Forests Mesic and submesic forests dominated by a mixed canopy of hardwoods and hemlock and/or white pine. Hemlock forests are typically found along small to medium streams, in sheltered valleys and ravines. Thickets of rhododendron and mountain laurel frequently form a dense understory, which is important for many neotropical migratory birds. White pine may share dominance with oak-dominated forests in low- to midelevation slopes and sheltered low ridges. A serious threat to this forest type is the hemlock wooly adelgid, which is spreading from east to west across the region. A rare subtype of this forest type containing Carolina hemlock is found in scattered locations in the lower Blue Ridge.
6. High-Elevation Early Successional Habitats Includes a variety of vegetation types found at high elevations that are maintained by periodic natural or anthropogenic disturbance. Many high priority species are dependent on this habitat type, including the golden-winged warbler, Appalachian Bewick's wren, star-nosed mole, pygmy shrew, and fringed gentian.
7. High Elevation Forested Heath Thickets High elevation habitats characterized by dense thickets of ericaceous shrubs under an open canopy of hardwood trees. Herbaceous layer is sparse to patchy. Typical shrubs include huckleberry, mountain laurel, and rosebay rhododendron.
8. High Elevation Rocky Summits and Shrub Balds These are small patch habitats typically found only on the highest peaks of the Blue Ridge in association with northern hardwood forest. Characterized by a mosaic of exposed rock and patches of shrub or herb-dominated vegetation. Trees are mostly dwarfed northern red oak. Shrubs may include Catawba rhododendron, mountain laurel, huckleberry, mountain ash, viburnum, and hawthorn.
9. Low Elevation Seepy Thickets and Wet Woods Seasonally inundated or spring-fed wetland habitats. Thickets are dominated by a variety of shrubs. Includes forested habitats along seepage slopes and at the edge of mountain bogs, some of which are maintained by the actions of beaver.
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10. Medium to Large Rivers Moderate to high gradient rivers with cold, clear riffles, pools, and runs. Substrates may include boulders, bedrock, gravel, and pebbles. Many of these rivers traverse steep gorges. These aquatic habitats are low in productivity compared to streams of the Southwestern Appalachians/Ridge & Valley.
11. Mixed Pine-Hardwood Forests Mesic to submesic forests of hardwoods and pines, typically at middle to low elevations over a broad range of topographic conditions. A large patch habitat that comprises a major forest type of the Blue Ridge. Dominants may include yellow-poplar, sweetgum, various oaks, and loblolly, white, and/or shortleaf pine.
12. Moist Cliff Faces and Spray Cliffs Vertical to gently sloping rock faces located adjacent to waterfalls or seepage zones. These are wetlands dominated by mosses, liverworts, vascular herbs, and sparse shrubs or scrubby trees adapted to thin soils and high humidity. These small patch habitats represent unusually stable environments, where temperatures are moderated by the constant spray or seepage. Include many bryophytes and ferns representing disjunct occurrences from tropical regions as well as Southern Appalachian endemics.
13. Mountain Bogs and Wet Meadows A mosaic of wetland communities usually dominated by shrubs or emergent herbs, with scattered trees. May occur as elongate bands along stream valleys, or in much smaller and more compact patches on flats or slopes. Includes wetlands maintained by beaver activity as well as small, sheltered seepage areas along the headwaters of mountain creeks.
14. Northern Hardwood Forests High elevation mesic forests found in upper coves, flats and slopes with northerly aspects, usually at elevations above 3,500 ft. Dominant canopy species include American beech, yellow birch, sugar maple, and yellow buckeye, with white basswood, northern red oak, white ash, and black cherry also present. These forests are subject to broad scale disturbances such as ice storms. Old growth examples are rare and usually restricted to steeply sloped, inaccessible areas.
15. Oak Forest and Woodlands This vegetation type includes a wide variety of upland forests dominated by Appalachian oaks. Composition and complexity of oak forests vary with elevation, slope and moisture. In more mesic sites, canopy dominants may include red oak, white oak, and black oak, along with hickories and mesophytic hardwoods. Canopy dominants of more xeric sites may include mountain chestnut oak, scarlet oak, southern red oak, and northern red oak. Also includes subxeric or xeric oak woodlands found on ridges and upper slopes at high elevations. These oak-dominated forests and woodlands represent the most extensive natural vegetation type of the Blue Ridge.
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16. Pine-Oak Woodlands and Forest Relatively open subxeric forest to xeric woodland, typically dominated by shortleaf pine, pitch pine, Virginia pine, and post and blackjack oaks, often with a diverse grass and shrub layer. A rare subtype is found on serpentine soils. Pitch pine, Virginia pine, red maple and post oak are the dominant canopy trees in this rare community; understory trees of sourwood, dogwood and sassafras are usually thinly scattered and shrubs are sparse to dense.
17. Rich Mesic Hardwood Forests (Cove Hardwoods) The mixed mesophytic hardwood forests of the Southern Appalachians are the most biologically diverse habitats in the United States. Variations of this forest type can be found in the Blue Ridge at elevations from 1,000 to 3,800 ft. They are typically found in mesic sites on concave landforms and ravines, or on protected north and east-facing slopes at low elevations. A diverse mixture of mesophytic trees dominates the canopy, including yellow poplar, white basswood, sugar maple, yellow and sweet birch, cucumber magnolia, yellow buckeye, black cherry, eastern hemlock, white ash, blackgum, American beech, red maple, and various oaks and hickories.
18. Rocky Bluffs and Streambanks Plant composition of these rocky streamside habitats is variable, depending on stream size, amount of rock, and extent of flooding. These periodically scoured rocky habitats typically support few trees and sparse to moderate shrubs (sometimes thickets). A diverse stratum of light-loving herbs may be present.
19. Springs and Spring Runs; Gravelly Seeps Springs are highly localized groundwater expressions. The waters of springs and associated habitats can be highly variable, depending on hydrology (hydroperiod and volume) and edaphic factors. These cool clean waters provide important habitat to a number of animal species, particularly salamanders.
20. Streams Cold, clear, high gradient streams typically containing riffles, plunge-pools, cascades, and waterfalls. Substrata dominated by bedrock and boulders, but sand and gravel may also be present in depositional areas. These streams have low productivity and aquatic vegetation is rarely present.
21. Xeric Pine Woodlands A heterogeneous group of xeric pine-dominated woodlands found on ridges and steep slopes with southerly aspects, knobs, and low-elevation peaks. Below 2,400 ft. shortleaf pine is a dominant, with Virginia pine a common associate. From 2,400 to 2,800 ft. on the driest ridges pitch pine dominates. Above 2,800 ft. on slopes and ridges, Table Mountain pine dominates. All of these habitats require periodic fire for maintenance.
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Problems Affecting Wildlife Diversity
One of the primary factors impacting habitats and species in the Blue Ridge region is the rapid pace of residential and commercial development along major highways and on the outskirts of metropolitan areas. Much of this development is occurring as a result of an influx of people from other areas of the state as well as immigrants from other states. New industrial and commercial sites have been developed along recently improved highways, including Georgia Highways 515 and U.S. Highways 19, 76, 129, and 441, and 575. Metropolitan areas experiencing significant growth in this region include Clayton, Jasper, Dawsonville, and Blue Ridge.
In the Blue Ridge, valleys and river bottoms have been employed for a wide variety of agricultural uses, including row crops, pasture, and hay fields. In some watersheds vegetated stream buffers are too narrow to provide adequate erosion control, and in some areas livestock have unrestricted access to streams. These practices result in a general degradation of water quality and habitat for aquatic species. Expanding vegetated stream buffers and restricting livestock access to streams would provide significant benefits to imperiled aquatic species.
Conversion of upland hardwood and pine-hardwood forests to pine plantations has also resulted in impacts to wildlife diversity. Specific problems associated with this forest conversion include loss of vegetative structure and nesting sites, decline in hard and soft mast production, loss of understory and groundcover diversity, and physical disturbance of habitat for organisms found in leaf litter or soil.
Fire suppression is also a significant problem in this region. Extension of residential and commercial development from urban centers into surrounding suburbs has resulted in many fire-dependent habitats being surrounded by highways, subdivisions, or retail centers. Concerns about smoke management, air quality, and damage to structures make it difficult to implement prescribed burn plans for some of these important habitats. Throughout the region, a lack of fire has resulted in the decline in the extent and quality of habitats such as canebrakes, oak woodlands, and table mountain pine woodlands. Difficulties in implementing prescribed fire programs in the interface between residential and conservation lands present obstacles for restoration of these important habitats.
Invasive/alien species pose significant problems to habitats in this region. Feral hogs are a particularly noxious problem, due to their fecundity and indiscriminant use of habitats. Exotic plant species of concern include Nepalese browntop, Chinese privet, Japanese honeysuckle, oriental bittersweet, royal paulownia, kudzu, and autumn olive. A particularly important exotic forest pest is the hemlock wooly adelgid, which has invaded the Blue Ridge of Georgia, sweeping from east to west and causing significant losses of eastern hemlock. The hemlock wooly adelgid also poses a direct threat to the few populations of Carolina hemlock. In addition to impacts on forest communities, this pest threatens adjacent stream communities by causing loss of streamside vegetation. The USDA Forest Service is currently implementing various control measures against this invasive organism.
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For some high priority species and habitats, unmanaged recreational use represents a serious problem. High levels of use by rock climbers and hikers may threaten habitats such as high elevation summits and spray cliffs/gorge walls. Similarly, exploration by unethical or inexperienced cavers can result in significant impacts to cave formations and species such as the eastern small-footed myotis. Indiscriminant use of all-terrain vehicles (ATVs) and other vehicles in or adjacent to streams or wetlands or on steep side slopes can result in significant impacts to aquatic habitats.
Construction of dams or other structures altering stream flow represents another significant problem for aquatic species in this region. These impacts, from impoundments such as Rabun Lake, Hiawassee Lake, and Lake Seed, include impaired water quality, barriers to migration, and isolation of subpopulations of aquatic species.
Incompatible road and utility corridor management represent problems for some high priority plants such fringed gentian, large-flowered skullcap, persistent trillium, and Carolina hemlock. For these species, use of herbicides and other vegetation management tools should be planned and implemented in a way that minimizes impacts to rare plant populations occurring in the road right-of-way or utility corridor.
High Priority Sites and Landscape Features
The current assessment and previous conservation planning efforts have identified a number of important sites and landscape features in this region of the state. A recent assessment of the Blue Ridge ecoregion conducted by The Nature Conservancy in cooperation with state natural heritage programs in Georgia, Tennessee, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia identified 33 high priority conservation areas in Georgia representing approximately 149,300 acres (The Nature Conservancy, 2000). The following are some of the most important sites and landscape features that have been identified in the Blue Ridge ecoregion.
Amicalola Creek Watershed/Dawson Forest WMA
This site contains a number of rare species, including the Etowah darter (Etheostoma etowahae), holiday darter (Etheostoma brevirostrum) and eastern turkeybeard (Xerophyllum asphodeloides). Much of the immediate Amicalola Creek corridor is protected by state ownership (Dawson Forest WMA), but residential development is adversely impacting terrestrial and aquatic habitats in the watershed. This site lies on the border of the Blue Ridge and Piedmont ecoregions. A portion of Amicalola Creek has been proposed for study as a potential State Scenic River.
Blood Mountain/Coosa Bald/Sosebee Cove
This 3,200-acre site, found within the Chattahoochee National Forest, includes important examples of shrub bald, northern hardwood forest, and boulderfield forest habitats. These high-elevation habitats are rare in Georgia, and are recognized as important habitats in the Chattahoochee-Oconee National Forest Plan. Other examples of priority
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high-elevation habitats can be found at Tray Mountain, Brasstown Bald, and Rabun Bald. Perhaps the most significant long-term threat to these habitats is global warming.
Chattooga/Highlands Plateau
This l19,600 acre conservation landscape spans the upper Chattooga watershed in Georgia and South Carolina and the Highlands Plateau region in North Carolina. In Georgia, this area includes Cedar Cliffs, Buzzard Rock Cliffs, and the Ellicott Rock Wilderness Area. Numerous rare species and significant natural communities are contained within this landscape unit. While most of the area in Georgia is protected by special designation within the Chattahoochee National Forest, habitats in privately owned tracts within this area are being impacted by residential development. Another threat to this and many other conservation sites in the Blue Ridge is the hemlock wooly adelgid.
Etowah River Watershed
The Etowah River has its headwaters in the Blue Ridge Mountains. The upper portion of the Etowah River watershed provides habitat for numerous rare species, including a dozen species of imperiled fish and freshwater mussels. Several rare plants have also been documented from the Etowah River corridor. This watershed is threatened by residential and industrial development. A Habitat Conservation Plan is being developed to provide protection to the watershed and its imperiled species. In addition, a portion of the Etowah River has been proposed for study as a potential State Scenic River.
Fort Mountain
This 2,500-acre site encompasses the western edge of the Cohutta Mountains, and includes a number of important habitats including cove hardwood forest, mixed pinehardwood forest, rock shelters, xeric pine-oak woodlands, and rocky bluffs/streambanks. Abandoned mines in the area provide suitable habitat for several species of bats. Most of this site is in state or federal ownership.
Hiawassee Seeps
This site, which straddles the Georgia-North Carolina border, includes important seep/wet meadow habitats that support the green pitcherplant (Sarracenia oreophila) and other bog species. It is threatened by residential development and associated hydrologic alterations in the landscape. While this is the only extant population of green pitcherplant in Georgia, similar low elevation seeps and bogs are found in scattered locations in the Hiawassee River drainage and elsewhere in the Blue Ridge of Georgia.
Tallulah Gorge
Tallulah Gorge is a deep (600 ft.), narrow quartzitic rock gorge with sheer, almost vertical walls. The Tallulah River has been dammed to create a series of reservoirs, but much of the gorge and surrounding land is in relatively undisturbed condition. Important natural communities in this area include mesic cove hardwood forests, xeric pine-oak forests, and quartzitic cliffs. Rare species known from this area include Trillium
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persistens, Platanthera integrilabia, Tsuga caroliniana, Lindernia saxicola, and Aneides aeneus. Much of the gorge is now managed as a State Park.
Toms Swamp
This site on the Chattahoochee National Forest includes mountain bog habitat containing mountain purple pitcherplant (Sarracenia purpurea) and Carolina bog-myrtle (Kalmia carolina). Habitat at this site has been enhanced through cooperative efforts of the U.S. Forest, Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Atlanta Botanical Gardens, and other members of the Georgia Plant Conservation Association.
Upper Tallulah River Watershed
The headwaters of the Tallulah River contain several important habitats including hemlock-white pine-hardwood forest, rich mesic hardwood forests, and mountain streams and rivers. High priority species known from the sheltered coves and valleys of the upper Tallulah River watershed include water shrew (Sorex palustris), hairy-tailed mole (Parascalops breweri), and red squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus).
Woody Lake Bog
This small privately owned conservation site provides habitat for the state- and federallyprotected bog turtle (Glyptemys muhlenbergii). This and other mountain bog/wet meadow habitats in the Blue Ridge are threatened by surrounding residential or commercial developments, hydrologic alterations, and encroachment by woody vegetation. Mountain bogs and wet meadows require periodic management. Under conditions prevalent in earlier times these habitats would be maintained by a combination of fire and the action of beaver.
High Priority Waters
Figure 10 shows the high priority streams and watersheds identified by the CWCS Fishes and Freshwater Invertebrates team for this ecoregion. These streams were chosen on the basis of documented occurrences of high priority aquatic species, high water quality rankings based on Index of Biotic Integrity scores, and designation as exemplary streams in a previous study by The Nature Conservancy. Examples of high priority stream in the Blue Ridge include Sumac Creek, Holly Creek, Mountaintown Creek, Cartecay River, Talking Rock Creek, Toccoa River, Amicalola Creek, Long Swamp Creek, Shoal Creek, Cochrans Creek, Chestatee Creek, Brasstown Creek, Chattahoochee River, Etowah River, Chattooga River, and Little Tennessee River. Refer to Table 1 of the Fishes and Freshwater Invertebrates Technical Team report in Appendix B for details on the factors that contribute to the significance of individual streams.
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Conservation Goals
Maintain known viable populations of all high priority species and functional examples of all high priority habitats through land protection, incentive-based habitat management programs on private lands, and habitat restoration and management on public lands.
Increase public awareness of high priority species and habitats by developing educational messages and lesson plans for use in environmental education facilities, local schools, and other facilities.
Encourage restoration of important wildlife habitats through reintroduction of prescribed fire, hydrologic restoration, and revegetation efforts.
Combat the spread of invasive/noxious species in high priority natural habitats by identifying problem areas, providing technical and financial assistance, developing specific educational messages, and managing exotic species populations on public lands.
Minimize impacts from residential and commercial development on high priority species and habitats by providing input on environmental assessments
Continue efforts to recover federally listed species by implementation of recovery plans and restore populations of other high priority species.
Strategies and Partnerships to Achieve Conservation Goals
Support efforts by the U.S. Forest Service to implement prescribed burns to restore high priority habitats, including oak woodlands, table mountain pine stands, and shortleaf pine-post oak woodlands.
Provide fire training and equipment to WRD and PRHS staff and encourage participation in interagency fire teams.
Work with NRCS staff to identify high priority habitats and sites for implementation of habitat enhancement/restoration projects through Farm Bill programs (e.g., restoration of canebrakes, xeric pine woodlands, pine-oak woodlands/forest, and oak forest/woodlands)
Prioritize control efforts for exotic species on public lands and provide technical assistance to private landowners to discourage use of invasive exotics
Use state parks and other public lands to showcase habitat restoration efforts (e.g., control of exotic species at Amicalola Falls State Park, reduction of deer herd at Red Top Mountain State Park).
Work with GDOT and local governments to minimize direct impacts to high priority species and habitats from road development projects
Work with Georgia Power and private landowners to identify and conserve populations of rare species in and adjacent to utility corridors
Develop educational materials on high priority species and habitats in the ecoregion and provide these to environmental educators at WRD facilities (e.g., Smithgall-Dukes Creek Conservation Area) and other facilities
Utilize Landowner Incentive Program (LIP) funds to implement programs to establish or expand vegetated stream buffers along high priority streams.
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Work with the Georgia Land Trust Service Center to apply monies from the Georgia Wetlands Trust Fund to provide protection for high priority wetlands and stream corridors.
Share data on rare species and significant natural communities with staff of the Chattahoochee National Forest and provide input into forest management plans and biological evaluations.
Provide enforcement to limit illegal ATV use. Work with ATV groups and ATV manufacturers to promote responsible use.
Continue efforts to monitor ginseng trade through the Ginseng Management Program, and investigate illegal trade in nongame plants and animals.
Highest Priority Conservation Actions Highest priority conservation actions (actions ranked "Very High" or "High") identified by the technical teams, Steering Committee, and other stakeholders specifically for this ecoregion include the following (see Appendix L for details):
Conduct surveys of potential habitat for bog turtle and associated species, and evaluate this methodology for use in other habitats. Use GAP landcover data, GIS analysis, and other resources to develop predictive models that will help researchers locate mountain bog habitats for conservation.
Continue and expand monitoring of rare species throughout the Coosa Basin and evaluate this approach for use in other basins. Participate in TNC's "Measures of Success" for the Etowah River. Continue DNR's Stream Team surveys throughout the Coosa Basin. Complete and implement the Etowah River Habitat Conservation Plan.
Restore mountain bog habitats. Restore or enhance populations of rare bog plants. Continue bog turtle headstart and population enhancement efforts and use nonreleasable turtles for education/outreach efforts.
For highest priority conservation actions of a statewide scope, see Section V.
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OAK WOODLAND RESTORATION ON CHATTAHOOCHEE-OCONEE NATIONAL FORESTS
Restoring oak woodlands is the largest single restoration acreage objective of the Land and Resource Management Plan for Chattahoochee-Oconee National Forests. The 2004 revised plan has an objective to restore 10,000 acres of open oak woodland on the Chattahoochee and 1,000 acres on the Oconee within the first 10 years of Plan implementation. Other objectives call for additional acreage for restoration of pine, pine-oak, or oak-pine forests that share ecological characteristics with oak woodland.
Bartram (1791) and Brewster (1885) described extensive open oak and pine woodlands in their travels through the southern Appalachians, which supported a unique assemblage of plant and wildlife species. The presence of significant grass and herbaceous cover in these forests has been documented for the past 10,000 years in the pollen record (Delcourt and Delcourt 1997). Some of the wildlife species, such as northern bobwhite and golden-winged warbler, that have been recorded as common in these forest types (Brewster 1885, 1886) have decline significantly in the region (Sauer et al. 2001). Since the end of annual woods burning and the end of free-ranging herbivores in the late 1920's to early 1930's, there has been a precipitous decline in this habitat type as forest succession first closed the canopy then provided conditions for the development of dense shade tolerant but fire intolerant mid-story. Current forests are typically densely stocked, closed-canopied stands with little or no herbaceous understories.
Woodland restoration is envisioned as recreating complexes of open habitat with tree densities varying irregularly from grassland to woodland condition, often grading into surrounding open forest conditions. This irregular density is meant to mimic historical conditions created and maintained by variation in fire intensities due to slope, aspect, landform, and soil type. In general, the most open parts of these complexes would occur on drier upper slopes and ridges and on south and west aspects. Using a single upslope fire run as a `template,' intensity is lowest at the base of the slope, builds rapidly with progress upslope, and reaches its peak at the `shoulder' of the ridgeline at the top of the slope. Similarly, top kill of woody vegetation shows a gradient with larger stems being killed as one ascends the slope. Ridgecrests themselves are variable in intensity with greatest intensity occurring on narrow crests. Fire intensity drops off rapidly with increasing distance away from the point of maximum intensity, changing into a backing fire of relatively low intensity on the lee slopes. Where fires burned at large scales of thousands to tens of thousands of acres, a mosaic of conditions resulting from variable fire behavior resulted.
There are four primary treatment types needed for woodland restoration: (1) thinning (reduction) of overstory canopy, (2) largely eliminating the midstory canopy, (3) reducing the sprouting of hardwood rootstocks, especially of the fire intolerant species, and (4) reduction in the litter and duff layer depth. This will involve a combination of selective timber removal, prescribed fire, and the use of herbicides to control vigorous re-sprouting of fire intolerant hardwoods.
The Chattahoochee-Oconee National Forests is currently developing several large-scale oak woodland projects with a goal of restoring this important community to the landscape.
Bartram, W. 1791. The travels of William Bartram. Dover Publishing, New York.
Brewster, W. 1885. William Brewster's exploration of the southern Appalachian mountains: The journal of 1885. The North Carolina Historical Review 57:43-77.
Brewster, W. 1886. An ornithological reconnaissance of western North Carolina. Aug 3:94-113, 173179.
87

Group

Scientific Name

AA

Acroneuria petersi

AA

Beloneuria Georgiana

AA

Cambarus chaugaensis

AA

Cambarus coosawattae

AA

Cambarus fasciatus

AA

Cambarus georgiae

AA

Cambarus parrishi

AA

Cambarus speciosus

AA

Heterocloeon berneri

AA

Ophiogomphus edmundo

AA

Remenus duffieldi

AM

Aneides aeneus

AM

Cryptobranchus alleganiensis

AM

Desmognathus aeneus

AM

Desmognathus folkertsi

AM

Plethodon metcalfi

AM

Plethodon oconaluftee

AM

Plethodon shermani

AM

Pseudacris brachyphona

BI

Catharus bicknelli

BI

Dendroica cerulean

BI

Dendroica kirtlandii

BI

Haliaeetus leucocephalus

BI

Limnothlypis swainsonii

Table 3. Blue Ridge High Priority Animals (67 Records)

Common Name

Global State Federal State Rank Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

Range in Georgia

Etowah stonefly

G3

S3

Known in GA only from adults, Etowah River near Known only from the Etowah River near

Ball Ground

Ball Ground

Georgia beloneurian stonefly

G2

S2

Apparently known in GA from single adult record Known in GA from Rabun Co. (holotype) in GA

Chauga River crayfish

G2

S1

Lotic habitats with rocky substrates

Savannah drainage

A crayfish

G1

S1

Riffle habitats in the Coosawattee River system Coosawatee catchment; Gilmer County

A crayfish

G2

S2

Lotic habitats under rocks in flowing water

Lumpkin, Dawson, Pickens, Cherokee, Bartow, & Polk Counties in Etowah River

Little Tennessee crayfish

G1

S1

Flowing parts of medium size rivers with sandy- Few localities in Little Tennessee River

clay substrate

system

Rock crayfish

G1

S1

Rocky areas between riffles in clear headwater Headwaters of Hiwassee River system streams

A crayfish

G2

S2

Medium-sized streams with clear water and moderate to swift current with rock-littered substrate

Murray, Gilmer, and Pickens Counties

Berner's two-winged mayfly

G1

S1

Small to large fast flowing streams

Exact range uncertain

Edmund's snaketail

G1G2 S1

LE

Clear, moderately flowing streams and rivers

Species range is southern Appalachians only, known from GA, TN and NC

Georgia springfly

G2

S2

Small to mid-sized montane Appalachian streams Reported only from small streams in

in GA

Towns, Union, and White Counties, GA

Green salamander

G3G4 S2

R

Moist rock crevices; new information suggests Restricted distribution in GA; CU and BR

Aneides also frequents canopies of trees; within

hardwood forests

Hellbender

G3G4 S2*

R

Clear, cool, mountain streams and rivers with TN drainage steams in BR, RV, CU

large rocky substrates

Seepage salamander

G3G4 S3

Seepage areas within hardwood forested ravines Primarily BR and RV, but also PD

Dwarf blackbelly salamander

G1G3 S1

Rocky streams and seeps in montane hardwood Nottely River system in Union Co., BR forests

Southern graycheek salamander G3

S2*

Mesic, high elevational forests

Eastern BR

Southern appalachian salamander G3Q S2*

Logs & rock crevices in mesic forests

BR; > 1500 ft in elevation

Red-legged salamander

G2

S1*

Mesic, high elevational forests

Towns Co. & possibly Rabun Co. in BR

Mountain chorus frog

G5

S2*

Hardwood forests with fishless breeding pools BR, RV, PD

Bicknell's thrush

G4

S2

Wide variety of forest and scrub habitats

Only 6 confirmed records for GA: CP (coast) - 2 spring and 1 fall; PD - 3 fall

Cerulean warbler

G4

S3?

SAR

Mature deciduous forest with gaps

BR for breeding; PD, CU, RV migration

Kirtland's warbler

G1

S1

LE

E

Scrub habitats during spring and fall; may be associated with pines

Isolated reports could occur anywhere in the northern half of state or coast

Bald eagle

G4

S2

(PS:LT,P E

DL)

Edges of lakes & large rivers; seacoasts

Primarily CP and reservoirs and rivers in PD, BR, RV

Swainson's warbler

G4

S3

SAR

Dense undergrowth with heavy litter (CP,M);

Although found widespread, bulk of

canebrakes in swamps and river floodplains (CP) population restricted to river floodplains of

CP and PD; small BR population

Group Codes: AA = aquatic arthropod; AM = amphibian; BI = bird; FI = fish; MA = mammal; MO = mollusk; RE = reptile

88

Group BI BI FI
FI FI
FI
FI FI FI FI FI FI FI FI FI
FI FI

Scientific Name Sphyrapicus varius Vermivora chrysoptera
Cyprinella caerulea
Erimystax insignis Etheostoma brevirostrum
Etheostoma chlorobranchium
Etheostoma etowahae Etheostoma jordani Etheostoma rupestre Etheostoma scotti Etheostoma sp. cf. E. rufilineatum Etheostoma vulneratum Etheostoma zonale Hybopsis amblops
Hybopsis winchelli
Macrhybopsis sp. cf. aestivalis Moxostoma carinatum

Table 3. Blue Ridge High Priority Animals (67 Records)

Common Name

Global State Federal State Rank Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

Range in Georgia

Appalachian yellow-bellied sapsucker

G5

S1

SAR U

High-elevation hardwood forests, open with dead BR above 3,000 feet; only records from

trees

Union and Rabun counties

Golden-winged warbler

G4

S2

SAR

Mixture of seedling and sapling forest

Fannin, Union, Rabun counties

interspersed with herbaceous patches; open oak

woodland

Blue shiner

G2

S1

LT

E

Flowing runs and pools in streams with cool water and firm substrates

Current range is confined to upper Conasauge River system; historically known from Coosawattee and Etowah systems

Blotched chub

G3G4 S2

T

Medium to large clear streams in moderate

Toccoa, Nottely, and Hiwassee River

current with substrate of gravel to cobble

systems (Tennessee drainage)

Holiday darter

G2

S2

T

Small creeks to moderate sized rivers in gravel Four disjunct restricted populations: Con,

and bedrock pools

Coosawattee, Etowah mainstem,

Amicalola; range may be much smaller if

new taxa recognized (all A's)

Greenfin darter

G4

S1

T

Cool to cold high elevation creeks and rivers in No records in GNHP database or TVA

swift current with boulder to bedrock substrate Heritage data; Atlas shows 1 dot in NE

corner of state (BR, Tennessee River

System, Rabun Co.)

Etowah darter

G1

S1

LE

Small to medium-sized streams over cobble to gravel in areas of swift current

Main channel and tributaries of Etowah River upstream of Allatoona dam

Greenbreast darter

G4

S2

Medium-sized creeks to rivers in riffle areas over Upper Coosa only gravel to bedrock substrate

Rock darter

G4

S2

Swift rocky riffles often associated with attached Etowah and Conasauga vegetation such as Podostemum

Cherokee darter

G2

S2

LT

T

Small to medium-sized creeks with moderate current and rocky substrates

PAB; 3 ESUs: lower, middle, and upper Etowah (map from Freemans)

Undescribed redline darter

G1

S1

Swift rocky riffles

Upper Toccoa

Wounded darter Banded darter Bigeye chub
Clear chub ("Etowah chub")

G3

S1

G5

S1S2

G5

S2

G5

S1

Coosa chub River redhorse

S2

G4

S2

E

Fast rocky riffles of small to medium rivers

Restricted to Toccoa River system

(Tennessee drainage)

Swift riffles in medium-sized rivers over large gravel, cobble, or boulder substrate

Toccoa and Chickamauaga systems likely only pops in GA; periphery of range

R

Small to medium rivers over silty-sandy

substrates in slow to moderate current

Many records in Chickamauga Cr. System; also known from Lookout, Nottely, and Hiwassee systems

Generally in creeks and small to medium rivers Narrow portion of the Etowah over sand-silt bottom, usually in pools adjacent to riffle areas. Tends to occupy smaller streams in east than in west.

Swift currents over gravel substrates

Mainstem upper Etowah, mainstem Conasauga

R

Swift waters of medium to large rivers

Oostanaula, Etowah below Allatoona, Conasauga, and Brasstown Cr of Hiwassee system

Group Codes: AA = aquatic arthropod; AM = amphibian; BI = bird; FI = fish; MA = mammal; MO = mollusk; RE = reptile

89

Group

Scientific Name

FI

Moxostoma sp. 2

FI

Notropis hypsilepis

FI

Notropis photogenis

FI

Noturus sp. Cf munitus

FI

Percina antesella

FI

Percina aurantiaca

FI

Percina aurolineata

FI

Percina lenticula

FI

Percina sciera

FI

Percina sp. 9

FI

Percina squamata

FI

Phenacobius crassilabrum

MA

Condylura cristata

MA

Corynorhinus rafinesquii

MA

Mustela nivalis

Table 3. Blue Ridge High Priority Animals (67 Records)

Common Name

Global State Federal State Rank Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

Range in Georgia

Sicklefin redhorse

G2G3Q S1

Pools, runs, and riffles of rivers and downstream 5 miles of Brasstown Creek (Hiwassee

portion of their major tribs (and into lower

System)

headwaters of Brasstown Cr)

Highscale shiner

G3

S3

T

Flowing areas of small to large streams over

Primarily PD of Apalachicola (Flint and

sand or bedrock substrates

Chattahoochee); a few CP records from

Apalachicola; also know from 1 tributary in

BR of Savannah

Silver shiner

G5

S1

E

Large creeks to small rivers in riffles to flowing Only current record (1996) is from

pools over firm substrates

Brasstown Cr (Hiwassee system); 1

record from Little Tennessee system

(1966)

Coosa madtom

G3

S1

E

Shoals and riffles of moderate to large streams Mainstem of Etowah (upstream of

and rivers

Allatoona) and mainstem of Conasauga

River

Amber darter

G1G2 S1

LE

E

Riffles & runs of medium-sized rivers

Primarily mainstem of Etowah and Conasauga; also known from Holly Cr. (Conasauga), Shoal Cr. (Etowah system) and Sharp Mountain Creek (Etowah system)

Tangerine darter

G4

SH

T

Deep riffles and runs with boulders, cobble, or Only known from Toccoa River System

bedrock in large to moderate headwaters of

Tennessee River

Goldline darter

G2

S1

LT

T

Shallow rocky riffles with swift current in medium- Coosawattee system above Carters,

sized rivers

Talking Rock, one spm. Below Carters re-

reg

Freckled darter

G2

S1

E

Swift deep runs of main river channels probably Primarily mainstem of Etowah and

over a rocky substrate

Conasauga; also known from Coahullah

Cr. (Conasauga system)

Dusky darter

G5

S1S2

R

Large creeks and rivers in moderate current

Listed for Lookout Creek, Chickamauga

associated with woody debris, undercut banks, or Creek, and Toccoa systems in protected

vegetation

animal book; only GNHP record is from

Chattanooga Creek

Upland bridled darter

G1Q S1

Runs and flowing pools of medium-sized rivers Etowah, Talking Rock, Conasauga

Olive darter

G3

S1

T

High gradient upland rivers with large rocky

Only population in Toccoa

substrate in moderate to swift current

Fatlips minnow

G3G4 S1

E

Riffle areas in small to medium rivers

Only known from Little Tennessee River system in Rabun Co.

Star-nosed mole

G5

S2?

Moist meadows; woods; swamps

Known only from Charlton, Chatham, Clinch, Effingham, Jackson, and Union counties

Rafinesque's big-eared bat

G3G4 S3?

R

Pine forests; hardwood forests; caves;

Range in state is disjunct--C.r.rafinesquii

abandoned buildings; bridges; bottomland

found in northern BR and C. r. macrotis

hardwood forests and cypress-gum swamps

found in lower CP. Not known from PD,

but either subspecies might occur there.

Least weasel

G5

S1

Extreme northern Georgia, meadows, fields, brushy areas, open woods

Only Georgia specimen from north of Blairsville

Group Codes: AA = aquatic arthropod; AM = amphibian; BI = bird; FI = fish; MA = mammal; MO = mollusk; RE = reptile

90

Group

Scientific Name

MA

Myotis leibii

MA

Parascalops breweri

MA

Sorex cinereus

MA

Sorex dispar

MA

Sorex palustris

MA

Sylvilagus obscurus

MA

Synaptomys cooperi

MA

Tamiasciurus hudsonicus

RE

Eumeces anthracinus

RE

Glyptemys muhlenbergii

RE

Pituophis melanoleucus

melanoleucus

Table 3. Blue Ridge High Priority Animals (67 Records)

Common Name

Global State Federal State Rank Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

Range in Georgia

Eastern small-footed myotis

G3

S2?

Caves; mines; abandoned buildings, bridges, rock shelters in mountainous areas; high elevation talus fields

Known only from Rabun, Dade, and Union counties in Georgia

Hairy-tailed mole

G5

S1

Deciduous woodlands with thick humus; prefers Known only from Rabun County well-drained light moist soil (sandy loams)

Masked shrew

G5

S2S3

High-elevation mesic forests; field edges; swamps; mountain bogs

Known from Rabun, Towns, White and Union counties. Species is widespread, but range barely reaches into NE GA. Has been found in the Cherokee NF in Polk County, TN in and around Big Frog Mtn, but efforts to collect one in the Cohuttas or Rich Mtn area have been unsuccessful.

Long-tailed or rock shrew

G4

S1

Mountainous, forested areas (deciduous or

Only known from one location--Rabun

evergreen) with boulderfields, cliffline breakdown, bald. Other areas of potentially suitable

loose talus - may also occur in and along high- habitat present in a few other high

gradient mtn streams

elevation sites Probably more widespread

in Blue Ridge off of high mtns along North

Carolina line than we know or might be

limited to Rabun

Water shrew

G5

S1

Mountainous, along small cold streams with thick Only 1 record from extreme NE GA --

overhanging riparian growth

Rabun Co

Appalachian cottontail

G4

S1S2

Heath (Vaccinium, Kalmia) thickets within high elevation forests

High elevation (>3000ft) shrub cover in Rabun, Towns, Union, and Fannin counties. Has been found at much lower elevations in AL and SC

Southern bog lemming

G5

S1

Bogs, marshes, meadows, and upland forests with thick humus layer

One record from Rabun Co near NC line

Red squirrel

G5

S3

(PS)

Northern hardwood - Cove hardwood - Hemlock Fannin, Towns, Habersham, Rabun, and

forests

White counties in NE GA

Coal skink

G5

S2

Mesic forests; often near streams, springs or bogs

Very little known about range especially in CP

Bog turtle

G3

S1

(LT,T(S/ T

A))

Mountain bogs; wet meadows; edges of mountain BR, Tennessee and Savannah drainages streams

Northern pine snake

G4T4 S2

Dry pine or pine-hardwood forests

BR, PD, RV

Group Codes: AA = aquatic arthropod; AM = amphibian; BI = bird; FI = fish; MA = mammal; MO = mollusk; RE = reptile

91

Scientific Name Acer spicatum Agastache scrophulariifolia Berberis Canadensis
Buchnera Americana
Carex biltmoreana Carex manhartii Carex misera Carex purpurifera Carex roanensis Carex ruthii
Cephaloziella obtusilobula Chelone cuthbertii Coreopsis latifolia Cymophyllus fraserianus
Cypripedium acaule Cypripedium parviflorum var. parviflorum Cypripedium parviflorum var. pubescens Danthonia epilis
Diplophyllum andrewsii
Frullania appalachiana Gentianopsis crinita Gymnoderma lineare Helianthus glaucophyllus
Helianthus smithii Helodium blandowii
Helonias bullata

Table 4. Blue Ridge High Priority Plants (73 Records)

Common Name

Global State Federal State Rank Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

Range in Georgia

Mountain maple Purple giant hyssop American barberry
American bluehearts
Biltmore sedge Manhart's sedge Wretched sedge Purple sedge Roan Mountain sedge

G5

S2

G4

S1

G3

S1

G5?

S1

G3

S1

G3

S2S3

G3

S1

G4?

S3

G2

S1

High elevation boulder fields

BR

Forested floodplains; river terraces

BR

Cherty, thinly wooded slopes

BR, PD; few sites from Towns Co. sw. to Meriwether Co.

Wet meadows; seasonally moist barrens and limestone BR, CU, RV, UCP; only coastal plain site on Ft.

glades

Benning, Chattahoochee Co.

T

High elevation ledges and rock faces

BR

T

Cove hardwood forests; other mesic deciduous forests BR

T

Grassy balds

BR

T

Mesic hardwood forests over limestone

CU, RV, BR

Boulderfields and exposed granite ledges

BR

Ruth's sedge
Roundleaf cephaloziella Cuthbert's turtlehead

G3
GHQ G3

S2S3
SH S1

Montane wet meadows, seeps, gravel bars; often with Carex scabrata Moist cliff faces
Bogs and wet meadows

BR (only?)
BR BR, Rabun Co.

Broadleaf tickseed

G3

S1

Fraser's sedge

G4

S1

T

Pink ladyslipper

G5

S4

U

Small-flowered yellow

G5

S3

U

ladyslipper

Large-flowered yellow

G5

S3

U

ladyslipper

Bog oat-grass

G3?

S1?

Andrews' diplophyllum

G3

S1S2

Appalachian frullania Fringed gentian Rock gnome lichen Whiteleaf sunflower
Smith's sunflower Blandow's helodium

G1?

SR

G5

S1

T

G2

S1

LE

E

G3

S1

G2Q S1

G5

SH

Swamp-pink

G3

S1

LT

T

Mature deciduous forests with open understory

BR

Mixed hardwood-hemlock forests along mountain

BR

streams

Upland oak-hickory-pine forests; piney woods

CU, RV, PD, UCP

Upland oak-hickory-pine forests; mixed hardwood forests BR, RV, PD, possibly CU?

Upland oak-hickory-pine forests; mixed hardwood forests BR, CU, PD, RV

Moist, grassy depressions on granite outcrops

PD, confirmed in Georgia only from granite outcrops

Usually found near streams, as a pioneer on partly or BR strongly shaded (rarely quite sunny) open mineral soil, especially on loamy soil of roadside banks or on eroding banks along streams, more rarely on soil and th

On tree trunks and decaying wood above 3800 ft.

BR, if present

Grassy roadsides and old fields over circumneutral soils BR, mostly around base of Brasstown Bald

Moist cliff faces

BR, Rabun Co.

Moist, humic soils in full to light shade, at elevations

BR

usuallty above 2500 ft.

Dry open woods and thickets

BR, PD

A calciphile found in wet habitats, in brushy thickets along streams, at roadsides at the edges of swamp forests, or in open fens.? Only GA collection by J.K. Small in 1893 from [some unspecified habitat at] Stone

PD, if report valid; Georgia out of normal range; perhaps a mixup, or possible cryptic undescribed taxon??

Open swamps

BR, Rabun Co.

92

Scientific Name Hydrastis Canadensis Hymenophyllum tayloriae Hypericum buckleii Hypnum cupressiforme var. filiforme Isotria medeoloides
Juglans cinerea
Kalmia carolina Leiophyllum buxifolium Lejeunea blomquistii Lindernia saxicola Lysimachia fraseri
Monotropsis odorata Oncophorus raui
Panax quinquefolius
Panax trifolius Pedicularis lanceolata Plagiochila caduciloba Plagiochila floridana
Plagiochila sharpie Plagiochila sullivantii Plagiomnium carolinianum Platantanthera flava var. herbiola Platanthera grandiflora

Table 4. Blue Ridge High Priority Plants (73 Records)

Common Name

Global State Federal State Rank Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

Range in Georgia

Goldenseal

G4

S2

E

Taylor's filmy fern

G1G2 S1

Blue Ridge St.-John's-wort G3

S1

Filiform cypress-moss

G5T? S2?

Small whorled pogonia

G2

S2

LT

T

Butternut

G3G4 S1S2

Carolina bog myrtle Sand-myrtle

G4

S1

G4

S1

Rich woods in circumneutral soil
Wet ledges along the Chattooga River
High elevation rocky crevices Hanging as green threads from rocks or bark, perhaps above 3800 ft. Mixed hardwood- pine forests with open understory; history of nearby heavy logging, homesite or road clearing activity Floodplain forests, cove hardwoods
Open swamps and wet meadows; mountain bogs and Atlantic white-cedar swamps High altitude rocky ledges

BR, CU, RV, PD with some sites now naturalized from original cultivated stands BR, along Chattooga River, and perhaps Big Creek, Rabun Co. BR BR
BR, widely scattered sites all east of the Cohuttas
RV, BR, PD (barely); known from a few isolated stands; mostly in mountains, southern stations disjunct on Sharp Top Mountain, Pickens Co.and south of C BR, UCP; less than 3 or 4 sites in mountains and Fall Line Sandhills BR, on single clifftop, Rabun Co.

Blomquist's lejeunea Rock false pimpernel Fraser's loosestrife

G1G2 G1?Q G2

SH SH S1S2

Sweet pinesap Rau's oncophorus American ginseng

G3

S1

G3

S2?

G3G4 S3

Dwarf ginseng

G5

S1

Swamp lousewort

G5

S1

Brittle-lobed plagiochila

G2

S1?

Waterfall spray zones

BR

E

Rocky streamsides, sometimes submerged

BR, formerly Tallulah Gorge area

R

Moist, open, bouldery gravel bars and streambanks;

CU, BR, PD, RV; widely scattered sites from

edges of sandstone and granite outcrops

Currahee Mountain, Stephens Co. To top of

Pigeon Mountain, Walker Co.

Upland forests

PD, BR; few reports from Fulton Co. northeastward to Rabun Co.

On damp or wet, acid rocks, mostly on cliffs and near BR waterfalls in the mountains.

Mesic hardwood forests; cove hardwood forests

BR, RV, CU, PD, UCP; found, at least formerly, well into the coastal plain; now mostly in PD and across North Georgia

Mesic hardwood-coniferous forests

BR, PD

Bogs and wet woods

BR

Moist cliff faces

BR

Florida plagiochila

G2?

S1?

Sharp's plagiochila Sullivant's plagiochila Carolina mnium

G2G3 S1?

G2

SH

G3

S2?

In beech-magnolia forests on the bark of Magnolia grandiflora; CP. May be present in mts., over damp, shaded ledges, with Trichomanes petersii and Lejeunea flava.
Moist cliff faces and spray zones; BR
Seepy rock cliffs
Moist cliff faces

CP
BR BR, if present BR

Pale green orchid

G4T4Q S1?

Hardwood swamps

BR

Large purple fringed-orchid G5

S1

Wet thickets along, bouldery,; seepy streamsides above BR 2500 ft.

93

Scientific Name
Platanthera integrilabia
Platanthera peramoena Platanthera peramoena Platyhypnidium pringlei Sanguisorba canadensis Sarracenia oreophila
Sarracenia purpurea ssp. venosa var. Montana Scutellaria serrata Senecio millefolium Shortia galacifolia Sibbaldiopsis tridentate Silene ovata
Solidago simulans
Sorbus Americana Streptopus roseus Thalictrum coriaceum Thermopsis fraxinifolia
Thermopsis villosa
Trientalis borealis Trillium persistens
Triphora trianthophora Tsuga caroliniana
Waldsteinia lobata
Xerophyllum asphodeloides

Table 4. Blue Ridge High Priority Plants (73 Records)

Common Name

Global State Federal State Rank Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

Range in Georgia

Monkeyface orchid

G2G3 S1S2 C

T

Red maple-gum swamps; peaty seeps and streambanks CU, BR, PD ; few sites from Tallulah Gorge to

with Parnassia asarifolia and Oxypolis rigidior

Cumberland Plateau, south to Carroll Co.

Purple fringeless orchid

G5

S1

Wet meadows, openings among bottomland hardwoods BR

Purple fringeless orchid

G5

S1

Wet meadows, openings among bottomland hardwoods BR

Pringle's platyhypnidium

G2G3 S1

Canada burnet

G5

S1

T

Green pitcherplant

G2

S1

LE

E

Mountain purple pitcherplant G5T1T3 S1

Smooth skullcap

G4G5 S1

Blue Ridge golden ragwort G2

S1

T

Oconee bells

G2

SE1?

E

Three-toothed cinquefoil

G5

S1

E

Mountain catchfly

G2G3 S1S2

Cliffside goldenrod, Highlands goldenrod

G1

S1

American mountain-ash

G5

S1

Rosy twisted-stalk

G5

S1

Appalachian meadowrue G4

S1?

Seepy rock cliffs Seepy meadows and thickets Wet meadows; upland bogs
Mountain bogs
Cove hardwood and northern hardwood forests High elevation rock outcrops Mesic forests with mountain laurel and rhododendron Rocky summits Mesic deciduous or beech-magnolia forests over limestone; bouldery, high elevation oak forests Seepy summits of granite domes; moist, steep, rocky slopes and cliffs Grassy balds; northern hardwood forests High elevation boulderfields

BR BR, Rabun Co. BR, Towns Co.; known historically from CU and UCP BR, now found in only one site, extirpated from other known Georgia sites BR, Rich Mountain, Gilmer Co. BR BR, Rabun Co.; perhaps not native BR BR, RV, UCP; widely scattered in mountains; disjunct in southcentral and SW Georgia BR
BR BR BR

Ash-leaved bush-pea

G3?Q S2?

Aaron's rod, Carolina golden- G3?

S1?

banner

Northern starflower

G5

S1S2

E

Persistent trillium

G1

S1

LE

E

Nodding pogonia Carolina hemlock

G3G4 S2?

G3

S1

Piedmont barren strawberry G2

S3

T

Eastern turkeybeard

G4

S1

R

Oak and oak-pine ridge forests

BR (only?), perhaps adjacent RV, PD, need summary from Mike Ivey.

Mesic forests, floodplains and roadsides; mostly in sandy CU (only?) soils

Rocky, northern hardwood forests

BR

Mesic hardwood forests, upland forests

BR, PD; limited to 7-mile stretch of Tallulah River

Rocky bluffs Stream terraces and adjacent gneiss outcrops Xeric oak-pine forests

BR, in Tallulah Gorge and along Chattooga River
BR (barely), PD, UCP (barely); mostly piedmont foothills
BR, PD

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Figure 10. High Priority Waters, Blue Ridge Ecoregion 95

Piedmont
Ecoregional Overview
The Piedmont ecoregion stretches approximately 10,990,373 acres across middle Georgia. Approximately 426,775 acres of this ecoregion are in permanent or long-term conservation ownership. Georgia DNR manages 71,760 acres owned in fee simple by the State of Georgia and an additional 142,847 acres through short-term leases or management agreements. Federal land ownership includes 180,221 acres managed by the USDA Forest Service, 188,400 acres managed by the U.S. Department of Defense (including the Army Corps of Engineers), 35,607 acres managed by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, and 8,743 acres managed by the National Park Service. The Piedmont has the second lowest percentage of lands in permanent conservation status (5%) of all ecoregions in Georgia.
The Piedmont comprises a transitional area between the mountainous ecoregions to the northwest and the relatively flat Coastal Plain to the southeast. Geologically, it is a complex mosaic of Precambrian and Paleozoic metamorphic and igneous rocks with moderately dissected plains and isolated monadnocks (rounded hills). The soils tend to be finer-textured than in the coastal plain ecoregions. Once largely cultivated, much of this region has reverted to pine and hardwood woodlands, and, more recently, to sprawling urban and suburban areas. Subdivisions of the Piedmont ecoregion in Georgia include the Southern Inner Piedmont, the Southern Outer Piedmont, the Carolina Slate Belt, the Talladega Upland, and the Pine Mountain Ridges.
The rolling to hilly, well-dissected upland of the Southern Inner Piedmont contains mostly schist, gneiss, and granite bedrock. West of Atlanta and into Alabama, mica schist and micaceous saprolite are typical. To the east, biotite gneiss is more common. The region is now mostly forested with oak-pine, oak-hickory, and loblolly-shortleaf pine forests. Open areas are mostly in pasture, although there are some small areas of cropland. Hay, cattle, and poultry are the main agricultural products. Urban/suburban land cover has increased greatly within this ecoregion over the past twenty years.
The Southern Outer Piedmont ecoregion has lower elevations, less relief, and less precipitation than the Southern Inner Piedmont. Loblolly-shortleaf pine is the major forest type, with less oak-hickory and oak-pine than in the Southern Inner Piedmont. Gneiss, schist and granite are the dominant rock types, covered with deep saprolite and mostly red, clayey subsoils. The southern boundary of the ecoregion occurs at the Fall Line, where unconsolidated coastal plain sediments overlay the metamorphic and igneous rocks of the Piedmont.
As its name suggests, the Carolina Slate Belt is found primarily in the Carolinas, although a small portion extends into Georgia. The region's mineral-rich metavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks with slatey cleavage are finer-grained and less metamorphosed than most Piedmont regions. This area tends to be less rugged and dissected, with wider valleys than other Piedmont areas, and with more silty and silty clay soils.
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The Talladega Upland contains dissected hills and tablelands that are mostly forested and at generally higher elevations than the Southern Inner and Southern Outer Piedmont. The geology is distinctive, consisting of mostly phyllite, quartzite, slate, metasiltstone, and metaconglomerate, in contrast to the metamorphic and intrusive igneous rocks of the Southern Inner and Southern Outer Piedmont. The climate of the Talladega Upland is slightly cooler and wetter than the other ecoregions of the Georgia Piedmont. Oakhickory-pine forest is the dominant natural vegetation type.
The Pine Mountain Ridges, a narrow region in the southwest portion of the Georgia Piedmont, contains quartzite-capped, steep-sloped ridges that rise 300-400 feet to elevations over 1300 feet. Pine Mountain and Oak Mountain are the primary linear ridges trending southwest to northeast, and several other smaller ridges and mountains between these, including Bull Trail Mountain, Indian Grave Mountain, Salter Mountain, and Huckleberry Pinnacle, add to the region's more mountainous appearance. The Flint River has cut narrow, steep gorges through the ridges. Streams in this region are generally of higher gradient than surrounding areas of the Southern Outer Piedmont and contain more rocky or gravelly substrates.
The predominant land cover types in the Piedmont are deciduous/mixed forest and evergreen forest (Kramer and Elliott, 2004). An analysis of land use changes from 1974 to 1998 based on satellite imagery indicate the following general trends:
A decrease in row crop/pasture (from 19.47% of total land cover to 15.51%) An increase in high-intensity and low-intensity urban (from 4.86% of total land
cover to 9.57%) An increase in clearcut/sparse vegetation (from 3.82% of total land cover to
7.38%) A decrease in deciduous/mixed forest (from 38.23% of total land cove to 33.98%) A slight decrease in evergreen forest (from 28.86% of total land cover to 28.17%)
These trends indicate a general decline in the total acreage devoted to active agricultural uses, a significant increase in residential and commercial development, an increase in cleared or sparsely vegetated habitats (likely from a wide range of activities, including construction, timber harvest, and abandonment of agricultural fields), a decline in deciduous/mixed forest, and little change in the total acreage of pine forest (represented primarily by loblolly pine plantations in this ecoregion).
High Priority Species and Habitats
The technical teams identified 55 high priority animal species in the Piedmont ecoregion. These included 13 birds, 4 reptiles, 1 mammal, 3 amphibians, 5 mollusks, 23 fish, and 6 aquatic arthropods. These species are listed in Table 5, with information on global and state rarity ranks, protected status (if any) under federal or state law, and habitat and range in Georgia. In addition, 71 species of high priority plants were identified for the Piedmont. These are listed in Table 6.
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High priority habitats for the Piedmont ecoregion are listed and briefly described below:
1. Beaver Ponds; Freshwater Marsh Beaver ponds are temporary impoundments created by beaver on small to medium sized streams. Freshwater marshes develop in shallow beaver ponds and along the edges of larger lakes and ponds. Dominants include a variety of sedges, rushes, grasses, and forbs, with scattered buttonbush, red maple, swamp dogwood, and tag alder. Few Georgia examples exist that are not invaded by the exotic weed, Murdannia. These wetlands provide habitat for a wide variety of wildlife species.
2. Bottomland Hardwood Forests Forested wetlands of alluvial river floodplains, characterized by a diverse association of deciduous hardwood trees. Canopy dominants vary, but may include water oak, willow oak, overcup oak, cherrybark oak, swamp chestnut oak, green ash, sweetgum, bitternut hickory, and pignut hickory. Shrub layer may be dense or relatively sparse, containing a variety of mesophytic or hydrrophytic woody plants and often a significant woody vine component. Many of these habitats have been impacted by invasive exotic species such as Chinese privet and Nepalese browntop.
3. Canebrakes Thickets of native river cane found along rivers and creeks under sparse to full tree cover. Canebrakes represent important wildlife habitat for a variety of neotropical birds and insects. These habitats require fire or other form of periodic disturbance for maintenance. Most canebrakes in this region are relatively small and fire-suppressed, often occurring along the edges of fields and other clearings.
4. Granite Outcrops Diverse mosaics of exposed granitic rock, herb and shrub dominated patches, and wetland microhabitats. Most have shallow solution pits that collect soil and support various stages of plant succession. These environments support rare or endemic species of plants and animals. The most important of these habitats contain a variety of solution pits, seepage zones, and bare rock exposures. Some outcrops are monadnocks (rise above the ground) while others are flat rock exposures. The Georgia Piedmont is the center of granite outcrop species diversity.
5. Medium to Large Rivers Low to moderate gradient meandering rivers, typically with heavy sediment loads. Floodplains are relatively narrow compared to similar rivers in the Coastal Plain. Extensive shoal habitats may occur, especially along the Fall Line. Dominant habitats include runs, pools, and shoals. Substrate is variable, but is dominated by sand in runs and pools and by bedrock in shoals. Aquatic vegetation may be present.
6. Mesic Hardwood Forests Non-wetland forests of floodplains, ravines, and north-facing slopes in the Piedmont. These may include species such as American beech, white oak, northern red oak, bitternut hickory, pignut hickory, shagbark hickory, bigleaf magnolia, yellow poplar,
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blackgum, dogwood, black cherry, and loblolly pine. Typical shrubs include spicebush, sweetshrub, pawpaw, Oconee azalea, rusty viburnum, and pinxter-flower.
7. Montane Longleaf Pine-Hardwood Forest A subxeric or xeric mixed forest with longleaf pine, oaks, and hickories. Georgia examples are typically fire-suppressed. Pine Mountain is the most notable example, but occurrences can also be found along Dugdown Mountain and other. Includes a rare longleaf pine/Georgia oak subtype found on Hollis quartzite along the main Pine Mountain ridge.
8. Oak Woodlands and Savannas Rare upland hardwood habitats found in scattered locations in the Piedmont. These xeric or subxeric oak-dominated woodland are influenced by edaphic conditions (i.e. thin soils, mafic rocks) and periodic fire. Dominants may include southern red oak, scarlet oak, post oak, and blackjack oak, sometimes with shortleaf pine. Sparkleberry and hawbushes are common shrub components. A particularly rare type, the post oak-blackjack oak savanna, was apparently much more common in pre-settlement times; only small, firesuppressed remnants of these habitats exist today.
9. Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest Considered the climax forest of the Piedmont, this forest type formerly covered 50% to 75% of the region; most examples on fertile soils were eliminated by conversion to agricultural uses. Remaining examples are often found in rocky areas that were difficult to convert to agricultural fields. Typically include a variety of hardwood species such as white oak, black oak, southern red oak, pignut hickory, shagbark hickory, mockernut hickory, red maple, blackgum, shortleaf pine, and loblolly pine, with dogwood, rusty viburnum, hog plum, dwarf pawpaw, and various hawbushes in the understory. American chestnut was formerly a major component of the canopy. Examples over circumneutral soils influenced by mafic or ultramafic bedrock are often floristically richer, and may contain species such as Oglethorpe oak, basswood, red mulberry, redbud, and fringetree.
10. Rocky or Cobbly River Shoals Shallow, high gradient reaches with swift water and rocky substrates. These habitats are important spawning areas for fish, including darters, shiners, and suckers (such as the extremely rare robust redhorse). In addition, shoals provide foraging areas for wading birds, and sunning areas for turtles. May contain dense growths of riverweed (Podostemum ceratophyllum). The shoals spiderlily (Hymenocallis coronaria), a Stateprotected plant, is found on rocky shoals in the middle reaches of the Savannah, Flint, and Chattahoochee rivers. Many shoals have been degraded by stream impoundments, altered water quality, and excessive silt deposition.
11. Rocky/Sandy River Bluffs Exposed rocky or sandy bluffs along rivers in the Piedmont are often characterized by mixed pine-oak vegetation with shortleaf pine, loblolly pine post oak, eastern redcedar, southern red oak, blackjack oak, and white oak. Small trees and shrubs may include
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hornbeam, winged elm, sparkleberry, winged sumac, yucca, and century plant. More sheltered or east-facing bluffs may have mountain laurel and rosebay rhododendron.
12. Serpentine Outcrops/Woodland/Savanna This globally rare habitat represents a complex mosaic of woodlands and savannas with scattered outcropping of serpentine rocks. The pine-mixed hardwood vegetation includes longleaf pine as a dominant. This type is maintained by fire and edaphic conditions. The only known Georgia examples are fire-suppressed. These habitats include disjunct coastal plain species such as pineland Barbara-buttons and Georgia plume.
13. Springs and Spring Runs Springs are highly localized groundwater expressions. The waters of springs and associated habitats can be highly variable, depending on hydrology (hydroperiod and volume) and edaphic factors. Springs of the Piedmont have varying mineral content, chemical properties, and temperatures. Includes spring pools and first order streams immediately below springs where rare fish and invertebrates may occur.
14. Streams In the upper Piedmont, streams are low to moderate gradient and typically contain welldefined riffles and pools. Substrate consists of gravel, pebble, sand, and silt; some bedrock may also be present. Lower Piedmont streams are lower gradient, have fewer riffles and pools, and their substrates have a higher proportion of silt, clay, and detritus than upper Piedmont streams. Turbidity is highly variable, but most of these streams become highly turbid after rain.
15. Upland Depression Swamp A non-alluvial open swamp with water oak, southern shagbark hickory, Oglethorpe oak, and loblolly and shortleaf pine. Coastal plain elements in the understory include swamp palmetto and parsley haw. Usually found on Iredell or Enon soils in the lower Piedmont. These sticky, plastic soils pond water in the spring, resulting in swampy conditions for a portion of the year.
16. Xeric Pine Woodlands Pine-dominated habitats of dry, rocky ridgetops and granitic outcrops. Dominants are loblolly, shortleaf, and Virginia pine. These woodland habitats are maintained by a combination of edaphic factors and periodic fire.
Problems Affecting Wildlife Diversity
One of the primary factors impacting habitats and species in the Piedmont is the rapid pace of residential and commercial development. These development pressures have resulted in the loss or fragmentation of a number of habitats, including bottomland hardwood forest, oak-hickory-pine forest, granite outcrops, and mesic hardwood forest. Much of this is due to the development of new industrial and commercial sites along interstate highways and other major highways. Expansion of the Atlanta metropolitan area has resulted in development of subdivisions, roads, utility corridors, and retail
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centers. Other metropolitan areas experiencing significant growth in this region include Augusta, Gainesville, Marietta, Columbus, Athens, Forsyth, and Conyers.
Point-source discharges into streams in this region include wastewater industrial facilities, and municipal treatment facilities. According to EPD stream monitoring data for 2002, 49% of streams meet designated uses (based on percentage of total monitored stream miles); 24% partially support designated uses, and 27% do not support designated uses. The percentage of monitored streams not meeting designated uses in the Piedmont falls in the middle of the range for the five Georgia ecoregions. The percentage of streams supporting designated uses is second highest in the five ecoregions.
Former conversion of forest and woodland habitats to agricultural uses resulted in the loss of most of the original upland forest (generally described as oak-hickory-pine forest, but containing a wide variety of subtypes) in this region. In addition, erosional soil losses buried many floodplains and river shoals in up to 12 feet of silt. Many of these habitats have recovered partially in the intervening decades. For example, reductions in the rates of sedimentation have resulted in reemergence of shoals in several areas of the Piedmont. However, reductions in streamflow fluctuations by upstream dams have resulted in isolation and dewatering of floodplains in many areas of this ecoregion. Restoration of more natural hydrologic conditions, maintenance of vegetated stream buffers, and continued improvements in erosion and sedimentation control are essential to the protection of aquatic diversity in this ecoregion.
Conversion of remaining upland hardwood and pine-hardwood forests to pine plantations also presents problems for wildlife. In particular, the Pine Mountain region has experienced a recent decline in longleaf pine-hardwood forest as a result of conversion to loblolly pine plantations. Specific problems associated with this forest conversion include loss of vegetative structure and nesting sites, decline in hard and soft mast production, loss of understory and groundcover diversity, and physical disturbance of habitat for organisms found in leaf litter or soil.
Fire suppression is also a significant problem in this region. The remarkable expansion of residential and commercial development zones from urban centers into surrounding suburbs has resulted in many fire-dependent habitats being surrounded by highways, subdivisions, or retail centers. Concerns about smoke management, air quality, and damage to structures make it difficult to implement prescribed burn plans for these habitats. For example, while a fire plan has been developed for Kennesaw Mountain National Military Park, concerns about smoke management problems and potential damage to historic structures and monuments in the park represent major impediments to implementation of the plan. Throughout the region, a lack of fire has resulted in the decline in the extent and quality of habitats such as oak-pine-hickory forest, oak woodlands and savannas, montane longleaf pine-hardwood forest, serpentine outcrops/woodland/savanna, and canebrakes.
Invasive/alien species pose significant problems to habitats in this region. The Asiatic clam and feral hogs are examples of exotic animal species. Most river floodplains and
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valleys in the Piedmont are overrun with exotic plants such Chinese privet and Nepalese browntop. Japanese honeysuckle, kudzu, and autumn olive are major components of the understory in many upland forest stands.
For some high priority species and habitats, unmanaged recreational use represents a serious problem. In the Piedmont, river shoals have traditionally been sites of concentrated recreational use (e.g., fishing, picnicking). Today, many of these shoal areas are being heavily impacted by ATV and ORV traffic as well as littering. Use of motorized vehicles or horses on granite outcrops can result in significant impacts to plant communities, substrates, and rare species associates.
Granite Rock Outcrops
Georgia contains nearly 90% of known Piedmont granitic outcrops. Granite rock outcrops host unique microhabitats that are characterized by a granitic substrate with pockets of acidic, nutrient-poor mineral soil. These harsh environments can fluctuate between hydric and xeric several times a year. Vernal pools, or solution pits, are shallow, flat-bottomed depressions where water collects after a rain. These pools are formed naturally by erosion over millions of years and are home to several high priority species that are severely restricted in their range, including mat-forming quillwort, black-spored quillwort, and snorkelwort. Unfortunately, these species are in steady decline where populations are not protected.
Specific threats to these habitats include destruction of habitat from quarrying activities, recreational use (trail bicycles, ORV traffic, littering, vandalism, fire building, overuse for education), eutrophication resulting from conversion of habitat to pasture (cattle waste adds nutrients that favor competing vegetation), pollution (dumping of trash and airborne deposition), invasive exotic species, and shading due to tree growth.
The highest priority for management of granite outcrops is to preserve habitat and avoid disturbance. Efforts should be made to bring these important habitats into some kind of protection. Currently, only six granite rock outcrop sites are protected in Georgia.
Construction of dams or other structures altering stream flow represents another significant problem for aquatic species in this region. The Piedmont is the primary region of water supply reservoir construction in Georgia. These impoundments threaten the viability of populations of native aquatic species, including rare species such as the Cherokee darter, Etowah darter, and bluestripe shiner. The various impacts to these aquatic fauna from impoundments include direct loss of lotic habitat, barriers to dispersal, alteration of instream flows, and impaired water quality (altered temperature and dissolved oxygen regimes).
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Incompatible road and utility corridor management represent potential problems for some high priority plants of open areas, such as Georgia rockcress, Georgia aster, harperella, and pool sprite. Indiscriminant use of herbicides or excessive ground disturbance along roads and in utility corridors may impact adjacent terrestrial and aquatic habitats. Vegetation management programs should be planned and implemented in a way that minimizes impacts to rare plant populations occurring in the road right-of-way or utility corridor.
Encroachment of vegetated stream buffers and general loss of permeable watershed surfaces are particularly significant problems in this ecoregion, due to intense development pressures and the resulting rapid increase in density of roads, utility corridors, lawns, and parking areas near streams. In many areas, the amount of impermeable surface in the local watershed provides very little capacity for amelioration of nonpoint source pollution, leads to flash flooding and streambank scouring, and greatly diminishes groundwater recharge capacity.
High Priority Sites and Landscape Features
The current assessment and previous conservation planning efforts have identified a number of important sites and landscape features in this region. An ongoing assessment of the Piedmont ecoregion in the Southeast conducted by The Nature Conservancy in cooperation with state natural heritage programs in Alabama, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia has identified a number of high priority terrestrial and aquatic conservation areas. The following are examples of some of the important sites and landscape features that have been identified in Georgia's Piedmont.
Burks Mountain/Dixie Mountain
This site is highly significant, both geologically and ecologically. The ridge comprising Burks Mountain and Dixie Mountain is underlain with magnesium rich (ultramafic) rock known as "serpentine". This landform is reportedly the largest serpentine ridge east of the Appalachian Mountains and south of Maryland. The upper slopes of the ridge have a dry, open woods with scattered rock outcrops ("serpentine barrens"), as well as a xeric hardwood-pine forest with longleaf pine. This area contains the only Piedmont populations of two State-protected plants: Georgia plume (Elliottia racemosa) and pineland Barbara buttons (Marshallia ramosa) as well as the only known population of a plant new to science ("Dixie Mountain breadroot").
Currahee Mountain/Lake Russell WMA
This site, located in the upper Piedmont on the Chattahoochee National Forest, is an important area for restoration of shortleaf pine-post oak woodland habitat. This high priority habitat, formerly common in the upper Piedmont and Blue Ridge, has been greatly reduced in extent and condition due to decades of forest conversion and fire suppression. Restoration of shortleaf pine-post oak woodland habitat at this site will benefit the smooth purple coneflower (Echinacea laevigata), a federally listed plant.
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Granite Outcrops (numerous sites)
These small "islands" of biological diversity are found scattered across the Piedmont of Georgia, and contain some of the most imperiled species in the state. Granite outcrop habitats are threatened by quarrying, grazing, off-road vehicles and sedimentation. Protected examples of these habitats can be found at Panola Mountain State Park, Davison-Arabia Mountain Preserve, Stone Mountain, Rock and Shoals Outcrop Natural Area, Camp Meeting Rock Preserve, and Heggies Rock Preserve. Several other granite outcrop sites should be protected in order to preserve a representative portion of the native flora and fauna of these important ecosystems.
Oconee National Forest/Piedmont National Wildlife Refuge
These two federal properties comprise the largest block of publicly owned land in the lower Piedmont. Much of the habitat in Oconee National Forest and Piedmont National Wildlife Refuge consists of loblolly pine stands on upland sites that have been severely impacted by previous agricultural practices. However, these federal lands also contain significant examples of oak-hickory-pine forest, mesic hardwood forest, bottomland hardwood forest, upland depression swamp, and other high priority habitats. High priority species known from this conservation landscape include red-cockaded woodpecker (Picoides borealis) Bachman's sparrow (Aimophila aestivalis), American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius), and Oglethorpe oak (Quercus oglethorpensis).
Pine Mountain/Flint River
Pine Mountain is a series of linear ridges extending from Auburn, Alabama northeastward to Barnesville, Georgia. This mountain is composed largely of Hollis quartzite, an extremely hard rock of almost pure silica that is highly resistant to erosion. Pine Mountain rises 300 to 500 feet above the surrounding lands of the lower Piedmont. Toward its eastern end, Pine Mountain is cut by the Flint River in a series of twisting, narrow gorges approximately 400 feet deep. The biota of the Pine Mountain/Flint River region represents a diverse mixture of montane, piedmont and coastal plain elements. High priority plants known from the Pine Mountain/Flint River region include shoals spiderlily (Hymenocallis coronaria), Schwerin's indigo-bush (Amorpha schwerinii), fringed campion (Silene polypetala), and relict trillium (Trillium reliquum). Several coastal plain fishes, amphibians and reptiles have northward range extensions in this region. Rare vertebrates reported from the Pine Mountain/Flint River region include Barbour's map turtle (Graptemys barbouri) and bluestripe shiner (Cyprinella callitaenia). Several rare freshwater mollusks have also been documented from the Flint River.
Pool Mountain
This conservation site in the eastern Piedmont contains a rich mesic hardwood forest more typical of the Blue Ridge, with several rare or uncommon plants, including state protected species such as Wood's false hellebore (Veratrum woodii). Pool Mountain has archaeological, historical, and geological significance. This exemplary site is surrounded by residential and commercial development in eastern Gwinnett County, but a portion of
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the site was recently acquired by Gwinnett County for use as a park. Similar sites with rich mesic hardwood forests can be found in ravines along the Chattahoochee, Oconee, Flint, and Ocmulgee rivers.
Sheffield Tract WMA/Paulding Forest WMA
This conservation site includes significant examples of montane longleaf pine-hardwood forest, mesic hardwood forest, oak-hickory-pine forest, and several important streams (e.g., Raccoon Creek). A portion of this site is owned by the State of Georgia and managed as Sheffield WMA. The adjacent Paulding Forest WMA is privately owned and operated under a short-term lease arrangement. Other high priority landscape features with montane longleaf pine-hardwood forest communities include Dugdown Mountain and Pine Mountain.
High Priority Waters
Figure 11 shows the high priority streams and watersheds identified by the CWCS Fishes and Freshwater Invertebrates team for this ecoregion. These streams were chosen on the basis of documented occurrences of high priority aquatic species, high water quality rankings based on Index of Biotic Integrity scores, and designation as exemplary streams in a previous study by The Nature Conservancy. Examples of high priority stream in the Piedmont include Murder Creek, Whooping Creek, Hillabahatchee Creek, Oconee River, Mulberry Creek, Apalachee River, Falling Creek, Potato Creek, Flint River, Shoal Creek, Whitewater Creek, Centralhatchee Creek, Raccoon Creek, Chattahoochee River, Towaliga River, and North Oconee River. Refer to Table 1 of the Fishes and Freshwater Invertebrates Technical Team report in Appendix B for details on the factors contributing to the significance of these and other high priority streams.
Conservation Goals
Maintain known viable populations of all high priority species and functional examples of all high priority habitats through land protection, incentive-based habitat management programs on private lands, and habitat restoration and management on public lands.
Increase public awareness of high priority species and habitats by developing educational messages and lesson plans for use in environmental education facilities, local schools, and other facilities.
Encourage restoration of important wildlife habitats through reintroduction of prescribed fire, hydrologic restoration, and revegetation efforts.
Combat the spread of invasive/noxious species in high priority natural habitats by identifying problem areas, providing technical and financial assistance, developing specific educational messages, and managing exotic species populations on public lands.
Minimize impacts from residential and commercial development on high priority species and habitats by providing input on environmental assessments
Continue efforts to recover federally listed species by implementation of recovery plans
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Mature Pine and Upland Hardwood Forests
Public lands are an important component of the Piedmont landscape and may serve as core areas from which to manage or expand wildlife habitat. Forest products companies are the largest private landowners in the Piedmont and provide tremendous opportunities for increased cooperative management strategies to accomplish wildlife conservation objectives. Private, non-industrial landowner incentive programs can be increased in key areas as well, further adding to core habitat for high priority Piedmont species.
Land tenure in this ecoregion is changing rapidly, however. Recent land divestitures by corporate landowners point to the need for conservation organizations to act quickly when properties containing high priority habitats and species are placed on the market. Partnerships with corporate landowners that involve technical and field assistance can facilitate identification of these habitats and development of specific proposals for long-term protection.
Strategies and Partnerships to Achieve Conservation Goals
Provide financial incentives and technical expertise to encourage prescribed burns for high priority fire-maintained habitats (e.g., serpentine woodlands/savannas, montane longleaf pine-hardwood forest) through participation in the Interagency Burn Team and other means.
Complete the Etowah River Habitat Conservation Plan and begin implementation. Work with NRCS staff to identify high priority habitats and sites for
implementation of habitat enhancement/restoration projects through Farm Bill programs (e.g., thinning and burning pine stands, restoration of oak and shortleaf pine-oak woodlands) Establish partnerships to assess and combat exotic species populations on public lands and provide technical assistance to private landowners to discourage use of invasive exotics. Use state parks, wildlife management areas, natural areas, and other public lands to showcase habitat restoration efforts (removal of exotic species, prescribed fires, reduction of deer populations, restoration of streams and stream buffers). Work with GDOT and local governments to minimize direct impacts to high priority species and habitats from road development projects Work with Georgia Power and private landowners to identify and conserve populations of rare species in and adjacent to utility corridors Develop educational materials on high priority species and habitats in the ecoregion and provide these to environmental educators at WRD educational facilities (e.g., Charlie Elliott Wildlife Center) and other facilities
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Work with EPD and local governments to assess potential impacts of stream buffer variances, with special emphasis on high priority streams and watersheds.
Work with the Georgia Land Trust Service Center to apply monies from the Georgia Wetlands Trust Fund to provide protection for high priority wetlands and stream corridors.
Highest Priority Conservation Actions
Highest priority conservation actions (actions ranked "Very High" or "High") identified by the technical teams, Steering Committee, and other stakeholders specifically for this ecoregion include the following (see Appendix L for details):
Conduct Broad River mussel survey and prioritize other streams for mussel surveys and monitoring projects. Determine species composition of mussels in the Broad River, an under-sampled tributary to the Savannah River.
Implement diadromous fish restoration projects in Piedmont streams. Evaluate existing population status, commercial and recreational fisheries, and habitat limitations. Look for opportunities to enhance habitat through a suite of alternatives.
Work with Robust Redhorse Conservation Committee to assure restoration of robust redhorse populations. Conduct research and management efforts to develop six self-sustaining populations of robust redhorse throughout its historic range.
Continue and expand monitoring of rare species throughout the Coosa Basin, and evaluate this approach for use in other basins. Participate in TNC's "Measures of Success" analysis for the Etowah River. Continue DNR's Stream Team surveys throughout the Coosa River Basin. Evaluate the utility of this watershed-level approach for use in other basins.
For high priority conservation actions of a statewide scope, see Section V.
Bottomland Hardwood Forests
Bottomland hardwood forests provide habitat for a wide variety of terrestrial wildlife species, and provide protection for adjacent aquatic systems. Encroachment from expansion of urban and suburban development zones, and intensive silvicultural practices influence both the extent and connectivity of bottomland hardwood forests in the Piedmont. In addition, these forests are affected by altered hydrologic regimes created by upstream impoundments, excessive sedimentation from development, and invasive exotic plants such as Chinese privet, Nepalese browntop, and Japanese honeysuckle. Consideration must be given to connecting large blocks of riparian forest, development of management prescriptions to improve understory structure, control of exotic species, and protection of riparian zones.
107

Table 5. Piedmont High Priority Animals (55 Records)

Group Scientific Name

Common Name

Global State Federal State Rank Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

Range in Georgia

AA Acroneuria arida

Elegant stonefly

G3

S3

Streams/rivers in the northern portion of the state

Known from Chattooga Co., Summerville; Cherokee Co., Ball Ground; Clayton Co., Jonesboro; Gordon Co., Ranger

AA Cambarus fasciatus A crayfish

G2

S2

Lotic habitats under rocks in flowing water

Lumpkin, Dawson, Pickens, Cherokee, Bartow, & Polk Counties in Etowah River

AA Cambarus harti

Piedmont blue burrower

G1

S1

Complex burrows in floodplain areas with sandy-organic soil

Meriwether associated with White Sulphur, Flatshoal, White Sulphur, Pigeon, and Cane Creeks; spring sites

AA Cambarus strigosus Lean crayfish

G2

S2

Complex burrows in sandy clay soil, often among roots; Savannah River drainage

Broad and Little River basins in Elbert, Oglethorpe and Wilkes counties, Georgia; Hobbs thinks it is probably more widespread in these basins in the Piedmont Province

AA Distocambarus devexus

Broad River

G1

S1

burrowing crayfish

Sandy-clay burrows in Broad River drainage

Broad River system in Oglethorpe and Wilkes counties

AA Homoeoneuria dolani Blackwater sand- G2 filtering mayfly

SNR

Shifting sand substrate of larger streams of piedmont and Exact range uncertain coastal plain with medium to fast current

AM Desmognathus aeneus Seepage salamander

G3G4 S3

Seepage areas within hardwood forested ravines

Primarily BR and RV, but also PD

AM Plethodon websteri

W ebster's salamander

G3

S2*

Moist hardwood forests

PD, RV

AM Pseudacris brachyphona

Mountain chorus G5

S2*

frog

Hardwood forests with fishless breeding pools

BR, RV, PD

BI

Aimophila aestivalis Bachman's sparrow G3

S3 SAR

R

Open pine or oak woods; old fields; grassy forest regeneration

RV, PD, CP: where appropriate habitat

BI

Ammodramus

savannarum

Grasshopper sparrow

G5

S4

Grassland surrounded by open country (ag, grassland etc.) CP, PD predominantly, less common in CU, RV, rare in BR

BI

Catharus bicknelli

Bicknell's thrush G4

S2

Wide variety of forest and scrub habitats

Only 6 confirmed records for GA: CP (coast) - 2 spring and 1 fall; PD - 3 fall

BI

Colinus virginianus

Northern bobwhite G5

S4

Early successional mixed grass/forb habitat; longleaf pine CP most numerous; uncommon in PD, RV; scattered in

savanna

CU, BR

BI

Dendroica kirtlandii

Kirtland's warbler G1

S1 LE

E

Scrub habitats during spring and fall; may be associated with pines

Isolated reports could occur anywhere in the northern half of state or coast

BI

Haliaeetus

leucocephalus

Bald eagle

G4

S2 (PS:LT,P E

DL)

Edges of lakes & large rivers; seacoasts

CP - primarily and reservoirs and rivers PD, BR, RV

BI

Ixobrychus exilis

Least bittern

G4

S3

Freshwater and brackish marshes with tall, dense emergent Probably more common as a breeder in CP due to much

vegetation. Nests close to open areas

more potentially suitable habitat than in PD

BI

Lanius ludovicianus Loggerhead shrike G4T3Q S? SAR

migrans

Open woods; field edges; savannas

CP - primary area of abundance; scattered and low number in the PD (none in 20-county metro Atlanta area); low numbers in RV

BI

Laterallus jamaicensis Black rail

G4

S2? SAR

Freshwater marsh grassy margins; wet grassy meadows; PD, CP - most likely breeding would occur in eastern PD

brackish high marsh

or along Coast

BI

Limnothlypis swainsonii Swainson's warbler G4

S3 SAR

Dense undergrowth with heavy litter (CP,M); canebrakes in Although found widespread, bulk of population restricted

swamps and river floodplains (CP)

to river floodplains of CP and PD; small BR population

BI

Picoides borealis

Red-cockaded

G3

S2 LE

E

woodpecker

Open pine woods; pine savannas

Found mostly in CP, also lower PD. Disjunct populations in counties of Muscogee, Chattahoochee (Ft Benning); Liberty, Long, Bryan (Ft Stewart); Charlton, Brantley (Okefenokee NWR, private); Jones, Jasper (Piedmont NWR, Oconee NF, Hitchiti); Thomas, Grady

Group Codes: AA = aquatic arthropod; AM = amphibian; BI = bird; FI = fish; MA = mammal; MO = mollusk; RE = reptile

108

Table 5. Piedmont High Priority Animals (55 Records)

Group Scientific Name

Common Name

Global State Federal State Rank Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

Range in Georgia

BI

Rallus elegans

King rail

G4G5 S3

Freshwater marshes, often cattail bulrush, cutgrass, for breeding; also brackish marshes non-breeding (saltmarshes?)

Principally Piedmont and CP; possibly R&V

BI

Tyto alba

Barn owl

G5

S3/S4

Grassland savanna with large cavity trees, also neighborhoods with large cavity trees, generally needs open country

Local: CP, PD, RV, CU, rare in BR

FI

Cyprinella callitaenia Bluestripe shiner G2G3 S2

T

Flowing areas in large creeks and medium-sized rivers over Known from PD and CP of Apalachicola drainage

rocky substrates

FI

Cyprinella gibbsi

Tallapoosa shiner G4

S2S3

R

Medium-sized creeks in moderate to swift current over

Upper Tallapoosa endemic

sand, gravel, or bedrock substrates

FI

Cyprinella xaenura

Altamaha shiner G2G3 S2S3

E

Medium-sized streams in runs or pools over sand to gravel Endemic to upper Altamaha system

substrate

FI

Etheostoma

brevirostrum

Holiday darter

G2

S2

T

Small creeks to moderate sized rivers in gravel and bedrock Four disjunct restricted populations: Con, Coosawattee,

pools

Etowah mainstem, Amicalola; range may be much smaller

if new taxa recognized (all A's)

FI

Etheostoma

chuckwachatte

Lipstick darter

G2G3 S1

E

Medium to large streams with moderate to swift current

Upper Tallapoosa endemic

over gravel, cobble, and boulder substrate

FI

Etheostoma etowahae Etowah darter

G1

S1 LE

Small to medium-sized streams over cobble to gravel in areas of swift current

Main channel and tributaries of Etowah River upstream of Allatoona dam

FI

Etheostoma jordani Greenbreast darter G4

S2

Medium-sized creeks to rivers in riffle areas over gravel to Upper Coosa only bedrock substrate

FI

Etheostoma parvipinne Goldstripe darter G4G5 S2S3

R

Small sluggish streams and spring seepage areas in woody Known from CP and PD (rare) portions of the

debris, leaf material, mud, and silt

Apalachicola (Chattahoochee and Flint) and Altamaha

(Ocmulgee only?) drainages.

FI

Etheostoma rupestre Rock darter

G4

S2

Swift rocky riffles often associated with attached vegetation Etowah and Conasauga such as Podostemum

FI

Etheostoma scotti

Cherokee darter G2

S2 LT

T

Small to medium-sized creeks with moderate current and PAB; 3 ESUs: lower, middle, and upper Etowah (map

rocky substrates

from Freemans)

FI

Etheostoma

tallapoosae

Tallapoosa darter G4

S2S3

R

Small to medium-sized streams over boulders, rubble,

Upper Tallapoosa endemic

gravel, and sand

FI

Fundulus bifax

Stippled studfish G2G3 S1

E

Slow eddies over sand or gravel along the margins of riffles Upper Tallapoosa endemic; only 2 historic records in GA

and runs in medium-sized streams to small rivers

(Little Tallapoosa System)

FI

Hybopsis lineapunctata Lined chub

G3

S2

Upland creeks over sandy substrate with gentle current

Endemic to Tallapoosa and upper Coosa

FI

Hybopsis winchelli

Clear chub ("etowah G5

S1

chub")

Generally in creeks and small to medium rivers over sand- Narrow portion of the Etowah silt bottom, usually in pools adjacent to riffle areas. Tends to occupy smaller streams in east than in west.

FI

Lythrurus bellus

Pretty shiner

G5

S2

T

Flowing water over silt to gravel substrate in small streams Restricted to Tallapoosa River system in Georgia; Mettee

to large rivers

et al (1996) shows a single record in Little Tallapoosa

system

FI

Macrhybopsis sp. cf. Coosa chub

S2

aestivalis

Swift currents over gravel substrates

Mainstem upper Etowah, mainstem Conasauga

Group Codes: AA = aquatic arthropod; AM = amphibian; BI = bird; FI = fish; MA = mammal; MO = mollusk; RE = reptile

109

Table 5. Piedmont High Priority Animals (55 Records)

Group Scientific Name

Common Name

Global State Federal State Rank Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

Range in Georgia

FI

Moxostoma robustum Robust redhorse G1

S1

E

Lower PD and upper CP of medium to large rivers; shallow Native populations in lower Savannah (Richmond, Burke

riffles to deep flowing water; moderately swift current

and Screven counties.), Oconee (Baldwin, Wilkinson,

Washington, Johnson, and Laurens counties), and

Ocmulgee (Houston, Twiggs, Bleckley and Pulaski

counties) rivers; introduced into the Broad River (up

FI

Notropis hypsilepis

Highscale shiner G3

S3

T

Flowing areas of small to large streams over sand or

Primarily PD of Apalachicola (Flint and Chattahoochee); a

bedrock substrates

few CP records from Apalachicola; also know from 1

tributary in BR of Savannah

FI

Notropis scepticus

Sandbar shiner

G4

S2

R

Large streams to medium-sized rivers in flowing pools over Piedmont tributaries of the Savannah

sandy to rocky substrates

FI

Noturus sp. cf. munitus Coosa madtom

G3

S1

E

Shoals and riffles of moderate to large streams and rivers Mainstem of Etowah (upstream of Allatoona) and

mainstem of Conasauga River

FI

Percina sp. 3

Muscadine bridled G2Q S2 darter

R

Flowing pool areas with substrate of sand, detritus, or

Upper Tallapoosa endemic; occurs in mainstem and Little

bedrock in small rivers

Tallapoosa systems

FI

Percina sp. 9

Upland bridled darter

G1Q S1

Runs and flowing pools of medium-sized rivers

Etowah, Talking Rock, Conasauga

FI

Percina sp. cf. P.

palmaris

Halloween darter G2

S2

Swift waters of medium to large rivers

Disjunct pops - Chatt above Lanier, Flint above fall line, lower Flint/Ichawaynochaway

MA Sylvilagus obscurus Appalachian cottontail

G4

S1S2

Heath (Vaccinium, Kalmia) thickets within high elevation forests

High elevation (>3000ft) shrub cover in Rabun, Towns, Union, and Fannin counties. Has been found at much lower elevations in AL and SC

MO Alasmidonta varicosa Brook floater

G3

S2

Small rivers and creeks in sand and gravel shoals

Present distribution includes 4 sites in the Chattooga River in Rabun County (Savannah River drainage).

MO Elliptio fraterna

Brother spike

G1

SU

Sandy substrates of river channels with swift current

Uncertain of range in Savannah River system

MO Elliptoideus sloatianus Purple bankclimber G2

S2 LT

Small to large rivers with moderate current and substrate of Historic range included Flint, Chattahoochee,

sand, fine gravel, or muddy sand

Ochlockonee rivers. Has been virtually extirpated from

Flint tributaries and is very rare in the Chattachoochee

system (Brim-Box and Williams 1997, Butler 1993).

Recently found in upper Ochlockonee River near

Thomasville in low numbers (Blalock-Herod, 2003).

MO Somatogyrus alcoviensis

Reverse pebblesnail G1

S1

Shoals with boulders, gravel, and riverweed

Known only from the upper Ocmulgee System; 1995 survey only found them at 2 sites

MO Somatogyrus tenax

Savannah pebblesnail

G2

S2

Shallow rocky riffles; underside of cobbles and boulders

At scattered sites along the Hudson and Broad Rivers (Thompson 1969, Watson 1996); 6 total sites

RE Eumeces anthracinus Coal skink

G5

S2

Mesic forests; often near streams, springs or bogs

Very little known about range especially in CP

RE Graptemys barbouri Barbour's map turtle G2

S2

T

Rivers & large creeks of Apalachicola River drainage

Restricted disturbution, Apalachicola drainage within PD

and CP

RE Macrochelys temminckii

Alligator snapping G3G4 S3 turtle

T

Large streams and rivers; impoundments; river swamps Gulf CP drainages

RE Pituophis melanoleucus Northern pine snake G4T4 S2 melanoleucus

Dry pine or pine-hardwood forests

BR, PD, RV

Group Codes: AA = aquatic arthropod; AM = amphibian; BI = bird; FI = fish; MA = mammal; MO = mollusk; RE = reptile

110

Scientific Name Aesculus glabra Allium speculae
Amorpha nitens
Amorpha schwerinii Amphianthus pusillus Amsonia ludoviciana
Anemone berlandieri
Arabis georgiana
Arabis missouriensis
Aster avitus
Aster georgianus
Aster jonesiae Baptisia megacarpa Berberis canadensis
Calamintha sp. 1
Carex biltmoreana Carex radfordii Cirsium virginianum Croomia pauciflora
Cuscuta harperi
Cypripedium acaule Cypripedium parviflorum var. parviflorum Cypripedium parviflorum var. pubescens Danthonia epilis
Draba aprica

Table 6. Piedmont High Priority Plants (71 Records)

Common Name

Global State Federal State Rank Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

Range in Georgia

Ohio buckeye

G5 S2

Mesic forests in circumneutral soil

CU, RV, PD

Flatrock onion

G2 S2

T

Granite outcrops (limited to Lithonia Gneiss types)

PD, found only in Rockdale, Walton and DeKalb

Cos.

Shining indigo-bush

G3? S1?

Rocky, wooded slopes; alluvial woods

CU, RV, PD, reportedly, but verification needed to be certain

Schwerin's indigo-bush

G3 S2

Rocky upland woods

PD

Pool sprite, snorkelwort

G2 S2

LT

T

Vernal pools on granite outcrops

PD, restricted to piedmont across Georgia

Louisiana blue star

G3 S2

Open woods near granite outcrops (limited to Lithonia Gneiss types)

PD, restricted to Lithonia gneiss outcrops in 5 cos. in central piedmont.

Glade windflower

G4? S1S2

Granite outcrop ecotones; also forests and openings over PD, UCP; widely scattered on piedmont, only one

various metamorphic rock types

site on coastal plain, Clay Co.

Georgia rockcress

G2 S1

C

T

Rocky or sandy river bluffs and banks, in circumneutral PD, RV, UCP; along Coosa, Oostanaula and lower

soil

Chattahoochee Rivers

Missouri rockcress

G4G5Q S2

Granite and amphibolite outcrops

PD, scattered across central to easttern piedmont from Cobb to Columbia Cos.

Granite aster

G3 S3

Granite outcrops in seepy margins with Solidago

PD

gracillima and Spiranthes cernua

Georgia aster

G2G3 S2

C

Upland oak-hickory-pine forests and openings;

CU, RV, PD, UCP

sometimes with Echinacea laevigata or over amphibolite

Piedmont bigleaf aster

G3? S2?

Mixed oak-hickory forests

PD only?

Bigpod wild indigo

G2 S1

Floodplain forests, adjacent wooded slopes

UCP, PD

American barberry

G3 S1

Cherty, thinly wooded slopes

BR, PD; few sites from Towns Co. sw. to Meriwether Co.

Indian Grave Mountain wild basil

G1G3 S1S3

Openings in longleaf pine-chestnut oak-Georgia oak woodlands

PD, appears to be restricted to Upson and Pike Cos.

Biltmore sedge

G3 S1

T

High elevation ledges and rock faces

BR

Radford's sedge

G2 S1?

Rich woods of marble ravines

PD

Virginia thistle

G3 S2?

Moist pinelands; moist longleaf pine/wiregrass savannas UCP, LCP

Croomia

G3 S1

T

Mesic hardwood forests, usually with beech and

basswood

PD, UCP; mostly in rich woods near Chattahoochee and Flint Rivers

Harper's dodder

G2 S1

T

Parasitic on Bigelowia nuttallii on Altamaha Grit outcrops; PD, UCP

granite outcrops, usually with Liatris microcephala as

host

Pink ladyslipper

G5 S4

U

Upland oak-hickory-pine forests; piney woods

CU, RV, PD, UCP

Small-flowered yellow ladyslipper

G5 S3

U

Upland oak-hickory-pine forests; mixed hardwood forests BR, RV, PD, possibly CU?

Large-flowered yellow ladyslipper

G5 S3

U

Upland oak-hickory-pine forests; mixed hardwood forests BR, CU, PD, RV

Bog oat-grass

G3? S1?

Moist, grassy depressions on granite outcrops

PD, confirmed in Georgia only from granite outcrops

Open-ground whitlow-grass G3 S1S2

E

Granite and amphibolite outcrops, usually in redcedar PD, small areas, widely scattered sites

litter

111

Scientific Name Echinacea laevigata Eleocharis wolfii Eriocaulon koernickianum Fimbristylis brevivaginata Helianthus smithii Hexastylis shuttleworthii var. harperi Hydrastis canadensis
Hymenocallis coronaria
Ilex cuthbertii
Isoetes melanospora Isoetes tegetiformans Juglans cinerea
Juniperus communis var. depressa Lotus helleri
Lysimachia fraseri
Marshallia ramosa Melanthium woodii Monotropsis odorata
Nestronia umbellula
Panax quinquefolius
Paronychia virginica Pediomelum sp. 2
Platanthera integrilabia

Table 6. Piedmont High Priority Plants (71 Records)

Common Name

Global State Federal State Rank Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

Range in Georgia

Smooth purple coneflower

G2 S2

LE

E

Upland forests over amphibolite

PD

Spikerush

G3? S1

Shallow pools on granite outcrops

PD

Dwarf pipewort

G2 S1

Granite outcrops

PD

Flatrock fimbry

G2 S2

Granite outcrops

PD

Smith's sunflower

G2Q S1

Dry open woods and thickets

BR, PD

Harper's wild ginger

G4T3 S2S3

U

Low terraces in floodplain forests; edges of bogs

PD, UCP, from the foothills to central and westcentral coastal plain

Goldenseal

G4 S2

E

Rich woods in circumneutral soil

BR, CU, RV, PD with some sites now naturalized from original cultivated stands

Shoals spiderlily

G2Q S2

E

Rocky shoals of broad, open rivers

PD, only on shoals in 3 major rivers Chattahoochee, Flint and Savannah

Cuthbert's holly

G1? SH

Open, upland forests, circumneutral

PD, presumably just north of the Augusta area only

Black-spored quillwort

G1 S1

LE

E

Vernal pools on granite outcrops

PD

Mat-forming quillwort

G1 S1

LE

E

Vernal pools on granite outcrops

PD

Butternut

G3G4 S1S2

Floodplain forests, cove hardwoods

RV, BR, PD (barely); known from a few isolated stands; mostly in mountains, southern stations disjunct on Sharp Top Mountain, Pickens Co.and south of C

Ground juniper

G5T5 S1

Gneiss ledges

PD (only?); a BR report from south of summit of Rabun Bald needs verification

Carolina birdfoot-trefoil

G5T3 S1

Clayey soil over ultramafic rock; post oak-blackjack oak PD savannas; oaky flatwoods

Fraser's loosestrife

G2 S1S2

R

Moist, open, bouldery gravel bars and streambanks;

CU, BR, PD, RV; widely scattered sites from

edges of sandstone and granite outcrops

Currahee Mountain, Stephens Co. To top of

Pigeon Mountain, Walker Co.

Pineland Barbara's-buttons G2 S2

R

Altamaha Grit outcrops; open forests over ultramafic rock UCP, plus PD on Dixie Mountain, Columbia Co.

Ozark bunchflower

G5 S2

R

Mesic hardwood forests over basic soils

CU, PD, UCP

Sweet pinesap

G3 S1

Upland forests

PD, BR; few reports from Fulton Co. northeastward to Rabun Co.

Indian olive

G4 S2

T

Mixed with dwarf shrubby heaths in oak-hickory-pine

PD, UCP

woods; often in transition areas between flatwoods and

uplands

American ginseng

G3G4 S3

Mesic hardwood forests; cove hardwood forests

BR, RV, CU, PD, UCP; found, at least formerly, well into the coastal plain; now mostly in PD and across North Georgia

Yellow nailwort

G4 S1

Serpentine outcrops

PD, Columbia Co.

Dixie Mountain breadroot

G1 S1

Shallow soils over mafic (serpentine) rock, upland

PD, Columbia Co.

longleaf pine-mixed oak savanna and powerline rights-of-

way

Monkeyface orchid

G2G3 S1S2 C

T

Red maple-gum swamps; peaty seeps and streambanks CU, BR, PD ; few sites from Tallulah Gorge to

with Parnassia asarifolia and Oxypolis rigidior

Cumberland Plateau, south to , Carroll Co.

112

Scientific Name
Portulaca umbraticola ssp. coronata

Common Name Wingpod purslane

Table 6. Piedmont High Priority Plants (71 Records)

Global State Federal State Rank Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

G5T2 S2

Granite outcrops; Altamaha Grit outcrops

PD, UCP

Range in Georgia

Ptilimnium nodosum Quercus oglethorpensis Rhus michauxii Sabatia capitata Schisandra glabra Schwalbea americana Scutellaria ocmulgee Sedum nevii Sedum pusillum Silene polypetala

Harperella

G2 S1

LE

E

Oglethorpe oak

G3 S2

T

Dwarf sumac

G2 S1

LE

E

Cumberland rose gentian

G2 S2

R

Bay starvine Chaffseed

G3 S2

T

G2 S1

LE

E

Ocmulgee skullcap

G2 S2

T

Nevius' stonecrop
Granite stonecrop, Puck's orpine Fringed campion

G3 S1

T

G3 S3

T

G2 S2

LE

E

Solanum pumilum Solidago porteri Sphagnum cyclophyllum

Dwarf horse-nettle Porter's goldenrod Round-leaved peat-moss

G5T1 SH GHQ SH G3 S2

Stewartia malacodendron
Thaspium pinnatifidum Trillium persistens Trillium reliquum

Silky camellia
Cutleaf meadow-parsnip Persistent trillium Relict trillium

G4 S2

R

G2G3 S1

G1 S1

LE

E

G2 S3

LE

E

Triphora trianthophora

Nodding Pogonia

G3G4 S2?

Viburnum rafinesquianum var. Downy arrowwood affine

G5T? S1

Waldsteinia lobata

Piedmont barren strawberry G2 S3

T

Xyris scabrifolia Xyris tennesseensis

Harper's yellow-eyed grass G3 S1

Tennessee yellow-eyed grass G2 S1

LE

E

Granite outcrops; limesink depressions

PD, UCP, only known from single sites on piedmont and coastal plain

Broad River bottomlands; upland seepage swamps over PD Iredell and Enon soils with seasonally wet clay beds

Open forests over ultramafic rock

PD, two piedmont sites relocated, others too ambiguous

Meadows over sandstone or shale

CU, RV; from Coosa Valley prairies in Floyd Co. to sandstone caprock meadows in Dade Co

Rich woods on stream terraces and lower slopes

RV, PD, UCP

Open pinelands, as in well-managed, somewhat moist UCP, formerly PD; now found only in Southwest

longleaf pine-wiregrass forests seeps

Georgia

Mesic hardwood forests; bluff forests

PD, UCP; mostly along Ocmulgee, Oconee and Savannah Rivers

Gneiss ledges on river bluffs

PD, Harris and Muscogee Cos.

Granite outcrops, often in mats of Hedwigia moss under PD, across the piedmont; not as widespread as

Juniperus virginiana

Amphianthus; some sites introduced

Mesic deciduous forests

PD, UCP; mostly along the Flint River just above the Fall Line; also from few sites in Chattahoochee and Ocmulgee watersheds

Thickets; calcareous barrens

PD

Upland forests

PD(?), if extant

CP: bare sand where wet or submerged for part of the PD, LCP, UCP year and then drying, as around seasonal ponds in pine barrens.. PD: seepage over granite outcrops

Along streams on lower slopes of beech-magnolia or beech-basswood-Florida maple forests

PD, UCP

Limestone outcrops and barrens

RV, Catoosa Co.

Mesic hardwood forests, upland forests

BR, PD; limited to 7-mile stretch of Tallulah River

Mesic hardwood forests; limesink forests; usually with Fagus and Tilia

PD, UCP, scattered from Augusta to Columbus near Fall Line; also along lower Chattahoochee and Flint Rivers

Limestone bluffs along major rivers
Stream terraces and adjacent gneiss outcrops Sedge bogs; pitcherplant bogs; pine flatwoods Seepy margins of limestone spring runs

RV, Blacks Bluff, Floyd Co.
BR (barely), PD, UCP (barely); mostly piedmont foothills UCP, LCP RV, PD (barely)

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Figure 11. High Priority Waters, Piedmont Ecoregion 114

Southeastern Plains
Ecoregional Overview
The Southeastern Plains ecoregion stretches across middle and southwestern Georgia, covering approximately 16,252,663 acres. It is bordered on the northwest by the Piedmont and on the southeast by the Southern Coastal Plain. The northwestern edge of this ecoregion is known as the Fall Line, a distinctive zone of transition between the topographically varied Piedmont and the relatively flat Coastal Plain. Approximately 426,775 acres are in permanent or long-term conservation ownership. Georgia DNR manages approximately 116,308 acres owned in fee simple by the State of Georgia and an additional 63,838 acres in leases or management agreements. Federal land ownership includes approximately 288,300 acres managed by the U.S. Department of Defense, 14,050 acres managed by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, 3,072 acres managed by the Natural Resources Conservation Service, and 1,148 acres managed by the National Park Service. While this ecoregion is the largest in the state, it has the lowest percentage of lands in permanent conservation status (2.6%).
This expansive ecoregion of irregular plains and broad interstream areas contains a mosaic of cropland, pasture, woodland, and forest. Natural vegetation is mostly longleaf pine-wiregrass, longleaf pine-scrub oak, oak-hickory-pine and southern mixed forest. Geologic strata of this region are of Cretaceous or Tertiary age. Elevations and relief are generally less than in the Piedmont and greater than in the Southern Coastal Plain. Streams in this region have relatively low gradients and sandy substrates. Subdivisions of the Southeastern Plains in Georgia include the Sand Hills, the Southern Hilly Gulf Coastal Plain, the Dougherty Plain, the Tifton Upland, the Sand Hills, the Tallahassee Hill/Valdosta Limesink, and the Southeastern Floodplains and Low Terraces.
The Sand Hills are a narrow, rolling to hilly, highly dissected belt stretching across the state from Augusta to Columbus. The region is composed primarily of Cretaceous and Eocene marine sands and clays deposited over the crystalline and metamorphic rocks of the Piedmont. Soils are mostly excessively well drained and low in nutrients, although soils in some areas contain more loamy and clayey horizons. The driest sites have typical sandhill vegetation characterized by longleaf pine and turkey oak. Other areas have shortleaf-loblolly pine forests or mixed oak-pine forests. Atlantic white-cedar swamps can be found in a few areas in the western portion of the Sand Hills region.
The Southern Hilly Gulf Coastal Plain is characterized by irregular plains and gently rolling hills developed over bands of sand, clay, and marl formations. This heterogeneous region, which stretches west across Alabama and into Mississippi, has a variety of clayey, loamy, and sandy soils. The natural vegetation is mostly oak-hickory-pine forest, transitioning to southern mixed forest at its southern border. Land cover is mostly mixed forest and woodland, pine plantations, and small areas of pasture and cropland.
The Dougherty Plain is mostly flat to gently rolling and influenced by limestone near the surface of the soil. The karst topography contains numerous sinkholes and springs, and
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relatively few streams in the flatter part of the plain. Predominant landcover types are row crop and pasture, with some small areas of upland mixed forest. Crops such as cotton, peanuts and pecans are common. Many shallow, flat-bottomed depressions (Grady ponds and limesink ponds) are scattered throughout the region.
The Tifton Upland has rolling, hilly topography with a mosaic of agriculture, pasture, and some mixed pine/hardwood forests. Soils are well-drained, brownish, and loamy, often with iron-rich or plinthic layers. They support crops of cotton, peanuts, soybeans, and corn. On the western edge of the region the Pelham Escarpment has bluffs, caves, and deep ravines that support mesic hardwood forest and several rare plants.
The Coastal Plain Red Uplands formed on reddish Eocene sand and clay formations. Soils are mostly well-drained with a brown or reddish brown loamy or sandy surface layer and red subsoils. The majority of the area is in cropland or pasture, with some woodland on steeper slopes. The Fort Valley Plateau falls within this ecoregion, a relatively small agricultural area characterized by flat terrain.
The Atlantic Southern Loam Plains, also known as the Vidalia Upland, is generally lower, flatter, and more gently rolling than the Coastal Plain Red Uplands and has more cropland and finer-textured soils than the adjacent Sea Island Flatwoods. It has an abundance of agriculturally important soils in active cultivation, but also contains forests in areas that are more sloping or are low, flat and poorly drained. Parallel to some of the major streams in this region (e.g., Ohoopee, Little Ohoopee, Canoochee, and Little Ocmulgee) are deep wind-derived sand ridges with xeric vegetation such as longleaf pine-turkey oak forests as well as evergreen shrubs such as sandhills rosemary and woody mints.
The Tallahassee Hills/Valdosta Limesink region includes two topographically different areas, both influenced by underlying limestone. The Floridan aquifer is thinly confined in this region and streams may be intermittent or flow underground in the karst landscape. The Tallahassee Hills portion has rolling, hilly topography that is mostly covered in pine forest. Clayey sands weathered to a thick red residual soil are typical. The Valdosta Limesink area has lower relief and more solution basins containing ponds, lakes, and swamps, as well as more cropland. Major natural vegetation types include pine-mixed oak forest on clay-based upland soils, bayswamp and pondcypress swamp in depressions, and longleaf pine-scrub oak on sandy, well-drained areas.
Southeastern Floodplains and Low Terraces comprise a region of large sluggish rivers and backwaters with ponds, swamps, and oxbow lakes. Swamp forests of bald cypress and water tupelo and oak-dominated bottomland hardwood forests provide important wildlife corridors and habitat. This region includes the major alluvial river corridors, such as the Chattahoochee, Flint, Ocmulgee, Oconee, Ogeechee, and Savannah.
The predominant land cover types in the Southeastern Plains are row crop/pasture, evergreen forest, and forested wetland (Kramer and Elliott, 2004). An analysis of land
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use changes from 1974 to 1998 based on satellite imagery indicates the following general trends:
A decrease in row crop/pasture (from 38.47% of total land cover to 32.73%) A slight increase in high-intensity and low-intensity urban (from 1.83% of total
land cover to 2.85%) An increase in clearcut/sparse vegetation (from 4.66% of total land cover to
7.32%) An increase in evergreen forest (from 22.97% of total land cover to 27.19%) A decrease in forested wetlands (from 16.39% of total land cover to 14.52%) A decrease in deciduous/mixed forest (from 14.55% of total land cover to
13.70%)
These trends indicate a decline in the total acreage devoted to active agricultural uses and a corresponding increase in evergreen forest. This change likely reflects the trend toward enrollment of agricultural lands in the Conservation Reserve Program. The decrease in deciduous/mixed forest and forested wetlands and the increase in clearcut/sparse vegetation reflect, in part, the harvest of hardwood and hardwood-pine forests; some of these forests were likely converted to pine plantations. Overall, this ecoregion has undergone a relatively modest urban/suburban expansion; this expansion has been limited primarily to the outlying areas of large metropolitan areas and major highway corridors.
According to EPD stream monitoring data for 2002, 35% of streams in this region support designated uses (based on percentage of total monitored stream miles); 42% partially support designated uses, and 23% do not support designated uses. The percentage of monitored streams supporting designated uses in the Southeastern Plains is second lowest of the five ecoregions.
High Priority Species and Habitats
The technical teams identified 85 high priority animal species in the Southeastern Plains ecoregion. These included 18 birds, 5 mammals, 12 reptiles, 9 amphibians, 18 mollusks, 17 fishes, and 6 aquatic arthropods. These species are listed in Table 7, with information on global and state rarity ranks, protected status (if any) under federal or state law, and habitat and range in Georgia. In addition, 145 species of high priority plants were identified for the Southeastern Plains. These are listed in Table 8.
High priority habitats for the Southeastern Plains are listed and briefly described below:
1. Alluvial (Brownwater) Rivers and Swamps Large, low-gradient, meandering rivers with sandbars, sloughs and extensive floodplain swamps. Floodplains of these systems may remain inundated for extensive periods. Sand and silt are the dominant substrata and these rivers typically carry heavy sediment loads. Extensive cypress-gum swamps can be found on all major alluvial rivers in the upper portion of the Southeastern Plains. These systems have been impacted by altered flows from upstream dams.
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2. Altamaha Grit Outcrops These small patch habitats represent mosaics of indurated sandstone outcrops (vertical and horizontal surfaces) interpersed with rock-influenced pine woodland, bogs, and bottomlands. Characterized by several endemic species and plant associations.
3. Atlantic Whitecedar Swamps; Clearwater Stream Swamps Narrow, linear forested systems along cold, clear streams of the Fall Line sandhills. Characterized by a fairly dense canopy of Atlantic whitecedar, with pond pine, red maple, sweetbay, and other mesic-hydric site species. Clearwater stream swamps are similar but without Atlantic whitecedar in the canopy. The shrub layer is usually well developed and diverse, while the groundlayer herbaceous vegetation is often sparse. These systems are thought to be maintained by periodic fire, beaver activity, and possibly other forms of disturbance.
4. Bayheads and Titi Swamps Forested wetlands dominated by broad-leaved evergreen trees: sweetbay, redbay, and loblolly bay. Usually found in domed peatlands, broad interstream flats, or shallow drainageways. Includes shrubby areas dominated by titi (Cyrilla racemiflora). Considered a late successional community in a variety of hydrogeomorphic settings in the Coastal Plain
5. Beech-Magnolia Slope Forests These are uncommon Coastal Plain hardwood forests, typically found on very mesic river bluffs, and occasionally on gentle slopes that are naturally protected from fire by topographic setting. In addition to American beech and southern magnolia, may contain water oak, water hickory, American holly, and other fire-intolerant species. Often small in extent and occupying a narrow zone between wetland and fire-maintained upland forests. May contain epiphytic species such as green-fly orchid. Often associated with and in close proximity to hillside seeps.
6. Black Belt Prairies Small-patch prairie habitats occurring over alkaline Oktibbeha soils. These soils are adhesive when wet and hard when dry, limiting the growth of woody plants. Black Belt prairies consist of herb-dominated patches interspersed with woody scrub component. These rare habitats are maintained by a combination of soil conditions and periodic fire.
7. Bottomland Hardwood Forests Diverse hardwood-dominated forests found on natural levees, upper floodplain flats and terraces along brownwater and blackwater rivers. Characterized by a diverse canopy of hardwood species dominated by various oaks, green ash, sweetgum, red maple, water hickory, and other mesic species. These extensive forested systems provide habitat for a wide variety of wildlife species, and are especially important for wide-ranging forest interior species. Bottomland hardwood forests have been impacted by altered hydrologic conditions, forest conversion, and invasive exotic species.
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8. Calcareous Swamps Hardwood dominated swamp forests that are influenced by calcareous soils. Examples include Spring Creek in the Dougherty Plain. These spring-fed swamps may contain rare plants such as variable-leaved water plantain. Similar habitats are found along tributaries of the Ocmulgee and Ogeechee rivers (e.g., Limestone Creek, Williamson Swamp Creek)
9. Canebreaks Thickets of native river cane found along rivers and creeks under sparse to full tree cover. Canebrakes represent important wildlife habitat for a variety of neotropical birds and insects. These habitats require periodic fire or other form of disturbance for maintenance.
10. Caves Found primarily along the Pelham Escarpment in the southwestern portion of the ecoregion. A few caves are also found in karst environments near Cochran and Sandersville. These Coastal Plain caves provide habitat for high priority species such as the southeastern myotis and Georgia blind salamander.
11. Evergreen Hammocks and Mesic Hardwood Forests Evergreen hammocks are typically associated with small isolated uplands within a floodplain or depressional wetland. Protected from frequent fire, these habitats are characterized by a canopy of submesic oaks and hickories, with southern magnolia, American holly, ironwood, flowering dogwood and spruce pine. Mesic hardwood forests are similar, and may occur in terraces above bottomland hardwood forests, ravines, or nonalluvial flats protected from frequent fire.
12. Flint Kaolin Outcrops Rare and unusual rock outcrops composed of flint kaolin, a hard, flinty conglomerate of metamorphosed sediments. Outcrops are surrounded by xeric mixed oak/pine forest. The plant communities of these habitats resemble those of Altamaha Grit outcrops. Known only from Columbia County.
13. Forested Depressional Wetlands Seasonally or semi-permanently flooded forests of depressional features, including Carolina bays, limesinks, and Grady ponds. Soils range from mineral to organic and canopy dominants may include bays, pondcypress, and/or pond pine. Fire plays a role in maintaining some of these systems. Isolated wetlands that do not support fish populations are very important breeding habitats for amphibians such as the flatwoods salamander.
14. Freshwater "Prairies" Semipermanently flooded freshwater wetlands dominated by emergent vegetation and floating macrophytes, with scattered cypress, buttonbush, and swamp blackgum. The primary example in this region is Grand Bay, possibly the largest Carolina bay known. Other examples can be found in the Tallahassee Hills/Valdosta Limesink region. Fluctuations in water levels and/or periodic fire are required for maintenance. Many of
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these habitats have been impacted by altered hydrology (impoundment with dams or drainage) and/or fire suppression.
15. Hillside Seeps Small patch habitats found on moist to wet lower slopes in sandy terrain. These seeps represent natural groundwater discharge points. May be dominated by shrubs or herbs (including pitcherplants), with scattered trees such as pond, slash, or longleaf pine. Most Georgia examples are fire-suppressed.
16. Limestone and Marl Outcrops; Calcareous Bluffs Rich riparian or ravine habitats influenced by limestone substrate. Marl gorges and bluffs are restricted to tributaries of the Chattahoochee River (Town Creek, Kolomoki Creek) near Fort Gaines. These "blue marl gorges" have diverse mesic hardwood forests and unusual seepage cliffs. Mesic calcareous bluffs are also found along the Savannah River and contain plant species of northern affinities.
17. Longleaf Pine-Scrub Oak Woodlands Sparse-canopied xeric longleaf pine system with patchy oak understory composed of turkey oak, sand post oak, bluejack oak, blackjack oak and other scrub oak species. Typically found on deep sand soils, on ridges and upper slopes. Contains a fairly diverse groundlayer of xerophytic grasses and forbs and scattered shrubs.
18. Longleaf Pine-Wiregrass Savannas Large patch or matrix upland habitats characterized by a sparse canopy of longleaf pine (sometimes with slash pine) and a diverse herb layer dominated by wiregrass. These can range from mesic to dry, depending on topographic position and soils. Transition downslope into wet pine savanna. These habitats are heavily dependent on frequent fire for maintenance.
19. Nonalluvial (Blackwater) Rivers and Swamps Large, meandering rivers with darkly stained but translucent waters and narrow to wide floodplains. Dominant substrate is sand, which may form bars in larger systems. In contrast to smaller blackwater streams, the forest canopy may only shade a portion of the stream width. Runs and pools are dominant habitats. Large snags represent a significant component of habitat heterogeneity. Limestone shoals occur on some of these rivers. These systems are vulnerable to negative impacts from nutrient loadings and hydrologic disruptions resulting from a wide variety of human activities.
20. Open-Water Ponds and Lakes Open water aquatic habitats ranging from isolated depressions to impoundments created by beaver. Vegetation is sparse and consists primarily of emergent and floating macrophytes. Many wildlife species are dependent on these habitats. Limesinks are generally round, formed by the collapse of underground caverns, and are found primarily in the Dougherty Plain. Carolina bays are characterized by an elliptical shape, NW-SE axis, and a deep sandy rim on the east and south edges. Beaver activity along small branches may semi-permanently inundate areas, creating open wetlands.
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21. Pine Flatwoods Seasonally wet forests with open to closed pine canopy, often with an ericaceous shrub understory. Canopy dominants may include slash, longleaf, and occasionally pond pine. These habitats generally occur on nonalluvial flats and low terraces, and have a strong herbaceous component (although not as diverse as the longleaf pine savanna). Maintained by periodic fire.
22. Rocky/Sandy River Bluffs Subxeric mixed pine-hardwood forest on river bluffs that are sandy, or rarely, rocky. May contain species such as white oak, southern red oak, post oak, laurel oak, mockernut hickory, shortleaf pine, loblolly pine and spruce pine. The woody understory may include red buckeye, blueberry, and possumhaw. The herb layer is typically sparse, but may include rare species such as Alabama milkvine.
23. Springs and Spring Runs Clear, flowing systems with circumneutral pH and stable temperature and flow regimes. Limestone, detritus, and woody debris are dominant substrata. Floodplains of these systems are poorly developed. Mostly confined to the Dougherty Plain. Many of the larger springs in this ecoregion serve as important cool-water refuges for species such as striped bass.
24. Steephead Ravines Rich mesic ravine forests characterized by a diverse canopy of hardwood trees, including American beech, southern sugar maple, southern magnolia, pyramid magnolia, basswood, and sugarberry. The most significant examples are the "Torreya Ravines" of the lower Pelham Escarpment near Lake Seminole. Similar habitats are found in the upper ends of narrow ravines in the Fall Line Sandhills and along the edges of deep limesinks in the Dougherty Plain.
25. Streams (Blackwater) Meandering acidic streams with tea-stained, translucent waters and small to moderatesized floodplains. Blackwater streams are highly acidic, high in dissolved organic materials, and low in suspended materials. Streambeds are characterized by sandy substrates, often with extensive woody debris and live plant roots are often interspersed. Pools and runs are the dominant microhabitats, but these are occasionally interspersed with beaver ponds and limestone outcroppings. Many of these aquatic systems have been impacted by channelization, impoundment, and encroachment by agricultural and silvicultural uses.
26. Wet Pine Savannas, Herb and Shrub Bogs Open pine savanna dominated by longleaf or slash pine, with interspersed bogs. Herb bogs are found in low swales or depressions. Herb bogs are often characterized by pitcherplants and a high diversity of forbs. Shrub bogs occur in the ecotones of Carolina bays or cypress ponds and along the drier edges of bay swamps. Dominated by shrubs with a few (usually stunted) scattered pines and a sparse herb layer.
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27. Xeric Aeolian Dunes Wind-formed deep and well-drained dunes found mostly along the eastern side of rivers such as the Ohoopee, Little Ohoopee, Canoochee, and Little Ocmulgee. These unusual xeric habitats are dominated by deciduous or evergreen scrub oaks and scattered pines, with little groundcover other than patches of wiregrass and lichens. A number of rare plants are associated with these habitats, including sandhills rosemary and Ashe's savory.
The Longleaf Pine Ecosystem
Longleaf pine forests and savannas once covered approximately 92 million acres across the Southeast. Today, less than 3 percent of this habitat remains, and what is left is being lost at an estimated rate of 100,000 acres per year. In the last 30 years alone, longleaf pine acreage in North Florida has declined by 84 percent. Rangewide, longleaf pine-dominated ecosystems support more than 300 globally imperiled species; the steady decline in abundance and health of this habitat is thus linked with increasing imperilment of these species. Longleaf pine-wiregrass savannas and embedded wetlands comprise some of the most biologically diverse natural communities in North America. In Georgia, most of the remaining longleaf pine habitat is found on military bases or on quail plantations and other large privately owned tracts in the Red Hills and lower Dougherty Plain. Throughout its former range, the longleaf pine ecosystem is being impacted by forest conversion, fire suppression, habitat fragmentation, and invasive exotics species.
Several organizations, including the Longleaf Alliance, The Nature Conservancy, the Georgia Wildlife Federation, Tall Timbers Research Station, Georgia Forestry Commission, Joseph Jones Ecological Research Center and Georgia DNR have focused research, education, and conservation efforts on this globally significant ecosystem. In addition to protecting high priority sites through fee-simple ownership or conservation easements, ongoing efforts include promotion of prescribed fires, providing technical guidance to private landowners wanting to reforest with longleaf pine, developing educational materials explaining the significance of this habitat, and conducting field research on ecosystem functions and restoration techniques. A number of private landowners and forestry consultants have been instrumental in efforts to restore and maintain habitat quality in the longleaf pine ecosystem.
Problems Affecting Wildlife Diversity
Past conversion of forest and woodland habitats to agricultural uses has resulted in the loss of much of the natural upland vegetation in this area. In particular, the more mesic subtypes of longleaf pine-dominated forest/savanna, a predominant vegetation type in pre-settlement times, have been greatly reduced in the landscape. Remaining examples can be found in the Tallahassee Hills region and a few sites elsewhere in the region (e.g., Ichauway Plantation in the Dougherty Plain). More xeric sites (e.g., Fall Line sandhills and xeric aeolian dunes) that are generally unsuitable for agricultural uses still contain
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intact examples of longleaf pine-scrub oak woodlands and associated habitats. Wetland habitats adjacent to or surrounded by cultivated fields may be impacted by encroachment of soil-disturbing activities or by construction of drainage ditches. Other habitat types impacted by conversion to agricultural uses include forested depression wetlands, canebrakes, and beech-magnolia slope forests.
The uplands of this region are currently employed for a wide variety of agricultural uses, including row crops, orchards, pastures, and hayfields. In some watersheds, particularly in the Dougherty Plain, vegetated stream buffers are often too narrow to provide adequate erosion control. In other areas, intermittent or seasonal headwater streams and seeps have been impacted by encroachment of soil-disturbing practices. These activities result in a general degradation of water quality and habitat for aquatic and wetland species. Expanding vegetated stream buffers and protecting headwater streams would provide significant benefits to some of Georgia's most imperiled aquatic species as well as species associated with streamside bogs and seeps.
Conversion of upland pine and pine-hardwood forests to pine plantations has also resulted in impacts to wildlife diversity. In some cases, this conversion has resulted in replacement of the original longleaf pine canopy with slash or loblolly pine, while the groundlayer vegetation retains much of the original diversity due to frequent prescribed burns and less intensive site preparation techniques. Where intensive site preparation techniques have been utilized and/or burning has been eliminated as a management tool, much of this native groundlayer diversity has been lost, and habitat suitability for many high priority animals (e.g., red-cockaded woodpecker, Bachman's sparrow, northern bobwhite quail, gopher tortoise, indigo snake, flatwoods salamander) has been greatly reduced.
Although many landowners within this ecoregion utilize prescribed fire as a management tool, there are some areas in which altered fire regimes constitute a significant problem for wildlife. Expansion of residential and commercial development from urban centers into surrounding suburbs has resulted in many fire-dependent habitats being surrounded by highways, subdivisions, or retail centers. In these areas, concerns about smoke management, air quality, and damage to structures make it difficult to implement prescribed burn plans. In other areas, existing agricultural fields, roads, or utility corridors may isolate fire-dependent wetland communities from forested upland areas that would normally serve as fire source areas.
Extensive peat-bottomed wetland habitats that are difficult to burn are often excluded from prescribed burn plans. Historically, fires in the larger Carolina bays occurred at approximately 25-year intervals. Today, fire exclusion and altered hydrologic conditions have greatly reduced the variety of habitat types represented within depression wetlands. Grand Bay, one of the most extensive wetlands in the state, is maintained primarily by fluctuating water levels along with periodic prescribed fires. This type of management is critical for maintenance of freshwater marsh habitat for the Florida water rat, Florida sandhill crane, and other associated species.
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Groundwater and surface water withdrawals for agricultural uses represent significant impacts to wetlands, streams and sensitive karst environments, particularly in the Dougherty Plain. These withdrawals are capable of greatly reducing the hydroperiod of depression wetlands and reducing flows substantially in streams, affecting habitat for a wide variety of rare or declining birds, mussels, fishes, amphibians, reptiles, and plants. In addition, these withdrawals can remove water that would normally from sensitive environments such as caves, springs, and underground streams.
While less prevalent than in other ecoregions, residential and commercial development has resulted in loss of habitats on the periphery of metropolitan areas and along major highways. This is most noticeable in metropolitan areas of Columbus, Albany, Tifton, Valdosta, Warner-Robins, Statesboro, and Augusta. Development pressures have resulted in the loss or fragmentation of a number of upland habitats, alteration of fire regimes, increased sedimentation of streams, and filling or draining of isolated wetlands.
Invasive exotic species pose significant problems to habitats and species in this region. Notable examples include feral hogs, Chinese privet, hydrilla, Japanese climbing fern, cogon grass, and Asian clam. Feral hogs are particularly damaging to understory vegetation in mesic upland hardwood forests, where they feed on roots, tubers, and fruits of a wide variety of herbs, including rare species such as relict trillium. They are also capable of impacting a wide variety of plant species associated with wet pine savannas and herb bogs. Hydrilla is a noxious aquatic weed that has infested shallow water habitats in Lake Seminole, reducing aquatic habitat quality. Japanese climbing fern, a well-known pest in Florida, has gained a foothold in this ecoregion, and cogon grass, a very serious exotic pest plant has recently been documented.
For some high priority species and habitats, unmanaged recreational use represents a serious problem. For example, ATV use in and adjacent to the Ohoopee River may represent a threat to populations of rare mussels such as the Altamaha spinymussel. The potential impacts from this type of recreational use include destabilization of streambanks, excessive sedimentation, pollution from fuel spills, and direct mortality from vehicular impacts. Unmanaged vehicular traffic on xeric aeolian dunes, sandhills, and rock outcrops (e.g., Altamaha Grit) results in damage to the sparse xerophytic vegetation, destabilization of substrates, and direct mortality to rare or declining species such as the gopher tortoise, indigo snake, and eastern diamondback rattlesnake.
Construction of dams or other structures altering stream flow represents a significant problem for high priority species and habitats in this region. Most of the major river impoundments affecting streams and associated wetlands in this area are in the Piedmont (e.g., Lake Sinclair, Lake Oconee, Lake Jackson, West Point Lake, Lake Lanier, Clarks Hill Lake, Jackson Lake), but the regulation of flows on these alluvial river systems results in altered hydroperiods and sediment transport regimes for riverine swamps and bottomland hardwood forests, which in turn affects species composition, structure, and function of these ecosystems. Woodruff Dam at Lake Seminole serves as a barrier for passage of species such as the gulf sturgeon.
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Nonalluvial (blackwater) rivers and streams are particularly vulnerable to nutrient loadings and hydrologic disruptions from groundwater and surface water withdrawals, draining of adjacent wetlands, insufficient stream buffers, and other factors. Impacts on these nonalluvial systems include increased flow variability, low dissolved oxygen conditions, increased silt loadings, and resulting stresses to aquatic organisms.
Throughout this ecoregion, depressional wetlands have been impacted by construction of impoundments or drainage ditches. These alterations of natural hydrologic conditions, along with the elimination of fire as a management tool, result in a decline in the number and variety of depression wetland communities.
Longleaf Pine Ecosystem Restoration Project
The Georgia Department of Natural Resources is conducting a special habitat restoration project funded by the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, Southern Company, and State Wildlife Grants. The main objective of the Longleaf Pine Ecosystem Restoration Project (LPER) is to restore pine plantations on selected state lands to healthy longleaf pine ecosystems. This project seeks to define efficient strategies for converting slash and loblolly pine plantations to diverse, multi-aged, fire-maintained longleaf pine forests. The goals of this project include: 1) initiating gradual canopy conversion from planted pine to longleaf pine through thinning, creation of small gaps, and planting of longleaf pine 2) mechanically and chemically reducing hardwood competition and exotic species, 2) utilizing frequent prescribed fire, 3) promoting ground cover fine fuels, and 4) acquiring wiregrass seed from native stands through private landowner incentives and propagating for use in restoration sites.
LPER is being implemented on approximately 620 acres of pine plantation on four different state properties. These sites include Big Dukes Pond Natural Area in Jenkins County, Doerun Pitcherplant Bog Natural Area in Colquitt County, Mayhaw Wildlife Management Area in Miller County, and Moody Forest Natural Area in Appling County. To date, accomplishments include 1) the purchase of specialized equipment for groundcover harvest and planting, 2) herbicide treatment of pine stands to control oak competition and of a retired peanut field to eradicate coastal bermudagrass, 3) the planting of about 9,500 longleaf seedlings and about 70,000 wiregrass plugs as well as over 16,000 pounds of wiregrass seed, 4) prescribed burning on over 500 acres on pine plantation, 5) landowner incentive payments for growing season burns and wiregrass harvest on over 500 acres (over 1,700 pounds of seed collected), 6) and outreach efforts to other land managers and private landowners in the form of field trips and participation in conferences.
Monitoring is underway to determine the effectiveness of various management techniques for longleaf pine ecosystem restoration. The successes and challenges of this project have been shared with other land managers. An encouraging development is the participation of local nurseries in promoting wiregrass to the public.
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High Priority Sites and Landscape Features
The current assessment and previous conservation planning efforts have identified a number of ecologically important sites and landscape features in this region of the state. An assessment of the East Gulf Coastal Plain conducted by The Nature Conservancy in cooperation with state natural heritage programs in Alabama, Georgia, Florida, Mississippi, and Louisiana identified 15 high priority areas of conservation interest in Georgia (The Nature Conservancy, 1999). A similar assessment conducted for the South Atlantic Coastal Plain in cooperation with state natural heritage programs in Georgia, Florida, and South Carolina identified 38 high priority conservation areas in Georgia (The Nature Conservancy, 2002). Field surveys conducted by Georgia DNR staff and others have brought additional areas of conservation interest to light in recent years. The following list includes examples of some of the most significant sites and landscape features identified to date for the Southeastern Plains ecoregion.
Altamaha River Corridor
The Altamaha basin drains a total of 14,400 square miles, more than one-fourth of Georgia's land surface. Natural communities associated with this immense river system include oxbow lakes, sandbars, evergreen hammocks, sand ridge scrub forests, hardwood levee forests, cypress-gum swamps, pine flatwoods, limestone shoals, coastal marshes, and open-water estuaries. Important habitats located adjacent to the river floodplain include springs, bogs, Carolina bays and cypress/gum ponds.
Numerous high priority plants and animals are known from the Altamaha River corridor. Examples include green fly orchid, pondspice, Georgia plume, Franklinia, red-cockaded woodpecker, gopher tortoise, indigo snake, Bachman's sparrow, and swallow-tailed kite. Several rare and/or endemic bivalves have been reported from the Altamaha River, including the Altamaha spinymussel and Altamaha arcmussel. Ongoing efforts to provide long-term protection for the Altamaha River corridor involve a number of agencies and organizations, including Georgia DNR, The Nature Conservancy, The Conservation Fund, the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Plum Creek Timber Company, International Paper, and Rayonier, Inc. (Note: this conservation landscape spans the Southeastern Plains and Southern Coastal Plain).
Broxton Rocks/Altamaha Grit Outcrops
Altamaha Grit outcrops can be considered a high priority habitat type endemic to Georgia. These outcrops, composed of indurated sandy clay often commonly called "sandstone", are typically associated with longleaf pine-scrub oak woodlands or longleaf pine-wiregrass savannas. They occur in scattered locations in the Tifton Upland and Vidalia Upland regions of the Southeastern Plains. Perhaps the most significant examples of this habitat type can be found at Broxton Rocks Preserve, owned and managed by The Nature Conservancy in Coffee County. Other significant examples can be found in Turner, Laurens, Treutlen and Washington counties. Several additional
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examples of this habitat type should be protected and managed in a landscape context of fire-maintained upland and wetland communities.
Caves of Southwest Georgia
Caves in the Pelham Escarpment area of southwestern Georgia represent sites of significant natural communities; several of these caves also provide habitat for rare species such as the southeastern bat. Associated natural communities of significance include limesinks, springs and mesic ravine forests. No caves in this region of the state are in public ownership or permanently protected. These sensitive habitats are threatened by point and nonpoint pollution, sedimentation and vandalism.
Chickasawhatchee Swamp
Chickasawhatchee Swamp is an extensive habitat complex that represents the secondlargest nonalluvial swamp system in Georgia. This area contains a number of important wetland and upland habitats, including springs, pondcypress ponds, and bottomland hardwood forest. In addition, this site serves as important groundwater/surface water exchange area; its protection is critical for the maintenance of groundwater and surface water quality in this region. The State of Georgia owns and manages a large portion of this site as Chickasawhatchee Wildlife Management Area, having recently purchased the property from St. Joe Paper Company.
Fort Benning
Fort Benning and surrounding areas include significant examples of longleaf pine-scrub oak woodland, blackwater streams, alluvial river and swamp, mesic hardwood forest, and sandy bluffs. Over 40 species of conservation concern are known from this conservation area, including red cockaded woodpecker, Bachman's sparrow, gopher frog, Georgia rockcress, bay starvine, and relict trillium. Biologists from Georgia DNR, the Nature Conservancy and NatureServe have worked with Fort Benning staff to identify and develop management recommendations for significant natural communities and rare species populations on the base.
Fort Gordon
Located in the upper portion of the Southeastern Plains south of Augusta, this military facility contains significant examples of longleaf pine-scrub oak woodland, longleaf pinewiregrass savannas, Atlantic whitecedar swamps, mesic hardwood forest, and blackwater streams. Rare species known from this conservation area include sandhills rosemary, Pickering's morning glory, Carolina redtop, sweet pitcherplant, red cockaded woodpecker, bluebarred pygmy sunfish, dwarf waterdog, and southern hognose snake.
Grand Bay/Banks Lake
This high priority conservation landscape includes approximately 20,000 acres in southcentral Georgia. Major landowners are the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Banks Lake NWR), the U.S. Air Force (Moody AFB) and Georgia DNR (Grand Bay WMA). This
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area includes several large, shallow depressions similar to Carolina bays, but which may actually be solution sinks. If Grand Bay is actually a Carolina bay, it would be one of the largest known. Natural communities of interest include cypress-gum swamps, broadleaf evergreen hammocks, pine flatwoods, and open-water lakes. High priority species known from this area include greenfly orchid (Epidendrum conopseum) and Florida water rat (Neofiber alleni).
Kinchafoonee and Muckalee Creeks
These blackwater (nonalluvial) streams are found in southwestern Georgia. Kinchafoonee and Muckalee creeks provide habitat for a wide assortment of aquatic species, including more than a dozen species of imperiled fish and mussels. Protection of these and other high priority blackwater stream systems through enhancement of stream buffers, regulation of groundwater and surface water withdrawals, and reduction of pollution sources is critical for maintenance of high priority aquatic species in this ecoregion.
Lake Seminole/Spring Creek
This site, approximately 23,700 acres in size, generally encompasses the area surrounding Lake Seminole (managed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers) at the confluence of the Flint and Chattahoochee rivers. It also includes the lower portion of Spring Creek, a tributary of the Flint River Important natural communities include lacustrine habitats, clay-based sandhills, steephead ravines, springs, and limesink ponds. High priority species in this area include Florida torreya (Torreya taxifolia), gulf sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrinchus desotoi), and alligator snapping turtle (Macrochelys temminckii).
Ocmulgee River Corridor/Oaky Woods WMA
The Ocmulgee River corridor south of Warner Robins contains a number of high priority habitats, including bottomland hardwood forest, mesic hardwood forest, alluvial river and swamp, Black Belt prairies, limesinks, and caves. This area supports the only black bear population in central Georgia, as well as several other high priority species such as Ocmulgee skullcap and relict trillium. Much of the acreage of Ocmulgee WMA was formerly leased from Weyerhaeuser. Recent statewide divestiture of the company's timber holdings has placed the long-term conservation status of this portion of the Ocmulgee River corridor in doubt.
Ogeechee River Corridor
The Ogeechee River originates in the lower Georgia Piedmont and flows 245 miles to the Atlantic Ocean at Ossabaw Sound. Natural communities of the Ogeechee River corridor include limestone shoals, sandbars, cypress-gum swamps, springs, bottomland hardwood forests and coastal salt marshes. Important habitats adjacent to the river floodplain include Carolina bays, springs, limesinks, sandhills and Altamaha Grit outcrops. Examples of high priority species associated with the Ogeechee River floodplain and adjacent habitats include Georgia plume (Elliottia racemosa), wood stork (Mycteria
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americana), and swallow-tailed kite (Elanoides forficatus). Numerous springs provide cool-water refuges for striped bass and other game fish.
The Ogeechee is relatively free from significant development, except in the lower portions. This river has been considered for inclusion as a component of the Georgia Scenic River system and was nominated as a potential National Wild and Scenic River. Impacts to the river corridor include residential and industrial development (especially along the coast), conversion of bottomland hardwood forests, and drainage of adjacent wetland habitats. (Note: this conservation landscape spans the Southeastern Plains and Southern Coastal Plain).
Ohoopee/Little Ohoopee Rivers and Dunes
The Ohoopee and Little Ohoopee rivers of east-central Georgia represent important examples of non-alluvial (blackwater) stream ecosystems. These rivers flow southeastward for a total of approximately 110 miles from their headwaters to the Altamaha River. The Ohoopee/Little Ohoopee rivers contain a variety of natural communities, including cypress-gum swamps, bottomland hardwood forests and white sandbars. The "Ohoopee Dunes" consist of a series of high undulating sand ridges lying east of, and parallel to, the Ohoopee and Little Ohoopee rivers. These deep, coarse sand dunes were formed by wind action during the late Pleistocene.
Natural communities of the xeric upper dunes include dwarf oak-evergreen scrub, evergreen scrub-lichen vegetation and longleaf pine-scrub oak woodlands. The lower slopes of the dunes, near the edge of the river floodplains, contain diverse "bayhead" forests, seeps, and bogs. Numerous rare plant and animal species have been documented from these ecosystems; examples include sandhills rosemary, Ashe's savory, Indian olive, eastern indigo snake, gopher tortoise, striped newt, and Altamaha spinymussel. Approximately 2,500 acres of this habitat is owned by the State of Georgia and managed as Ohoopee Dunes State Natural Area. The Nature Conservancy owns and manages an adjacent 267-acre tract as Ohoopee Dunes Preserve.
Red Hills Plantations
The Red Hills region of southwestern Georgia contains impressive examples of longleaf pine/wiregrass savannas, pitcherplant bogs, blackwater creek swamps, blackwater rivers, wet pine flatwoods and other natural communities. Most of this area is in private ownership, managed as quail plantations. Many high priority plants and animals have been documented from this region, and efforts are ongoing to provide permanent protection for the most important sites and habitats through fee-simple acquisition, conservation easements, and long-term management agreements such as Safe Harbor.
High Priority Waters
Figure 12 shows the high priority streams and watersheds identified by the CWCS Fishes and Freshwater Invertebrates team for this ecoregion. These streams were chosen on the basis of documented occurrences of high priority aquatic species, high water quality rankings based on Index of Biotic Integrity scores, and designation as exemplary streams
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in a previous study by The Nature Conservancy. Examples of high priority streams in the Southeastern Plains include Hannahatchee Creek, Spring Creek, Savannah River, McBean Creek, Brier Creek, Ogeechee River, Withlacoochee River, Boggy Gut Creek, Suwannee River, Ochlockonee River, Kinchafoonee Creek, Muckalee Creek, Chickasawhatchee Creek, Altamaha River, Flint River, Coolewahee Creek, and Ichawaynochaway Creek. Refer to Table 1 of the Fishes and Freshwater Invertebrates Technical Team report in Appendix B.
Conservation Goals
Maintain known viable populations of all high priority species and functional examples of all high priority habitats through land protection, incentive-based habitat management programs on private lands, and habitat restoration and management on public lands.
Increase public awareness of high priority species and habitats by developing educational messages and lesson plans for use in environmental education facilities, local schools, and other facilities.
Encourage restoration of important wildlife habitats through reintroduction of prescribed fire, hydrologic restoration, and revegetation efforts.
Combat the spread of invasive/noxious species in high priority natural habitats by identifying problem areas, providing technical and financial assistance, developing specific educational messages, and managing exotic species populations on public lands.
Minimize impacts from residential and commercial development on high priority species and habitats by providing input on environmental assessments
Continue efforts to recover federally listed species by implementation of recovery plans
Strategies and Partnerships to Achieve Conservation Goals
Provide financial incentives and technical expertise to encourage prescribed burns, through Interagency Burn Team and other means
Work with NRCS staff to identify high priority habitats and sites for implementation of habitat enhancement/restoration projects through Farm Bill programs (e.g., restoration of longleaf pine-dominated forests and savannas)
Use state lands (e.g., Doerun Pitcherplant Bog Natural Area, Big Dukes Pond Natural Area, Chickasawhatchee WMA) and other public lands to showcase habitat restoration efforts. Complete management plans for all state lands and incorporate management objectives for populations of high priority species.
Assess exotic species populations on public lands and provide technical assistance to private landowners to discourage use of invasive exotics
Work with GDOT and local governments to minimize direct impacts to high priority species and habitats from development projects
Work with the Georgia Land Trust Service Center to apply monies from the Georgia Wetlands Trust Fund to provide protection for high priority wetlands and stream corridors.
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Work with Georgia Power and private landowners to identify and conserve populations of rare species in and adjacent to utility corridors
Develop educational materials on high priority species and habitats in the ecoregion and provide these to environmental educators at WRD facilities (e.g., Grand Bay Education Center) and other facilities
Work with NRCS, GFC, and GFA to revise forestry BMPs for better protection of streams and wetlands and maintenance of important wildlife habitats
Utilize Landowner Incentive Program (LIP) funds to implement programs to establish or expand vegetated stream buffers along high priority streams.
Highest Priority Conservation Actions
High priority conservation actions (actions rated "Very High" or "High") identified by the technical teams, Steering Committee, and other stakeholders specifically for this ecoregion include the following (see Appendix L for details):
Assess Middle Georgia black bear population and habitat conservation needs; develop conservation plan for the Ocmulgee River corridor.
Assess status of Altamaha endemic mussels in undersampled rivers and streams; begin long-term monitoring program for mussels in the Altamaha basin. Identify host fishes for Altamaha spinymussel and Altamaha arcmussel.
Investigate site fidelity and habitat use by eastern indigo snakes. Develop tools to evaluate stream flows on aquatic communities and assist in
managing water resources to maintain fish communities. Monitor populations of southeastern bats in Southwest Georgia caves. Implement restoration projects for Gulf striped bass and other diadromous fish.
Evaluate existing population status, commercial and recreational fisheries, and habitat limitations. Look for opportunities to enhance habitat. Implement red-cockaded woodpecker conservation on private lands, through safe harbor agreements and mitigated take from small, isolated populations. Administer landowner incentive program for safe harbor participants. Identify potential habitat for flatwoods salamander and other high priority coastal plain species; survey habitats for high priority species. Work with Robust Redhorse Conservation Committee to assure restoration of robust redhorse populations. Conduct research and management options to develop six self sustaining populations of robust redhorse within historic range. Develop private landowner incentive for conservation of flatwoods salamanders and other high priority species. Establish or augment populations of gopher frog, striped newt, gopher tortoise, and other high priority coastal plain species on protected lands.
Other high priority conservation actions that are statewide in scope are addressed in Section V of this report.
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Table 7. Southeastern Plains High Priority Animals (85 Records)

Group Scientific Name

Common Name

Global State Federal State Rank Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

Range in Georgia

AA Anepeorus simplex Wallace's deepwater G2

SU

mayfly

Deeper portions of large rivers, in rather swift current Known in GA from single location

AA Cambarus cryptodytes Dougherty plain cave G2G3 S1S2 crayfish

Pool areas of subterranean systems

Climax Cave and Radium Springs, probably other areas

AA Cambarus truncatus Oconee burrowing crayfish

G1

S1

Complex burrows in sandy clay soil

Fall Line Hills in Oconee Basin (Laurens and Wilkinsons Counties)

AA Eubranchipus stegosus A fairy shrimp

GU

S1?

Seasonal freshwater wetlands

Known only from two pools in Worth County

AA Homoeoneuria dolani Blackwater sand-filtering G2 mayfly

SNR

Shifting sand substrate of larger streams of piedmont and coastal plain with medium to fast current

Exact range uncertain

AA Leuctra moha

Blackwater needlefly G3

S3

Reported from two small streams in west-central GA

Reported from two small streams in west-central GA

AM Ambystoma cingulatum Flatwoods salamander G2G3 S2 LT

T

Pine flatwoods; moist savannas; isolated cypress/gum Lower CP, extremely localized throughout large but

ponds

fragmented range. Only four sites with known extant

populations

AM Amphiuma pholeter One-toed amphiuma G3

S1

R

Organic muck beds in floodplains and seepage bogs only known from lower Ochlockonee River basin; CP

AM Desmognathus auriculatus

Southern dusky salamander

G5

S3*

In or around the margins of slowly moving or stagnant bodies of water with mucky, acidic soils; cypress swamps, floodplains, sloughs

Lower CP

AM Eurycea chamberlaini Chamberlain's dwarf salamander

G5T?Q S1

Seepage ravines

only known from Shackleford Preserve within GA, most likely elsewhere in GA CP

AM Haideotriton wallacei Georgia blind salamander

G2

S1

T

Cave pools

Doughtery Plain aquifer, CP

AM Necturus punctatus Dwarf waterdog

G4

S2

Sluggish streams with substrate of leaf litter or woody debris

Atlantic drainages, primarily CP, one record in the PD

AM Notophthalmus

Striped newt

G2G3 S2

R

Pine flatwoods, sandhills; isolated wetlands

CP

perstriatus

AM Pseudobranchus striatus

Dwarf siren

G5

S3

Swamps; marshes; limesink ponds; cypress ponds

Lower CP

AM Rana capito

Gopher frog

G3G4 S3*

Sandhills; dry pine flatwoods; breed in isolated wetlands CP

BI

Aimophila aestivalis Bachman's sparrow

G3

S3 SAR R

Open pine or oak woods; old fields; grassy forest regeneration

RV, PD, CP: where appropriate habitat

BI

Ammodramus

henslowii

Henslow's sparrow

G4

S3 SAR

Grassy areas, especially wet grasslands; wet pine savanna & flatwoods

CP, PD - historically and migrants

BI

Colinus virginianus

Northern bobwhite

G5

S4

Early successional mixed grass/forb habitat; longleaf pine savanna

CP most numerous; uncommon in PD, RV; scattered in CU, BR

BI

Dendroica kirtlandii Kirtland's warbler

G1

S1 LE

E

Scrub habitats during spring and fall; may be associated Isolated reports could occur anywhere in the northern half

with pines

of state or coast

BI

Egretta tricolor

Tricolored heron

G5

S3

Coastal aquatic environments, salt and fresh, nests with All coastal counties other waders in low thick cover

BI

Elanoides forficatus Swallow-tailed kite

G5

S2 SAR R

River swamps and upland adjacent habitats particularly CP - nesting primarily in SE CP with scattered records

with large, emergent pines and pine islands; marshes statewide post breeding

BI

Falco sparverius

paulus

Southeastern american G5T4 S3 SAR kestrel

Pine sandhills and savannas; open country with

CP

scattered trees for nesting; military base habitats;

artificial/man-made nesting habitats include nest boxes,

power poles, building columns

Group Codes: AA = aquatic arthropod; AM = amphibian; BI = bird; FI = fish; MA = mammal; MO = mollusk; RE = reptile

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Table 7. Southeastern Plains High Priority Animals (85 Records)

Group Scientific Name

Common Name

Global State Federal State Rank Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

Range in Georgia

BI

Grus canadensis

pratensis

Florida sandhill crane G5T2T3 S1

Freshwater prairies

Restricted to Okefenokee and Grand Bay

BI

Haliaeetus

leucocephalus

Bald eagle

G4

S2 (PS:LT, E

Edges of lakes & large rivers; seacoasts

PDL)

CP - primarily and reservoirs and rivers PD, BR, RV

BI

Ixobrychus exilis

Least bittern

G4

S3

Freshwater and brackish marshes with tall, dense emergent vegetation. Nests close to open areas

Probably more common as a breeder in CP due to much more potentially suitable habitat than in PD

BI

Lanius ludovicianus Loggerhead shrike

migrans

G4T3Q S? SAR

Open woods; field edges; savannas

CP - primary area of abundance; scattered and low number in the PD (none in 20-county metro Atlanta area); low numbers in RV

BI

Laterallus jamaicensis Black rail

G4

S2? SAR

Freshwater marsh grassy margins; wet grassy meadows; PD, CP - most likely breeding would occur in eastern PD

brackish high marsh

or along Coast

BI

Limnothlypis

swainsonii

Swainson's warbler

G4

S3 SAR

Dense undergrowth with heavy litter (CP,M); canebrakes Although found widespread, bulk of population restricted

in swamps and river floodplains (CP)

to river floodplains of CP and PD; small BR population

BI

Mycteria americana Wood stork

G4

S2 (PS:LE) E

Cypress/gum ponds; freshwater marshes; saltmarshes, 1,200 pairs nesting in Coastal Plain 2002, with post-nest

river swamps; bays, isolated wetlands, ephemeral

dispersal throughout state

wetlands, coastal hammocks

BI

Passerina ciris

Painted bunting

G5

S3 SAR

Shrub-scrub and open grassy habitats; open mature pine CP - primarily barrier islands and immediate coast with

forest and maritime oak forest associated with

scattered occurrences up major river corridors;

freshwater wetlands

occurrences in CP agricultural lands reduced and poorly

understood

BI

Picoides borealis

Red-cockaded woodpecker

G3

S2 LE

E

Open pine woods; pine savannas

Found mostly in CP, also lower PD. Disjunct populations in counties of Muscogee, Chattahoochee (Ft Benning); Liberty, Long, Bryan (Ft Stewart); Charlton, Brantley (Okefenokee NWR, private); Jones, Jasper (Piedmont NWR, Oconee NF, Hitchiti); Thomas, Grady (Red Hills plantations); Decatur (Southlands); Baker (Ichauway); Richmond (Ft Gordon); Appling (Moody Forest); and Turner (private)

BI

Rallus elegans

King rail

G4G5 S3

Freshwater marshes, often cattail bulrush, cutgrass, for Principally Piedmont and CP; possibly RV breeding; also brackish marshes non-breeding (saltmarshes?)

BI

Tyto alba

Barn owl

G5

S3/S4

Grassland savanna with large cavity trees, also neighborhoods with large cavity trees, generally needs open country

Local: CP, PD, RV, CU, rare in BR

FI

Acipenser brevirostrum Shortnose sturgeon

G3

S2 LE

E

Estuaries; lower end of large rivers in deep pools with Atlantic drainage large rivers

soft substrates

FI

Acipenser oxyrinchus Gulf sturgeon

desotoi

G3T2 SX LT

Estuaries; deep pools at lower end of large rivers

Gulf drainage below Woodruff L&D

FI

Alosa alabamae

Alabama shad

G3

S1 C

U

Saltwater; coastal rivers in moderate current

Current records are from Flint River (Apalachicola) and Withlacoochee (Suwanee) sytems. Lee Keefer (pers. Comm) reports records from lower Chattahoochee in early 1990's.

FI

Ameiurus serracanthus Spotted bullhead

G3

S2

R

Large streams and rivers with moderate current and

Known from CP of Suwanee, Ochlockonee, and

rock-sand substrate

Apalachicola drainages of Georgia.

FI

Cyprinella callitaenia Bluestripe shiner

G2G3 S2

T

Flowing areas in large creeks and medium-sized rivers Known from PD and CP of Apalachicola drainage

over rocky substrates

Group Codes: AA = aquatic arthropod; AM = amphibian; BI = bird; FI = fish; MA = mammal; MO = mollusk; RE = reptile

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Table 7. Southeastern Plains High Priority Animals (85 Records)

Group Scientific Name

Common Name

Global State Federal State Rank Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

Range in Georgia

FI

Elassoma okatie

Bluebarred pygmy sunfish

G2G3 S1S2

Temporary ponds and stream backwaters with dense aquatic vegetation

Fort Gordon

FI

Enneacanthus

chaetodon

Blackbanded sunfish G4

S1

R

Blackwater streams; bays; cypress/gum ponds

Disjunct historic locales in SE GA; T. Peterson (recent) able to find at one historic locale outside of OK Swamp

FI

Etheostoma parvipinne Goldstripe darter

G4G5 S2S3

R

Small sluggish streams and spring seepage areas in Known from CP and PD (rare) portions of the

woody debris, leaf material, mud, and silt

Apalachicola (Chattahoochee and Flint) and Altamaha

(Ocmulgee only?) drainages.

FI

Fundulus auroguttatus Banded topminnow

G4

S1S2

R

Blackwater streams; ponds; bays; freshwater marshes Known from Apalachicola (Flint system) and possibly the

Ochlockonee drainages in Georgia; GNHP record from St.

Mary's may be F. rubrifrons)

FI

Lucania goodei

Bluefin killifish

G5

S1

U

Heavily vegetated ponds and streams with little or no Lower Flint River system and in McIntosh County on east

current; frequently associated with springs

coast of GA

FI

Micropterus notius

Suwannee bass

G3

S2

R

Flowing water over rocky shoals or large springs and Suwannee drainage

spring runs

FI

Moxostoma robustum Robust redhorse

G1

S1

E

lower PD and upper CP of medium to large

Native populations in lower Savannah (Richmond, Burke

rivers;shallow riffles to deep flowing water; moderately and Screven counties.), Oconee (Baldwin, Wilkinson,

swift current

Washington, Johnson, and Laurens counties), and

Ocmulgee (Houston, Twiggs, Bleckley and Pulaski

counties) rivers; introduced into the Broad River (upper

Savannah) and Ogeechee systems. Stocked in Ocmulgee

River between Lloyd Shoals Dam and Juliette.

FI

Notropis harperi

Redeye chub

G4

S3

R

Springs and spring influenced creeks over sand or rocky CP of Oconee, Ocmulgee, Flint, Chattahoochee, and

substrates

Suwanee systems; most of GNHP records are from the

Flint system

FI

Notropis hypsilepis Highscale shiner

G3

S3

T

Flowing areas of small to large streams over sand or Primarily PD of Apalachicola (Flint and Chattahoochee); a

bedrock substrates

few CP records from Apalachicola; also know from 1

tributary in BR of Savannah

FI

Percina sp. Cf. P.

Palmaris

Halloween darter

G2

S2

Swift waters of medium to large rivers

Disjunct pops - Chatt above Lanier, Flint above fall line, lower Flint/Ichawaynochaway

FI

Pteronotropis

euryzonus

Broadstripe shiner

G3

S2

R

Flowing areas of medium sized streams associated with Known from Apalachicola drainage (Chatthoochee only);

sandy substrate and woody debris or vegetation

most records are CP, some slightly above fall line.

FI

Pteronotropis welaka Bluenose shiner

G3G4 S1

R

Quiet backwaters and vegetated pools of streams and CP tributaries of the Flint River; only 5 GNHP records

rivers

MA Corynorhinus rafinesquii

Rafinesque's big-eared G3G4 S3? bat

R

Pine forests; hardwood forests; caves; abandoned

Range in state disjunct--C.r.rafinesquii found in northern

buildings; bridges; bottomland hardwood forests and BR and C. r. macrotis found in lower CP. Not known from

cypress-gum swamps

PD, but either subsp might occur there.

MA Geomys pinetis

Southeastern pocket G5

S4

gopher

sandy well-drained soils in open pine woodlands with grassy or herbaceous groundcover, fields, grassy roadsides

Fairly widespread over CP, but population apparently greatly reduced and fragmented; small local populations

MA Lasiurus intermedius Northern yellow bat

G4G5 S2S3

Wooded areas near open water or fields

Has been found only in lower CP

MA Myotis austroriparius Southeastern myotis

G3G4 S3

Caves & buildings near water; large hollow trees in bottomland hardwood swamps

Though this species might be fairly widespread in Georgia, they are vulnerable as they congregate at roost sites. Known important roosts are in SW part of state; possible cave roosts reported from NW GA.

Group Codes: AA = aquatic arthropod; AM = amphibian; BI = bird; FI = fish; MA = mammal; MO = mollusk; RE = reptile

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Group Scientific Name MA Neofiber alleni MO Alasmidonta arcula
MO Alasmidonta triangulata
MO Alasmidonta varicosa MO Amblema neislerii
MO Anodonta heardi MO Elimia albanyensis MO Elimia boykiniana
MO Elliptio fraternal MO Elliptio purpurella MO Elliptio spinosa

Table 7. Southeastern Plains High Priority Animals (85 Records)

Common Name

Global State Federal State Rank Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

Range in Georgia

Round-tailed muskrat G3

S3

T

Freshwater marshes; bogs

Okefenokee and surrounding areas in Camden, Charlton, and Ware; also Grand Bay WMA in Lanier and Lowndes; also Brooks.

Altamaha arcmussel

G2

S2

Altamaha River, sandy mud below sand bars in slow water & eddies. In small and large streams

Historically known from the Altamaha River, Ocmulgee River, and Ohoopee River drainages (Wurtz 1971, Sickel 1980, Keferl 1981). Keferl's 1993-1996 surveys found A. arcula in the Ocmulgee River, sparingly in the Altamaha and Ohoopee Rivers, and one shell in Turkey Creek, a tributary of the Oconee River (Keferl pers. com.). No unionid mussels were found in his 1996 surveys of the Oconee River, possibly due to fluctuating water levels (up to 3ft) below dam. He suggests that additional surveys need to be performed in this river system.

Southern elktoe

G2Q S1

Large creeks and river mainstems in sandy mud and rock pools

Confined to the Chattachoochee, Flint, Ogeechee, Savannah river drainages

Brook floater

G3

S2

Small rivers and creeks in sand and gravel shoals

Present distribution includes 4 sites in the Chattooga River in Rabun County (Savannah River drainage).

Fat threeridge

G1

SH LE

E

Small to large rivers with moderate current and muddy Historically endemic to the Flint River. No live specimens

sand substrate

were found in the Flint River mainstem, impoundments, or

tributaries during a 1991 2-year comprehensive study by

USGS in Gainesville; shells were found at only 2 localities

in the Flint River arm

Apalachicola floater

G1

S1

Lakes and backwater areas of rivers and large creeks in Shells were located in Abrams Creek trib, Worth Co. GA muddy substrates

Black-crest elimia

G5

SH

Slackwater habitats in medium-sized rivers

Flint River and tributaries (Goodrich 1942). Widely distributed from the Appalachicola River below Jim Woodruff dam north in the Flint River (but not its tribs) to Montezuma (Thompson pers. com.).

Flaxen elimia

G3

SH

Gravel or cobble shoals with moderate current

Historically known from Chattahoochee and Flint River systems (Goodrich 1942). Recorded from the Chattahoochee River and adjacent tribs from Columbus north to West Point (Thompson pers. com.) Thompson also states that malacologically, the Chattahoochee above West Point remains unexplored for all practical purposesand he does not know why this is so; Only known recent record is from mainstem of Chattahoochee river, Chambers Co., AL (collected by GT Watters, 1992).

Brother spike

G1

SU

Sandy substrates of river channels with swift current

Uncertain of range in Savannah River system

Inflated spike

G3

S2

Sand and limestone rock substrates

ACF endemic currently restricted to lower Flint tribs.

Altamaha spinymussel G1G2 S1 PE

Buried in sandbars in swift current in Altamaha River

Historical range included the Altamaha River basin (Johnson 1970, Sickel 1980, Parmalee pers. Com., Sepkoski & Rex 1974), including the Ocmulgee River (Keferl pers. com.) and the lower Ohoopee River (Keferl 1981). Keferl located live E. spinosa at a few sites in the Altamaha, Ocmulgee, and Ohoopee rivers in a 1993-1996 survey (Keferl pers. com.).

Group Codes: AA = aquatic arthropod; AM = amphibian; BI = bird; FI = fish; MA = mammal; MO = mollusk; RE = reptile

135

Table 7. Southeastern Plains High Priority Animals (85 Records)

Group Scientific Name

Common Name

Global State Federal State Rank Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

Range in Georgia

MO Elliptoideus sloatianus Purple bankclimber

G2

S2 LT

Small to large rivers with moderate current and substrate Historic range included Flint, Chattahoochee,

of sand, fine gravel, or muddy sand

Ochlockonee rivers. Has been virtually extirpated from

Flint tributaries and is very rare in the Chattachoochee

system (Brim-Box and Williams 1997, Butler 1993).

Recently found in upper Ochlockonee River near

Thomasville in low numbers (Blalock-Herod, 2003).

MO Lampsilis subangulata Shinyrayed pocketbook G2

S2 LE

E

Sandy/rocky medium-sized rivers & creeks

Historically occurred at 18 localities in the Flint River (Butler 1993) and 23 records from the Chattahoochee River and its tribs (Brim-Box and Williams 1997). BrimBox and Williams (19970 found this species primarily in the flint river drainage, with 2 sites being located in two tribs of the Chattahoochee River. It does not appear to be confined to the Coastal Plain, since live specimens were found near the headwaters of the Flint River in the Piedmont (Brim-Box and Williams 1997). Parmalee houses 1995 Kinchafoonee Creek specimens at the Frank McClung Museum in Knoxville (pers. com.). Also occurs in the upper Ochlockonee near Thomasville, (BlalockHerod 2003)

MO Marstonia agarhecta Ocmulgee marstonia G1

S1

Submerged logs in clear water with slight current

Originally only known from the type locality in the Ocmulgee River drainage- Bluff Creek (Thompson 1969, Hershler 1994). Watson (1996) discovered a range extension -House Spring in Wilcox County, 40km (air) to the SE.

MO Marstonia castor

Beaverpond marstonia G1

S1

Aquatic macrophytes in clear water with slight current

Known only from the type locality in the Flint River drainage- Cedar Creek (Thompson 1977, Hershler 1994).

MO Medionidus penicillatus Gulf moccasinshell

G1

S1 LE

E

Sandy/rocky medium-sized rivers & creeks

Historically found in the main channels and tribs of the Flint and Chattahoochee Rivers. Brim-Box and Williams (1997) located this species in only ten sites in the Flint River and two sites in two Chattahoochee River tribs. Parmalee houses 1995 Kinchafoon

MO Medionidus simpsonianus

Ochlockonee moccasinshell

G1

SH LE

E

Large creeks, medium-sized rivers with moderate current Described from the Ochlockonee River, Calvary, Grady

in sand and gravel substrate

Co. Historically known from 3 sites in this river system.

Single weathered dead shells found at 2 sites in ga in the

past few years (Butler 1993). Appears to be restricted to

the Ochlockonee River System

MO Pleurobema pyriforme Oval pigtoe

G2

S2 LE

E

Sandy, medium-sized rivers & creeks

Described from the Chattahoochee River near Columbus. Historic distribution includes the mainstem and tributaries of Flint and Chattahoochee systems, and several sites in the Ochlockonee River mainstem. Probably extirpated from its historical localities in the Chattahoochee River drainage, including the type locality at Columbus; may also be extirpated from the main channel of the Flint River, except at the headwaters. Presently restricted to Apalachicola and Ochlockonee River systems in SW GA (Williams & Butler 1994). Found at one site in the Ochlockonee mainstem (Blalock-Herod 2003).

Group Codes: AA = aquatic arthropod; AM = amphibian; BI = bird; FI = fish; MA = mammal; MO = mollusk; RE = reptile

136

Table 7. Southeastern Plains High Priority Animals (85 Records)

Group Scientific Name

Common Name

Global State Federal State Rank Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

Range in Georgia

MO Toxolasma pullus

Savannah lilliput

G2

S2

Altamaha River; Savannah River

Historical distribution included the Altamaha River basin (Johnson 1970, Sepkoski and Rex 1974, and Keferl 1981). Present distribution from recent surveys appears to be only the Ohoopee River (Keferl pers. com.).

RE Clemmys guttata

Spotted turtle

G5

S3

U

Heavily vegetated swamps, marshes, bogs, and small Widely distributed across CP

ponds; nest and possibly hibernate in surrounding

uplands

RE Crotalus adamanteus Eastern diamondback G4

S4

rattlesnake

Early successional habitats on barrier islands and mainland; pine flatwoods; sandhills

CP, including barrier islands

RE Drymarchon couperi Eastern indigo snake G4T3 S3 LT

T

Sandhills; pine flatwoods; dry hammocks; summer

habitat includes floodplains and bottomlands

Middle and lower CP

RE Eumeces egregius

Mole skink

G4

S3 (PS)

Coastal dunes; longleaf pine-turkey oak woods; dry hammocks

Widespread throughout CP

RE Gopherus polyphemus Gopher tortoise

G3

S2* (PS:LT) T

Sandhills; dry hammocks; longleaf pine-turkey oak

CP

woods; old fields

RE Graptemys barbouri Barbour's map turtle

G2

S2

T

Rivers & large creeks of Apalachicola River drainage Restricted distribution, Apalachicola drainage within PD

and CP

RE Heterodon simus

Southern hognose snake G2

S2

Sandhills; fallow fields; longleaf pine-turkey oak

CP

RE Macrochelys temminckii

Alligator snapping turtle G3G4 S3

T

Large streams and rivers; impoundments; river swamps Gulf CP drainages

RE Ophisaurus mimicus Mimic glass lizard

G3

S2

Pine flatwoods; savannas; seeapge bogs

Lower CP, substantial gaps in range

RE Pituophis

Florida pine snake

G4T3? S3

sandhills; scrub; old field

CP

melanoleucus mugitus

RE Rhineura floridana

Florida worm lizard

G4

S1

Dry upland hammocks, sand pine and longleaf pineturkey oak sandhills; old fields

Lanier Co. in CP

RE Tantilla relicta

Florida crowned snake G5

S1

Sandhills, scrub, and moist hammocks

Lowndes Co. in CP

Group Codes: AA = aquatic arthropod; AM = amphibian; BI = bird; FI = fish; MA = mammal; MO = mollusk; RE = reptile

137

Table 8. Southeastern Plains High Priority Plants (145 Records)

Scientific Name

Common Name

Global State Federal State Rank Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

Range in Georgia

Arnoglossum sulcatum Grooved-stem Indian- G2G3

S1

plantain

Bottomland forests

UCP

Asplenium heterochroum Varicolor spleenwort

G3?

SR

Limestone outcrops; marl

LCP, if present

Asplenium heteroresiliens

Morzenti's spleenwort G2Q

S1

T

Limestone and marl outcrops; tabby ruins

UCP, LCP

Aster eryngiifolius

Snakeroot-leaf aster

G3G4

SH

Moist pinelands

UCP

Aster georgianus

Georgia aster

G2G3

S2 C

Upland oak-hickory-pine forests and openings; sometimes with Echinacea laevigata or over amphibolite

CU, RV, PD, UCP

Astragalus michauxii

Sandhill milkvetch

G3

S2

Longleaf pine-wiregrass savannas; turkey oak scrub

UCP

Balduina atropurpurea Purple honeycomb head G2G3

S2

R

Wet savannas, pitcherplant bogs

UCP, LCP

Baptisia megacarpa

Bigpod wild indigo

G2

S1

Floodplain forests, adjacent wooded slopes

UCP, PD

Brickellia cordifolia

Heartleaf brickellia

G2G3

S2

Mesic hardwood forests

UCP

Calopogon multiflorus Many-flowered grass-pink G2G3

SH

Wet savannas; pitcherplant bogs

UCP, LCP, near Florida most likely if still present

Calopogon oklahomensis Oklahoma grass-pink

G4?

SH

Calystegia catesbiana Catesby's bindweed ssp. catesbiana

G3T2?Q S1?

Longleaf pine- wiregrass savannas

PD, UCP

Carex acidicola

Acid-loving sedge

G2G3

SR

Said by FNA to occur in ?Dry-mesic to mesic deciduous forests, usually in humic sandy loams.?

UCP (only?)

Carex baltzellii

Baltzell's sedge

G3

S1

E

Beech-magnolia slope forests

UCP

Carex dasycarpa

Velvet sedge

G4?

S3

R

Evergreen hammocks; mesic hardwood forests

LCP, UCP

Carex decomposita

Cypress-knee sedge

G3

S2?

Swamps and lake margins on floating logs

LCP, UCP

Carex fissa var. aristata Long-awned split sedge G3G4QT3 S1 T4

Wet savannas

UCP (only?)

Carex godfreyi

Godfrey's sedge

G3G4

S3?

Forested depressional wetlands.

UCP, possibly LCP?, uncertain, verification needed

Carex thornei

Thorne's sedge

G2G3

S1?

Said by FNA to occur in ?Mesic deciduous forests, in sandy UCP, restricted to lower Chattahoochee and lower Flint loams, usually on upper portions of flood plains and adjacent Rivers in Georgia; upper Apalachicola River in Florida slopes .?

Carphephorus pseudoliatris

Lavender lady

G4G5

SH

Pine flatwoods

UCP

Ceratiola ericoides

Rosemary

G4

S2

T

Ohoopee Dunes; deep sandridges

UCP, all populations are inland, along eastern side of Ohoopee and Canoochee Rivers and major tribs

Chamaecrista deeringiana

Florida senna

G1G2

S1?

Sandhill scrub; longleaf pine-wiregrass savannas

UCP

Chamaecyparis thyoides Atlantic white-cedar

G4

S2

R

Clearwater stream swamps along the Fall Line

UCP, Fall Line Sandhills; in 3 disjunct areas, including eastern on Ft. Gordon, central near Byron, and western between Ft. Benning and Butler

Coreopsis integrifolia Tickseed

G1G2

S1S2

Floodplain forests, streambanks

UCP, LCP

Croomia pauciflora

Croomia

G3

S1

T

Mesic hardwood forests, usually with beech and basswood PD, UCP; mostly in rich woods near Chattahoochee

and Flint Rivers

Cuscuta harperi

Harper's dodder

G2

S1

T

Parasitic on Bigelowia nuttallii on Altamaha Grit outcrops;

PD, UCP

granite outcrops, usually with Liatris microcephala as host

138

Scientific Name
Cypripedium kentuckiense Desmodium ochroleucum

Common Name Kentucky ladyslipper

Table 8. Southeastern Plains High Priority Plants (145 Records)

Global State Federal State Rank Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

Range in Georgia

G3

S1

Forested, springhead seeps in sandy soils

UCP, Laurens Co.

Cream-flowered tick-trefoil G2?

S1

Open, calcareous woodlands

CU, UCP

Eleocharis bicolor Elliottia racemosa

Spikerush Georgia plume

Epidendrum conopseum Green-fly orchid

G? G2G3
G4

S1? S2S3
S3

Eustachys floridana Fimbristylis perpusilla Fothergilla gardenii

Florida finger grass Harper's fimbry Dwarf witch-alder

G2?

S1?

G2

S1

G3G4

S2

Glandularia bipinnatifida Dakota vervain

G5

S1

Habenaria quinqueseta var. quinqueseta
Helenium brevifolium

Michaux's orchid Bog sneezeweed

G4G5T? S1

G3G4

S1

Hexastylis shuttleworthii var. harperi Hypericum adpressum
Hypericum sp. 3

Harper's wild ginger
Bog St. Johnswort Georgia St.-John's-wort

G4T3
G2G3 G2G3

S2S3
S2? S2S3

Ilex cuthbertii Illicium floridanum Illicium parviflorum

Cuthbert's holly Florida anise-tree Yellow anise-tree

G1?

SH

G5

S1

G2

SH

Isoetes boomii
Isoetes flaccida var. alata
Isoetes flaccida var. flaccida
Isoetes hyemalis

Boom's quillwort Florida quillwort Florida quillwort Winter quillwort

G1

S1

G3T1T3Q S1S3

G3T1T3Q SR

G2G3

S1

Isoetes junciformis Justicia angusta

Rush quillwort

G1?Q

S1?

Narrowleaf water-willow G3Q

SH

Kalmia carolina

Carolina bog myrtle

G4

S1

FNA: "Moist banks, freshwater, damp pine barrens."

UCP (in Gulf Coast watershed only?)

T

Scrub forests; Altamaha Grit outcrops; open forests over

PD, UCP, LCP; from Ft. Stewart to Ashburn, Turner

ultramafic rock

Co.;disjunct on piedmont on Burks Mtn., Columbia Co.

U

Epiphytic on limbs of evergreen hardwoods; also in crevices of UCP, LCP; widespread, sometimes locally abundant

Altamaha Grit outcrops

especially in bottomland forests along major rivers in

Southeast Georgia

Sandhills and flatwoods

LCP

E

Exposed muddy margins of pineland ponds

UCP

T

Openings in low woods and swamps; edges of seepage bogs UCP, LCP; widely distributed from Fall Line Sandhills to

more southern flatwoods

Dry prairies, as the gumbo white clay (Black Belt) openings on UCP the Fort Valley Plateau

Moist shade, Altamaha Grit outcrops; open pine woods

UCP, LCP; widely scattered sites

Seepage bogs, sometimes with Sarracenia rubra near the Fall UCP, mostly in Fall Line Sandhills, Taylor Co. and

Line

vicinity

U

Low terraces in floodplain forests; edges of bogs

PD, UCP, from the foothills to central and west-central coastal plain

Swamps (?); ?Grady ponds? [etc.?]

UCP

seepage bogs; roadside ditches

UCP, LCP, upper Ogeechee and Canoochee watersheds (only?), and near Eulonia, McIntosh Co.

Open, upland forests, circumneutral

PD, presumably just north of the Augusta area only

E

Steepheads, floodplain forests

UCP, Decatur Co

Evergreen hammocks, bayheads

UCP, may not be native to Georgia based on status in adjacent Florida

Shallow water (one foot deep) of slow moving streams

UCP

Shaded pond margins, cypress swamps, open miry places; margins of sluggish pineland streams with cypress

UCP

Along sluggish pineland streams; margins of marshes and lakes

UCP, LCP (at least formerly east of Douglas, Coffee Co.)

In blackwater streams; also emergent on sandy creek banks UCP in deciduous swamps

Low, seasonally flooded swales

UCP

Roadside ditches; perhaps with Hartwrightia in shallow

LCP

sloughs and wet savannas

Open swamps and wet meadows; mountain bogs and Atlantic BR, UCP; less than 3 or 4 sites in mountains and Fall

white-cedar swamps

Line Sandhills

139

Scientific Name Lachnocaulon beyrichianum Leitneria floridana Liatris tenuifolia var. quadriflora Lindera melissifolia
Lindera subcoriacea Linum sulcatum var. harperi Litsea aestivalis Lythrum curtissii
Macbridea caroliniana Macranthera flammea Malaxis spicata
Marshallia ramosa
Matelea alabamensis
Matelea floridana Matelea pubiflora Mecardonia acuminata var. microphylla Melanthium woodii Muhlenbergia torreyana Myrica inodora
Myriophyllum laxum
Najas filifolia Nestronia umbellula
Oxypolis canbyi
Oxypolis ternata Panax quinquefolius
Panicum hirstii

Common Name Southern bog-button

Table 8. Southeastern Plains High Priority Plants (145 Records)

Global State Federal State Rank Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

G2G3

S1

Flatwoods

UCP, LCP

Range in Georgia

Corkwood

G3

S1

Florida narrowleaf blazing G4G5T? S1? star

Pondberry

G2

S1 LE

E

Bog spicebush

G2

S1?

Harper's grooved flax

G5T2

SH

Swamps; sawgrass-cabbage palmetto marshes Open oak or pine woods

UCP, LCP UCP; Thomas Co.

Margins of seasonal ponds, both sandhill and limesink with swamp blackgum (Nyssa biflora). Bayheads; seepy forested slopes
Dry pinelands

LCP, UCP
UCP, only near Fall Line UCP, southwestern Georgia

Pondspice

G3

S2

Curtiss' loosestrife

G1

S1

Carolina bogmint

G2G3

S1

Bog flameflower

G3

S1

Florida adders-mouth

G4?

S1

orchid

Pineland Barbara's-

G2

S2

buttons

Alabama milkvine

G2

S1

Florida milkvine

G2

S1

Trailing milkvine

G3G4

S2

Littleleaf mecardonia

G5T?

S1?

T

Cypress ponds; swamp margins

UCP, LCP; especially southeastern Georgia

T

Openings in calcareous swamps

UCP, narrow endemic, SW Georgia and adjacent Florida

Bogs; marshes; alluvial woods

UCP; Fall Line Sandhills and south-central coastal plain

Wet, sandy thickets; pitcherplant bogs

UCP; several old records, only two extant sites

Low hammocks; spring-fed river swamps

UCP, LCP, potentially over Coastal Plain based on Florida distribution; documented recently only from LCP; historic from UCP in Jenkins Co.

R

Altamaha Grit outcrops; open forests over ultramafic rock

UCP, plus PD on Dixie Mountain, Columbia Co.

T

Open bluff forests; mesic margins of longleaf pine sandridges UCP, LCP; on Gulf CP and an area of Atlantic CP

along the Altamaha River, Wayne Co..

Open bluff forests

UCP, Clay Co.

R

Exposed sandy soils; sandridges

UCP, LCP

Edges of pond margins, sometimes with Lindera melissifolia UCP, Worth Co., possibly Sumter Co.

Ozark bunchflower Torrey's dropseed Odorless bayberry
Lax water-milfoil Narrowleaf naiad Indian olive Canby's dropwort Savanna cowbane American ginseng
Hirst's panic grass

G5

S2

R

G3

SH

G4

S1

G3

S2

T

G1

S1

G4

S2

T

G2

S2 LE

E

G3

S2

G3G4

S3

G1

SH C

E

Mesic hardwood forests over basic soils Seasonally inundated pond shores, swales and savannas Bayheads, titi swamps
Bluehole spring runs; shallow, sandy, swift-flowing creeks; clear, cool ponds Lakes Mixed with dwarf shrubby heaths in oak-hickory-pine woods; often in transition areas between flatwoods and uplands Cypress ponds and sloughs; wet savannas
Wet pine savannas and bogs Mesic hardwood forests; cove hardwood forests
Cypress ponds, wet savannas and sloughs

CU, PD, UCP UCP, once found in Sumter Co. UCP (only?), suspected scattered on South Georgia coastal plain, but rarely observed UCP, in many watersheds, most often in westcentral Georgia sandhills UCP, southwestern Georgia PD, UCP
UCP, mostly in Dooly and Lee Cos., another cluster of sites around Dukes Pond in Jenkins and Burke Cos. UCP, widely scattered BR, RV, CU, PD, UCP; found, at least formerly, well into the coastal plain; now mostly in PD and across North Georgia UCP, historical in Calhoun and Sumter Cos.

140

Table 8. Southeastern Plains High Priority Plants (145 Records)

Scientific Name

Common Name

Global State Federal State Rank Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

Range in Georgia

Paronychia rugelii var. Inland Rugel's nailwort interior

G2?T2?Q SH

Longleaf pine-turkey oak scrub, mostly Alapaha River drainage

UCP, Decatur Co.

Paronychia rugelii var. Rugel's nailwort rugelii

G2?T1T2 S2?

Sandy oak barrens and streambanks

UCP, perhaps a few cos. in SW Georgia near Florida

Peltandra sagittifolia

Arrow arum

G3G4

S2?

Swamps; wet hammocks on pristine sphagnum mats

UCP, LCP; locally abundant in Okefenokee Swamp

Penstemon dissectus Cutleaf beardtongue

G2

S2?

R

Altamaha Grit outcrops and adjacent pine savannas; rarely UCP, endemic to Altamaha Grit (Tifton Uplands)

sandridges

Phaseolus polystachios Trailing bean-vine var. sinuatus

G4T3?

S2?

Sandhills; dry pinelands and hammocks

UCP, LCP

Physostegia leptophylla Tidal marsh obedient- G4? plant

S2S3

T

Freshwater tidal marshes; perhaps disjunct in wet savannas of LCP, coastal cos. on tidally influenced shorelines;

extreme SW Georgia

reports from UCP in SW Georgia need verification

Pinguicula primuliflora Clearwater butterwort

G3G4

S1

T

In shallow, sandy, clearwater streams and seeps; Atlantic

UCP, Fall Line Sandhills of Taylor and Marion Cos.

whitecedar swamps

Pityopsis oligantha

Few-flowered goldenaster

G2G4

S1S2

Flatwoods, bogs and seeps of Southwest Georgia

UCP

Pityopsis pinifolia

Sandhills golden-aster G4

S2

T

Sandhills near fall line

UCP

Plagiochila floridana

Florida plagiochila

G2?

S1?

In beech-magnolia forests on the bark of Magnolia grandiflora; CP CP. May be present in mts., over damp, shaded ledges, with Trichomanes petersii and Lejeunea flava.

Plantago sparsiflora

Pineland plantain

G3

S2

Open, wet pine savannas; shallow ditches

UCP, LCP

Platanthera blephariglottis var. conspicua

Southern white fringed- G4G5T3T4 S2? orchid

Bogs, seeps, roadsides, wet savannas

UCP, LCP; scattered from Fall Line Sandhills to coast and South Georgia plantations

Platanthera chapmanii Chapman's fringed-orchid G4?

S1

Open, wet meadows; pine flatwoods

UCP, LCP, extreme Southeast Georgia; historic in Southwest Georgia

Platanthera integra

Yellow fringeless orchid G3G4

S2

Wet savannas, pitcherplant bogs

UCP, LCP; documented from 9 cos., scattered on coastal plain

Portulaca biloba

Grit portulaca

G1G2

S1

Altamaha Grit outcrops

UCP

Pteroglossaspis ecristata Wild coco

G2

S1

Grassy saw palmetto barrens; longleaf pine grasslands, sometimes with Schwalbea americana

LCP, UPC; widely scattered, including barrier islands

Ptilimnium nodosum

Harperella

G2

S1 LE

E

Granite outcrops; limesink depressions

PD, UCP, only known from single sites on piedmont and coastal plain

Rhexia aristosa

Awned meadowbeauty G3

S2

Pond margins and wet savannas

UCP, scattered over coastal plain

Rhexia parviflora

Small-flowered white

G2

SH

meadowbeauty

Limesink pond margins, perhaps in openings under pondcypress

UCP, but may not be native to Georgia based on some specimen annotations

Rhododendron eastmanii Eastman's wild azalea G3?

SU

UCP, PD (only?), sites and specimens need to be verified

Rhododendron prunifolium

Plumleaf azalea

G3

S3

T

Mesic hardwood forests in ravines and on sandy, seepy

UCP, PD, close to lower Chattahoochee River, barely

streambanks

extending into Pine Mountain area

Rhynchospora breviseta Short-bristle beakrush G3G4

SU

Bogs; flatwoods

Uncertain, documentation needed, UCP, LCP

Rhynchospora crinipes Bearded beakrush,

G1

S1?

Alabama beakrush

Streambanks and shallow streambeds

UCP

Rhynchospora decurrens Decurrent beakrush

G3G4

S1?

Swamps

UCP, LCP

141

Table 8. Southeastern Plains High Priority Plants (145 Records)

Scientific Name

Common Name

Global State Federal State Rank Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

Range in Georgia

Rhynchospora harveyi Georgia beakrush var. culixa

G4T1Q SH

Pine savannas; flatwoods

UCP (only?)

Rhynchospora pleiantha Clonal thread-leaved

G2

SH

beakrush

Margins of limesink depression ponds (dolines)

UCP

Rhynchospora punctata Spotted beakrush

G1?

S1?

Wet savannas, pitcherplant bogs

UCP, LCP

Rhynchospora solitaria Solitary beakrush

G1

S1

Wet, sandy, peaty depressions

UCP

Rhynchospora thornei Thorne's beakrush

G1G2

S2

Margins of limesink ponds; moist limestone barrens, wet prairies

RV, UCP

Rudbeckia auriculata Swamp black-eyed Susan G1

S1

Swampy woods

UCP, Webster Co.

Sageretia minutiflora

Climbing buckthorn

G4

S1?

T

Calcareous bluff forests; maritime forests over shell mounds UCP, LCP

Salix floridana

Florida willow

G2

S1

E

Spring runs; seepy, sphagnous wetlands with Eleocharis

UCP. Early Co.; perhaps extirpated in Pulaski Co.

tortilis, Itea, Alnus, Orontium, Arnoglossum sulcatum

Sarracenia flava

Yellow flytrap

G5?

S3S4

U

Wet savannas, pitcherplant bogs

UCP, LCP

Sarracenia leucophylla Whitetop pitcherplant

G3

S1

E

Wet savannas, pitcherplant bogs

UCP, now found only at one site near Americus, Sumter Co.

Sarracenia minor var. Hooded pitcherplant

G4T4

S4

minor

UCP LCP

Sarracenia psittacina Parrot pitcherplant

G4

S2S3

T

Wet savannas, pitcherplant bogs

UCP, LCP

Sarracenia purpurea ssp. Lowland purple

venosa var. venosa

pitcherplant

G5T3T5 S1

UCP, known only from Tattnall and Evans Cos., extirpated from all other known Georgia sites

Sarracenia rubra

Sweet pitcherplant

G3

S2 (PS) E

Atlantic white cedar swamps; wet meadows

UCP, in two areas, Atlantic Coastal Plain and Fall Line Sandhills west of Macon

Schisandra glabra

Bay starvine

G3

S2

T

Rich woods on stream terraces and lower slopes

RV, PD, UCP

Schizachyrium stoloniferum var. stoloniferum

Creeping bluestem

G3G4QT2 S2S3 T4

Longleaf pine-wiregrass savannas

UCP (only?)

Schoenoplectus erectus Raynal's bullrush ssp. raynalii

G4G5T? S1?

FNA: ?Wet soils or emergent, freshwater shores, temporary UCP, Gulf Coastal Plain ponds, ditches, usually sandy and often drying areas.?

Schoenoplectus hallii Hall's bullrush

G2

SH

FNA: ?Terrestrial to emergent, freshwater shores, temporary UCP, two old Gulf Coastal Plain records ponds, wet places in cultivated fields, pastures, ditches, sinkholes, prairie.?

Schwalbea americana Chaffseed

G2

S1 LE

E

Open pinelands, as in well-managed, somewhat moist

UCP, formerly PD; now found only in Southwest

longleaf pine-wiregrass forests seeps

Georgia

Scutellaria altamaha

Altamaha skullcap

G2G3

S1?

Sandy, deciduous woods

UCP, LCP. (only?), perhaps adjacent piedmont, of Southeast Georgia

Scutellaria mellichampii Mellichamp's skullcap G?Q

S1?

Sandy deciduous woods

LCP, UCP; widely scattered

Scutellaria ocmulgee Ocmulgee skullcap

G2

S2

T

Mesic hardwood forests; bluff forests

PD, UCP; mostly along Ocmulgee, Oconee and Savannah Rivers

Sideroxylon sp. 1

Dwarf buckthorn

G3Q

S3

Dry longleaf pine woods with oak understory; often hidden in UCP, LCP wiregrass

Sideroxylon thornei

Swamp buckthorn

G2

S2

E

Forested limesink depressions; calcareous swamps

UCP, LCP

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Table 8. Southeastern Plains High Priority Plants (145 Records)

Scientific Name

Common Name

Global State Federal State Rank Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

Range in Georgia

Silene ovata

Mountain catchfly

G2G3

S1S2

Mesic deciduous or beech-magnolia forests over limestone; BR, RV, UCP; widely scattered in mountains; disjunct in

bouldery, high elevation oak forests

Southcentral and SW Georgia

Silene polypetala

Fringed campion

G2

S2 LE

E

Mesic deciduous forests

PD, UCP; mostly along the Flint River just above the Fall Line; also from few sites in Chattahoochee and Ocmulgee watersheds

Sium floridanum

Florida water-parsnip

G1Q

S1?

Calcareous swamps; floodplains

UCP, seems limited to SW Georgia

Spiranthes longilabris Giant Spiral Ladies-

G3

tresses

Sporobolus teretifolius Wire-leaf dropseed

G2?

S2?

Longleaf pine-wiregrass savannas, pitcherplant bogs

UCP,(only?), may be replaced by Sporobolus pinetorum in vicinity of Ft. Stewart

Stachys hyssopifolia var. Tallahassee hedge-nettle G5T1Q S1 lythroides

Moist longleaf pine savannas; roadside ditches

UCP

Stewartia malacodendron

Silky camellia

G4

S2

R

Along streams on lower slopes of beech-magnolia or beech- PD, UCP

basswood-Florida maple forests

Stokesia laevis

Stokes aster

G3G4

S1

Pitcherplant bogs

UCP

Stylisma pickeringii var. Pickering's morning-glory G4T2T3 S2 pickeringii

T

Open, dry, oak scrub of sandhills

UCP, Fall Line Sandhills at Ft. Gordon, Ft. Benning; also Albany Fossil Dunes and elsewhere

Teloschistes exilis

Slender orange bush

G1G3

S1?

lichen

Tephrosia mohrii

Dwarf goat's-rue

G3

S1?

Thalictrum cooleyi

Cooley's meadowrue

G1

S1 LE

E

Thaspium pinnatifidum Cutleaf meadow-parsnip G2G3

S1

Torreya taxifolia

Florida torreya, stinking G1 cedar

S1 LE

E

Tridens carolinianus

Carolina redtop

G3

S1?

Trillium decipiens

Mimic trillium

G3

S3?

Trillium reliquum

Relict trillium

G2

S3 LE

E

Verbesina walteri

Carolina crownbeard

G3?

S1?

Waldsteinia lobata

Piedmont barren

G2

S3

T

strawberry

Xyris drummondii

Drummond's yellow-eyed G3

S1

grass

Xyris scabrifolia

Harper's yellow-eyed

G3

S1

grass

Relict Black Belt prairies; on bark, especially on stunted Campsis radicans and in Cornus drummondii thickets Scrub; longleaf pine-wiregrass savannas Pond margins and wet savannas Limestone outcrops and barrens Rich ravines in extreme Southwest Georgia
Dry, open mixed oak-pine forests of the Fall Line Sandhills

UCP
UCP UCP, along Dry Creek, Dougherty and Worth Cos. RV, Catoosa Co. UCP, limited to extreme sw. Decatur Co.
UCP

Mesic hardwood forests; limesink forests; usually with Fagus and Tilia
Moist slopes of hardwood bluffs and edges of colluvial swamps with calcareous substrate; along Savannah River Stream terraces and adjacent gneiss outcrops
Pine flatwoods

PD, UCP, scattered from Augusta to Columbus near Fall Line; also along lower Chattahoochee and Flint Rivers UCP (only?)
BR (barely), PD, UCP (barely); mostly piedmont foothills UCP, LCP

Sedge bogs; pitcherplant bogs; pine flatwoods

UCP, LCP

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Figure 12. High Priority Waters, Southeastern Plains Ecoregion 144

Southern Coastal Plain
Ecoregional Overview
The Southern Coastal Plain ecoregion covers approximately 6,634,517 acres in Georgia. Approximately 910,119 acres (13.7% of the ecoregion) are in some form of permanent or long-term conservation ownership. Georgia DNR manages approximately 122,250 acres owned in fee simple by the State of Georgia and an additional 119,738 in leases or management agreements. Federal land ownership includes approximately 428,875 acres managed by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, 284,910 acres managed by the Department of Defense, 33,436 acres managed by the National Park Service, and 4,564 acres managed by the Natural Resources Conservation Service. The vast majority of federal land is found in two properties - Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge and Fort Stewart Military Reservation.
Regionally, the Southern Coastal Plain extends from South Carolina and Georgia through much of central Florida, and along the Gulf coast lowlands of the Florida Panhandle, Alabama, and Mississippi. This ecoregion is lower in elevation with less relief and wetter soils than the Southeastern Plains. Once covered by a variety of forest communities that included longleaf pine, slash pine, pond pine, beech-magnolia, and mixed upland hardwoods, land cover in the region is now predominantly slash and loblolly pine plantations with cypress-gum, bay swamp, and bottomland hardwoods in low lying areas. Ecoregional subdivisions of the Southern Coastal Plain include the Okefenokee Plains, Sea Island Flatwoods, Okefenokee Swamp, Bacon Terraces, Floodplains and Low Terraces, and Sea Islands/Coastal Marsh.
The Okefenokee Plains consist of flat plains and low terraces developed on PleistocenePliocene sands and gravels, and contain pine stands interspersed with numerous swamps and bays. There are some highly acidic natural lakes with low clarity and darkly colored water. Soils in the region are somewhat poorly drained to poorly drained. The region has mostly coniferous forest and young pine plantation land cover, with areas of forested wetlands.
The Sea Island Flatwoods are poorly drained flat plains with Pleistocene terraces and shoreline deposits. Poorly drained soils are common in this region; small areas of betterdrained soils contribute to ecological diversity. Trail Ridge forms the eastern boundary of the Okefenokee Swamp. Loblolly and slash pine plantations cover much of the region.
The Okefenokee Swamp is a mixture of forested swamp and freshwater marsh with some pine-dominated uplands. The swamp drains to the south and southwest and contains the headwaters for the St. Marys and Suwannee Rivers as well as numerous islands, lakes, and thick beds of peat. The slow-moving waters are darkly colored and acidic. Cypress, swamp blackgum, and bay forests are common, with scattered areas of prairie, which are comprised of grasses, sedges, and various aquatic plants. Cycles of drought and fire affect both its vegetation and wildlife.
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The Bacon Terraces include several relatively flat, moderately dissected terraces with subtle east-facing scarps. The terraces, developed on Pliocene to Pleistocene sands and gravels, are dissected in a dendritic pattern by much of the upper Satilla River basin. Cropland is mostly on well-drained soils on the long, narrow, flat to gently sloping ridges paralleling the stream courses. The broad flats of the interfluves are typically poorly drained pine stands, while bottomland hardwood forests are found in the wet, narrow floodplains.
Floodplains and Low Terraces are a continuation of the region of the same name in the Southeastern Plains, and consist of the broad floodplains and terraces of major rivers, such as the Savannah, Ogeechee, and Altamaha. Soils consist of stream alluvium and terrace deposits of sand, silt, clay, and gravel, along with some organic muck and swamp deposits. Swamp forests of bald cypress and water tupelo and oak-dominated bottomland hardwood forests provide important wildlife habitat.
The Sea Islands/Coastal Marsh region contains the lowest elevations in Georgia and is a highly dynamic environment affected by ocean wave, wind, and river action. Mostly sandy soils occur on the barrier islands, while organic and clayey soils occur in the freshwater, brackish, and salt marshes. Maritime forests of live oak, redcedar, slash pine, and cabbage palmetto grow on parts of the barrier islands, and various species of cordgrass, saltgrass, and rushes are dominant in the marshes. The coastal marshes, tidal creeks, and estuaries represent important nursery areas for fish, crabs, shrimp, and other marine or estuarine organisms.
The predominant land cover types in the Southern Coastal Plain are evergreen forest and forested wetlands. These two types combined account for approximately 62% of the total land area in the ecoregion. (Kramer and Elliott, 2004) An analysis of land use changes from 1974 to 1998 based on satellite imagery indicate the following general trends:
A decrease in row crop/pasture (from 9.74% of total land cover to 8.52%) An increase in high-intensity and low-intensity urban (from 1.52% of total land
cover to 2.63%) An increase in clearcut/sparse vegetation land cover types (from 8.54% of total
land cover to 11.70%) A decrease in forested wetlands (from 30.57% of total land cover to 26.11%) Little apparent change in evergreen forest (from 35.28% of total land cover to
35.97%)
These trends indicate a general decline in the total acreage devoted to active agricultural uses, an increase in residential and commercial development, an increase in clearcuts, fallow fields, and other sparsely vegetated land cover resulting from a variety of land use practices, and a decline in forested wetlands. According to EPD stream monitoring data for 2002, 17% of streams in this region support designated uses (based on percentage of total monitored stream miles); 46% partially support designated uses, and 37% do not support designated uses. The percentage of monitored streams supporting designated uses in the Southeastern Plains is lowest of the five ecoregions.
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High Priority Species and Habitats
The technical teams identified 71 high priority animal species in the Southern Coastal Plain. These included 27 birds, 14 reptiles, 10 mammals, 7 amphibians, 7 mollusks, 5 fish, and 1 aquatic arthropod. These species are listed in Table 9, with information on global and state rarity ranks, protected status (if any) under federal or state law, and habitat and range in Georgia. In addition, 91 species of high priority plants were identified for the Southern Coastal Plain. These are listed in Table 10.
High priority habitats for the Southern Coastal Plain are listed and briefly described below:
1. Alluvial (Brownwater) Rivers and Swamps Large, low-gradient, meandering rivers with sandbars, sloughs and extensive floodplain swamps. Floodplains of these systems may remain inundated for extensive periods. Sand and silt are the dominant substrata and these rivers typically carry heavy sediment loads. Dominant canopy trees are baldcypress and tupelo gum; the understory tree/shrub vegetation may be patchy, often consisting of swamp privet, water elm, swamp dogwood, red maple, and Carolina ash. Cypress and gum-dominated swamps can be found along the Altamaha, Savannah, and Ogeechee rivers. These systems have been impacted by altered flows from upstream dams.
2. Barrier Island Freshwater Wetlands and Ponds Usually found in broad flats or in elliptical to linear interdune depressions on Georgia's coastal barrier islands. These wetland habitats are variable in physiognomy and species composition; deeper, more permanently flooded ponds often have a large extent of open water; shallower ponds are usually dominated by a combination of submergent, emergent and/or floating macrophytes. Trees or shrubs are present mainly along the edges of the ponds. These habitats have been impacted by groundwater withdrawals, fire suppression, and invasive exotic plants such as Chinese tallow tree.
3. Bayheads and Titi Swamps Forested wetlands dominated by broad-leaved evergreen trees: sweetbay, redbay, and loblolly bay. Usually found in domed peatlands, broad interstream flats, or shallow drainageways. Includes shrubby areas dominated by titi (Cyrilla racemiflora). These are considered late successional communities in a variety of hydrogeomorphic settings in the Coastal Plain
4. Beech-Magnolia Slope Forests These are uncommon Coastal Plain hardwood forests, typically found on very mesic river bluffs, and occasionally on gentle slopes that are naturally protected from fire by topographic setting. In addition to American beech and southern magnolia, may contain water oak, water hickory, American holly, and other fire-intolerant species. Often small in extent and occupying a narrow zone between wetland and fire-maintained upland
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forests. May contain epiphytic species such as green-fly orchid. Often associated with and in close proximity to hillside seeps.
5. Bottomland Hardwood Forests Diverse hardwood-dominated forests found on natural levees, upper floodplain flats and terraces along brownwater and blackwater rivers. Characterized by a diverse canopy of hardwood species dominated by various oaks, green ash, sweetgum, red maple, water hickory, and other mesic species. These extensive forested systems provide habitat for a wide variety of wildlife species, and are especially important for wide-ranging forest interior species. Bottomland hardwood forests have been impacted by altered hydrologic conditions, forest conversion, and invasive exotic species.
6. Brackish Marsh and Salt Marsh Salt marshes are salt-tolerant grasslands, dominated by cordgrasses and rushes, over soils with circumneutral pH. These are extremely productive habitats. Brackish marshes occupy a wide ecotonal zone in the vicinity of river mouths.
7. Canebreaks Thickets of native river cane found along rivers and creeks under sparse to full tree cover. Canebrakes represent important wildlife habitat for a variety of neotropical birds and insects. These habitats require periodic fire or other form of disturbance for maintenance.
8. Coastal Beaches and Sand Bars Beaches and sand bars are dynamic, high-energy intertidal systems that represent important habitat for shorebirds and sea turtles. Longshore movement of sand on barrier islands results in erosion at the north end and building up at the south end. These unvegetated habitats are important foraging areas for coastal shorebirds; sea turtles nest in the foredunes at the upper ends of sandy beaches.
9. Coastal Dunes and Bluffs These habitats consist of sparsely vegetated sandy interdunes, rear dunes, and bluffs. They constitute important habitats for a number of high priority species adapted to harsh temperatures and salt spray. Coastal dune habitats include a number of important microhabitats such as interdune meadows and depressions, shrub thickets, and dune scrub forests. Similar vegetation can be found along eroded or exposed coastal bluffs.
10. Coastal Scrub-Shrub Wetlands Shrub dominated estuarine communities found along the upper border of salt marsh or brackish marsh. These habitats are infrequently flooded by tidal action and form ecotones between wetland and terrestrial environments. Typical shrubs include groundsel tree, marsh elder, yaupon holly, wax myrtle, Florida privet, and false willow. Windpruned redcedar may also be present.
11. Estuarine and Inshore Marine Waters Estuaries (brackish waters between barrier islands and mainland) and near-shore ocean waters. Estuaries serve as nurseries for many species of fish and shellfish as well as
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habitats for manatees and other marine mammals. Species composition in these aquatic communities is influenced by tidal regime and salinity.
12. Evergreen Hammocks and Mesic Hardwood Forests Evergreen hammocks are typically associated with small isolated uplands within a floodplain or depressional wetland. Protected from frequent fire, these habitats are characterized by a canopy of submesic oaks and hickories, with southern magnolia, American holly, ironwood, flowering dogwood and spruce pine. Mesic hardwood forests are similar, and may occur in terraces above bottomland hardwood forests, ravines, or nonalluvial flats protected from frequent fire.
13. Forested Depressional Wetlands Seasonally or semi-permanently flooded forests of depressional features in broad interstream flats. Soils range from mineral to organic and canopy dominants may include bays, pondcypress, and/or pond pine. Fire plays a role in maintaining some of these systems. Isolated wetlands that do not support fish populations are very important breeding habitats for amphibians such as the flatwoods salamander.
14. Freshwater "Prairies" Semipermanently flooded freshwater wetlands dominated by emergent vegetation and floating macrophytes, with scattered cypress, buttonbush, and swamp blackgum. The primary example in this region is the Okefenokee Swamp. Fluctuations in water levels and/or periodic fire are required for maintenance. Many of these habitats have been impacted by altered hydrology (impoundment with dams or drainage) and/or fire suppression.
15. Hillside Seeps Small patch habitats found on moist to wet lower slopes in sandy terrain. These seeps represent natural groundwater discharge points. May be dominated by shrubs or herbs (including pitcherplants), with scattered trees such as pond, slash, or longleaf pine. Most Georgia examples are fire-suppressed.
16. Longleaf Pine-Scrub Oak Woodlands Sparse-canopied xeric longleaf pine system with patchy oak understory composed of turkey oak, sand post oak, bluejack oak, blackjack oak and other scrub oak species. Typically found on deep sand soils, on ridges and upper slopes. Contains a fairly diverse groundlayer of xerophytic grasses and forbs and scattered shrubs.
17. Longleaf Pine-Wiregrass Savannas Large patch or matrix upland habitats characterized by a sparse canopy of longleaf pine (sometimes with slash pine) and a diverse herb layer dominated by wiregrass. Can range from mesic to dry, depending on topographic position and soils. Transition downslope into wet pine savannas, pine flatwoods, or other wetlands. These habitats are heavily dependent on frequent fire for maintenance.
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18. Maritime Forest and Coastal Hammocks Coastal forests dominated by live oak and palmetto; hammocks are small islands of maritime forest usually surrounded by brackish water and/or salt marsh. These are restricted to a narrow band of shoreline and barrier islands. Characterized by sandy soils and wind-pruned canopy trees. Provide important habitat for neotropical migrant birds.
19. Mud and Sand Flats Periodically inundated mud and sand deposits located in estuarine or inshore marine waters. These unvegetated habitats are generally covered at high tide and exposed at low tide. They serve as important feeding areas for a number of coastal shorebirds such as plovers, sandpipers, and dowitchers.
20. Nonalluvial (Blackwater) Rivers and Swamps Large, meandering rivers with tea-stained, but translucent waters and narrow to wide floodplains. Dominant substrate is sand, which may form bars in larger systems. In contrast to blackwater streams, forest canopy may only shade a portion of the stream width. Runs and pools are dominant habitats. Large snags are a significant component of habitat heterogeneity. Limestone shoals occur on some of these rivers.
21. Offshore Marine Waters Georgia's offshore marine waters provide habitat for a number of high priority species, including loggerhead, green, Kemp's ridley, and leatherback turtles, North Atlantic right whales, and bottlenose dolphins. Hard-bottom areas are especially important habitats for marine fish and sessile organisms.
22. Open-Water Ponds and Lakes Open water aquatic habitats ranging from isolated depressions to impoundments created by beaver. Vegetation is sparse and consists primarily of emergent and floating macrophytes. These habitats are relatively uncommon in this region, and are maintained by periodic fire and fluctuating water levels.
23. Pine Flatwoods Mesic or wet forests on flat, poorly-drained areas of the lower Coastal Plain. Dominated formerly by longleaf pine, now typically by slash pine, occasionally with loblolly or pond pine. Contains a well-developed shrub layer consisting of saw palmetto, gallberry, lowbush blueberry, and other ericaceous species. One of the most extensive and prevalent habitats of this ecoregion.
24. Tidal Rivers and Freshwater Tidal Marsh Includes tidally influenced portions of rivers and creeks and associated wetlands. Freshwater tidal marshes are wetlands found along the margins of tidal rivers and creeks above the brackish water zone, typically dominated by giant cutgrass, sawgrass, pickerel weed, wild rice, cattail, rushes, and a variety of other herbs
150

25. Wet Pine Savannas, Herb and Shrub Bogs Wet pine savannas are poorly drained wetlands with open to sparse canopies dominated by longleaf, slash, and/or pond pine. The shrub layer may be sparse, consisting mainly of gallberry, wax myrtle, and blueberries. The herbaceous layer is often diverse and dense, dominated by grasses, sedges, composites, orchids, and lilies. May include small peatfilled depressions dominated by titi and other shrubs or by herbaceous bog plants.
Problems Affecting Wildlife Diversity
One of the primary stressors of wildlife diversity in the Southern Coastal Plain is the rapid pace of development in the coastal counties. Intense development pressures have resulted in the loss or fragmentation of a number of habitats, including maritime forest, pine flatwoods, coastal bluffs, and forested depression wetlands. In fact, the pace of commercial and residential development appears to be increasing as new residents flock to the Georgia coast to metropolitan areas such as Brunswick, St. Simons, Jekyll Island, Kings Bay, and Savannah. Development of subdivisions, roads, utility corridors, and commercial facilities has burgeoned in this area of the state. Non-coastal metropolitan areas experiencing significant growth include Waycross and Valdosta. Examples of species affected by this development pressure include Bachman's sparrow, painted bunting, gopher tortoise, and southeastern pocket gopher.
Past conversion of natural pine-dominated stands to commercial pine plantations, with associated site preparation and sometimes drainage, has resulted in an overall decline in species diversity. While many of the biotic components of the original forests are still extant, the simplified canopy composition and understory structure has resulted in lower overall wildlife habitat quality. Examples of affected species include Bachman's sparrow, eastern indigo snake, flatwoods salamander, and southern hognose snake.
Fire suppression can also be a significant problem, as many fire-dependent habitats lie adjacent to residential areas, highways, or commercial/industrial zones. Throughout the region, a lack of fire has resulted in the decline in the extent and quality of habitats such as herb and shrub bogs, wet pine flatwoods, freshwater "prairies", longleaf pinewiregrass savannas, and longleaf pine-scrub oak woodlands. Fire suppression in sites containing isolated depression wetlands impacts populations of gopher frogs, striped newts, and flatwoods salamanders; other examples of species affected by fire suppression include gopher tortoise, Florida pine snake, eastern indigo snake, purple honeycomb head, hairy rattleweed, and all seven species of pitcherplants native to Georgia.
Groundwater withdrawals for industrial and municipal uses have resulted in dewatering of many of the small but significant depression wetlands, especially along the coast. This impact presents significant problems for rare wading birds, including the wood stork and tricolored heron, as well as species such as striped newt, gopher frog, dwarf siren, and dwarf waterdog.
Construction of dams or other structures altering stream flow represents a significant problem for some high priority species and habitats in this region. Most of the major
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river impoundments affecting streams and associated wetlands in this area are in the Piedmont, but the regulation of flows on these alluvial river systems results in altered hydroperiods for riverine swamps and bottomland hardwood forests, which in turn affects species composition and function of these ecosystems. For example, there is evidence that diminished flow variability in the Savannah River produced by upstream dams impacts the periodic flushing of tributary streams such as Ebenezer Creek, which may contribute to problems with low dissolved oxygen in this old-growth cypress-gum swamp. Alteration of sediment transport regimes in these alluvial river systems impacts the productivity of estuarine areas as well as the coastal sand-sharing system.
Nonalluvial (blackwater) rivers and streams are vulnerable to nutrient loadings and hydrologic disruptions from groundwater and surface water withdrawals, draining of adjacent wetlands, insufficient stream buffers, and other factors. Impacts on these systems from human activities include increased flow variability, reduced dissolved oxygen, and increased silt loads.
Invasive exotic species pose significant problems to habitats in this region. Examples of exotic animals causing significant negative impacts in this region include flathead catfish and feral hogs and horses. Examples of invasive exotic plants in this ecoregion include Chinese tallow tree, water hyacinth, alligatorweed, parrotfeather, giant reed, tropical soda apple, and coastal bermudagrass. The channeled apple snail, a South American species that is a well-known pest in Florida, has been recently found in the Satilla River watershed.
For rare marine species such as the North Atlantic right whale, West Indian manatee and loggerhead, collisions with boats and/or incidental take by fishing operations (capture or entanglement in nets or other fishing gear) can cause significant negative population impacts. Unmanaged recreational use of beach and dune environments represents a significant threat to nesting sea turtles as well as a variety of coastal shorebirds, including American oystercatcher, black skimmer, least tern, and piping plover.
Vehicle induced mortality is a significant problem for several high priority species in this area. Examples include eastern diamondback rattlesnake, eastern indigo snake, gopher tortoise, diamondback terrapin, Sherman's fox squirrel, and Florida pine snake. For these and other species, construction of new roads results in increased risk of direct mortality as well as fragmentation of habitat.
While the effects of global warming will undoubtedly affect habitats throughout Georgia, the impacts will likely be most obvious and significant in this ecoregion. Conservation plans in this region must acknowledge the need to protect coastal wetlands and provide opportunities for migration of habitats and species as sea levels and coastlines change. Restoration of more natural hydrology in alluvial rivers that feed the coastal sand-sharing system may help mitigate the impacts of coastline changes. In addition, development plans must include setbacks and buffers to provide protection for both wildlife and humans as sea levels and storm surge levels rise in the coming decades.
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High Priority Sites and Landscape Features
The current assessment and previous conservation planning efforts have identified a number of ecologically important sites and landscape features in this region of the state. An assessment of the South Atlantic Coastal Plain in cooperation with state natural heritage programs in Georgia, Florida, and South Carolina identified 38 high priority conservation areas in Georgia (The Nature Conservancy, 2002). Additional surveys conducted by Georgia DNR staff and others have brought additional areas of conservation interest to light in recent years. The following list includes examples of some of the most significant sites and landscape features identified to date for the Southern Coastal Plain ecoregion.
Altamaha River Corridor
The Altamaha basin drains a total of 14,400 square miles, more than one-fourth of Georgia's land surface. Natural communities associated with this immense river system include oxbow lakes, sandbars, evergreen hammocks, sand ridge scrub forests, hardwood levee forests, cypress-gum swamps, pine flatwoods, limestone shoals, coastal marshes, and open-water estuaries. Important habitats located adjacent to the river floodplain include springs, bogs, Carolina bays and cypress/gum ponds.
Numerous high priority plants and animals are known from the Altamaha River corridor. Examples include green fly orchid, pondspice, Georgia plume, Franklinia, red-cockaded woodpecker, gopher tortoise, indigo snake, Bachman's sparrow, and swallow-tailed kite. Several rare and/or endemic bivalves have been reported from the Altamaha River, including the Altamaha spinymussel and Altamaha arcmussel. Ongoing efforts to provide long-term protection for the Altamaha River corridor involve a number of agencies and organizations. (Note: this conservation landscape spans the Southeastern Plains and Southern Coastal Plain).
Crooked River State Park/Kings Bay Naval Base
These two adjacent public lands contain several high priority habitats, including estuarine waters, maritime forest, coastal river bluffs, and wet pine flatwoods. Rare species known from these sites include pondspice, Florida wild privet, climbing buckthorn, Florida orange-grass, Bartram's air-plant, gopher tortoise, and West Indian manatee.
Ebenezer Creek/Savannah River
Ebenezer Creek, a non-alluvial tributary of the Savannah River, is a "backwater swamp", whose hydrology is influenced significantly by water levels in the lower Savannah River. The lower portion of Ebenezer Creek contains an old growth baldcypress-water tupelo swamp. Other high priority habitats include bottomland hardwoods, shrub bog, pine flatwoods, mesic river bluff forests, hillside seeps, titi swamp, and alluvial river swamp. Rare species known from this area include silky camellia, sweet pitcherplant, Rafinesque's big-eared bat, swallowtailed kite, and painted bunting.
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Fort Stewart
This military base contains some of the best examples of natural habitats in Georgia's Southern Coastal Plain, including extensive longleaf pine-dominated uplands, isolated depression wetlands, wet pine flatwoods, and nonalluvial river swamp. Rare species known from this site include flatwoods salamander, striped newt, gopher frog, redcockaded woodpecker, gopher tortoise, indigo snake, Florida pine snake, Sherman's fox squirrel, purple honeycomb head, and pondspice.
Ogeechee River Corridor
The Ogeechee River originates in the lower Georgia Piedmont and flows 245 miles to the Atlantic Ocean at Ossabaw Sound. Natural communities of the Ogeechee River corridor include limestone shoals, sandbars, cypress-gum swamps, springs, bottomland hardwood forests and coastal salt marshes. Important habitats adjacent to the river floodplain include Carolina bays, springs, limesinks, sandhills and Altamaha Grit outcrops. Examples of high priority species associated with the Ogeechee River floodplain and adjacent habitats include Georgia plume (Elliottia racemosa), wood stork (Mycteria americana), and swallow-tailed kite (Elanoides forficatus). Numerous springs provide cool-water refuges for striped bass and other game fish.
The Ogeechee is relatively free from significant development, except in the lower portions. This river has been considered for inclusion as a component of the Georgia Scenic River system and was nominated as a potential National Wild and Scenic River. Impacts to the river corridor include residential and industrial development (especially along the coast), conversion of bottomland hardwood forests, and drainage of adjacent wetland habitats. (Note: this conservation landscape spans the Southeastern Plains and Southern Coastal Plain).
Okefenokee Swamp
This remarkable, extensive nonalluvial wetland system has been described as a "bog swamp" (Wharton, 1978) due to the fact that it is a huge, peat-filled basin with measurable sheet flow. High priority habitats associated with this ecosystem complex include freshwater "prairies", pine flatwoods, pondcypress savanna, wet pine savannas, titi swamp, herb and shrub bogs. Examples of rare species known from the Okefenokee Swamp include Florida sandhill crane, Sherman's fox squirrel, flatwoods salamander, Florida water rat, striped newt, wood stork, Florida black bear, Rafinesque's big-eared bat, Florida orange grass, and Okefenokee giant pitcherplant.
Ossabaw Island
Third largest of Georgia's barrier islands, Ossabaw consists of approximately 12,000 acres of upland and at least twice that acreage of marsh. Ossabaw is owned by the State of Georgia and is not connected by causeway to the mainland. Development on the island is restricted to five houses and some outbuildings. Habitats present include beach, dunes, maritime forest, salt marsh and tidal creeks, and freshwater ponds. Understory
154

vegetation is sparse due to past grazing by deer and feral livestock, but is recovering due to recent efforts to control populations of grazers. Two mixed-species wading bird rookeries occur on the island. Ossabaw's beaches support nesting by loggerhead turtles and several species of coastal shorebirds. Plants of interest include soapberry and climbing buckthorn.
Sapelo Island
Sapelo Island is a barrier island mostly owned by the State of Georgia and accessible only by boat or plane. It consists of approximately 11,000 acres of upland and several thousand acres of marsh. The island is managed as a Wildlife Management Area and a National Estuarine Research Reserve. The University of Georgia Marine Institute operates a research facility on the island. Development on the island is restricted to buildings constructed by some of the original plantation owners, now used to house staff of the Marine Institute and DNR, and houses associated with a 500-acre private community. Habitats present include salt marsh, maritime forest, second-growth pine, dunes and approximately 6 miles of beach. One small freshwater pond supports a small wading bird rookery. Beaches are used as nesting areas by loggerhead turtles and four species of rare or uncommon shorebirds. Plants of conservation interest on the island include Chapman's oak, soapberry, and other species of plants restricted to shell mounds.
St. Simon's/Little St. Simon's/Sea Island
This site consists of Little St. Simon's Island and the undeveloped northern ends of St. Simon's Island and Sea Island, including Pelican Spit, an accreting sandbar in the Hampton River on the north end of Sea Island. St. Simon's and Sea Island are almost entirely privately owned and connected to the mainland by causeway. Habitat types are similar to those described for Sapelo and Ossabaw. There is a mixed-species wading bird rookery on the north end of St. Simon's Island that includes nesting Mycteria americana. Little St. Simon's supports a small egret rookery and a small great blue heron rookery. The seven miles of beach on Little St. Simon's support limited nesting by loggerhead turtles and significant nesting populations of five shorebirds. Pelican Spit is also a significant coastal shorebird nesting area. Plant species of interest include Florida wild privet, climbing buckthorn.
St. Marys and Suwannee Rivers
From its headwaters in the Okefenokee Swamp to its outlet on the Atlantic Ocean, the St. Marys meanders over 120 miles in a straight-line distance of only 40 miles. Tidal influence extends as far upstream as the Folkston area. The Suwannee also originates in the Okefenokee, flowing southwestward 18 miles to the Georgia-Florida state line. From there it continues approximately 265 miles to its outlet on the eastern Gulf of Mexico. Like the St. Marys, the upper Suwannee is characterized by slow stream flow and numerous meanders. Further south, the Suwannee flows swiftly over limestone shoals, then enters a region in which numerous springs contribute to its discharge. Other important natural features of these blackwater stream corridors include white sandbars,
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clay or limestone banks, sandy bluffs, cypress-gum swamps, bottomland hardwood forests, pine flatwoods, tidal swamps, sawgrass flats and coastal marshes. Protection of these river floodplains will help maintain important wildlife migration corridors between the Okefenokee Swamp, the lower Suwannee delta and estuaries, Georgia's coastal wetlands and lands of the Osceola National Forest.
High Priority Waters
Figure 13 shows high priority streams and watersheds identified for the Southern Coastal Plain by the CWCS Fishes and Freshwater Invertebrates team. These streams were chosen on the basis of documented occurrences of high priority aquatic species, high water quality rankings based on Index of Biotic Integrity scores, and designation as exemplary streams in a previous study by The Nature Conservancy. Examples of high priority streams in this ecoregion include Buffalo Creek, White Oak Creek, Beard's Creek, Alapaha River, St. Marys River, Suwannee River, Doboy Sound, Savannah River, Ogeechee River, Savannah River, and Satilla River, and Little Satilla River. Refer to Table 1 of the Fishes and Freshwater Invertebrates Technical Team report in Appendix B.
Coastal Beaches and Dunes
Georgia's coastal beaches and dunes represent critical habitats for rare turtles and shorebirds. Intertidal sand beaches provide foraging habitat for a great number of shorebirds, including sandpipers, plovers, sanderlings, turnstones, terns, and dowitchers. These birds feed on the abundant invertebrate fauna of intertidal areas and nest among the sparsely vegetated dunes and beach wrack. Loggerhead sea turtles nest in the foredunes at the upper edge of the beach, and several rare plants are found in interdune or rear dune/bluff habitats. Beachfront property is also perhaps the most highly prized real estate in Georgia for residential development and recreation. Human activities have resulted in a wide variety of direct and indirect impacts to these important habitats. Impoundment of Georgia's major rivers has reduced sediment input to the coastal sand-sharing system. In addition, construction of sea walls and jetties and dredging of tidal river channels have altered natural sand movement patterns along the coast, resulting in increased erosion of some beaches. Other activities impacting coastal beach and dune habitats include residential and commercial development, vehicular traffic, excessive herbivory (e.g., by feral horses), excessive predation (e.g., from feral hogs, raccoons, dogs, or cats), littering, artificial lighting and unmanaged recreational use. Protection of these important habitats will require a concerted effort involving state, federal, and local governments as well as local residents, educational groups, and civic organizations.
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Conservation Goals
Maintain known viable populations of all high priority species and functional examples of all high priority habitats through land protection, incentive-based habitat management programs on private lands, and habitat restoration and management on public lands.
Increase public awareness of high priority species and habitats by developing educational messages and lesson plans for use in environmental education facilities, local schools, and other facilities.
Encourage restoration of important wildlife habitats through reintroduction of prescribed fire, hydrologic restoration, and revegetation efforts.
Combat the spread of invasive/noxious species in high priority natural habitats by identifying problem areas, providing technical and financial assistance, developing specific educational messages, and managing exotic species populations on public lands.
Minimize impacts from residential and commercial development on high priority species and habitats by providing input on environmental assessments
Continue efforts to recover federally listed species by implementation of recovery plans
Strategies and Partnerships to Achieve Conservation Goals
Provide financial incentives and technical expertise to encourage prescribed burns, through Interagency Burn Team and other means
Work with NRCS staff to identify high priority habitats and sites for implementation of habitat enhancement/restoration projects through Farm Bill programs (e.g., restoration of longleaf pine-dominated forests and savannas)
Use state lands (e.g., Crooked River State Park, Sapelo Island, Ossabaw Island) and other public lands to showcase habitat restoration and management efforts. Complete management plans for all state lands and incorporate management objectives for populations of high priority species.
Assess exotic species populations on public lands and provide technical assistance to private landowners to discourage use of invasive exotics
Work with GDOT and local governments to minimize direct impacts to high priority species and habitats from development projects
Work with Georgia Power and private landowners to identify and conserve populations of rare species in and adjacent to utility corridors
Develop educational materials on high priority species and habitats in the ecoregion and provide these to environmental educators at WRD regional education centers and other facilities
Work with the Georgia Land Trust Service Center to apply monies from the Georgia Wetlands Trust Fund to provide protection for high priority wetlands and
Continue collaborative efforts to protect sea turtle nests and minimize impacts from shrimp fisheries
Continue North Atlantic right whale and manatee recovery and monitoring efforts
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Highest Priority Conservation Actions Highest priority conservation actions (actions rated "Very High" or "High") identified by the technical teams, Steering Committee, and other stakeholders specifically for this ecoregion include the following (see Appendix L for details):
Assess status of Altamaha endemic mussels in undersampled rivers and streams; begin long-term monitoring program for mussels in the Altamaha basin. Identify host fishes for Altamaha spinymussel and Altamaha arcmussel.
Conduct midwinter waterbird survey and piping plover winter survey; conduct research and surveys on southeastern red knot and whimbrels; investigate American oystercatcher ecology and demographics.
Identify potential habitat for flatwoods salamander and other high priority coastal plain species; survey habitats for high priority species
Investigate site fidelity and habitat use by eastern indigo snakes. Continue right whale recovery efforts. Conduct aerial surveys for right whales.
Implement digital tagging program for right whales to assess movements and minimize ship strikes. Implement diadromous fish restoration projects. Evaluate existing population status, commercial and recreational fisheries, and habitat limitations. Look for opportunities to enhance habitat. Implement red-cockaded woodpecker conservation on private lands, through safe harbor agreements and mitigated take from small, isolated populations. Administer landowner incentive program for safe harbor participants. Develop private landowner incentive for conservation of flatwoods salamanders and other high priority species. Establish or augment populations of gopher frog, striped newt, gopher tortoise, and other high priority coastal plain species on protected lands. For high priority conservation actions of statewide scope, see Section V of this report.
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Table 9. Southern Coastal Plain High Priority Animals (74 Records)

Group Scientific Name

Common Name

Global State Federal State Rank Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

Range in Georgia

AA Cordulegaster sayi

Say's spiketail

G2

S1

Trickling hillside seepages in deciduous forest near weedy fields

Southeastern coastal plain only.

AM Ambystoma cingulatum Flatwoods salamander G2G3 S2

LT

T

Pine flatwoods; moist savannas; isolated cypress/gum ponds

Lower CP, extremely localized throughout large but fragmented range. Only four sites with known extant populations

AM Desmognathus auriculatus

Southern dusky salamander

G5

S3

In or around the margins of slowly moving or stagnant bodies of water with mucky, acidic soils; cypress swamps, floodplains, sloughs

Lower CP

AM Necturus punctatus

Dwarf waterdog

G4

S2

Sluggish streams with substrate of leaf litter or woody debris

Atlantic drainages, primarily CP, one record in the PD

AM Notophthalmus perstriatus

Striped newt

G2G3 S2

R

Pine flatwoods, sandhills; isolated wetlands

CP

AM Pseudobranchus striatus

Dwarf siren

G5

S3

Swamps; marshes; limesink ponds; cypress ponds

lower CP

AM Rana capito

Gopher frog

G3G4 S3

Sandhills; dry pine flatwoods; breed in isolated wetlands CP

AM Stereochilus marginatus Many-lined salamander G5

S3

Sluggish, swampy streams and bayheads with substrate eastern CP of leaf litter

BI

Aimophila aestivalis

Bachman's sparrow

G3

S3

SAR R

Open pine or oak woods; old fields; grassy forest

regeneration

RV, PD, CP: where appropriate habitat

BI

Ammodramus henslowii Henslow's sparrow

G4

S3

SAR

Grassy areas, especially wet grasslands; wet pine savanna & flatwoods

CP, PD - historically and migrants

BI

Ammodramus

savannarum

Grasshopper sparrow G5

S4

Grassland surrounded by open country (ag, grassland etc.)

CP, PD predominantly, less common in CU, RV, rare in BR

BI

Calidris canutus

Red knot (SE winter G5

S3

SAR

population)

Beaches and sandbars

Coastal

BI

Charadrius melodus Piping plover

G3

S1

(LE,LT) T

Sandy beaches; mud and sand flats; isolated sand spits CP - coastal

BI

Charadrius wilsonia

Wilson's plover

G5

S2

R

Sandy beaches; sand and mud flats, dunes, and back CP - coastal

dune swales

BI

Colinus virginianus

Northern bobwhite

G5

S4

Early successional mixed grass/forb habitat; longleaf pine savanna

CP most numerous; uncommon in PD, RV; scattered in CU, BR

BI

Egretta tricolor

Tricolored heron

G5

S3

Coastal aquatic environments, salt and fresh, nests with All coastal counties other waders in low thick cover

BI

Elanoides forficatus

Swallow-tailed kite

G5

S2

SAR R

River swamps and upland adjacent habitats particularly CP - nesting primarily in SE CP with scattered records

with large, emergent pines and pine islands; marshes statewide post breeding

BI

Falco sparverius paulus Southeastern American G5T4 S3

kestrel

SAR

Pine sandhills and savannas; open country with

CP

scattered trees for nesting; military base habitats;

artificial/man-made nesting habitats include nest boxes,

power poles, building columns

BI

Grus canadensis

pratensis

Florida sandhill crane G5T2T3 S1

Freshwater prairies

Restricted to Okefenokee and Grand Bay

BI

Haematopus palliatus American oystercatcher G5

S2

SAR R

Sandy beaches; tidal flats; salt marshes, oyster shell

CP - coastal

bars

BI

Haliaeetus

leucocephalus

Bald eagle

G4

S2

(PS:LT, E

Edges of lakes & large rivers; seacoasts

PDL)

CP - primarily and reservoirs and rivers PD, BR, RV

Group Codes: AA = aquatic arthropod; AM = amphibian; BI = bird; FI = fish; MA = mammal; MO = mollusk; RE = reptile

159

Table 9. Southern Coastal Plain High Priority Animals (74 Records)

Group Scientific Name

Common Name

BI

Himantopus mexicanus Black-necked stilt

BI

Ixobrychus exilis

Least bittern

BI

Lanius ludovicianus

Loggerhead shrike

migrans

BI

Laterallus jamaicensis Black rail

BI

Limnothlypis swainsonii Swainson's warbler

BI

Mycteria americana

Wood stork

BI

Numenius phaeopus Whimbrel

BI

Passerina ciris

Painted bunting

BI

Picoides borealis

Red-cockaded woodpecker

Global State Rank Rank

G5

S3

G4

S3

G4T3Q S?

G4

S2?

G4

S3

G4

S2

G5

S3

G5

S3

G3

S2

Federal State Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

Range in Georgia

(PS)

Shallow ponds; lagoons; isolated freshwater wetlands; CP - coastal dredge spoil sites; managed wetlands

Freshwater and brackish marshes with tall, dense emergent vegetation. Nests close to open areas

Probably more common as a breeder in CP due to much more potentially suitable habitat than in PD

SAR

Open woods; field edges; savannas

CP - primary area of abundance; scattered and low number in the PD (none in 20-county metro Atlanta area); low numbers in RV

SAR

Freshwater marsh grassy margins; wet grassy meadows; PD, CP - most likely breeding would occur in eastern

brackish high marsh

PD or along Coast

SAR

Dense undergrowth with heavy litter (CP,M); canebrakes Although found widespread, bulk of population

in swamps and river floodplains (CP)

restricted to river floodplains of CP and PD; small BR

population

(PS:LE) E

Cypress/gum ponds; freshwater marshes; saltmarshes, river swamps; bays, isolated wetlands, ephemeral wetlands, coastal hammocks

1,200 pairs nesting in Coastal Plain 2002, with postnest dispersal throughout state

Saltmarsh openings, Mud flats, shell rakes, outer barrier All coastal counties sand spits

SAR

Shrub-scrub and open grassy habitats; open mature pine CP - primarily barrier islands and immediate coast with

forest and maritime oak forest associated with freshwater scattered occurrences up major river corridors;

wetlands

occurrences in CP agricultural lands reduced and

poorly understood

LE

E

Open pine woods; pine savannas

Found mostly in CP, also lower PD. Disjunct populations in counties of Muscogee, Chattahoochee (Ft Benning); Liberty, Long, Bryan (Ft Stewart); Charlton, Brantley (Okefenokee NWR, private); Jones, Jasper (Piedmont NWR, Oconee NF, Hitchiti); Thomas, Grady

BI

Rallus elegans

King rail

G4G5 S3

BI

Rynchops niger

BI

Sterna antillarum

BI

Sterna nilotica

BI

Tyto alba

Black skimmer
Least tern Gull-billed tern
Barn owl

G5

S1

G4

S3

(PS:LE) R

G5

S1

T

G5

S3/S4

FI

Acipenser brevirostrum Shortnose sturgeon

G3

S2

LE

E

FI

Elassoma okatie

Bluebarred pygmy sunfish

G2G3 S1S2

FI

Enneacanthus

Blackbanded sunfish G4

S1

R

chaetodon

FI

Lucania goodei

Bluefin killifish

G5

S1

U

Freshwater marshes, often cattail bulrush, cutgrass, for breeding; also brackish marshes non-breeding (saltmarshes?)

Principally Piedmont and CP; possibly R&V

Sandy beaches, isolated accretional sand spits, N and S Strictly outer coast tips of barrier islands

Sandy beaches; sandbars, large flat gravel roof tops

Coastal Counties

Outer sand beaches and mud flats, Salt marshes; fields Coastal on barrier islands; Isolated sand spits

Grassland savanna with large cavity trees, also neighborhoods with large cavity trees, generally needs open country

Local: CP, PD, RV, CU, rare in BR

Estuaries; lower end of large rivers in deep pools with soft substrates

Atlantic drainage large rivers

Temporary ponds and stream backwaters with dense aquatic vegetation

Fort Gordon

Blackwater streams; bays; cypress/gum ponds

Disjunct historic locales in SE GA; T. Peterson (recent) able to find at one historic locale outside of OK Swamp

Heavily vegetated ponds and streams with little or no current; frequently associated with springs

Lower Flint River system and in McIntosh County on east coast of GA

Group Codes: AA = aquatic arthropod; AM = amphibian; BI = bird; FI = fish; MA = mammal; MO = mollusk; RE = reptile

160

Table 9. Southern Coastal Plain High Priority Animals (74 Records)

Group Scientific Name

Common Name

Global State Federal State Rank Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

Range in Georgia

FI

Micropterus notius

Suwannee bass

G3

S2

R

Flowing water over rocky shoals or large springs and Suwanee drainage so. GA

spring runs

MA Condylura cristata

Star-nosed mole

G5

S2?

Moist meadows; woods; swamps

Known only from Charlton, Chatham, Clinch, Effingham, Jackson, and Union counties

MA Corynorhinus rafinesquii Rafinesque's big-eared G3G4 S3? bat

R

Pine forests; hardwood forests; caves; abandoned

Range in state disjunct--C.r.rafinesquii found in

buildings; bridges; bottomland hardwood forests and

northern BR and C. r. macrotis found in lower CP. Not

cypress-gum swamps

known from PD, but either subsp might occur there.

MA Eubalaena glacialis

North Atlantic right

G1

whale

S1 and LE

E

S?

Inshore and offshore oceanic waters of Georgia

Occurs along the entire Georgia coast and also observed offshore up to 40 nm. Most frequently observed in waters > 8ft. Maximum depth or distance from shore is unknown but strongly suspected to occur West of the Gulf Stream

MA Geomys pinetis

Southeastern pocket G5

S4

gopher

Sandy well-drained soils in open pine woodlands with grassy or herbaceous groundcover, fields, grassy roadsides

Fairly widespread over CP, but population apparently greatly reduced and fragmented; small local populations

MA Lasiurus intermedius Northern yellow bat

G4G5 S2S3

Wooded areas near open water or fields

Has been found only in lower CP

MA Neofiber alleni

Round-tailed muskrat G3

S3

T

Freshwater marshes; bogs

Okefenokee and surrounding areas in Camden, Charlton, and Ware; also Grand Bay WMA in Lanier and Lowndes; also Brooks.

MA Sciurus niger shermani Sherman's fox squirrel G5T2 S?

Pine forests; pine savannas

Some sources say this subspecies only occurs in extreme SE corner of Georgia around Okefenokee Swamp. However, Turner and Laerm (1993) say S.n. shermani occurs up into Piedmont.

MA Trichechus manatus West Indian manatee G2

S1S2 LE

E

Inshore ocean; estuaries, tidal rivers, warm and fresh water discharges

Found in six coastal counties. These animals are unique because they can migrate between fresh and salt water.

MA Tursiops truncatus

Bottlenose dolphin

G5

S?

Coastal estuarine and offshore waters of Georgia

Bottlenose dolphins range in all 6 coastal counties; Camden, Glynn, McIntosh, Liberty, Bryan, and Chatham. All tidal rivers and creeks provide dolphin habitat. They also extend offshore. CP.

MA Ursus americanus floridanus

Florida black bear

G5T2 S2

Large undeveloped wooded tracts in areas that include multiple forest types

Parts of Echols, Clinch, Charlton, Ware, and Brantley counties support breeding population. Individuals frequently wander into surrounding counties and along Altamaha corridor.

MO Alasmidonta triangulata Southern elktoe

G2Q S1

Large creeks and river mainstems in sandy mud and rock Confined to the Chattachoochee, Flint, Ogeechee,

pools

Savannah river drainages

MO Alasmidonta varicosa Brook floater

G3

S2

Small rivers and creeks in sand and gravel shoals

Present distribution includes 4 sites in the Chattooga River in Rabun County (Savannah River drainage).

MO Elliptio fraterna

Brother spike

G1

SU

Sandy substrates of river channels with swift current

Uncertain of range in Savannah River system

MO Fusconaia masoni

Atlantic pigtoe

G2

S1

E

Moderate to fast current in substrate of sand or gravel Historical range included 6 sites in the Ogeechee and

Savannah River basins-all of which have been

extirpated. One newly discovered population was found

in Williamson Swamp Creek in Jefferson County

(Alderman 1991).

MO Medionidus walkeri

Suwannee moccasinshell

G1

SH

Large creeks and medium-sized rivers with sand and gravel substrate

Endemic to the Suwannee River basin in GA and FL

Group Codes: AA = aquatic arthropod; AM = amphibian; BI = bird; FI = fish; MA = mammal; MO = mollusk; RE = reptile

161

Table 9. Southern Coastal Plain High Priority Animals (74 Records)

Group Scientific Name

Common Name

Global State Federal State Rank Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

Range in Georgia

MO Quincuncina kleiniana Suwanee pigtoe

GU

S2

Small to large rivers in the Suwannee Basin, in slow to moderate current, pools of flowing rivers, often in detritus. More common in Alapaha and Withalacoochee rivers and tribs

Endemic to the Suwannee River basin in GA and FL

MO Toxolasma pullus

Savannah lilliput

G2

S2

Altamaha River; Savannah River

Historical distribution included the Altamaha River basin (Johnson 1970, Sepkoski and Rex 1974, and Keferl 1981). Present distribution from recent surveys appears to be only the Ohoopee River (Keferl pers. com.).

RE Caretta caretta

Loggerhead

G3

S2

LT

T

Open ocean; sounds; coastal rivers; beaches

Ocean, sounds, coastal rivers, beaches

RE Chelonia mydas

Green sea turtle

G3

S2

(LE,LT) T

Open ocean; sounds; coastal rivers; beaches

Ocean, sounds, coastal rivers, beaches

RE Clemmys guttata

Spotted turtle

G5

S3

U

Heavily vegetated swamps, marshes, bogs, and small Widely distributed across CP

ponds; nest and possibly hibernate in surrounding

uplands

RE Crotalus adamanteus Eastern diamondback G4

S4

rattlesnake

Early successional habitats on barrier islands and mainland; pine flatwoods; sandhills

CP, including barrier islands

RE Dermochelys coriacea Leatherback sea turtle G3

S2

LE

E

Open ocean; sounds; coastal beaches

Ocean, sounds, beaches

RE Drymarchon couperi Eastern indigo snake G4T3 S3

LT

T

Sandhills; pine flatwoods; dry hammocks; summer habitat includes floodplains and bottomlands

Middle and lower CP

RE Eumeces anthracinus Coal skink

G5

S2

Mesic forests; often near streams, springs or bogs

Very little known about range especially in CP

RE Eumeces egregius

Mole skink

G4

S3

(PS)

Coastal dunes; longleaf pine-turkey oak woods; dry hammocks

Widespread throughout CP

RE Gopherus polyphemus Gopher tortoise

G3

S2

(PS:LT) T

Sandhills; dry hammocks; longleaf pine-turkey oak

CP

woods; old fields

RE Heterodon simus

Southern hognose

G2

S2

snake

Sandhills; fallow fields; longleaf pine-turkey oak

CP

RE Lepidochelys kempii Kemp's or Atlantic ridley G1

S1

LE

E

Open ocean; sounds; coastal rivers; beaches

Ocean, sounds, coastal rivers

RE Macrochelys temminckii Alligator snapping turtle G3G4 S3

T

Large streams and rivers; impoundments; river swamps Gulf CP drainages

RE Malaclemys terrapin Diamondback terrapin G4

S3

Entire coast, esturine and marine edge. All saltmarsh, beaches

Strictly Coastal

RE Ophisaurus mimicus Mimic glass lizard

G3

S2

Pine flatwoods; savannas; seeapge bogs

Lower CP, substantial gaps in range

RE Pituophis melanoleucus Florida pine snake

G4T3? S3

Sandhills; scrub; old field

CP

mugitus

RE Rhineura floridana

Florida worm lizard

G4

S1

Dry upland hammocks, sand pine and longleaf pineturkey oak sandhills; old fields

Lanier Co. in CP

RE Tantilla relicta

Florida crowned snake G5

S1

Sandhills, scrub, and moist hammocks

Lowndes Co. in CP

Group Codes: AA = aquatic arthropod; AM = amphibian; BI = bird; FI = fish; MA = mammal; MO = mollusk; RE = reptile

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Scientific Name Amorpha georgiana var. georgiana
Amorpha herbacea var. floridana Arabis georgiana
Aristida simpliciflora Arnoglossum diversifolium Arnoglossum sulcatum Asplenium heteroresiliens Astragalus michauxii Balduina atropurpurea Baptisia arachnifera
Brickellia cordifolia Calamintha ashei Campylopus carolinae
Carex calcifugens
Carex dasycarpa Carex decomposita Carex godfreyi
Carex lupuliformis
Coreopsis integrifolia Ctenium floridanum Dicerandra radfordiana
Eccremidium floridanum
Eleocharis tenuis var. tenuis

Table 10. Southern Coastal Plain High Priority Plants (88 Records)

Common Name

Global Rank

State Federal State Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

Range in Georgia

Georgia indigo-bush

G3T2

S1

River terraces; floodplain woods; flint kaolin outcrop; mesic habitats with wiregrass,longleaf pine, mixed oaks

UCP

Florida leadbush

G4T?Q S1

River terraces along the Alapaha River

LCP, if accepted as taxonomically significant

Georgia rockcress

G2

S1

C

T

Chapman three-awn grass

G3

SH

Variable-leaf Indian-plantain G2

S2

T

Grooved-stem Indian-plantain G2G3

S1

Morzenti's spleenwort

G2Q

S1

T

Sandhill milkvetch

G3

S2

Purple honeycomb head

G2G3

S2

R

Hairy rattleweed

G1

S1

LE

E

Heartleaf brickellia

G2G3

S2

Ashe's wild savory

G3

S2

T

Sandhills awned-moss

G1G2

S2?

Lime-fleeing sedge

G2G4

SR

Velvet sedge

G4?

S3

R

Cypress-knee sedge

G3

S2?

Godfrey's sedge

G3G4

S3?

Mock hop sedge

G5

SU

Tickseed Florida orange-grass Radford's dicerandra
Florida eccremidium moss

G1G2 G2 G1Q
G1?

S1S2 S1 S1
S1

Slender spikerush

G5T?

SU

Rocky or sandy river bluffs and banks, in circumneutral PD, RV, UCP; along Coosa, Oostanaula and

soil

lower Chattahoochee Rivers

Longleaf pine-wiregrass savannas

UCP

Calcareous swamps

UCP

Bottomland forests

UCP

Limestone and marl outcrops; tabby ruins

UCP, LCP

Longleaf pine-wiregrass savannas; turkey oak scrub UCP

Wet savannas, pitcherplant bogs

UCP, LCP

Pine flatwoods

LCP, entire global range in parts of Brantley and Wayne Cos.

Mesic hardwood forests

UCP

Ohoopee dunes

UCP, Tattnall and Candler Cos.

Fall line sandhills; Altamaha Grit outcrops in partial shade of mesic oak forests

UCP

Said by FNA to occur in "Mesic deciduous forests, in sandy loams and sands, usually on stream bank slopes."

LCP (only?)

Evergreen hammocks; mesic hardwood forests

LCP, UCP

Swamps and lake margins on floating logs

LCP, UCP

Forested depressional wetlands.

UCP, possibly LCP?, uncertain, verification needed

Said by FNA to occur in "Wet forests, especially in openings around forest ponds, riverine wetlands, marshes, wet thickets, 0-500 m."

LCP?, uncertain, verification needed

Floodplain forests, streambanks

UCP, LCP

Moist pine barrens

LCP

Sandridges

LCP, entire global range consists of 2 small areas in McIntosh Co.

Sandy or sometimes clay soil in open, disturbed sites, often in areas that are wet part of the year and quite dry other parts of the year, fields and roadsides, thin soil over rock outcrops, around margins of cypres

UCP

Moist to wet sandy-peaty soils; pine flatwoods

RV, PD, where doubtfully recorded and in need of comparison with other named varieites known to be present

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Scientific Name Elliottia racemosa

Table 10. Southern Coastal Plain High Priority Plants (88 Records)

Common Name

Global Rank

State Federal State Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

Range in Georgia

Georgia plume

G2G3

S2S3

T

Scrub forests; Altamaha Grit outcrops; open forests PD, UCP, LCP; from Ft. Stewart to Ashburn,

over ultramafic rock

Turner Co.;disjunct on piedmont on Burks

Mtn., Columbia Co.

Epidendrum conopseum

Green-fly orchid

G4

S3

U

Eriochloa michauxii var. michauxii
Eupatorium anomalum

Michaux's cupgrass Florida boneset

G3G4T3T4 S1?

G2G3

SU

Evolvulus sericeus var. sericeus Creeping morning-glory

G5T?

S1

E

Forestiera godfreyi

Godfrey's wild privet

G2

S1

Forestiera segregata

Florida wild privet

G4

S2

Fothergilla gardenii

Dwarf witch-alder

G3G4

S2

T

Habenaria quinqueseta var. quinqueseta

Michaux's orchid

G4G5T? S1

Hartwrightia floridana

Hartwrightia

G2

S1

T

Hypericum sp. 3

Georgia St.-John's-wort

G2G3

S2S3

Justicia angusta

Narrowleaf water-willow

G3Q

SH

Lachnocaulon beyrichianum Leitneria floridana Lindera melissifolia

Southern bog-button Corkwood Pondberry

G2G3

S1

G3

S1

G2

S1

LE

E

Litsea aestivalis

Pondspice

G3

S2

T

Lycium carolinianum

Carolina wolfberry

G4

S1

Malaxis spicata

Florida adders-mouth orchid G4?

S1

Matelea alabamensis

Alabama milkvine

G2

S1

T

Matelea pubiflora

Trailing milkvine

G3G4

S2

R

Myriophyllum laxum

Lax water-milfoil

G3

S2

T

Orbexilum virgatum Oxypolis ternata

Slender leather-root Savanna cowbane

G1

SH

G3

S2

Epiphytic on limbs of evergreen hardwoods; also in crevices of Altamaha Grit outcrops

UCP, LCP; widespread, sometimes locally abundant especially in bottomland forests along major rivers in Southeast Georgia

Coastal freshwater and brackish marshes; flatwoods LCP; map in FNA shows records from Charlton, Glynn, Liberty and McIntosh Cos.

Wet, low ground

LCP, UCP; likely close to Florida pending scrutiny of closely related E. mohrii and E. rotundifolium

Altamaha Grit outcrops; open calcareous uplands

UCP

Mesic, maritime forests over shell mounds

LCP, Camden Co.

Shell mounds on barrier islands in scrub or maritime Restricted to shell middens overlooking or

forests

upon barrier islands; LCP

Openings in low woods and swamps; edges of seepage bogs

UCP, LCP; widely distributed from Fall Line Sandhills to more southern flatwoods

Moist shade, Altamaha Grit outcrops; open pine woods UCP, LCP; widely scattered sites

Wet savannas; ditches, sloughs and flatwood seeps LCP, restricted to Okefenokee Basin

Seepage bogs; roadside ditches

UCP, LCP, upper Ogeechee and Canoochee watersheds (only?), and near Eulonia, McIntosh Co.

Roadside ditches; perhaps with Hartwrightia in shallow LCP sloughs and wet savannas

Flatwoods

UCP, LCP

Swamps; sawgrass-cabbage palmetto marshes

UCP, LCP

Margins of seasonal ponds, both sandhill and limesink LCP, UCP with swamp blackgum (Nyssa biflora).

Cypress ponds; swamp margins

UCP, LCP; especially southeastern Georgia

Coastal sand spits

LCP, Cumberland Island, Camden Co.

Low hammocks; spring-fed river swamps

UCP, LCP, potentially over Coastal Plain based on Florida distribution; documented recently only from LCP; historic from UCP in Jenkins Co.

Open bluff forests; mesic margins of longleaf pine sandridges

UCP, LCP; on Gulf CP and an area of Atlantic CP along the Altamaha River, Wayne Co..

Exposed sandy soils; sandridges

UCP, LCP

Bluehole spring runs; shallow, sandy, swift-flowing creeks; clear, cool ponds

UCP, in many watersheds, most often in westcentral Georgia sandhills

Sandridges

LCP, Charlton Co.

Wet pine savannas and bogs

UCP, widely scattered

164

Scientific Name Peltandra sagittifolia
Penstemon dissectus
Phaseolus polystachios var. sinuatus

Table 10. Southern Coastal Plain High Priority Plants (88 Records)

Common Name

Global Rank

State Federal State Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

Range in Georgia

Arrow arum

G3G4

S2?

Swamps; wet hammocks on pristine sphagnum mats UCP, LCP; locally abundant in Okefenokee Swamp

Cutleaf beardtongue

G2

S2?

R

Altamaha Grit outcrops and adjacent pine savannas; UCP, endemic to Altamaha Grit (Tifton

rarely sandridges

Uplands)

Trailing bean-vine

G4T3?

S2?

Sandhills; dry pinelands and hammocks

UCP, LCP

Physostegia leptophylla

Tidal marsh obedient-plant

G4?

S2S3

Plantago sparsiflora
Platanthera blephariglottis var. blephariglottis
Platanthera blephariglottis var. conspicua
Platanthera chapmanii

Pineland plantain White fringed-orchid Southern white fringed-orchid Chapman's fringed-orchid

G3

S2

G4G5T4? S1?

G4G5T3T4 S2?

G4?

S1

Platanthera integra

Yellow fringeless orchid

G3G4

S2

Polygonum glaucum

Sea-beach knotweed

G3

SH

Portulaca biloba Pteroglossaspis ecristata

Grit portulaca Wild coco

G1G2

S1

G2

S1

Ptilimnium sp. 1

Mock bishop-weed

G1

SH

Rhynchospora breviseta Rhynchospora decurrens Rhynchospora fernaldii

Short-bristle beakrush Decurrent beakrush Fernald's beakrush

G3G4

SU

G3G4

S1?

G3G4

SR

Rhynchospora macra
Rhynchospora pleiantha Rhynchospora punctata Ruellia noctiflora
Sageretia minutiflora
Sagittaria graminea var. chapmanii Sapindus saponaria

Many-bristled beakrush

G3

S1?

Clonal thread-leaved beakrush G2

SH

Spotted beakrush

G1?

S1?

Night-blooming wild petunia G2

SH

Climbing buckthorn

G4

S1?

Chapman's arrowhead

G5T3?

S3?

Soapberry

G5

S1

T

Freshwater tidal marshes; perhaps disjunct in wet

LCP, coastal cos. on tidally influenced

savannas of extreme SW Georgia

shorelines; reports from UCP in SW Georgia

need verification

Open, wet pine savannas; shallow ditches

UCP, LCP

Bogs, seeps, roadsides, wet savannas

UCP, LCP; scattered from Fall Line Sandhills to coast and South Georgia plantations

Open, wet meadows; pine flatwoods

UCP, LCP, extreme Southeast Georgia; historic in Southwest Georgia

Wet savannas, pitcherplant bogs

UCP, LCP; documented from 9 cos., scattered on coastal plain

Coastal beaches in dune depressions and among

LCP

protected accumulations of beach wrack

Altamaha Grit outcrops

UCP

Grassy saw palmetto barrens; longleaf pine grasslands, sometimes with Schwalbea americana

LCP, UPC; widely scattered, including barrier islands

Tidal freshwater marshes

LCP, narrow endemic from Savannah into South Carolina

Bogs; flatwoods

Uncertain, documentation needed, UCP, LCP

Swamps

UCP, LCP

Flatwoods depressions

LCP (only?), to be considered as a rarity from Okefenokee Swamp, whence all specimens from Georgia came

Peaty, sandhill seepage slopes; streamhead pocosins LCP an old record from Coffee Co. near Douglas

Margins of limesink depression ponds (dolines)

UCP

Wet savannas, pitcherplant bogs

UCP, LCP

Open, slash pine flatwoods

LCP, outer Coastal Plain on the Barrier Island Sequence

T

Calcareous bluff forests; maritime forests over shell UCP, LCP

mounds

Low woods and seasonal wet swamps with Carex leptalea, Rhynchospora miliacea

UCP, LCP, perhaps widespread, including a pond on Sapelo Island

Shell mound forests

LCP

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Scientific Name Sarracenia flava Sarracenia minor var. minor Sarracenia minor var. okefenokeense Sarracenia psittacina Sarracenia rubra
Schoenolirion elliottii
Scutellaria altamaha
Scutellaria arenicola Scutellaria mellichampii Sideroxylon sp. 1
Sideroxylon thornei Sphagnum cyclophyllum
Spiranthes floridana Sporobolus pinetorum Stewartia malacodendron
Tillandsia bartramii Vaccinium crassifolium Xyris drummondii Xyris scabrifolia

Table 10. Southern Coastal Plain High Priority Plants (88 Records)

Common Name

Global Rank

State Federal State Rank Status Status

Habitat in Georgia

Range in Georgia

Yellow flytrap

G5?

S3S4

U

Wet savannas, pitcherplant bogs

UCP, LCP

Hooded pitcherplant

G4T4

S4

Wet savannas, pitcherplant bogs

UCP LCP

Okefenokee giant

G4T2T3 S2S3

Wet savannas, pitcherplant bogs

LCP, Okefenokee Basin only

Parrot pitcherplant Sweet pitcherplant
White sunnybell
Altamaha skullcap
Sandhill skullcap Mellichamp's skullcap Dwarf buckthorn
Swamp buckthorn Round-leaved peat-moss

G4 G3
G3
G2G3
G3G4 G?Q G3Q
G2 G3

S2S3

T

S2

(PS) E

S1?

S1?

SH S1? S3

S2

E

S2

Florida ladies-tresses

G1

S1?

Pineland dropseed

G3

S2?

Silky camellia

G4

S2

R

Bartram's airplant

G4

S2

Evergreen lowbush blueberry G4G5

SH

Drummond's yellow-eyed grass G3

S1

Harper's yellow-eyed grass

G3

S1

Wet savannas, pitcherplant bogs Atlantic white cedar swamps; wet savannas

UCP, LCP
UCP, in two areas, Atlantic Coastal Plain and Fall Line Sandhills west of Macon

Wet savannas

LCP, few observations from Wayne and Brantley Cos.

Sandy, deciduous woods

UCP, LCP. (only?), perhaps adjacent Piedmont, of Southeast Georgia

Sandy scrub

LCP, Trail Ridge; Camden Co.

Sandy deciduous woods

LCP, UCP; widely scattered

Dry longleaf pine woods with oak understory; often hidden in wiregrass

UCP, LCP

Forested limesink depressions; calcareous swamps UCP, LCP

CP: bare sand where wet or submerged for part of the PD, LCP, UCP year and then drying, as around seasonal ponds in pine barrens.. PD: seepage over granite outcrops

Wet savannas with wiregrass
Along streams on lower slopes of beech-magnolia or beech-basswood-Florida maple forests

LCP PD, UCP

Open margins of Carolina bays Pine flatwoods Sedge bogs; pitcherplant bogs; pine flatwoods

LCP, historically in or near Screven Co. UCP, LCP UCP, LCP

166

Figure 13. High Priority Waters, Southern Coastal Plain Ecoregion 167

V. Statewide Wildlife Conservation Themes and Strategies
During the process of outlining and evaluating objectives for wildlife conservation in Georgia, several issues or themes pertaining to high priority species and habitats across the state or in several ecoregions were identified. These conservation themes are described below, and the highest priority specific conservation actions associated with each of these themes are listed.
Wildlife Conservation on Private Lands
Wildlife conservation tools include land protection action by a public agency or a private conservation organization as well as provision of technical assistance or financial assistance to landowners to improve or restore wildlife habitat or meet other natural resource objectives. An array of programs is available to private landowners to help them achieve these objectives. However, landowners sometimes fail to take advantage of these programs simply because it is difficult to determine eligibility, availability, or the relative benefits of one program versus another.
In 1995 WRD began its Private Lands Initiative to intensify efforts in promoting, encouraging, and providing technical assistance for wildlife management on private lands. The Private Lands Initiative developed a strategy for delivering technical assistance to private landowners through USDA programs authorized under the Farm Bill and by developing a partnership with corporate forest landowners known as the Forestry for Wildlife Partnership. In 1998 the Bobwhite Quail Initiative was developed and formed into a separate technical and financial assistance program in the upper Coastal Plain of Georgia. In 1999, the Forest Stewardship Program was incorporated into the Private Lands Initiative to create the Private Lands Program. This program strives to serve private landowners by incorporating the landowner's objectives for their land into a comprehensive wildlife management plan. Private Lands Program biologists provide information to landowners about federal and state natural resource programs that provide both technical and financial assistance. WRD biologists also work with these landowners to identify programs best suited to meet these objectives and the agencies that can provide help with enrollment.
The "Landowner's Guide to Conservation Incentives" developed and distributed by WRD staff as part of the CWCS planning effort provides information on a wide variety of programs that are available to Georgia residents. This booklet, an update and revision of a previous document entitled "Landowner's Guide to Conservation Options", serves as an introduction to program objectives, funding levels, eligibility, administering agencies, specific benefits to landowners, stipulations for continued support, and other elements. The document provides a matrix of programs and agencies, includes a glossary of program and agency acronyms, and categorizes incentive programs by type of assistance provided (e.g., direct payments, technical assistance, tax incentives, landowner recognition, regulatory relief). The "Landowner's Guide", which is included as Appendix N, is available from WRD offices in printed form and is also posted on the WRD website (www.georgiawildlife.com).
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In addition to programs administered through the Farm Bill, there are numerous programs handled by other agencies and organizations, including non-governmental organizations (see Table 12). Some of these provide direct funding for land conservation, others provide technical assistance to landowners to achieve conservation goals, and still others provide public recognition for conservation successes. Funding levels, conservation emphasis, criteria for eligibility, and other elements of these programs vary over time, so periodic updates of the "Landowner's Guide" will be necessary. In addition, public agencies should take advantage of opportunities to collaborate on projects that will focus financial and technical resources to provide the greatest benefit to habitats and species of greatest conservation need on private lands.
The primary emphasis in this document is the conservation of natural habitats. However, a number of high priority species make use of habitats that are created or maintained by human activities. These include field edges, utility rights of way, harvested timberlands, and fallow agricultural lands ("old fields"). These anthropogenic habitats resemble natural habitats that have been greatly diminished in the Georgia landscape through fire suppression, the loss of native grazers, or other factors. Numerous opportunities exist to provide assistance to private landowners to maintain and enhance early successional habitats through the Bobwhite Quail Initiative and various Farm Bill related programs. These programs provide means by which wildlife habitat can be improved with minimal impacts on ongoing agricultural or silvicultural operations.
In order to take advantage of these opportunities, WRD should continue to work with NRCS and other organizations to improve delivery of financial and technical assistance programs. By sharing resources and increasing the number of field staff, these organizations can significantly enhance the number and quality of wildlife conservation programs provided to private landowners. Similar efforts in Missouri and Kentucky have proven very successful and may serve as viable models for future efforts in Georgia.
Highest Priority Conservation Actions
Specific conservation actions that pertain to the enhancement of wildlife conservation practices on private lands and were rated "Very High" or "High" in priority are listed below. Information on lead organizations, partners, funding sources and other details for these and other recommended actions can be found in Appendix L.
Coordinate utilization of and training for implementation of Georgia's Best Management Practices for Agriculture, and improve wildlife conservation guidelines. Provide technical assistance and information to develop a wildlife conservation component for agricultural BMPs that addresses needs and opportunities for wildlife habitat protection.
Develop habitat-specific management guidelines to address conservation needs of high priority species in each ecoregion of the state, and provide these to landowners and managers.
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Encourage use of prescribed fire as a habitat management tool on private lands. Provide information and technical assistance to landowners to encourage appropriate use of prescribed fire as a management tool to enhance and maintain wildlife habitats.
Old Field Habitats
Old-field is a habitat type most often found after abandonment of pastureland or retirement of crop fields. This habitat type includes a meadow stage and a shrub stage depending on the site's physical characteristics, time since abandonment, and disturbance regime. In its early stages, the site is usually in a meadow-like condition and is dominated by grasses and forbs. As the site ages shrubs and small trees become established and it becomes a shrubland. Eventually, in the absence of a disturbance like fire, the site would succeed into a woodland. While man-made, these habitats mimic many of the conditions found in open pine forest, natural grasslands, open shrublands, and savannas, and are used by an extensive array of wildlife species including many of conservation concern (e.g., Northern Bobwhite, Goldenwinged Warbler, Loggerhead Shrike). In some cases natural disturbance regimes that would have created habitat for these rare species no longer operate on a landscape-level scale (e.g., fire) and creation, maintenance, and augmentation of man-made old field habitats is necessary to support, or at least enhance populations of many of these species.
Field borders and similar lands created through Farm Bill programs, the Bobwhite Quail Initiative, and similar programs often have these old field characteristics and provide suitable habitat for rare and declining species that in many cases have lost significant portions of their natural habitat. A good example of this is the Northern Bobwhite (quail) that at one time was a very common species throughout the expansive areas of Longleaf Pine-Wiregrass habitat in the Coastal Plain, and also occurred in significant numbers in natural grassland and recently burned areas throughout much of the state. With the loss of the majority of acreage in these habitat types, anthropogenic habitats like old fields have become increasingly important to the well being of quail and many associated species.
While natural habitats are, and should be, emphasized in this plan, man-made habitats such as old fields should also be recognized as important and incorporated into measures used to conserve species of concern when appropriate.
Wildlife Conservation on Public Lands
Public land management to benefit high priority species and habitats is an important complement to conservation efforts on private lands. While only approximately 8% of the state is in public ownership, these public lands serve critical ecological support functions. Many public agencies (e.g., Georgia DNR, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, National Park Service, U.S. Forest Service) have a specific mandate to conserve native wildlife species and their habitats. In addition, some public agencies whose primary mission is not wildlife conservation (e.g., U.S. Department of Defense) also manage ecologically significant lands containing high priority species and habitats. There is a
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need for all public land managing agencies to conduct thorough biological inventories of their properties and address wildlife conservation needs in an ecological landscape context. As impacts to natural communities from various land uses continue to mount, collaborative interagency efforts to restore and maintain natural habitats and populations of rare or declining species will be essential to the overall goal of maintaining biological diversity in Georgia. Biological inventory and management efforts conducted in cooperation with private conservation and research organizations will be increasingly important as well.
Chattahoochee-Oconee National Forest
The Chattahoochee-Oconee National Forest is a unit of federal land in Georgia that contains two proclaimed National Forests. The Chattahoochee National Forest includes approximately 639,000 acres in the Blue Ridge, 65,000 acres in the Ridge & Valley, and 46,000 acres in the upper Piedmont of Georgia. The Oconee National Forest includes approximately 115,000 acres in the Piedmont of east-central Georgia. The Oconee is administered as a Ranger District rather than as a separate National Forest. Management of the Chattahoochee-Oconee National Forest is based on a cooperative relationship between the many users of the forest, the scientific community, and the United States Forest Service.
A Revised Forest Plan was recently completed for the Chattahoochee-Oconee National Forest as part of the long-range planning framework established by national policy under the Resource Planning Act and the National Forest Management Act of 1976. These acts require each National Forest to have forest plans that guide management activities. The Forest Plan provides direction to assure coordination of multiple uses (outdoor recreation, range, timber, wildlife and fish, and wilderness) and sustained yield of products and services. This includes, but is not limited to, providing habitat to maintain viable populations of plants, fish, and wildlife native to the planning area and supporting desirable levels of selected species (e.g., species with special habitat needs, locally rare species, species commonly trapped/hunted, or species of special interest). Georgia DNR provided significant input into the Forest Plan with regard to management of flora and fauna on the Chattahoochee-Oconee National Forest. As part of the revision effort, habitat needs for more than 1,500 species were considered at a regional scale and management direction was developed to ensure their continued viability. It was the largest, most detailed, and most analytically rigorous planning effort of its kind ever undertaken within the Southern Region of the National Forest system.
The Endangered Species Act (ESA) mandates that federal agencies ensure that any action "authorized, funded, or carried out by such agency is not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of any endangered species or threatened species" or result in the destruction of critical habitat. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) was a valuable partner in helping develop goals for federally listed species on the Chattahoochee-Oconee National Forest. Habitat and wildlife management objectives and standards were also provided, and these recommendations were incorporated into the final plan. The USFWS concurred with the Forest Service's determination that effects in the Forest Plan Revision are "not likely to adversely affect" federally listed endangered or threatened species or their habitats.
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Highest Priority Conservation Actions
Highest priority conservation actions (actions ranked "Very High" or "High") that relate to wildlife conservation efforts on public lands are listed below. Information on lead organizations, partners, funding sources and other details for these and other recommended actions can be found in Appendix L.
Implement integrated natural resource management programs on state lands, emphasizing restoration and management of natural communities and rare species. Revise and update management plans for WMAs, natural areas, and other state lands as needed to address specific restoration objectives.
Survey state-owned lands (WMAs, natural areas, public fishing areas, state parks) for federal and state protected species and other species of concern, and incorporate conservation objectives for these species into management plans.
Implement integrated resource management on federal lands, emphasizing restoration and maintenance of natural communities and rare species. Work with federal agencies and other conservation organizations to facilitate enhancement of ecosystem functions and address regional conservation needs.
Assessments of High Priority Habitats and Species
Assessments of the status of high priority species and habitats represent important components of any wildlife conservation strategy. Several high priority research and survey projects relating to species or habitats within a given ecoregion or physiographic province have been mentioned in Section IV of this document. In addition to these projects, there are several highly ranked projects that are statewide in scope or include several ecoregions. These include priorities identified in recovery plans for federally listed species as well as other identified research needs. The highest priority conservation actions identified by the technical teams, Steering Committee, and other stakeholders that pertain to assessments of high priority habitats and species are found below. For more information, refer to Appendix L.
Highest Priority Conservation Actions
Conduct statewide assessments of aquatic communities to determine biotic integrity of streams. Expand biological survey efforts in high priority streams (e.g., Tennessee and Satilla basins).
Conduct statewide assessments of rare natural communities and habitats that support species of conservation concern. Assess the status and distribution of rare natural communities using a revised natural community classification system.
Conduct a statewide wetland mapping and assessment effort. Analyze wetland trends to determine the condition and vulnerability of wetlands in the state.
Monitor land use changes in Georgia to assess potential impacts on high priority species and habitats. Develop projections of future land use trends and resulting impacts on ecological systems.
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Assess the status of high priority bryophytes and graminoids in Georgia. Conduct surveys for rare plants known historically from Georgia.
Conduct aerial surveys for federally listed birds (bald eagle nesting surveys and wood stork nesting and roosting surveys).
Monitor populations of gray and southeastern bats in caves, and conduct surveys of rare forest-roosting bats.
Conduct mussel surveys of Broad River and prioritize other watersheds for mussel surveys (e.g., Flint, Satilla).
Conservation of High Priority Habitats and Species
Wildlife conservation efforts may be focused on protection or management of natural habitat, management of populations, or management of stressors to those populations and habitats. Several important wildlife conservation themes that span ecoregions or apply to the entire Georgia landscape are described below. Other priorities will be identified through periodic assessments of conservation needs based on the best available data.
Restoration and Management of Fire-Maintained Communities
Many of Georgia's rare or declining species depend on habitats that are maintained by fire. These habitats are declining in extent and condition due to fire suppression and/or lack of prescribed fires. Opportunities exist to improve our management of these firedependent communities. Among the impediments to wider application of prescribed fire programs are smoke management problems, restrictions on burning due to nonattainment of air quality standards in metropolitan areas, reluctance of landowners to use prescribed fire due to concerns about liability, lack of understanding of the role of fire in some natural environments, and a lack of technical expertise with regard to the application of prescribed fire in some sensitive habitats.
Several existing programs can provide assistance to landowners for prescribed burning; examples include Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP), Wildlife Habitat Incentive Program (WHIP), and Landowner Incentive Program (LIP). In addition, a group known as the Interagency Burn Team (IBT) has recently been formed to facilitate application of prescribed fire in Georgia.
To address the need for restoration of fire-maintained communities, WRD should continue to work with other agencies to share expertise and develop new methods for implementing prescribed fire in various Georgia habitats, encourage fire ecology research by public and private research institutions, and work with the Environmental Protection Division and the Southwest Georgia Prescribed Fire Council to provide reasonable burn windows in metropolitan counties. Fire-dependent habitats on all public lands should be identified and addressed in management plans, and additional fire training and equipment should be provided to managers of state parks and other facilities. Finally, financial and technical assistance and educational outreach efforts are needed to encourage restoration of fire-maintained communities on private lands.
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Interagency Burn Team (IBT)
Overseen by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, the IBT is a public-private cooperative of highly trained personnel who work throughout the state to conduct prescribed burns on lands that need fire to benefit rare species. The IBT is staffed from various organizations including the Georgia Department of Natural Resources Wildlife Resources and Parks, Recreation and Historic Sites divisions, the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, the Georgia Forestry Commission, the Georgia Chapter of The Nature Conservancy, the Natural Resources Conservation Service, and the Atlanta Botanical Garden.
Private lands that harbor rare species and are in close proximity to conservation lands are the targets for IBT activities. Each agency nominates sites and provides planning and a qualified burn boss for specific prescribed burns.
Burn crews must be certified with the NWCG (National Wildfire Coordinating Group). Funding for the project, which covers staff time and firebreak construction, is provided through the USFWS. When weather conditions are right, the nominating agency calls in the IBT to assist in the burning. The nominator is also responsible for monitoring the effects of the fire and the benefits to rare species.
A number of high priority habitats have benefited from this cooperative effort to date, including calcareous prairies, montane longleaf pine-hardwood forest, granite outcrops, and longleaf pine-scrub oak woodlands.
Protection and Maintenance of Healthy Vegetated Stream Buffers
Establishment and maintenance of vegetated riparian buffers is one of the most important and cost-effective conservation measures for protection of water quality and aquatic ecosystem health. Many of Georgia's streams suffer from insufficient stream buffers and are thus at risk of water quality impairment resulting from land-disturbing activities, introduction of toxic chemicals or excess nutrients, and thermal impacts from lack of shading. Establishment of substantial vegetated buffers is highly recommended for all high priority streams. Breaches of these stream buffers should be minimized through careful placement of roads, bridges, utility corridors, and livestock crossings. Access to streams by all-terrain vehicles and livestock should be limited to maintain water quality.
Strategies to protect and maintain healthy stream buffers include working with state and county road departments to improve placement and design of road turnouts, developing standards for stream corridor protection on public lands, and providing information on high priority streams to commercial and non-profit mitigation bankers to encourage restoration and enhancement of vegetated buffers. Other strategies include providing financial incentives to private landowners to fence livestock out of streams, working with local governments and developers to ensure protection of stream buffers when
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development plans are considered, and working with ATV manufacturers to develop and disseminate messages discouraging ATV use in and adjacent to streams.
Protection of Isolated Wetlands
Isolated wetlands comprise an important group of habitats for wildlife, including more than 45 Georgia species of conservation concern (Comer et al., 2005). Studies of the extent and condition of isolated wetlands indicate a consistent trend toward degradation and loss. A recent study of Carolina bays in Georgia indicated that the majority of the smaller bays showed evidence of hydrologic alterations or other forms of degradation (VandeGenachte and Cammack, 2002). Other examples of important isolated wetlands include solution pits on granite outcrops, shallow depressions in pine flatwoods, Grady ponds, limesink ponds, and sandhill ponds. Depression wetlands that have direct connections to groundwater may be significantly affected by excessive groundwater withdrawal to a point at which the hydroperiod is diminished or even eliminated. Other isolated wetlands have been impacted by introduction of predatory fish, excessive inputs of sediments or nutrients, ditching and draining, or conversion to agricultural uses.
It is more accurate to refer to these wetland systems as "geographically isolated" rather than hydrologically isolated, since research indicates that most of these systems are connected to streams or to other wetlands on a periodic basis, or are replenished by or discharge to underground aquifers (Comer et al., 2005). The level of protection for these wetlands under the federal Clean Water Act is currently being contested in the courts, as is the question of what constitutes a "significant nexus" or connection with jurisdictional waters of the U.S. Some provisions of the federal Food Security Act of 1985 provide financial disincentives for destruction of isolated wetlands. However, legal uncertainty over regulatory authority and agency jurisdiction, combined with the relative ease with which these wetlands can be degraded or obliterated provides a compelling case for increased emphasis on protection, restoration, and maintenance of a large number of each size class and habitat type. Georgia DNR and other organizations should identify and protect the most significant examples of these wetland habitats through fee-simple acquisition or conservation easements. In addition, programs providing financial and other incentives should be directed to private landowners to encourage the protection, restoration, and management of these important wetlands. Finally, permits for groundwater and surface water withdrawals should be administered with careful consideration of resulting impacts to these and other wetlands.
Protection of Headwater Streams
Headwater streams are found in the upper reaches of watersheds and may have flowing water for only a portion of the year. Headwater streams account for the majority of stream miles in a given watershed. Like isolated wetlands, these habitats are important for a wide variety of wildlife species, including several rare species of concern. These headwater systems are also important for maintenance of habitat quality in the higherorder perennial streams which they feed (Meyer et al 2003). Intermittent/ephemeral streams and associated seepage wetlands are often overlooked when streams and
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wetlands are mapped. In addition, they have received less research emphasis than perennial streams. In areas where development pressures are high or agricultural uses are prevalent, many of these habitats may be adversely affected by land disturbing activities.
Protection of headwater streams and associated wetlands is critical for protection of wildlife diversity and maintenance of water quality. Other states have found it useful to map stream networks with more precision than is provided by standard USGS topographic maps, and have found that a large percentage of small streams were either absent on these topographic maps, or were misclassified (e.g., streams shown as intermittent were actually perennial). Greater emphasis should be placed on accurate mapping and delineation of headwater streams (Ohio Environmental Protection Agency, 2002). In addition, more research attention should be focused on these relatively unknown habitats. The effects of groundwater and surface water withdrawals on headwater streams and associated wetlands should be considered, and the overall contribution of these systems to biological diversity in a given watershed should be investigated in greater detail.
Control of Exotic Species Populations
There are an estimated 50,000 nonnative species in the U.S., and the number is steadily increasing. Many of these nonnative species represent serious threats to agriculture, horticulture or forestry. Other nonnative species are more likely to impact natural communities and individual populations of native wildlife species. The long-term effects of nonnative species on native wildlife species are generally considered to be second only to direct habitat destruction or conversion. Approximately 42% of the species listed as Endangered or Threatened under the federal Endangered Species Act are significantly impacted by invasive exotic species. On a national basis, the economic losses and environmental damage caused by exotic species total approximately $120 billion per year (Pimentel et al., 2004). A recent survey of managers of 430 national wildlife refuges indicated that 80% of the refuges recognized problems with invasive exotic organisms. Refuge managers reported more than 790 invasive organisms, including 507 nonnative plants, 208 nonnative animals, and 76 plant and animal diseases (Simonson et al., 2004).
Invasive exotic species constitute a significant threat to Georgia's biological diversity. Many native species are declining due to increasing competition or habitat degradation from invasive exotic species. Feral hogs, red shiners, and flathead catfish are examples of animals that can cause serious impacts to natural communities and native species. A great number of exotic plants such as Nepal browntop, hydrilla, Chinese tallow tree, hydrilla water hyacinth, autumn olive, coastal bermudagrass, and Chinese privet also pose serious threats to Georgia's natural communities. An exotic forest pest in North Georgia, the hemlock wooly adelgid, is causing decline of hemlock populations and as a result, threatening adjacent aquatic systems with increases in water temperature. Problems with invasive exotic species have been documented on a number of public lands in Georgia, and control measures have been instituted on a modest scale.
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In recent years, several national organizations have begun to focus on the need to monitor populations and impacts of exotic species, and some notable efforts have been instituted regionally and in Georgia (e.g., Georgia Exotic Pest Plant Council, Aquatic Nuisance Species Task Force). However, there is currently little monitoring of exotic species populations or effectiveness of control measures. Given the serious economic and environmental impacts of invasive exotic species, more emphasis should be placed on assessment, control, and monitoring programs statewide.
Protection of Caves and Other Karst Environments
Caves, limesinks, sagponds, and springs represent some of the most sensitive natural habitats in Georgia. These karst environments harbor many of Georgia's rarest and most imperiled species, and are susceptible to impacts from a wide variety of human activities, from residential and commercial development to road and utility construction, excessive groundwater withdrawal, recreational activities, and altered water quality. Protection of caves and other karst environments is essential for maintenance of Georgia's biological diversity. Georgia's Cave Protection Act of 1977 (O.C.G.A. 12-4-140) provides for protection of caves, sinkholes, and speleothems (cave formations), prohibits the storage of hazardous materials and dumping of litter, garbage, or other materials in caves, and prohibits the harming, killing or removal of wildlife found within caves except by authorized personnel. It also provides protection against trespass and vandalism, and exempts landowners from liability for injuries sustained by individuals involved in recreational or scientific uses of caves.
There are more than 400 documented caves in Georgia, and the majority of these are located on private land. Established caving groups and experienced cave researchers respect the sensitivity of these habitats as well as the rights of property owners. However, some caves receive significant impacts from careless or unethical individuals. In addition, many of Georgia's caves are threatened by off-site land uses that result in inputs of sediments, excess nutrients, or toxins. Only a small percentage of Georgia's caves have received biological surveys. Additional survey efforts are needed to document the diversity of cave organisms in Georgia and to establish conservation priorities for individual caves. Abandoned mines and tunnels can also provide habitat for cave fauna and should be evaluated as well (Tuttle and Taylor, 1994).
Restoration or Reintroduction of Wildlife Populations
Based on the results of assessments by the CWCS technical teams, there are 41 high priority animals and 61 high priority plants for which the recommended conservation emphasis is restoration or reintroduction of populations. This is an important but often overlooked aspect of wildlife conservation. In some cases, a species has been nearly or completed extirpated from a region or state, but suitable habitat exists for reintroduction of the species. In other cases, the extirpation was accompanied by a loss of suitable habitat, so habitat restoration is the necessary first step.
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Examples of species for which restoration/reintroduction is a primary conservation emphasis include Florida torreya, bog turtle, smooth purple coneflower, shoals spiderlily, spotfin chub, robust redhorse, lake sturgeon, Altamaha spinymussel, and Tennessee heelsplitter. These species require special emphasis on habitat protection and maintenance, propagation of individuals, and reintroduction of these individuals into protected habitat. A special case involves extirpated populations of freshwater mussels. For these species, attention must be paid not only to restoration of suitable habitat, but also to management of fish species that serve as hosts to these mussels. In some cases, the host fish(es) may have been eliminated from the watershed, and must be reestablished in order to provide an opportunity for restoration of the mussel populations.
Highest Priority Conservation Actions
Specific conservation actions that relate to conservation of high priority habitats and species statewide or over several ecoregions include the following. Information on lead organizations, partners, funding sources and other details for these and other recommended conservation actions can be found in Appendix L.
Draft a comprehensive wetland protection strategy for Georgia. Identify conservation needs for various types of wetlands and highest priority sites or examples. Determine priorities for protection of wetlands based on condition, species composition, and ecological and economic benefits.
Control populations of feral hogs to conserve high priority habitats and species. Increase hunting pressure on public and private lands and implement trapping and shooting programs in especially sensitive areas (e.g., barrier island beaches).
Develop a comprehensive action plan to control exotic species on public and private lands. Increase public awareness of problems caused by invasive exotic species; reduce use of exotic plant species and increase use of native plants in erosion control and landscaping.
Encourage use of prescribed fire as a habitat management tool on private lands. Provide information and technical assistance to landowners to encourage appropriate use of prescribed fire as a management tool to enhance and maintain wildlife habitats.
Continue investigations of potential host fishes for imperiled freshwater mussels, including the Altamaha spinymussel and Altamaha arcmussel
Maintain a network of facilities (e.g., Atlanta Botanical Gardens, State Botanical Gardens, Coastal Plain Botanical Gardens) for propagation of rare plants and safeguarding of genetic resources.
Continue efforts to restore and enhance populations of red-cockaded woodpeckers through implementation of the Conservation Plan for demographically isolated RCW populations.
Implement restoration projects for diadromous fishes (e.g., shortnose sturgeon, Atlantic sturgeon, Alabama shad, American eel, striped bass)
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Lake Sturgeon Reintroduction Effort
There is evidence that the lake sturgeon once inhabited the Etowah, Oostanaula, and Coosa rivers within northwestern Georgia and northeastern Alabama. Historical photographs and interviews with anglers indicate that the lake sturgeon existed in the Coosa River system through the late 1960's. Pollution, over-harvest, and construction of the Weiss dam are thought to have contributed to extirpation of the species in Georgia.
The lake sturgeon reintroduction effort began in December 2002 and is slated to continue at least 20 years. The purpose is twofold: to establish a self-reproducing population capable of supporting a sport fishery, and to contribute to the overall conservation of the lake sturgeon in North America. Georgia DNR receives 40,000 eggs per year through a cooperative agreement with Wisconsin DNR. The eggs are hatched and the fingerlings grown out to four to six inches at the Summerville Fish Hatchery near Rome, Georgia. To date, 32,181 sturgeons have been released into the Coosa River system.
In the summer of 2003, anglers observed six lake sturgeons feeding along the concrete walls of Mayo's Lock and Dam in Rome. Additional sturgeons have since been observed or caught and released by anglers at various locations. In 2004, researchers from the University of Georgia's Warnell School of Forest Resources began tracking the sturgeon using implanted radio transmitters to study seasonal behavior and identify critical habitat for growth and survival. The fish are utilizing the lower Coosa, Etowah, and Oostanaula rivers as well as Lake Weiss in Alabama. Data from netting surveys conducted by state and university biologists indicates good survival and growth of the sturgeons, with individuals up to 30 inches being caught, measured, and released. This reintroduction effort is combined with an extensive public outreach effort aimed at improving public awareness of the need for lake sturgeon conservation (see following box).
Environmental Education and Public Outreach
The ability to manage and protect Georgia's wildlife depends upon an informed and engaged public. Many Georgians are unaware of the ecological and biological diversity in this state, the problems facing wildlife species and their habitats, and opportunities for involvement in programs or activities that will help protect this diversity. A concerted effort by many different organizations to provide accurate, relevant, and consistent conservation messages to diverse audiences is needed. Several different agencies and organizations have developed messages and materials that can contribute to a better public understanding of Georgia's wildlife diversity. However, there is a need to make this information available to a wider range of audiences. In addition, there is a need to tailor the messages and to make them more relevant to local or regional conditions.
The Environmental Education Technical Team report is found in Appendix E. In addition to the goals and objectives of the WRD Five-Year Education Plan, the Environmental Education Team objectives include plans to measure environmental literacy in Georgia, publish findings of the CWCS technical teams, promote targeted
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educational messages related to CWCS objectives, develop easy-to-use educational materials, establish a network of regional educators and community groups, and increase support for coordination of environmental education in Georgia. Other specific educational objectives were discussed at the regional stakeholder meetings.
The Georgia Department of Natural Resources recognizes that education and outreach are critical to increasing awareness about conservation issues and gaining public support and involvement to protect the state's natural resources for future generations. The agency has developed two strategic goals, sustaining our natural and cultural resources and building a conservation ethic, and is working with internal and external stakeholders to implement them.
In April 2005, DNR Commissioner Noel Holcomb assembled a group of educational organizations from across the state committed to conservation education, including Fernbank Museum of Natural History, Zoo Atlanta, Flint River Aquarium, Stone Mountain Authority, Environmental Education Alliance of Georgia, Georgia Public Broadcasting, and the University of Georgia College of Environment and Design. The group agreed that a united effort to educate citizens on natural resource issues was long overdue and requested that the Department of Natural Resources identify issues whereby these groups could work cooperatively to focus their efforts through educational programming, facility development and marketing over the next five years. Over the next few months, working groups will develop objectives and tasks for those organizations that want to participate in this cooperative education and outreach effort.
Highest Priority Conservation Actions
Highest priority conservation actions (actions ranked "Very High" or "High") that relate to improvement of environmental education and outreach include the following. Information on lead organizations, partners, funding sources and other details for these and other recommended actions can be found in Appendix L.
Assess the current level of environmental literacy among the general public in Georgia. Partner with a local university or independent research firm to develop survey questions that can be applied to assess the knowledge of Georgians on key environmental issues.
Create targeted messages related to the conservation of Georgia's natural resources. Applying the findings of the literacy study, develop and test educational messages focused on far-reaching concepts related to conservation of Georgia's natural resources.
Develop a coordinated statewide outreach and public relations campaign to increase public support for wildlife conservation.
Develop technical educational materials such as the Breeding Bird Atlas, updated booklets on protected species, and a revised natural community classification system for Georgia that will address educational needs for biology teachers, naturalists, land managers, and conservation groups.
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Develop "hands-on" educational materials to facilitate delivery of conservation messages to the public.
Establish a network of regional educators and community contacts to provide workshops and programs to introduce key conservation messages to target audiences.
Publish CWCS technical team findings. Compile, condense, and summarize technical team findings in a format that includes key educational messages that are relevant to the general public.
Lake Sturgeon Reintroduction Public Outreach Efforts Public outreach efforts for the lake sturgeon reintroduction effort include the following: Informational signs in English and Spanish at various locations along the Etowah,
Oostanaula, Coosa, and Coosawattee Rivers in Georgia, and Lake Weiss in Alabama Sturgeon ID cards and sighting report forms distributed to anglers by WRD Law
Enforcement and Fisheries Management personnel and local bait shops Press releases distributed to north Georgia media issued for each stocking event Fact sheets and PowerPoint presentations on lake sturgeon distributed statewide from
DNR educational facilities for use by teachers Presentations by WRD staff to civic, school, and sportsmen's groups. Use of live and fiberglass mounted sturgeon displays at various outdoor functions. Articles in regional and national publications; presentations on commercial radio
stations and regional cable TV. Involvement with third, fourth, and fifth graders from City of Calhoun and Armuchee
Elementary schools in stocking efforts. This includes meeting with classes before stocking, providing one-page information sheets that can be colored, providing references for teachers, providing photo CDs to classes following stocking, and displaying sturgeons at the regional WRD environmental education center near Rome.
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Increasing Capacity for Wildlife Conservation
The ability of any agency or organization to meet its objectives depends to a large extent on the availability of necessary resources (staff, funding, equipment, etc.). The various conservation objectives outlined in this document will require financial, technical and other resources well in excess of those available to the Georgia Department of Natural Resources and its conservation partners in 2005. For this reason, an assessment of actions related to increasing capacity for wildlife conservation in Georgia is warranted.
By participating in multi-state interagency conservation initiatives, Georgia DNR can help generate additional funding for high priority wildlife conservation projects. An example is the Southeastern Aquatic Resources Partnership (SARP), a 13-state regional aquatic conservation partnership involving state and federal agencies as well as nongovernmental organizations. SARP, which focuses on protection, conservation, and restoration of aquatic resources, is considered a regional component of the National Fish Habitat Initiative (NFHI), which began in 2004 under the auspices of the International Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies.
Regional conservation partnerships such as SARP are important for coordination of conservation efforts and development of greater capacity to address regional conservation needs. Other important approaches include development of in-state partnerships to share resources and expertise, reallocation of existing staff to address areas of greatest conservation need, and exploration and development of new funding sources.
Members of the technical teams and other stakeholders provided recommendations regarding improvements in staffing, funding, database development and use, and other issues. In addition, members of the Steering Committee developed a list of available habitat protection tools (Table 11) as well as a matrix of funding sources for habitat protection (Table 12). Listed below are the highest rated action items relating to development or augmentation of resources needed for conservation of Georgia's wildlife. See Appendix L for more details.
Highest Priority Conservation Actions
Establish a consistent source of funding for land protection to support wildlife conservation.
Improve capacity to work with corporate landowners to protect wildlife habitat; provide enhanced technical support through additional staff or contractors.
Increase availability and use of federal funds for land acquisition (fee-simple and conservation easements) and land management.
Increase regional focus for nongame wildlife conservation efforts. Increase and reallocate staff to take advantage of conservation opportunities in each ecoregion and major river basin and facilitate delivery of conservation programs.
Restore state funding to support WRD's nongame wildlife conservation efforts.
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Strengthen the network of support for wildlife conservation. Develop a stronger coalition of environmental organizations to communicate CWCS objectives and work for environmental improvements.
Improve biodiversity databases and increase data sharing with conservation partners. Establish formal data-sharing agreements with conservation partners.
Reducing Impacts from Development and Other Activities
Continued growth of Georgia's human population and associated loss or fragmentation of natural habitats will undoubtedly result in more impacts to native species. Of particular concern are habitat specialist species adapted to rare or sensitive habitats (e.g., cavedwelling organisms or granite outcrop plants). Every effort should be made to minimize impacts of development, recreation, and other activities on these organisms and their habitats. The highest rated conservation actions related to reduction or avoidance of impacts from development and other activities on high priority species and habitats are found below. See Appendix L. for more information.
Highest Priority Conservation Actions
Decrease the impact of poorly designed road crossings on fish passage. Work with FEMA, Georgia DOT, and county road departments to improve fish passage with bottomless culverts or free-span bridges.
Expand use of WRD biodiversity data for environmental review, public outreach, permitting, and development of site management plans to minimize impacts on rare species and sensitive habitats.
Reduce impacts of unpaved roads, parking lots, boat ramps, and camping areas on aquatic habitats.
Work with Georgia DOT and federal agencies to minimize impacts from highway construction and facilitate protection and mitigation of high priority habitats.
Facilitate training for and compliance with Best Management Practices for erosion and sedimentation control, stormwater runoff, and stream buffer protection (see Table 13).
Wildlife Laws and Regulations
State and federal laws pertaining to wildlife conservation are described in Appendix G. These laws provide mandates for state and/or federal agencies to protect natural resources for the benefit of society. These include regulations dealing with the conservation of rare species, natural areas, and specific natural habitats (e.g., caves, salt marshes, coastal dunes), regulation of take of game and nongame wildlife (e.g., hunting and fishing regulations, collecting permits), review and permitting of mining, dam construction, groundwater withdrawal, road construction, utility construction, and similar projects; adjustments to land valuation and taxation based on conservation easements; and laws relating to development of local or regional land use plans and greenspace protection plans. During the course of this planning effort assessments of existing laws, regulations, and policies were made in order to assess the effectiveness of regulatory efforts in
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conserving Georgia's wildlife diversity. Some species of wildlife are impacted by direct take or commercial harvest, both of which are regulated by state or federal law.
The intent of this assessment was to examine existing laws and regulations and to determine where opportunities to protect biological diversity could be improved by increasing public awareness of existing laws, promoting interagency cooperation in law enforcement, ensuring appropriate consideration of wildlife impacts in environmental review procedures, and utilizing information on rare species and natural communities to inform local or regional land use plans and greenspace protection plans. Several areas of recommended improvement were identified during this assessment. The highest priority items are listed below.
Highest Priority Conservation Actions
Highest priority conservation actions pertaining to the regulatory aspects of wildlife conservation are listed below. Information on lead organizations, partners, funding sources and other details for these and other recommended actions can be found in Appendix L.
Update the state-protected species list and work with partners to improve conservation and management of these species. Conduct a review of Georgia's protected species list at least once every five years and engage key partners to improve management programs for these species.
Enhance DNR Law Enforcement training and staffing to address nongame wildlife law enforcement needs. Provide additional training on laws and regulations established to protect nongame wildlife and additional staff resources to handle enforcement of nongame and protected species regulations.
Improve coordination of environmental review procedures within DNR to ensure that potential impacts to rare species and sensitive natural habitats are adequately addressed for all major projects.
Monitoring and Adaptive Management
One of the goals of this effort is development of plans to monitor high priority species and habitats as well as conservation actions for those elements of biodiversity. Monitoring programs are essential in order to assess the success of conservation programs and to facilitate adjustments in these programs to increase their efficacy; this ability to change management options based on an objective assessment of past efforts is known as adaptive management. The types of data needed for this conservation objective pertain to the quantity, distribution, and condition of habitats and populations.
Given the fact that monitoring is both time-consuming and relatively expensive in terms of labor costs, there is a need to place realistic limits on the number of species and habitats monitored. In addition, opportunities to use volunteer and "citizen scientist" groups should be explored. High priority species for monitoring programs will be those that are readily identifiable in discernible populations large enough to be measured or
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estimated consistently over time. For habitats, the situation is similar but more complex and problematic. Habitats do not conform to a standard taxonomy, and there are relatively few standardized methods for measuring habitat quality. The creation of comprehensive habitat monitoring programs requires participation by a variety of partners, both public and private (Illahee, 2005).
Database and website searches and a tally or registry of existing conservation actions are needed to establish baselines for monitoring. Many of the ongoing efforts by WRD and other major conservation partners have been documented. However, there are other efforts by local groups, partners in other state agencies, and private landowner groups that should be documented and acknowledged.
The approach taken in this planning effort has been to incorporate monitoring activities as components of each proposed conservation action (see Appendix L). Focal species and habitats are indicated, lead and partner organizations are identified, and funding sources are listed. In addition, the types of data that will be collected and the relevant performance indicators have been described or outlined in this table. More work is needed in order to develop detailed monitoring programs for each conservation action. However, it is apparent from the diverse array of high priority conservation actions identified in this document that monitoring will take place at a variety of geographic and ecological levels and will involve partnerships with a number of organizations.
In addition, the following specific strategies will be employed as appropriate to improve the monitoring aspects of this conservation strategy.
Create a state-level matrix of conservation actions undertaken by all major conservation partners and use this as a benchmark to document progress toward conservation goals identified in this strategy.
Include monitoring components and standards for conservation projects proposed for funding through the State Wildlife Grants program or other funding sources, and ensure that these include objective and measurable performance indicators.
Expand the historic vegetation mapping pilot project to develop maps showing historic vegetation types for a variety of public lands in each ecoregion, and use these maps to inform long-term management plans for these sites.
Establish easy to use vegetation monitoring programs to document and evaluate the effectiveness of habitat restoration projects on public lands.
Develop tracking databases and standard protocols for monitoring and assessing populations of invasive exotic species.
Use local Adopt-A-Stream groups to monitor biotic and abiotic conditions in high priority streams and watersheds, and make this information available to all conservation partners.
Expand the Breeding Bird Survey of Georgia to approximately 100 routes in order to obtain a more complete picture of the status of all land birds in Georgia.
Continue efforts to monitor land use changes statewide and in each ecoregion using Landsat Thematic Mapper imagery and ancillary data, and use this
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information together with projected population and development trends to assess current and future impacts on high priority habitats and species. Revise the natural community classification system for Georgia to make it more compatible with the NatureServe ecological systems and Georgia GAP land cover types, and use this as the standard for habitat mapping statewide. Utilize groups of trained volunteers (e.g., "Botanical Guardians") to monitor populations of rare plants on conservation lands. Continue efforts by the WRD Stream Survey Team to monitor streams statewide using Index of Biotic Integrity protocols. Work with other agencies and organizations (e.g., National Park Service, U.S. Geological Survey, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, The Nature Conservancy) to develop and refine monitoring protocols for species, habitats, and environmental variables. Utilize data from the Forest Inventory and Analysis program to assess trends in forest distribution and condition in Georgia.
Forest Inventory and Analysis Program
The Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) program is administered by the USDA Forest Service and coordinated by five regional USDA research stations. The Southern Research Station is responsible for maintaining inventories in 13 states, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. The FIA program provides the most comprehensive assessment of status and trends in forested lands in the United States. The Forest Service has conducted systematic inventories of U.S. forests since 1930. These inventories are based on field assessments and analysis of other data sources such as aerial photography. Past inventory cycles have ranged from six to eight years in the South and 11 to 18 years in the rest of the country. Within the last decade, the FIA program began a transition to an annual assessment of forested lands. The emergence of new technological improvements has enabled the FIA program to make a commitment to annual assessments of forestlands in every state.
To meet its mandated objectives, the FIA program relies on assistance from state forestry agencies. In Georgia, this assistance is provided by the Georgia Forestry Commission (GFC). Data sources used in the FIA program include permanent field plots, aerial photography, and satellite imagery. In the future, more emphasis will be placed on use of remotely sensed imagery to provide rapid and cost-effective assessments of forest conditions and trends. The information generated from FIA efforts will be made available for each state as well as for customizable areas of concern (e.g., counties, sub-state regions, and watersheds). The FIA program will be of increasing significance in the South, where land use changes and resultant loss of forestlands are most pronounced. The new annual inventory system will provide information needed to monitor the spatial dynamics of forested lands in Georgia and other states and will help address questions about the sustainability of forestry in the South.
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Public-Private Partnerships for Land Conservation
More than 90% of the land base of Georgia is in private ownership. Several programs that represent specific efforts to enlist and engage private landowners in wildlife conservation have been mentioned above. Like other wildlife agencies, WRD depends on support from private landowners to accomplish its mandated objectives. Georgia's wildlife cannot be conserved solely through the actions of public agencies, nor can fee simple land acquisition be the "silver bullet" in land conservation.
The Georgia Land Conservation Partnership Plan (Appendix I) outlines several areas in which public-private partnerships can be developed to achieve land conservation goals. This report focused on land conservation goals and potential mechanisms for protecting natural, cultural, recreational, and scenic resources. Among its recommendations were: the establishment of a revolving fund for protection of lands through fee simple acquisition or conservation easements; the creation of a public authority to purchase lands and resell them with easements; and a system of partnerships involving state agencies, private conservation organizations, local governments, and private landowners. This report also addressed the need for tax relief to protect rural properties from the impacts of residential and commercial sprawl and mentioned other relatively new approaches such as transferable development rights and carbon sequestration credits.
Other opportunities for public-private partnerships in conservation not addressed in the Georgia Land Conservation Partnership report include the use of general obligation bonds to fund certain types of private ventures to protect "working landscapes" (i.e., forestry or agricultural lands) for specific wildlife conservation goals (Dechter, 2003), state leases of private lands for public recreational access, and application of development fees to rural land protection through application of conservation easements or fee simple acquisition. In the field of rare species recovery, Safe Harbor Agreements and Habitat Conservation Plans provide flexibility as well as regulatory relief for private landowners cooperating with public wildlife agencies.
A new area that may provide opportunities for land conservation is the application of federal funds to protect lands adjacent to military bases from development using conservation easements; this can serve a dual purpose of maintaining base operational viability and protecting important wildlife habitat. State wildlife agencies in Georgia North Carolina, South Carolina, and Florida are currently working with U.S. Department of Defense installations to identify potential areas of common interest in land acquisition and uses. Similar programs may be available for lands adjacent to national parks and other public properties
The first piece of legislation to be approved by the 2005 session of Georgia General Assembly was the Georgia Land Conservation Act and on April 14, 2005, Governor Perdue signed into law this important piece of legislation. The bill enjoyed overwhelming public and legislative support and was generally lauded throughout the state. The intent of the Act is to provide funding options and a flexible administrative
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framework to conserve land resources, recognize the values of the State's natural and cultural resources, and promote land conservation partnerships.
Maintaining Georgia's Forest Lands
The success of any comprehensive wildlife conservation strategy will depend on the existence of healthy, well-managed forests. Presently, Georgia is blessed with nearly 24 million acres of forestland, 75% of which is owned by thousands of non-industrial private landowners. These landowners manage their forests for a variety of objectives, including timber production, recreation, wildlife habitat, aesthetics, or quite often for a combination of these.
Many factors will determine whether Georgia will continue to have an adequate, sustainable forested environment to support a diverse wildlife population. Landowners and state policymakers, those who are in a position to protect the state's forested land from conversion to nonforest uses, must have a long-term view when planning for land management and creating statutory and regulatory policy. Today, there are a number of disturbing trends which over time threaten to reduce the state's forestland and thus diminish the number, range and quality of wildlife habitats. Among these trends are the need for new markets for wood and fiber grown on private forestland, corporate divestiture of timber property, global competition, federal estate tax laws, urban and suburban sprawl and ad-valorem tax policy that taxes forest land on its `highest and best' use rather than its current use. The degree to which these trends are addressed will determine whether many landowners and tree farm families will keep their land in trees, sell them, or convert them to non-forest uses such as commercial developments.
While some of these factors are beyond the scope of the state's authority, others are not. For example, the state has the power to alter the property tax system in a way that encourages landowners to grow trees on their property. In fact, a key finding of the Governor's Advisory Council for the Georgia Land Conservation Partnership, highlighted in its August 2004 report to the Governor, is that "Existing ad valorem tax policy is a disincentive for maintaining and conserving farms and forestlands. The State should review and consider amending funding mechanisms for local governments and school boards that would permit consideration of the current use method of ad valorem taxation".
The Wildlife Resources Division of the Georgia Department of Natural Resources views this new state land conservation program as an important and timely component of the Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy that will aid significantly in its implementation. This Act directs some $100 million for land conservation efforts in the state of Georgia and makes available $45 million in state and private funding that can and will be used to match and leverage various federal wildlife conservation grants consistent with the strategies and priorities included in this document.
The changes that are occurring in the Georgia landscape as a result of population growth and increasing development pressures present daunting challenges to those involved in wildlife conservation. The trend of increasing fragmentation and degradation of natural habitats is likely to continue in the coming decades, driven by local, national, and global
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economic and demographic factors. Many scientists believe that the next fifty years will be a critical period in the struggle to protect our remaining biological resources. The following elements are critical for conservation of Georgia's natural heritage: (1) increased emphasis on field research focused on the identification and assessment of species, biotic communities, and ecosystems; (2) greater commitment of resources to identify and protect those habitats that contribute most significantly to biodiversity; (3) further development and funding of conservation programs that emphasize public-private partnerships for broad-scale conservation of "working landscapes"; (4) greater emphasis on land use planning to minimize impacts of future developments on natural habitats; and (5) increased collaboration between researchers and educators to heighten public awareness of the magnitude and significance of biodiversity decline in the state. The Department of Natural Resources will continue to work with a wide array of public agencies, private conservation organizations, research institutions, sportsmen's groups, educators, local governments, and landowners in the coming years to address these critical elements of wildlife conservation.
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Table 11. Habitat Protection Tools

Goal

Conservation Action

Type

Funding Source(s)

Lead Organization(s)

Partners

Protect High Fee simple acquisition- full Acquisition Priority Habitats value

* See Funding Matrix Land Conservation Council (GEFA & DNR), local gov'ts, TCF, TNC, TPL

GWF, TGC, local land trusts, ACCG, GMA

Protect High Fee simple acquisition Priority Habitats bargain sale

Acquisition

*See Funding Matrix Land Conservation Council (GEFA & DNR), local gov'ts, TCF, TNC, TPL

GWF, TGC, local land trusts, ACCG, GMA

Protect High Fee simple acquisition Priority Habitats donation

Acquisition N/A

Land Conservation Council (GEFA & DNR), local gov'ts, TCF, TNC, TPL

GWF, TGC, local land trusts, ACCG, GMA

Protect High Acquire/attach Priority Habitats easement/sell (loan fund)

Acquisition, *See Funding Matrix Land Conservation Council

Stewardship

(GEFA & DNR), local gov'ts,

TCF, TNC, TPL

GWF, TGC, local land trusts, ACCG, GMA

Protect High Conservation easements Priority Habitats donated

Acquisition, Stewardship

*See Funding Matrix (Need funds for admininistration and monitoring)

Land Conservation Council

TCF, TNC, TPL, GWF, TGC,

(GEFA & DNR), local govt's,

local land trusts

TCF, TNC, TPL, local land trusts

Protect High Conservation easements Priority Habitats purchased
Protect High Leasing land for Priority Habitats management, public
recreation

Acquisition, Stewardship
Financial Incentive

*See Funding Matrix *See Funding Matrix

Land Conservation Council

GWF, TGC, AFT

(GEFA & DNR), local gov'ts,TCF,

TNC, TPL, local land trusts, Ga.

Agricultural Land Trust

DNR, private landowners

TCF, TNC, TPL, GWF, TGC,

local land trusts

Protect High Conservation Use Valuation Financial Priority Habitats (tax incentive); revise rules Incentive
for acceptance

Protect High Carbon sequestration Priority Habitats

Financial Incentive

N/A

GFC, Ga. Dept. of Agriculture Ga. Dept. of Revenue

*See Funding Matrix DNR, GFC, Georgia Power

Private landowners, developers

Protect High Development of Best Priority Habitats Management Practices
(See Appendix L)

Technical Assistance

Protect High Outreach and technical Priority Habitats assistance to promote
protection tools

Technical Assistance

Protect High Local land use - Develop Priority Habitats comprehensive plans to
include land conservation
Protect High Transferable Development Priority Habitats Rights (TDRs)

Planning Planning

GFC, SSWCC

GSWCC, DNR, GFC, Ga. Dept. Private landowners, developers,

of Agriculture

local governments

State and federal funds

DNR, GFC, NRCS

Private landowners, developers, local governments

Local governments DCA

TGC, UGA, ACCG, GMA

*See Funding Matrix Land Conservation Council, local TGC, UGA, ACCG, GMA govt's

Protect High Conservation subdivisions Planning Priority Habitats

Protect High Agricultural districts Priority Habitats

Planning

*See Funding Matrix when conservation lands or easements are acquired
N/A

DCA, DNR
DCA, DNR, Ga. Dept. of Agriculture

TGC, UGA, ACCG, GMA TGC, UGA, ACCG, GMA

Protect High Buffer ordinances Priority Habitats

Regulation N/A

DCA, DNR

TGC, UGA, ACCG, GMA

Protect High Tree ordinances Priority Habitats
Protect High Wetland mitigation Priority Habitats

Regulation N/A

DCA, DNR

Regulation *See Funding Matrix DNR, GDOT

TGC, UGA, ACCG, GMA Army COE, TCF, TNC, TPL

190

Table 12. Habitat Protection Funding Matrix

Habitat Protection Funding Program
Georgia Land Conservation Act

Average Project Amount

Match Requirement Description/Focal habitats/Project type/Keywords

Funding Source

TBD

TBD

TBD

State of GA

Department of Defense Variable Legacy Management Program

None

DOD lands: land stewardship, management, monitoring, Range Readiness and sustainment, integrated natural resource management, regional ecosystem initiatives, national and international initiatives, invasive species, monitoring

DOD

Department. of Defense Variable Encroachment and Buffering Funds

None

Funds the acquisition of real estate interests that permanently prevents land uses detrimental to the continued viability of military bases

DOD

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Environmental Restoration Discretionary Funds

$65 million nationally in FY 2004

25-35% match

The Water Resources and Development Act (WRDA) USACE authorizes the Corps to study and implement largescale environmental restoration projects with Congressional approval. Sections include Corps funding for the: restoration of ecosystems degraded by prior Corps projects; restoration of aquatic ecosystems to improve environmental quality; and the protection, restoration, and creation of aquatic and related habitats related to dredge activity.

Five-Star Restoration Program
National Wetland Program Development Grant

$5-20K

Nonpoint Source Implementation Grants (319 Program)

Sustainable

$28-200K

Development Challenge

Grants

Water Quality Cooperative Agreements

Watershed Assistance Max $30K Grant

Joint Fire Science Program
Migratory Bird Conservation

$250,000 $20K - $70K

Native Plant Conservation
NOAA Partnership

$5k - $40K $10K - $75K

Wetlands and Private Lands Initiative

Pulling Together Initiative
Southern Company Longleaf Legacy Program

$10-100K, avg. $33K
$75K - $250K

2:1 25%
50%

Floodplains and riparian zones, forests, outreach, partnerships, restoration, wetlands, wildlife
Coastal waters, data analysis, education, enforcement/compliance, floodplains and riparian zones, forests, monitoring, nonpoint source control, outreach, planning, restoration, wetlands, wildlife
Drinking/source water, nonpoint source control, restoration

EPA EPA
EPA

20%

Drinking/source water, economic development, education, forests, partnerships, planning, pollution prevention, restoration, wetlands, wildlife

EPA

None None, but preferred

Best management practices, education, mining,

EPA

monitoring, nonpoint source control, planning, point

source control, pollution prevention, stormwater

management, wastewater

Drinking/source water, education, monitoring,

EPA

outreach, partnerships, planning, pollution prevention,

restoration

None, but preferred Wildland Fire, fuels fire behavior, prescribed burning JFSP

50%
50% 50% min. 2:1
50% 50%

Acquisition, restoration, and improved management NFWF of habitats, Education, research, and monitoring, partnerships

On the ground restoration, local community involvement, volunteers, pollinator conservation

NFW F

Restoration, partnerships, on the ground, watershed NFWF scale,

Education projects that conserve the nation's wetland NFWF resources, in particular habitat for wetland-dependant fish and wildlife.

Invasive, noxious weed control, management, and NFWF education

Reforestation, restoration, carbon sequestration, land NFWF acquisition, biodiversity improvement, thinning, burning, planting

191

Table 12. Habitat Protection Funding Matrix

Habitat Protection Funding Program
Southern Company Power of Flight

Average Project Amount

Match Requirement Description/Focal habitats/Project type/Keywords

Funding Source

$20-75K

50%

Research (bird habitat restoration and management; NFWF environmental education involving birds, particularly in urban areas; applied research with direct implications for management and conservation, and; nature tourism development.)

Southern Rivers

$10-100K, average 50%

Conservation, Southern $33K

Mussel Conservation, &

Imperiled Southeastern

Fish Management

Aquatic Invasive Species Research & Outreach Program

Coastal Service Center $50K to $500K (CSC) Integrated Ocean Observing Systems

None

Mussel, fish, imperiled species, rivers, restoration NFWF

Aquatic invasive species Estuaries, partners, monitoring

NOAA NOAA

Community Based Habitat Restoration Grants

$25k - $85K

50%

Stewardship, habitat conservation, grass roots

Coastal and Estuarine $36.7 nationally in None, but preferred Protection of coastal land and estuaries, especially

Land Conservation

FY 2003

land threatened by conversion

Program

National Estuarine

$50K to $3mil

Research Reserve Land

Acquisition and

Construction Program

30% on construction Land acquisition for NERRs, estuary, NERR grants and 50% on construction acquisition

NOAA NOAA NOAA

Conservation Innovation up to $75K Grants (CIG)

50%

Agriculture, water resources, soil, atmosphere, grazing land and forests, wildlife habitat

NRCS

Conservation Security Program (CSP)

Payments based on None three tier levels of management, up to $45K/year

Environmental Quality Incentive Program (EQIP)
Farm and Ranchland Protection Program

Set amount is

50%

offered per acre by

conservation

practice

Allocated to states 25% based on farmland protection plans submitted to NRCS

Conservation Reserve Program

A set $$ amount is 50% offered per acre by conservation practice,plus rental rates based on soils

Conservation Reserve $53.6 million Enhancement Program nationally in FY
2003.

25%

This program is a reward program to landowners that NRCS have historically practiced good stewardship on their agricultural lands and only in designated watersheds that are announced annually.
Agriculture, water resources, soil, grazing land and NRCS forests, wildlife habitat

Allows the USDA Commodity Credit Corporation

NRCS

(CCC) to cooperate with State, Tribal, and local

governments to acquire conservation easements or

other interests in prime, unique, or other productive

soil to limit conversion of this land to nonagricultural

uses.

Provides annual rental payments and cost-share

FSA

assistance to establish long-term vegetative cover to

improve water quality, control erosion and enhance

wildlife

Allows the USDA Commodity Credit Corporation to FSA enter into agreements with States to use the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) to costeffectively further specific conservation and environmental objectives of that State and the nation. CREP targets Federal and State resources to specific geographic regions of particular environmental sensitivity over a 10- to 15-year period.

192

Table 12. Habitat Protection Funding Matrix

Habitat Protection Funding Program
Grassland Reserve Program

Average Project Amount

Match Requirement Description/Focal habitats/Project type/Keywords

Funding Source

$254 million

25%

nationally in FY

2004; Individual

application through

local NRCS

The Grassland Reserve Program makes available NRCS $254 million for the enrollment of up to 2 million acres of grasslands, forbs, or shrublands in contracts, Easements, and restoration agreements to protect against landscape fragmentation.

Wetlands Reserve Program (WRP)

Program pays

0-25%

roughly $2,000/acre

for qualifying land

Wetlands, easements, restoration

NRCS

Wildlife Habitat Incentive $5K unless a

Program (WHIP)

wetland project

Ecological Biology

Up to 500K

Ecosystem Science

Up to 500K

Strategic Environmental $500,000 Research and Development Program

25%

Plant habitats, longleaf pine systems, endangered NRCS species, riparian buffers, upland hardwoods, wetlands

none

Research

NSF

none

Research

NSF

None, but preferred Endangered species, military lands stewardship, compliance, and remediation

SERDP

Forest Legacy Program TBD; $3 million 25% available statewide FY06

Forest Stewardship Program

($830k state-wide in FY04)

Forestland

Funding

Enhancement Program significantly cut

FY05

25%

Forestry Research

Avg. $35K; Range $2K-300K

Tripartite Timber Sale Variable Exchanges

State and Tribal Wildlife $57 million

50%

grants

distributed to states

in FY 2003; Funds

allocated to states

by formula

Dingell-Johnson/Wallop- $275 million

25%

Breaux Sportfish

nationally in FY

Restoration

2003; funds

allocated to states

based on land and

water area and

licensed fishermen

Cooperative Endangered Species Conservation Fund/Section 6
National Coastal Wetlands Conservation Grants

Variable $75,000 to $1 mil

25% 50%

North American Wetland $50,001 to $1mil Conservation Act Standard Grants

50%

Partners for Fish and Wildlife Program

Up to $25,000/project renewable

50%

Land acquisition; easements

USFS through GFC

Education and information, prepare management plans. For non-industrial private forest lands.
On-site management of private forest lands

USFS USFS

Research (basic and applied e.g. fire, wildlife, fish, USFS water, watershed, ecology, management, protection)
USFS
Supports state fish and wildlife agency programs to USFWS benefit wildlife and habitat; may be to purchase state interests in lands

Funds sport fish restoration, boating access, and USFWS other projects that improve sport fishing opportunities and riparian, riverine, limnetic, or coastal habitat.

Endangered species, acquisition, stewardship, planning
Wetlands, acquisition

USFW S USFW S

Wetlands, acquisition, restoration, enhancement

USFW S

Restoration, private lands, wetland hydrology, planting, aquatic habitats, prescribed burning

USFW S

193

Table 12. Habitat Protection Funding Matrix

Habitat Protection Funding Program

Average Project Amount

Match Requirement Description/Focal habitats/Project type/Keywords

Funding Source

Pittman-Robertson Wildlife Restoration Program

$179 million in FY 2003; allocated to states based on land area and licensed hunters

25%

Land acquisition, wildlife surveys/inventories, research, wildlife management

USFW S

Hazard Mitigation grant Variable program

Transportation Equity $648 million

Act for the 21st Century nationally in FY

(TEA21 Transportation 2003; allocated to

Enhancements)

states based on

10% of surface

transportation

spending plus

Congressional

earmarks.

25%

Federal funds help acquire land and structures

located in frequently flooded areas thus ending the

repeated federal payment of flood hazard insurance

Previously none Generally for mitigation of highway construction

required, generally impacts and scenic easements

25% or more

encouraged and 20%

may be required

FEMA FHW A

Transportation Equity $50 million

20%

Act for the 21st Century nationally in FY

(TEA21 Recreational 2003; allocated to

Trails)

states, half by equal

shares and half by

off-road vehicle use

Safe Harbor Agreement Approx. $15 million none ?

funds

nationally?

For purchase of land for trails; trail construction, education

FHW A

Provides funds to landowners who enter into formal USFWS safe harbor agreements designed to protect federally listed threatened and endangered species on their land

Habitat Conservation Plan Implementation grants

Avg. grant size $4- 25-50% 600K, up to $1 million on a competitive basis.

Land and Water

Variable

Conservation funds

(federal and state-level)

50% if not line item appropriation

Provides funds for the implementation of formally approved Habitat Conservation Plans

USFW S

To fund land acquisition for addition to national parks, Congressional forests, and wildlife refuges as well as state and local appropriations public land

Private Stewardship Grant Program

Variable

Bobwhite Quail Initiative Variable

10% none

Wetland and stream mitigation

Variable; currently $2.9 million in Georgia Wetland Trust Fund

variable

Carbon sequestration Variable

none ?

Land Exchange

Variable

comparable value

Private Funding

Variable

variable

Stewardship, endangered species, private land

USFW S

Provides financial and technical assistance for

State funds

enhancement of habitat on private lands for northern

bobwhite and associated species

Restoration, enhancement, preservation of wetlands Army Corps,

and streams

FHWA, GDOT,

Georgia

Wetland Trust

Fund

Reduction of atmospheric carbon dioxide through sequestration in growing plants

Provides protection for high priority habitats by exchange of land for property of comparable value

Private foundations and individual donors often provide critical funding for protection of high priority habitats.

Blank Foundation, Turner Foundation, W oodruff Foundation, Doris Duke Foundation

194

Table 13. Required Best Management Practices

Goal

Conservation Action

Type

Ongoing or

Focal

Proposed Species/Habitats

Ecoregion(s) (SA-RV, BR, PD, SP, SCP,
All)

Watershed (HUC8)

Funding Source(s)

Lead

Organization(s)

Partners

Function

Measure of Success

Protect High Required BMP:

Regulation - O.C.G.A. ongoing Aquatic and

All

All

Priority Habitats Stormwater runoff control 12-7-1 and R&R 391-

Terrestrial species

from construction sites; 3-6-.16 and R&R 391-

Erosion and

3-6-.22 and NPDES

Sedimentation Control General Permits

GAR100001 thru

100003 and Land

Disturbance Activity

Permit.

Land Disturbing activity fee (O.C.G.A. 12-523(a)5 and R&R 391-3-6-.22)

Site developers disturbing land greater than or equal to 1 acre, local Gvts, local Gvts issuing authorities, GSWCC, EPD.

Developers, property Reduce runoff pollution from

BMPs meet hydraulic design

owners,

construction sites. Control soil erosion specifications contained in the

neighborhood/watershed and the movement of sediments into "Manual for Erosion and Sediment

associations

state waters or onto state land from Control in Georgia ." If

practices in land clearing, soil

specifications are not met,

movement, and construction activities. discharge from the site where land-

disturbance must not increase in

turbidity more than 25 NTU for

warm water streams and 10 NTU

for cold water (trout) streams or the

individual is in violation of the law

(O.C.G.A. 12-7-6)

Protect High Required Training on

Regulation - O.C.G.A. ongoing All

Priority Habitats BMPs: Erosion and

12-7-19 and Land

Sedimentation Control Disturbance Activity

Permit

All

All

Protect High Required BMP:

Regulation - R&R ongoing Aquatic and

All

All

Priority Habitats Stormwater runoff control 391-3-6-.16, NPDES

Terrestrial species

for industrial sites

General Permit No.

GAR000000

Protect High Required BMP:

Regulation - R&R ongoing Aquatic and

All

All

Priority Habitats Stormwater runoff control 391-3-6-.16, NPDES

Terrestrial species

for municipalities.

General Permit No.

GAG610000, and

NPDES Permits

GAS000101 Thru

GAS000144, and

NPDES Permits

GAS000200 thru

GAS000212.

Protect High Required BMP: 25ft.

Regulation - O.C.G.A. ongoing Aquatic and

All

All

Priority Habitats Stream Buffer protection 12-7-6.b.(15)

Terrestrial species

Land Disturbing activity fee (O.C.G.A. 12-523(a)5 and R&R 391-3-6-.22)

Site developers disturbing land greater than or equal to 1 acre, local Gvts, local Gvts issuing authorities, GSWCC, EPD.

All persons involved in land development design, review, permitting, monitoring, or inspection

Education all persons involved in any land-disturbing activity about laws, requirements, processes, and latest means and methods used to control erosion and sedimentation of state land and water.

Industries operating under specific SIC codes and/or activities listed in the Permit.

Reduce runoff pollution from industrial Development and implementation of

areas.

a Stormwater Pollution Prevention

Plan.

In some areas, work EPD and Local

is funded by a

Gvts. Large,

stormwater utility medium, and small

municipalities.

ARC

Reduce runoff pollution from

Development and enforcement of

commercial, industrial, and residential stormwater management programs

areas and to control illegal or improper that include adoption of ordinances

discharges to municipal sewer

and public education activities.

systems.

Submittial of annual progress

reports to EPD.

EPD

Developers, property Protect water quality and aquatic

owners,

habitat and maintain a natural canopy

neighborhood/watershed to shade the stream bed

associations

No land-disturbing activities conducted within 25 horizontal feet of the wrested vegetation of the stream.

Protect High Required BMP: 50ft.

Regulation - O.C.G.A. ongoing

Priority Habitats Stream buffer protection 12-7-6.b.(16)

Protect High Required BMPs: Priority Habitats Metropolitan North
Georgia Water Management District Requirements

Regulation - O.C.G.A. ongoing 12-5-571 et sec

Aquatic and Terrestrial species

BR, PD, SA-RV Watersheds with cold-water trout streams

EPD

Developers, property Protect water quality and aquatic

owners,

habitat and maintain a natural canopy

neighborhood/watershed to shade the stream bed to maitain

associations

designation as a "trout stream"

No land-disturbing activities conducted within 50 horizontal feet of the wrested vegetation of the stream.

Aquatic and

PD

terrestrial

Chattahoochee, Etowah, Flint, Ocmulgee, Oconee, Tallapoosa

State and Federal funds, Local gvt. Fees

Metropolitan North Georgia Water Planning District, ARC, EPD

16-counties in Metro Atlanta Region

Protect water quality in and downstream of the region, protect recreational values of the waters in and downstream of the region, and minimize potential adverse impacts of development on waters in and downstream of the region.

Implementation of plans and adoption of 1) model ordinances 2) stormwater control BMPs (See Watershed Management Plan, Water Supply and Water Conservation Plan, Long-Term Wastewater Management Plan, at www.northgeorgiawater.org)

195

VI. Procedures for CWCS Review and Revision
The Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy outlined in the preceding sections reflects an assessment of wildlife conservation needs and recommended programs to address those needs based on data available in 2003-2005. This picture of the conservation needs of Georgia's species and habitats may change based on the result of additional surveys, results of monitoring efforts associated with management efforts, or new trends in land uses. In addition, the development of new analytical techniques, funding programs, or legislative mandates may result in a need to reassess some of the conservation priorities described in this document. The essence of adaptive management is the ability to change priorities and approaches in respond to new information and/or changing conditions.
The intent of the Wildlife Resources Division is to begin the process of reviewing the current wildlife conservation strategy within the next five years, and to adopt revisions to the strategy as deemed necessary based on this review. In order to do this, we propose to reconvene the technical teams and Steering Committee to assess and address changing conservation needs for species and habitats in Georgia. The procedure for this review is outlined below:
1) Compile updated information on the current status of high priority plants and animals, as well as their associated habitats
2) Revise lists of high priority species based on updated information on status, condition, and distribution
3) Review conservation actions proposed and implemented during the preceding five years and assess the effectiveness of these actions
4) Reassess problems affecting high priority species and habitats as well as research and survey needs
5) Reevaluate education and outreach needs 6) Develop revised strategies for high priority species and habitats based on
reassessments of conservation needs and opportunities 7) Compile and summarize proposed strategies and submit these to the Steering
Committee for review and approval 8) Conduct stakeholder meetings as directed by Steering Committee 9) Solicit public input via the WRD website and public meetings 10) Complete revision of conservation strategy and begin implementation
This review process will begin five years following the completion of this version of the strategy (i.e., October 2010), and the various assessments will be completed within one year. The revision of the strategy will be completed within two years of the start of this assessment (October 2012). In addition, informal annual assessments will be undertaken to assess changes in funding levels, laws and regulations, successes and failures in species recovery efforts, and new research findings in order to determine what changes, if any, are warranted in implementation of this wildlife conservation strategy.
196

Acronyms and Abbreviations Used in This Document

AAS ACCG ACOE AFT ATV BMP BQI BR CCRP CP CPGL CRD CRP CREP CSP CU CUVA CWCS DCA DNR DOD EEA ECP EPA EPD EQIP ESA FEMA FWHA FLEP FLP FRPP FSA FSP FWP GEFA GEPI GDNR GDOT GFA GFC GIS GMA GMNH

Adopt-A-Stream Association County Commissioners of Georgia Army Corps of Engineers American Farmland Trust All-terrain vehicle Best Management Practice Bobwhite Quail Initiative Blue Ridge Continuous Conservation Reserve Program Coastal Plain Conservation of Private Grazing Lands Coastal Resources Division Conservation Reserve Program Conservation Reserve Enhancement Program Conservation Security Program Cumberland Plateau Current Use Valuation of Conservation Use Property Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy Department of Community Affairs Department of Natural Resources U.S. Department of Defense Environmental Education Alliance of Georgia Emergency Conservation Program Environmental Protection Agency Environmental Protection Division Environmental Quality Incentives Program Endangered Species Act Federal Emergency Management Agency Federal Highway Administration Forest Land Enhancement Program Forest Legacy Program Farm and Ranch Lands Protection Program Farm Services Agency Forest Stewardship Program Forestry for Wildlife Partnership Georgia Environmental Facilities Authority Georgia Environmental Policy Institute Georgia Department of Natural Resources Georgia Department of Transportation Georgia Forestry Association Georgia Forestry Commission Geographic Information System Georgia Municipal Association Georgia Museum of Natural History

197

GNHP GOS GPC GRP GSWCC GWF HCP HUC IAFWA IBI IBT JFSP LCP LIP MEAG NARSAL NESPAL NFHI NFWF NGO NMFS NNL NPS NOAA NRCS NWCG NWF NWNHS ORV P2AD PARC PD PFW PIF PRHS RC&D RCW RV SARP SA-RV SCCI SCP SERDP SFI SINERR SP

Georgia Natural Heritage Program Georgia Ornithological Society Georgia Power Company Grassland Reserve Program Georgia Soil & Water Conservation Commission Georgia Wildlife Federation Habitat Conservation Plan Hydrologic Unit Code International Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies Index of Biotic Integrity Interagency Burn Team Joint Fire Science Program Lower Coastal Plain Landowner Incentive Program Municipal Electric Authority of Georgia Natural Resources Spatial Analysis Laboratory National Environmentally Sound Agricultural Laboratory National Fish Habitat Initiative National Fish and Wildlife Foundation Nongovernmental organization National Marine Fisheries Service National Natural Landmark National Park Service National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Natural Resources Conservation Service National Wildfire Coordinating Group National Wildlife Federation Nongame Wildlife & Natural Heritage Section Off-road vehicle Pollution Prevention Assistance Division Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Conservation Piedmont Partners for Fish and Wildlife Partners in Flight Parks, Recreation, and Historic Sites Division Resource Conservation and Development Council Red-cockaded woodpecker Ridge and Valley Southeast Aquatic Resources Partnership Southwestern Appalachians/Ridge and Valley Southeastern Cave Conservancy, Inc. Southern Coastal Plain Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program Sustainable Forestry Initiative Sapelo Island National Estuarine Research Reserve Southeastern Plains

198

TCF TGC TDR TMDL TNARI TNC TPL UGA UCP USACE USDA USFS USGS USFWS WHIP WINGS WMA WRD WRP WSFR

The Conservation Fund The Georgia Conservancy Transferable Development Rights Total Maximum Daily Load Tennessee Aquarium Research Institute The Nature Conservancy Trust for Public Land University of Georgia Upper Coastal Plain U.S. Army Corps of Engineers U.S. Department of Agriculture U.S. Forest Service U.S. Geological Survey U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Wildlife Habitat Incentives Program Wildlife Incentives for Nongame and Game Species Wildlife Management Area Wildlife Resources Division Wetlands Reserve Program Warnell School of Forest Resources

199

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