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N ONGAME-ENDANGERED WILDLIFE PROGRAM GEORGIA DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES WILDLIFE RESOURCES DMSION NONGAME WILDLIFE-NATURAL HERITAGE SECTION

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Nongame-Endangered Wildlife Program

P

Nongame wildlife refers to species of wildlife that are not hunted, fished or trapped

P Nongame wildlife comprises over 95% of all wildlife species in Georgia, with over 969
species of vertebrates, over 20,000 species of insects and 3,600 species of plants

The Nongame-Endangered Wildlife Program is charged with conserving, managing and protecting endangered and other nongame wildlife in Georgia

The Nongame-Endangered Wildlife Program was created through legislation in 1985 and was designed to operate on voluntary contributions

The Nongame-Endangered Wildlife Program receives no state appropriation and relies heavily on public support to continue its critical wildlife conservation and education outreach projects
Over $1,000,000 must be raised each year through private contributions to fund wildlife conservation projects such as bald eagle restoration, manatee tracking, reptile surveys, migratory bird plans, shorebird conservation and wildlife habitat management

The State Income Tax Checkoff, once the primary source of funding for the Nongame Program, has declined drastically in recent years, dropping from $500,000 in 1992 to $189,000 in 1995, a drop of 62%

The Wildlife Conservation License Plate has provided more than $9.6 million for the Nongame-Endangered Wildlife Program's conservation projects throughout Georgia, but a stable, long-term funding mechanism is still sought.

Georgia Department of Natural Resources Wildlife Resources Division
Nongame Wildlife-Natural Heritage Section
Nongame-Endangered Wildlife Program
Protected Animals of Georgia An information manual on animals designated by the State of Georgia as
endangered, threatened, rare or unusual
Project Coordinators
James c. Ozier
Jeanne 1. Bohannon Jennifer 1. Anderson
Technical Editors Terry W. Johnson
James c. Ozier
Jeanne 1. Bohannon John B. Jensen Chris Skelton
Range Map Editors Gregory A. Krakow Chris G. Canalos
Species Account Authors Dr. Byron J. Freeman Michael J. Harris John B. Jensen
James c. Ozier
Dr. Jerry A. Payne Todd M. Schneider Emily J0 Williams
Bradford Winn Barb Zoodsma
Artists
J. B. Burch
Michael Frick David Lanier Richard Parks Chris Skelton Jennifer Smith
1999

Georgia Department of Natural Resources Lonice C. Barrett, Commissioner
Wildlife Resources Division David Waller, Director
Nongame Wildlife-Natural Heritage Section Michael J. Harris, Chief
Nongame-Endangered Wildlife Program TerryW. Johnson, Manager
Copyright (c) 1999 by the State of Georgia All rights reserved.
Primary funding for this publication was provided through proceeds of the Wildlife License Plate and contributions to the "Give Wildlife A Chance"
State Income Tax Checkoff and the Weekend for Wildlife benefit. Additional funding was provided by
The Environmental Resources Network (TERN), Inc., the friends group of the
Nongame-Endangered Wildlife Program.
The opinions expressed in this book are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the policies of the Georgia Department of Natural Resources.
The Georgia Department of Natural Resources is an equal opportunity agency, offering all persons the benefits of participating in each of its programs and competing in all areas of employment regardless of race, color,
religion, sex, national origin, age, handicap or other non-merit factors. Anyone subject to discrimination on the basis of disability may call or write
the Division's Americans with Disabilities Act Coordinator, Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Wildlife Resources Division, 2070 U.S.
Highway 278, SE, Social Circle, GA 30279, (770)918-6400.
See our World Wide Web site at: http:\\www.dnr.state.ga.us

Acknowledgments

2

Introduction

3

Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3

Clemmys muhlenbergii (BogTurtle)

71

Dermochelys coriacea (Leatherback Sea Turtle)

73

Drymarchon corais couperi (Eastern Indigo Snake)

75

Eretmochelys imbricata (Hawksbill Sea Turtle)

77

Gopherus polyphemus (Gopher Tortoise)

79

Graptemys barbouri (Barbour's Map Turtle)

81

Graptemys geographica (Common Map Turtle)

83

Graptemys pulchra (Alabama Map Turtle)

85

Lepidochelys kempii (Kemp's Ridley Sea Turtle)

87

Macroclemys temminckii (Alligator Snapping Turtle)

89

Management of Species

Amphibians

of Conservation Concern

5

Ambystoma cingulatum (Flatwoods Salamander)

92

Amphiuma pholeter (One-toed Amphiuma)

94

Aneides aeneus(Green Salamander)

96

Format

8

Cryptobranchus alleganiensis (Hellbender)

98

Haideotriton wallacei (Georgia Blind Salamander)

100

Notophthalmus perstriatus (Striped Newt)

102

Species accounts arranged alphabetically

Plethodon petraeus (Pigeon Mountain Salamander) 104

within class by genus

Fishes

Mammals

Acipenser brevirostrum (Shortnose Sturgeon)

107

Corynorhinus rafinesquii (Rafinesque's Big-eared Bat) 11

Alosa alabamae (Alabama Shad)

109

Eubalaena glacialis (Northern Right Whale)

13

Ameiurus serracanthus (Spotted Bullhead)

111

Felis concolor coryi (Florida Panther)

15

Cyprinella caerulea (Blue Shiner)

113

Felis concolor couguar (Eastern Cougar)

17

Cyprinella callitaenia (Bluestripe Shiner)

115

Megaptera novaeangliae (Humpback Whale)

19

Cyprinella gibbsi (Tallapoosa Shiner)

117

Myotis grisescens (Gray Bat)

21

Cyprinella xaenura (Altamaha Shiner)

119

Myotis sodalis (Indiana Bat)

23

Enneacanthus chaetodon (Blackbanded Sunfish)

12 1

Neofiber alIeni (Round-tailed Muskrat)

25

Erimystax insignis (Blotched Chub)

123

Sylvilagus obscurus (transitionalis)

Etheostoma brevirostrum (Holiday Darter)

125

(Appalachian Cottontail)

27

Etheostoma chlorobranchium (Greenfin Darter)

127

Trichechus manatus (West Indian Manatee)

29

Etheostoma chuckwachatte (Lipstick Darter)

128

Etheostoma ditrema (Coldwater Darter)

13 0

Birds

Etheostoma duryi (Black Darter)

132

Aimophila aestivalis (Bachman's Sparrow)

32

Etheostoma etowahae (Etowah Darter)

133

Campephilus principalis (Ivory-billed Woodpecker)

34

Etheostoma parvipinne (Goldstripe Darter)

135

Charadrius melodus (Piping Plover)

36

Etheostoma scotti (Cherokee Darter)

136

Charadrius wilsonia (Wilson's Plover)

38

Etheostoma tallapoosae (Tallapoosa Darter)

138

Corvus corax (Common Raven)

40

Etheostoma trisella (Trispot Darter)

14 0

Dendroica kirtlandii (Kirtland's Warbler)

42

Etheostoma vulneratum (Wounded Darter)

142

Elanoides forficatus (Swallow-tailed Kite)

.4 4

Fundulus auroguttatus (Banded Topminnow)

143

Falco peregrinus (Peregrine Falcon)

46

Fundulus bifax (Stippled Studfish)

144

Haematopus palliatus (American Oystercatcher)

48

Fundulus catenatus (Northern Studfish)

146

Haliaeetus leucocephalus (Bald Eagle)

50

Hemitremia flammea (Flame Chub)

148

Mycteria americana (Wood Stork)

52

Hybopsis amblops (Bigeye Chub)

15 0

Picoides borealis (Red-cockaded Woodpecker)

54

Ichthyomyzon bdellium (Ohio Lamprey)

151

Sterna antillarum (Least Tern)

56

Lucania goodei (Bluefin Killifish)

15 3

Sterna niloiica (Gull-billed Tern)

58

Lythrurus bellus (Pretty Shiner)

155

Thryomanes bewickii (Bewick's Wren)

60

Micropterus notius (Suwannee Bass)

15 7

Vermivora bachmanii (Bachman's Warbler)

62

Moxostoma carinatum (River Redhorse)

15 9

Moxostoma robustum (Robust Redhorse)

161

Reptiles

Notropis ariommus (popeye Shiner)

163

Caretta caretta (Loggerhead Sea Turtle)

65

Notropis harperi (Redeye Chub)

165

Chelonia mydas (Green Sea Turtle)

67

Notropis hypsilepis (Highscale Shiner)

166

Clemmys guttata (Spotted Turtle)

69

Notropis photogenis (Silver Shiner)

168

1

Notropis scepticus (Sandbar Shiner)

1 70

Noturus eleutherus (Mountain Madtom)

1 71

Noturus funebris (BlackMadtom)

1 73

Noturus munitus (Frecklebelly Madtom)

1 75

Noturus nocturnus (Freckled Madtom)

1 77

Percina antesella (Amber Darter)

179

Percina aurantiaca (Tangerine Darter)

181

Percina aurolineata (Goldline Darter)

182

Percina jenkinsi (Conasauga Logperch)

184

Percina lenticula (Freckled Darter)

186

Percina sciera (Dusky Darter)

188

Percina shumardi (River Darter)

189

Percina sp. d. macrocephala (Muscadine Darter)

1 91

Percina squamata (Olive Darter)

193

Percina tanasi (Snail Darter)

194

Phenacobius crassilabrum (Fatlips Minnow)

196

Phenacobius uranops (Stargazing Minnow)

1 98

Pteronotropis euryzonus (Broadstripe Shiner)

200

Pteronotropis welaka (Bluenose Shiner)

201

Typhlichthys subterraneus (Southern Cavefish)

202

Invertebrates

Amblema neislerii (Fat Threeridge)

204

Elliptoideus sloatianus (Purple Bankclimber)

206

Epioblasma metastriata (Upland Combshell)

208

Epioblasma othcaloogensis (Southern Acornshell)

21 0

Fusconaia masoni (Atlantic Pigtoe)

212

Lampsilis altilis (Finelined Pocketbook)

214

Lampsilis subangulata (Shinyrayed Pocketbook)

216

Medionidus acutissimus (Alabama Moccasinshell)

2 18

Medionidus parvulus (Coosa Moccasinshell)

220

Medionidus penicillatus (Gulf Moccasinshell)

222

Medionidus simpsonianus (Ochlockonee Moccasinshell). 224

Pleurobema decisum (Southern Clubshell)

226

Pleurobema georgianum (Southern Pigtoe)

228

Pleurobema perovatum (Ovate Clubshell)

230

Pleurobema pyriforme (Oval Pigtoe)

232

Ptychobranchus greeni (Triangular Kidneyshell)

234

This book is the product of combined input from numerous contributors, many of whose names do not appear on the opening page. We are deeply grateful to these individuals for assisting with range maps, life histories and proofreading. We are particularly grateful to the University of Georgia's Museum of Natural History for providing species occurrence information to augment our own records.
For occurrence, description and life history information on specific species, we wish to thank Jayne Brim Box,Bob Butler, Dr. Ken Fahey, Dr. Mary Freeman, Michelle LaRue, Liz McGhee, Robert Moulis, S. Gordon Rogers, Chris Skelton, Dirk Stevenson, Paul Sykes, Holly Weyers, Jim Williams, and the late Dr. Joshua Laerm. For early research and structural develo?~ent of the Guide, we are grateful to Glenn Bryant. In addition, a number of individuals provided valuable assis~ance ~o us by reviewing species accounts or proof-reading, mcludmg Dr. Jon Ambrose, Tip Hon, VicVan Sant, Noel Holcomb, John Biagi, Kim Primmer, Jeff Durniak, Gary Beisser, Larry Bryan, Andrea Blount and Phil Spivey.
A ~nal word of thanks goes to J.B. Burch, for allowing us to use hIS mussel artwork and to wildlife artists David Lanier, Jennifer Smith, Mike Frick and Richard Parks for illustrating the species featured in this publication; to Nongame-Endangered Wildlife Program administrative staff Michelle McLaurin, Donna Prince, and Kim Walton; and to graphic designer Cameron Watson of NightSky Studio for always making us look good.

Appendices Official Rules for Protected Species Map of Georgia Map of River Basins Protected Animal Nomination Form Glossary

23 7 242 243 244 245
2

The Wildlife Resources Division of the Georgia Department of Natural Resources receives numerous requests for information about Georgia's protected wildlife. From school children and scout leaders to corporate land managers and farmers, the audience varies widely.
In an effort to meet this demand for information, the wildlife biology and information staff of the NongameEndangered Wildlife Program, with help from colleagues within the Division and in the academic and conservation community, have produced Protected Animals of Georgia. This book provides information on the 117 species of animals protected in Georgia by the provisions of the Endangered WildlifeAct of 1973, in addition to general information on protected species conservation policy and practice.
Protected Animals of Georgia is not an exhaustive report, as the knowledge base on these species is continually expanding. Nevertheless, it is a unique source of collective information on the Georgia species determined to be most in need of conservation attention.
So that the book might be useful to the widest possible audience, we have tried throughout to provide a non-technical explanation when we have used technical jargon. Because simplification of a description has been impossible for some species or could result in misidentification, a glossary is included (pages 245-247).
Comments on factual errors or omissions, and any other suggestions -vmajor or minor --are welcomed and may be used at a later date to create a"new and improved"version. We will be grateful if the reader will provide us with additional information about populations of the animals in this book. Every bit of knowledge we can gain about the most critically imperiled of our native animals will help us to do a better job of managing them, for their own sake and for the enjoyment and benefit of Georgians today and in the future.
Until the 1960s, most legislation governing the take of wildlife in this country was directed toward game species to prevent over-harvest. Notable exceptions include the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918, which provides protection to native songbirds, waterfowl, shorebirds, wading birds and raptors, and the Bald Eagle Protection Act of 1940, which was modified to protect golden eagles as well. During the 1960s, Rachel Carson (Silent Spring, 1962) and others helped draw public attention to widespread environmental problems, including the fact that many species of wildlife were declining and disappearing. Public concern stimulated the formation of laws designed to address environmental problems. In 1966, Congress passed the Endangered Species Preservation Act. This was amended into the Endangered Species Conservation Act of 1969, then finally further developed into the landmark Endangered Species Act (ESA) of 1973.

In developing and passing the ESA, Congress found that"various species of fish, wildlife and plants in the United States have been rendered extinct as a consequence of economic growth and development untempered by adequate concern and conservation; other species of fish, wildlife, and plants have been so depleted in numbers that they are in danger of or threatened with extinction,"and that these species are of "esthetic, ecological, educational, historical, recreational, and scientific value to the Nation and its people."
Congress also declared that the purposes of the ESA are "to provide a means whereby the ecosystems upon which endangered species and threatened species depend may be conserved," and"to provide a program for the conservation of such endangered species and threatened species." An important aspect of the ESA is that it provides for financial cooperation with state agencies that develop and implement conservation programs for endangered and threatened species.
Traditionally, most state wildlife agency efforts were focused on game species and had been, and continue to be, funded largely by hunting and fishing license revenues and by assistance through the Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act of 1937 (the"Pittman-Robertson Act") and the Federal Aid in Sport Fish Restoration Act of 1950 (the"DingellJohnson Act"). These acts provide funding to state wildlife programs through excise taxes on hunting and fishing equipment, respectively. Under this system, hunters and anglers actually pay for most state wildlife management programs, which logically are, in tum, targeted mostly at species of interest to sportsmen and sportswomen. Section 6 of the ESA provided a new means by which endangered species conservation programs could be funded through federal costsharing with states which established cooperative agreements with the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service or National Marine Fisheries Service. Accordingly, in 1973 Georgia passed the Endangered Wildlife Act and the Wildflower Preservation Act to establish conservation programs for endangered animals and plants, respectively.
The Endangered Wildlife Act directed the Department of Natural Resources to identify and inventory any species of animal life within the state that it determined to be rare, unusual or in danger of extinction, and to designate these as "protected species" that would become subject to the protection of the Act. The protected species list includes any federally listed species that occur in Georgia. Compilation of the preliminary protected species list involved personal contact with about 175 noted experts as well as an intensive literature review. This culminated with a conference at Fernbank Science Center in Atlanta in May of 1974, during which 39 registered participants considered the merits of those species on the preliminary list, and then recommended that 41 taxa of vertebrates and freshwater mussels and snails, along with all whales and dolphins known to occur in Georgia waters, be listed as" endangered," 23 taxa of vertebrates and freshwater mussels and snails be listed as

3

"threatened," and 83 taxa of vertebrates be listed as "rare or unusual." The recommended list was comprised of 20 freshwater mussels and snails, 29 fishes, 28 amphibians, 28 reptiles, 23 birds and 19 mammals, plus all whales and dolphins known to occur in Georgia waters. Additionally, 11 fishes, 10 birds and 11 mammals were designated as"status undetermined"because there was insufficient information available to support their listing.
DNR staff further refined the list proposed at the Fernbank conference, and in 1976 a rule listing 19 animals determined to be endangered, threatened, rare, or unusual, and in need of protection under the Endangered Wildlife Act, was officiallyadopted by the Board of Natural Resources (391-4-10). On this list were the American alligator, Kemp's ridley sea turtle, hawksbill sea turtle, leatherback sea turtle, Georgia blind salamander, eastern brown pelican, southern bald eagle, American peregrine falcon, ivory-billed woodpecker, red-cockaded woodpecker, shortnose sturgeon, southern cavefish, Indiana bat, humpback whale, right whale, eastern cougar, West Indian manatee, Sherman's pocket gopher and colonial pocket gopher. In 1977, the eastern indigo snake, Kirtland's warbler, Bachman's warbler and gray bat were added to bring the state list into line with the federallist. Also in 1977, DNR published Georgia's Protected Wildlife, prepared by Ron R. Odom, Jerry 1. McCollum, Mary Anne Neville and David R. Ettman. This book gave description, life history, distribution, status and other information, including color plates of some, for each of the 23 animals (2 fishes, 1 amphibian, 5 reptiles, 7 birds and 8 mammals) on the list at that time. In 1984, the alligator was removed from the state list, though it remained listed federally as"threatened by similarity of appearance" with other crocodilians. The colonial pocket gopher was also removed at that time because it had been determined not to be a distinct species.
Though there were no official amendments to the rule during the next few years, several federally listed species were added to the protected species list. Such additions included the loggerhead sea turtle (which had actually been federally listed since 1978); snail darter (federally listed in 1975, but not discovered in Georgia until 1980); wood stork (federally listed in 1984); and amber darter, Conasauga logperch and piping plover (all federally listed in 1985).
In 1991, a major revision of the state protected list was initiated. Again, input was sought from authorities in pertinent fields of expertise, and in April a conference was convened at Gordon College in Barnesville. Many additional species were proposed for listing. After further refinement by DNR staff, a revised list containing 111 species was submitted to and approved by the Board of Natural Resources in October, 1992. Sherman's pocket gopher, which had been determined to be extinct if indeed it was a distinct species, and the brown pelican, which was no longer considered to be in need of listing, were dropped from the list. In 1998, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service listed 6 mussels (fat threeridge, shinyrayed pocketbook, Gulf moccasinshell, Ochlockonee moccasinshell, oval pigtoe and purple bankclimber) from the

Chattahoochee, Flint and Ochlockonee river systems, and these have since been added to the state list, bringing the total number of listed species to 117.
Georgia's protected species list contains some animals that probably no longer exist in this state, or perhaps anywhere else, but their removal from the list might be premature. Examples include the ivory-billed woodpecker, Bachman's warbler, Florida panther and eastern cougar. Other species that remain on the federal list were omitted because they were apparently extirpated from Georgia long ago. Examples include the American burying beetle, yellowfin madtom, spotfin chub and red wolf.
It is important to remember that other Georgia laws provide additional wildlife protection by regulating disturbance of certain habitat, setting hunting seasons and bag limits and otherwise regulating the take and possession of wildlife. In fact, all native mammals, fish, reptiles, amphibians and birds enjoy some level of protection in Georgia with the exception of the following, which, unless otherwise protected, may be taken by any method except those specifically prohibited by law or regulation: rats, mice, coyotes, armadillos, groundhogs, beavers, freshwater turtles, venomous snakes, frogs, spring lizards, fiddler crabs, freshwater crayfish, freshwater mussels and nutria. Also, English (house) sparrows, European starlings and rock doves (pigeons) are unprotected.
"Rats and mice" are defined to be exotic species belonging to the family Muridae and native species belonging to the genera Peromyscus, Sigmodon, Oryzomys and Reithrodontomys. Georgia species fitting this definition are three exotics -the house mouse, Norway rat, and black rat -and the native white-footed mouse, deer mouse, cotton mouse, oldfield mouse, cotton rat, marsh rice rat, and eastern harvest mouse. None of these are otherwise protected.
In addition to the gopher tortoise, six freshwater turtles -spotted, bog, Barbour's map, common map, Alabama map, and alligator snapping -are on the protected species list and are thus otherwise protected. The term "spring lizards" is not legally defined, but generally refers to dusky salamanders. It is unlikely that any of the salamanders on the protected species list would be taken for fish bait as "spring lizards." Sixteen species of freshwater mussels are on the protected species list and are thus otherwise protected. Additionally, DNR regulates the minimum size, season and method of take of freshwater mussels.

4

wood forests and clean streams, springs, bogs and other aquatic systems. In many cases, proper habitat management simply entails protecting healthy, intact sites from alteration. At other times, habitat management must involve an active approach, whether it be in the form of prescribed fire to simulate the effects of natural fire events that maintain habitat in a suitable condition, the restoration of a natural community through planting of native vegetation, or the restoration of a wetland system by removal of devices that promote excessive drainage. Before any management plan can be developed and implemented, all possible relevant information must be gathered. This involves surveys to determine where each species of concern and its habitat still survive, monitoring to determine the status of the populations and research to determine particular management needs.
POPULATION MANAGEMENT TECHNI.QUES
Captive Propagation When populations reach critically low levels, captive
breeding programs are sometimes used in an attempt to ensure maximum production of offspring and protect the health of breeding adults. Pedigree charts allow maximum genetic benefits to be achieved as well. The eventual goal is usually to release animals back into the wild and restore viable populations at multiple sites if conditions are suitable.
Translocation This tool is used to restore populations to areas
where they have been drastically reduced or eliminated. It can also be used to increase genetic diversity of small populations or subpopulations. Sociological implications must often be taken into consideration, especially when controversial species, such as large predators or those that might significantly impact private land management, are involved.
Veterinary Care When populations become so low in number that
the survival of each individual is crucial, preventive or remedial medical treatment can be administered to wild or captive animals. This has been used with panthers in southern Florida.
Competitor and Predator Control The survival of members of small populations can be
enhanced through direct reduction in numbers of other species which negatively impact survival. In some cases, the competitors and predators are introduced exotics to which the native species is not adapted.
HABITAT MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES
\ Most habitat management involves the simulation of natural conditions and events that once yielded a suitable environment for a species or group of species. Simulating such conditions that once were maintained over a vast land-

scape can be difficult on even the largest of present-day managed areas. For instance, fires once burned over many square miles, continuing until stopped by weather or an impassable geographic feature, such as a bottomland. However, fires used in habitat management must be carefully controlled to minimize risks, including smoke-influenced air quality and visibility, to surrounding lands.
Prescribed Fire Lightning has been igniting fires in the environment,
particularly during the growing season, since the beginning of time. In order to persist in areas that typically burned every few years during the springtime, plant and animal species had to adapt. Adaptations to such a fire regime allowed these species to out-compete others that were susceptible to fire, as long as the fires continued to exert their influence. Many Native American peoples observed how the environment rejuvenated after being burned and used fire to enhance their living conditions and improve forage for game.
Although fire is probably the most valuable habitat management tool, it can be difficult to use. Careful prescriptions must be followed to minimize risks to life and property. Detailed consideration must be given to wind speed and direction, temperature, humidity, and other atmospheric conditions, as well as fuel load, fuel moisture, topography and the surrounding land uses. Heavy fuel accumulation because of lack of prior fire can lead to a fire that is too hot and therefore kills even fire-adapted trees such as pines. Low humidity and fuel moisture can result in a fire that is too hot. Changes in wind speed or direction can steer a fire out of control and onto areas not intended to be burned. This can be especially dangerous if the fire moves onto the property of a neighboring landowner. Smoke must also be carefully managed. Conditions which cause smoke to rise and drift away from urban and suburban areas and roads must be present. A landowner conducting a prescribed burn might be liable for smoke-related problems such as poor highway visibility.
Habitat Augmentation Critical components of habitat that are in short sup-
ply, and thus probably a population limiting factor, can be provided. Artificial cavities constructed for red -cockaded woodpeckers are a good example.
Habitat Security The best way to ensure the long-term availability of
habitat is to place it under some form of permanent protection to prevent degradation or destruction. This can be done through property acquisition by a natural resources agency or organization or by establishment of a conservation easement. Protection, though not always permanent, can also be obtained through various conservation agreements or memoranda of understanding. "Protection" does not necessarily imply the absence of active management; it refers to protection from Incompatible management practices. Manipulation

6

will often be necessary to maintain habitat in a suitable condition.
Habitat Restoration Planting native vegetation, prescribed burning, over-
story thinning, control of exotic species, re-establishment of natural hydroperiod and several other techniques can be used to restore degraded habitat to a suitable condition. This is often a slow process because the complete realm of biotic diversity cannot be directly replaced; it must come back on its own if nearby sources exist.
MANAGEMENT EXAMPLES
Longleaf Pine/Wiregrass Community This natural system once covered much of the
southeastern Coastal Plain, but it has mostly been reduced to relict fragments through conversion to urban areas, agriculture and intensively managed pine plantations, usually of off-site pine species. In a natural state, the sparse overstory consists of varying ages of longleaf pines, the oldest ones often having survived hundreds of years. There is very little midstory because hardwoods are fire-suppressed and pine regeneration is infrequent. The groundcover is dominated by wiregrass but also contains hundreds of other species of grasses and forbs. Most of these species are intolerant of severe soil disturbance and do not readily recolonize land, such as fields and pastures, which has been cleared and converted to other vegetational cover. Frequent fires maintain this system in a sub-climax state. Without fire, the plant community succeeds to hardwood or mixed forest with a midstory and a much less diverse groundcover. Animals of concern found in this type of habitat include Bachman's sparrow, red-cockaded woodpecker, gopher tortoise, indigo snake, flatwoods salamander and striped newt. Management of this habitat type must include frequent fire. Since so much of this valuable habitat type has been lost, restoration of the natural vegetation is being attempted at many sites.
Sandhills Deep, well-drained ridges of almost pure sand are
found along parts of the Piedmont/Coastal Plain interface, along the eastern edge of several rivers and streams in the Upper Coastal Plain, and at other scattered Coastal Plain locations. These sites are viewed by some as unproductive wastelands because trees and crops grow poorly there. However, sandhills provide habitat for several species of plants and animals adapted for life under harsh conditions. Longleaf pine, turkey oak and other scrub oaks are the principal overstory components. The groundcover can contain wiregrass and other grasses, numerous small shrubs and a variety of forbs including several that are state-listed because of their rarity. Gopher tortoises do well at these sites, and their burrows are especially important because they provide the major sources of shelter for many species of animals. Many sandhill locations have been altered by mining, urban-

ization and other development, as well as attempts to establish timber plantations. Remaining intact sandhills need to be maintained, and attempts should be made to restore .publicly owned altered sites. Although areas of bare soil are common and fuel accumulation is slow because of low productivity, these communities are adapted to periodic fires.
Streams Freshwater systems often develop unique biotic
assemblages because the habitat is isolated from other systems. A great diversity of fishes, mussels, crayfishes, snails, insects and other animals are native to Georgia's streams. However, some of these species have disappeared, and many others are in danger of extinction. Rivers and streams have been degraded by impoundment that alters flow, increases the rate of siltation, raises water temperature and blocks movements of organisms. Water quality has declined as a result of agricultural and livestock runoff, urban runoff, municipal and industrial waste discharge, chemical spills and other sources of point and non-point source contamination. Deforestation of riparian zones decreases the amount of instream structural habitat and causes elevated water temperatures through increased insolation. Benthic habitat quality has declined because of siltation resulting from erosion at sites of road and building construction and timber harvest. Dredging as well as sand and gravel mining also contribute to siltation. Effective stream management entails correction of the numerous factors contributing to the problem. Problems can be very difficult to correct because a particular reach of stream is affected by anything that takes place in the upstream watershed. Erosion and sedimentation laws, forestry Best Management Practices (BMPs) and federal Farm Billprograms are intended to encourage better management of riparian areas; the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers has a permitting process designed to regulate many activities that impact wetlands and waterways.
Caves Organisms that live in caves are highly adapted to
such static environments, and particular species are often found in only a few caves. Some species, such as the Georgia blind salamander and the southern cavefish, live their entire lives in water far underground. Others, such as the gray bat and Indiana bat, need caves meeting stringent criteria of temperature and humidity for roosting and/or hibernating, but these species also use habitat outside caves. The Pigeon Mountain salamander is often found in the entrance zones of the few caves within its range, but it is also found in rock crevices external to caves. Cave habitats and their occupants are vulnerable to irresponsible visitation, vandalism, commercialization, inundation, closure, erosion and siltation, water pollution and changes in hydrology basically anything that alters the otherwise very stable cave environment. Although gating of entrances can protect caves from many disturbance-related problems, improper gate design can impair animal movements and reduce airflow

7

such that temperature and humidity are affected. Maintenance of forests around cave entrances and forested corridors leading to foraging sites are particularly important for gray bats. While irresponsible visitation can be a problem, most experienced cave explorers follow an appropriate code of ethics and are very conservation-minded.

OTHER MANAGEMENT

'

Public Education Public enlightenment is important in gaining sup-
port for environmental programs that are subject to the political process and in encouraging citizens to become active conservationists. Most school systems have some kind of environmental education program that includes an introduction to threatened and endangered species.

Legal Status The State Status is the official status given to the
species under the state Endangered WildlifeAct of 1973. Species are listed as endangered, threatened, rare or unusual. The Federal Status is the official status given to the species under the federal Endangered Species Act of 1973; species are listed as endangered or threatened.
ENDANGERED:
(statelfederal) A species which is in danger of extinction throughout all or part of its range.
THREATENED:
(state/federal) A species which is likely to become an endangered species in the foreseeable future throughout all or parts of its range.

Legislation and Enforcement Federal and state endangered wildlife laws give
some degree of protection to certain species of wildlife and habitats, but they are often politically unpopular because necessary habitat protection can be incompatible with other property uses. These laws can also be difficult to enforce because violations typically occur far from any witnesses. Although state endangered wildlife laws are typically somewhat less protective than the ESA, they bring much-needed attention to additional species of local conservation concern.
Every animal that is protected in Georgia under the provisions of the Georgia Endangered WildlifeAct is provided with an individual species account. The individual species accounts are organized into sections, as follows.
Scientific Name This is the distinct designated binomial Latin name
for each species and is used by scientists around the world. The genus is given first and is capitalized. Next comes the lower case descriptive species designation, sometimes followed by a subspecific designation as well. A genus can, and usually does, contain several related species. Scientific names represent the best taxonomic determination that scientists can make using the available information. Some are constantly changing as additional information is gathered and used to revise taxonomic classifications. For example, a single species might be split into multiple species, or multiple species might be combined under a single species name.
Common Name This is the most widely accepted English name for
each species. Common names can be confusing because sometimes the same name is used for different species, and different names are used for the same species. However, common names are the most widely used and easily recognized terminology for most of the public.

RARE:
(state) A species which may not be endangered or threatened but which should be protected because of its scarcity.
UNUSUAL:
(state) A species which has special or unique features that entitle it to special consideration to ensure its continued survival.
THREATENED DUE TO SIMILARITY OF ApPEARANCE:
(federal) A species which is protected because it is very similar in appearance to a listed species. This status is for law enforcement purposes to facilitate protection of fully listed species that might be difficult to distinguish from otherwise unlisted species.
Other Commonly Used Name(s) This section provides alternative common names
used for the species, if any are known by the authors.
Description This section gives measurements, coloration, and
other descriptive criteria.
Range and Habitat This section describes the geographic area where the
species occurs, and the particular habitat types utilized within that range.
Diet This section lists known food items.
Life History
This section describes aspects of each species' biology, such as reproduction, foraging, and social behavior.

8

Threats!Comments This section describes factors that contribute to the
population status of each species. Conservation and Management Recommendations
This section describes activities that are being done or need to be done to benefit the species' population status. County Distribution Maps
A county outline map displays the best available knowledge about where a species occurs or historically occurred. Shading is used to denote general ranges, sometimes seasonal, and dots are used to denote counties with documented occurrences or important habitat, such as nesting areas, within specific counties. The specific information contained within each map is described in the map's heading. Illustration
A line illustration depicts the general appearance of each animal, but might not provide sufficient detail to distinguish some species from other very similar species. Selected References
This section lists some additional sources of information for each species.
9

Organisms have prospered under suitable environmental conditions and declined under less suitable circumstances since the origin of life. As evidenced by fossil remains, many species became extinct long before humans were present to witness their existence. However, in recent decades the human population, along with our need for space and other resources, has grown tremendously. Likewise, technological advancements have given us the power to more vastly impact our surroundings. As a result, the rate of extinction has multiplied several fold, and many more species are declining toward that apparent end. Probably the most critical task facing conservationists is to find ways to halt the disappearance of species and ensure the survival of the remaining elements of our biodiversity through techniques that are compatible with necessary, but truly wise, utilization of our natural resources.
Some might ask,"Why should we attempt to preserve the existence of species that provide no obvious benefits to people?" To those who reason primarily within the realm of short-term direct gain, there might not be a satisfactory answer. It is possibly true that many threatened and endangered species could disappear from the earth overnight with hardly any tangible negative impact to the human population. On the other hand, it is possible that some species could prove to be sources of life-saving drugs or provide genes to improve domestic species upon which we depend. Also, declining species can serve as indicators of serious and far-reaching ecological problems that might grow to impact populations of many other species, including humans, in the same way. Declining species might also prove to be necessary components in complex networks that affect the survival of many other species, again including humans. This is particularly true of insects that are crucial components of ecological foundations supporting complex food webs. For example, specific insects serve as sole pollinators for some species of plants. The network of life can be compared to a jet airliner, with each species representing one of the small parts that function together to make the whole. The plane might lose a rivet or two, or several, and continue to fly normally. However, the loss of any particular rivet or other seemingly non-crucial part could render the machine nonfunctional and send it plummeting.
Most Americans have indicated they think saving rare species is important, but the reasons are mostly intangible. Those who believe in good stewardship or a responsible land ethic believe it is our duty as beings-in-charge to ensure that we do not abuse our responsibility, that we do not squander the natural heritage placed in our care. We should all feel obliged to strive for wise management of the earth's resources, including its diverse healthy ecosystems, so they can be handed down to the next generation none the worse for wear. Imagine what a different world we would be living in if previous generations had practiced this philosophy.

Passenger pigeons might still fill the skies and provide food and sport. Mussels might still thrive in streams throughout the state flowing with clean, drinkable water. Indeed, there would likely be little need for this book.
Animal species included in this book are of special conservation concern because their populations are at risk of disappearing completely from Georgia or from the entire earth. This risk is evidenced by small and/or significantly declining populations, and/or very restricted geographical ranges of remaining suitable or naturally occupied habitat. Some species occur naturally in only a very small geographic area, or in a few scattered examples of unique suitable habitat. This is especially true of many aquatic organisms that are restricted to specific habitat types in portions of particular drainages, and of species requiring caves, rock outcrops, bogs and other specific, restricted habitat types. Others were once relatively widespread and numerous but have declined along with the destruction or alteration of most of their habitat and are now found only at remnant suitable sites that also are vulnerable, such as natural longleaf pine forests. Scattered remnant sub-populations in highly fragmented habitat can become demographically isolated such that there is no longer interaction with other distant sub-populations. Any population that is small and localized is vulnerable to catastrophic events such as severe storms, chemical spills or any other action that significantly impacts occupied habitat. Small, isolated populations are also prone to the effects of inbreeding and genetic drift, which can reduce population health and vigor and lead to extirpation.
Many of our rare species are in trouble because they have very specific habitat requirements and are unable to adapt to habitat changes. Specific habitats might be linked to a combination of soil type, vegetational community and structure, hydrology, elevation, temperature, latitude, water quality, isolation from human activities and other factors. Competition from introduced exotic species can also be a problem. Inversely, many of our more common species are opportunistic and able to thrive in a variety of habitats, including those that have been altered through agriculture, forestry and development for other human purposes.
Some rare species have suffered deliberate persecution or thoughtless overharvest. Eagles, panthers and other predators were once shot, trapped or poisoned, to protect domestic animals and game; government bounties encouraged participation in these activities. Whaling fleets decimated populations of our largest mammals. Aggravated by loss of vast hardwood forest habitat, passenger pigeons were harvested to the point of no return. Many wading birds were heavily exploited because their feathers were once popular adornments for ladies' hats. Protection and new fashions allowed populations of most wading birds to rebound..
Management for rare species ranges from intensive manipulation of individuals and populations to passive protection of suitable habitat relicts. Sensitive habitats that often support unique biological assemblages include caves, sandhills, rock outcrops, natural pine forests, mature hard-

5

10

State Status: Rare Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): Eastern big-eared bat, southeastern big-eared bat, eastern lump-nosed bat

Description: The dorsal hair of Rafinesque's big-eared bat is brownish-gray in appearance. Individual hairs are dark brown to blackish at the base and pale reddish to brownish at the tips. The belly fur is whitish. The ears are very large, often exceeding 25 mm (1 in) in length, and there are two distinctive side-by-side humps on the snout. The total length is 85-105 mm (3.3-4 in), the forearm length is 38-45 mm (1.5-1.8 in), the wingspread is 26-30 cm (10-12 in), and the weight is 8-13 g (0.25-0.5 oz). Females are somewhat heavier than males. This species has also been known as Corynorhinus macrotis and Plecotus rafinesquii.

Range and Habitat: This secretive bat ranges widely throughout the southeastern U.S. but is abundant nowhere. It is thought to occur statewide throughout the year, but the only documented records are from extreme northern and southern Georgia. Roosting sites are usually in or near areas of mature forest, including bottomland and upland hardwoods and pine flatwoods with water nearby; the sites are usually dimly lit sheltered areas such as dilapidated buildings, hollow trees, loose bark, rock shelters, and the entrance zones of caves and mines. Big-eared bats forage in forested areas among the canopies of large trees. They appear to be especially adapted to slow, maneuvering flight and are known to hover at times. In the open, they would probably be highly vulnerable to predation.
Diet: Flying insects.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Life History: This species is perhaps the least known of any southeastern U.S. bat. In late fall, they gather in small groups to mate, then hibernate, in caves, rock shelters, mines, and similar structures with relatively stable winter temperatures. When the bat is roosting, its large ears are coiled alongside the head. In the spring, females form small maternity colonies of up to 100 individuals in relatively well-lighted sites, typically in old buildings and rarely in caves and mines, to bear their single young in late May to early June. The young can fly at 3 weeks of age and are fully grown at 4 weeks. The males are solitary or form small groups during the summer, usually roosting in buildings and hollow trees away from the maternity colonies. They emerge to forage well after dark, so they are rarely observed or collected during periods of activity. They are known to live at least 10 years.

Threats/Comments: Little is known about the overall population status, but this species is infrequently encountered. Apparent declines are probably due to pesticides and alteration of forested habitats, including removal of hollow cull trees. Apparent rarity might be the result of few observations or collections of foraging bats due to their highly nocturnal nature. Unlike most bats, which become active well before dark, big-eared bats do not emerge from their roost until complete darkness has arrived. They are easily disturbed and are .. quick to arouse and take flight when discovered on the roost.

11

Conservation and Management Recommendations: Since little is known about this species, there is little that can be done to benefit them directly. Like many other species of wildlife, they have probably suffered from loss of mature forests, Efforts should be made to discover and protect roosting sites, especially when planning timber harvest activities within suitable habitat. Selected References: Barbour, R. W, and W H. Davis. 1969. Bats ofAmerica. Univ. Press of Kentucky, Lexington. 286pp.
Belwood, J. J. 1992. Southeastern big-eared bat. Pages 287-293
in S. R. Humphrey and R. E. Ashton, eds. Rare and endangered biota of Florida. Vol. 1. Mammals. Univ. Press of Florida, Gainesville. Handley, C. 0., Jr., and D. Schwab. 1991. Eastern big-eared bat. Pages 571-573 in K. Terwilliger, ed. Virginia's endangered species. McDonald and Woodward Publ., Blacksburg. Harvey, M. W 1992. Bats of the eastern United States. Arkansas Game and Fish Comm. 46pp.
Jordan, J. R. 1986. Rajinesque's big-eared bat, Plecotus
rajinesquii Lesson. Pages 112-113 in R. H. Mount, ed. Vertebrate animals ofAlabama in need of special attention. Alabama Agric. Exper. Sta.,Auburn Univ., Auburn.
Written byJames c. Ozier
12

State Status: Endangered Federal Status: Endangered

Other Commonly Used Name(s): North Atlantic right whale, black right whale, right whale

Description: North Atlantic right whales are baleen whales with a narrow upper jaw, strongly arched lower jaw, and a large head which can exceed one-fourth the total body length. Dark colored baleen plates descend from the upper jaw of right whales and are much longer than those of most other baleen whales, with lengths of up to almost 3 m (9.9 ft). These marine mammals are black skinned, although some individuals exhibit variably shaped white patches on their bellies and/or throats. Callosities, rough patches of skin that form unique patterns, are located on the top of each individual's head, upper portions of the lower lip, and chin. Light-colored cyamids, or whale lice, colonize the callosities, giving them a white appearance in stark contrast to the whale's black skin. The two widely spaced blow holes produce a distinctive Vshaped blow when viewed from directly in front of or behind the whale, which aids in identifying the species from a distance. Additional characteristic features include a broad, flat back, no dorsal fin, short paddle-shaped pectoral flippers, and broad deeply notched flukes with smooth trailing edges. Right whales are medium in length, but rotund in girth relative to other large whales. Adult right whales can grow up to almost 17 m (56 ft) and weigh up to 63,700 kg (70 tons). Females are larger than males. Newborn calves are approximately 4-5 m (13-16 ft) in length.
Range and Habitat: Right whales are found primarily in temperate waters, although they may also be found in subpolar and subtropical waters. Right whales use waters that are more coastal in nature than do other large whales. Two stocks of North Atlantic right whales may have existed at one time, one each in the eastern and western Atlantic Ocean.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences (strandings)
However, the population in the eastern Atlantic Ocean is very likely extinct. There are five areas known to be used frequently by right whales in the western North Atlantic, each of which is used at different times of the year and for varying purposes.
The coastal waters off Georgia and Florida serve as the world's only known calving area for North Atlantic right whales from December to late March. During this time, females and calves, as well as a few juveniles and males, occupy this area. Where the majority of the North Atlantic right whale population goes during the winter remains a mystery. In spring (March-May) right whales are found feeding in Cape Cod/Massachusetts Bay, which also serves as a nursery area for cow-calf pairs, or the Great South Channel, where mating activity also occurs. In summer and fall, cow-calf pairs are found farther north in the Bay of Fundy, while other segments of the North Atlantic right whale population may be found feeding or mating in waters of the south-
eastern Scotian Shelf. In 1994, the southeastern U.S. calving area, Cape Cod Bay, and the Great South Channel were designated by the National Marine Fisheries Service as" critical habitat," habitat that is critical
for the recovery of the North Atlantic right whale.

Diet: Dense aggregations of copepods (crustaceans about one-third the size of a grain of rice); other crustaceans.
Life History: Although it is not known when males become sexually mature, females are thought to reach maturity at 5-7 years of age and give birth every 2-5 years to a single calf. Calves, typically born between January and March, may nurse for 9 months or more.
Courtship behavior, during which one female may attract several males, has been observed in spring and summer in their northern range. Socializing at the water's surface between a few to several individuals has been observed throughout their range and at all times of the year. Right whales have also been observed "breaching," or launching themselves head first out of the water. About two-thirds of the whale's body can be propelled out of the water before it lands with a tremendous splash on its side or back.
Right whales vocalize by emitting low-frequency bellows and pulses, mostly during social activities such as courtship. Right whales are considered to be relatively slow swimmers and average only 8 km/hr (5 mph). It is thought that the only natural predator of this species is the killer whale, although no attacks have been observed.
Unlike most species of baleen whales, right whales skim-feed by swimming along at the water's surface through swarms of copepods, with mouths agape and their upper jaw protruding out of the water. After straining enough organisms from the water, the whales use their large tongues to push the water out of their mouths between the baleen plates thereby leaving behind only their prey to swallow. When feeding underwater, right whales swim with their mouths slightly agape, allowing water and food organisms to enter and move through the baleen plates. The food items are trapped by the baleen and swallowed.
Northern right whales are the most endangered large whale in the world. The minimum population for northern right whales in the western North Atlantic is estimated to be 295 individuals. Information on northern right whales in other areas is lacking. Populations in the northeastern Atlantic and northeastern Pacific may no longer be viable, and only a few hundred individuals may still exist in the western North Pacific and Okhotsk Sea.
Annual peak numbers for Georgia and Florida are from January through March and average approximately 30 individuals. The greatest number of whales to be documented in the area during one season was 95 during the 1995-1996 season.
Threats/Comments: Vessel collisions and entanglement in fixed fishing gear are the greatest hindrances to the recovery of the northern right whale. Disturbance from intense whale watching activities in Cape Cod Bay and the Bay of Fundy might also threaten right whales and disperse dense patches of copepods upon which the whales are dependent for food.

Conservation and Management Recommendations: Right whales have been internationally protected from whaling since 1949 by legislation of the International Whaling Commission and are listed as endangered under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). In the U.S., northern right whales are afforded additional protection under the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 and the Endangered Species Act of 1973.
Current conservation efforts are geared toward reducing serious injury and mortality from ship strikes and entanglement in fishing gear, and to minimize right whale disturbance from vessels. Efforts to reduce ship collisions with right whales are spearheaded by regional teams in the southeastern and northeastern U.S. These efforts include educating mariners about the presence of right whales and encouraging the use of vessel operating procedures that may reduce the threat of ship strikes with whales, such as using minimal safe speeds, posting lookouts, and traveling the shortest distance possible through right whale critical habitats. It is illegal for a vessel of any size to knowingly approach within 455 m (500 yds) of a right whale unless the safety of the vessel is in danger. As a safety precaution to right whales and other large whales, time and area restrictions have been placed on commercial fishing operations using fixed fishing gear. For instance, fishers may be required to use modified gear (e.g. fewer vertical lines on lobster pots, weak links in gill nets, etc.) in certain areas, or may not be allowed to fish at all in other areas important to right whales. It is illegal to use shark drift nets in and around the calving area critical habitat during the calving season.
Selected References:
Brownell Jr., R. L., P. B. Best, andI H. Prescott, eds. 1986. Right
whales: pastand present status. Rep. ofIWC, Spec. Iss. No. 10. Cambridge, England. 286pp.
Knowlton, AR., S.D. Kraus, and R. D. Kenney. 1994. Reproduction in North Atlantic rightwhales (Eubalaena
glacialis). Can. I Zool. 72:1297-1305.
Kraus, S. D. 1990. Rates and potential causes of mortality in North Atlanticrightwhales. Mar. Mam. Sci. 6(4):278-291.
---' M. I Crone, andA R. Knowlton. 1988. The North
Atlantic rightwhale. Pages 684-698 in Chandler, WI, ed. Audubon Wildl. Rep. 1988/1989. Academic Press, NewYork.
---' I H. Prescott, AR. Knowlton and G. S. Stone. 1986.
Migration and calving of rightwhales (Eubalaena glacialis) in the Western North Atlantic. Pages 139-144 in R. L. BrownellJr., P. B.
Best, andI H. Prescott, eds. Right whales: past and present sta-
tus. Rep. ofIWC, Spec. Iss. No. 10. Cambridge, England.
Written by Barb Zoodsma

14

State Status: Endangered Federal Status: Endangered

Other Commonly Used Name(s): Panther, cougar, painter

Description: The coat is pale brown to rusty above and dull white to buffy below, although melanistic (dark) forms have been reported. The Florida panther can sometimes be distinguished from other F. concolor by white flecking on the crown, nape, and along the midline of the back to between the shoulders. The flecking is likely induced by tick bites rather than a genetic characteristic, though F.c. coryi might be more sensitive to tick bites than other F. concolor. Other reported distinguishing characteristics include a cowlick on the shoulders and a crook in the tail. Adult males reach a total length of about 2.2 m (87 in), have a front foot pad width of 5-6 em (2-2.3 in), and weigh 50-70 kg (110-150 lbs). Adult females measure about 1.98 m (75 in), have a front foot pad width of 4-5 cm (1.6-2 in), and weigh 30-45 kg (65-100 lbs). Kittens have dark spots until 9-12 months old. In comparison to the eastern cougar (F. c. couguar), the Florida panther is smaller and more brightly colored with smaller feet, longer legs, and a shorter tail.

Cross-hatching indicates suspected historical range; apparently extirpated
Range and Habitat: Florida panthers are thought to have once ranged throughout the southeastern states from eastern Texas and western Louisiana and Arkansas through Mississippi, Alabama, and Georgia to the Florida Everglades. This subspecies was probably found over almost the entire state of Georgia, possibly sharing extreme North Georgia with the eastern cougar. The Okefenokee Swamp was likely the last stronghold for this species in Georgia, where it was encountered fairly regularly until about 1920. Only 30-50 individuals are thought to survive in the wild, an estimate which has remained steady for the past decade. This population is restricted to about 1,254,600 ha (3.1 million acres) of habitat in the Big Cypress and Everglades regions of southern Florida where the panthers inhabit densely wooded swamps, hardwood hammocks, and pine flatwoods on public land and large holdings of private land.

Diet: White-tailed deer, feral pigs, rabbits, raccoons, nine-banded armadillos and other small mammals.

Life History: The home range of an adult male averages 51,900 ha (129,000 acres), and that of an adult female 19,300 ha (48,000 acres). Transient males and subadult females may cover even larger areas. The State of Florida is intensively studying and managing the remaining Florida panther . population. Radio telemetry is being used to determine home ranges, habitat use, reproductive success, behavioral interactions, mortality factors, etc. Individuals are solitary; however, males will remain with females for about a week when breeding. Mating can occur at any time of the year, but peaks in
15

late winter/spring. Under good conditions, females give birth conclusive physical evidence was found to indicate the pres-

to litters of 1-4 young every two years. After a 90- to 95-day ence of panthers. Most sightings can be attributed to

gestation period, the kittens, which weigh about 500 g (lIb), misidentification of other animals such as house cats, dogs,

are born in a dense thicket. About two months later, they

coyotes, otters and bears. Any valid sightings are almost cer-

begin. to accompany their mother on hunting trips. They

tainly of once-captive western cougars.

become independent and disperse at about 18 months.

Nineteen western cougars (F.c. stanleyana), 11 females

Probably due to inbreeding as a result of the very small, isolat- and 8 vasectomized males, were radio-collared and released at

ed remaining population, male fertility, and thus reproductive Pinhook Swamp in northern Florida in 1993-1994 to test the

success, is very low. Other health problems can also be attrib- feasibility of attempting to restore Florida panthers to that

uted to inbreeding, and the resultant depressed genetic diver- portion of their historic range. The release site was chosen

sity contributes to lower long-term survivability. Genetic

because of the large amount of public wild lands in the vicini-

management options include carefully controlled captive

ty, the Osceola National Forest to the south and the

breeding, artificial insemination, and introduction of western Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge to the north. Some of

cougars into the southern Florida population to increase

the cougars used habitat in South Georgia extensively.

genetic variability. Historically, there was certainly some

Individuals were documented to have ranged as far as Wilkes

genetic exchange among subspecies where their ranges over- County, Turner County, and Stewart County in the eastern,

lapped. In 1995, eight female cougars from Texas (F. c. stan-

central, and western parts of Georgia, respectively. The experi-

leyana) were released into the Florida panther population.

ment proved that large cats could survive in northern Florida

These Texas cougars have bred with F. c. coryi males and have and South Georgia, but mortality was high due to shooting

begun producing offspring which may help restore vigor to

and highway collisions. All experimental cougars were recap-

the population and reduce the problems associated with

tured in 1995.

inbreeding.

Many people remain opposed to the reintroduction of

large predators such as panthers out of fear and out of con-

Threats/Comments: Loss of wilderness habitat through

cern about impacts on livestock and deer populations. Public

conversion to agriculture and development has been the major support must be unanimous before a restoration project such

cause of decline throughout the historic range of the Florida

as this can be successfuL

panther. Another likely factor was the attempt to eradicate

southern Florida's deer herds in the 1930s to control ticks,

Selected References:

thus reducing the panthers' food supply. Panthers were also historically shot and trapped out of fear and disdain often directed towards large predators. Occasional illegal shooting probably continues, and several panthers have been killed in

c. Belden, R. andJ. W McCown. 1995. Florida panther reintro-
duction feasibility study. Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Comm. Study 7507 Final Report. 70pp.

recent years by collisions with traffic on the Everglades Parkway. Diseases, parasites, and several physiological prob-

Golley, F. B. 1962. Mammals of Georgia. Univ. Georgia Press, Athens. 218pp.

lems, including heart defects, immune deficiencies, and reduced fertility that are probably a result of excessive inbreeding are apparently affecting the remaining population.

Jordan, D. B. 1994. Proc. Florida Panther Conf U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 522pp.

Chemical contamination is another factor contributing to the decline of panther health. Mercury poisoning claimed at least one panther in recent years, and pesticides and other toxic

Maehr, D. S. 1992. Florida panther. Pages 176-189 in S.R.
Humphrey andR. E. Ashton, eds. Rare and endangered biota of Florida. Vol. 1. Mammals. Univ. Press of Florida, Gainesville.

compounds have been linked to several health problems. Conservation and Management Recommendations: It

~ R.c. Belden, E. C. Land, and L. Wilkins. 1990. Food
habits of panthers in southwest Florida. J. Wildl. Manage.
54:420-423.

is almost a certainty that the Florida panther no longer occurs in Georgia. The last documented records were of one that was killed, mounted, and displayed in Statesboro in 1903, and

~ E. C. Land, andJ. C. Roof 1991. Social ecology of Florida
panthers. Nat. Geo. Res. and Expl. 7:414-431.

another that was killed in the southern part of the Okefenokee Swamp in 1925. More recent reliable cougar sightings are from a biologist who saw one on Berry College

Odom, R. R.,J. L. McCollum, M. A. Neville, and D.R. Ettman.
1977. Terrestrial mammals. Pages 5.1-5.4 in Georgia's protected
wildlife. Georgia Dept. Nat. Resources.

Wildlife Management Area in 1973 or 1974, a biologist who saw one on the Morgan-Greene County line in 1977, and sightings on Moody Air Force Base in 1971 and 1974.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1987. Florida panther (Felis con-
color coryi) recovery plan. Florida Panther Interagency Comm. Report to U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Atlanta, Ga. 75pp.

However, these were most likely western cougars that were

released or escaped from private ownership. Through a public

survey, the Georgia DNR received 492 reports of panther

Written by James c. Ozier

sightings from July 1, 1978, through June 30, 1990.

Investigations were completed on 410 of these. No

16

State Status: Endangered Federal Status: Endangered

Other Commonly Used Name(s): Mountain lion, cougar, puma, panther, catamount

Description: The eastern cougar, like other F. concolor subspecies, is a large, unspotted, long-tailed cat. Adult coloration varies from deep gray or reddish brown to pale buff. The belly, lower cheeks, chin, lips, and inner ear are dull white. The base of the whiskers, back of the ears, and tip of the tail are black. The cubs are yellowish-brown with irregular dark spots until about 6 months of age. Adult males measure 2.1-2.7 m (83106 in) in total length including a tail up to 1 m (39 in) long. They weigh 70-90 kg (150-200 lbs). Adult females are 30-40 percent smaller than males.

Range and Habitat: Wooded mountains or swamps were probably the preferred habitat of this cat. The historic range is thought to have extended from the mountains of extreme North Georgia, where it merged with that of the Florida panther, westward through Kentucky and Indiana, and northward to eastern Canada. By the late 1800s, eastern cougars were almost entirely gone from the eastern U.S. and almost certainly have now been extirpated from this state. There is a very remote possibility that a remnant population continues to survive in the southern Appalachian Mountains, but a recent 5year study by federal agencies failed to document any cougars there.
Diet: Predominately white-tailed deer and other mammals, occasionally livestock.
Life History: Very little is known specifically about this subspecies because it was extirpated before biologists had an opportunity to study it. In general, its natural history was probably very similar to that of western cougars. Cougars begin breeding at 2-3 years of age with little seasonal

Cross-hatching indicates suspected historical range; apparently extirpated
preference. One to six cubs, typically three, are born after a gestation period of 82-98 days. The young are weaned after 23 months but remain with their mother until they are more than a year old. Males probably range over an area of 6,500 ha (16,000 acres), and females 1,300-5,200 ha (3,200-13,000 acres).
Threats/Comments: The decline of the eastern cougar began as soon as the first European settlers arrived. Cougars and other large predators were killed out of fear and to protect livestock and game. Government bounties encouraged predator hunting. While cougars will occasionally take livestock, there have been no documented attacks on people in the eastern U.S., and very few in the western U.S. The settlers also reduced deer populations, which would have impacted the cougar population. Fragmentation and loss of wilderness
habitat also contributed to the decline. No breeding populations have been documented since the
1920s; however, there is reliable evidence to suggest that relict populations might have
persisted at least until the 1970s in remote areas of the southern Appalachian Mountains of North Carolina and West Virginia.

Conservation and Management Recommendations: Little, if anything, can be done to contribute directly to the conservation of eastern cougars because they likely no longer
exist in the wild. However, protection of wilderness areas and re-population of these areas by white-tailed deer
17

could have saved the few relict individuals that potentially still exist. Cougar sightings are regularly reported by the public, but the majority of these sightings are almost certainly cases of misidentification of house cats, dogs, coyotes, otters and black. bears. The small proportion of sightings that actually do appear to involve cougars are almost certainly of western cats that have been released or escaped from private ownership. During the late 1970s, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service collected cougar reports from throughout the southeastern U.S. in an effort to determine if the eastern cougar persisted in the wild. Those that appeared to represent actual cougar sightings in Georgia included a sighting of one stalking deer on Warwoman Wildlife Management Area (WMA) in 1977, a sighting of one at close range stalking turkeys on Cohutta WMA in 1978, and a sighting from 5 m (15 ft) of a cougar stalking deer on Blue Ridge WMA in 1978. Other reliable observations have come from neighboring states. But again, these almost certainly involved once-captive western cougars.
Selected References:
Downing, R. L. 1981. The current status of the cougar in the
Southern Appalachian. Pages 142-151 in R. R. Odom andJ. W
Guthrie, eds. Proc. nongame and endangered wildlife symposium. Georgia Dept. Nat. Resources. Tech. Bulletin VVL 5. Handley, C 0, Jr. 1991. Mountain lion. Pages 599-601 in K. Terwilliger, ed. Virginia's endangered species. McDonald and Woodward Publ., Blacksburg.
Laerm, J. 1981. A survey of the status, distribution, and abun-
dance of potentially threatened and endangered vertebrate species in Georgia. Vol. VI. The mammals. Report to the Georgia Dept. Nat. Resources, E-l.
Odom, R. R.,J. L. McCollum, M. A. Neville, and D. R. Ettman.
1977. Terrestrial mammals. Pages 5.1-5.4 in Georgia's protected wildlife. Georgia Dept. Nat. Resources. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1982. Eastern cougar recovery plan. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Sero., Atlanta, Ga. 17pp. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1992. Mammals. Endangered and threatened species of the southeastern United States, Vol. 2. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Atlanta, Ga.
Written byJames Cazier
18

State Status: Endangered Federal Status: Endangered

Other Commonly Used Name(s): Hump-backed whale, humpback

Description: Compared to other great whales, humpback whales are medium in size, attaining lengths of up to 15.25 m (50.3 ft) and weights of up to 27,300 kg (30 tons). Humpback whales have distinctive, elongated pectoral flippers that are up to one third of the whale's body length and exhibit irregular knobs along the leading edge. The small dorsal fin of the humpback is located approximately two thirds of the body length from the whale's snout, and fluke width is approximately one third its body length. Knobs and protuberances of various sizes are located on the margins of their upper and lower jaws and chin. Long ventral grooves extend from chin to navel. The baleen plates of humpback whales are blackish to gray in color with some lighter fibers and average approximately 70 em (28 in) in length. Humpback whales are charcoal gray with lighter colored pectoral flippers. Perhaps the most characteristic feature of the humpback whale, besides the elongated pectoral flippers, is their elaborate, song-like vocalizations. Songs of humpback whales are considered to be the longest and perhaps most patterned in the animal kingdom. Each song can last up to 30 minutes and may be repeated for hours and sometimes days.
Range and Habitat: Humpback whales are found in all the world's oceans but are less common in arctic areas. The general distribution of humpbacks is seasonal. In winter, these whales seek out waters near coastal areas and islands in temperate and tropical areas where they probably mate and give birth. During summer, most whales are found in higher latitude waters where they feed intensively in waters less than 183 m (201 yds) in depth. Migration routes may take them across vast ocean basins. Because movements and other biological features are seasonally linked, whales in the northern and southern hemispheres typically differ in their biological schedules by approximately 6 months.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences (strandings)
The western North Atlantic stock of humpback whales includes whales using feeding areas in the Gulf of Maine, Gulf of St. Lawrence, Newfoundland and Labrador, western Greenland, and the Iceland-Denmark strait. Humpbacks inhabit these areas typically from April to November; their principle wintering areas are around the Greater and Lesser Antilles. Humpbacks have been observed off Georgia and Florida during the winter. The best estimate of the total population of humpback whales in the northern Atlantic Ocean west of Iceland from 1979 to 1990 is approxmately 5,500 animals.
... \ Diet: Primarily fish species such as herring, sand lance, and mackerel; also krill. A humpback
that was found stranded dead from unknown causes on St. Catherines Island in 1992 had been feeding on banded drum, Atlantic croaker, spot, weakfish and ~;t"/fi/U silver sea trout.
Life History: Humpbacks are sexually mature at 4-6 years of age. Females typically give birth every 2-3 years, but annual births have been documented. In the Northern Hemisphere, calves are born between October and March. Females lactate for up to a year.
During the summer feeding season, humpbacks can be found in large groups. However, during the winter breeding and calving season, whales are found alone or in smaller groups. Up to 19 mature males have been

observed bumping and shoving each other for access to a single female. In wintering areas, most mother and calf pairs are accompanied by a male escort.
Humpbacks use a variety of techniques to feed, but perhaps their most characteristic feeding technique is the use of bubble nets to concentrate prey. One or more humpback whales will dive below a school of fish or krill and ascend to the surface in a spiral around the prey while exhaling slowly. Prey species are entrapped in the center of the bubble net, and feeding humpbacks will lunge through the column engulfing the concentrated prey. As humpback whales feed and their mouths and throat pleats become distended with water and prey, their lower jaw unhinges, similar to snakes. Throat muscles are contracted to expel water through the baleen and consequently entrap their prey.
Threats/Comments: Historically, hunting (which was outlawed in the North Atlantic in 1955 and other oceans in 1966) resulted in a major decline in worldwide populations of humpback whales. Although humpbacks are no longer hunted, they continue to be affected by human activities. Entanglement in fishing gear is the leading cause of injuries and mortalities in humpback whales in cases where cause of injury or death can be determined. Most entanglements in the U.S. occur in the Northeast. Some humpbacks have been hit by ships. Biologists are concerned that acoustic disturbance from ships and other boats, habitat degradation from pollution and coastal development, and competition with humans for resources may all adversely affect humpback whales. Anglers in the Northeast have reportedly deployed fishing nets around feeding humpbacks in an effort to harvest fish that were being corralled by feeding humpbacks' bubble nets. In late 1987 and early 1988, 14 humpback whales were known to have died after feeding on Atlantic mackerel containing a dinoflagellate saxitoxin.

Selected References:
Katona, S. K.,I M. Allen, and P Stevick. 1994. Maintaining the
North Atlantichumpback whale catalog. Progress report to the Northeast Fisheries Science Center, Contract No. 50EANF-100056. 26pp.
Laerm, I, F. Wenzel, I E. Craddock, D.Weinand, I McGurk, M. I Harris, G.A. Early, I G.Mead, C. W Potter, and N. B. Barros.
1997. New prey species for Northwestern Atlantichumpback whales. Marine Mammal Science 13(4): 705-711.
National Marine Fisheries Service. 1991. Recovery plan for the humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae). Prep. by Humpback Whale Recovery Team for Nat. Mar. Fish. Serv., Silver Spring, Md. 105pp.
Swartz, S. L. 1989. The humpback whale. Pages 386-403 in W
I Chandler, ed. Audubon Wildlife Report 1989/1990. Academic
Press, San Diego.
Written by Barb Zoodsma

Conservation and Management Recommendations: The National Marine Fisheries Service has produced a recovery plan for the humpback whale. The major recommendations of the plan are to protect habitats that are important to humpback whales, continue prohibition on commercial harvesting of humpbacks, reduce fishing gear entanglements, measure and monitor key humpback whale population parameters, and improve the administration and coordination of humpback whale recovery activities.

20

State Status: Endangered Federal Status: Endangered

Other Commonly Used Name(s): Gray myotis

Description: Color varies from dark gray, immediately following molt in July or August, to russet, which is especially evident in females during the spring. Woolly-looking dorsal fur is uniformly gray from root to tip; all other Myotis bats in Georgia have two- or three-colored dorsal fur. The belly fur is grayish-white. The rear edge of the wing membrane attaches at the ankle; the membranes of other Myotis bats attach at the base of the first toe. This is Georgia's largest Myotis bat, with a total length of 80-100 mm (3-4 in), forearm length of 40-46 mm (1.6-1.8 in), wingspread of about 30 em (12 in) and weight of 7-16 gm (0.25-0.56 oz), typically 8-11 gm (0.28-0.30 oz).

Range and Habitat: Perhaps the most cave-dependent mammal in this country, the gray bat roosts and hibernates exclusively in suitable caves in the southeastern U.S. However, some of the few specimens collected in Georgia were found in a drainage tunnel under the University of Georgia football stadium. In Georgia, they are known to occupy only two caves regularly during the summer, one in Chattooga County and another in Walker County. There are additional records from Polk County and a reported capture in Bartow County. The most important caves to gray bats, those that house large populations, are found in Alabama, Missouri,

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Arkansas, Kentucky and Tennessee. The range of the species also includes parts of Florida, Kansas, Indiana, Illinois, Oklahoma, Mississippi, Virginia, and North Carolina.
Less than 5 percent of available caves in the southeastern U.S. have the right properties of temperature, humidity, and structure to make them suitable for gray bat occupation. Wintering caves are deep and vertical and serve as cold air reservoirs. The bats need constant cold, but not sub-freezing, temperatures to remain in hibernation and conserve energy; temperatures at hibernation roosts range 6-11 C (43-52 OF). Summer caves, on the other hand, must be much warmer, especially at maternity colonies where females are raising young; temperatures there range 14-25 C (57-77 OF). Domed ceilings help trap heat, including body heat produced by the bats, at these sites. Summer caves are almost always located within 1 km (0.6 mi) of a river or reservoir that serves as a foraging site. Most foraging occurs within 5 m (16 ft) of the surface over open water near a forested shoreline. The bats will forage 20 km (12 mi) or more from the roost sites and seem to prefer traveling within forested areas, probably because they are less vulnerable to predation from owls there. Young bats just learning to fly need forest cover in the vicinity of the maternity cave in which to forage and take shelter.

Diet: Flying insects, such as mayflies, stoneflies and caddisflies, caught over the surfaces of lakes and streams.

21

Life History: Gray bats are highly colonial and gather by the hundreds of thousands into only a few known caves in the southeastern US. to hibernate during the winter; nine caves are believed to house about 95 percent of the entire population each winter, with one cave sheltering from 50 to 66 percent of this total. These bats are known to migrate from 17 to 525 km (11-326 mi) between suitable summer and winter caves. Upon arrival at the wintering caves in September or early October, the adults mate. The females begin hibernation immediately, storing the sperm until springtime when insemination actually occurs. However, the males remain active for a few more weeks, replenishing fat supplies depleted during mating activities. The males and juveniles join the females in hibernation by early November. Gray bats hang from the ceiling clustered tightly together, averaging 1,828 individuals per square meter. Population estimates are derived by measuring the surface area covered by roosting bats and multiplying by the known average density. Historic numbers are estimated by measuring ceiling stains where the bats roosted in the past, or by measuring the piles of droppings, or guano, beneath the roost sites.
In late March or early April, the adult females emerge, begin their pregnancy and disperse to maternity caves within the summer ranges to bear their young. The adult males and juveniles (gray bats take 2 years to mature) emerge in midApril to mid -May and disperse to bachelor caves within the same summer ranges. The spring migration is especially hazardous because fat reserves and food supplies are low; mortality is high at this time. The summer caves are always near a reservoir or large river. Each adult female delivers a single offspring during late Mayor early June. In large maternity colonies, the pups are able to fly after about 20-25 days and are completely weaned by 2 months of age; development is enhanced by the warmer temperatures created by large numbers of bats. However, colonies that have been reduced in size typically experience lower temperatures and slower development of the young. If development is slowed too much, the young might die before learning to fly. Once on the wing, growth rate and survival of juveniles is inversely proportional to the distance they must travel to reach the nearest foraging area over water. During late summer, most gray bats leave their summer caves and disperse and mix throughout their summer range. A few weeks later, they again assemble at the winter caves for mating and hibernation.
Threats/Comments: Gray bats are very intolerant of disturbance, which usually comes in the form of intentional vandalism or careless, inexperienced cave explorers. During wintertime, human visitation can cause them to emerge from hibernation, a process that burns valuable fat reserves needed to help them survive the winter. Fat reserves cannot be replaced during the winter, and each arousal from hibernation consumes enough energy to carry the bat through 20-30 days of hibernation. During the summer, disturbed females sometimes drop or abandon their young, which then perish. Alteration of important caves due to vandalism, closure, com-

mercialization and inundation as a result of dam construction can impact large percentages of the gray bat population. Since so few available caves are suitable, it is likely that gray bats do not find alternate caves once their primary ones become unavailable. Deforestation of flight corridors between caves and foraging areas leads to increased predation by raptors. Pesticide use, along with pollution and siltation of waterways, has decreased and contaminated food supplies.
At the turn of the century, gray bats were probably among the most abundant mammals in the eastern US. However, by 1970 the population had declined an estimated 47 percent to about 2.25 million. During the next six years the population dropped another 54 percent. The current population, as determined by measuring masses of roosting bats and multiplying by the average roosting density, is estimated to be about 1.5 million.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Protection of occupied caves, as well as suitable management of the surrounding forest and nearby aquatic foraging sites, will be necessary to stabilize gray bat populations. Caves can be gated or fenced to prevent human entry, but the gates must be properly designed such that bat movement and the cave microclimate are not affected. The US. Fish and Wildlife Service has acquired some of the more important caves in other states, and the Southeastern Cave Conservancy owns the most important known Georgia gray bat cave. A continuing educational effort must be aimed at the general public, but particularly at cave owners and explorers. Every effort must be made to avoid losing additional occupied caves to commercialization and inundation.
Selected References:
Barbour; R. W, and W H. Davis. 1969. Bats of America. Univ. Press of Kentucky, Lexington. 286pp.
Dalton, V M., and C. 0. Handley, Jr. 1991. Gray myotis. Pages 567-569 in K. Terwilliger; ed. Virginia's endangered species. McDonald and Woodward Publ., Blacksburg.
Gore,]. A. 1992. Gray bat. Pages 63-70 in S. R. Humphrey and A. E. Ashton, Jr., eds. Rare and endangered biota of Florida. Vol. 1. Mammals. Univ. Press of Florida, Gainesville.
Harvey, M. W 1992. Bats of the eastern United States. Arkansas Game and Fish Commission. 46pp.
[ordan.]. R. 1986. Gray myotis, Myotis grisescens (Howell). Pages 106-107 in R. H. Mount, ed. Vertebrate animals of
Alabama in need ofspecial attention. Alabama Agric. Exper. Sta.,
Auburn Univ., Auburn.
Tuttle, M. S. 1979. Status, causes of decline, and management of endangered gray bats. ]. Wildl. Manage. 43:11-17.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1982. Gray bat recovery plan. 22pp.
Written byJames c. Ozier

22

State Status: Endangered Federal Status: Endangered

Other Commonly Used Name(s): Indiana myotis, social bat, social myotis

Description: The dorsal hair of the Indiana bat is dark chestnut gray to pinkish gray, darker at the base, and lacks luster. Individual hairs have three bands of color.The ears and wing membranes also have a flat coloration that does not contrast with the fur. The underfur is somewhat lighter colored with a pinkish cast. The hairs on the relatively small feet are short and inconspicuous. The total length is 41-49 mm (1.61.9 in), the forearm length is 35-41 mm (1.4-1.6 in), the wingspread is 24-27 cm (9.4-10.6 in), and the weight is about 5-8 gm (0.18-0.28 oz). In general, the Indiana bat closely resembles the little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus).

Range and Habitat: This species is known to occur throughout much of the midwestern and eastern U.S. but has been documented in Georgia from only two caves in Dade County in the northwestern part of the state. The Georgia records are from fall and winter collections; the nearest known maternity colonies are in southern Kentucky. The species has been virtually eliminated from much of its former range. Indiana bats gather in large groups in suitable caves to hibernate, more than 85 percent of the population in just nine caves in Indiana, Missouri, and Kentucky. These bats need winter caves with a stable temperature of 4-8 C (39-46 OF) that contain standing water which maintains relative humidity above 74 percent. The bats usually cluster fairly near the entrance and awaken periodically throughout the winter. During the summer, Indiana bats roost in trees, usually under loose, exfoliating bark as found on shagbark hickories and dead hardwoods, or in hollow trees. The roost sites are typically at a woodland edge where the tree is warmed by the sun. The bats forage in the surrounding riparian, floodplain, and upland forest, and sometimes over open areas and water as well.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Diet: Flying insects, including moths, flies, mosquitoes, midges, beetles, bees, wasps, ants, caddisflies and stoneflies.
Life History: Little is known about the summer behavior of Indiana bats because they are secretive and widely distributed. In late March, females emerge from hibernacula and disperse to their summer ranges, usually northward, at least from midwestern caves. From mid-April to mid-May, they begin to gather in maternity colonies numbering 25-100 under loose bark or in hollow trees. The first maternity colony was not discovered until 1974. Each female gives birth to a single young in June or early July. The young are able to fly in about four weeks. Males emerge from hibernation a little behind the females. Some disperse and some remain near the hibernaculao Males roost singly or in small groups. They tend to forage in the canopy of floodplain forests and wooded hillsides, whereas the females forage lower in riparian and floodplain forests.
Migration to hibernacula begins in August. Upon arrival, the bats"swarm," a behavior in which great numbers of bats fly in and out of cave entrances throughout the night, with only a few bats actually roosting in the caves during the day. Swarming continues for several weeks and is related to mating activity. During this time, the bats also are building up fat reserves upon which they will depend during the winter. Breeding occurs mainly in early October; females store sperm throughout the winter and fertilization occurs in the spring shortly after
emergence. Some breeding activity also occurs in the spring. Almost all bats are in hibernation by late November.

23

They hang from the cave roof in tight clusters with densities of about 3,200 bats per square meter. Individuals awaken and become active within the cave every 8-10 days, so they are a little less susceptible to disturbance during hibernation than are some other species. Bats of this species are known to live at least 20 years.
Threats/Comments: Cave disturbance and alteration, including installation of poorly designed gates, along with vandalism and pesticides have contributed to the decline of Indiana bats. Clearing of riparian forests has probably also been a factor, as has intensive research involving capturing and banding, which is now avoided. Significant natural factors include flooding of occupied caves, exposure to freezing temperatures during especially harsh winters, cave ceiling collapse, and destruction of tree roosts by severe weather. Based on hibernacula surveys, the total population has declined from an estimated 808,000 in 1960 to 589,000 in 1980, and to 352,000 in 1995. Most current declines appear to be during the summertime or during migration as a result of unknown causes.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Georgia has no known occupied habitat at this time. It is possible that small numbers of winter residents and transient individuals occur in the state. Protection of occupied caves, if any unprotected ones are found, would be important. In other areas, proper gating of caves minimizes disturbance at roost sites. Forest management activities at summer roost sites should ensure that forested foraging habitat is available, that no roost trees are destroyed, and that a continuous supply of suitable roost trees are available. Since roosts are often in dead trees, each one is available for only a few years before it falls.

Selected References:
Barbour, R. W, and W H. Davis. 1969. Bats ofAmerica. Univ. Press of Kentucky, Lexington. 286pp.
Dalton, V M., and C. 0. Handley, Jr. 1991. Social Myotis. Pages 569 - 570 in K. Terwilliger, ed. Virginia's endangered species. McDonald and Woodward Publ., Blacksburg.
Harvey, M. W 1992. Bats of the eastern United States. Arkansas Game and Fish Comm. 46pp.
Humphrey, S. R., A. R. Richter, andJ. B. Cope. 1977. Summer
habitat and ecology of the endangered Indiana bat (Myotis
sodalis). J. Mammal. 58:344-346.
_ _. 1992. Indiana bat. Pages 54 - 62 in S. R. Humphrey and R. E. Ashton, eds. Rare and endangered biota of Florida. Vol. 1. Mammals. Univ. Press of Florida, Gainesville.
Jordan, J. R. 1986. Indiana Myotis, Myotis sodalis (Miller and
Allen). Pages 107-108 in R. H. Mount, ed. Vertebrate animals of Alabama in need of special attention. Alabama Agric. Exper. Sta., Auburn Univ., Auburn.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1996. Indiana bat recovery plan. U.S. Dept. Interior Publ.
Written by James c. Ozier

24

State Status: Threatened Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): Florida water rat, water rat

Description: Round-tailed muskrats, which are the only members of the genus Neofiber, have dense, rich dark brown fur turning to gray at the base. The guard hairs are dark brown and glossy, and the belly fur is pale buff. The ears are small, and the front feet are smaller than the slightly webbed rear feet. This rodent grows to be 29-38 em (11.5-15 in) long, including a round, sparsely haired tail. Adults weigh 200-330 g (7-11.5 oz). This is smaller than the muskrat (Ondatra zibeihicus), which has a tail that is flattened side to side. Otherwise, the two species, whose ranges do not overlap, are similar in appearance.

Range and Habitat: Round-tailed muskrats are found

throughout most of peninsular Florida and into parts of extreme southern Georgia. These rats live in shallow grassy

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences

ponds, marshes, and bogs. Preferred habitat appears to be

floating mats of vegetation in the vicinity of open water with

emergent sedges and floating-leafed vegetation. At Grand

Diet: Primarily aquatic grasses, but also stems, roots, and

Bay in South Georgia, preferred habitat appeared to exist

seeds of other aquatic plants; possibly crayfish.

mainly along the ecotone between mixed emergent marsh and

dense chain-fern marsh. Prairies on the east side of the

Life History: Round-tailed muskrats produce 4-6 litters,

Okefenokee Swamp also provide good habitat, as do a few

each containing 1-4 young, throughout the year with a peak in

other swamps and Carolina bays in the vicinity. The eastern- late autumn. Gestation lasts 26-29 days; young are weaned at

most Georgia occurrence record is of skulls found in barn owl about 21 days and are fully mature 90-100 days after weaning.

pellets near Woodbine in Camden County.

These rats are primarily nocturnal; predators include hawks,

owls, alligators, and water moccasins.

Round-tailed muskrats weave dome-shaped houses

of grasses, sedges, cat-tails and other aquatic vegetation on

floating mats of sphagnum or peat or attached to the bases of

bushes, shrubs, or small cypress trees. The houses measure

30-45 em (12-18 in) wide at the base and 25-38 em (10-15 in)

in height and are lined on the inside with fine, dry grasses.

Two escape holes typically exit the floor of the house and lead

to escape tunnels, or plunge holes, in the vegetation mat.

Each rat utilizes several houses, and individuals sometimes

share houses. They are non-territorial and live in dense

colonies where habitat is suitable. During periods of

low water, Neofiber occupies tunnels in the sphagnum

mats rather than building houses. Round-tailed

muskrats also construct floating feeding platforms,

measuring 10-20 em (4-8 in) in diameter, from vegeta-

tion. Density estimates vary, depending upon habitat and

.: ,"methodology, from 1-3 per hectare (or about 1 per acre) at

"" Grand Bay to 250-300 per hectare (100-121 per acre) in small

central Florida marshes. They can become pests in South

Florida sugarcane fields.

25

Threats/Comments: South Georgia is on the edge of the range of the round-tailed muskrat, so it is likely that the species has never been abundant there. Populations are limited by the amount of suitable floating vegetation mats, so loss of any occupied wetland habitat has a big impact. Habitat can be lost not only through alteration of the natural hydroperiod (wet and dry seasons), draining, and development, but also through natural succession due to lack of periodic fire. Bogs and marshes gradually fill in and are taken over by woody vegetation unless fires retard the process. Under natural conditions, periodic fires, particularly during summer droughts, remove woody vegetation and burn deep holes in the peat. This drives a cyclical process of floating mat and open sedge marsh production so that suitable habitat is continuously created. However, control of naturally-occurring fires has interrupted this cycle.
Fire ant infestation of floating mats presents another problem, with ants often taking over muskrat houses and probably threatening nestlings. This problem increases as the amount of woody vegetation increases. Local water rat populations throughout the species'range apparently fluctuate dramatically as a result of environmental conditions.

Selected References:
Bergstrom, B.]., T. Farley, H. L. Hill, Jr., and T. Hon. In press.
Ecology and conservation ofa frontier population of the round-
tailedmuskrat (Neofiber alieni). Occas. Publ. of the North Carolina State Mus. Nat. Hist.
Birkenholtz, D. E. 1963. A study of the life history and ecology of the round-tailed muskrat (Neojiber alleni True) in north central Florida. Ecological Monographs 33:225-280.
_ _. 1972. Neofiber alleni. Mammalian Species 15:1-4.
Chapman, F. M. 1889. On the habits of the round-tailed muskrat (Neofiber alleni True). Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 2:119122.
Lefebvre, L. W, and]. T. Tilmant. 1992. Round-tailed muskrat. Pages 276-286 in S. R. Humphrey and R. E. Ashton,eds. Rare and endangered biota of Florida. Vol. 1. Mammals. Univ. Press of Florida, Gainesville.
Written by James c. Ozier

Conservation and Management Recommendations: Maintaining suitable habitat is critical to ensuring the continuing survival of round-tailed muskrats in Georgia. This species has apparently disappeared from many areas because habitat is no longer suitable. Habitat needs to be managed such that high water levels are maintained most of the time, but such that fire can be used during periods of low water to prevent succession to woody vegetation. Winter drought can be important in floating mat production because it exposes the roots of vegetation to freezing temperatures. This kills the plants and they later float up as mats. Sandhill cranes probably playa role in maintaining suitable habitat as well by consuming the roots of invasive plants thereby helping keep the mats open.

26

State Status: Rare Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): Wood rabbit, New England cottontail

Description: The Appalachian cottontail is very similar in appearance to the eastern cottontail (Sylvilagus floridanus) but is slightly smaller with relatively short, round ears. Distinguishing pelage characteristics include pinkish-buff to ocherous buff fur overlaid with a distinct black wash of guard hairs and a black spot between the black-edged ears. Examination of skull characteristics is usually necessary to distinguish positively between these two rabbits. The skull of
s. obscurus displays jagged, irregular posterior margins on the
nasal bones, and the post-orbital processes are slender and tapered, often touching the skull over their entire length. Also, the auditory bullae are smaller and lack bony spurs. In contrast, S.floridanus has more smooth posterior nasal margins, the post-orbital process is more broad and flat, and the auditory bullae are larger and have spurs. Appalachian cottontails are about 385-430 mm (15.5-17 in) long with 60-mm (2.4 in) ears. They weigh 0.8-1.3 kg (1.75-2.75Ibs).
Range and Habitat: This woodland rabbit lives in small, scattered populations ranging from New York's Hudson River area south throughout the Appalachian Mountains in the eastern U.S., including the highlands of Georgia, Alabama, and South Carolina. It is known to frequent brushy areas in high elevation boreal forests and might reach highest densities in 5- to 10-year-old clearcuts. In Georgia, Appalachian cottontails have been found only at elevations greater than 914 m (3,000 ft) on balds or in boreal forest habitats with heavy mountain laurel and blueberry shrub cover in the mountains of Rabun, Union, Towns, and Fannin counties. In Alabama and South Carolina, S. obscurus has been found at elevations

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
as low as 305 m (1,000 ft), and in North Carolina at 427 m (1,400 ft). Most likely, S. obscurus expanded its range southward during the last period of glaciation, and scattered refugial populations were left behind as the climate warmed and the glaciers and associated boreal vegetation began retreating about 10,000 years ago. The Alabama population appears to be particularly disjunct.
A very similar woodland rabbit, the New England Cottontail (5. transitionalis), occurs in boreal habitats east of the Hudson River. In fact, woodland cottontails from Alabama to Maine were long considered to belong to a single species, S. transitionalis. In 1992, due to differences in skull measurements and chromosome count, S. obscurus was separated into a distinct species. Original geographic separation of the two species was probably glacial related. However, more recent analysis of mitochondrial DNA does not support the separation into two species, so the taxonomy is in question.

Diet: Grasses, clovers, and other herbaceous plants; twigs, buds, seeds, fruit, and conifer needles.

Life History: Appalachian cottontails produce 3-4 litters of 3-8 young (5 average) from late winter until late summer; the gestation period is 28 days. The young leave the fur-lined nest when they are around 2 weeks old. These rabbits are primarily nocturnal and rarely venture far from dense cover. The home range varies from about 0.2- 0.8 ha (0.5-2 acres), sometimes in a linear arrangement to fit available habitat. Predators that take rabbits include hawks, owls, foxes, and bobcats.

27

Threats/Comments: Appalachian cottontails are naturally rare in Georgia because the North Georgia mountains are at the extreme southern end of the speciesrange, and because populations are apparently isolated in fragments of suitable high elevation habitat. Although population declines have been noted in states to the north, little is known about historic and present Appalachian cottontail population levels in Georgia because they are rare, secretive, and difficult to identify positively. Habitat disturbance has probably been the major factor resulting in the decline of this species in most of its range. Wooded areas have been replaced and encroached upon by fields, roadways, and residential development which encourages the ubiquitous and adaptable eastern cottontail to expand its range and usurp areas formerly occupied by Appalachian cottontails.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Since little is known about this species in Georgia, needed conservation measures are difficult to address. Maintaining suitable habitat and minimizing avenues whereby eastern cottontails can encroach and compete are probably the most important measures that can be taken. Additionally, it is possible that greater human inhabitation of Appalachian cottontail habitat could lead to increased predation from feral house cats. Rabbit hunting should not be a significant source of mortality since this sport is typically practiced in habitat more suitable for eastern cottontails.
Selected References:
Chapman, J. A. 1975. Sylvilagus transitionalis. Mammalian
Species 55:1-4.
------J andJ. R. Stauffer. 1981. The status and distribution of
the New England cottontail. Pages 973-983 in K. Meyers and D. D. MacInnes, eds. Proc. of the World Lagomorph Conference, Univ. Guelph, Ontario.
------J K. L. Cramer, N. J. Dippenaar, and T. J. Robinson. 1992.
Systematics and biogeography of the New England cottontail, Sylvilagus transitionalis (Bangs, 1895), with the description of a new species from theAppalachian Mountains. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 105:841-866.
Laerm, J. 1993. The elusive mountain rabbit. Georgia Wildlife
3(3):50-56.
Litvaitis, M. K., J. A. Litvaitis, W J. Lee, and T. D. Kocher. 1997.
Variation in the mitochondrial DNA of the Sylvilagus complex
occupying the northeastern United States. Can. J. Zool. 75:595-
605.
Written byJames c. Ozier
28

State Status: Endangered Federal Status: Endangered

Other Commonly Used Name(s): Florida manatee, manatee, sea cow

Description: Manatees are robust aquatic mammals. Adults average 350 cm (138 in) in length and 1000 kg (2,200 lbs) in weight, but may grow to just over 400 cm (157 in) and weigh just more than 1600 kg (3,520 lbs). Newborn calves are approximately 1 m (3.3 ft) long and weigh approximately 30 kg (66 lbs). The thick skin is sparsely haired, ranges in color from slate gray to light brown, and often may be covered by algae and/or barnacles. The head is rounded and indistinct from the body. Stiff vibrissae (tactile hairs) are present around the small mouth, and two circular valvular nostrils are situated on the top of the muzzle. The eyes are small with a small lid and nictitating membrane, a clear inner eyelid that protects the eye. External ear flaps are absent. Manatee pectoral flippers are flexible and aid in moving over the substrate, maneuvering in the water column, scratching, food manipulation, and even embracing other manatees. The large tail is rounded and horizontally flattened.
Range and Habitat: The range of Florida manatees (T. m. latirostris) varies seasonally and is dictated by energy constraints. During the winter, manatees are found in natural or

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
artificial warm water sites in Florida. However, during the summer manatees are more dispersed and are common residents in Georgia from March through October. Occasional sightings have been reported north of Georgia with the known northernmost location from Rhode Island. Louisiana is considered the western limit of the manatee's range along the Gulf Coast. Manatees are found in riverine, estuarine, and marine environments. They often use feeding areas with access to deep channels, or in secluded locations, particularly in sounds or near the mouths of coastal rivers. In Georgia, manatees are found throughout coastal salt marshes and may venture into large, freshwater rivers as far west as Interstate Highway 95. Manatees only rarely venture into the open ocean.

Diet: Plants such as sea grasses, water hyacinth, and hydrilla. In Georgia, marsh grass, pickerel-weed, and several species of marine alga such as green alga, or sea lettuce, and red alga.

Life History: Manatees see fairly well and are sensitive to audible and tactile cues. They communicate with a variety of high-pitched squeaks and chirps. Semi-social, these marine mammals can be found alone or in groups of two or more. Individuals are not territorial; ranges often overlap, with male ranges ("circuits") being larger and encompassing several female ranges. Manatees often return to the same wintering and summering habitats year after year. Females reach sexual maturity by 5 years of age and males by age 3-4; life-span can be more than 50 years. Breeding usually takes place in mating herds formed when several males are attracted to a female in
29

estrus. Mating herds may remain together for a few days to over a month, during which as many as 20 males may compete intensely for access to the focal female. Calving intervals vary but minimally are 2-2.5 years unless a calf dies or a fetus is aborted. However, calving intervals may be considerably longer depending on many factors. Calves remain with their mothers, from whom they are thought to learn about available resources, for 1-2 years after birth. Manatees have slow metabolic rates, making individuals at the northern limit of this species'range susceptible to cold weather. Florida manatees adapt to this limitation behaviorally through seasonal migrations and prefer water that is 20C (68 OF) or warmer.
Currently, there is no reliable method to determine the population size of manatees in the southeastern U.S. Minimum population size is determined by censusing manatees at known warm water aggregation sites following severe cold fronts in winter. In 1996, the minimum population size was 2,639 individuals, according to Florida Department of Environmental Protection (FDEP).
Threats/Comments: Manatees have no natural predators; however, they suffer from naturally occurring phenomena. Manatees can succumb to cold stress, a prominent cause of mortality in some years. In 1989, FDEP reported 46 manatee deaths were attributed to cold weather. Another natural threat is red tide. In 1996, 149 manatee deaths were attributed to a red tide outbreak in southwestern Florida. To a lesser degree, manatees can also suffer from disease, parasites, and other non-human related injuries. The greatest human-related threat to manatees is that of vessel collision. In 1996, 60 manatees were known to have been killed as a result of vessel collisions; of these, 24 were killed from propeller-inflicted injuries, and 30 were killed as the result of impact injuries. A few manatees have been crushed in flood gates or canal locks. Habitat destruction is also a problem for manatees.
From 1987 to 1997,25 manatees were found dead in Georgia; eight of these died as the result of human activities (3 were caught in shrimp trawls and 5 were struck by vessels), 6 died from natural causes, and the cause of death of the 11 remaining could not be determined.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: In Georgia, efforts are underway to identify areas used frequently by manatees. This information will be used to post informational signs in appropriate areas to alert boaters to the presence of manatees. Georgia's Coastal Zone Management Program will enhance funding available for public outreach efforts and encourage well-planned development along the Georgia coast. A long-term, photo-identification project has been initiated which may yield insights into the number of manatees using the coastal area of Georgia and potential shifts in those numbers.
Selected References:

Florida, 1974-1992. Pages 238-258 in T. I O'Shea, B. B. Ackerman, and H. F.Percival, eds. Population biology of the Florida manatee. Nat. Biol. Servo Info. and Tech. Report 1.

Baugh, T. I, I A Valade, B. I Zoodsma. 1989. Manatee use of
Spartina alterniflora in Cumberland Sound. Mar. Mamm. Sci.
5:88-89.

Bengtson, I 1. 1981. Ecology of manatees (Trichechus manatus)
in the St.Johns Rioer, Florida. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. Minnesota, Minneapolis. 126pp.

Hartman, D. S. 1979. Ecology and behavior of the manatee (Trichechus manatus) in Florida. Am. Soc. of Mamm. Spec. Publ.
5:1-153.

Irvine, A B. 1983. Manatee metabolism and its influence on distribution in Florida. Biol. Conserv. 25: 315-334.

Lefebvre, 267-269

1.
in

W, and T.I
Laroe, E. T.,

GO.'SSh.eFaa.rri1s9, 9e5..

Florida manatees. Pages E. Puckett, P. D. Doran,

and M. I Mac, eds.
on the distribution,

aObuunrdlainvcine,garensdouhrecaelst:haorfeup.osr.t

to the nation plants, ani-

mals, and ecosystems. Coastal & Marine Ecosystems. U.S. Dept.

Interior; Nat. BioI. Serv., Washington, D.C.

_ _. 1995. Age and reproduction in female Florida manatees.
Pages 98-119 in T.I O'Shea, B. B. Ackerman, and H. F. Percioal,
eds. Population biology of the Florida manatee. Nat. Bioi. Servo Info. and Tech. Report 1.
O'Shea, T. I, e. A Beck, R. K. Bonde, H. I. Kochman, and D. K.
Odell. 1985. An analysis of manatee mortality patterns in
Florida 1976-1981. I Wildl. Manage. 49:1-11.

Pouiell, I A, and G. B. Rathbun. 1984. Distribution and abun-
dance of manatees along the northern coast of the Gulfof Mexico. Northeast Gulf Science 7:1-28.

Rathbun, G. B., I P. Reid, R. K. Bonde, andI A Powell. 1995.
Reproduction in free-ranging Florida manatees. Pages 135-156 in
T.I O'Shea, B. B. Ackerman, and H. F. Percival, eds. Population
biology of the Florida manatee. Nat. Biol. Servo Info. and Tech. Report 1. ~ ~ and G. Carowan. 1990. Distribution and movement patterns of manatees (Trichechus manatus) in north-western peninsular Florida. Fla. Mar. Res. Pub. No 48. 33pp.

Reid, I P., R. K. Bonde, and T.I O'Shea. 1995. Reproduction and
mortality of radio tagged and recognizable manatees on the Atlanticcoast of Florida. Pages 171-191 in T.I O'Shea, B. B.
Ackerman, and H. F. Percival, eds. Population biology of the Florida manatee. Nat. Bioi. Servo Info. and Tech. Report 1.

~ andI R. Wilcox. 1991. Distribution patterns of individu-
ally identifiable West Indian manatees (Trichechus manatus) in
Florida. Mar. Mamm. Sci. 7:180-190.

Zoodsma, B. I 1991. Distribution and behavioral ecology of
manatees in southeastern Georgia. M.S. Thesis, Univ. Florida, Gainesville. 202pp.

Written by Barb Zoodsma

Ackerman, B. B., S. D. Wright, R. K. Bonde, D. K. Odell, and D. I
Banowetz. 1995. Trends and patterns in mortality of manatees in
30

31

State Status: Rare Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): Pine woods sparrow, piney woods sparrow

Description: The Bachman's sparrow is about 15 ern (6 in) in length with a long rounded tail. Adults have alternating reddish-brown and gray vertical stripes running down the back from the nape of the neck to the top of the rump. A conspicuous reddish-brown stripe runs well above the eye, near the crown, from the base of the beak to the back of the head. The cheek, throat, and upper breast are gray to buff. The lower breast and abdomen are lighter buff to whitish. Wing and tail feathers are reddish-brown. Legs are yellow to brownish-gray in color. The beak is grayish to dull grayish-brown. Immature swamp sparrows are very similar in appearance but will have black and brown striping on the back which does not extend up the neck, and a whitish chin with a thin black malar (mustache) stripe.
Range and Habitat: Bachman's sparrows are found throughout much of the southeastern United States in mature open pine woods, regenerating clearcuts, and old pastures with a dense ground cover of grasses (particularly wiregrass and brooms edge) and forbs, or palmetto scrub. They were once much more common and widely distributed, occurring
as far north as southwestern Pennsylvania, southern Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. In the late 1800s and early 1900s, their populations expanded northward, probably in response to creation of suitable habitat conditions as forests were cleared and
farms abandoned. In Georgia they are primarily found in the southern Piedmont and the Coastal Plain, with occasional reports from the northern Piedmont and mountains. They are often associated with open, mature pine forests where red -cockaded woodpeckers are found, since this habitat often provides the thick grassy ground cover the sparrow needs. Major concentrations of Bachman's sparrows occur in this habitat type at some quail plantations in the Red Hills region, at Ft. Benning and Ft.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Stewart Military Reservations, and at Piedmont and Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuges.
Diet: Invertebrates, including beetles, grasshoppers, crickets, millipedes, snails, and spiders; seeds of grasses (especially Panicum), sedges, and some forbs gleaned from the ground surface.
Life History: Territorial singing by males may start as early as February in the Coastal Plain and often continues through the summer. Singing activity declines as nesting progresses, though later increases as subsequent nesting attempts are made. Males will sing from the ground, low shrubs, and the lower branches of pine trees. Listening for the song of this sparrow is the easiest way to locate and identify it in the field, since they are similar in appearance to other sparrows which are found in the same habitat types, and are very secretive and usually difficult to see. The very distinctive song is a series of whistles and trills.
Nesting usually starts in March or April. The female lays 3-5 eggs in a nest she constructs at the base of a grass clump, small shrub, or pine seedling. The nest, made of grasses, forbs, and rootlets, is usually domed. The female does all the brooding and transfers food to the young while being fed on the nest by her mate. Eggs take 12-14 days to hatch and fledging occurs 9-10 days later. Within 3 weeks to a month after fledging, the young disperse from the natal area. This species will usually have two, and sometimes three, broods per year.

32

Threats/Comments: Bachman's sparrows have become increasingly rare with changes in agricultural and forestry practices. Much of this decline is probably due to conversion of grassy fields to row crops or intensively grazed pastures, as well as to denser stocking of pine seedlings, which has reduced the amount of habitat with grassy ground cover available for this species to use. Continued expansion of these practices to areas of suitable habitat will lead to further reduction of Bachman's sparrow populations. The federal Breeding Bird Survey has documented a 7 percent decrease per year in Bachman's sparrow populations over the last 30 years.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Generally, Bachman's sparrows are found in older pine stands (60-plus years) with widely spaced trees; however, maintaining lower basal areas within younger stands can provide suitable conditions for grass and forb growth, and consequently for the sparrows. Regular burning is needed in pine woods habitats, and often in fields, to keep shrubs and saplings from becoming too dense, thereby inhibiting herbaceous ground cover. A burning cycle of 3 years in pine woods habitat will usually give the best results.
Selected References: Burleigh, T. D. 1958. Georgia birds. Univ. Oklahoma Press, Norman. 746pp.
Dunning, J. B., and B. D. Watts. 1990. Regional differences in
habitat occupancy by Bachman's sparrow. Auk 107: 463-472. _ _. 1993. Bachman's sparrow. In A. Poole, P Stettenheim, and F. Gill, eds. The birds of North America, No. 38. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, and Amer. Omith. Union, Washington, DiC. Gobris, N. M. 1992. Habitat occupancy during the breeding season by Bachman's sparrow at Piedmont National Wildlife Refuge in Central Georgia. M.Sc. Thesis, Univ. Georgia, Athens. 45pp. Hunter, W C. 1990. Handbook for nongame bird management in the Southeast Region. U.S. Fish and Wild/. Serv., Atlanta, Ga. 178pp.
Written by Todd M. Schneider
33

State Status: Endangered Federal Status: Endangered

Other Commonly Used Name(s): Ivorybill, woodcock, logcock, woodchuck

Description: Known historically as North America's largest woodpecker, the ivory-billed woodpecker measures up to 50 em (20 in) in length and has a black body with a white stripe running down the side of the neck from the cheek to the shoulder. Both stripes continue from the shoulders and run down the back. When the bird is perched and the wings are folded against the body, a large white patch can be seen on the wing near the tip. Both sexes have a pale yellow or ivorycolored bill. The male has a red crest on the head, and the female has a black crest. In flight, this species is reported to fly smoothly and rapidly and does not exhibit the undulating flight pattern seen in the other woodpeckers. The top of the wing has a wide white stripe on the trailing edge. On the underside of the wing there are two wide white stripes, one on the leading edge and one on the trailing edge. The pileated woodpecker is often mistaken for the ivory-bill since it is a
very large woodpecker with similar color patterns. The pileated has a black body with a white stripe running down the side of the neck from the base of the bill to the shoulder and then to the flank of the breast. It also has a white throat patch and white stripe behind or above the eye. Both sexes have red crests, and the male has a red malar (mustache) stripe. The top of the wing is black with some white on the tips. The underside of the wing has a broad white stripe on the leading edge.
Range and Habitat: Ivory-billed woodpeckers were once found in the old-growth hardwood and
cypress swamps of the southeastern U.S. They

Cross-hatching indicates suspected historical range; apparently extirpated
preferred areas near sizeable numbers of dead or dying trees which provided them an abundant source of wood-boring insects. These trees were often upland pines adjacent to the swamps. Each pair of woodpeckers required up to 800 ha (2,000 acres) of habitat.
By 1939, only about 2 dozen ivory-billed woodpeckers were known to remain in the U.S. The last confirmed sighting was from the Singer Tract in Louisiana in the late 1940s, although there is some evidence suggesting that the ivory-bill may have existed in southwest Georgia in the 1950s. No estimates on historic abundance of this species exists; it was apparently reasonably common and considered a forest pest by many landowners.
Diet: Wood boring insects, especially the larvae of larger species of beetles (engraver beetles); also seeds, berries, and nuts.
Life History: The female lays a clutch of 2-3 eggs in a cavity approximately 4.5-22 m (15-70 ft) above the ground. Both adults incubate the eggs, with night-time incubation apparently the responsibility of the male. Eggs hatch at about 20 days and young birds fledge at 35-40 days.Young remain with their parents for up to 8 months.
Threats/Comments: Loss of mature bottomland forest in the late 1800s and early 1900s to intensive logging was probably responsible for decline of the ivory-billed woodpecker in the U.S., as was the shooting of these birds as forest pests. The species is considered by most experts to be extinct in the

34

u.s. and may also be extinct in Cuba, its last known
stronghold. Conservation and Management Recommendations: The last confirmed sighting of this species was from eastern Cuba in 1986, where a male and female were seen. If individuals of this species still exist in the U.S. or Cuba, it may be possible to recover populations through reintroduction or captive rearing efforts if suitable habitat can be found.
Selected References: Bent, A. C. 1964. Lifehistories of NorthAmerican woodpeckers. Dover Publ., NewYork. 334pp. Burleigh, T. D. 1958. Georgia birds. Univ. Oklahoma Press, Norman. 746pp. Ehrlich, P. R., D. S. Dobkin, and D. Wheye. 1988. The birder's handbook: a field guide to the natural history of North American birds. Simon & Schuster, NewYork. 785pp. and _ _. - - - I - - - I 1992. Birds in Jeopardy: the imperiled and extinct birds of the United States and Canada, including Hawaii and Puerto Rico. Stanford Univ. Press, Stanford, Calif 259pp. Loftin, R. W 1991. Ivory-billed woodpeckers reported in Okefenokee Swamp in 1941-42. Oriole 56(4)74-76.
Short, L. L., andJ. F.M. Horne. 1986. The ivorybill still lives.
Pages 26-28 in Nat. Hist. 95(7). Winkler, H., D.A. Christie, and D. Nurney. 1995. Woodpeckers: an identification guide to the woodpeckers of the world. Houghton Mifflin, NewYork. 406pp.
Written by Todd M. Schneider
35

State -Status: Threatened Federal Status: Threatened in U.S. except the Great Lakes population, which is endangered

Other Commonly Used Name(s): Ringneck, sand plover, clam bird, mourning bird

Description: Piping plovers are about 17.5 em (7 in) in length. The crown of the head, cheek, and back is a light, pallid, sandy-gray color, much like the color of beach sand. White on the forehead tapers into a white line that extends over the top of the eyes to the back of the head. The throat, breast, abdomen, and vent are white. The white of the throat extends around to the back of the neck as a thin collar. During breeding season, and often into winter, a black collarlike band occurs on the throat, and a black band extends over the top of the forehead from eye to eye. The bill is yellow to orange with a black tip, although sometimes completely black during winter. Legs are yellow to orange-yellow in color. A distinct white rump patch is visible during flight; other small plovers lack this distinctive field mark. The semipalmated plover (Charadrius semipalmatus) is similar in appearance but has a darker brown plumage on the head and back, and a wide brown or black collar on the neck. The snowy plover (c. alexandrinus) is very similar to the piping plover but has dark legs and is very rare in Georgia.
Range and Habitat: This species breeds in the northern Great Plains of the U.S. and Canada in alkali wetlands and along the larger rivers, on the beaches of Lake Superior and Lake Michigan, and on the northeast Atlantic coast from Newfoundland south to northern North Carolina.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Wintering areas include the southeast Atlantic Coast from North Carolina to central Florida, the Gulf Coast from Florida to south Texas,portions of the Gulf Coast from south Texas to the Yucatan Peninsula, several Caribbean islands, and a small area along the northern Gulf of California. Barrier islands of Georgia and South Carolina are used as major wintering areas. Habitats include beaches, mudflats, sandflats, and tidal ponds that are periodically inundated by water from high tide.
Diet: Invertebrates, including marine worms, fly larvae, beetles, crustaceans and mollusks.

Life History: Along the Atlantic, nest sites include open sand, gravel, or shell-covered beaches or flats above the high tide line. Inland populations nest on sandy or gravel beaches adjacent to
large alkali lakes, on beaches and sandflats associated with rivers, and on the gravel beaches of Lake Superior and Lake Michigan. The nest is a small depression scraped in the ground, lined with pebbles or small pieces of shells. Clutches usually consist of four eggs laid within 6 days. Both sexes take part in incubation, which lasts about 25-28 days. The precocial young are able to leave the nest with the adult pair and feed within a few hours of hatching. The young remain with the adults for approximately one month.
Piping plovers feed in intertidal areas of beaches, mudflats, sandflats, shorelines of coastal ponds, lagoons, and salt marshes. Most of their feeding activity is concentrated during daylight hours, but they have been known to feed at night.
36

Threats/Comments: The greatest threats to nesting piping plovers are loss of nesting habitat to beachfront development; destruction of adults, nests, and young by humans and vehicles; disturbance by humans and pets; and predation by wild, feral, and domesticated animals. Beach-front development often directly eliminates habitat, while associated activities such as construction of sea walls, jetties, and other beach stabilizing structures reduce the natural forces which maintain, renew; and create piping plover habitat. Inadvertent destruction occurs when nests or birds are stepped on or driven over. In addition, people, pets, and vehicles traveling in the vicinity of nests can lead to abandonment by the adult plovers.
Along the migratory pathway, and on the wintering grounds, loss of critical stopover and wintering sites can greatly reduce the survival rate of individuals by increasing the distance between"refueling" stops (stopover sites) and increasing competition with other piping plovers and shorebird species. These birds are also susceptible to disturbance by humans, pets, and vehicular traffic, which often cause repeated flushing, thus depleting vital fat reserves needed for successful migration.
Range-wide surveys of piping plovers were conducted in 1991 and 1996 during breeding season and in winter. Nesting pairs in the Atlantic (U.S. and Canada) numbered 938 (1991) and 1,241 (1996); in the Great Lakes, 17 (1991) and 21 (1996); in the Great Plains and Prairie (U.S. and Canada), 1,486 (1991) and 1,377 (1996). Winter surveys documented 178 (1991) and 283 (1996) individuals in the Atlantic; 3,206 (1991) and 2,416 (1996) in the Gulf of Mexico, 27 (1991) and 16 (1996) in Mexico, and 40 (1991) and 83 (1996) in the Caribbean.
Georgia's coast provides habitat for a significant number of the birds which winter on the Atlantic Coast. A total of 124 piping plovers were documented on Georgia beaches during a one-day 1996 survey; a similar survey in 1997 documented 123 piping plovers in Georgia, 42 of which were on Egg Island Bar. This is the greatest concentration seen on any of Georgia's barrier islands.
During the winter surveys in 1997 and 1998, 20 banded piping plovers originating from the Great Lakes region were confirmed from Georgia's coast. Since only 24 breeding pairs of the endangered Great Lakes population of piping plovers are known to exist, the barrier islands of Georgia, especially those within the Altamaha Delta, are a very significant wintering area for these birds.

Selected References:
Burleigh, T. D. 1958. Georgia birds. Univ. Oklahoma Press, Norman. 746pp.
Cairns, W E. 1982. Biology and behavior of breeding piping plovers. Wilson Bull. 94:531-545.
Haig, S. M. 1992. Piping plover. The birds of North America, No.2. In A Poole, P Stettenheim, and F. Gill, eds. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, and Amer. Ornith. Union, Washington, D.c.
-------' andJ. H. Plissner. 1993. Distribution and abundance of
piping plovers: results of the 1991 international census. Condor 95:145-156.
Hecht, A, D. Arvin, S. Melvin,J. Nicholls, C. Raithel, and K.
Terwilliger. 1995. Piping plover (Charadrius melodus) Atlantic Coast population revised recovery plan. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Sero., Hadley, Mass. 225pp.
Nicholls, J. L. and G. A Baldassarre. 1990. Winter distribution
of piping plovers along theAtlantic and Gulf Coasts of the United States. Wilson Bull. 102:400-412.
-------' and _ _. 1990. Habitat selection and interspecific associations of pipingplovers along theAtlantic and Gulf Coasts of the United States. Wilson Bull. 102:581-590.
Written by Todd M. Schneider

Conservation and Management Recommendations: On the breeding grounds this species has been protected by excluding people, pets, and vehicles from nesting areas during the breeding season. Wire enclosures have been used to protect nests from predators where predation is a problem. Entire public beaches have been closed in Massachusetts to protect nests and young from disturbance. Identifying and protecting important migratory stopover and wintering sites as well as the birds on these sites will ensure opportunities to breed in subsequent years.

37

State Status: Rare Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): Thick-billed plover

Description: The adult Wilson's plover is about 17.5-20.0 cm (7-8 in) in length. The crown of its head, cheek, back, and top of the wings are brown. The white on the forehead tapers into a line that extends over the top of the eye to the back of the head. The throat, breast, abdomen, and underside of the wings are white, with a white collar extending to the back of the neck. During breeding season, the male has a broad black collar-like band on the lower throat; this band is brown on the female and the non-breeding adult male. The male also has a black patch on the top of the forehead. The bill of both sexes is black and is large for a medium-sized plover. Legs are pinkish to fleshy-gray in color. Juveniles look very similar to adult females. The semipalmated plover and killdeer can be confused with Wilson's plover. However, the semipalmated plover is slightly smaller with a much shorter bill and orange legs, and the killdeer is a much larger bird with two black collar bands and a rust-colored tail.
Range and Habitat: Wilson's plovers are found breeding on the Atlantic Coast from New Jersey to northern South America and the Caribbean Islands and on the Pacific Coast from California to Panama and northern South America, where they nest on open beaches, sandflats, and on sand spits at the mouths of the larger rivers. Most winter from Florida and the Gulf Coast, and Baja, California, to northern South America; however, a few overwinter on Georgia's barrier islands.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known nesting occurrences
Diet: Crustaceans, especially fiddler crabs, shrimp, insects, and spiders.
Life History: This species nests on beaches above the high tide line in sandflats and dunes where the sand is interspersed with small pieces of broken shells and pebbles. Nests are depressions in the sand that are scraped out by the male, often near clumps of grass, small shrubs, or similar vegetation. The nest is usually downwind from this sparse vegetation, which acts as a windbreak.
Migrants arrive from the wintering grounds from mid-March through early May. Courtship and breeding usually starts soon after migrants arrive, with nest construction being reported as early as mid-April. Females lay 2-4 eggs, with three eggs the normal clutch size. Incubation takes about 24-28 days. Adults share incubation duties as well as feeding and caring of the young. Most daytime incubation is done by the female, while the majority of night-time incubation is done by the male. The young are thought to become independent after about 21 days, although this has never been confirmed.

Threats/Comments: Loss of nesting habitat to beachfront development; destruction of adults, nests, and young by humans and vehicles; disturbance by humans and pets; and predation by wild, feral, and domesticated animals are the greatest threats to this species. Wilson's plovers are particularly vulnerable to disturbance by humans and pets since several of the sand spits and small barrier islands used as nesting sites are used heavily by recreational boaters as picnic and rest

areas. Heavy foot traffic in the vicinity of nests may lead to abandonment by the adults. Pets, particularly dogs, may kill adults and young or destroy the eggs.
Surveys of Georgia's barrier islands in 1980 estimated that about 360 pairs of Wilson's plovers bred on Georgia's coast. More detailed studies of selected islands in 1986-87 suggested that the number of breeding pairs declined approximately 50 percent from 1980. No range-wide estimates of Wilson plover populations are available.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Protection of breeding habitat, reduction of disturbance by humans, and reduction of predation are needed to ensure this species' survival. In some locations, closure of beaches to public access during the breeding season may be warranted. Trapping of raccoons and other beach predators also may be needed in the future.
Selected References: Bent, A. C. 1968. Life histories of NorthAmerican shorebirds. Dover Publ., NewYork. 412pp. Bergstrom, P. W 1988. Breeding biology of Wilson's plovers. Wi[son Bull. 100(1): 25-35. Burleigh, T. D. 1958. Georgia birds. Univ. Oklahoma Press, Norman. 746pp. Corbat, C.A. 1990. Nesting ecology of selected beach-nesting birds in Georgia. Ph.D. Diss., Univ. Georgia, Athens. 174pp.
Hayman, P, J. Marchant, and T. Prater. 1986. Shorebirds: an
identification guide. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 412pp.
Rappole, J. H. 1981. Management possibilities for beach-nesting shorebirds in Georgia. Pages 114-126 in R. R. Odum andJ. W
Guthrie, eds. Proc. nongame and endangered wildlife symposium. Georgia Dept. Nat. Resources Tech. Bulletin WL 5. Tomkins, 1. R. 1944. Wilson's plover in its summer home. Auk 61:259-269.
Written by Todd M. Schneider
39

State Status: Rare Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): American raven, northern raven

Description: The common raven is the largest member of the crow family with a length of 54.6- 68.5 cm (21.5-27 in) and a wingspan of 117-142 cm (46-56 in). This totally glossy black bird is much larger and heavier than the American crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos) and can further be distinguished from the latter by its longer wings and its long, wedge-shaped or rounded tail. The crow has a shorter, more squared tail. In addition, the common raven has longer, thicker and shaggier feathers on the throat and chin and a longer heavier"Roman nose"bill. The flight of the raven is more hawk-like than crow-like, for it alternates flapping and gliding, can hover like an American kestrel and is capable of diving from great heights and performing aerial acrobatics such as tumbling and rolling. The call of the raven has been described as a loud and deep guttural croaking or a low, drawn-out croak.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences

Range and Habitat: Common ravens are found primarily along seacoasts and in mountains from northwestern Alaska and northern Greenland, south through the western U.S. and Mexico to Nicaragua, central and eastern North America to Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Ontario, Quebec, and Maine, south to the Appalachians in Georgia. It is generally absent from the Mississippi Valley and Gulf and Atlantic coastal

plains. The raven is found in a wide variety of habitats, including rocky seacoasts, steep canyons, dense boreal forests, foothills, mountains, deserts, and Arctic Tundra; however, in Georgia it is rarely encountered below 1,067 m (3,500 ft) in the mountains of the northeastern part of the state and usually in the vicinity of rocky and remote cliffs. In other states in the western portion of its range, where the populations of ravens are substantially larger, it is encountered in campgrounds, picnic areas, and garbage dumps even though this bird is considered shy and wary.

Diet: Carrion, garbage, small mammals, berries, nuts, insects, frogs, tadpoles, crayfish, young birds, eggs, and many other food items.

Life History: In the southern Appalachians, nests are usually built on rocky cliff ledges, on the sides of well-shaded cliffs, or in rock crevices; they are rarely built in the tops or crotches of trees. These large bulky nests of sticks and twigs, 61-91 em (2-3 ft) high and 122 cm (4 ft) across, are thickly lined with soft materials such as deer hair, hog hair, rabbit fur, bark shreds, dry mosses, grasses, and lichens. Five or more greengray or light green eggs with black or brown blotches are laid from early March to late April and incubated by the female raven for 18-20 days. The female is fed by the male while incubating the eggs; however, both parents feed the young for 35-42 days after hatching. There is only one brood per season.
A University of Georgia survey in 1981 recorded only nine ravens in Georgia, two on Brasstown Bald (Towns County) and seven on Rabun Bald (Rabun County). They
40

have previously been recorded on Hightower Bald (Towns County). More recently, one pair of ravens nested near Brasstown Bald for at least four consecutive years.
Threats/Comments: Ravens may have never been abundant in Georgia, and habitat loss could easily extirpate the species here since they prefer to inhabit the wildest and most rugged high elevation mountain country of northeastern Georgia in Rabun, Towns, and Union counties. Also, they prefer to nest far from human habitation; as residential development and small farms move into these areas, the gradual disappearance of the raven from Georgia is a possibility.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Both crows and ravens have been persecuted in the eastern U.S., but ravens have declined while crows have increased. This may in part be because ravens annually reused nest sites and were very easy to find. In general, ravens are very rare in comparison to their close relatives such as crows and jays, and efforts must be made to locate the ravens' present nest sites and associated habitat and to ensure their protection especially from human disturbance during the breeding season.

Selected References:
Bent, A. e. 1988. Life histories of North American jays, crows
and titmice. Dover Publ., Mineola, NY 495pp.
Burleigh, T. D. 1958. Georgia birds. Univ. Oklahoma Press, Norman. 746pp.
Ehrlich, P R., D. S. Dobkin, and D. Wheye. 1988. The birder's handbook. Simon & Schuster, NewYork. 785pp.
Hamel, P B. 1992. The land manager's guide to the birds of the South. The Nature Conservancy, Chapel Hill, Ne. 437pp.
Henrich, B. 1989. Ravens in winter. Summit Books, NewYork. 379pp.
Hunter, W e. 1990. Handbook for nongame bird management in
the Southeast Region. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Atlanta, Ga. 178pp.
Imhof, T. A. 1976. Alabama birds. Univ. Alabama Press, 445pp.
Peterson, R. T. 1980. A field guide to the birds: Eastern and Central NorthAmerica. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 384pp.
Rappole, J. H. 1981. Raven. Pages 978-982 in J. Laerm, ed. A
survey of the status, distribution, and abundance of potentially threatened and endangered species. Part III: the birds. Georgia Dept. Nat. Resources, Atlanta.
Terres, J. K. 1980. The Audubon Society encyclopedia of North
American birds. AlfredA. Knopf, NewYork. 1109pp.
Terrill, S. B. 1983. Common raven. Pages 322-323 in J. Farrand,
ed. The Audubon Society master guide to birding 2: gulls to dippers. Alfred A. Knopf, NewYork.

Written by Dr. Jerry A. Payne

41

State Status: Endangered Federal Status: Endangered

Other Commonly Used Name(s): Jack-pine warbler, jackpine bird

Description: Kirtland's warbler is a small songbird 15 cm (6 in) in length with a bluish gray back with dark streaks. Females have a slight brownish tint to the feathers on their backs near the shoulders. The throat, chest, and abdomen of both sexes are yellow with black streaking or spotting on the flanks. The immature individual has a brown back. A distinct white eye-ring is very noticeable on adult males, although somewhat less apparent on adult females and immature birds. This eye-ring is broken by a very faint, thin black stripe that runs horizontally through the middle of the eye. Kirtland's warbler resembles the Canada warbler; however, the latter has a yellow eye ring, a small yellow area at the base of the top of the beak, and a "necklace" of black streaking on the throat. The Canada warbler lacks the dark streaking on the back found on Kirtland's warbler. A second warbler similar in appearance is the magnolia warbler, which has black streaking from the throat down along the sides, white wing bars, a white line over the eye, and yellow rump; males have a black "mask"in breeding plumage. One behavioral cue that sets the Kirtland's warbler apart from the other gray-backed warblers is a tendency to bob or wag its tail.
Range and Habitat: Kirtland's warblers nest in northern Lower Michigan in large stands, normally 200 hectares (500 acres) or more, of young jack pine that are 6-15 years old, 1.56 m (5-20 ft) in height, and surrounded by extensive areas of pine forest. This species winters in the Bahamas and may travel through Georgia during migration. Only a few seasonal occurrences of this species have been recorded for Georgia, although very few records exist for any state along its migratory pathway. Migration occurs between late April

Dots indicate counties with sightings duringmigration
and mid May in spring, and during late August through early October in fall. The species is almost always solitary on the wintering grounds.
Diet: Centipedes, caterpillars, sawfly adults and larvae, grasshopper nymphs, flying moths, deerflies, horseflies, crickets, blueberries, and pine sap in summer; berries and insects in winter.
Life History: Females construct nests on the ground from sedges, pine needles, and small twigs, and line them with rootlets, deer hair, moss, and grassy fibers. Three to five eggs are laid within 5-6 days. Incubation takes 13-15 days and is done by the female, with the male carrying food to her on the nest. Fledging occurs about 9-10 days after hatching, and independence from the parents usually occurs within one
month.

42

reducing the amount of fire-dependent jack pine breeding habitat that is regenerated. Recent recovery efforts have concentrated on creating more suitable jack pine habitat. Currently the wintering habitat in the Bahamas seems to be secure, but future development could impact the scrub and pine forests used by this species. Brown-headed cowbirds are thought to be a major factor in the decline of the Kirtland's warbler in this century, particularly in the 1970s and 1980s. The cowbird, a brood parasite, lays one or more of its eggs in the warbler's nest, leaving the egg and offspring to be reared by the warbler. The warbler is incapable of distinguishing the cowbird chick(s) from its own young, and the young cowbirds are larger and able to out-compete the young warblers when they hatch. Young warblers often die of starvation or are forced out of the nest.
Surveys of singing males showed significant declines in numbers from 1961 when there were 502, to 1974 when only 167 were found. Yearly surveys throughout the 1970s and 1980s recorded from 167 to 232 singing males. By the early 1990s numbers abruptly increased, a trend which has continued to the present with numbers exceeding 700 the last few years. Much of this increase can be attributed to increases in habitat after a large fire.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Prescribed burning is an important management tool used to regenerate and maintain young jack pine habitat. Planting of jack pine is also used to create habitat in suitable areas. Another important tool is cowbird trapping and removal, which is thought to have contributed significantly to increases in the Kirtland's warbler population in recent years. Better knowledge of the migratory pathway, critical stopover areas and winter habitats will help long-term conservation of this species.

Selected References:
Mayfield, H. F. 1960. The Kirtland's warbler. Cranbrook Inst. Sci., Bloomfield Hills, Mich. 242pp.
_ _. 1992. Kirtland's warbler. In A. Poole, P. Stettenheim, and F. Gill, eds. The birds of North America, No. 19. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, and Amer. Omith. Union, Washington, D.C.
Radabaugh, B. E. 1974. Kirtland's warbler in its Bahama wintering ground. Wilson Bull. 86: 374-383.
Sykes, P. W Jr. 1989. Kirtland's warbler on the wintering grounds in the Bahamas Archipelago: a preliminary report. Page 28 in Proc. Kirtland's warbler symposium. U.SDA. For. Serv., Lansing, Mich.
------J and M. H. Clench 1998. Winter habitat of Kirtland's warbler: an endangered nearcticlneotropical migrant. Wilson Bull. 110: 244-261.
Walkinshaw, L. H. 1983. Kirtland's warbler: the natural history of an endangered species. Cranbrook Inst. Sci., Bloomfield Hills, Mich. 207pp.
Written by Todd M. Schneider

43

State ,Status: Rare Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): Fork-tailed kite, swallow-tailed hawk, American swallow-tail, snake hawk.

Description: This large kite is easily identified by its striking black and white plumage and deeply forked tail. Known for its extraordinary aerial grace, it can be distinguished even at great distances by the unique silhouette and seemingly effortless flight. These kites rarely flap their wings but continually rotate their tail as they fly low over forests, open areas, or marshes in search of small snakes, frogs, and flying insects. The wings are long, narrow, and pointed, black above with white wing linings below, and may reach a span of 127 ern (50 in). Swallow-tailed kites are 48-61 em (19-24 in) in length with a distinctive black forked tail which is 30-38 cm (12-15 in) in length. The back is black, and the head and underparts are snow-white. The sexes are indistinguishable by plumage or size. Prior to fall migration, young of the year can be distinguished from adult birds by noticeably shorter tails and lack of wing feather molt.
Range and Habitat: Current breeding range in the US. is contained in just seven states and is restricted to riparian habitats throughout peninsular Florida and associated with
major river systems of the lower coastal plains of South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. Prior to the early 1900s, nesting was known to occur in as many as 21 states including most of Florida, the southeastern US. coastal region, and throughout the Mississippi Valley as far north as Minnesota.

Shading indicates probable breeding range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
A sharp decline from 1880 to 1940 resulted in the current, greatly reduced breeding range. Suggested reasons for decline include agricultural development, logging of bottomland forests, and shooting. In the southeastern US., nesting and foraging habitats include bottomland forests associated with major river drainages, cypress and mixed cypress-hardwood swamps, hardwood hammocks, pine flatwoods and pine forests bordering riparian areas, freshwater and brackish marshes, wet prairies, sloughs and bayous, and mangrove. Key features include an uneven forest canopy, very tall pine or cypress trees as preferred nest sites, and open areas, including cut over areas, for foraging.
Diet: Insects such as dragonflies, butterflies, and beetles; snakes, frogs, lizards, nestling birds and less frequently bats, fruit, and small fish.

Life History: Swallow-tailed kites are present in Georgia only during the spring and summer. After arriving in late March from the wintering grounds in northern South America, adults establish territories and begin nest building. Nests are typically shallow, made of small sticks loosely held together and lined with lichens and Spanish moss. Size is approximately 50 by 40 em (20 by 16 in). In late March and April, females lay an average of two eggs which are smooth and creamy white or white with brown markings. Incubation begins as soon as the first egg is laid, and hatching is asynchronous. The incubation period lasts 24-28 days, with the responsibility of incubating the eggs shared by both sexes but predominantly by the female. Only one nesting attempt per
44

nesting season is known. Nest distribution appears to be somewhat clumped in "loose neighborhoods," and one or two extra nonbreeding adults are present at most nests beginning with territory establishment. The relationship of these birds to the breeders is unknown.
Communal night roosts of several to 30 kites are common during nesting, and large pre-migration communal roosts have been described in Florida. As many as 1,250 swallow-tailed kites have been observed near Lake Okechobee prior to fall migration. Kites are frequently seen foraging in groups of 3-20 birds or more, with the largest known group in Georgia estimated at a minimum of 52 birds observed foraging
with a group of Mississippi kites (Ictinia mississipiensis) over a
hay field just north of the Altamaha River. These large, graceful kites are aerial wizards and often catch and eat their prey while flying. Following the breeding season, most kites depart from the U.S. by mid-September.
Threats/Comments: Loss of nesting, foraging, and roosting habitat from drainage of marshes and conversion of bottomland forests are the major threats to the species. Although nesting kites are relatively inaccessible and somewhat tolerant of human activity, roosting kites do not tolerate disturbance and are vulnerable to harassment.

Selected References:
Burleigh, T. D. 1958. Georgia birds. Univ. Oklahoma Press, Norman.
Cely, J. E. andJ. A. Sorrow. 1990. The American swallow-tailed
kite in South Carolina. Nongame and Heritage Trust Fund Publ. 1. South Carolina Wildl. and Mar. Resour. Dept., Columbia, S.c.
Meyer, K. D., and M. W Collopy. 1990. Status, distribution, and habitat requirements of theAmerican swallow-tailed kite (Elanoides forficatus) in Florida. Final Report, Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Comm., Tallahassee.
_ _. 1995. Swallow-tailed kite (Elanoides forficatus). In A. Poole, and F. Gill, eds. The birds of North America, No. 138. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, and Amer. Omith. Union, Washington, D.C.
Written by Emily Jo Williams

Conservation and Management Recommendations: The swallow-tailed kite is absent from 95 percent of its former range. The U.S. population is estimated at 800-1,150 pairs, or about 3,200-4,600 individuals at the end of the breeding season. Florida likely supports the majority of the population with probably no more than 100 pairs in each of the other southeastern states in the current breeding range. Areas possibly as large as 40,469 ha (100,000 acres) containing diverse riparian forest, upland pine edge, and open foraging areas are required to support viable populations. Areas capable of supporting kite populations now and in the future, especially associated with large river and creek systems, must be identified and cooperatively managed to provide suitable habitat conditions for nesting and foraging. Key roosting sites must also be protected. Conservation of swallow-tailed kites must involve lands actively managed for forestry and other uses in addition to wilderness areas and other public lands. A regional approach will best address the long-term needs of the species.

45

State Status: Endangered Federal Status: Endangered

Other Commonly Used Name(s): Great-footed hawk, American peregrine, duck hawk, wandering falcon

Description: These raptors are 38-53 cm (15-21 in) in length with long pointed wings which may reach 112 em (44 in) in span. The tail is long and narrow with a dark subterminal band. Mature birds are slate gray on the back and have a light breast with dark markings on the belly. The cap and nape are black, and a black mustache extends below the eye forming a distinctive dark helmet. Females are noticeably larger than males. Immature birds are browner and heavily streaked on the breast.

Range and Habitat: Peregrines are found throughout the U.S., including Alaska. The nest, or eyrie, is normally located on a high, inaccessible cliff ledge where the young are safe from predators. Adults hunt for food over the surrounding countryside and may range over 83 km (50 mi) in a single day. Peregrines have adapted to new habitats provided by cities, and many pairs now nest on city buildings and bridges and forage in surrounding urban areas. The peregrine's historic nesting range in Georgia was in the extreme northern part of the state, with the last known wild nest in Cloudland Canyon (Dade County) in the early 1940s. Peregrines are occasionally seen throughout Georgia, particularly on the coast during migration and winter. Georgia is the southern limit of the historic breeding range of this species.

Shading indicates wintering range and major migratory pathway Dots indicate counties with known nesting occurrences
Diet: Birds caught on the wing, including pigeons, shorebirds, various songbirds, and occasionally waterfowl.
Life History: These falcons typically mate for life, but will find a new mate if one is lost. On average, 3 eggs are laid at the nest site, which is usually a shallow, scraped depression high on a rocky cliff. The eggs hatch after about 32 days,and the young are fed by both parents. The young fly after about 6 weeks, but remain dependent upon their parents for several more-weeks as they develop their hunting skills. Falcons usually do not attempt to nest during their first year of life and may wait until they are 3 or 4 years old. In Georgia, nesting occurs in late March or early April.
When feeding, these falcons commonly take their prey by swift pursuit or a very fast"stoop" ending in a powerful punch from the talons which sends the prey tumbling to the ground. These stoops have been estimated at 333 kmph (200 mph), giving the peregrine the distinction as the fastest bird in the world. Peregrines occasionally take waterfowl and are sometimes called"duck hawks."

Threats/Comments: Historically, an estimated 400 pairs of peregrines nested in the eastern U.S. Although shooting, egg collection and nest disturbance were detrimental to this species, it was primarily due to the effects of DDT (dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane) that the population declined until there were no known peregrines nesting in the east by the late 1950s. A pesticide which is very effective at controlling insects that damage agricultural crops, DDT was widely used in the 1940s and 1950s. The chemical causes physiological problems

in birds such as bald eagles, ospreys, brown pelicans, and peregrine falcons. Contamination of the foods of these birds and accumulation of DDT compounds in their tissues cause thinning of their eggs, and very few eggs hatch successfully. Lack of successful reproduction caused the peregrine falcon population to crash.
Although DDT was banned in North America in 1972, peregrines continue to encounter this and other deadly toxins south of the U.S. border during migration and wintering. Successful nesting occurs today, though some populations continue to have eggshells thinner than those found prior to widespread use of DDT. Tissue samples of birds overwintering in Latin America indicate high levels of DDT compounds. In addition to these continued problems, the primary threat to peregrine falcons today is the expanding human population and the associated loss of suitable undisturbed natural nesting and foraging areas.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Several hundred peregrines have been released at numerous sites in the eastern United States since 1972, and the population has been partially restored. Successful nesting resumed in 1980. The eastern U.S. population now numbers about 180 pairs; about half of these are in cities or on nesting towers in coastal marshes.
Between 1987 and 1993, 22 peregrines were released at Mt. Yonah, Bell Mountain, and Tallulah Gorge in northeastern Georgia; at Cloudland Canyon in northwestern Georgia; and in downtown Atlanta from the Georgia Power building. A male peregrine released in Atlanta in 1989 established a territory and attracted a mate to Atlanta in 1992. Although their initial attempt to nest was unsuccessful, they raised three young from a downtown Atlanta hotel in 1996 and three young from an adjacent building in 1997. Cloudland Canyon and Tallulah Gorge offer the best natural areas for nesting. In 1998, three young were lost to trichomoniasis, which was probably contracted by eating mourning doves and/or rock doves. Four young were successfully fledged in 1999.

Selected References:
Boynton, A. C. 1990. Survey techniques for peregrine falcons in the Southeast. Pages 218-222 in Proc. Southeast raptor management symposium and workshop. Natl. Wildl. Fed., Washington,
nc.
Cade, T. I, I H. Enderson, L. F. Kiff and C. M. White. 1997. Are
there enough good data tojustify de-listing theAmerican peregrine falcon? Wildl. Soc. Bull. 25:730-738.
----I _ _ r C. G. Thelander, and C. M. White. 1988. Peregrine falcon populations: theirmanagement and recovery. The Peregrine Fund, Inc., Boise, Idaho.
_ _. 1985. Peregrine recovery in the United States. Pages 331-342 in I. Newton and R. D. Chancellor, eds. Conservation studies on raptors. Proc. of the Second World Con! on Birds of Prey. Thesealoniki, Greece.
Jullien, M. andI M. Thiollay. 1996. Effects of rain forest distur-
bance andfragmentation: comparative changes of the raptor community along natural and man-made gradients in French Guiana. Journal of Biogeography 23:1-25.
Pagel, I E. and n A. Bell. 1997. Reply to Cade et al. regarding
de-listing theAmerican peregrine falcon. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 25:
739-742.
----I _ _ and B. E. Norton. 1996. De-listing theAmerican peregrine falcon: Is it premature? Wildl. Soc. Bull. 24:429-435.
Ratcliffe, D. 1980. The peregrine falcon. Buteo Books, Vermillion,
s.n 416pp.
Sherrod, S. K. 1983. Behavior offledgling peregrines. The Peregrine Fund, Inc., Ithaca, N.Y 202pp.
Written by Emily Jo Williams

47

State Status: Rare Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): Mantled oystercatcher, sea crow, brown-backed oystercatcher

Description: This large, boldly patterned shorebird reaches 40-44 cm (16-17 in) in length. Its dark brown back contrasts with a black head and neck, red eye-ring and yellow iris to make it distinctive from other shorebirds. The underside of the body is white, the legs are a pale flesh color, and the flattened 10 cm (4 in) bill is deep orange to red with a yellowish tip. The tip of the bill is blunt and chisel-like, aiding in the opening of shellfish. Interestingly, eye color has been noted to darken with age, aiding researchers in the aging of these birds.
As is common among oystercatchers, American oystercatchers are sexually dimorphic, the female being larger and heavier than the male. An adult female typically weighs as much as 638 gm (22.5 oz), while the average adult male might weigh 567 gm (20 oz). Adult plumage does not vary from female to male.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known nestingoccurrences

Range and Habitat: American oystercatchers inhabit coastal beaches. The breeding range of the eastern race extends from Massachusetts to southern Florida, along the Gulf Coast from Florida to Mexico. Permanent, year-round residents can be found in the Bahamas and islands in the Caribbean. A western population is found from Baja California south to Argentina and Chile in South America.
The American oystercatcher has been documented nesting on marsh islands, upland dunes, beaches and dredge spoils in the northern parts of its range. In Georgia preferred

nesting habitat is the broad sandy berms or flats that are found on barrier islands, often at the northern or southern ends of the island or at the tips of spits near inlets. American oystercatchers have also been documented nesting on dredged material disposal sites and oyster shell mounds. This species nests on all of Georgia's undeveloped barrier islands, although with varying success. In some states, marsh islands are preferred, while in others sand dunes and dredge spoils seem to attract more nesters. Very little is known about the migration habits of this species. When nesting season is completed, large flocks can be seen from Virginia south into South Carolina. Most birds from the northern portion of the range are believed to winter in Virginia and further south. Flocks of 50-60 birds are seen in Georgia in winter.

Diet: Crabs, marine worms; oysters and other mollusks.

Life History: Oystercatchers reach reproductive maturity at 3-4 years of age. Females usually lay 2-3 eggs about 24-36 hours apart. Incubation requires 24-27 days and both sexes participate. If the first clutch is destroyed, oystercatchers may lay a replacement clutch of two eggs within about 2 weeks. Oystercatchers are solitary nesters and defend nesting territories, but the size of the territory varies with habitat characteristics. Many oystercatchers nest among colonies of royal terns, least terns and black skimmers in Georgia and throughout their nesting range. Breeding pairs have been observed to mate for several consecutive years/and it is possible many mate for life although individual males and females have been
48

known to switch their loyalties. The life span is expected to be 10-20 years.
Notable behavioral characteristics of the American oystercatcher are frequent preening, a tendency to walk rather than fly, and deft foraging techniques. Adept at locating open mussels and oysters, an American oystercatcher will quickly stab the bivalve and separate the top and bottom halves, consuming the soft contents. If no open mussels or oysters are found, the bird may isolate an individual mussel and force the halves apart by hammering at the connecting"chain"with its strong bill. The oystercatcher also uses its bill for digging and prying other clams and worms out of the sand.
Threats: Egg collection, predation of chicks and young, habitat loss, and disturbance of nests by humans and domestic animals have traditionally been significant threats to the American oystercatcher, rendering the species scarce in the mid-1800s. Researchers attribute a current slow population rebound to the passage of the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918, which outlawed hunting and collection of eggs. However, disturbance and urban development continue to threaten this bird. Surveys completed in the early and mid1980s suggest this species is declining in Georgia.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Nest protection and conservation of breeding and foraging habitat are vital if American oystercatchers are to continue to use Georgia's coast. Control of mammalian predators may be necessary in some areas.
Selected References:
Corbai, CA. 1990. Nesting ecology of selected beach-nesting birds in Georgia. Ph.D. Dissertation, Univ. Georgia, Athens. 174pp.
]ohnsgard, P A. 1981. The plovers, sandpipers, and snipes of the taorld. Univ. Nebraska Press, Lincoln. 493pp.
Nol, E.,and R. C. Humphrey. 1994. American Oystercatcher (Haematopus palliatus). In A. Poole and F. Gill, eds. The birds of North America, No. 82. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia; andAmer. Omith. Union, Washington, D.C.
Rappole, J.H. 1981. Management possibilities for beach-nesting shorebirds in Georgia. Pages 114-126 in R.R. Odom, andJ. W
Guthrie, eds. Proc. nongame and endangered wildlife symposium. Georgia Dept. Nat. Resources Tech. Bulletin WL5.
Written by Michael J. Harris
49

State Status: Endangered Federal Status: Threatened

Other Commonly Used Name(s): American eagle, whiteheaded eagle, Washingt'Jn eagle, white-headed sea eagle, black eagle

Description: Adult bald eagles are easily recognized by their familiar dark brown body and contrasting white head and tail. The bill, eyes, legs, and feet are yellow. Immature birds vary slightly in appearance depending on their age. They are generally dark brown with varying light patches, and the eyes and bill are dark. Full adult plumage is not attained until sexual maturity at about 5 years of age. The total length ranges from 76 to 109 cm (30-43 in), the wingspread from 182 to 249 em (72-98 in), and the weight from 3.6 to 5.4 kg (8-12Ibs). Females are noticeably larger than males, and the average size of both sexes increases with latitude such that birds nesting in the northern states and Canada are significantly larger than birds nesting in southern states. Although there appears to be a continuous size gradient and no real genetic differences nor distinct breeding ranges, southern eagles are considered to be of the subspecies H. 1. leucocephalus and northern eagles of the subspecies H. 1. a1ascensis.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known nesting occurrences
Range and Habitat: Bald eagles are found throughout most of the U.S. and Canada. They occur only in North America, which is one reason this bird was chosen as our national symbol over the golden eagle, which is found on other continents as well. Juvenile eagles and non-nesting adults can be seen throughout Georgia, but known nesting activity is concentrated mostly along the coast and near major rivers, wetlands, and reservoirs in the southern and central parts of the state. Like other members of the "fish eagle" group, bald eagles almost always nest near open water. The coastal area, including the barrier islands, marsh islands, and nearby mainland, has always provided good eagle nesting habitat historically and still supports the greatest population density. However, construction of reservoirs such as Seminole, Walter F. George, Oconee, Allatoona, Carters, Oarks Hill, Nottley and West Point, has increased suitable inland nesting habitat. Bald eagles prefer isolated sites for nesting but are adapting to the presence of human disturbance in some areas. The nest is usually in a large, open-topped pine near open water, often on high ground if available. Occasionally cypress trees are used.

Diet: Fish; waterfowl, particularly coots during eagle nesting season, and other birds; turtles; small mammals; and carrion.

Life History: Eagles form permanent pair bonds, but individuals will find another mate if the original is lost. They construct large stick nests in tall trees near water; used year after year, the nest can become quite large over time. Periodically, an eagle pair might construct and move into a new nest near the original one. In Georgia, courtship and nest-building typi-
50

cally occur in October and November. Two to three eggs are then laid in December or January and incubated for about 35 days. Both parents participate in incubation and caring for the 1-2 (rarely 3) young. The eaglets fledge at about 12 weeks, typically in late March or April, but they remain under parental care for several more weeks. Nesting chronology throughout the state varies by several weeks and seems to be dependent primarily upon the habits of individual pairs and secondarily upon latitude. Bald eagles do not reach maturity until their fifth year, when they attain their adult plumage characterized by the white head and tail. Sub-adult birds sometimes pair with adults but usually do not nest successfully. Many juvenile eagles from the southeastern U.S. migrate northward during their first summer and return before winter. A smaller proportion of older age-class juveniles head north each season. Adults from Georgia "are essentially non-migratory, but they might wander away from the nesting area until the next nesting season.
Threats/Comments: Bald eagle populations in the U.S. had apparently begun to decline more than a century ago, probably due to predator control efforts and habitat alteration. In 1940, Congress passed the Bald Eagle Protection Act to help prevent extinction of our national symbol. However, overall numbers, and especially immature birds which indicate reproductive success, continued to drop. During the 1960s, most of the problems suffered by bald eagle populations, as well as several other species, were traced to the impacts of DDT (dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane), a pesticide that was widely used on agricultural and forest lands beginning in 1947. The chemical entered the eagles' food chain and killed some birds directly. Usually, however, it accumulated in the bodies of prey animals, and then in the eagles themselves where it impaired reproductive success. Use of DDT was outlawed in the U.S. in 1972, but it is still manufactured here and used elsewhere. Other persistent toxic chemicals such as PCBs, mercury, and other pesticides and herbicides, continue to pose potentialthreats to eagles and other wildlife. Additionally, some eagles are still being injured or killed by gunshot, and suitable nesting habitat is being lost. A recent threat is Avian Brain Lesion Syndrome, a mysterious disease that has killed eagles, coots, and ducks in Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, and Arkansas.
In Georgia, bald eagles were apparently fairly common along the coast up until the middle of this century. However, by the 1950s population declines had been detected. The decline continued until the last known successful nest was noted on St. Catherines Island in 1970. A few years following the DDT ban, an eagle pair again produced young at Ossabaw Island in 1981. Since then, the nesting population has grown and expanded as a result of the ban as well as other conservation and management efforts. As of 1999, there were 48 known occupied nesting territories in Georgia.

Conservation and Management Recommendations: Beginning in 1979 and continuing through 1995, a total of 89 young bald eagles were released in Georgia. The eaglets, which originated from captive breeding programs or wild nests elsewhere where the population was greater, were released at Sapelo Island and Butler Island on the coast and Lake Allatoona north of Atlanta. At least one of these released birds is known to have nested in South Carolina. Others might have nested in Georgia or elsewhere, but the identification bands can be very difficult to read without actually capturing the birds. All known eagle nests are monitored each year to determine occupancy, productivity, and management needs. New nests are found through reports from the public and through surveys of likely habitat. As both the human and eagle populations continue to increase, these two species will more frequently come into contact with each other. Continuing public education is necessary to ensure that attitudes and policy will be conducive to eagle survival. Ongoing environmental protection measures will be necessary to keep the history of the middle of this century from repeating itself. Resolution of management conflicts arising from eagle nests on private land will continue to be a high priority. The objective will be to protect the integrity of the nest site such that the pair will continue to produce young, while at the same time recommending as few management restrictions as is necessary to the landowner.
Selected References:
Bent, A. C. 1961. Life histories of North American birds of prey, Part 1. Dover Publ., NewYork. 409pp.
Green, N. 1985. The bald eagle. Pages 509-531 in R.L. Di Silvestro, ed. Audubon wildlife report 1985. National Audubon Soc., NewYork.
Johnsgaard, P. A. 1990. Hawks, eagles, andjalcon of North America. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington D.C. 403pp.
Odom, R. R. 1981. Current status and reintroduction of the bald eagle in Georgia. The Oriole 45:1-14.
Ozier, J. C. 1997. Status and management of the bald eagle in
Georgia. Georgia Dept. Natural Resources. 1..Inpubl. Rep. International Bald Eagle Days Conf., Chattanooga, Tenn. 16 Jan. 1997. 8pp.
Stalmaster, M. V 1987. The bald eagle. Universe Books, New York. 227pp.
_ _. 1988. Bald eagle. Pages 187-237 in R. S. Palmer, ed. Handbook of North American raptors. Vol. 4. Yale Univ. Press, New Haven, Conn.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1989. Southeastern states bald eagle recovery plan. U.S. Dept. Interior, Atlanta, Ga. 63pp.

Written byJames c. Ozier
51

State" Status: Endangered Federal Status: Endangered

Other Commonly Used Name(s): Wood ibis, ironhead, flinthead, gourdhead, gannet, preacher, Spanish buzzard, Colorado turkey, wood-pelican

Description: The wood stork is a large, long-legged wading bird about 85-113 cm (33-44 in) in height with a wingspan of 150-165 cm (59-65 in), and a large, down-curved bill. The plumage is mostly white, but the wing-tips, trailing edge of the wings, and tail are black with a greenish sheen. The legs are black, but the toes are pink. The neck and head of adults is not feathered, and the skin is black with a scale-like appearance; the bill color is grayish black. Juveniles have a yellow bill, and the head and neck are covered with sparse, hair-like feathers. The bill gradually darkens, and the feathers on the head are lost with full adult plumage reached in the bird's fourth year. Male and female plumages are similar.
Range and Habitat: The wood stork is the only true stork (fami1yCiconiidae) that regularly occurs in the U.S. Its breeding range includes the southeastern U.S., both coasts of Mexico and Central America, Cuba, Hispaniola, and South America from Columbia to Argentina.

Shading indicates nestingrange Dots indicate counties with known nestingcolonies
In the U.S., wood storks breed in Florida, Georgia, and South Carolina. Wood stork breeding colonies have been documented in 13 counties along the coast and across southern Georgia. Following the breeding season, wood storks may disperse northward to North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas. A few wood storks may be seen in the Georgia Piedmont, well north of breeding colonies, during late summer and fall.
Beginning in late summer, wood storks gather into communal roosts along the coast. Over 100 birds may roost at favored sites, which are used year after year. The birds rest at the roost during high tide and move out into the salt marsh to feed during low tide. Birds which nested in Georgia have been tracked south to southern Florida in winter; however, in most years a few birds remain along the coast in McIntosh, Glynn, and Camden counties.
Wood storks use a variety of freshwater and estuarine wetlands for breeding, feeding, and roosting. They are colonial nesters, and several nests are often located in the same tree. Colony size in Georgia has ranged from fewer than 12 to more than 500 nests. Nests may be located in large or small trees; but the trees must be in standing water or on islands surrounded by water. Height of nests above the water ranges from 1 to 2 m (3-7 ft) in small trees to over 20 m (66 ft) in cypress trees. Storks will use the same colonies for many years unless disturbance or changes in water levels make the site unsuitable.

Diet: Primarily fish; sometimes amphibians, crayfish, and other small aquatic animals.
52

Life History: Wood storks feed by tacto-location or grope

ing in South Carolina and Georgia since the early 1980s

feeding. The birds wade through shallow water, moving their occurred as the large colonies in southern Florida steadily

partially-opened beak back and forth beneath the surface.

declined and represents a shift of the breeding distribution of

When the bill touches a fish or other prey, it snaps shut in an this species. During the period 1993 to 1995, Georgia colonies

exceedingly quick reflex. When a fish is caught, the bird raises averaged 23.1 percent of the breeding population and South

its head and swallows the prey. They often shuffle their feet

Carolina colonies comprised 11.6 percent.

and flash their wings while feeding to startle potential prey

which are then captured. Preferred prey includes fish from

Conservation and Management Recommendations:

about 2 to 25 cm (0.7-10 in) in length. This feeding strategy is The US. Fish and Wildlife Service's Recovery Plan goal for

very effective during seasonal drawdowns of wetlands when down-listing the wood stork to threatened is a population of

fish are concentrated in shallow pools.

6,000 pairs (3-year average) and regional productivity greater

Wood storks use a variety of feeding sites in both

than 1.5 chicks per nest. The goal for delisting is 10,000 pairs

freshwater and estuarine wetlands to obtain adequate forage. (5 year average), regional productivity greater than 1.5 chicks

In coastal Georgia, wood storks feed in small tidal creeks at

per nest, and 2,500 successful pairs in south Florida.

low tide when prey fish, especially mummichogs are presum-

On a local scale, management of artificial feeding

ably concentrated. Storks often forage at considerable dis-

lakes, such as that at the Harris Neck National Wildlife Refuge

tances from the nesting colony. The birds take advantage of

on the Georgia coast, or Kathwood Ponds at National

thermal updrafts to soar and glide to feeding sites.

Audubon Society's Silver Bluff Sanctuary in South Carolina

In Georgia breeding usually begins in March. Clutch can provide increased foraging opportunities for wood storks.

size ranges from 2 to 5 eggs (usually 3), and incubation takes Protection of breeding colonies is critical for recovery of the

about 27-32 days. After hatching, one adult remains with the wood stork. Habitat management guidelines developed by

young, shading the chicks when necessary from the sun. Both the US. Fish and Wildlife Service provide information on

adults feed the young by regurgitating food onto the nest plat- buffers for nesting colonies and important roost sites.

form. Young storks begin learning to fly at about 8 weeks of

Artificial nest structures have been used successfully by wood

age; however, the young often remain at the colony and return storks at Harris Neck National Wildlife Refuge where nest

to the nest platform to be fed by adults until around 12 weeks trees have been lost.

old.

Although a few birds have been documented to breed Selected References:

in their third year, most birds probably first breed when adult plumage is obtained in their fourth year. Survivorship data are lacking. The maximum longevity of a bird in the wild is 11 years, 8 months, but the wood stork may live to over 30 years of age in captivity.
Threats/Comments: Loss of habitat is the stork's primary threat. In addition to direct loss of feeding habitat through

Bryan, A L., Jr. 1994. Wood stork roost sites in the coastal zone of Georgia and South Carolina in 1994. Rep. to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Savannah Coastal Refuges. Savannah, Ga. 17pp.
Coulter, M. c., W D. McCort, andA L. Bryan, Jr. 1987.
Creation of artificial foraging habitat for wood storks. Colonial Waterbirds 10:203-210.

draining and filling of wetlands, the disruption of the natural cycle of seasonal drying in southern Florida is believed to have caused the loss of major breeding colonies in Everglades

Hancock, J. A, J. A Kushlan, and M. P. Kahl. 1992. Storks, ibis-
es, and spoonbills of the world. Academic Press, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, London. 385pp.

National Park. Although wood storks benefit from seasonal drying of foraging habitat, water levels in the colony must remain deep enough to prevent access by predators. When a nesting colony dries up, raccoons are able to invade the area and eat the stork's eggs or young. Human disturbance and contaminants are other potential threats to wood storks.

Harris, M. J. 1993. Status of the wood stork in Georgia, 1965-
1993. Pages 34-46 in Proc. wood stork symposium. The Georgia Conservancy, Savannah, Ga.
Kahl, M. P. 1964. Food ecology of the wood stork (Mycteria americana) in Florida. Ecol. Monogr. 34:97-117.

The estimated population of wood storks in the southeastern US. breeding population declined from about 15,000 to 20,000 pairs in the 1930s to a low of between 4,500 to 5,700 pairs in the period 1977 to 1980. However, this prob-

Robinette, J. R.,J. P. Davis, andJ. L. Hall. 1993. U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service wood stork enhancement and restoration projects in coastal Georgia. Pages 57-63 in Proc. wood stork symposium. The Georgia Conservancy, Savannah, Ga.

ably reflected the combined influence of low population and poor nesting conditions; many storks may not have attempted to breed that year. Surveys in Florida, Georgia, and South Carolina in 1993, 1994, and 1995 yielded breeding population

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1996. Revised recovery plan for the U.S. breeding population of the wood stork. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Atlanta, Ga. 76pp.

estimates of 6,729,5,768, and 7,853 pairs, respectively.

No confirmed breeding was documented in South Carolina prior to 1981, and breeding in Georgia was sporadic

Written by Michael J. Harris

in low numbers prior to the mid-1970s. The increased nest-

53

State' Status: Endangered Federal Status: Endangered

Other Commonly Used Name(s): RCW

Description: The red-cockaded woodpecker (RCW) has a black back with white horizontal broken stripes (liladderbackrpattern). The head is black except for a large white cheek patch on each side. The chest is dull white with small black spots, and the total length is about 20 em (8 in). Adult males have a tiny patch of red feathers (cockade) behind the eye, but the cockade is not displayed unless the bird is excited. The juvenile male has a red spot on top of his head. With a little practice, the RCW can be easily distinguished from the seven more common species of woodpeckers found in Georgia. Both the downy and hairy woodpeckers are similar to the RCW in size and coloration, but these two species have distinct vertical white stripes down their backs, black cheek patches and, on males, visible red patches on the backs of their heads.

Range and Habitat: These small woodpeckers were once

common in mature pine forests throughout the southeastern

U.S. from eastern Texas and

Oklahoma to the Atlantic Coast,

: north to Missouri, Kentucky, and

te,:. ' ' Maryland. The current range is '" much reduced and fragment"'~0~ ed due to loss of habitat. ,,'oe ,,'. Today, the largest popula-

tions are found mostly on

large expanses of public

lands where manage-

ment objectives have

not included maximum

timber production.

Historically, this species

probably occurred

throughout Georgia

\.' where suitable open,
Y') mature pine forests were

v: 0 found, except in the

Appalachian mountains. The

habitat that probably support-

~f ed the highest populations

v I, , was the Coastal Plain longleaf

l

'\
.r-.

pine forest maintained by frequent fires.
Georgia has five remaining

,

population centers that

comprise about 94 percent

of the state's RCW

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences Cross-hatching indicates areas with significant populations
population. In 1998, Fort Benning had about 187 groups; Fort Stewart, 178 groups; Okefenokee .National Wildlife Refuge, about 29 groups; and Piedmont National Wildlife Refuge/Brender Experimental Forest/Oconee National Forest, about 50 groups. Additionally, the largest remaining population anywhere on private land is comprised of about 179 groups spread across several large quail plantations in the Red Hills region of Thomas and Grady counties. In the Red Hills, RCW habitat maintenance had been incidental to management for quail hunting and aesthetics. The few scattered remaining groups are found on private land in several counties.
Diet: Ants, wood roaches, wood-boring beetles, and other insects; spiders, millipedes, and other invertebrates found on and within pine bark; occasionally corn earworms, fruits and seeds .
Life History: Unlike other woodpeckers which excavate cavities almost entirely in dead wood, RCWs make their roosting and nesting cavities almost exclusively in living pine trees 6080 years old and older. Cavity trees are usually infected with red-heart fungus, which softens the heartwood and facilitates vertical chamber excavation. Still, it can take several years for a bird to complete a cavity because the entrance tunnel must extend through living sapwood. The birds also excavate characteristic resin wells around the cavity entrance. These wells drip sticky resin onto the surface of the tree, which helps exclude tree-climbing rat snakes. These snakes are major predators of tree cavity inhabitants, especially nesting birds.

54

Many other species of wildlife also make use of RCW cavities. Cavity klepto-parasitism, in which RCW cavities are usurped by other species, is a significant problem in some populations. Other woodpeckers such as red-headed and red-bellied, as well as songbirds and flying squirrels are the chief culprits. Additionally, pileated woodpeckers often enlarge RCW cavities, making them suitable for species such as raccoons, wood ducks, and screech owls, but rendering them useless for RCWs.
Red-cockaded woodpeckers are cooperative breeders. They exist in family groups that typically consist of an adult breeding pair and 1-3 helpers that are male offspring from previous years. The group roosts in a cluster of cavity trees and forages together up to 0.8 km (0.5 mi) from the cluster. Most food is found beneath pine bark. In the spring, the breeding female lays 2-5 eggs in the tree cavity of the breeding male. All members of the group assist in caring for young. Juvenile females usually disperse from the cluster site during their first fall or winter to look for single males with territories. Some of the male offspring remain as helpers, and some disperse in an attempt to establish new territories. Each family group requires 24-240 ha (60-600 acres) of habitat depending on the quality.

RCWs, so actual"take" should be very small or non-existent. The HCP also includes provisions for"safe harbor"
agreements. Participating landowners who agree to maintain suitable habitat are protected from additional management responsibilities should the RCW population on their land increase above the baseline level.
Selected References:
Baker, W W 1981. The distribution, status andfuture of the redcockaded woodpecker in Georgia. Pages 82-87 in R R Odom and
J. W Guthrie, eds. Proc. nongame and endangered wildlife sym-
posium. Georgia Dept. Nat. Resources. Tech. Bulletin WL 5.
Hooper, R G.,A F. Robinson, Jr., andJ. A Jackson. 1980. The
red-cockaded woodpecker: notes on life history and management. U.S. For. Serv. Gen. Rep. SA-GR 9. 8pp.
Jackson, J. A 1978. Analysis of the distribution and population
status of the red-cockaded woodpecker. Pages 101-111 in RR Odom and 1. Landers, eds. Proc. rare andendangered wildlife symposium. Georgia Dept. Nat. Resources. Tech. Bulletin WL 4.
_ _. 1994. Red-cockaded woodpecker. In A Poole, and F. Gill, eds. The birds of North America, No. 85. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, and Amer. Ornith. Union, Washington, D.c.

Threats/Comments: Destruction and fragmentation of required mature pine forest habitat has been the greatest threat to the RCW. The species has been virtually eliminated from most private land by incompatible management practices, such as clearing, agriculture, urbanization and shortrotation pine silviculture. The few scattered RCW groups remaining on private lands, exclusive of the Red Hills region, are continuing to disappear because of habitat problems and the detrimental demographic effects of isolation. Juveniles dispersing from isolated clusters very rarely encounter suitable habitat, much less others of their kind; and once a breeding female dies, there is little chance of a replacement immigrating to the group.

Kulhavy, D. 1., R G. Hooper, and R Costa, editors. 1995. Redcockaded woodpecker: recovery, ecology, and management. Stephen F. Austin State Univ., Nacogdoches, Texas. 552pp.
Lennartz, M. R, and D. G. Heckel. 1987. Population dynamics of a red-cockaded woodpecker population in Georgia Piedmont loblolly pine habitat. Pages 48-55 in RR Odom, K.A
Riddleberger, andJ. C. Ozier, eds. Proc. thirdsoutheastern
nongame and endangered wildlife symposium. Georgia Dept. Nat. Resources.
Ligon, J. D. 1970. Behavior and breeding biology of the red-cock-
aded woodpecker. Auk 87:255-278.
McFarlane, R W 1992. A stillness in the pines: the ecology of the red-cockaded woodpecker. WW Norton, NewYork. 270pp.

Conservation and Management Recommendations: Many RCW populations on public land are being intensively managed in an attempt to reach population recovery goals. Use of artificial cavities has proven to be a very valuable management technique for expanding populations. Translocation is also being used. Management agreements and habitat conservation plans (HCPs) are being used to conserve RCWs on private lands. Georgia has a statewide HCP for small, demographically isolated groups of RCWs on private land. After mitigation through formation of a replacement RCW group at a site where the birds can contribute to a recovery or support population that should remain viable permanently, landowners will be permitted to "incidentally take" isolated RCW that are sure to disappear shortly anyway. This benefits landowners by removing costly recommended management restrictions intended to avoid violation of the Endangered Species Act, and it benefits the overall RCW population by building viable populations. An attempt is made to translocate all impacted

Thompson, R L., editor. 1971. The ecology and management of the red-cockaded woodpecker. U.S. Dept. Interior, Washington, D.C., and Tall Timbers Research Station, Tallahassee, Fla. 188pp.
Wood, D. A, editor. 1983. Proc. red-cockaded woodpecker symposium II proceedings. Fla. Game and Fresh Water Fish Comm. 112pp.
U.S. Fish andWildlife Service. 1985. Red-cockaded woodpecker recovery plan. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Atlanta, Ga. 88pp.
Written byJames c. Ozier

55

State Status: Rare Federal Status: Not Listed in Georgia; interior US. populations endangered

Other Commonly Used Name(s): Little tern, silver turnlet, sea swallow, minute tern, little striker, and killing peter.

Description: Georgia's smallest tern at about 23 cm (9 in) in length with a 50 em (20 in) wingspread, the least tern is white with pale gray feathers on the back and upper surfaces of the wings, except for a narrow black stripe along the leading edge of the upper wing feathers. The least tern has a black cap with a small patch of white on the forehead. In summer, the adult has a yellow bill with a black tip and yellow to orange feet and legs. In winter, the bill, legs and feet are black. The juvenile has a black bill and yellow legs, and the feathers of the back are darker than those of the adult and have even darker margins, giving the bird a distinctlyscaled" appearance. The least tern's small size, white forehead, and yellow bill serve to distinguish it from other terns.
Range and Habitat: Least terns breed along the Atlantic Coast of the US. from Massachusetts to Florida, along the Gulf Coast to Texas, along the Pacific Coast of California and Mexico, in the Bahamas and West Indies, and on the coast of Venezuela. In the interior of the US., least terns breed along the major rivers of the Mississippi system. The breeding population of the interior US. was listed as endangered in 1985 by the US. Fish and Wildlife Service. Least terns migrate to the eastern coast of Central and South America and to northeastern Brazil in winter.
In Georgia, least terns are found along the coast feeding on fish in coastal bays, sounds and near-shore waters. The bird's rapid, graceful flight and habit of hovering a few meters above the water before diving to the surface or, "striking," for small fish are characteristic.
"'i.'.'

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known nesting colonies
Although this species historically nested primarily on barrier island beaches, many colonies are now located in man-made habitats including dredge-spoil islands and the flat gravel roofs of large buildings. Use of these sites for nesting is believed to be a result of human disturbance on beaches which were traditional nesting sites.
Diet: Primarily small fishes, some crustaceans and insects.
Life History: Least terns return to breeding grounds in North America in late April. Courtship and pair formation begin soon after arrival at the breeding colony. Courtship feeding, in which the male brings a fish and offers it to the
female prior to mating, is characteristic of the breeding behavior of this species. On natural substrates, the nest is laid in a small depression or scrape formed in bare sand and often lined with shell fragments. On gravel roofs little or no scrape is formed,
depending upon availability of suitable material. Clutch size varies from one to four eggs, but normally is 2-3 eggs. The eggs are small, about 31 mm (1.2 in) in length, and are olive-buff to buff with dark brown markings. Both sexes share incubation, which is usually 20-25 days. Incubating birds have been observed shaking water from their feathers onto the eggs, apparently to cool them. The male continues to bring food to the female during incubation. Adults are aggressive in defense of the colony and characteristically hover over human intruders and defecate on them. Least terns will renest if the eggs are lost but do not raise more than one
brood per season. Chicks are precocial and

leave the nest 1-2 days after hatching; although able to fly about 20 days after hatching, they remain dependent upon the adults for several weeks after fledgling. In September, least terns leave Georgia and migrate south.
Least tern colonies vary greatly in size from a few pairs to over 1,500 pairs of birds. Beach colonies are located on sandy beaches with scattered vegetation, and scattered gravel or shell material. Colonies are usually located just above the high tide line in ephemeral habitats that are subject to wash-over by storm tides.
Threats/Comments: Human disturbance at nest colony sites remains the greatest threat to least terns in Georgia. The U.S. breeding population of least terns was severely depleted by hunting for the millinery trade in the late 1800s. However, in Georgia the breeding population apparently recovered by 1925 when some 2,500 pairs nested on Oysterbed Island near the mouth of the Savannah River. By 1959, the population had again declined, and fewer than 200 pairs could be located in Chatham County. A 1973 survey of parts of Georgia's coast located fewer than 500 least terns; however, a 1980 survey estimated 1,300 pairs throughout Georgia's coast in colonies ranging from 3 to 300 pairs. A survey by Georgia Department of Natural Resources in 1995 located an estimated 905 pairs of least terns in 12 colonies. Three colonies totaling 455 pairs were located on rooftops, five colonies totaling 387 pairs were located on spoil disposal sites, and four colonies totaling 63 pairs were on natural beaches. Studies by a University of Georgia graduate student in 1996 and 1997 located an estimated 1,563 and 1,270 nesting pairs, respectively. Over 70 percent of these nests were on roofs. The replacement of gravel roofs with roofs composed of plastic sheeting threatens roof-top colonies.

Selected References:
Burger, J. 1984. Colony stability in least terns. Cooper Ornith.
Soc. 86:61-67.
Burleigh, T. D. 1958. Georgia birds. Univ. Oklahoma Press, Norman. 746pp.
Corbat, C.A. 1990. Nesting ecology ofselected beach-nesting birds in Georgia. Ph.D. Diss., Univ. Georgia, Athens. 174pp.
Erichsen, W J. 1921. Notes on the habits of the breeding water
birds of Chatham County, Ga. Wilson Bull. 33:69-82.
Gochield, M. 1983. Colony siteselection by least terns: physical attributes of sites. Colonial Waterbirds 6:205-213.
Harris, D. c., and R. B. Goodloe. 1995. Least terns and other
shorebirds onAndrews Island, Georgia: nesting success and management recommendations. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Brunswick, Ga. 47pp.
Krough, M. G. 1998. The nesting ecology of least terns on natural and artificial habitats in Georgia. M.S. Thesis, Univ. Georgia, Athens. 88pp.
Nisbet, 1. C.T. 1973. Terns in Massachusetts: present numbers and historical changes. Bird- banding 44:27-55.
Rappole, J. H. 1981. Management possibilities for beach-nesting shorebirds in Georgia. Pages 114-126 in R. R. Odom andJ.
Guthrie, eds. Proc. nongame and endangered wildlife symposium. Georgia Dept. Nat. Resources Tech. Bulletin WL5.
Savereno, L. A., and T. M. Murphy. 1995. A review of nesting sites usedby least terns in South Carolina. The Chat 59:41-46.
Tomkins, 1. R. 1959. Life history notes on the least tern. Wilson Bull. 71:313-322.

Conservation and Management Recommendations: Efforts are underway to protect shorebird nesting sites on selected Georgia beaches. Restricting human access to nesting sites should increase reproductive success. Research is underway to evaluate nesting success on natural and manmade sites and to develop management recommendations to improve production at nesting colonies in Georgia. Management techniques may include predator control through direct reduction, use of electric fences, use of screens on drains and rain spouts, and use of shields to provide cover on roofs or to prevent young from jumping off.

Written by Michael J. Harris

57

State Status: Threatened Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): Marsh tern, Egyptian tern, Nile tern

Description: The gull-billed tern is a stocky, medium-sized tern 33-38 cm (13-15 in) in length with black legs and feet. The feathers of the body are white, the wings are light gray above, and during summer the head has a black cap that extends from the bill down the back of the neck. In winter, the gull-billed tern lacks the black cap, and the feathers of the head are white except for a small black spot behind the eye. The bird's distinguishing feature is its thick, gull-like black bill. Immature sandwich terns also have black bills, but the bill appears much thinner than that of the gull-billed tern. The gull-billed tern has a heavier body, shorter tail, and slower wing beats than the sandwich tern. Juvenile plumage resembles winter adult plumage, but the head appears off-white and the dark patch behind the eye is indistinct. The feathers of the back are darker gray and may contain dark V-shaped marks.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known nesting colonies

Range and Habitat: The gull-billed tern has a world-wide distribution, breeding at locations in Europe, Asia, northwestern Africa,Australia and North America. In North America, the gull-billed tern breeds at scattered localities along the Atlantic Coast from New Jersey to Florida, across the coast of the Gulf of Mexico to Texas and south into Mexico.
On the western coast, this species breeds locally in southern California at San Diego Bay and the Salton Sea and south along the Mexican coast of the Gulf of California. In winter, gull-billed terns have been recorded as far north as North Carolina, but the normal winter range includes southwestern Florida, the Gulf Coast, Central America, and South America. The species occurs in winter along the Atlantic coast of Brazil, Uruguay, and northern Argentina, and on the Pacific coast from Colombia to Ecuador and Peru.
Diet: Terrestrial and aquatic animals; primarily insects, lizards, crustaceans, small fishes, and the chicks of other tern species (including the least tern).

Life History: Gull-billed terns are agile flyers and forage for insects over salt marshes and beaches using a "hawking" technique. Small prey may be eaten in flight. Terrestrial prey are picked up from the surface by flying terns at the bottom of a steep dive. Gull-billed terns take fish from the water's surface, but, unlike many other terns, rarely dive below the surface for fish. Their feeding over marshes on a wider variety of prey than is taken by other tern species has earned them the common name"marsh tern." This tern is also known to steal fish from other tern species.
Gull-billed terns normally arrive on the breeding grounds in North America in April. The species is monoga-
mous and may form pair bonds prior to arrival on the breeding grounds. Pairs are seen regularly in migration. Gull-billed terns exhibit a variety of courtship displays and mate-guarding behavior. Nest building occurs 5-25 days after arrival, with both sexes participating in construction of the nest scrape. In the U.S., with rare exceptions, this species breeds along the coast, nesting in
small colonies on sandy beaches of barrier islands, on shell banks of coastal lagoons, or on small islets in the Salton Sea. Gull-billed terns appear less tolerant of disturbance than other species of terns and show less fidelity to nesting sites. In Georgia, terns normally nest in depressions or cups they scrape out in bare sand and often line with shells or dead vegetation. The clutch is usually three eggs which are laid within six days;

58

eggs are grayish or greenish buff with brown spots. The male and female share incubation, which takes about 22-23 days. This species usually lays only one brood per season, but birds may attempt to renest if the first clutch is destroyed. The chicks of the gull-billed tern hatch with downy feathers and open eyes, and are mobile (precocial). Chicks often leave the nest when less than five days old to hide in the nearest vegetation. Both parents contribute to the brooding and feeding of the young. First flight occurs at 28-35 days of age, but young remain dependent upon adults into migration. Gull-billed terns begin breeding at 5 years of age. The maximum longevity in the wild for a gull-billed tern in Europe is 15 years, 10 months; and in the U.S. is 13 years, 11 months.
Barrier island nesting sites are often near inlets, on highly dynamic areas subject to occasional washing by high tides and storm waves. Gull-billed terns often share colonies with other birds, especially the black skimmer. The colony size is variable but usually contains only 20-50 nests. In Louisiana, a few colonies have been documented nesting on gravel rooftops, along with least terns.
Threats/Comments: In the late 1800s and early 1900s, many gull-billed terns were killed for their feathers, which were used to decorate women's hats. Through conservation and public education efforts of many organizations, laws were passed to prevent killing of herons, egrets, and terns. By World War I, the wanton killing of birds to decorate hats had ended; however, gull-billed tern populations along the Atlantic coast of the U.S. were greatly reduced in some areas.
Today, gull-billed terns are not abundant anywhere in North America. A 1984 census along the southeast Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico coasts produced a count of 3,019 pairs of gull-billed terns. In 1988, the entire U.S. population, excluding California, was estimated at 5,400 birds. Good data on which to base population trends are lacking for the U.S. and for worldwide populations.
In Georgia, few data are available on the historical abundance of gull-billed terns. A survey of beach nesting birds in 1979 and 1980, located only one colony of 20 pairs of gull-billed terns. In 1987, a small colony (25-30 adults and seven nests) of gull-billed terns was located on Ossabaw Island, Chatham County. In 1993, a mixed species colony of terns was located along the central Georgia coast. Surveys of that site in 1995 and 1996 documented about 80-100 pairs of gull-billed terns. Currently, this is the only colony of this species in Georgia.
Comprehensive surveys in North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia in 1993, 1995, and in South Carolina and Georgia in 1996 located about 500 nests at fewer than 20 colonies.

nesting birds. Gull-billed terns often nest with black skimmers on highly dynamic spits or small islands near inlets. These areas are often subject to human recreational use leading to disturbance of colonies. Contaminants may present a problem in areas where birds feed over agricultural fields.
Efforts are underway to protect shorebird nesting sites in Georgia from human disturbance. This is the greatest management challenge for conservation of this species in Georgia. Periodic surveys should be continued to monitor the population and the effectiveness of management measures.
Selected References:
Bent, A C. 1921. Life histories of NorthAmerican gulls and terns. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 113.
Burleigh, T. D. 1958. Georgia birds. Univ. Oklahoma Press, Norman. 746pp.
Clapp, R. B., and P. A Buckley. 1984. Status and conservation of
seabirds in the southeastern United States. Pages 135-155 in J. P.
Croxall, P. G. H. Evans, and R. W Schriber, eds. Status and conservation of the world's seabirds. Tech. Publ. No.2. Internl. Council on Bird Preserv., Cambridge, UK.
Corbat, C. A 1990. Nesting ecology of selected beach-nesting birds in Georgia. Ph.D. Diss., Univ. Georgia, Athens. 174pp.
Olsen, K. M., and H. Larsson. 1995. Terns of Europe and North America. Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton. 207pp.
Parnell, J. F.,R.M. Erwin, and K. C. Molina. 1995. Gull-billed
tern. (Sterna nilotica) In A Poole, and F. Gill, eds. The Birds of NorthAmerica, No. 140. The Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, and Amer. Ornith. Union, Washington, D.C.
Rappole, J. H. 1981. Management possibilities for beach-nesting shorebirds in Georgia. Pages 114-126 in R.R. Odom, andJ.
Guthrie, eds. Proc. nongame and endangered wildlife symposium. Georgia Dept. Nat. Resources Tech. Bulletin WL5.
Spendelow, J. A, and S. R. Patton. 1988. National atlas of
coastal waterbird colonies in the contiguous United States: 1976-
1982. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Servo BioI. Rep. 88. Washington, tic:
326pp.
Written by Michael J. Harris

Conservation and Management: The gull-billed tern is a species in need of management and protection. It is listed as threatened in Maryland, Virginia, and Georgia. Nest disturbance and loss of habitat to beach-front development are major threats for the gull-billed tern and other colonial beach

59

State Status: Rare Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): Long-tailed wren

Description: This medium-sized wren, 12.5-14 em (5-5.5 in) in length, has a conspicuous long white eyebrow stripe and a long tail with white corners or spots. The bird's back is an unstreaked brown to reddish-brown, and the underpart or belly is pale gray to white. It is Georgia's only wren with uniform whitish-gray underparts and white outer tail feathers. The white spots on the long, limber tail are easy to see when the Bewick's wren fans and flicks its tail sideways. The more common Carolina wren differs from Bewick's wren by having chestnut or buff underparts and no white tail spots. The song of Bewick's wren is much like that of the song sparrow in phrasing, but it is higher and thinner and ends on a high trill.

Range and Habitat: Breeding populations of the Bewick's wren vary from common and widespread in the west to uncommon to very rare in the east (Appalachians). This wren once was a common breeding bird in heath bald habitats as well as rural and suburban yards in Appalachian mountain valleys during the 1800s and early 1900s, but has declined drastically and is now probably extirpated in Georgia as a breeder and possibly as a wintering species. Only a few valid records exist for wintering during the last two decadeds. This wren can still be found locally in oak-hickory forests of central Kentucky and Tennessee and in the Ozark Highlands of Arkansas, but overall it is declining in abundance east of the Mississippi River. Primary habitat for breeding was formerly in towns and farmlands in mountain valleys, but now the

Cross-hatching indicates suspected historical nesting range; apparently extirpated. Winters throughout the state, particularly in the western half, possibly extirpated as a wintering species.
species is found mostly at high elevations in open brushy country. Brush piles, hedgerows, and old farm buildings provide potential nest sites. Bewick's wrens winter in brushy areas of the western Piedmont and lower Coastal Plain of Georgia.
Diet: Insects and other invertebrates, including boll weevils, other beetles, leaf bugs, stink bugs, leafhoppers, treehoppers, . scales, ants, wasps, caterpillars, moths, grasshoppers, and spiders.

Life History: Nesting probably begins soon after the _ _...-.~:::== . . species'return from wintering grounds in early to late .~., '. April and extends to late June. Nests are built in /:'Y~'i/""'~ almost any cavity,crevice, or cranny, including natural
, cavities in trees, mailboxes, old woodpecker holes, tin cans, deserted automobiles, clothing hung in buildings, baskets, bird boxes, crevices in walls and fences, and even inside cow skulls in pastures. The nest is quite substantial but loosely constructed with green mosses, weed stems, sticks, dead leaves, grasses, cotton, hair and/or wool; an inner cup is lined with feathers and hair or other soft material. The 5-7 eggs are white, irregularly dotted or spotted with browns, purples, lavender and gray. The female wren incubates the eggs for 12 to 14 days, and young leave the nest about 14 days after hatching. Bewick's wrens have been known to produce two or three broods in a season. This wren seldom feeds more than 3 m (10 ft) off the ground and searches for food on low limbs of trees, in leaves of shrubs and bushes, on the ground around
60

outbuildings, in log piles and hedge rows.

Selected References:

Threats/Comments: There is no clear explanation for the decline of Bewick's wren in Georgia. The decline may be related to increases in exotic, aggressive house sparrows and European starlings or even regional increases in native house wrens, Carolina wrens, and song sparrows,all of which compete for food and nest sites. Even severe winter weather has been suggested as a cause for regional declines of this wren. Agricultural pesticides could have played a role in the decline of this species, but some wildlife experts maintain the dwindling numbers were apparent before widespread pesticide use in the eastern breeding range. The decreasing number of small farms with woodlots and associated outbuildings is a possible cause of decline of this wren in Georgia.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Breeding populations of Bewick's wren seem to favor small areas of open brushy habitat surrounded by large forests. Efforts should be made to identify sites where the wren currently occurs, followed by characterization of habitats where the birds nest in order to identify other potential breeding localities. Nest boxes placed near the ground in brushy areas could attract this species in Georgia, as it is known to use nest boxes, mail boxes, and natural cavities readily in other states.

Adkisson, C. S. 1991. Bewick's wren. Pages 518-520 in K. Terwilliger, ed. Virginia's endangered species. McDonald and Woodward Publ., Blacksburg Va.
Armistead, H. T. 1983. Bewick's wren. Pages 350-351 in f.
Farrand, ed. TheAudubon Society masterguide to birding 2: gulls to dippers. Alfred A. Knopf, New York.
Burleigh, T. D. 1958. Georgia birds. Univ. Oklahoma Press, Norman. 746pp.
Ehrlich, P. R., D. S. Dobkin, and D.Wheye. 1992. Birds in jeopardy. Stanford Univ. Press, Stanford, Calif 259pp.
Hamel, P. B. 1992. The land manager's guide to the birds of the South. The Nature Conservancy, Chapel Hill, N.c. 437pp.
Haney, J. C P. Brisse, D. R.Jacobson, M. W Oberle, and J. M.
Paget. 1986. Annotated checklist of Georgia birds. Occ. Publ. No. 10, Georgia Orniih. Soc. 49pp.
Hunter, W C. 1990. Handbook for nongame birdmanagement in the Southeast Region. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Atlanta, Ga. 178pp.
Imhof, T. A. 1976. Alabama birds. Univ. Alabama Press, 445pp.
Peterson, R. T. 1980.. A field guide to the birds: Eastern and Central North America. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 384pp.

Stokes, D. Wand L. Q. Stokes. 1996. Stokes field guide to birds: Eastern Region. Little, Brown and Company, Boston. 471pp.
Terres, J. K. 1980. The Audubon Society encyclopedia of North
American birds. Alfred A. Knopf, New York. 1109pp.

Written by Dr. Jerry A. Payne

61

State Status: Endangered Federal Status: Endangered

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: Bachman's warbler is a small olive-green bird measuring 11.0-11.5 cm (4.25-4.5 in) in length, with bright yellow underparts. The male has a black bib, black cap, bright yellow forehead, yellow chin and yellow eye-ring; it resembles a small male hooded warbler with an incomplete hood. The female also has the yellow eye-ring but is generally drabber with less yellow in the plumage and lacks any black markings. Both sexes have fairly long, slender blackish-brown slightly down-curved bills. The Bachman's warbler has a distinctive song, a rapid 8-note trill on the same pitch or a rapid set of buzzes on one pitch. The song is suggestive of the worm-eating warbler or chipping sparrow but higher and reminiscent of the northern parula.

Range and Habitat: Bachman's warbler is probably the rarest of North American songbirds. This warbler formerly occupied a breeding range in the south Atlantic and Gulf coastal plains extending inland in flood plains of major rivers from northeastern Arkansas and southeastern Missouri to central Alabama and coastal South Carolina and Georgia. It was once found in seasonally flooded bottomland hardwood forests or swamps with a dense shrub layer near openings or borders (edges), especially where the forest crown was open and blackberry bushes and canebrakes were abundant. Bachman's warbler leaves the U.S. and migrates through Florida and the Bahamas to winter in Cuba and the Isle of Pines.
Diet: During breeding season, spiders, caterpillars, ants, and other insects found in the middle and lower portions of hardwood trees, shrubs, and vines; insects and possibly fruits, flowers or other vegetation during wintering season in Cuba.

Cross-hatching indicates suspected historical range; apparently extirpated
Life History: The Bachman's warbler returns to the U.S. from Cuba from late February to early March. The breeding season extends from late March to mid-June. It nests in canebrakes, blackberry bushes, vines or thickets in and along the margins of heavily wooded mature deciduous swamp forests and bottomlands. Canebrakes were probably very important in the biology of these warblers since a relatively high proportion of nests were found in cane and the birds included cane in nest construction. The cuplike nest built 0.3-1.2 m (1-4 ft) above the ground is comprised of cane leaves, grasses, weed stalks, skeletonized leaves and mosses; and lined with black plant fibers, probably lichen or Spanish moss. The 3-5 pure white, glossy eggs are laid in late March to early April. The incubation period and time to fledging are not known but are probably similar to that of other Vennivora warblers: incubation 10-12 days, fledging 9-11 days. This species is thought to be single-brooded, and fall migration is probably late July to early September. The Bachman's warbler searches for insects in living terminal leaves and twigs and frequently probes clumps of dead leaves.

Threats/Comments: The Bachman's warbler was at one time a fairly common bird within its rather limited range; however, it has apparently been unable to adjust to habitat
changes and is now the rarest warbler in North America. Its breeding habitat has been heavily timbered and
sometimes extensively drained and converted to agricultural row crop land and human settlements. In addition, loss of habitat due to large-scale clearing of forests for sugarcane plantations in its winter range in Cuba may have had a

tremendous impact on the bird's decline. In short, the degradation of wintering and breeding habitat was the most probable cause' of decline of the Bachman's warbler.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: The Bachman's warbler is believed to be extinct. Over 7,000 party hours of 2-person teams were spent searching 8,000 ha (19,770 acres) of suitable habitat in South Carolina, Missouri and Arkansas from 1975-1979. No Bachman's warblers were found. Unless a breeding and/or wintering population is found in subsequent surveys, efforts should be placed on conservation and management of other declining species.
Selected References:
Bent, A. C. 1963. Lifehistories of NorthAmerican wood warblers, Part 1. Dover Publ., NewYork. 367pp.
Burleigh, T. D. 1958. Georgia birds. Univ. Oklahoma Press, Norman. 746pp.
Curson, I, D. Quinn, and D. Beadle. 1994. Warblers of the
Americas: an identification guide. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 252pp.
Ehrlich, P.R., D. S. Dobin, and D. Wheye. 1992. Birds in jeopardy. Stanford Univ. Press, Stanford, Calif 259pp.
Hamel, P. B. 1992. The land manager's guide to the birds of the South. The Nature Conservancy, Chapel Hilt N.c. 437pp.
_ _. 1995. Bachman's warbler (Vermivora bachmanii). 16pp. In A. Poole and F. Gilt eds. The birds of NorthAmerica, No. 150. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, and Amer. Omith. Union, Washington, D.C.
------J and R. G. Hooper. 1978. Status of Bachman's warbler, a progress report. Pages 112-121 in R.R. Odom, and L. Landers, eds. Proc. rare and endangered wildlife symposium. Georgia
Dept. Nat. Resources Tech. Bulletin VVL 4.
Haney, I c, P. Brisse, D. R.Jacobson, M. W Oberle, andI M.
Paget. 1986. Annotated checklist of Georgia birds. Occ. Publ. No. 10, Georgia Omith. Soc. 49pp.
Hunter, W C. 1990. Handbook for nongame bird management in the Southeast Region. U.S. Fish and WildI. Serv., Atlanta, Ga. 178pp.
Imhof T. A. 1976. Alabama birds. Univ. Alabama Press, 445pp.
Peterson, R. T. 1980. Afield guide to the birds: Eastem and Central NorthAmerica. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 384pp.
Sykes, P. W, Jr. 1983. Bachman's warbler. Pages 108-111 inI
Farrand, ed. The Audubon Society master guide to birding 3: Old World warblers to sparrows. AlfredA. Knopf NewYork.
Terres, I K. 1980. Audubon Society encyclopedia of North
American birds. AlfredA. Knopf NewYork. 1109pp.
Written by Dr. Jerry A. Payne
63

64

State Status: Threatened Federal Status: Threatened

Other Commonly Used Name(s): Loggerhead

Description: Adult loggerhead sea turtles have a carapace length of 80-110 cm (31-43 in) and weight of 75-150 kg (165330lbs). Scutes cover the carapace and plastron. The carapace, head, and flippers of young adults are usually reddishbrown to brown in color, a helpful key in distinguishing them from other marine turtles found in Georgia. However, the carapaces of older individuals can become covered in algae, barnacles, and a variety of other organisms, hiding the shell under a greenish or gray covering. The plastron base is usually cream or yellow but can become stained to a light brown. The skin of loggerheads is generally cream or yellow. The head is proportionally larger to body size than other turtles, another important field mark in distinguishing loggerheads from other marine turtles.
Range and Habitat: Loggerheads are found in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans, as well as the Mediterranean. In early life stages, from hatchlings to 10-12 years of age, loggerheads are believed to maintain a pelagic existence, living in association with rafts of sargassum weed and drifting with the main oceanic currents. Habitat use by loggerheads on the Georgia coast is poorly understood. Loggerheads are found throughout the marine and estuarine waters of Georgia during the warm months of spring, summer, and fall. They have been observed swimming or basking on the surface as far as the Gulf Stream, 104 km (62.4 mi) offshore, and are seen regularly as close as the creeks and tidal rivers of Georgia's extensive saltmarshes.
Loggerheads are Georgia's primary nesting sea turtle, laying eggs on the beaches of every barrier island during the summer nesting season.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences (strandings)
The loggerheads that breed here have been identified genetically as part of a distinct breeding cohort that includes the turtles that nest in North Carolina, South Carolina, and North Florida south to Cape Canaveral.
Diet: A wide variety of organisms from sponges to fish, including whelks, moon snails, blue crabs, spider crabs and calico crabs. Hatchlings & juveniles consume insects and other small, marine invertebrates.
Life History: Nesting begins in early May and continues through mid-August in Georgia. When they nest for the first time, female loggerheads are usually at least 90 cm (35 in) curved carapace length and average about 100 em (39 in). Age at first nesting is thought to be somewhere between 20 and 30 years for North Atlantic loggerheads. Longevity is not known. Loggerheads emerge at night, digging nests above the high water line or up into the dune face. They lay 50-170 eggs, with an average of approximately 120 per nest. Hatching occurs after approximately 60 days of incubation, beginning in mid-
July and continuing through early October. Hatchlings leave the nests at night and crawl to the ocean. Female loggerheads do not gen.'. erally nest every year but return to nest dur:/\ ing every second or third season. ' ">' I Individuals average four nesting attempts for each season they nest. Few loggerheads
under 50 ern (20 in) curved carapace length have been found in Georgia; more than 40 percent are 60-70 cm (24-28 in). Loggerheads in this size range are thought to have

65

left the pelagic existence and settled into a coastal bottomfeeding existence.
Threats/Comments: Mortality of loggerheads attributed to human interaction primarily impacts adults and large juveniles. Commercial fisheries, particularly shrimp trawling, have been identified as the most significant cause of mortality for post-pelagic loggerheads. It is estimated that shrimp trawling killed an estimated 5,000-50,000 loggerheads annually in southeastern U.S. coastal waters before turtle excluder devices (TEDs) became mandatory year-round in 1992. Since Georgia DNR began keeping records of turtle strandings in 1980, more than 3,500 dead or dying loggerheads have been documented on the coast. Boat strikes were indicated in 15 percent of the turtle mortalities in 1996.
Natural predation on eggs and hatchlings can be very high (approaching 100 percent) on some beaches that lack nest protection programs. In Georgia, raccoons and ghost crabs can destroy entire loggerhead nests by direct consumption or by opening a nest cavity and exposing eggs to secondary predation or septic conditions. Prior to intense management efforts, feral hogs on Ossabaw, St. Catherines, Little Cumberland, and Cumberland islands have historically had devastating affects on the reproductive success of loggerheads on those islands.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: The Nongame-Endangered Wildlife Program coordinates two coast-wide programs for the conservation of sea turtles. The nesting program is a cooperative effort between the Georgia DNR, federal coastal management entities including the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and National Park Service, as well as private foundations. The program is directed at maximizing the reproductive success of loggerheads by ensuring that the highest number of hatchlings reaches the ocean every season. Dawn beach surveys of 12 of Georgia's 14 barrier islands record the nests and non-nesting crawls of loggerheads from the previous night's activity. These nest patrols are run during loggerhead nesting season from mid-May through midAugust. Nests are protected from raccoon predation by wire screening and are monitored closely throughout the 60-day incubation period; feral hogs are controlled by trapping and shooting. Hatching success is determined by examining nest contents after the hatchlings have emerged and gone to the ocean.
The Georgia Sea Turtle Stranding and Salvage Network is a coast-wide program in cooperation with the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) and includes many of the same individuals and organizations that monitor loggerhead nesting, as well as volunteers. Dead or stranded live turtles are reported to the Nongame Program immediately after they are discovered on the beach. Initial external examinations are made to record any signs of trauma that may have contributed to the turtle's death. Approximately 50 percent of the stranded turtles are examined internally by necropsy to assess the general health of the animal. Trends in sea turtle

mortality are documented and reported to the national sea turtle stranding coordinator at NMFS. Cumulative state stranding reports help NMFS determine management needs regionally and nationally.
Loggerhead nesting activity has not increased significantly over the last 10 years (1989-1998) in Georgia. Annual nest numbers vary widely including an all-time low in 1993 of just 475 nests to 1,375 nests a year later in 1994. Trends in loggerhead nesting effort are currently the best estimate of the Georgia population of that species, and there are no signs that the turtles are recovering. Efforts in loggerhead conservation must be long-term endeavors and include all of the species' life stages.

Selected References:

Bowen, B. W,J. e. Avise,I I Richardson, A B. Meylan, D.
Margaritoulis, S. R. Hopkins-Murphy. 1993. Population structure of loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta) in the northwestern Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea. Conserv. Biol. 7:834-844.

Bjorndal, K.A, A B. Bolton, I Gordon, andI A Caminas. 1994.
Caretta caretta (loggerhead) growth and pelagic movement. Herpetol. Rev. 25:23-24.

Brongersma, L. D. 1972. European AtlanticTurtles. Zool. Verh. Rijksmus. Natuur. Hist. Leiden 121:1-318.

Conant, R, andI T. Collins. 1991. A field guide to reptiles and
amphibians of Eastern and Central NorthAmerica. Houghton
Mifflin, Boston. 450pp.

Ernst, e. H, I E. Lovich, and R W Barbour. 1994. Turtles of the
United States and Canada. Smithsonian Institution Press,
Washington tu: 578pp.

MEW.aSgOanuwul,seonansn,,dIee. .IH,WKP.eWAteerssBto.ino,1mP9d.9ea0.l.,HWDePcDrlii.tncDehuaoPrfdat.hu]le.,

G. L. Graham, F. I Richardson, G. sea turtles: causes

and prevention. National Acad. Press, Washington, D. e. 259pp.

Murphy, T. M., and S. R Hopkins. 1984. Aerialandground surveys oJ marine turtle nesting beaches in the southeast region. U.S. Final report to Nat. Mar. Fish. Serv., Southeast FisFzeries
Center. 73pp.

Plotkin, P. T. (Editor). 1995. National Marine Fisheries Service and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Status Reviews for Sea Turtles Listed under the Endangered Species Act of 1973. National Marine Fisheries Service, SilverSpring, Maryland
Richarson I I, and P. McGillivary. 1991. Post hatchling logger-
head turtles eat insects in sargassum community. Marine Turtle Newsl. (55):2-5.
Winn, B., and e. Belcher. 1997. Results of external field exami-
nations of dead loggerhead sea turtles on the Georgia coast from 1989-1996. In Press. Proc. of the 17th annual symposium on sea turtle biology and conservation.

Written by Bradford Winn

66

State Status: Threatened Federal Status: U.S. nesting population endangered; threatened elsewhere

Other Commonly Used Name(s): Green turtle

Description: Adult green turtles have a carapace length of 90-122 cm (35-48 in). The carapace is usually heart-shaped, flat, broad and smooth, and the head is proportionally smaller than loggerheads, ridleys, or leatherbacks. Although the plastron is white or yellow, the overall carapace color is brown or olive with radiating rays of yellow or cream evident, especially in younger turtles. Skin color can vary from white to black with intermediate shades of brown and grey, and the distinct head scales are frequently bordered by yellow. Interestingly, the common name of this turtle comes from the color of its fat.

Range and Habitat: Green turtles can be found primarily in the tropical zones of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans, although they stray into more temperate regions of those oceans. The serrated mandible is used to feed on algae and grasses in shallow, well lighted flats and coral reefs. In Georgia, habitat use by green turtles is poorly understood. Live juvenile green turtles are occasionally caught and tagged in trammel nets used by DNR fisheries biologists on the west side of St. Simons and Jekyll islands. Of 4,437 turtles found dead on the Georgia coast between 1980 and 1998, 38 were green turtles. The smallest measured green turtle was 22.5 em (9 in) in curved carapace length; the largest was 87 ern (34 in), with an average of 43 em (17 in).

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences (strandings)
Georgia's estuaries and coastal waters lack the submerged aquatic vegetation favored by adult green turtles for food. Feeding habits in Georgia waters are not well documented.

Diet: Primarily grasses and algae in shallow water (adults); juveniles are more carnivorous.

Threats/Comments: The greatest threats to green
II
turtles, both historical and current, are human-related. The eggs and meat of green turtles are in demand around the world, particularly in protein-starved developing countries. Green turtles as well as other marine life are threatened by open-ocean drift-netting, and long-line fisheries. Degradation of marine environments that include the feeding and reproductive habitats of green turtles also has resulted in a severe decline in historical populations. Green turtles in Georgia waters are most likely susceptible to the same hazards as other species, including trawling fishery interactions, collision with recreational and commercial boats, fishing line entanglements, and occasional malicious acts.
67

Conservation and Management Recommendations: Green turtles are subjects of research projects throughout the globe, with a primary focus being green turtle population conservation needs. Redirecting the demand on green turtle eggs and meat by impoverished peoples to alternative sources of protein and income will be important for the long-term recovery of green turtle populations. Reducing ocean trash and banning the use of long-line fisheries and drift gillnet fisheries will benefit not only green turtles but all marine life. The use. of turtle excluder devices, combined with efforts to boost reproductive success of green turtles by protecting nests from depredation, may alleviate enough stress to allow depleted populations to recover.
Selected References: Bjorndal, K. A., and A. B. Bolton. 1988. Growth rates ofjuvenile
loggerheads, Caretta caretta, in the southern Bahamas. J.
Herpetol. 22:480-482. _ _. 1988a. Growth rates of immature green turtles, Chelonia mydas, onfeeding grounds in the southern Bahamas. Copeia
1988:555-564.
Conant, R, andJ. T. Collins. 1991. A field guide to reptiles and
amphibians of Eastern and Central NorthAmerica. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 450pp. Ehrhart, L. M., and R Witham. 1992. Analysis of growth of the green sea turtle (chelonia mydas) in the western central Atlantic. Bull. Marine Sci. 50:275-281.
Ernst, e. H., J. E. Lovich, and R W Barbour. 1994. Turtles of the
United States and Canada. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington tic. 578pp. Hirth, H. F. 1980. Some aspects of the nesting behavior and reproductive biology of sea turtles. Amer. Zool. 20:507-523.
Litwin, S. e. 1981. Chelonia mydas (green turtle) nesting.
Herpetol. Rev. 12:81. Plotkin, P.T. (Editor). 1995. National Marine Fisheries Service and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Status Reviews for Sea Turtles Listed underthe Endangered Species Act of 1973. National Marine Fisheries Service, Silver Spring, Maryland
Written by Bradford Winn
68

State Status: Unusual Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The spotted turtle is perhaps Georgia's most striking native reptile. This relatively small turtle reaching 12.5 em (5 in) maximum carapace length has a smooth, black carapace marked with 16 to more than 100 small, randomly arranged yellow spots. These spots may be faded or lost in older individuals. The yellow or yellowish-orange plastron has a large, dark blotch on each scute. An elongated black mark is present on the bridge. Dorsal skin color is dark gray or black, and the head, neck and limbs are also covered with scattered yellow spots, although some on the head are often orange. A broken yellow or orange band is also present near the tympanum. The underside of the limbs are usually orange, pink, or salmon-red. Male spotted turtles have tan chins and brown eyes while those features of females are yellow and orange, respectively. Hatchlings have a less random arrangement of yellow spots, with typically one on each carapacial scute, except the nuchal which has none.
Range and Habitat: Spotted turtles range from southern Maine southward along the Atlantic Coastal Plain and portions of the Piedmont to central Florida. Populations also occur in the midwestern states and even southern Canada. This species has been observed or collected from approximately 40 sites scattered throughout the upper and lower Coastal Plain of Georgia.
Heavily vegetated, shallow wetlands with standing or slowly flowing water are the typical habitat for the spotted turtle. These include Carolina bays, bogs, swamps, marshes, wet meadows, and even tidally-influenced brackish streams. Wetlands with a soft, mucky substrate seem to be preferred. During certain times of the year, spotted turtles spend a considerable amount of time on land. Unfortunately, upland habitat requirements are not well understood.
Diet: A wide variety of plant and animal (live or carrion) material including filamentous algae, aquatic grasses, aquatic insect larvae, crustaceans, snails, tadpoles, salamanders, and fishes.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences

Life History: The spotted turtle has a relatively short annual

activity period, which may account for its secretive nature.

Most activity is limited to late winter and early spring when

temperatures are 15-32 C (59-90 OF). During this short activi-

ty period, terrestrial movements are often made from one wet-

land to another. At other times of the year, most spotted tur-

tles bury themselves in moist, organic soil or muck either to

aestivate or hibernate. Hibernating congregations of spotted

turtles have been documented.

Courtship and mating occur in early spring, followed

by nesting in early summer. Nest sites include grass tussocks,

hummocks of sphagnum moss, and loamy sand, usually in

well-drained areas exposed to full sunlight. Females may pro-

duce one or two clutches per year, which contain 1-8 elliptical

eggs each. Hatching occurs in late summer after an incuba-

tion period of 70-83 days, though hatchlings may wait until

the following spring to emerge. The sex of the hatchlings is

dependent on the incubation temperature. Eggs incubated at

temperatures 22.5-27 C (73-81F) produce a predominance of

males, while those incubated at 30C (86 OF) produce all

females. Eggs and adult spotted turtles are preyed

upon by raccoons and striped skunks.

Some have theorized that the spotted pattern

of the carapace, head and limbs may imitate the tiny

floating leaves of duckweed, which is often present in

inhabited wetlands.

.

Threats/Comments: Because of the extremely secretive nature of the spotted turtle, virtually nothing is known about its population trend in Georgia. Primarily due to the
69

increased interest in all nongame wildlife and the increased number of trained biologists, more sites for this species are being documented each year. However, without knowing past distribution and population densities in Georgia, it is impossible to determine its relative status today. Furthermore, without knowing what terrestrial habitat characteristics are needed, it may be premature to assume that the widespread alteration of uplands within the Coastal Plain of Georgia has affected the spotted turtle. Nonetheless, the extensive loss and alteration of wetlands within its range has reduced the habitat available for this animal.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Avoidance of further degradation to the non-alluvial wetlands of the Coastal Plain of Georgia is of great importance to the survival of this and many other sensitive herp species. Studies should be conducted to determine what upland habitat conditions and characteristics are required for spotted turtles in Georgia.
Selected References:
Berrv, J. F. and P. E.Meylan. 1992. Spotted turtle. Pages 191-
195 in P. E. Moler, ed. Rare and endangered biota of Florida. Vol. 3. Amphibians and reptiles. Univ. Press of Florida, Gainesville. 291pp. Ernst, C. H. 1972. Clemmys guttata. Cat. Amer. Amphib. and Rep. 142:1-2.
Ernst, C.H., J. E. Lovich, and R. W Barbour. 1994. Turtles of the
United States and Canada. Smithsonian Institutional Press, Washington, D'C; and London, England. 578pp. Palmer, W A. andA. 1. Braswell. 1995. Reptiles of North Carolina. Univ. North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, and London, England. 412pp.
Vitt, 1. J. 1981. A survey of the status, distribution and abun-
dance of potentially threatened and endangered vertebrate species in Georgia, Part II: reptiles and amphibians. Unpubl. Rep. to Georgia Dept. Nat. Res. 210pp.
Written byJohn B. Jensen
70

State Status: Threatened Federal Status: Threatened from Massachusetts south to Maryland; southern population threatened due to similarity of appearance (TSA) to northern population

Other Commonly Used Name(s): Muhlenberg's Turtle

Description: The bog turtle is a small freshwater species reaching only 11.5 ern (4.5 in) in maximum carapace length. The low-keeled, black, brown, or mahogany colored carapace is usually rough in appearance due to the distinctive growth annuli of the scutes. These annuli may become worn in older individuals. The unhinged plastron is typically black with yellow or cream-colored blotches along the midline. A conspicuous orange, yellow, or red blotch is present on each side of the head behind the eye. Skin color is brown to pink and may have some reddish mottling. Males have a lower domed carapace than females and a slightly concave plastron. Otherwise similar to adults, juveniles have a yellow plastron with a large black blotch in the center.
Range and Habitat: Bog turtles have a discontinuous range that stretches from western Massachusetts southward to extreme northeastern Georgia. A large gap in West Virginia and northern Virginia separates the so-called northern and southern populations. Disjunct populations are known from upper NewYork, northwestern Pennsylvania, and northeastern Tennessee. The existence of this species in Georgia was unknown until 1979, when an individual was captured in a trap set for ruffed grouse. Fewer than 10 sites in three counties (Rabun, Towns, and Union) are currently known from Georgia. A reported site in Stephens County is of questionable validity. All Georgia localities are within the Blue Ridge physiographic province. Other sites harboring this species likely occur in the rugged terrain of the North Georgia mountains.
Georgia bogs inhabited by this elusive turtle are generally found along slowly flowing spring creeks and seepages within low mountain valleys. These bogs are ideally quite open and characterized by a rich growth of sedges, rushes,

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
bulrushes, and especially sphagnum moss. Woody vegetation present often includes red maple, alder, willow, and swamp rose. The presence of soft, mucky organic soil is a prerequisite to inhabitation by bog turtles.
Diet: A wide variety of animal and plant items, including seeds, berries, insects, earthworms, snails, crayfish, salamanders' tadpoles and occasionally carrion.
Life History: Bog turtles are primarily active during spring and early summer, and after emerging from aestivation, become active again in early fall. Winter hibernacula and summer aestivation sites consist of mammal burrows, tussocks of sedges, mucky soil, and other suitable retreats. Turtles may hibernate singly or in association with others. During the activity periods, bog turtles are diurnal and spend a good deal of time basking on land, on top of grass clumps, or in the shallows of small rivulets. These turtles forage and feed on land and in the water.
Courtship and breeding occur from late April to early June, and eggs are subsequently laid from May to July. Eggs are either buried in soft soil, placed in thick beds of sphagnum moss, or deposited in the top of sedge tussocks. These nest sites are usually located in areas receiving plentiful sunlight. Adult females produce only one clutch of 1-6 elliptical eggs per year, but may not nest every year. Incubation time varies from 42 to 80 days with hatchlings typically emerging in late August or September, though some may delay emergence until the following spring. Predators of eggs, juveniles, and adults include raccoons,

71

skunks, opossums, foxes, wading birds, and common snapping turtles.
Threats/Comments: Bog turtles reach their southernmost limit in northern Georgia and were probably never very abundant there. Because mountain bogs are early successional communities, animals such as the bog turtle that depend on them are adapted to seek out new sites once previous ones become densely forested or hydrologically unsuitable. However, bog habitats have become fewer and farther between due to drainage for agricultural and real estate development as well as through stream impoundment thus leaving bog turtles increasingly vulnerable to road mortality, desiccation, and predation during long-distance overland searches for appropriate alternative bog sites. Management of known bog turtle sites in Georgia is difficult since most occur on private land. The Chattahoochee National Forest contains one currently known site, which is unfortunately far along in its succession to hardwood forest. The high demand for bog turtles in the black market pet trade has caused the removal of many individuals from sites in other states and may become a future threat in Georgia as well.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Personnel at the Chattahoochee National Forest are actively involved in reducing the woody vegetation at the bog turtle site there. The possibility of establishing conservation easements to maintain the early successional bog communities on private land sites should be investigated. Conservation and proper management of bog turtle sites also benefits other bog-inhabiting rarities such as the federally-threatened swamp pink. Efforts to locate additional bog turtle sites within the vast federally-owned lands of the northeast Georgia mountains should be a high priority. Studies to determine habitat requirements, home range, and demographic characteristics specific to Georgia bog turtles would aid recovery efforts. Establishing populations on protected areas of public land through a captive breeding and release program may be necessary.

Selected References:
Bury, B. R. 1979. Review of the ecology and conservation of the bog turtle, Clemmys muhlenbergii. U. S. Dept. Interior, U.S. Fish
anncd Wildl. Servo Special Scientific Report 219:1-9. Washington,
Ernst, C H.,]. E. Lovich, and R. W Barbour. 1994. Turtles of the United States and Canada. Smithsonian Institutional Press, Washington, D'C; and London, England. 578pp.
Fahey, K. M. 1993. Habitat survey and census of bog turtle (Clemmys muhlenbergii) populations in Georgia. Unpubl. Rep. to Georgia Dept. Nat. Res. 36pp.
Hermann, D. W 1993. Status and distribution of the bogturtle, Clemmys muhlenbergii, in North Carolina. Progress Rep. to North Carolina Wildl. Res. Comm. 46pp.
Mitchell,]. C, Buhlmann, K.A., and C H. Ernst. 1991. Bog turtle. Pages 457-459 in K. Terwilliger, ed. Virginia's endangered species. McDonald and Woodward, Blacksburg, Va. 672pp.
Vitt, L.]. 1981. A survey of the status, distribution and abundance of potentially threatened and endangered vertebrate species in Georgia, Part II: reptiles and amphibians: Unpubl. Rep. to Georgia Dept. Nat. Res. 210pp.
Written byJohn B. Jensen

72

State Status: Endangered Federal Status: Endangered

Other Commonly Used Name(s): Leatherback

Description: Adult leatherbacks are the largest turtles in the world, weighing an average of 300- 550 kg (660-1210 lbs) and measuring 135-175 cm (53-69 in). These turtles are generally black in appearance, with some gray and white spots ("vermiculations") on the ventral side of the body and dorsal surface of the flippers. The 110 leatherbacks that have washed up dead on Georgia's beaches since 1982 have ranged in size from 25-188 cm (10-74 in) curved carapace length, with an average of 151 cm (60 in).' Unlike other sea turtles, leatherbacks do not have large scutes covering the carapace and plastron; instead, they have a layer of skin over a very flexible shell. The carapace has seven, raised longitudinal ridges. The most distinguishing morphological characteristics of leatherbacks are their large size and dark color. Two large cusps on the upper jaw can be seen on close examination and are also distinctive. While swimming at the surface and breathing, the leatherback often holds its entire head out of the water, and the dorsal surface of its back usually breaks the surface as well.
Range and Habitat: Leatherbacks are highly pelagic with a global distribution, perhaps more widely distributed than any other reptile on earth. Found throughout the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans, these turtles can tolerate cool northern hemisphere ocean temperatures, allowing them regularly to move farther north than other sea turtles. They have been found swimming in sub-Arctic regions, a reflection of their apparent ability to maintain core body temperatures that are

Shadingindicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences (strandings)
higher than surrounding ambient ocean temperatures. Even though they are ocean wanderers, leatherbacks regularly approach the shore. They have been seen close to Georgia's barrier beaches and have even been observed swimming in the sounds and estuaries near Wassaw, Ossabaw, and St. Catherines islands.
Diet: Primarily jellyfish, but occasionally other marine invertebrates like octopi and squid. Georgia turtles have been found engorged with cannonball jellyfish.
Life History: Leatherbacks, like other sea turtles, deposit eggs in the sand of warm tropical and subtropical beaches. Central and South American beaches support the majority of nesting in the western Atlantic. Leatherbacks are found in Georgia waters primarily in the early spring, fall, and early winter during migration to and from the tropics. Dead leatherbacks that have been found on Georgia's beaches have been identified from tags and genetic samples as originating
from the nesting beaches of St. Croix,Trinidad, and French Guiana. Leatherbacks nest regularly in the southeast-
ern U.S., particularly Florida. Only five nests have been confirmed in Georgia, two of which were laid on Blackbeard and Cumberland islands in 1981 and the remaining three on Sapelo and Sea islands in 1996. Leatherbacks
normally nest about six times in a season but have been known to nest as many as eleven times. Like other sea turtles, leatherbacks do not
nest every year but normally return to nest every

73

2-4 years. The 80- 90 billiard-ball sized white eggs normally hatch in about 50-78 days.
Very little is known about leatherbacks during any of their developmental life stages, and virtually nothing is known of the post-hatching and juvenile life-stage periods. Young leatherbacks grow more rapidly than other sea turtles and probably reach maturity at a much earlier age as well. The average age of maturity has been estimated at 13-14 years for females, which is quite rapid compared to the estimated 2030 years to maturity in loggerheads. Maximum life span is not known.
Leatherbacks are one of the deepest diving airbreathing animals, reaching depths of approximately 1,000 m (3,300 ft). Sperm whales may be able to dive to three times that depth.
Threats/Comments: A recent estimate of the world's nesting female population is 34,500 individuals, a mere third of the estimated world population two decades ago. The species appears to be in a world-wide population decline. Directed harvesting of adults and egg poaching probably contributed to this decline. Egg poaching in countries such as Costa Rica is a profit-oriented endeavor, where the eggs are more likely to end up served in bars as supposed aphrodisiacs than served as staple food items. In Malaysia, however, the subsistence harvest pressure on the eggs has caused a complete collapse of what was once one of the largest concentrations of nesting leatherbacks in the world.
An equally insidious threat to leatherbacks and all sea turtles, and one that is very difficult to assess, is incidental mortality due to commercial fishing efforts throughout the oceans. These ocean wanderers are caught on hooks from commercial long-line fisheries, and they become entangled in drift gillnets in the open ocean. An estimated minimum of 1,000 leatherbacks are killed annually in the Pacific as bycatch from commercial fisheries. In many parts of the world, including Georgia, leatherbacks drown in shrimp trawls. The adult turtles are too large to fit through the turtle excluder devices . that were originally designed to allow the much smaller Kemp's ridley and loggerheads to escape from shrimp nets.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Leatherbacks are most likely to wash ashore in Georgia during two periods, March through June and October through December. The temporal distribution of the strandings reflects the periods of greatest abundance in Georgia's nearshore waters. To help alleviate leatherback mortality during the species migration along our coast, the Nongame-Endangered Wildlife Program flies weekly transects covering the entire coast searching for concentrations of leatherbacks. If concentrations of the animals are found, the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) is notified and can implement a leatherback contingency plan to protect them from commercial shrimp fishing until the turtles move through the area.

Selected References:
Conant, R, and]. T. Collins. 1991. A field guide to reptiles and amphibians of Eastern and Central NorthAmerica. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 450pp.
Dutton, P H, D. 1. McDonald, and R H Boulon. 1992. 1991: a record yearfor leatherback productivity on St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. Marine Turtle Newsl. (57):15-17.
Eckert, S. A, K. 1. Eckert, P Ponganis, and G. 1. Kooyman. 1989. Divingandforaging behavior oj leatherback sea turtles (Dermochelys coriacea). Can.]. Zool. 67:2834-2840.
Ernst, C. H, ]. E. Lovich, and R W Barbour. 1994. Turtles of the United States and Canada. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington D.C. 578pp.
Frick, M. G. 1996. A guide for the identification of stranded sea turtles: the eastern United States and Gulf of MeXICO. Special Publ. No.4, Savannah Science Museum Inc., Savannah, Ga.
Marquez, M., R 1990. Sea turtles of the world. An annotated and illustrated catalogue of sea turtle species known to date. FAG Fish Synops. No. 125, vol. 11. 81pp.
McDonald, D. 1., and P H Dutton. 1996. Leatherback turtles (Dermochelys coriacea) on St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands: fifteen years of conservation. Chelonian Conservation and Biology
2(2):141-147.
Pete, S.]. and B. Winn. 1997. Leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) strandings in Georgia: 1982-1996. In Press. Proc. of the 17th annual symposium on sea turtle biology and conservation. _ _. 1997a. Leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) nesting in Georgia. In Press. Proc. of the 17th annual symposium on sea turtle bIOlogy and conservation.
Plotkin, PT. (Editor). 1995. National Marine Fisheries Service and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Status Reviews for Sea Turtles Listed underthe Endangered Species Act of 1973. National Marine Fisheries Service, Silver Spring, Maryland
Ruckdeschel, c., 1. Ellis, and C. R Shoop. 1982. Dermochelys
coriacea (leatherback sea turtle) nesting. Herpetol. Rev. 13
(4):126.
Spotilla,]. R, A E. Dunham, A]. Leslie, AC. Steyermark, PT. Plotkin, and F.V Paladino. 1996. Worldwide population decline of Dermochelys coriacea. Chelonian Conserv. and Bioi. 2(2): 209-
222.
Zug, G. R, and]. F. Parham. 1996. Age and growth in leatherback turtles, Dermochelys coriacea (Testudines: A skeletochronological analysis). Chelonian Conserv. and Biol. 2(2):244-
249.
Written by Bradford Winn

74

State Status: Threatened Federal Status: Threatened

Other Commonly Used Name(s): Blue bull snake, gopher snake, indigo

Description: The eastern indigo snake reaches a maximum total length of 2.63 m (8.6 ft), making it the longest snake in North America. The head of this stout snake is only slightly distinct from the neck. Coloration is iridescent blue-black throughout, except on the chin, throat, and cheeks, which are usually reddish or occasionally cream-colored. No pattern is present on the body. The scales are large, shiny, and for the most part smooth, though those on several middorsal scale rows of mature males are partially keeled. The anal plate is undivided. Indigos may be confused with black racers, which differ by having a white cheek patch, dull black coloration, a much more slender body, and a divided anal scale. The range of the black rat snake does not overlap with that of the eastern indigo snake.
Range and Habitat: Historically, the eastern indigo snake ranged from southern South Carolina south and west to southeastern Mississippi. Currently, extant populations are known from only Georgia and Florida. Georgia populations are highly fragmented and primarily occur in the southeastern . portion of the state. The presence of these snakes on the sea islands of Georgia has been reported in very old accounts; however, it is very unlikely they occur on any Georgia island today.
Though present in a wide variety of habitat types in peninsular Florida, indigo snakes in Georgia are closely associated with longleaf pine habitats, such as sandhills and turkey oak scrub. Stump holes and gopher tortoise burrows provide winter retreats. Within Altamaha Grit areas of Georgia, fissures within sandstone outcroppings often prove suitable for shelters. Floodplains or the periphery of cypress ponds, either adjacent to or interspersed within the sandy uplands, are used during the warmer months.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Diet: A wide variety of vertebrate prey including birds, small mammals, fishes, frogs, small turtles, lizards and snakes (including venomous snakes).
Life History: Indigo snakes utilize two different habitats during the course of the year. During the warmer months, daylight hours are spent foraging on the edge of wetlands where frogs and other snakes are typically abundant. Indigos utilize a very large area, up to or exceeding 101 hectares (250 acres), during this period. However, they become relatively concentrated on upland sand ridges once winter approaches. Breeding occurs from November until April, and females typically lay 5-10 eggs during Mayor June, these are often placed in the moist sand of tortoise burrows. Females are capable of storing sperm at least four years for future fertilization. Males defend territories, and encounters with other males may result in fierce combat and potential cannibalism. Since indigo snakes are not constrictors, their prey is usually eaten alive.

Threats/Comments: In many areas, indigo snakes may depend on the burrows of gopher tortoises more than any other vertebrate burrow associate; therefore, it can be assumed that the well-documented reduction in the distribution and abundance of gopher tortoises has likely impacted the status of the indigo. The natural communities of Georgia's Coastal Plain have been drastically reduced as a result of primarily agricultural and silvicultural development, thus forcing indigo snakes into smaller, isolated compart-
75

ments of suitable habitat. As a wide-ranging species now relegated to frequent road-crossing, indigo snakes have become increasingly vulnerable to vehicles and humans who indiscriminately kill any snake seen. Many populations were depleted by collection for the pet trade previous to their federallisting and protection under the Endangered Species Act. Despite being illegal, the continued practice of pumping or pouring gasoline down gopher tortoise burrows ("gassing") to drive out eastern diamondback rattlesnakes results in the likely death of all burrow inhabitants, including the indigo snake.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Significantly large areas inhabited by indigo snakes should be protected from further degradation. This includes avoidance of intensive soil disturbance and continuation or initiation of a periodic prescribed burning program. Any efforts to protect or enhance gopher tortoise populations should benefit the indigo snake as well. Stronger enforcement of the laws prohibiting the gassing of tortoise burrows is encouraged. Education aimed at reducing or eliminating the unwarranted fears and misconceptions of nonvenomous snakes is perhaps the most critical long-term conservation measure that can be undertaken.
Selected References:
Diemer, J. E. 1983. The distribution of the eastern indigo snake, Drymarchon corais couperi, in Georgia. J. Herpetol. 17(3):256- .
264.
Moler, P. E. 1992. Eastern indigo snake. Pages 181-186 in P. E. Moler, ed. Rare and endangered biota of Florida. Vol. 3. Amphib. and Rep. Univ. Press of Florida, Gainesville.
Speake, D. W, J. A. McGlincy, and T. R. Colvin. 1978. Ecology
and management of the eastern indigo snake in Georgia: a progress report. Pages 64-73 in R. R. Odum and 1. Landers, eds. Proc. rare and endangered wildlife symposium. Georgia Dept. Nat. Res., Wild/. Res. Div. (formerly Game and Fish Division), Tech. Bull WL4.
_ _. 1986. Eastern indigo snake. Pages 24-25 in R. H. Mount, ed. Vertebrate animals of Alabama in need of special attention. Alabama Agric. Exper. Sta., Auburn Univ., Auburn.
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1982. Eastern indigo snake recovery plan. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Atlanta, Ga. 23pp.
Written byJohn B. Jensen
76

State Status: Endangered Federal Status: Endangered

Other Commonly Used Name(s): Hawksbill

Description: Adult hawksbills are medium-sized, generally brown turtles which sometimes show the tortoiseshell pattern for which the species is best known. Hawksbills are usually 76-89 ern (30-35 in) long, weighing 43-75 kg (95-165 lbs.). The carapace of the juvenile is almost heart-shaped, but that of the adult is shaped more like a shield. Scutes of the carapace overlap the next posterior scute, creating a shingled appearance in most age classes. This overlap is more prominent in younger individuals. The posterior edge of the carapace is usually serrated, and the plastron yellow.

Range and Habitat: Hawksbills can be found in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans, primarily in tropical waters. The species prefers shallow, hard-bottomed areas such as coral reefs and rock outcroppings. Hawksbills may occasionally pass through Georgia waters as transients, but of 4,437 turtles in the Georgia DNR stranding database compiled since 1980, there are only two confirmed records of a hawksbill being found in this state. The two hawksbills were found dead on Cumberland and Jekyll islands in 1998.
Diet: Generally omnivorous, feeding primarily on a wide array of invertebrates, particularly sponges.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences (strandings)
Females from the Atlantic are a minimum of 62.5 em (25 in) straight carapace length when they nest and have been recorded as long as 90.0 em (35 in). Nesting for an individual takes place on average of once every 2-3 years. There are an average of 160 eggs per nest, and 4-5 nests are deposited each nesting season.

Life History: Hawksbills breed in Central and South America both on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, occasionally nesting in Florida between April and August. In addition, they nest in other areas of the Pacific and Indian Ocean. These turtles nest solitarily with few concentrated nesting sites. Their nests are often in heavily vegetated areas behind the high water line and dunes.

Threats/Comments: With a diet specializing in reef sponges, hawksbills may be particularly vulnerable to the slow decline of many of the world's coral bottoms. However, the clearest cause of the decline in hawksbill numbers is the commercial demand for the translucent scutes of the carapace, known as tortoiseshell, which is still used to create cosmetic items such as combs and jewelry. The leading consumer of tortoiseshell has been Japan. Most populations of nesting
females are fewer than 500 individuals and are considered endangered.

Conservation and Management Recommendations: Unlike most sea turtle species, which have specific regions or even specific beaches routinely used for nesting, hawksbills nest in scattered locations throughout the tropics. This makes the use of standard sea turtle management protocols difficult to implement and population trend assessment almost impossible. Tortoiseshell imports were banned in 1992 by Japan, raising hopes that the world population of the hawksbill may begin to recover with commercial interests at least temporarily alleviated.

77

Selected References:
Bjorndal, K. A, A Carr, A B. Meylan, andJ. A Mortimer. 1985.
Reproductive biology of the hawksbill Eretmochelys imbricata at Tortuguero, Costa Rica, with notes on the ecology of the species in the Caribbean. Biol. Conserv. 34:353-368. Carr, A F., Jr. 1952. Handbook of turtles. The turtles of the United States, Canada, and Baja California. Comstock Publ., Cornell Univ. Press, Ithaca, NewYork. 542pp. -----J H. Hirth, and L. Ogren. 1966. The ecology and migrations of sea turtles, 6. The hawksbillturtle in the Caribbean sea. Amer. Mus. Novitates (2248):1-29.
Conant, R., andJ. T. Collins. 1991. A field guide to reptiles and
amphibians of Eastern and Central North America. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 450pp. Donelly, M. 1991. Japan bans import of hawksbill shell effective December 1992. Marine Turtle Newsl. (54): 1-3.
Ernst, e. H., J. E. Looich, and R. W Barbour. 1994. Turtles of the
United States and Canada. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington tic. 578pp. National Research Council. 1990. Decline of the sea turtles: causes and prevention. National Acad. Press, Washington, DiC. 259pp. Plotkin, P.T. (Editor). 1995. National Marine Fisheries Service and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Status Reviews for Sea Turtles Listed underthe Endangered Species Act of 1973. National Marine Fisheries Service, Silver Spring, Maryland Witzell, W N. 1983. Synopsis of biological data on the hawksbill turtle, Eretmochelys imbricata (Linnaeus, 1766). FAO Fish. Synopsis 137. 78pp.
Written by Bradford Winn
78

State Status: Threatened Federal Status: Threatened west of the Tombigbee and Mobile rivers in Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana. Not listed elsewhere.

Other Commonly Used Name(s): Gopher

Description: The official state reptile of Georgia, the gopher tortoise is a relatively large terrestrial turtle, obtaining a maximum carapace length of 38 cm (15 in), though averaging 2328 cm(9-11 in). Its oblong carapace is unkeeled and domed, somewhat flattened, and brown or gray in color. Distinctive growth annuli are evident in juveniles and young adults, usually becoming obscured later in life. The yellowish plastron is hingeless and has conspicuous elongated gular scutes. With the exception of the yellowish limb sockets, the scaly skin of adults is typically dark gray. Perhaps the most characteristic features of gopher tortoises are the elephantine hind limbs and the flattened, shovel-like forelimbs. The head is wide and rounded, with a pair of seasonally-swollen mental glands on the chin. Hatchlings have yellowish skin as well as yellowcentered scutes, both of which gradually darken with age. Males have slightly concave plastrons.
Range and Habitat: Gopher tortoises occur in the Coastal Plain from southern South Carolina south and westward to extreme eastern Louisiana. Extant or historical localities in Georgia are known throughout the southern half of the state below the Fall Line. They are apparently absent from the Okefenokee Swamp and most barrier islands. Documented specimens collected from St. Simons and Cumberland islands were likely of an introduced origin rather than naturally occurring. In 1994, a large number of tortoises were salvaged from an industrial park development site in Bulloch County and relocated to St. Catherines Island, where successful reproduction has occurred. Tortoises observed or collected from the Piedmont and mountains of Georgia are undoubtedly released animals.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Along with sandy soil for burrowing, sunlight availability and abundant herbaceous vegetation are the key habitat requirements for this reptile. Gopher tortoises are a characteristic species of the rapidly disappearing longleaf pine and wiregrass community, which includes sandhills, flatwoods, and turkey oak scrub. Historically, this community was represented by an open-canopied forest that allowed abundant sunlight penetration and conditions favorable for a rich growth of herbaceous vegetation. Unfortunately, very little of this naturally occurring habitat still exists; therefore, many tortoises have been forced into anthropogenic habitats, such as roadsides and old fields, that retain the three key requirements.
Diet: A wide variety of succulent grasses and forbs; fruits, such as those of legumes, are eaten in season.
Life History: Gopher tortoises dig unbranched burrows up to, and sometimes greater than, 10 m (33 ft) long. The burrows are excavated wide enough
to allow room for the tortoise to turn around at any point and may have an enlarged terminal chamber. A single tortoise may dig more than one burrow each season, and occupancy of a burrow by more than one tortoise may occur. These characteristics make population estimates obviously difficult. Burrows provide winter hibernacula, retreats from the summer heat, and shelter from fire for not only the tortoise, but also for hundreds of invertebrate and vertebrate animal species. Tortoises also benefit plant life by returning leached nutrients to the surface, creating bare, competition-free areas of soil, and by dispersing seeds through

79

fruit consumption and subsequent defecation elsewhere. For these reasons, the gopher tortoise has been termed the "keystone species" of the longleaf pine community, meaning its existence is critical to the existence of many other species.
Courtship and mating occur from April through early June. Nesting reaches a peak in early June but may last until mid-July. Females, which may not attain sexual maturity until 19-20 years of age, produce only once clutch each year and usually construct nests in the burrow mounds. An average of six white, nearly spherical eggs are deposited, and hatching follows an incubation period of 97-106 days. Nests and hatchlings are preyed upon by a variety of mammals and snakes, though raccoons are apparently the chief predators at most sites.
Threats/Comments: The loss and alteration of the longleaf pine-wiregrass community through agricultural and silvicultural development, urban sprawl, and fire suppression has eliminated many populations and isolated most others. It has been estimated that the average female gopher tortoise in Georgia has an effective rate of reproduction of about 5.8 hatchlings per 10 years, assuming annual egg laying. This naturally low fecundity is only worsened by isolation, unnaturally high populations of raccoons, suboptimal habitat conditions, and other factors. Tortoises forced into roadside habitats due to a lack of suitable surrounding land are obviously more vulnerable to vehicle impacts and collection by humans. In the past, tortoise populations in many areas were heavily decimated by human exploitation for food, a practice now illegal but which may continue in some areas. The introduction of gasoline into the burrows of gopher tortoises is a technique used by some rattlesnake hunters to force the snakes to the surface. This practice is typically fatal to all burrow inhabitants. Upper Respiratory Tract Disease (URTD) is a highly contagious, relatively recently recognized disease present in many populations and is apparently often fatal.

Selected References:
Auffenberg, W, and R. Franz. 1982. The status and distribution of the gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus). Pages 95-126 in R. B. Bury, ed. North American tortoises: conservation and ecology. U.S. Fish and Wildl Sero., WildI. Res. Rep. 12.
Diemer, J. E. 1986. The ecology and management ofthe gopher
tortoise in the southeastern United States. Herpetologica 42(1): 125-133.
_ _. 1992. Gopher tortoise. Pages 123-127 in P. E. Moler, ed. Rareand endangered biota of Florida. Vol. 3. Amphib. and Rep. Univ. Press of Florida, Gainesville. 291pp.
Ernst, C. H., J. E. Lovich, and R. W Barbour. 1994. Turtles of the
United States and Canada. Smithsonian Institutional Press, Washington, DiC; and London, England. 578pp.
Landers, J. L., and W A. McRae. 1980. Reproduction of the
gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus) in southwestern Georgia. Herpetologica 36(4): 353-361.
Speake, D. W 1986. Gopher tortoise. Pages 41-42 in R. H. Mount, ed. Vertebrate animals of Alabama in need of special attention. AlabamaAgric. Exper. Sta.,Auburn Univ., Auburn. 124pp.
Vitt, L.J. 1981. A survey of the status,distribution and abun-
dance of potentially threatened and endangered vertebrate species in Georgia, PartII: reptiles and amphibians. UnpubI. Rep. to Georgia Dept. Nat. Res. 210pp.
Written by John B. Jensen

Conservation and Management Recommendations: A priority should be placed upon the protection of remaining natural longleaf pine forests, which will not only benefit the gopher tortoise but a suite of rare animals and plants as well. The use of periodic controlled burns should be practiced to reduce hardwood vegetation and promote grasses and forbs. Raccoons may need to be controlled in areas of high human activity, such as State Parks. Until more information is secured concerning the threat of URTD, distant relocations should be discouraged and practiced only as a last resort.

80

State Status: Threatened Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): Barbour's sawback turtle

Description: Barbour's map turtle is known for the extreme sexual dimorphism it displays. While adult males reach a maximum carapace length of only 13 em (5.1 in), females may obtain a length of 33 em (13 in) and a body mass 80 percent greater than that of males. In addition, females have enormous heads relative to males. The carapace has a mid-dorsal keel with black-tipped spines posteriorly, these often obscured in older females. Yellow, C-shaped markings adorn the pleural and marginal scutes on the otherwise olive to olive-brown carapace. The plastron is pale yellow with narrow, dark markings confined to the seams. Skin color is generally dark-green to black with light green or yellow markings and stripes. A large yellowish blotch is present behind each eye; a conspicuous isolated light bar, following the curvature of the jaw, is found on the chin. The female has powerful jaws used for crushing snails and bivalves.
Range and Habitat: The presumed natural range of this species is confined to the Apalachicola drainage of Florida, Alabama, and Georgia. The Flint and Chattahoochee rivers and their larger tributaries are home to Barbour's map turtles occurring in Georgia; and although a few known localities along the Flint River are within the Piedmont physiographic province, most of their range is confined to the Coastal Plain.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
The recent discovery of a Barbour's map turtle population within the Ochlockonee River in Florida offers a possibility of their existence in the Georgia portions of this drainage. It is not known if this population is of a natural or human introduced origin.
Relatively wide and swiftly flowing streams with abundant snags and fallen trees are the preferred habitat for this species. Concentrations of Barbour's map turtles are often associated with areas of exposed limestone. No other species of Graptemys occurs sympatrically with this species.

Diet: Primarily snails and bivalves; also aquatic insects, especially caddisfly larvae.

Life History: Females, which may not reach sexual maturity until 15 or more years of age, typically deposit 4-11 eggs a few centimeters beneath the surface on sandbars or riverbanks. Several clutches may be produced in a season. Nesting occurs
from June through August, and eggs take approximately 60 days to hatch. Barbour's map turtle, like many other turtle species, has temperature-dependent sex determination. Eggs incubated at 25C (77 F)produce all males, while those incubated at 30C (86 OF) produce only females. A considerable amount of time is spent baskmg in full sun on logs or rocks.

Threats/Comments: The streams and rivers used by Barbour's map turtles have been negatively altered by impoundment, dredging, and pollution. These impacts have
81

affected the turtles by slowing the natural water flow, reducing the available basking sites, and nearly eliminating the native mollusk prey base. Illegal collection for both meat and the pet trade continues to exacerbate the problem. Unattended or infrequently visited trotlines and bush hooks often snag and kill non-targeted animals such as Barbour's map turtle and may contribute to localized declines or extirpations. The shooting of basking turtles is an additional threat. The restricted natural range of the species makes them especially vulnerable.

Conservation and Management Recommendations: Remaining stretches of streams and rivers harboring this species should be protected from chemical poisoning, dredging, and further impoundment. The practice of removing trees and snags for boat navigability should be kept to a minimum. Trotlines and bush-hooks should be checked daily and removed when not in use to prevent snagging and ensnarement of nontargeted animals. Surveys for this species in the Ochlockonee River in Georgia should be conducted.
Though creating competition problems for native mollusks, the introduction of the Asian clam has enhanced the prey availability for Barbour's map turtle.

Selected References:

Ernst, C. H., J. E. Lovich, and R. W Barbour. 1994. Turtles of the

WUnaisthedingSttoante,snacn.d,

Canada. Smithsonian Institutional and London, England. 578pp.

Press,

Jackson, D. R. 1986. Barbour's map turtle. Pages 37-38 in R. H. Mount, ed. Vertebrate animalsofAlabama in need of special attention. Alabama Agric. Exper. Sta., Auburn Univ., Auburn. 124pp.

Sanderson, R.A. andJ. E. Lovich. 1988. Graptemys barbouri
Carr and Marchand. Cat. Amer. Amphib. and Rep. 421.1-421.2.

_ _.1992. Barbour's map turtle. Pages 196-199 in P. E.
Moler, ed. Rare and endangered biota oj Florida. Vol. 3. Amphibians and reptiles. Univ. Press of Florida, Gainesville. 291pp.

Vitt, 1. J. 1981. A survey of the status, distribution and abun-
dance of potentially threatened and endangered vertebrate species in Georgia, Part II: reptiles and amphibians. Unpubl. Rep. to Georgia Dept. Nat. Res. 21Opp.

Written byJohn B. Jensen

82

State Status: Rare Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: Like other species of Graptemys, the common map turtle exhibits strong sexual dimorphism in both total size and head size. While males reach a carapace length of only 15 cm (6 in), females may attain a carapace length of up to 27 cm (10.5 in). In addition, females have a much broader head than do males. The carapace is olive-green, with fine, lighter green or yellow lines that form a reticulated pattern, similar in appearance to the contour lines of a topographic map. A low, vertebral keel is present, though not nearly as prominent as the keel found on other species of map turtles. Absent on adult females, low vertebral spines may be evident on the posterior portion of the carapace in both juveniles and adult males. The cream to yellow plastron is unmarked in adults, though the bridge and lower marginal scutes have longitudinal dark lines and circular dark markings, respectively. The skin is olive to dark-brown or black with many narrow yellow to light green stripes. Behind each eye is a small yet distinctive yellow spot, not connected to any of the stripes. Juveniles have dark markings along the seams of the plastron and a more intricate carapacial pattern.
Range and Habitat: the common map turtle is widely distributed in eastern and central North America, ranging from southern Canada south to central Alabama and west to Oklahoma. In Georgia, this species is found in the extreme northwestern corner of the state and has been collected only from the upper tributaries of the Coosa River drainage, primarily the Conasauga River. It is puzzling why this species has not been observed in the Georgia section of the Coosa River itself or in the river's upper stretches in Alabama. Though the majority of the streams and rivers in which it occurs drain into the Mississippi River, populations within the Coosa drainage and those of the northeastern states drain into Mobile Bay and the Atlantic Ocean, respectively. This fact has led some to question whether these latter populations represent unnatural introductions or even distinct taxonomic groups.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Large streams and rivers with an abundance of basking sites, either exposed rocks or fallen trees and logs, are the preferred habitat for this species. Within Georgia, common map turtles are currently known only from such streams of the Ridge and Valleyprovince. Elsewhere within its range, the common map turtle often inhabits large reservoirs and even small brooks.
Diet: Primarily mollusks (females, both snails and bivalves; males, primarily snails); also fishes, crayfish, earthworms, aquatic insects, and some plant material.
Life History: Common map turtles spend a considerable amount of time basking on logs and rocks, but they will dive into the water at the slightest disturbance..
Breeding occurs in both spring and fall, and nesting lasts from late May to mid-July. Females dig flask-shaped nests in soft soil or sand exposed to full sunlight and typically deposit 9-17 eggs. Up to three clutches may be produced by a single female each year. Although hatchlings begin to emerge in August or September, some may overwinter in the nest cav-
ity and emerge the following spring. As with many other species of turtles, environmental sex
~~~~~~ determination also occurs in Graptemys geographica. Incubation temperatures of 25C (77 OF) produce a predominance of males, while 30 C (86 OF) or higher incubation temperatures result in a predominance of females.

83

Threats/Comments: The greatest threat to common map turtles in Georgia is the decline or potential loss of their molluskan prey base as a result of stream degradation. Siltation, loss of stream-side shading, and various sorts of water pollution contribute to eutrophic conditions unfavorable to aquatic invertebrates. Illegal collection for both food and the pet trade may also be threatening this species. The amount of egg and hatchling predation by raccoons is unknown but may be significant in areas of increased human activity. Conservation and Management Recommendations: The low number of known populations in Georgia is more an artifact of the species' peripheral range than an indication of rarity. Surveys should be conducted to determine whether this species occurs in other portions of the Coosa River drainage and in the northwestern Georgia streams of the Tennessee River drainage. Selected References: Ernst, C.H.,]. E. Lovich, and R. W Barbour. 1994. Turtles of the United States and Canada. Smithsonian Institutional Press, Washington, D'C; and London, England. 578pp. Gordon, D.M. and R. D.MacCulloch. 1980. An investigation of the ecology of the map turtle, Graptemys geographica, in the northern partof its range. Can.]. Zool. 58:2210-2219. Mount, R. H. 1975. The reptiles and amphibians ofAlabama. Alabama Agric. Exper. Sta., Auburn Univ., Auburn. 347pp. Vitt, L.]. 1981. A survey of the status, distribution and abundance of potentially threatened and endangered vertebrate species in Georgia, Part II: reptiles and amphibians. Unpubl. Rep. to Georgia Dept. Nat. Res. 210pp.
Written byJohn B. Jensen
84

State Status: Rare Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): Alabama sawback turtle

Description: The Alabama map turtle reaches a maximum

carapace length of 27.3 cm (10.7 in). The medially-keeled

carapace has a series of laterally compressed spines which are

especially pronounced posteriorly. A narrow dark stripe

extends along the length of the keel, though it may be inter-

rupted. The majority of the carapace is olive-colored with

faint yellow reticulations. Relatively conspicuous concentric

yellow markings are found on the dorsal surface of the mar-

ginals. The pale yellow plastron has dark markings along the

seams, and the ventral surface of the marginals is patterned

with a set of concentric dark rings. The skin is dark brown or

olive and has many light-green or yellow stripes. A large yel-

low or light-green patch or "mask" is present on the head,

between and behind the eyes. Adult females are much larger

than males and have greatly enlarged heads. Range and Habitat: The Alabama map turtle is nearly

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences

endemic to its namesake state, known elsewhere from only a years of age, begin nesting in late April and may continue into

few sites in extreme northwestern Georgia. In Georgia, the

August. An average of 4-6 eggs are laid in nests dug in the

species has been collected from only the Conasauga River in sandy soils of stream beaches or bars. Females may produce

the Ridge and Valleyprovince, where it apparently occurs sym- up to seven clutches in a single year.

patrically with the common map turtle. Why it has not been

Like all map turtles, Alabama map turtles spend a

observed in the Oostanaula or Coosa rivers of Georgia is a

great amount of time basking in full sunlight, but they will

mystery.

quickly dive into the water if approached. Adult females use

This species prefers large streams or rivers with swift- their powerful jaws to crush thick-shelled mussel prey, includ-

ly flowing water and an abundance of basking sites in the

ing the introduced Asian clam.

form of fallen trees or snags.

Threats/Comments: In Georgia, Alabama map turtles are

Diet: Primarily snails and bivalves; aquatic insects are also

very localized and are therefore vulnerable to habitat alter-

consumed by males and immature females.

ations. Disturbances to the natural hydrology and water

chemistry from impoundment, siltation, and pollution threat-

Life History: Relatively little is known about the life history en the existence of native mollusks, and ultimately the map

of this species as compared to other species of southeastern

turtles. The removal of snags and fallen trees along waterways

Graptemys. Females, which reach sexual maturity at about 14

limits the availability of basking

~._', sites. Illegal take of this species
.~ and other map turtles in Georgia,
~~~-'j for both human consumption and

the pet trade, may be a significant

problem. The recruitment success of

Alabama map turtles may be affected by egg

~~~~!I~~and hatchling predation from raccoons.

Conservation and Management Recommendations: The relatively short stretch
of the Conasauga River inhabited by this species should be protected from further degradation. Suitably-sized forested buffer

85

strips should remain intact along the river and its larger tributaries. The removal of snags should be discouraged. Surveys should be conducted to determine if this turtle occurs in other portions of the Coosa River drainage in Georgia. Selected References: Ernst, C. H,]. E. Looich, and R. W Barbour. 1994. Turtles of the United States and Canada. Smithsonian Institutional Press,
Washington, nc., and London, England. 578pp.
Marion, K. R. 1986. Alabama map turtle. Pages 50-52 in R. H Mount, ed. Vertebrate animals ofAlabama in need of special attention. Alabama Agric. Exper. Sia., Auburn Univ., Auburn. 124pp. Mount, R. H 1975. The reptiles and amphibians ofAlabama. Alabama Agric. Exper. Sia., Auburn. 347pp. Written byJohn B. Jensen
86

State Status: Endangered Federal Status: Endangered

Other Commonly Used Name(s): Kemp's ridley, Atlantic ridley

Description: Kemp's ridleys are sleek turtles that are smaller as adults than any other sea turtle in the North Atlantic Ocean or Gulf of Mexico. Adult carapace length is 58-70 cm (23-28 in), and average weight is 41 kg (90 lbs). The carapace is relatively flat and round, compared to the high -domed and elongated carapace of the loggerhead. Unlike the loggerhead's reddish brown shell, head, and flipper color, the Kemp's ridley has a gray to grayish-green hue. The color of the ventral surface of the turtle, including the plastron, is cream to white. Ridley heads are fairly large proportionally to body size but not as robust as similarly-sized loggerheads.

Range and Habitat: Adult ridleys are found primarily in the Gulf of Mexico, but juveniles have been observed throughout the Atlantic Ocean. The turtles prefer shallow coastal waters. In Georgia, juvenile Kemp's ridleys are prevalent during the months of April through October.
Diet: Blue crabs, stone crabs, spider crabs, moon snails, and a number of other animals and plants.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences (strandings)
Life History: Kemp's ridleys nest almost exclusively on the beaches of Rancho Nuevo on the Mexican gulf coast. The nesting season runs from April through mid-July, with individual females nesting every 1-3 years, occasionally in the daytime in large groups called arabadas. Clutches range from 51-185 eggs. Eggs hatch after 50-70 days of incubation. Little is known about the general ecology of Kemp's ridley turtles, and virtually nothing is known about free-swimming hatchlings and adult males.

Threats/Comments: Nesting records from the late 1940s indicate a tremendous and precipitous decline in the population of this species over a 4-decade period. A late 1940's film documented 42,000 ridleys on the beach in one day during an arabada nesting event; by the 1990 nesting season, only 530 females were recorded nesting during the entire season. This is clearly a species in trouble. However, since 1990 there have
been annual incremental increases in nesting efforts at Rancho Nuevo that have brought the number of Kemp's ridley nests up to more than 2,000 in 1997. In Georgia, strandings typically
begin in April and continue through the summer, peaking in June and July and tapering off into early November. Very few ridleys are found on Georgia beaches during the winter months.

Conservation and Management Recommendations: The protection of nesting female Kemp's ridleys and the protection of eggs they lay at Rancho Nuevo in Mexico, combined
87

with the development and implementation of turtle excluder device regulations, have most likely contributed to a modest but steady increase in the number of nesting females in Mexico. As with other sea turtle species, the best indication of population changes of Kemp's ridleys is the trend in nesting effort. There is optimism that Kemp's ridley conservation efforts are working.
Selected References:
Chavez, H 1967. Nota preliminar sobre la recaptura de ejemplares marcados de tortuga lora, lepidochelys olivacacea kempii. Bol. Prog. Nac. Marc. Tortugas Mar. Mexico 1(6):1-5. Chavez, H, M. Contreras G., and T. P E. Hernandez D 1968.
On the coast ofTamaulipas. Part 1. Int. Turtle and Tortoise Soc. J.
2(4):20-29,37. Creech, K. L., and P Allman. 1997. Stomach and gastrointestinal contents of stranded Kemp's ridley (Lepidochelys kempii) sea turtles in Georgia. In Press. Proc. of the 17th annual symposium on sea turtle biology and conservation.
Conant, R., andJ. T. Collins. 1991. A field guide to reptiles and
amphibians of Eastern and Central NorthAmerica. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 450pp.
Ernst, C. H, J. E. Lovich, and R. W Barbour. 1994. Turtles of the
United States and Canada. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC. 578pp. Hildebrand, H H 1982. A historical review of the status of sea turtle populations in the western Gulf of Mexico. Pages 447-453 in Bjorndal, K.A., ed. Biology and conservation of sea turtles. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC. Hirth, H F. 1988. Some aspects of the nesting behavior and reproductive biology of sea turtles. Amer. Zool. 20:507-523. Plotkin, PT. (Editor). 1995. National Marine Fisheries Service and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Status Reviews for Sea Turtles Listed under the Endangered Species Act of 1973. National Marine Fisheries Service, Silver Spring, Maryland Pritchard, P C. H, and R. Marchez M. 1973. Kemp's ridley turtle orAtlanticridley, Lepidochelys kempii. IUCN Monogr. 2. 30pp.
Written by Bradford Winn
88

State Status: Threatened Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): Loggerhead, alligator turtle

Description: One of the largest freshwater turtle species in the world, the alligator snapping turtle may obtain weights over 100 kg (220 lbs) and carapace lengths up to 80 em (31.5 in). The carapace is broad and relatively flat and bears three jagged ridges along its length, prominent in all but the oldest of individuals. In addition, the presence of 1-5 (usually 2-3 in Georgia individuals) supramarginal scutes is unique to this species. The carapace is dark brown- to reddish-brown and patternless. The similarly-colored plastron is very reduced and cross-shaped. The enormous head, which has earned it the nickname "loggerhead," is triangular in shape and has an elongated snout with strongly hooked jaws. The skin is typically dark brown in color, but some individuals may be flesh-colored. Many small dermal projections are present on the chin and neck. The relatively long tail has three dorsal rows of tubercles.
Common snapping turtles are similar in color and general appearance but have less conspicuous carapacial ridges, a much smaller head with no elongation of the snout, and lack supramarginal scutes.
Range and Habitat: Large streams and rivers draining to the Gulf of Mexico are the habitat for this reptile. Alligator snapping turtles are found from southeastern Georgia west to Texas, and north along the Mississippi River to southeastern Iowa. Rivers in Georgia known to contain populations of this species include, but are not limited to, the Chattahoochee,

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrence
Flint, Ochlockonee, Withlacoochee, Alapaha, and Suwannee. Though they occur in the Okefenokee Swamp, they are not known from the St. Marys River,which drains from the swamp south and east to the Atlantic Ocean. Georgia individuals are found almost exclusively in the Coastal Plain. Microhabitat preferences include portions of streams with undercut banks, log jams, and deep holes.
Diet: Fishes, smaller turtles, birds, crayfish, mollusks, carrion, plant material such as acorns and wild grapes.
Life History: Thought to be relatively sedentary by some, alligator snapping turtles have been documented moving considerable distances upstream. However, this species almost never leaves its aquatic habitat, unlike its more nomadic relative, the common snapping turtle.
Mating takes place in late winter or early spring and is subsequently followed by an April through June
nesting season. Nests are usually dug in riverbanks, where 10-61 round, leathery eggs are deposited. Females are capable of producing only one clutch each
year and some may nest only every other year. Alligator snapping turtles, especially younger
/ individuals, are known for the unusual feeding behavior of lying otherwise motionless on the stream bottom with their jaws agape, wiggling their
specialized, worm-like tongue appendage. This action lures small, unsuspecting fish within range of
their lightning-quick and extremely powerful jaws.

Threats/Comments: Prior to receiving protection in the state, these giants were trapped heavily for commercial purposes, particularly to supply meat for the turtle soup industry. One individual trapper was responsible for harvesting between 4,000 and 5,000 adult alligator snapping turtles from the Flint River during the period 1971 through 1983. This individual also reported catching up to 450 kg (1,000 lbs) of this species per day in one of the Flint River's tributaries. Removing this many adult turtles, especially of a late maturing species like the alligator snapping turtle, can seriously impact a local population. This was substantiated after a 1988-1989 survey of the Flint River conducted by the aforementioned trapper yielded only 62 alligator snappers in 783 trap nights. Many turtles also die after becoming hooked or ensnared on abandoned bush hooks and trotlines. In Japan and some European countries, they are apparently still sought as pets as well as for food. Water pollution and stream dredging have also been implicated as threats to this species.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: The addition of this turtle to the state protected species list should help its recovery, in part. Trotlines and bush-hooks should be checked daily and removed when not in use to prevent snagging and ensnarement of non-targeted animals. The impact of trotline and bush-hook fishing on all aquatic turtles should be investigated. Status surveys for this species in drainages other than the Flint River are currently being conducted by the Nongame-Endangered Wildlife Program.
Selected References:
Dobie,]. L. 1986. Alligator snapping turtle. Pages 49-50 in R. H Mount, ed. Vertebrate animals ojAlabama in need of special attention. Alabama Agric. Exper. Sta., Auburn Univ., Auburn. 124pp.
Ernst, C H,]. E. Lovich, and R. W Barbour. 1994. Turtles of the United States and Canada. Smithsonian Institutional Press, Washington, D'C; and London, England. 578pp.
Pritchard, P C H 1983. The alligator snapping turtle. Biology and conservation. Milwaukee Public Museum Publ., MilwaUkee, Wisc.104pp.
_ _.1992. Alligator snapping turtle. Pages 171-177 in P E. Moler, ed. Rare and endangered biota of Florida. Vol. 3. Amphibians and reptiles. Univ. Press of Florida, Gainesville. 291pp.
Written byJohn B. Jensen
90

State Status: Rare Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: A medium-sized salamander averaging 10.2 em (4 in) in total length, the green salamander has a dark brown or black dorsal background and numerous irregularlyshaped light-green or yellowish-green blotches, similar in coloration to rock-encrusting lichens. Its head, legs, and tail are colored and patterned similarly; the belly is light and unmarked or lightly flecked with yellow. Both its body and head are relatively flat, its webbed toes expanded and squaretipped, and its round tail as long or longer than the body. Males have a broader head than females.

Range and Habitat: The green salamander occurs in hilly and mountainous areas from northeastern Mississippi to southern Pennsylvania. In Georgia, the species occurs in two widely disjunct physiographic regions, the Cumberland Plateau in the northwest corner of the state and the eastern Blue Ridge in the extreme northeast corner. This is a species adapted to living in and around sandstone cliffs and outcroppings, especially those with abundant cracks and crevices. Green salamanders prefer permanently moist but seldom wet outcrops. They are occasionally found behind bark of rotting trees in the mesic forests surrounding these rocky sites.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
upper surfaces of rock fissures, where they are guarded by the female until hatching occurs. The larval stage is omitted and eggs hatch directly into miniature replicas of the adults. During winter, green salamanders may aggregate in deep retreats within the rocks to escape freezing temperatures.

Diet: A variety of small invertebrates.
Life History: The fissures within sandstone cliffs and outcroppings serve as shelters, foraging areas, and brooding sites. During the spring and summer, green salamanders can often be viewed at night by peering into these horizontal cracks with aid of a flashlight. Eggs, which average 17 per clutch, are laid primarily during the summer and are deposited on the

Threats/Comments: Throughout the range of this species, biologists have noticed significant declines in frequently-monitored populations. In fact, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service reported in 1987 that green salamanders have apparently disappeared from 78 percent of their known localities in the Blue Ridge Mountains. Reasons for these widespread declines are uncertain, but suggested causes include acid rain and over-collecting. Others have argued that drought conditions during more recent surveys have made locating individuals more difficult, thus biasing comparisons to past population densities. Loss of habitat as a result of gravel and coal mining, as well as
moisture depletion from logging operations, is another potential factor involved in their apparent decline. Impoundment of the Tallulah River in northeastern Georgia may have impacted
populations there by flooding sites above the dam and creating a moisture deficit downstream.

Conservation and Management Recommendations: Most known populations in Georgia are protected by state (Cloudland Canyon State Park, Tallulah Gorge State Park, and Crockford-Pigeon Mountain Wildlife Management Area) or federal (Chattahoochee National Forest) ownership. However, since the last significant sampling effort (1979-1981) resulted
96

in no captures, periodic monitoring of these sites should be undertaken. Surveys for additional populations in other potential areas are also recommended. A suitable forested buffer should be maintained in areas inhabited by green salamanders to prevent traumatic changes in moisture levels. Selected References:
Ashton,R. E. 1986. Green salamander. Pages 57-58 in R. H. Mount, ed. Vertebrate animals of Alabama in need of special attention. Alabama Agric. Exper. Sta., Auburn Univ., Auburn. 124pp. Bishop, S. C. 1943. Handbook of salamanders. Comstock Publ., Ithaca, N.Y 555pp. Gordon, R. E. 1952. A contribution of the life history and ecology of the plethodontid salamander, Aneides aeneus (Cope and Packard). Amer. MidI. Nat. 47:666-701. _ _. 1967. Aneides aeneus. Cat. Amer. Amphib. and Rep.
30.1-30.2.
u.s. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1987. Notice of status review:
Blue Ridge Mountain population of thegreen salamander (Aneides aeneus) (Cope and Packard). U.S. Dept. Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildl. Servo Announcement. Endangered Species Field Office, Asheville, N.C. 6pp.
Vitt, L.J. 1981. A surveyof the status, distribution and abun-
dance of potentially threatened and endangered vertebrate species in Georgia, Part II: reptiles and amphibians. Unpubl. Rep. to Georgia Dept. Nat. Res. 210pp.
Written by John B. Jensen
97

State. Status: Rare Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The hellbender is an extremely large, fully aquatic salamander typically ranging 29-51 ern (11.5-20 in) in total length, though some individuals may reach 74 em (29 in). The body and broad head of this species are flattened, while the rudder-like tail is laterally compressed. Tiny, widely separated eyes are located on top of the head. Both the front and hind limbs are short, stout, and posteriorly keeled. A conspicuous lateral, wrinkly skin fold extends down both sides between the front and hind limbs. The body is yellowish brown, reddish brown, or dark brown in color, with dark irregular blotches or mottling. The venter is typically paler with little or no markings. A single pair of gill slits is present, though gills are lacking in adults. Young have a pair of gills that typically are lost upon reaching 10-13 cm (4-5 in) in total length; otherwise, they are similar to adults.
Range and Habitat: Eastern hellbenders (c. a. alleganiensis) range from southern New Yorksouthward to northeastern Mississippi, with a disjunct population in central Missouri. In Georgia, this species is known only from streams and rivers of the Tennessee River drainage in the Cumberland Plateau, Ridge and Valley, and Blue Ridge physiographic provinces, and apparently from a few streams in the upper Savannah River drainage. It is uncertain whether the upper Savannah River drainage population, which is also shared by neighboring South Carolina, is of natural or introduced origin. This population and the population in the upper Susquehanna River drainage of Pennsylvania and NewYorkrepresent the only known occurrences of this species in river systems draining to the Atlantic Ocean. All other hellbender-inhabited streams drain into the Mississippi River and ultimately the Gulf of Mexico.

. Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Streams harboring hellbenders are typically clear, cool and swiftly-flowing with rocky bottoms. Although small streams may be inhabited, those with widths greater than 5 m (16 ft) seem to provide more suitable conditions.
Diet: Primarily crayfish; occasionally other invertebrates and fish; cannibalism of eggs and larvae has been documented.
Life History: These enormous salamanders require an abundance of flat submerged rocks for both shelter and egg deposition. During late summer, males begin excavating saucer-shaped depressions under flat rocks. Females attracted or lured to these nests deposit from 450 to nearly 1,100 eggs in a single compact cluster, the eggs strung together in a fashion similar in appearance to a pearl necklace. Occasionally, several females will oviposit in the same nest. Following external fertilization of the deposited eggs, the male guards the clutch from potential predators until hatching, which occurs two to three months later. Freshly deposited eggs have been observed as late as early October.
Hellbenders are primarily nocturnal, rarely leaving their submerged shelter until after dark. Foraging is typically restricted within a relatively small home range, which was recorded in Pennsylvania to average 364 sq m (435 sq yd). Food items are either preyed upon or scavenged.

Threats/Comments: The deteriorating quality of habitat resulting from stream impoundment, chemical pollution from agricultural runoff, and siltation originating from adjacent land disturbance is the biggest threat to the hellbender throughout

its range. Stream impoundment and thus decreased water flow reduce the dissolved oxygen content necessary for efficient respiration of all stream fauna which do not breathe air. Because hellbenders breathe almost exclusively cutaneously, toxic chemicals introduced into streams may become absorbed in their bodies. Acid rain may be another agent of chemical pollution threatening this species. In addition, sedimentation often creates unsuitable habitat by plugging-up the gaps beneath rocks used for shelter and breeding; suffocation of eggs may occur as a result of persistent sediment influxes.
The extent to which local populations in Georgia have been impacted by over-collection is unknown. Anglers who catch hellbenders while in pursuit of sportfish sometimes kill them out of spite, fear, or the erroneous belief that they impact trout populations. Ironically, trout anglers would reasonably be one of this species' best allies since stream impacts that harm the hellbender typically also harm the trout fishery.
The introduction of liquid bleach into streams to collect bait salamanders ("spring lizards") is a relatively new technique that likely threatens all aquatic life in localized areas, including hellbenders and their prey.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Adjacent to streams containing hellbender populations, forested buffer strips should be left intact to reduce the amount of chemical runoff and siltation reaching the streams. Impoundment, channelization, and stream diversion should be avoided in these streams as well.
The extent and impact of stream bleaching should be investigated and violators penalized. Surveys should be conducted to determine the current abundance and distribution of this species, especially within suitable streams of the upper Savannah River drainage.
Selected References:
Dundee, H. A 1971. Cryptobranchus, and Cryptobranchus alleganiensis. Cat. Amer. Amphib. and Rep. 101.1-101.4.
Mount, R. H. 1975. The reptiles and amphibians ofAlabama. Alabama Agric. Exper. Sta., Auburn Univ., Auburn. 347pp.
Nickerson, M. A, and C. E.Mays. 1973. The hellbenders: North American "giant salamanders." Milwaukee Public Museum Publ. in BioI. and Ceol. No.1. 106pp.
Pague, C.A 1991. Hellbender. Page 443-445 in K. Terwilliger, ed. Virginia's endangered species. McDonald and Woodward Publ., Blacksburg.
Redmond, W H. 1986. Eastern hellbender. Pages 31-32 in R. H. Mount, ed. Vertebrate animals ofAlabama in need of special attention. Alabama Agric. Exper. Sta., Auburn Univ., Auburn.
Written byJohn B. Jensen
99

State Status: Threatened Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The Georgia blind salamander is a fully aquatic troglobite that averages 2.5-5.0 em (1-2 in) in total length, though some individuals may exceed 7.6 em (3 in). Its somewhat translucent body is pinkish- to silverish-white with small, faint specks. Bright red bushy gills are located on each side of the body just behind the slightly flattened, wide head. Minute dark eye spots can be seen below the skin of juveniles. The tail of this salamander is laterally flattened and equipped with a dorsal fin for easier locomotion, and its legs are relatively long and thin.

Range and Habitat: In Georgia, this species is restricted to the Dougherty Plain in the extreme southwestern corner of the state. Specimens have been collected from only one site each in Decatur and Dougherty counties. The majority of known sites occur in the Marianna Lowlands of the upper Florida Panhandle.
This is a species that has evolved in the dark, subterranean waters of limestone caves. The earliest record of this species was reported from a deep well in Albany, Georgia. Populations may also occur in recharge areas around sinkholes.
Diet: Small, troglobitic crustaceans, such as amphipods.
Life History: Very little is known about the natural history and reproductive biology of this unusual amphibian. Gravid females have been collected in the third week of May and the second week of November. Although these salamanders may occur in aquifers well away from accessible caves, their densities are not likely to be as great due to the lack of organic debris and bat guano that help enrich the aquatic ecosystems in and near caves.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
salamander. These may include impoundment of streams near cave systems and widespread center-pivot irrigation. Agricultural pollution from pesticide and herbicide-tainted surface runoff lowers the water quality found in cave pools and may lead to local declines and extirpations of any aquatic cave-dwelling organism. Disturbance by careless spelunkers may also have harmful consequences on the well-being of these salamanders.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: The establishment of conservation easements on lands containing the caves inhabited by Georgia blind salamanders, or the acquisition of these lands by conservation agencies or organizations, would greatly benefit this species. Initiation of a long-term annual monitoring program, including water chemistry analyses, is recommended.

Threats/Comments: With only two known localities in Georgia, the continued existence of this species is vulnerable. Practices that significantly alter the natural water table level are likely to have a negative impact on the Georgia blind

100

Selected References: Brandon, R.A. 1967. Haideotriton and H. wallacei. Cat. Amer. Amphib. and Rep. 39.1-39.2. Carr, A. F. 1939. Haideotriton ioallacei, a new subterranean salamander from Georgia. Occ. Pap. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. 8:333-336. Means, D. B. 1977. Aspects of the significance to terrestrial vertebrates of theApalachicola Riverdrainage basin, Florida. Pages 23-67 in R.]. Livingston and E. A. Joyce, eds. Proc. conference on theApalachicola drainage system. Fla. Marine Res. Publ. 26. _ _. 1992. Georgia blindsalamander. Pages 49-53 in P. E. Moler, ed. Rare and endangered biota of Florida. Vol. 3. Amphibians and reptiles. Univ. Press of Florida, Gainesville.
Vitt, L.J. 1981. A survey of the status, distribution and abun-
dance of potentially threatened and endangered vertebrate species in Georgia, Part II: reptiles and amphibians. Unpubl. Rep. to Georgia Dept. Nat. Res. 210pp. Written byJohn B. Jensen
101

State Status: Rare Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: As an aquatic adult, the striped newt is olive or greenish-brown and marked with two parallel red stripes, one on each side of the back and extending onto the tail. A ventrolateral row of red spots is usually present. Small black spots are scattered on a yellow belly. Terrestrial forms, known as" efts," also have a pair of red stripes but differ by having rougher skin, a more rounded tail and a dull orange or reddish-brown overall color. Adult striped newts are typically 610 cm (2.5-4 in) in total length. The aquatic larvae have bushy external gills, a dark mottled pattern on the tail and sides, and a yellow belly with black spots. A series of pale dashes usually precede the development of the conspicuous red stripes present in older larvae, metamorphs, efts, and adults. Adults are easily distinguished from the more common and sympatric central newt (Notophthalmus oiridescens louisianensis) by the distinctive red stripes; however, larvae are much more difficult to identify accurately.
Larva

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Range and Habitat: Striped newts have a relatively small range that extends from the Georgia side of the Savannah River into northern and peninsular Florida. In Georgia, extant populations are known from the Dougherty Plain, Tifton Uplands, Vidalia Uplands, and Barrier Island Sequence of the Coastal Plain. Striped newts are typically associated with the longleaf pine-wiregrass community. Sandhill and pine flatwoods are favored adult habitats. Breeding and larval development occur in isolated, usually ephemeral, wetlands such as pond cypress domes, sinkhole ponds (lime sinks), and even borrow pits. Ponds are usually vegetated with an abundance of emergent grasses, sedges, and forbs.

Diet: An assortment of invertebrates such as insects and crustaceans, as well as frog eggs.

Eft

Life History: Breeding occurs in late winter and early spring

when fluctuating ponds are filled with rainwater. After hatch-

ing' larvae typically develop over a period of two or three

months and, following transformation, begin a life cycle

unique to only two native salamanders. Transformed individu-

als have a 1- to 3-year intermediate life stage, or"eft" stage, in

which they are exclusively terrestrial.

Following this stage and upon reach-

... ing sexual maturity, efts usually return

. to isolated ponds during winter rains,

t where they remain as aquatic adults until drought forces them back to land. Occasionally, when

:.~\

ponds remain filled throughout the dry season,

striped newts will omit the terrestrial eft stage

102

-.;;.~;;::::::::;:)

and develop into larviform, or neotenic, adults that retain bushy gills. Unfortunately, very little is currently known relative to the life history of the striped newt.
Threats/Comments: The striped newt is threatened by the loss of both upland and wetland habitats. The Coastal Plain landscape of Georgia has been drastically altered by extensive agricultural and silvicultural development. These activities have replaced natural open-canopied longleaf pine communities with frequently-tilled fields and dense monocultures of off-site pine species, respectively. In many other areas, fire suppression has led to an unnatural succession of pine forests into densely forested mixed hardwood communities. Drainage of isolated wetlands has significantly reduced the availability of suitable breeding sites. Recent surveys in Georgia have found this species to be extremely uncommon and limited to only 11 currently known populations, six of which are on Ft. Stewart Military Reservation, near Savannah.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: More research is needed to better understand the full range of requirements necessary for the survival of this unusual species. All efforts should be made to create low impact buffer zones surrounding breeding sites that incorporate a substantial amount of upland habitat, as well. In areas known to contain striped newts, forest managers should minimize heavy soil disturbance, incorporate longer rotations, and reduce the basal area of planted pines. Periodic fires are necessary to control woody midstory vegetation in upland habitats and should be allowed to burn into isolated wetlands. Drainage of isolated wetlands should be avoided.

Selected References:
Bishop, S. 0. 1943. Handbook of salamanders. Comstock Publ., Ithaca, N.Y 555pp.
-----.J and D. B. Means. 1992. Striped newt. Pages 62-65 in P E. Moler, ed. Rare and endangered biota of Florida, Vol. 3. Amphibians and reptiles. Univ. Press of Florida, Gainesville.
Dodd, C.K., and L.V LaClaire. 1995. Biogeography and status of the striped newt (Notophthalmus perstriatus) in Georgia, USA. Herpet. Nat. Hist. 3(1):37-46.
Mecham, I S. 1967. Notophthalmus perstriatus. Cat. Amer.
Amphib. and Rep. 38.1-38.2.
Stevenson, D. I, andA. E. Davis, Jr. 1995. A summary of rare
herpetofaunal species surveys at Fort Stewart, Georgia. The
Nature Conservancy Fort Stewart Inventory. Unpubl. Rep. 21pp.
Vitt, L.I 1981. A survey of the status, distribution and abun-
dance of potentially threatened and endangered vertebrate species in Georgia, Part II: reptiles and amphibians. Unpubl. Rep. to Georgia Dept. Nat. Res. 210pp.
Written byJohn B. Jensen

103

State Status: Rare Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: A large terrestrial salamander reaching 18 ern (7 in) total length, the adult Pigeon Mountain salamander has an irregularly-bordered reddish-brown, brown, or olive-brown dorsal pattern on the head, back, and anterior portion of the tail. This coloration may be limited to a relatively small band down the center of the back or more typically extends onto each side of the body. The sides, legs, and tail are mostly black with sparsely scattered white and brassy spots of varying sizes and shapes. These spots are also present, though to a lesser extent, on the head and back. The underside of the belly and tail is black; however, the chin, throat, and chest are typically mottled with brown or yellowish pigment. The dorsal pattern of juveniles is reduced to 3-12 alternate or opposite spots, which are usually more brassy in color than the dorsal pattern of adults. Otherwise, juveniles are very similar to the larger adults. The slightly webbed feet of Pigeon Mountain salamanders have toes with bluntly tipped, expanded pads.
Although live individuals are unmistakable, preserved specimens lose the characteristic dorsal coloration and pattern and become similar in appearance to the slimy salamander (Plethodon glutinosus). Examination of the toe characters will easily distinguish preserved specimens.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Range and Habitat: The Pigeon Mountain salamander is an endemic species known to occur only on the eastern slope of Pigeon Mountain in Walker and Chattooga counties at altitudes ranging 220-500 m (720-1640 ft). Efforts to locate this species on adjacent Lookout Mountain in both Georgia and Alabama have thus far been unsuccessful; it is apparently strongly associated with the extensive cave systems on Pigeon Mountain. The dorsal pattern of Pigeon Mountain salamanders is quite similar in color to the soil found in these caves. Mesic deciduous forests primarily of oak and hickory surround the limestone outcrop pings and cave entrances inhabited by this species.
A large portion of this speciesrange is within the state-owned Crockford-Pigeon Mountain Wildlife Management Area.

Diet: Unknown, but likely small invertebrates such as insects and spiders.

Life History: The existence of this enigmatic species was unknown until 1972 when a Georgia Department of Natural Resources biologist first discovered it within a cave entrance on Pigeon Mountain. The description of the species followed its rediscovery in 1986.
Pigeon Mountain salamanders are active throughout the late spring, summer, and early fall, especially on warm, damp evenings. During winter, this species becomes extremely difficult to find. Aided by the wall-clinging adaptions of their toes, individuals forage along rock faces, within horizontal and vertical crevices of outcroppings, and throughout the

twilight zones of caves. Nothing is known about the reproductive biology of this species, though it probably lays its eggs on land like other members of its genus. Eggs likely hatch directly into miniature replicas of the adults, omitting the aquatic larval stage of most native salamanders. Threats/Comments: The Pigeon Mountain salamander is currently very abundant in the few localities from which it is known, often far outnumbering other species of salamanders that share its habitat. However, any species with an extremely limited geographic range is highly vulnerable. Increased cave visitation or prehaps scientific over-collection has apparently decimated the population in one particular cave. Conservation and Management Recommendations: Due to the extremely limited life history information available for this species, further studies are highly recommended. Preservation of the relatively closed-canopied, deciduous forest on the eastern slope of Pigeon Mountain is essential for maintaining sufficient soil moisture. The establishment of conservation easements on lands on which this species is found, or the acquisition of these lands by conservation agencies or organizations, would greatly benefit the Pigeon Mountain salamander. Selected References:
Jensen, IB. 1996. Pigeon Mountain Salamander. Southern Wildlife, December Pages 46-47.
Wynn, A. H., R. Highton, andI F. Jacobs. 1988. A new species of
rock-crevice dwelling Plethodon from Pigeon Mountain, Georgia. Herpetologica 44(2):135-143.
Written byJohn B. Jensen
105

91

State Status: Threatened Federal Status: Threatened

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The flatwoods salamander is black to dark brown and typically patterned with light gray or white flecked lines, forming a netlike pattern on the back, sides, head, and tail. Less common"frosted" forms show a more random flecking pattern. Its underside is dark gray or black with small, scattered white or light gray spots. The head is relatively small, but the tail is quite fat. Adults are typically 12-15 em (4.5-6 in) in total length. The broad-headed, bushy-gilled larva is very distinctive with a prominent light yellow or beige stripe running the length of the otherwise chocolate-brown body. The larva also has a dark brown stripe through each eye, extending from the nostril to the gills.
Adult flatwoods salamanders may be confused with the slimy salamander at first glance; however, the latter species differs in appearance by having unconnected, widely scattered light spots on the back and sides and a groove between each nostril and the upper lip.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences

Larva Adult

Range and Habitat: This species is restricted to the Coastal Plain of South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, and Alabama. Despite relatively widespread historic sites in southern Georgia, extant populations are known from only Baker, Bryan, Evans, Liberty, McIntosh and Miller counties.
This salamander is endemic to mesic flatwoods habitats within the vanishing longleaf pine wiregrass community. Slash pine was incorrectly reported in early species accounts as a commonly associated tree species within its non-breeding habitat. Nearly all flatwoods salamander sites currently dominated by slash pine have been converted from historic longleaf stands. Pine flatwoods are fire-dependent communities, requiring periodic burns to promote grasses and forbs, while limiting shrubs and hardwoods. Breeding sites are typically shallow, ephemeral cypress and/or swamp tupelo ponds or" domes," though flooded roadside ditches and fire lines are occasionally used. Breeding sites are also dependent on periodic dry season fires, which maintain an open canopy
conducive to the luxuriant growth of emergent and submergent grasses, sedges, and forbs necessary for sheltering the aquatic larvae.

Diet: Very little is known about the feeding habits of this species. Earthworms, likely many other types of small terrestrial invertebrates (adults); crus-
taceans, aquatic insects and small tadpoles (eaten by larvae in laboratory conditions).

92

Life History: As adults, flatwoods salamanders are primarily fossorial, living in burrows just below the soil surface. Triggered by rain-laden cold fronts during the fall and early winter breeding season, mature salamanders nocturnally migrate to isolated wetlands en masse. Movements of more than 1.6 km (1 mi) from a breeding site to a terrestrial retreat have been reported. Following mating, female flatwoods salamanders deposit up to 225 eggs singly or in small groups in the dry portions of the pond basin or in grassy areas at the pond margin, usually under leaf litter or logs, at the bases of grass clumps, or at the entrance of crayfish burrows. In most years, repeated rain events eventually fill the wetland and inundate the developing eggs, inducing hatching. However, in some years insufficient rainfall following egg deposition prevents complete inundation, resulting in few eggs hatching and low recruitment. Larvae are primarily inactive during the day but will emerge from the sheltering vegetation at night to feed in the water column. A developmental period of 11-18 weeks follows hatching, and larvae typically metamorphose in March or April.
Threats/Comments: Of the 97 range-wide historical sites revisited in a 7-year period since 1990, only 12 localities were found to still contain flatwoods salamanders. In Georgia, extant populations are known from only four sites: Ft. Stewart Military Reservation, J.w. Jones Ecological Research Center, Townsend Bombing Range, and Mayhaw Wildlife Management Area. Any species with such a reduced range is vulnerable to extirpation. Habitat loss has been the primary cause of this salamander's demise throughout its range. Agriculture and silviculture have eliminated the vast majority of the once Widespread longleaf pine flatwoods community in Georgia and elsewhere. Because pine flatwoods are typically underlain by semi-hydric soils, forestry practices often involve altering the hydrology by ditching, draining, and/or bedding. These activities are detrimental to both the fossorial and aquatic existence of this species and may interfere with successful migration. Ditching and draining isolated wetlands used by breeding flatwoods salamanders significantly shortens their hydroperiod, halting larval development prior to metamorphosis. Fire suppression throughout the Coastal Plain has also reduced the amount of suitable habitat.

Selected References:
Ashton, P E. Jr. 1992. Flatwoods salamander. Pages 61-64 in P E.Mole0 ed. Rare and endangered biota of Florida. Vol. 3. Amphibians and reptiles. Univ. Press of Florida, Gainesville.
Martof B. S. 1968. Ambystoma cingulatum. Cat. Amer. Amphib. and Rep. 57.1-57.2.
Means, D. B. 1986. Flatwoods salamander. Pages 42-43 in R.H. Mount, ed. Vertebrate animals of Alabama in need of special attention. Alabama Agric. Exper. Sta., Auburn Univ., Auburn.
Palis, I G. 1996. Element stewardship abstract: flatwoods sala-
mander (Ambystoma cingulaium). Nat. Areas Journal 16(1): 4954.
Seyle, W 1994. Distribution and status of thegopher frog (Rana capito) andflatwoods salamander (Ambystoma cingulatum) in Georgia. Unpubl. Rep. to U.S. Fish and Wildl. Servo 18pp.
Stevenson, D. I, andA. E. Davis, Jr. 1995. A summary of rare
herpetofaunal species surveys at Fort Stewart, Ga. The Nature Conservancy Fort Stewart Inventory. Unpubl. Rep. 21pp.
VittI 1. I 1981. A survey of the status, distribution and abun-
dance of potentially threatened and endangered vertebrate species in Georgia, Part II: reptiles and amphibians. Unpubl. Rep. to Georgia Dept. Nat. Res. 210pp.
Written byJohn B.Jensen

Conservation and Management Recommendations: With extremely few healthy populations of flatwoods salamanders in Georgia, forest management plans in these areas should consider the conservation of this species a top priority. Avoidance of mechanical disturbance to the soil and discontinuing practices which may result in adverse hydrological impacts to breeding sites are criticat especially within at least a 1.6 km (1 mi) radius from the edge of all known breeding wetlands. Periodic lightning-season burns should be prescribed in pinelands inhabited by flatwoods salamanders, and these fires allowed to burn into isolated wetlands. Annual monitoring of known breeding sites is strongly encouraged.

93

State Status: Rare Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The one-toed amphiuma is an elongated, eellike salamander that reaches a maximum length of 30.5 em (12 in). This species, like other amphiuma species, has two pairs of very minute and seemingly useless limbs. The presence of only a single toe on each limb is unique to this species. The head is rather conical in shape, differing from the sympatric two-toed amphiuma, which has a duck-bill shaped snout. The one-toed amphiuma has a slightly laterally flattened tail. Its unmarked, dark brown or black body is similar in color to the organic muck in which it lives. A small gill slit is present on each side, just behind the eye. Larvae are unknown.
One-toed amphiumas can be distinguished from other amphiumas by the presence of only a single toe on each foot and from sirens by the lack of external gills. The American eel has a rayed fin around the tail.
Range and Habitat: The one-toed amphiuma is restricted to the lower eastern Gulf Coastal Plain of southwestern Georgia, northern Florida, southern Alabama and southern Mississippi. In Georgia, it is currently known from only three sites, all in tributaries of the Ochlockonee River. The lower Flint and Chattahoochee river drainages may also harbor this species. Deep, organic and liquid muck beds are the habitat for this species. These muck beds form from the accumulation and decay of hardwood debris within the floodplains of small, permanent, or nearly permanent streams. One-toed amphiumas may also be found in smaller muck beds within seepage areas.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Diet: An assortment of invertebrates including fingernail clams, earthworms, aquatic insect larvae, and terrestrial beetles.
Life History: Very little information is available for this unusual species. Eggs are probably laid in June and July and hatch in late summer and early fall. It is unknown whether a larval stage exists for this species. Despite the presence of gill slits, one-toed amphiumas breath air by periodically protrud-
ing their snouts above the muck. Potential predators include mud snakes, common snapping turtles, twotoed amphiumas, raccoons, and feral hogs.

94

Conservation and Management Recommendations: The maintenance of natural floodplain vegetation and hydrology is critical to the perpetuation of muck habitats and, ultimately, the one-toed amphiuma. Feral hog populations within the range of the one-toed amphiuma should be controlled. More research is needed to better understand the specific requirements of this interesting amphibian. Selected References: Means, D. B. 1986. One-toed amphiuma. Pages 56-57 in R.H. Mount, ed. Vertebrate animals ofAlabama in need of special attention. Alabama Agric. Exper. Sta., Auburn Univ., Auburn. _ _. 1992. One-toed amphiuma. Pages 35-38 in P. E. Moler, ed. Rare and endangered biota of Florida. Vol. 3. Amphibians and reptiles. Univ. Press of Florida, Gainesville. _ _. 1997. Amphiuma pholeter. Cat. Amer. Amphib. and Rep. 622.1-622.2. Neill, WT. 1964. A new species of salamander, genus Amphiuma,from Florida. Herpetologica 20(1):62-66. Written byJohn B. Jensen
95

106

State Status: Endangered Federal Status: Endangered

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: Sturgeons are an ancient family of fishes with about 27 living species, one of which is the largest freshwater fish in the world. Two genera occur in North America: Scaphirhynchus (3 species), and Acipenser (5 species). Sturgeons have a row of large bony scutes on their back and two rows of scutes on each side. The mouth of a sturgeon is located on the underside of the flattened, shovel-like snout, behind 4 long barbels. The mouth is toothless, fleshy and protusible. Female shortnose sturgeons attain total lengths ranging from 1 m (3.3 ft) in the southern portion of their range to 1.4 m (4.6 ft) in the northernmost portion. Males are somewhat smaller. The upper body color may vary from yellowish-brown in salt water to dark in freshwater, while the lower portion of the body is lighter. Maximum weights range up to 24 kg (52.8Ibs). The maximum ages documented are from populations at the northern edge of the range in Canada; 67 years for females and 32 years for males.
Range and Habitat: The range of the shortnose sturgeon extends from the St. Johns River in Florida to the St. John River in New Brunswick, Canada. Shortnose sturgeon are amphidromous, which means they swim up large coastal rivers briefly to spawn, then return to the lower river or river estuary for the rest of the year, only occasionally venturing into the Atlantic Ocean. Georgia populations today are known primarily from the Altamaha, Ogeechee, and Savannah rivers. No recent records exist for the St.Marys and Satilla rivers, and the status of these populations is unknown.
Diet: Aquatic invertebrates of all types, ranging from insect larvae, crustaceans and mollusks in fresh water to polychaete worms, crustaceans and mollusks in salt water; some small fishes.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Life History: Spawning occurs in freshwater, typically in swift water over gravel or coarse substrate such as submerged timbers. Upstream migration to spawning sites has been recorded in January in the Savannah River. Spawning in Georgia begins in February when water temperatures exceed 9'C (48 OF), and migrations downriver begin in March. Male shortnose sturgeons mature at 2-3 years of age while females mature at age 6 in Georgia. Spawning may occur 1-16 years after individuals reach maturity, and individuals may skip 3-10 years between spawning events. Individual females may spawn as many as 27,000-208,000 eggs, which are sticky and adhere to the coarse substrates. After hatching, larval shortnose sturgeon seek cover and hide until they absorb the yolksac, then drift downstream to habitat near the saltwater-freshwater interface. In Georgia, shortnose sturgeon seek out thermal refuges in deep areas of rivers when water temperatures exceed 27'C (81,OF).

107

such as the Altamaha also have populations of other commercially important species such as the Atlantic sturgeon and the American shad. These species are fished using drifting gill nets, and shortnose sturgeon are often part of the by-catch. Spawning habitat may become adversely modified through dredging and alteration of the flows in rivers. The loss of thermal refuges through hydrologic alteration poses a threat.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Management recommendations for the shortnose sturgeon include identification and protection of habitats required for various life stages. Spawning habitats as well as critical summer refugial areas in Georgia rivers need to be identified and protected. This may be problematic in the Savannah River due to extensive dredging, but may be achievable in the Altamaha and Ogeechee rivers. Water pollution also poses a threat to the shortnose sturgeon, as it does to many other species. Surveys for shortnose sturgeon populations should be conducted in the Satilla and St. Marys rivers and management plans should be developed if populations can be found.
Selected References:
Hall,]. W, T. I.]. Smith, and S. C. Lamprecht. 1991. Movements and habitats of shortnose sturgeon Acipenser brevirostrum in the Savannah River. Copeia 1991: 695-702.
Jenkins, R. E. and N. M. Burkhead. 1993. Freshwater fishes of
Virginia. Am. Fish. Soc., Bethesda, Md. 1o79pp.
Kieffer, M. C. and B. Kynard. 1993. Annual movements of shortnose and Atlanticsturgeons in the Merrimack River, Massachusetts. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 122 :1088-1103.
Lee, S. L., C. R. Gilbert, C.H. Hocutt, R. E. Jenkins, D. E. McAllister, and]. R.Stauffer. 1980. Atlas of North American fishes. North Carolina StateMus. Nat. Hist. 867pp.
Marshall, N. 1947. The spring run and cave habitats of Erimystax harperi (Fowler). Ecology 28: 68-75.
Page, L. M. and B. M. Burr. 1991. Afield guide tofreshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp.
Richmond, A. M. And B. Kynard. 1995. Ontogenetic behavior of shortnose sturgeon, Acipenser brevirostrum Copeia 1995:172-182.
Scott, W B. and E.]. Crossman 1973. Freshwater fishes of Canada. Fisheries Research Board of Canada Bulletin 184. 966pp.
Written by Dr. Byron]. Freeman
108

State Status: Unsusual Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The Alabama shad grows to a maximum of 51 em (20 in) total length. The body is strongly compressed with blue-green coloration on the back, silver-colored sides, and a gray spot behind the gill covering. Sharp-edged scales form a serrated edge along the narrow belly. These fish differ from similar skipjack herring (Alosa chrysochloris) in that the jaw teeth are weak or absent; there is a single row of teeth in the middle of the tongue as opposed to 2-4 rows.

Range and Habitat: Alabama shad are found along the Gulf Coast from the Suwannee River in Florida to the Mississippi River in Louisiana. In Georgia, this species has been collected in the Suwannee (Little and Withlacoochee rivers), Chattahoochee, and Flint river systems and was recently recorded from Ichawaynochaway Creek near the confluence with the Flint River.
The Alabama shad is an anadromous species, entering freshwater rivers to spawn and then returning to the se3; to mature. This fish lives in both fresh and salt water and prefers rivers that are medium to large in size and contain coarse sand and gravel bottoms.
Diet: Small fishes and aquatic fly larvae (juveniles); adults do not feed while in fresh water.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Threats/Comments: Any additional impoundments, particularly on the lower Flint River, threaten the survival of Alabama shad. Alteration of flows that decrease the stream margin habitat utilized by juveniles or shoal spawning habitat also pose problems. Poor water quality in the Flint or Suwannee river systems, especially downstream from major urban centers, threatens populations also.

Life History: Adults ascend open waters of medium to large Gulf Coast rivers from January to July to spawn. Juveniles are found in stream margin habitats over sand and gravel. Adults may live to 6 years of age, and are usually 2 years old at time of spawning, which occurs in April in Gulf coastal rivers.

Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conserving populations of Alabama shad depends upon maintaining and improving habitat quality in large rivers and small streams in the Apalachicola and Suwannee river drainages. The elimination of sediment runoff from land-disturbing activities and contaminants from urban and agricultural uses is critical to ensuring adequate resources and habitat for young shad. The impediment posed by impoundments might be reduced somewhat in the Flint and Chattahoochee rivers by providing appropriate passage through Jim Woodruff Dam during spring spawning runs.

109

Selected References: Etnier, D.A., and W C. Starnes. 1993. The fishes of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Press, Knoxville. 681pp.
Keefer, L. C. 1987. A survey of the
Ichawaynochaway/Chickasawhatchee Creek system in southwest Georgia. Georgia Dept. Nat. Res., Final Rep., Project No. F-28-14. 37pp. Lee, S. L., C. R. Gilbert, C. H. Hocutt, R. E. Jenkins, D. E.
McAllister, andJ. R.Stauffer. 1980. Atlas of North American
fishes. North Carolina State Mus. Nat. Hist. 867pp.
Mettee, M. F., P. E. O'Neil, andJ. M. Pierson. 1996. Fishes of
Alabama and theMobile Basin. Oxmoor House, Birmingham. 820pp. Page, L. M. and B. M. Burr. 1991. Afield guide tofreshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp.
Starnes, W c., and D.A. Etnier. 1980. Fishes. Pages B1-B134
in D. C. Eagar and R.M. Hatcher, eds. Tennessee's rare wildlife. Tenn Dept. Cons., Nashville. Vol. 1: B1-B133. Vertebrates.
Written by Dr. Byron J. Freeman
110

State Status: Rare Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The spotted bullhead is a small strikingly marked catfish that attains a maximum total length of 23 ern (9 in). The spotted bullhead is distinguished by profuse, round light-colored spots of pupil-sized diameter on the dark body. The body and fins are suffused with yellow, and the spots thus appear to be yellow. The name serracanthus refers to the strongly serrate pectoral spine which has 6-20 large serrae, or tooth-like projections, on the posterior margin. All the fins are edged in black, and the caudal fin is moderately emarginate.

Range and Habitat: The spotted bullhead is known from the Coastal Plain province in the Suwannee, Ochlockonee, Apalachicola, and St. Andrews Bay drainages in Alabama, Florida and Georgia, associated with the limestone regions of these states. Georgia populations are known from the Apalachicola, Ochlockonee, and Suwannee river drainages.
The spotted bullhead is known from mainstem and large tributaries. It prefers rocky substrates with moderate currents, and has been collected occasionally over mud near vegetation or other structures such as old stumps in impounded rivers.
Diet: No detailed studies of diet and life history have been made. Residents of northern Florida often refer to the spotted bullhead as"snailcat," due to the large quantities of mollusks it consumes. The original description reported four different species of mollusks identified from stomach examination.
Life History: Little is known concerning the life history of the spotted bullhead. Small individuals less than 30 mm (1.2 in) long have been collected from late June through November, suggesting a protracted spawning season.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Threats/Comments: Bullhead catfishes are extremely vulnerable to predation by introduced species of large catfishes, such as the flathead and blue catfish. Native bullhead catfish populations have been decimated in Atlantic Slope drainages because of predation by introduced flathead catfish. The flathead catfish is well established in the Flint River system and has recently begun attaining large sizes in the Apalachicola and its tributaries in Florida. No data yet exist on the status of the flathead catfish population in the Chattahoochee River. It is quite likely that populations of spotted bullheads may also be reduced to extremely low numbers due to flathead predation.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conservation of spotted bullhead populations may well depend upon avoiding the establishment of additional populations of large species such as the flathead catfish in areas not currently occupied. These areas would likely be the Chattahoochee system above Walter F. George reservoir and below the Fall Line, and the Ochlockonee and Suwannee river systems, where rock substrates occur. Status surveys are
needed to provide background information necessary to assess any changes that might occur due to the flathead catfish introduction.

111

Selected References: Lee, S. L./ C. R. Gilbert, C. H. Hocutt, R. E. Jenkins, D. E. McAllister, and]. R.Stauffer. 1980. Atlas of North American fishes. North Carolina State Mus. Nat. Hist. 867pp. Mettee, M. F., P E. a/Neil and]. M. Pierson. 1996. Fishes of Alabama and the Mobile Basin. Oxmoor House, Birmingham. 820pp. Page, L. M. and B. M. Burr. 1991. A field guide tofreshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp. Yerger, R. Wand K. Relyea. 1968. The flat-headed bullheads (Pisces: Ictaluridae) of the southeastern United States, and a new species of Ictalurus from the GulfCoast. Copeia 1968: 361-384. Written by Dr. Byron]. Freeman
112

State Status: Endangered Federal Status: Threatened

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: Blue shiners grow to 10 cm (4 in) in length. Coloration is olive dorsally with silvery sides. A distinctive metallic blue-black lateral stripe runs from the gill covering to the caudal fin where it widens to form a spot at the base of the caudal fin. Scale edges below the lateral stripe are edged with melanophores to form a distinctive diamond shape. Breeding males develop intense yellow on all fins except the dorsal.

Range and Habitat: The blue shiner is endemic to the Mobile River drainage. It is historically known from the Coosa River system of southeastern Tennessee, northwestern Georgia, and eastern Alabama and from the Cahaba River system of Central Alabama. Possibly extirpated from the Cahaba River system in Alabama, it is still found in the Little River, now a tributary to Weiss Reservoir. In Georgia, the blue shiner has been collected from the Coosawattee River system in Gilmer County and from the Etowah and Conasauga river systems. The species is probably extirpated from the Etowah, Oostanaula and Coosawattee systems. Currently, the only upper Coosa River occurrences in Georgia are from the upper Conasauga River system above the junction with Coahulla Creek and from the upper Holly Creek system.
The preferred habitat of blue shiners consists of small to medium streams that include rocky substrates. Fish are found in riffles and runs, as well as pools with moderate to swift current, over gravel to cobble or boulder substrate.
Diet: Terrestrial insects captured from stream drift; also aquatic insects.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Life History: Blue shiners have an extended spawning period from May to August. Eggs are deposited in silt free areas in rock crevices, or possibly crevices in woody debris, in habitats with moderate current. Life history studies on the blue shiner revealed that most individuals were sexually mature in the third summer of life and some were in their fourth.
Blue shiners can be seen foraging in flowing water in midwater.
Threats/Comments: Potential threats to the blue shiner are principally degradation of tributary streams and the main channel of the upper Conasauga River in Georgia and Tennessee. The Georgia range is very restricted, with all known populations occurring in the cooler portions of the upper Conasauga River. Recent collections in the Conasauga River demonstrate the decline in population size as habitat becomes increasingly degraded in a downstream direction. Stream degradation resulting from failure to employ Best Management Practices (BMPs) for forestry and agriculture, failure to control soil erosion from construction sites and bridge crossings, and increased stormwater runoff from developing urban and industrial areas further threaten the blue
shiner where populations still exist. Fishes like the blue shiner, that depend upon small crevices in which to lay their eggs, are especially vulnerable to impacts of excessive sedimentation, as these spawning sites will fill in with silt and
sediment, thus preventing spawning.

113

Conservation and Mana.gement Recommendations: Conserving populations of the blue shiner depends on maintaining and restoring habitat and water quality in streams of the upper Conasauga River system. It is essential to eliminate sediment runoff from land-disturbing activities (such as roadway and housing construction), maintain forested buffers along stream banks, eliminate inputs of contaminants (such as fertilizers and pesticides), eliminate chronic discharges of industrial effluent and sewage, and maintain natural patterns of stream flow. Watershed clearing and urban development can lead to unnaturally flashy storm water runoff, which scours stream channels and results in lower baseflows. For these reasons, containing and slowly releasing stormwater runoff from developed areas is an important element in protecting stream habitats for fishes and other aquatic organisms.
Selected References:
Anderson, P. G., B. G. H. Browne, M. H. Hughes, B. J. Freeman
and Z. E. Kovats. 1997. Conasauga baseline monitoring preoperation of the RiverRoad Reservoir, Dalton, Ga. Prepared for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Atlanta, Georgia, by Golder Associates, Inc. Project No. 883-3613 84 pp. + 6 Append.
Etnier, D. A. and We. Starnes. 1993. The fishes of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Press, Knoxville. 681pp.
Krotzer, R. S. 1984. The ecological life history of the blue shiner, Notropis caeruleus (Jordan), from the upper Conasauga River, Georgia. M. S. Thesis, Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama. 37pp.
Lee, S. L., e. R. Gilbert, e. H. Hocutt, R. E.Jenkins, D. E.
McAllister, andJ. R.Stauffer. 1980. Atlas of NorthAmerican
fishes. North Carolina State Mus. Nat. Hist. 867pp.
Page, L.M. and B.M. Burr. 1991. A fieldguide tofreshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp.
Pierson, J. M. and R. S. Krotzer. 1987. The distribution, relative
abundance, and life history of the blue shiner, Notropis caeruleus (Jordan). Prepared for theAlabama Nongame Coordinator. 105pp.
Pierson, J. M., W M. Howell, R.A. Stiles, M. F. Mettee, P. A. O'Neil, R. D. Suttkus, andJ. S. Ramsey. 1989. Fishes of the
Cahaba RiverSystem in Alabama. Geological Survey of Alabama. Bull. 134. 183pp.
U.S. Fish andWildlife Service. 1991. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; proposed threatened status for thefish thegoldline darter (Percina aurolineata) and blue shiner (Cyprinella caerulea). Fed. Reg. 56(76): 16054-16059.
Written by Dr. Byron J. Freeman
114

State Status: Threatened Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The average adult bluestripe shiner has a total body length to 90 mm (3.5 in). The head is long and rounded, and the snout projects slightly over its subterminal mouth. Coloration consists of a dusky olive shading on its back and silver sides. A blue-black lateral stripe runs from the gill covering to the base of the caudal fin, where it widens to form a dark spot. Other color pattern characteristics include a crescent-shaped black line that runs from the eye to the mouth and a small black blotch that may be found on the front of the dorsal fin membrane. Breeding males prepare for their nuptial duties by developing tubercles on the head and nape, white on the paired and anal fins and on the tips of the caudal fin, and an intense salmon color immediately above the lateral stripe.
Range and Habitat: Bluestripe shiners are endemic to the Apalachicola River drainage, occurring in the mainstem Apalachicola, Chattahoochee and Flint rivers, and major tributaries. In Georgia this species has been collected from the Chattahoochee and Flint river systems, from the Coastal Plain to uplands. Historically it is known from the upper Chattahoochee, upstream of Peachtree Creek. Recent records of bluestripe shiners exist for the lower Flint River system, the Chattahoochee River below West Point Reservoir, and larger tributaries in both systems.
Bluestripe shiners inhabit mainstem reaches of rivers and large streams in riffles and runs with rubble or sand substrate and are most often collected in areas with swift current velocities.
Diet: Probably aquatic insects or terrestrial insects captured from stream drift.
Life History: Spawning occurs over rock crevices, as is typical of the genus. Described spawning in a tributary to the Chattahoochee River involved spawning pairs depositing

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
gametes into crevices in bedrock or between the edges of large rocks and underlying bedrock, in areas with moderate to swift current. Females have the ability to propel eggs a distance of 20-30 cm (8-12 in) in air, thus making it possible to place eggs in predation-resistant sites. Spawning occurs from April to August.
Threats/Comments: Potential threats to the bluestripe shiner are principally degradation and impoundment of tributary streams in the upper Chattahoochee and Flint river systems. The range in Georgia is spotty, with most known populations occurring in the Flint as opposed to the Chattahoochee system. Recent collections in the Chattahoochee River system in the Atlanta area document the absence of the bluestripe shiner from these streams. Stream degradation resulting from failure to employ Best Management Practices (BMPs) for forestry and agriculture, failure to control soil erosion from construction sites and bridge crossings, and increased stormwater runoff from developing urban and industrial areas further threaten the bluestripe shiner where populations still exist. Fishes like the bluestripe shiner depend upon small crevices to lay their eggs
in and are therefore especially vulnerable to impacts of excessive sedimentation. The filling of these spawning sites with silt and sediment prevents spawning.

115

Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conserving populations of the bluestripe shiner depends on maintaining and restoring habitat and water quality in streams of the upper Chattahoochee and Flint river systems. It is essential to eliminate sediment runoff from land disturbing activities such as roadway and housing construction; maintain forested buffers along stream banks, eliminate inputs of contaminants such as fertilizers and pesticides, eliminate chronic discharges of industrial effluent and sewage, and maintain natural patterns of stream flow. Watershed clearing and urban development can lead to unnaturallyflas~y stormwater runoff, which scours stream channels and results in.Iower baseflows. For these reasons, containing and slowly releasing stormwater runoff from developed areas is an important element in protecting stream habitats for fishes and other aquatic organisms. Impounding streams should be a last resort for developing water supplies. Selected References: Lee, S. 1., C.R. Gilbert, C.H. Hocutt, R. E. Jenkins, D. E.
McAllister, andJ. R.Stauffer. 1980. Atlas of NorthAmerican
fishes. North Carolina State Mus. Nat. Hist. 867pp.
Mettee, M. F., P E. O'Neil, andJ. M. Pierson. 1996. Fishes of
Alabama and the Mobile Basin. Oxmoor House, Birmingham. 820pp. Page, 1. M. and B.M. Burr. 1991. A field guide tofreshwater fishes of NorthAmerica north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp.
Wallace, R. K. Jr., andJ. S. Ramsey. 1981. Reproductive behavior
and biology of the bluestripe shiner(Notropis callitaenia) in Uchee Creek, Alabama. Amer. MidI. Nat. 106: 197-200.
Written by Dr. Byron J. Freeman
116

State Status: Rare Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The Tallapoosa shiner is a relatively large minnow reaching 9.5 cm (3.7 in) total length, with a deep, strongly compressed body. A metallic blue-black lateral stripe runs from under the dorsal fin to the caudal peduncle where it widens to form a large caudal spot. The snout is long and pointed and projects out over the subterminal mouth. The posterior membranes of the dorsal fin are dusky, forming a distinct black blotch on the rear of the dorsal fin. The body color is dusky olive above, fading into silver along the sides; ventral fins are light yellow to orange, especially the leading membranes of the anal fin.

Range and Habitat: The Tallapoosa shiner is endemic to the Tallapoosa River system above the Fall Line in Georgia and Alabama. In Georgia, the species is known from both the Tallapoosa and Little Tallapoosa systems and is found in both the mainstem and tributaries.
The Tallapoosa shiner appears most abundant in moderately large tributaries, in riffles and runs with moderate to swift current and cobble, gravel and sand substrates. In an Alabama tributary to the Tallapoosa River, the Tallapoosa shiner occurred most often in depths of 12-45 em (4.7-17.7 in), velocities of < 40 cm/s, in areas with abundant riverweed.
Diet: Probably aquatic insects or terrestrial insects captured from stream drift.
Life History: Little is known concerning the life history of the Tallapoosa shiner, but based on the similarities between most members of the genus Cyprinella, spawning probably occurs over crevices in rocks or submerged logs where eggs are attached and then fertilized. Breeding males will develop prominent tubercles or bumps on the head and scales. Spawning probably occurs from mid-spring through midsummer.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Threats/Comments: Potential threats to the Tallapoosa shiner are principally degradation and impoundment of tributary streams in the upper Tallapoosa River system. The range in Georgia is restricted, with most populations occurring in the Tallapoosa as opposed to the Little Tallapoosa system. Impoundment of the Tallapoosa River upstream from Harris Dam would destroy habitat and fragment populations in the upper Tallapoosa and tributaries feeding the new impoundment. Stream degradation resulting from failure to employ Best Management Practices (BMPs) for forestry and agriculture, failure to control soil erosion from construction sites and bridge crossings, and increased stormwater runoff from developing urban and industrial areas further threatens the Tallapoosa shiner. Fishes like the Tallapoosa shiner that depend upon small crevices to lay their eggs in are especially vulnerable to impacts of excessive sedimentation, as these spawning sites will fill in with silt and sediment.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conserving populations of the Tallapoosa shiner depends on maintaining and restoring habitat and water quality in streams of the upper Tallapoosa and Little Tallapoosa river system. It is essential to eliminate sediment runoff from land disturbing activities (such as roadway and housing construction), main-
tain forested buffers along stream banks, eliminate _. inputs of contaminants (such as fertilizers
" . ~; and pesticides), eliminate chronic discharges \!."'""~ / of industrial effluent and sewage, and main-
/ tain natural patterns of stream flow. Watershed clearing and urban development can lead to unnaturally

117

flashy stormwater runoff, which scours stream channels and results in lower baseflows. For these reasons, containing and slowly releasing stormwater runoff from developed areas is an important element in protecting stream habitats for fishes and other aquatic organisms. Impounding streams should be a last resort for developing water supplies. Selected References:
Freeman, B. J. 1990. Report onfishes of the Tallapoosa River
drainage system in Georgia. Final Report to Georgia Department of NaturalResources. 33pp.
Howell, W M. andJ. D.Williams. 1971. Notropis gibbsi, a new
cyprinid fish from theTallapoosa River System in Alabama and Georgia. Copeia 1971: 55-64. Lee, S. L., C. R Gilbert, C. H. Hocutt, R E. Jenkins, D. E.
McAllister, andJ. RStauffer. 1980. Atlas of NorthAmerican
fishes. North Carolina State Mus. Nat. Hist. 867pp.
Mettee, M. F., P. E. O'Neil andJ. M. Pierson. 1996. Fishes of
Alabama and the Mobile Basin. Oxmoor House, Birmingham. 820pp. Page, L. M. and B. M. Burr. 1991. A field guidetofreshwater fishes of NorthAmerica north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp.
Written by Dr. Byron J. Freeman
118

State Status: Endangered Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: A robust minnow, the Altamaha shiner can

reach a maximum total length of 11 cm (4.3 in). This fish has

a pointed snout and a terminal to subterminal mouth.

Coloration characteristics include dusky olive coloration dor-

sally, a dark dorsal stripe, and a lateral black stripe on the pos-

terior half of the body that can expand to form a spot at the

base of the caudal fin. Breeding males are recognizable by a

blue coloration on the sides and yellow to orange dorsal, cau-

dal, and anal fins.

.

Range and Habitat: Altamaha shiners are endemic to the upper Altamaha River drainage of north central Georgia. Specimens have been collected from the North Oconee, Middle Oconee, Oconee, Ocmulgee, Altamaha, Apalachee, and Little river systems. Altamaha shiners inhabit small tributaries and rivers. They are most often found in small pools with rocky to sandy substrates.
Diet: Probably aquatic insects or terrestrial insects captured from stream drift.
Life History: Little is known concerning the life history of the Altamaha shiner, but based on the similarities between most members of the genus Cyprinella, spawning probably occurs over crevices in rocks or submerged logs where eggs are attached and then fertilized. Breeding males will develop prominent tubercles or bumps on the head and scales. Spawning probably occurs from mid-spring through midsummer
Threats/Comments: Potential threats to the Altamaha shiner are principally degradation and impoundment of tributary streams in the upper Altamaha drainage. Stream degradation results from failure to employ Best Management Practices (BMPs) for forestry and agriculture, failure to control soil

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
erosion from construction sites and bridge crossings, and increased stormwater runoff from developing urban and industrial areas. Fishes that depend upon small crevices to lay their eggs in are especially vulnerable to impacts of excessive sedimentation. The range of the Altamaha shiner is across streams in the rapidly developing Piedmont physiographic province. Many of these streams have become damaged by urban development to the point that they support only a very few hardy tolerant fishes. The Altamaha shiner, like many stream fishes, is intolerant of impoundment.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conserving populations of the Altamaha shiner depends on maintaining and restoring habitat and water quality in tributaries of the upper Altamaha River drainage. It is essential to eliminate sediment runoff from land-disturbing activities (such as roadway and housing construction), maintain forested buffers along stream banks, eliminate inputs of contaminants (such as fertilizers and pesticides), and maintain natural patterns of stream flow. Watershed clearing and urban development can lead to unnaturally flashystormwater runoff, which scours stream channels and results in lower baseflows.
For these reasons, containing and slowly releasing stormwater runoff from developed areas is an
. . important element in protecting stream
'_: :jJ;\~' habitats for fishes and other aquatic
~ organisms. Impounding streams should be a last resort for developing water supplies.

119

Selected References: Dahlberg, M. D., and D. C. Scott. 1971. The freshwater fishes of Georgia. Bull. Georgia Acad. Sci. 29:1-64. Gibbs, R. H., Jr. 1957. Cyprinid fishes of the subgenus Cyprinella of Notropis. Vol. 1. Systematic status of the subgenus Cyprinella, with a key to the species exclusive of the lutrensis - ornatus complex. Copeia 1957: 185-195. Lee, S. L., C. R. Gilbert, C. H. Hocutt, R. E.Jenkins, D. E.
McAllister, andJ. R.Stauffer. 1980. Atlas of North American
fishes. North Carolina State Mus. Nat. Hist. 867pp. Page, L. M., and B. M. Burr. 1991. Afield guide tofreshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp.
Written by Dr. Byron J. Freeman
120

State Status: Rare Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The blackbanded sunfish is a small distinctively marked species reaching a maximum total length of 7 em (2.75 in) and is often sought by the aquarium trade. There are 5-6 black bars along the sides that extend from the dorsum to the venter. The first of these bars passes through the eye, and the third extends through the first three membranes of the spinous dorsal to the upper edge of the fin. No other sunfish is marked thus. The blackbanded sunfish is also very colorful with black vertical bars, olive brown to variegated brown on the dorsum and upper sides, and orange-copper on the pelvic ray spine and leading ray. This fish has orange-copper colored irises.

Range and Habitat: The blackbanded sunfish ranges below the Fall Line in Atlantic and Gulf Coast drainages from New Jersey to northern Florida. Distribution throughout the Coastal Plain of Georgia is spotty; museum records indicate populations in the Savannah River drainage and the Okefenokee Swamp, with possible occurrences in the Altamaha and Ogeechee river drainages. The blackbanded sunfish is rare to uncommon throughout most of its range, except for areas in North Carolina and New Jersey.
Blackbanded sunfish are restricted to shallow, nonturbid, vegetated waters of lakes, ponds and river and stream margins. It prefers blackwater systems which are acidic and darkly stained.
Diet: Small invertebrates associated with aquatic vegetation.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Life History: Spawning occurs in the spring and has been reported as early as March in North Carolina to as late as June in Delaware; reported water temperatures range 20-28 C (6882 F)for several field studies. Most spawning behavior studies are based upon aquarium observations. Adults create nests (depressions) in sand or gravel substrates beneath aquatic vegetation, or in hollows made among plant roots or in masses of plants. Nests are usually shallow, approximately 30 em (12 in) in diameter, and are guarded by the males (females are driven off shortly after spawning). The aquatic vegetation in which the blackbanded sunfish feeds is often teeming with many different species of aquatic macroinvertebrates and provides cover and a good place to forage.

Threats/Comments: Populations of this species are extremely localized. Georgia populations are primarily known from the Okefenokee Swamp where population sizes are usually small. Changes in habitat due to drainage modification, lack of plant cover, changes in water chemistry, and general habitat degradation threaten the survival of blackbanded sunfish.

Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conservation of populations of blackbanded sunfish depends upon maintaining habitat quality in the
..: .:- Okefenokee Swamp and in other appropriate habitats. '" Habitat loss through pollution, drainage and hydrologic
alteration of Coastal Plain swamps and rivers must be avoided. Surveys should be conducted throughout the potential range in appropriate habitats to determine if other populations
121

exist. Once identified, additional populations can be effectively protected by habitat conservation plans. Selected References:
Burkhead, N. M. And R. E. Jenkins. 1991. Fishes. Pages 321-409 in K. Terwilliger (coord.). Virginia's endangered species. McDonald and Woodward, Blacksburg, Va. Jenkins, R. E. and N. M. Burkhead. 1993. Freshwater fishes of Virginia. Am. Fish. Soc., Bethesda, Md. 1Q79pp.
Laerm, J. and B.J. Freeman. 1986. Fishes of the Okefenokee
Swamp. Univ. Georgia Press, Athens. 118pp. Lee, S. L., C.R. Gilbert, C. H. Hocutt, R. E. Jenkins, D. E.
McAllister, andJ. R.Stauffer. 1980. Atlas of NorthAmerican
fishes. North Carolina State Mus. Nat. Hisi. 867pp. Page, L. M. and B.M. Burr. 1991. Afield guide tofreshwater fishes of NorthAmerica north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp.
Written by Dr. Byron J. Freeman
122

State Status: Threatened Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: Chubs are a group of minnows that now are represented by nine genera. The blotched chub is a small silvery chub with a large upward-looking eye, a blunt nose overhanging an inferior mouth (one which opens below the horizontal axis of the body), and single large barbels located at each corner of the mouth. Barbels are fleshy structures present in catfishes ("whiskers") and some minnows, and have many taste buds on them. Blotched chubs are very distinctive in having 6-9 large rectangular-shaped blotches along the mid-side of the body. The species epithet insignis means remarkable in reference to the prominent blotches. The maximum total length is 10 em (4 in).

Range and Habitat: Moderately common throughout most of Cumberland and Tennessee river drainages, the blotched chub lives in moderate-sized creeks and small rivers, usually in riffles with coarse substrates of gravel and rock. In Georgia, this chub is known from the Toccoa, Nottley, and Hiwassee . rivers and some of their tributaries.
Diet: Large amounts of periphyton and aquatic insect larvae, especially fly larvae and mayfly larvae.
Life History: Spawning occurs when the water temperature approaches 15C (59 "F),usually in mid April to early May, sometimes lasting into early June when temperatures may reach 25C (77 OF). Spawning occurs on gravel and rocky substrates. Young utilize slow-current shallow areas before moving into riffle and run habitats used by all other sizes. Males display nuptial tubercles. The life span is 2.5 years.
Threats/Comments: The blotched chub depends on good water quality and fast-water habitats in upland streams. Impoundments have reduced available habitat for the blotched chub, and remaining free-flowing mountain streams are vulnerable to degradation by excessive inputs of silt and sediment. Stream degradation results from failure to employ

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Best Management Practices (BMPs) for forestry and agriculture, failure to control soil erosion from construction sites and bridge crossings, and increased stormwater runoff from developing urban and industrial areas. Increasing development of houses utilizing poor construction, and riparian management practices, pose a significant threat to the blotched chub in the Toccoa, Nottley, and Hiwassee river systems.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conserving populations of the blotched chub will require maintaining and improving habitat quality in the Toccoa River and the other streams within the Hiwassee River system by eliminating sediment runoff from land-disturbing activities (such as roadway and housing construction), maintaining forested buffers along stream banks, eliminating inputs of contaminants (such as fertilizers and pesticides), and maintaining natural patterns of streamflow.
Selected References:
Etnier, D. A. and W C. Starnes. 1993. Thefishes of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Press, Knoxville. 681pp.
Harris, J. L. 1986. Systematics, distribution, and biology offishes
currently allocated to Erimystax Jordan, a subgenus of Hybopsis (Cyprimdae). Ph.D. Dissertation, Univ. Tennessee, Knoxville. 335pp.

Jenkins, R. E. and N. M. Burkhead. 1993. Freshwater fishes of
Virginia. Am. Fish. Soc., Bethesda, Md. 1o79pp.
Lee, S. L., C. R. Gilbert, C. H. Hocutt, R. E. Jenkins, D. E.
McAllister, andJ. R.Stauffer. 1980. Atlas of North American
fishes . .North Carolina StateMus. Nat. Hist. 867pp.
Mettee, M. F., P. E. O'Neil andJ. M. Pierson. 1996. Fishes of
Alabama and the Mobile Basin. Oxmoor House, Birmingham. 820pp. Page, L. M. and B. M. Burr. 1991. Afield guide tofreshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp.
Written by Dr. Byron J. Freeman
124

State Status: Threatened Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The holiday darter is a small species reaching 5.8 em (2.3 in) total length and characterized by an extremely blunt snout and brilliant green and red-orange coloration in breeding males. The sides are marked with 8-10 dark blotches, becoming green bars interspersed with red on breeding males. There are eight dorsal blotches, and the first dorsal fin has a red window anteriorly. In breeding males, the dorsal fins have blue marginal bands and broad red submarginal bands. Males also have a red band on the blue-green anal fin. A dark bar extends below each eye.

Range and Habitat: This species is endemic to the upper

Coosa River system of Georgia, Alabama, and southeastern

Tennessee. In Alabama, the holiday darter is known only from

the Shoal Creek system. In Georgia, the holiday darter occurs Shadingindicates range

in the upper Conasauga, Coosawattee and Etowah river sys-

Dots indicate counties with known occurrences

tems and their tributaries. These populations differ genetically

and morphologically and may represent a complex of four dis- Threats/Comments: As with the Cherokee darter, potential

tinct forms that may merit description as new species.

threats to the holiday darter are principally the continued

Holiday darters are usually found in medium-sized

accelerated degradation of streams by increased inputs of silt

streams where they may inhabit moderate to swift currents

and sediment as well as impoundment. Stream degradation

around cobble and boulders. These darters are also often

results from failure to employ Best Management Practices

found near stream margins with substrata composed of gravel, (BMPs) for forestry and agriculture, failure to control soil ero-

cobble and sand, in depths of approximately 30 cm (11.8 in). sion from construction sites and bridge crossings, and

increased stormwater runoff from developing urban and

Diet: Aquatic invertebrates.

industrial areas. The holiday darter is an upland mountain

species, and riparian management practices in addition to

Life History: Spawning occurs during spring. Males follow increasing development of poorly-constructed houses pose a

females as they search for suitable spawning sites in the same significant threat to this species.

riffle habitats used by non-spawning adults. Spawning pairs

attach fertilized eggs one at a time to the surfaces of cobble

Conservation and Management Recommendations:

and boulders. Other aspects of the life history of this colorful Recent studies conducted in the upper Coosa system in

fish are unknown.

Georgia, Alabama, and Tennessee have demonstrated the exis-

tence of a complex of species hitherto known collectively as

the holiday darter. This complex is under investigation. All

remarks in this account are pertinent to these new species, but

the distribution will undoubtedly change to reflect the exis-

tence of isolated and relatively restricted species.

Conserving populations of all of these species depends

on maintaining and improving habitat quality in

streams by eliminating sediment

; runoff from land disturbing
~l ..!, .:" . . - activities such as roadway and

I~~illll;'".i',;.1~;',:",;i';"~'?,;:,J'{~:W\;':?';!r tahionuinsginfgorceosntesdtrubcutfiofenr,smalaoinng-

", " .,

stream banks, eliminating inputs of

contaminants such as fertilizers and pesti-

cides, and maintaining natural patterns of stream flow. Watershed dearing and urban development can lead to unnaturally flashy stormwater runoff, which scours stream channels and results in lower baseflows. For these reasons, containing and slowly releasing stormwater runoff from developed areas is an important element in protecting stream habitats for fishes and other aquatic organisms. Impounding streams should be a last resort for developing water supplies. Selected References:
Etnier, D. A. and We. Starnes. 1993. The fishes of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Press, Knoxville. 681pp.
Johnston, e. E. andJ. R. Shute. 1997. Observational notes on the
spawning behavior ofthe blue shiner (Cyprinella caerulea) and
theholidau darter (Etheostoma breoirostrum), two rare fishes of the Conasauga River, Georgia and Tennessee. Proc. Southeastern Fishes Council 35:1-2.
Lee, S.1., e. R. Gilbert, e. H. Hocutt, R. E. Jenkins, D. E.
McAllister, andJ. R.Stauffer. 1980. Atlas of North American
fishes. North Carolina StateMus. Nat. Hist. 867pp.
Mettee, M. F., P. E. O'Neil andJ. M. Pierson. 1996. Fishes of
Alabama and the Mobile Basin. Oxmoor House, Birmingham. 820pp. Page, 1. M. and B. M. Burr. 1991. Afield guide tofreshwater fishes of NorthAmerica north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp. Suttkus, R. D. and D. A. Etnier. 1991. Etheostoma tallapoosae and E. brevirostrum, two new darters, subgenus Ulocentra, from theAlabama Riverdrainage. Tulane Stud. Zool. Bot. 28: 1-24.
Written by Dr. Byron J. Freeman
126

State Status: Threatened Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: This is a relatively large, colorful darter reaching a maximum 11 cm (4.3 in) total length, with a compressed body form and a short, blunt snout. Large males are deep green in color with pink pectoral and green pelvic fins. Females and juveniles are brown above, with a blue breast area and yellow-brown fins. On both sexes the medial fins are edged in yellow and black, and a dark bar extends downward from each eye. The sides of the fish are marked by 10-12 dark green vertical bars and 12-15 horizontal stripes.

Range and Habitat: The greenfin darter inhabits riffles with swift currents over bedrock, boulder, or cobble substrata in medium to large, high-elevation streams. This darter occurs only in mountain streams of the upper Tennessee River system in Georgia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia. In Georgia, this fish is known from the Little Tennessee River system in Rabun County.
Diet: Benthic aquatic invertebrates.
Life History: Greenfin darters may live about four years, probably spawning during spring and summer in swift-flowing riffles. During egg deposition and fertilization, females may partially bury themselves in the sand or gravel to avoid swift currents.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conserving populations of the greenfin darter in Georgia will require maintaining and improving habitat quality in the Little Tennessee River system by eliminating sediment runoff from land-disturbing activities such as roadway and housing construction, maintaining forested buffers along stream banks, eliminating inputs of contaminants such as fertilizers and pesticides, and maintaining natural patterns of streamflow.

Threats/Comments: The primary threat to the greenfin darter in Georgia is stream degradation resulting from failure to employ Best Management Practices (BMPs) for forestry and agriculture, failure to control soil erosion from construction sites and bridge crossings, and increased storrnwater runoff from developing urban and industrial areas. Increasing commercial, residential, and highway development utilizing poor construction and riparian management practices pose a significant threat to stream habitat quality in North Georgia.

Selected References:

Etnier, D. A. and W C. Starnes. 1993. The fishes of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Press, Knoxville. 681pp.

Jenkins, R E. and N. M. Burkhead. Virginia. Am. Fish. Soc., Bethesda,

M19d9.31. oF7r9epsph.water

fishes

of

Lee, S. L., C. R Gilbert, C.H. Hocutt, R E. Jenkins, D. E.
McAllister, andJ. RStauffer. 1980. Atlas of North American
fishes. North Carolina State Mus. Nat. Hist. 867pp.
Page, L. M. and B. M. Burr. 1991. A field guide to freshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin,
Boston. 432pp.

Written by Dr. Byron J. Freeman

127

State Status: Endangered Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The lipstick darter is a small laterally compressed fish reaching a maximum length of about 6 cm (2.4 in), with 8-9 square blotches on its back and 5-6 indistinct vertical bars located posteriorly along the sides. Adult males are distinguished by orange lips, large red-orange spots along the sides, and orange and blue-green coloration on the anal fin. On breeding males, the first dorsal fin is dusky and edged in orange, and the second dorsal fin has orange submarginal and blue marginal bands.

Range and Habitat: The lipstick darter is endemic to the Tallapoosa River system above the Fall Line in Alabama and Georgia. Although the species commonly occurs in the main channel of the Tallapoosa River and its larger tributaries, the lipstick darter has not been found in the Little Tallapoosa River system. As a result, the species has a relatively restricted distribution in Georgia; the upper portion of the Tallapoosa River main channel and a few tributary streams.
Lipstick darters inhabit riffles with swift currents in larger streams and rivers, where they commonly forage in and around gravel and cobble substrata. At low or moderate flow conditions, lipstick darters occur most abundantly in shallow riffles 12-36 cm (5-14 in) deep with fast currents current (>36 cm/s) and cover provided by riverweed, cobbles or rock ledges. Its laterally compressed shape allows this small darter to maneuver and forage among rocks and crevices even in very swift currents.
Diet: Aquatic insect larvae picked from riverweed and rock surfaces.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Threats/Comments: The lipstick darter's native range, limited to the Piedmont portion of the Tallapoosa River, currently is fragmented by one large impoundment (Harris Reservoir, in Alabama). Populations persist upstream and downstream of Harris Reservoir and in larger tributary streams. Construction of additional impoundments on the Tallapoosa River upstream from Harris Dam would further fragment populations in the main channel of the upper Tallapoosa River and would likely isolate populations in tributaries cut off by new impoundment. In addition to habitat loss caused by impoundments, excessive sediment deposition in riffles reduces habitat quality by filling in the spaces where lipstick darters forage, spawn and find refuge during high flows.

Life History: Lipstick darters spawn in riffles from May through June, burying their eggs in sand and small gravel between riffle cobbles. Their life-span is 2-3 years.

Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conserving species unique to the Tallapoosa River system, such as the endemic lipstick darter, depends on maintaining and improving flowing-water habitats and water quality in the river and its tributaries. It is essential to eliminate sediment runoff from land-disturbing activities, such as roadway and housing construction, and inputs of contaminants such as fertilizers and pesticides. Forested buffers should be maintained
along the banks of the river and the smaller tributary streams that feed the river. Maintaining natural patterns of streamflow by preventing excessive water withdrawal or unnaturally flashy runoff (such as from urban stormwater runoff) also is an essential element of protecting riverine habitat quality in the free-flowing and unregulated por-

E
tions of the Tallapoosa River system. The lipstick darter and other fishes that similarly depend on riffle and run habitats are especially vulnerable to prolonged streamflow depletion, because habitats with swift currents are diminished at low flows. Selected References:
Lee, S. L., C. R. Gilbert, C. H. Hocutt, R. E. Jenkins, D. E. McAllister, and]. R.Stauffer. 1980. Atlas of North American fishes. North Carolina StateMus. Nat. Hist. 867pp. Mettee, M. F., P E. O'Neil and]. M. Pierson. 1996. Fishes of Alabama and the Mobile Basin. Oxmoor House, Birmingham. 820pp.
Orr, J. W 1989. Feeding behavior of thegreenbreast darter,
Etheostoma jordani (Percidae: Etheostomatini). Copeia 1989:202-
206.
-----J and]. S. Ramsey. 1990. Reproduction in the greenbreast darter, Etheostoma jordani (Teleostei: Percidae). Copeia 1990:
100-107.
Page, L.M. and B. M. Burr. 1991. Afield guide tofreshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp. Wood, R. M. and R. L. Mayden. 1993. Systematics of the Etheostoma jordani species group (Teleostei: Percidae), with descriptions of three new species. Bull. Alabama Mus. Nat. Hist.
16: 31-46.
Written by Dr. Byron]. Freeman
129

State Status: Threatened Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The coldwater darter is typically small, 6.5 em (2.6 in) the maximum total length, with an incomplete lateral line that arches slightly anteriorly and forms a pale stripe laterally. Body coloration is typically mottled brown, with brown banding on the medial fins, a distinct vertical stripe below each eye, and three dark spots vertically aligned at the base of the caudal fin. Breeding males have a blue marginal and a red submarginal band on the first dorsal fin, and profuse orange ventral coloration, often from the belly to the caudal peduncle.

Range and Habitat: The coldwater darter occurs in the Coosa River basin of North Georgia, northern Alabama, and southeastern Tennessee. In Georgia, the species is historically known from Millpond in the Etowah River basin (Floyd County), Moses Spring in Chattooga River basin (Chattooga County), an un-named tributary to the Oostanaula River at Rome, and five springs in the Conasauga River basin. The coldwater darter is presumed extirpated from the Etowah River basin and probably at least one of the Conasauga River localities. Occasional coldwater darter specimens have been collected in the Conasauga River near the Georgia-Tennessee boundary. It is unknown whether these individuals represent river-dwelling populations or strays from springs connected to the river.
The primary habitat of the coldwater darter consists of springs and spring runs, where the darters are usually found in association with aquatic plants and organic debris.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Threats/Comments: Habitat alteration, including vegetation removal, in springs and spring runs principally threatens the coldwater darter. Conversion to a concrete-bottom swimming pool has probably eliminated the coldwater darter from Sand Spring in Whitfield County (Conasauga River system). One other known locality, a spring at the junction of Georgia Highways 2 and 225, has recently been cleared of surrounding vegetation, threatening habitat integrity for the spring fauna. Without specific protection, the coldwater darter clearly is vulnerable to extirpation as a result of loss of spring habitats.

Diet: Primarily small crustaceans (especiallyamphipods) and insect larvae.
Life History: Coldwater darters may normally live only two years; thus, successful spawning every year is essential to population persistence. Vegetation is also necessary as a spawning substrate. Spawning may occur over a prolonged period, from March through September, in the relatively constant water temperatures provided by spring habitats.

Conservation and Management Recommendations: Protecting the habitat integrity of springs known to support coldwater darter populations is essential for conserving this species. Springs are relatively small habitats, vulnerable to contamination from runoff of sediment and pollutants, excessive water withdrawal, and destruction. However, the localized nature of springs also makes possible their conservation through careful management.

130

Selected References: Etnier, D.A., and We. Starnes. 1993. The fishes of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Press, Knoxville. 681pp. Lee, S. L., e. R. Gilbert, e. H. Hocutt, R. E. Jenkins, D. E.
McAllister, andJ. R.Stauffer. 1980. Atlas of North American
fishes. North Carolina State Mus. Nat. Hist. 867pp.
Mettee, M. F., P E. O'Neil, andJ. M. Pierson. 1996. Fishes of
Alabama and the Mobile Basin. Oxmoor House, Birmingham. 820pp. Page, L. M. and B. M. Burr. 1991. Afield guide tofreshwater fishes of NorthAmerica north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp.
Ramsey, J. S., and R. D. Suttkus. 1965. Etheostoma diirema, a
new darter of the subgenus Oligocephalus tPercidae) from springs of theAlabama River basin in Alabama and Georgia. Tulane Studies in Zoology 12(3):65-77.
Seesock, W e. 1979. Some aspects ofthe life history and ecology
of the coldwater darter, Etheostoma diirema, from Glencoe Spring, Etowah County, Alabama. M.S. thesis, Auburn Unio., Auburn, Ala. 70pp. Utter, P S. 1984. A taxonomic review of the darters referred to Etheostoma swaini and E. ditrema (Pisces: Percidae) in the CoosaAlabama Riverdrainage. M.S. thesis, Auburn Unio., Auburn, Alabama. 115pp.
Written by Dr. Byron J. Freeman
131

State .Status: Rare Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The black darter grows to a maximum length of 7 cm (2.8 in), with a blunt snout typical of the "snubnose darter" group. Eight to nine dark saddles cross the tan dorsum, and the sides of the fish are marked with nine dark blotches. The venter is pale yellow. A small orange spot occurs at the front of the first dorsal fin, and a black teardrop descends below the eye. Males are slightly larger than females. Breeding males have a green throat and chin and an orange breast and belly.

Range and Habitat: The black darter is found only in the Tennessee River drainage in Alabama, Tennessee, and Georgia. The only known occurrence in Georgia is in Lookout Creek, Dade County. The black darter inhabits small creeks and rivers, living in pools and slowly moving riffles with gravel, cobble or bedrock substrata.

Shading indicates range Dotsindicate counties with known occurrences

Diet: Benthic aquatic insects.
Life History: Spawning occurs during March to early May. The aggressive males may chase one another and follow females as they search for a site to deposit eggs. The accompanying male embraces the female in an S-shaped position to fertilize the eggs as the female lays them one by one on the surfaces of rocks. Maximum life span is likely three years.
Threats/Comments: Habitat degradation in small streams, including accelerated erosion and sedimentation caused by increasing land-disturbing activities, poses the greatest threat to the black darter.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conserving populations of the black darter depends on maintaining and improving habitat quality in small streams by eliminating sediment runoff from land-disturbing activities such as roadway and housing construction, maintaining forested buffers along stream banks, eliminating inputs of

contaminants such as fertilizers and pesticides, and maintaining natural patterns of stream flow. Watershed clearing and urban development can lead to unnaturally flashy stormwater runoff, which scours stream channels and results in lower baseflows. For these reasons, containing and slowly releasing stormwater runoff from developed areas is an important element in protecting stream habitats for fishes and other aquatic organisms. Impounding streams should be a last resort for developing water supplies.

Selected References:
Etnier, D. A, and we. Starnes. 1993. The fishes of Tennessee.
Univ. Tennessee Press, Knoxville. 681pp.

Mettee, M. F., P E. O'Neil, and]. M. Pierson. 1996. Fishes of

Alabama and the Mobile Basin. Oxmoor House, Birmingham.

820pp.

.

Page, L. M. and B.M. Burr. 1991. A field guide to freshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin,
Boston. 432pp.

Written by Dr. Byron]. Freeman

132

State Status: Threatened Federal Status: Endangered

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: A darter reaching a maximum total length approximately 7 ern (2.8 in), the Etowah darter has a compressed body with eight broad blotches marking the dorsum and up to 11 indistinct dark bars along the sides. A close relative of the greenbreast darter (E. jordani) and the lipstick darter (E. chuckwachatte), the Etowah darter is distinguished by the absence of red spots along the sides or orange color on the lips. Males have brilliant red bands in the dorsal and caudal fins, and bluish coloration on the lower sides of the head and on the pectoral, pelvic and anal fins.

Range and Habitat: The Etowah darter occurs only in Georgia, where the species is restricted to the Etowah River system upstream from Allatoona Reservoir (Coosa River system).
This species' preferred habitat is riffles, typically in moderate to strong current, over gravel and cobble substrata. Etowah darters occur in the main channel of the Etowah River and in larger tributaries to the river.
Diet: Aquatic invertebrates.
Life History: Little is known.
Threats/Comments: The Etowah darter is particularly vulnerable to habitat loss because of its narrow distribution, which is restricted to a geographic area (the upper Etowah River system) currently under pressures that accompany an expanding human population. Development and road construction in the Etowah River watershed threatens to degrade river and stream habitat by accelerating sediment and contaminant input to the river. Water-supply reservoirs constructed on tributaries to the Etowah River, including Yellow Creek and Sharp Mountain Creek, could significantly alter water flow and thermal regimes in main channel riffles that provide habitat for Etowah darters.

Shadingindicates range Dotsindicate counties with known occurrences
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conserving the Etowah darter and other unique aquatic resources of the Etowah River depends on maintaining habitat quality in the less-impacted portion of the river upstream from Allatoona Reservoir, and ultimately on improving habitat and water quality in the lower part of the river. It is essential to eliminate sediment runoff from land-disturbing activities, such as roadway and housing construction, and inputs of contaminants such as fertilizers and pesticides. Forested buffers should be maintained along the banks of the river and the smaller tributary streams that feed the river. Maintaining natural patterns of streamflow by preventing excessive water withdrawal or unnaturally flashy runoff, such as that from urban storm water runoff, is also an essential element of protecting riverine habitat quality. The Etowah darter and other fishes that similarly depend on riffle habitats are especially vulnerable to streamflow depletion because habitats with swift currents are diminished at low flows.

J33

Selected References: Lee, S. L., C. R. Gilbert, C. H. Hocutt, R. E. jenkins, D. E. McAllister, and]. R.Stauffer. 1980. Atlas of North American fishes. North Carolina State Mus. Nat. Hist. 867pp. Mettee, M. F., P E. O'Neil and]. M. Pierson. 1996. Fishes of Alabama and the Mobile Basin. Oxmoor House, Birmingham. 820pp. Page, L. M. and B. M. Burr. 1991. A field guide to freshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1993. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants: proposed threatened status for the Cherokee darter and proposed endangered status for the Etowah darter. 1993. Pages 53695-53702 in Federal Register. Vol. 58(199). Wood, R. M. and R. L. Mayden. 1993. Systematics of the Etheostoma jordani species group (Teleostei: Percidae), with descriptions of three new species. Bull. Alabama Mus. Nat. Hist. 16: 31-46.
Written by Dr. Byron]. Freeman
134

State Status: Rare Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The goldstripe darter is a generally small, robust fish reaching 7.5 em (3 in) maximum total length with a short, rounded snout. This darter is distinguished by a lightcolored stripe along the lateral line, as well as a dark suborbital teardrop, 2-4 dark spots vertically aligned at the base of the caudal fin, and numerous spots on upper side of the body and fins. Larger individuals may have 10-12 brownish blotches along the sides.

Range and Habitat: The goldstripe darter almost always occurs below the Fall Line, from the Brazos River (Texas), northeastward to tributaries of the Mississippi River in Missouri, Kentucky, and Tennessee, and southeast to the Altamaha River drainage in Georgia. In Georgia, the goldstripe darter is known from areas below the Fall Line in the Chattahoochee, Flint, and Ocmulgee river drainages.
Goldstripe darters are generally found in small streams and spring seeps and runs associated with aquatic vegetation, organic debris (such as wood and leaves), or slowmoving riffle habitats.
Diet: A variety of aquatic invertebrates common in small stream habitats.
Life History: Goldstripe darters probably live 2-3 years. Spawning occurs during the spring months. Females attach eggs one at a time to plants or rocks. The aggressive males may acquire darkened lateral bars and blackened fins as they compete with each other for spawning opportunities. Little else is known of this species' life history.
Threats/Comments: The goldstripe darter is vulnerable to habitat destruction and water flow depletion in small stream habitats and spring runs, as a result of poor development practices and failure to employ Best Management Practices (BMPs) for forestry and agriculture.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conserving populations of goldstripe darters requires maintaining and improving habitat quality in small streams and spring runs by eliminating sediment runoff from land-disturbing activities (such as roadway and housing construction), maintaining forested buffers along stream banks, eliminating inputs of contaminants (such as fertilizers and pesticides), and maintaining natural patterns of stream flow. Small streams like those typically inhabited by the goldstripe darter may frequently be overlooked as important habitats for rare aquatic species, and may be degraded by relatively small-scale construction activities. Special care must be taken to protect small streams from unnecessary runoff and stream bank disturbance.
Selected References:
Etnier, D. A. and We. Starnes. 1993. The fishes of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Press, Knoxville. 681pp.
Lee, S. 1., e. R. Gilbert, C. H. Hocutt, R. E.Jenkins, D. E. McAllister, and]. R.Stauffer. 1980. Atlas of North American fishes. North Carolina State Mus. Nat. Hist. 867pp.
Mettee, M. F., P. E. O'Neil and]. M. Pierson. 1996. Fishes of Alabama and the Mobile Basin. Oxmoor House, Birmingham 820 pp.

Written by Dr. Byron]. Freeman

135

State Status: Threatened Federal Status: Threatened

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The Cherokee darter has a rounded snout, a distinct dark bar beneath the eye, and 7~8 dorsal blotches that may fuse with the 7-8 lateral blotches (which elongate into slightly oblique greenish-olive bars in breeding males). The anterior lateral line pores are usually outlined in black. Breeding males have an anterior red window and a single broad reddish band in the first dorsal fin, red in the second dorsal fin, and a green-edged anal fin. The caudal fin may also be edged in green. In comparison, the related Coosa darter (E. coosae) has five discrete bands in the first dorsal fin. Adult size of the Cherokee darter is 40-65 mm (1.6-2.6 in) total length.

Range and Habitat: The Cherokee darter is endemic to the upper Coosa River system in Georgia. Currently, this species is known from only about 20 small tributaries to the Etowah River. Populations of Cherokee darters exhibit a fragmented pattern of disjunct populations, above and below Allatoona Reservoir. Approximately 50 percent of all known populations and 60 percent of the largest known populations occur in Cherokee County.
Cherokee darters typically inhabit small to mediumsized streams, in association with gravel and cobble substrates. The Cherokee darter is not found in streams with moderate or thick deposits of silt and sediment, and it cannot survive in impoundments.
Diet: Benthic aquatic invertebrates.
Life History: Little is known about the life history of the Cherokee darter. It is presumably similar to better-studied, related darter species (such as the Coosa darter) which spawn in the spring and deposit eggs on the surfaces of clean rocks. Life span is unlikely to exceed 3-4 years.
Threats/Comments: Potential threats to the Cherokee darter are principally impoundment and degradation of tributary streams in the Etowah River watershed. Stream

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
degradation results from failure to employ Best Management Practices (BMPs) for forestry and agriculture, failure to control soil erosion from construction sites and bridge crossings, and increased stormwater runoff from developing urban and industrial areas. The Cherokee darter, like many stream fishes, is intolerant of impoundment. The Yellow Creek Reservoir, currently under construction, will eliminate one population of the Cherokee darter, and the proposed Sharp Mountain Creek Reservoir would eliminate another population. New highway construction in Cherokee County, such as the proposed Outer Perimeter, would unavoidably alter many sections of known Cherokee darter habitat in Cherokee County.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conserving populations of the Cherokee darter depends on maintaining and improving habitat quality in small streams feeding the Etowah River by eliminating sediment runoff from land-disturbing activities (such as roadway and housing construction), maintaining forested buffers along stream banks, eliminating inputs of contaminants (such as fertilizers and pesticides), and maintaining natural patterns of stream flow. Watershed clearing and urban development can lead to unnaturally flashy stormwater runoff, which scours stream channels
and results in lower baseflows. For these reasons, containing and slowly releasing storm water runoff from
developed areas is an important element in protecting stream habitats for fishes and other aquatic organisms. Impounding streams should be a last resort for developing water supplies.

136

Selected References: Bauer, B.H., D. A. Etniet; and N. M. Burkhead. 1995. Etheostoma (Ulocentra) scotti (Os teichthyes:Percidae), a new darter from the Etowah River system in Georgia. Bull. Alabama Mus. Nat. Hist. 17:1-16. Burkhead, NoelM. 1993. Results of a status survey for two freshwater fishes, the Cherokee and Etowah darters (Pisces: Percidae), endemic to the Etowah River system of North Georgia. Final Rep. to the U.S. Fish and Wildl. Servo 27pp.
Lee, S. L., c. R. Gilbert, C.H. Hocutt, R. E.jenkins, D. E.
McAllister, and]. R.Stauffer. 1980. Atlas of North American fishes. North Carolina State Mus. Nat. Hist. 867pp. Mettee, M. F., P E. O'Neil, and]. M. Pierson. 1996. Fishes of Alabama and the Mobile Basin. Oxmoor House, Birmingham. 820pp. Page, 1. M. and B. M. Burr. 1991. A field guide to freshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1993. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants: proposed threatened status for the Cherokee Darter and proposed endangered status for the Etowah darter. Pages 53695-53702 in Federal Register. Vol. 58 (199).
Written by Dr. Byron]. Freeman
137

State Status: Rare Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: This is a moderately-sized species of "snubnose" darter with the characteristic blunt snout. Reaching about 7 em (2.8 in) total length, the Tallapoosa darter usually has 8-9 dark lateral blotches and eight dorsal saddles. Breeding males develop red-orange coloration ventrally and between the lateral blotches and a blue-green anal fin and breast; the dorsal fins have broad red-brown basal bands and are edged by a blue band; there is no red window present in the spinous first dorsal fin, unlike the more widespread Coosa darter.

Range and Habitat: The Tallapoosa darter is endemic to the Tallapoosa River system in Alabama and Georgia and occurs only above the Fall Line. Georgia populations are known from the Tallapoosa River and its tributaries and the Little Tallapoosa River and its tributaries. The Tallapoosa darter appears more Widespread in the Tallapoosa system as compared to the Little Tallapoosa system.
Tallapoosa darters occur both in small tributary streams and in the main channels of the Tallapoosa and Little Tallapoosa rivers. This species is found primarily in relatively silt- and sediment-free riffles around gravel, cobble, and boulder substrata.
Diet: Benthic aquatic insects.
Life History: Tallapoosa darters require clean gravel and cobble substrates for spawning. The snubnose darters (subgenus Ulocentra) deposit eggs on the surfaces of clean rocks. Spawning probably occurs during March and April.
Threats/Comments: The Tallapoosa darter is particularly vulnerable to habitat loss because its distribution is restricted to a single river system. Impounding streams should be a last resort for developing water supplies.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Populations in the Little Tallapoosa River system are isolated from downstream populations by Harris Reservoir in Alabama and are not as Widespread as those in the main Tallapoosa River. Populations in both systems are threatened by accelerated stream degradation by excessive inputs of silt and sediment. Stream degradation is the result of failure to employ Best Management Practices (BMPs) for forestry and agriculture, failure to control soil erosion from construction sites and bridge crossings, and increased stormwater runoff from developing urban and industrial areas.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conserving species unique to the Tallapoosa River system. such as the endemic Tallapoosa darter, depends on maintaining and improving flowing-water habitats and water quality in the river and its tributaries. It is essential to eliminate sediment runoff from land-disturbing activities (such as roadway and housing construction) and inputs of contaminants (such as fertilizers and pesticides). Forested buffers should be maintained along the banks of the river and the smaller tributary streams that feed the river. Maintaining natural patterns of streamflow by preventing excessive water withdrawal or
unnaturally flashy runoff (such as from urban storm water runoff) also is an essential element of protecting riverine habitat quality in the free-flowing and unregulated portions of the Tallapoosa River system.

138

Selected References: Freeman, B.]. 1990. Report on fishes of theTallapoosa River drainage system in Georgia. Report to Georgia Department of Natural Resources, October 1990. 33pp. Mettee, M. F., P. E. O'Neil and]. M. Pierson. 1996. Fishes of Alabama and the Mobile Basin. Oxmoor House, Birmingham. 820pp. Page, L. M. and B. M. Buri. 1991. A field guide to freshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp. Suttkus, R.D. and D. A. Etnier. 1991. Etheostoma tallapoosae and E. brevirostrum, two new darters, subgenus Ulocentra, from the Alabama Riverdrainage. Tulane Stud. Zool. Bot. 28: 1-24. Written by Dr. Byron]. Freeman
139

State. Status: Threatened Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: This is a small darter reaching up to 5.9 cm (2.32 in) maximum total length, with pale yellow-brown coloration, white on the belly and underside of the head, and three dusky saddles across the dorsum. Breeding males develop orange to red color that is especially bright on the underside of the fish, 4-5 iridescent green lateral blotches, and an orange band in the first dorsal fin.

Range and Habitat: The trispot darter is endemic to the upper Coosa River system in Georgia, Alabama and southeastern Tennessee. In Alabama, the species is known from only two localities: Cowans Creek (Cherokee County), and the Coosa River approximately 8 air miles southwest of Gadsden, AL, both impounded by reservoirs. In Tennessee, the species occurs in the Conasauga River near the Georgia-Tennessee boundary, and in Mill Creek and Sugar Creek, tributaries to the Conasauga. In Georgia, the trispot darter occurs in the Conasauga River and its tributaries including Swamp Creek, Holly Creek, Coahulla Creek, and Sugar Creek; in the Coosawattee River and three tributaries below Carters Reservoir (Gordon County); and Johns Creek, a tributary to the Oostanaula River (Floyd County).
Trispot darters are found in main channel habitats of larger streams and in smaller tributary streams. Adults usually occur over cobble and gravel substrata, often near aquatic vegetation such as clumps of water willow.
Diet: Aquatic invertebrates such as midge larvae and mayfly nymphs.
Life History: The trispot darter requires two distinct, interconnected habitats to complete its life cycle. Non-breeding adults occupy low velocity (e.g., <35 cm/s) habitats, including backwaters and edgewater pools (often at the edges of faster riffles), in the Conasauga River and larger tributaries. Mature adults move toward breeding habitats beginning in late autumn, moving up small streams to access spawning areas in

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
smaller seepage streams. Spawning may occur from January through March, and may require the higher, more stable winter water temperatures found in streams fed by groundwater. At least one known spawning area is heavily vegetated with aquatic plants. The brightly-colored males court females in these small streams; females mounted by males broadcast eggs that attach to plants or rocks. Later in the spring, the juveniles and adults return to main channel habitats in larger streams. Maximum life span appears to be 3 years, and most spawning individuals are 1 year old. Thus, one year of reproductive failure could severely reduce a population, and two successive years of reproductive failure could extirpate a population.
Threats/Comments: The greatest threat to the trispot darter is habitat loss and degradation in the upper Coosa River system, including loss of access by this small fish to spawning areas in seepage streams. Dams built on tributary streams, and dredging or filling in small seepage streams, eliminate spawning habitats for the trispot darter. Droughts or excessive water withdrawal which de-water spring runs could also lead to reproductive failure.

Conservation and Management Recommendations: The upper Coosa River system in Georgia and southeastern Tennessee harbors the only known populations of the trispot darter. Conserving
/',.. '. ',,_~, ": '. /;:: ~ this species will require protecting habitat : ~- ,)1 ; :\';~"'-o,'O,~ ~~".~. quality in main channel and small tributary
habitats of the upper Coosa system and especially in
140

the Conasauga River system by eliminating sediment runoff from land-disturbing activities such as roadway and housing construction, maintaining forested buffers along stream banks, eliminating inputs of contaminants such as fertilizers and pesticides, and maintaining natural patterns of stream flow. Small streams like those used for spawning by the trispot darter may frequently be overlooked as important habitats for rare aquatic species and may be degraded by relatively small-scale construction activities. Special care must be taken to protect small streams from unnecessary runoff, channel destruction and streambank disturbance.
Selected References: Etnier, D. A. and We. Starnes. 1993. The fishes of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Press, Knoxville. 681pp.
Lee, S. L., C. R. Gilbert, e. H. Hocutt, R.E.Jenkins, D. E. McAllister, and]. R.Stauffer. 1980. Atlas of North American fishes. North Carolina State Mus. Nat. Hist. 867pp.. Mettee, M. F., P E. O'Neil and]. M. Pierson. 1996. Fishes of Alabama and the Mobile Basin. Oxmoor House, Birmingham. 820pp. Page, 1. M. and B. M. Burr. 1991. A field guide to freshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp. Ryon, M. G. 1986. The life history and ecology of Etheostoma trisella (Pisces: Percidae). American Midland Naturalist 115: 73-
86.
Written by Dr. Byron]. Freeman
141

State Status: Endangered Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The wounded darter attains a total length of about 8 ern (3.1 in). Adult males are brightly colored throughout the year with a green breast and red spots along the sides. Bright red spots mark the front of the first dorsal fin. The second dorsal fin is reddish, and the caudal fin has a dark center with a red border. The paired fins and anal fin are gray. The only bright coloration on adult females is an orange band on the second dorsal fin and scattered red spots on the sides. Juvenile fish are gray to dark olive with eight dark dorsal saddles and 10 dark blotches down the sides. A dusky teardrop extends below each eye. The base of the caudal fin has a row of four vertical dark spots. Dorsal, anal, and caudal fins have narrow dark margins.

Range and Habitat: The wounded darter occurs only in the upper Tennessee River system in east Tennessee, North Carolina, Virginia, and Georgia. In Georgia, it inhabits the Toccoa River upstream from Blue Ridge Reservoir. This fish lives in moderate to large rivers, inhabiting deep runs with gentle to moderate current over boulders and large cobble.
Diet: Small aquatic insects such as midge and caddisfly larvae; mayfly nymphs.
Life History: Spawning occurs during late spring and early summer. Females deposit clutches of eggs on the undersides of rock ledges, where territorial males defend the eggs until they hatch. Wounded darters reach sexual maturity at 2 years of age and may live 4-5 years.
Threats/Comments: Impoundments throughout the upper Tennessee River system limit available habitat for the wounded darter. The portions of the system that remain free-flowing are vulnerable to degradation by excessive inputs of silt and sediment. Stream degradation results from failure to employ Best Management Practices (BMPs) for forestry and agriculture, failure to control soil erosion from construction sites and

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
bridge crossings, and increased stormwater runoff from developing urban and industrial areas. Increasing development of second homes utilizing poor construction and riparian management practices poses a significant threat to this species.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conserving populations of the wounded darter will require maintaining and improving habitat quality in the upper Toccoa River by eliminating sediment runoff from land-disturbing activities such as roadway and housing construction, maintaining forested buffers along stream banks, eliminating inputs of contaminants such as fertilizers and pesticides, and maintaining natural patterns of streamflow.
Selected References:
Etnier, D. A. and We. Starnes. 1993. The fishes of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Press, Knoxville. 681pp.
Page, L. M. and B. M. Burr. 1991. A field guide to freshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp.

Written by Dr. Byron]. Freeman

142

State Status: Rare Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: Topminnows are not minnows, but rather are closely related to guppies. There are at least 16 species of topminnows and killifishes, which are mostly freshwater but also include brackish and saltwater species, that occur in Georgia. The banded top minnow is small, reaching up to 66 mm (2.6 in) and is characterized by up to 16 narrow bands on the sides of the body (both sexes), a rather rounded head, short snout, orange-red spots on the sides forming broken rows in males (more orderly rows in females), and six mandibular pores. Males during spawning may have orange on the gill cover and orange on the caudal and other fins.

Range and Habitat: Banded topminnows can be found from the easternmost tributaries of Mobile Bay, the lowermost portion of the Escambia and Perdido drainage, Alabama, east through the Florida panhandle to the Ochlockonee River, with isolated populations in the Suwannee and Waccasassa river drainages. The banded top minnow is nearly entirely restricted to Florida. In Georgia, the banded top minnow is known from the southwestern portion of the state, including streams in the Flint River system.
Banded top minnows are located in tributaries and ephemeral drainages. Preferred habitat includes stream margins, backwaters and pools, marshes and ephemeral wetlands, as well as low-velocity, often extensively vegetated areas.
Diet: Probably aquatic and terrestrial insects.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
and vegetation removal from marshes, wetlands and stream margins.
Conservation and Management Recommendatlcns: Effective conservation of the banded top minnow in Georgia should involve identification of additional populations, should they exist, and development of habitat management plans for these populations. Maintenance of water level, quality, and aquatic vegetation are important factors to include in successful plans.

Life History: Little is known concerning the life history of the banded top minnow. Individuals in spawning condition have been collected as early as April, but as in other topminnows, breeding may occur into the summer months. Eggs are probably laid in aquatic vegetation.
Threats/Comments: Banded topminnows are extremely rare in Georgia. Threats to these fish are caused by habitat loss resulting from reduced water levels in small marshes and wetlands: flow reduction in tributaries and seasonally wetted channels (e.g., because of water withdrawal for irrigation):

Selected References:
Gilbert, C. R., R. C. Cashner and E. 0. Wiley. 1992. Taxonomic and nomenclatural status of the banded topminnow, Fundulus cingulatus (Cyprinodontiformes: Cyprinodontidae). Copeia 1992:
747-759.
Lee, S. L., C. R. Gilbert, C.H. Hocutt, R. E. Jenkins, D. E. McAllister, and]. R.Stauffer. 1980. Atlas of North American fishes. North Carolina State Mus. Nat. Hist. 867pp.
Mettee, M. F., P E. O'Neil and]. M. Pierson. 1996. Fishes of Alabama and the Mobile Basin. Oxmoor House, Birmingham. 820pp.

Written by Dr. Byron]. Freeman

State Status: Endangered Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The stippled studfish is a light gold top minnow with silver-blue sides marked by short interrupted rows of dark red to reddish-orange spots. The paired fins are bluegray, and the caudal and dorsal fins lack marginal black bands. During breeding season the flanks of this species turn sky blue, fading to dark blue-brown dorsally and to white below. Adults can reach 12 em (4.7 in) totallength,

Range and Habitat: The stippled studfish is endemic to the Coosa and Tallapoosa river systems. It occurs only in the Tallapoosa River system above or near the Fall Line in Georgia and Alabama, as well as in Sofkahatchee Creek, a single tributary to the lower Coosa River. In Georgia, the stippled studfish is known from a single locality in the Little Tallapoosa River. The species is rare throughout its range and may persist undetected in the main Tallapoosa River system in Georgia. Stippled studfish inhabit both the mainstream and tributaries within these drainages. Preferred habitats are pools, stream margins and backwaters over sand or rocky substrate. Although it uses low-velocity habitats, the stippled stud fish is restricted to free-flowing streams.
Diet: Presumably food items similar to those of the southern studfish and the northern studfish, ranging from aquatic and terrestrial insects to small snails, clams, and crayfish.
Life History: Studfish are closely related to guppies. There are at least 16 species of topminnows, studfish and killifishes occurring in Georgia. Most of these are freshwater species, but this list also includes brackish and saltwater species.
No studies have been conducted on the life history of the stippled studfish. Major life history characteristics should be similar to those for the northern and southern studfish. This suggests the use of margin habitat in flowing streams, use of clean gravel for spawning, and an adaptation to utilizing freshwater snails for a significant portion of the diet.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Threats/Comments: Stippled studfish have a restricted distribution and are extremely rare. The native range of the stippled studfish is fragmented by four large reservoirs on the Tallapoosa and Little Tallapoosa rivers. Construction of additional impoundments on the Tallapoosa River upstream from Harris Dam would further fragment populations in the main channel of the upper Tallapoosa River and would isolate populations in and tributaries cut off by new impoundment. This fish appears vulnerable to extirpation in Georgia as a result of a single catastrophic event. Degradation of stream margin habitat because of poor riparian management and excessive sedimentation are particular threats.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conserving species unique to the Tallapoosa River system, such as the stippled studfish, depends on maintaining and improving flowing-water habitats and water quality in the river and its tributaries. It is essential to eliminate sediment runoff from land-disturbing activities (such as roadway and housing construction) and inputs of contaminants (such as fertilizers and pesticides). Forested buffers should be maintained along the banks of the river and the smaller tributary streams that feed the river. Maintaining natural patterns of streamflow by preventing excessive water withdrawal or
unnaturally flashy runoff (such as from urban stormwater runoff) also is an essential element of protecting riverine habitat quality in the free-flowing and unregulated portions of the Tallapoosa River system.

144

Selected References: Cesbnet. R. Cc]. S. Rogers and]. M. Grady. 1988. Fundulus bifax, a new species of the subgenus Xenisma from theTallapoosa and Coosa Riversystems of Alabama and Georgia. Copeia 1988: 674-683. Freeman, B.]. 1990. Report on fishes of the Tallapoosa River drainage system in Georgia. Rep. to Ga. Dept. Nat. Res. 33pp. Mettee, M. F., P E. O'Neiland]. M. Pierson. 1996. Fishes of Alabama and the Mobile Basin. Oxmoor House, Birmingham. 820pp. Page, L. M. and B. M. Burr: 1991. A field guide to freshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp. Written by Dr: Byron]. Freeman
145

State Status: Threatened Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: Studfish are closely related to guppies. There are at least 16 species of topminnows, studfish (Fundulus sp.), and killifishes (Fundulus sp.) (which are mostly freshwater but also include brackish and saltwater species) that occur in Georgia. Northern studfish are generally silver to brown on sides, with scattered, horizontal, brown dash marks forming lines on the sides. Fins lack coloration and the mouth is upturned. Breeding males are extremely colorful, having bright blue coloration along the sides with horizontal red lines. These males develop orange spots and lime-gold coloration on the head. Anal and caudal fins have yellow-orange margins, and all fins except for the caudal have tubercles on the fin rays. The northern studfish is one of the largest killifishes, with total body length that may reach up to 14 cm (5.5 in).
Range and Habitat: The northern studfish occurs west of the Mississippi River in the lower Ohio River basin and streams draining the Ozark and Ouachita mountains, and east of the Mississippi in the Tennessee, Cumberland, and Green river drainages. Isolated populations occur in Indiana and Mississippi. Georgia populations occur in the South Chickamauga Creek system.
Northern studfish are usually located along the edges of small to medium-sized streams with minimal to moderate current velocity, often occurring in sluggish margins and pools.
Diet: Juveniles feed mostly at the water surface, preying on fallen organisms and emergent aquatic insects. Adults eat a variety of organisms including snails, clams, aquatic insect larvaeand even crayfish. Main feeding times occur in the morning and late afternoon.
Life History: Fundulus species which occur in streams are often found along sluggish margins and are well adapted to swimming just below the water surface. The northern studfish is aggressive, and males are territorial during breeding season, which occurs from April through July. Preferred spawning

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
habitat is calm water over shallow gravel patches with eggs being laid on gravel. This species may live for 5 years or longer.
Threats/Comments: The primary potential threats to the northern studfish in Georgia are degradation of tributary streams and the main channel of Chickamauga Creek. The Georgia range is very restricted, with all known populations occurring in the Chickamauga Creek system. Stream degradation resulting from failure to employ Best Management Practices (BMPs) for forestry and agriculture, failure to control soil erosion from construction sites and bridge crossings, and increased stormwater runoff from developing urban and industrial areas further threatens the northern studfish. Fishes like the northern studfish that depend upon clean gravel substrates on which to lay their eggs are especially vulnerable to impacts of excessive sedimentation, as these spawning sites will fill in with silt and sediment, thus preventing spawning.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conserving populations of the northern studfish and other rare fishes in the Chickamauga Creek system which utilize coarse substrates depends on maintaining habitat quality in the creek and its tributaries, and ultimately on improving
habitat and water quality in degraded streams. It is essential to eliminate sediment runoff from land-disturbing activities (such as roadway and housing construction) and inputs of contaminants (such as fertilizers and pesti-
cides). Forested buffers should be maintained along the

146

banks of Chickamauga Creek as well as smaller tributary streams. Maintaining natural patterns of streamflow by preventing excessive water withdrawal or unnaturally flashy runoff (such as from urban storm water runoff) also is an essential element of protecting riverine habitat quality. Selected References: Etniei: D. A. and W C. Starnes. 1993. The fishes of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Press, Knoxville. 681pp. Jenkins, R. E. and N. M. Burkhead. 1993. Freshwater fishes of Virginia. Am. Fish. Soc., Bethesda, Md. 1079pp. Lee, S. L., C. R. Gilbert, C. H. Hocutt, R. E. Jenkins, D. E. McAllister, and]. R.Stauffer. 1980. Atlas of North American fishes. North Carolina State Mus. Nat. Hist. 867pp. Mettee, M. F., P E. O'Neil and]. M. Pierson. 1996. Fishes of Alabama and the Mobile Basin. Oxmoor House, Birmingham. 820pp. Page, L. M. and B. M. Burr. 1991. A field guide to freshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp. Written by Dr. Byron]. Freeman
147

State Status: Endangered Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The flame chub is the only member of the genus Hemittemie. This unusual minnow is small (up to 7.8 em or 3 inches total length) and heavy-bodied, with a deep caudal peduncle and only slightly compressed in body shape. The head and snout are short and blunt. Coloration of juveniles and small adults is olive green above and white below, with a pale band above the lateral stripe. The dark lateral stripe extends from the snout to a small caudal spot. During the breeding season, males develop bright red coloration on the lower body below the lateral stripe, at the front base of the dorsal fin, and above and below the caudal spot. Males will usually have some red coloration during the remainder of the year as well. Females often grow larger than males.

Range and Habitat: The range of the flame chub is limited to the Tennessee River drainage of Alabama, Georgia, and Tennessee, and one locality in the upper Coosa River system in Alabama. Georgia records are known only from two springs and Tiger and South Chickamauga creeks in Catoosa County.
The flame chub occurs only in cold, clear waters of springs and spring-fed streams, often in the presence of aquatic vegetation.
Diet: Midge larvae with other aquatic macroinvertebrates such as snails, isopods, freshwater oligochaetes, and hemipterans: adult insects, both terrestrial and aquatic, as well as filamentous algae. .
Life History: Confirmed spawning behavior and actual spawning habitat have not been observed. Spawning in flame chubs may occur between late January through May in Tennessee. One observation of a possible spawning aggregation was in a shallow seepage area. Flame chubs reach 2 years of life, with few living any older.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Threats/Comments: Habitat alteration, including vegetation removal, in springs and spring runs is the principal threat to the flame chub. The flame chub is reported to have nearly disappeared from east Tennessee, a testament to its vulnerability. Without specific protection, the flame chub clearly is vulnerable to extirpation in Georgia as a result of failure to preserve spring habitats.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Protecting the habitat integrity of springs, spring runs, and spring-fed streams known to support flame chub populations is essential for conserving this species in Georgia. Springs are relatively small habitats, vulnerable to contamination from runoff of sediment and pollutants, excessive water withdrawal, and destruction. However, the localized nature of springs also makes possible their conservation through careful management. Further surveys need to be conducted to determine the range and occurrence of populations of flame chubs so that specific habitats and management plans can be developed.

148

Selected References: Etnier, D. A. and We. Starnes. 1993. The fishes of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Press. 681pp. Lee, S. 1., C. R. Gilbert, C. H. Hocutt, R. E. Jenkins, D. E. McAllister, and]. R.Stauffer. 1980. Atlas of North American fishes. North Carolina State Mus. Nat. Hist. 867pp. Mettee, M. F., P. E. O'Neil and]. M. Pierson. 1996. Fishes of Alabama and the Mobile Basin. Oxmoor House, Birmingham. 820pp. Page, 1. M. and B.M. Burr. 1991. A field gUide to freshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp. Sossamon, M. K. 1990. The life historyof the flame chub, Hemitremia flammea Oordan and Gilbert), in Pond Creek, Loudon County Tennessee. M.S. Thesis, Univ. Tennessee. 52pp. Written by Dr. Byron]. Freeman
149

State Status: Rare Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: Chubs are a group of minnows that now are represented by nine genera. The bigeye chub is a small chub with a large eye and a barbel that is located at each corner of the mouth. Barbels are fleshy structures present in catfishes ("whiskers") and some minnows, and have many taste buds on them. The lateral stripe is dark and terminates in a distinct caudal spot. The maximum total length is approximately 10 em (4 in).

Range and Habitat: The bigeye chub ranges from the Great Lakes basin through the Ohio and Mississippi basin into the Cumberland and Tennessee river drainages. It occurs west of the Mississippi from the central Arkansas River to the Meramec River in the Missouri drainage. Populations of the bigeye chub have been either much reduced or extirpated from streams in Kansas, Illinois, Michigan, and Ohio. Georgia populations are known from the Lookout and Chickamauga creek systems and the Nottley and Hiwassee river systems.
The bigeye chub is an inhabitant of large creeks and small to medium rivers that have clear water with sandy or little-silted substrates and little to moderate current.
Diet: Aquatic fly larvae, mayflies, stoneflies and caddisflies.
Life History: The bigeye chub may live to 2 years or so. Spawning occurs from late April through June, but no details on spawning habitat preferences are known. The presence of a variety of aquatic insects in the diet suggests a preference for coarse gravel substrates.
Threats/Comments: The bigeye chub is apparently very sensitive to siltation and vulnerable to extirpation, as evidenced by the disappearance of populations in the mid-west United States. The bigeye chub is not tolerant of reservoirs, which isolate many populations. This isolation can favor local extirpation due to changing water quality conditions.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conserving populations of the bigeye chub, and other rare fishes which utilize coarse substrates, depends first on maintaining stream habitat quality and ultimately on improving habitat and water quality in degraded streams. It is essential to eliminate sediment runoff from land-disturbing activities (such as roadway and housing construction) and inputs of contaminants (such as fertilizers and pesticides). Forested buffers should be maintained along the banks of mainstems as well as smaller tributary streams. Maintaining natural patterns of streamflow by preventing excessive water withdrawal or unnaturally flashy runoff (such as from urban stormwater runoff) also is an essential element of protecting riverine habitat quality.
Selected References:
Etnier, D. A. and W C. Starnes. 1993. The fishes of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Press. 681pp.
Jenkins, R.E. andN. M. Burkhead. 1993. Freshwater fishes of Virginia. Am. Fish. Soc., Bethesda, Md. 1079pp.

Lee, S. L., C. R. Gilbert, C. H. Hocutt, R. E.Jenkins, D. E. McAllister, and]. R.Stauffer. 1980. Atlas of North American
fishes. North Carolina State Mus. Nat. Hist. 867pp.

Metiee, M. F., P E. O'Neil and]. M. Pierson. 1996. Fishes of Alabama and the Mobile Basin. Oxmoor House, Birmingham. 820pp.

Written by Dr. Byron]. Freeman
150

State Status: Rare Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: Lampreys are elongated cylindrical primitive fishes that lack jaws. Adults have a concave sucking disk which surrounds the mouth. This disk is lined with teeth which aid in feeding in the parasitic species. The Ohio lamprey, parasitic as an adult, reaches to about 30 cm (11.8) total length. Lampreys do not have paired fins or an anal fin. The single dorsal fin may be slightly to deeply notched but is never divided. Ohio lampreys are gray to olive in color dorsally, and light below.

Range and Habitat: Ohio lampreys are found in the Ohio

River basin from extreme southwest New York south to north-

ern Alabama. In Georgia, the Ohio lamprey has been collect-

ed in South Chickamauga Creek in Catoosa County.

Preferred habitat includes small upland rivers and

Shading indicates range

streams. The larval stage occupies habitats with soft substrates Dots indicate counties with known occurrences

and organic debris, usually in areas with low current velocity.

Adults may be found attached to prey fishes or sheltering

Larval lampreys filter feed in soft deposits, whereas adult Ohio

among rocks or other structures in the stream.

lampreys are parasitic upon other fishes. The latter attaches to

the host using the sucking oral disk and rasps the surface of

Diet: Larval lampreys ("ammocoetes"): bacteria, detritus,

the skin of prey fishes, feeding upon skin, blood and fluids.

decaying algae, and protozoans. Adults: parasitic upon other

fishes of a wide variety and size range such as carp, black

Threats/Comments: Because it is sensitive to habitat

basses, catfish, suckers, and darters.

degradation, the Ohio lamprey is considered an indicator of

good water quality. Many of the host fishes the Ohio lamprey

Life History: Ohio lampreys spend the first four years of life depend upon require healthy stream ecosystems in which to

as larval ammocoetes, living in soft, organically rich areas,

flourish. Dependance upon a size range of different species

where they filter feed. These ammocoetes metamorphose into requires a diverse assemblage of fishes and healthy stream

adults, changing external structures as well as internal anato- conditions. Consequently, while lampreys mayor may not be

my. One of the most striking changes is the development of sensitive to moderate amounts of habitat degradation, their

the oral disk and teeth which are used in feeding.

host fishes certainly are. Thus, conditions such as stream

Immediately after transformation, parasitic lampreys do not

degradation resulting from failure to employ Best

feed for several months, while a functional foregut develops. Management Practices (BMPs) for forestry and agriculture,

In non-parasitic lampreys, the gut is much reduced and is not failure to control soil erosion from construction sites and

functional after transformation into adults. Ohio lampreys will bridge crossings, and increased stormwater runoff from devel-

feed into their second year, becoming much larger and longer oping urban and industrial areas are considered threats to the

as a result of their feeding activities. In the spring or early

Ohio lamprey.

summer they will mature, cease feeding, and move up into

smaller tributaries to spawn and die. Spawning occurs in late Conservation and Management Recommendations:

spring in a pit-like nest and may involve more than two indi- Conserving populations of the Ohio lamprey in Georgia

viduals.

depends on maintaining and restoring habitat and water qual-

ity in streams of the Chickamauga Creek system. It is essen-

tial to eliminate sediment runoff from land-disturbing activi-

'1~~~~~~~;m\~

ties (such as roadway and housing

.. "'>.'~(' X. T..':,.,!1J7tl:.(f,{"f..,'},(~,{.:\.j\I.':{.".i'/:&I'l5''.:"q't''~k~~~{l'l":j:;f('{'f:lf::~'.(~~~.'./::f.f\.':;?t:\i~\:(.\:''{.'J:\?:ld;-~i,X;i,:l":~f.\f?i~r~-..~,;;,pl.Vi~~t,::."::/t~;~!:it(',-[,.;,Il:)r;'.t.Y:i.{\"~;':':.:r,~,f::.l~I"'.">i:-8"I\''Y;;-:I"~;';:~;'.:~~.i~.:i~:::~..,c:..!'...~..:.:.,.;....,.;c,;o. nstfrourcetsitoend),bmufafeinrstaailnong

151

nate inputs of contaminants (such as fertilizers and pesticides) , eliminate chronic discharges of industrial effluent and sewage, and maintain natural patterns of stream flow. Watershed clearing and urban development can lead to unnaturally flashy storm water runoff, which scours stream channels and results in lower baseflows. For these reasons, containing and slowly releasing storm water runoff from developed areas is an important element in protecting stream habitats for fishes and other aquatic organisms. Selected References:
Etniei; D. A. and W C. Starnes. 1993. The fishes ofTennessee. Univ. Tennessee Press, Knoxville. 681pp. Jenkins, R. E. and N. M. Burkhead. 1993. Freshwater fishes of Virginia. Am. Fish. Soc., Bethesda, Md. 1079pp. Lee, S. L., C. R. Gilbert, C. H. Hocutt, R. E. Jenkins, D. E. McAllister, and]. R.Stauffer. 1980. Atlas of North American fishes. North Carolina State Mus. Nat. Hist. 867pp. Mettee, M. F., P. E. O'Neil and]. M. Pierson. 1996. Fishes of Alabama and the Mobile Basin. Oxmoor House, Birmingham. 820pp. Page, L. M. and B. M. Burr. 1991. A field guide to freshwater fishes ofNorth America north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp.
Written by Dr. Byron]. Freeman
152

State Status: Unusual Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: Killifish are closely related to guppies. There at least 16 species of topminnows and killifishes, which are mostly freshwater but also include brackish and saltwater species, that occur in Georgia. Bluefin killifish are small, reaching up to 4.2 em (1.7 in), have a slender compressed body and a terminal, upturned mouth. Bluefin killifish have a dusky brown to olive back; light stripe above a wide black stripe which extends from the tip of the nose to the black spot at the base of the caudal fin; and darkly edged scales on sides. Adult males have brightly colored dorsal, caudal and anal fins. The dorsal fin is iridescent blue edged with a black band, and the base is mostly dark, grading to orange-red at the rear. The caudal fin is orange-red to yellow, and the anal is black-edged with a large orange-yellow band.
Range and Habitat: The bluefin killifish ranges from the Choctawahatchee River drainage in Florida (except panhandle) to north-central South Carolina and eastern North Carolina. A small population has been reported from extreme southeastern Alabama from the Chipola River system. In Georgia, this fish has been found in the lower Flint River system and in a freshwater pond in McIntosh County. The two populations in South and North Carolina may be introduced, as they are close to large human population centers.
Habitat includes vegetated ponds, sloughs, lakes, pools and backwaters of streams, often common near springs. The bluefin killifish is also tolerant of brackish water.
Diet: Plants and small insects.
Life History: Males defend territories associated with dense aquatic vegetation, on which spawning occurs. Eggs may be deposited Singly, with up to 20 being released in a day. Spawning is protracted and occurs over a period of weeks. The bluefin killifish has been reported to breed throughout the spring to summer in South Carolina, and possibly throughout the year in Florida. Life span is 2 years.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Threats/Comments: Threats to the bluefin killifish are habitat loss resulting from reduced water levels in small marshes and wetlands; flow reduction in tributaries and seasonally wetted channels (e.g., because of water withdrawal for irrigation); and vegetation removal from marshes, wetlands and stream margins.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: The bluefin killifish appears to be a hardy species. The two populations in the Carolinas are presumed to be introduced and have become well established. Additional surveys need to be conducted in extreme southern Georgia and Atlantic Coastal Plain streams to determine if other populations exist. The development of habitat management plans that include maintenance of water level, water quality and aquatic vegetation will ensure longevity for populations of bluefin killifish currently known.
Selected References:
R. W Christie and T A. Curtis. 1983. Establishment of bluefin killifish, Lucania goodei, in Cooper River, South Carolina. Georgia journal Science. 41:91-92.

Lee, S. L., C. R. Gilbert, C. H. Hocutt, R. E. jenkins, D. E. McAllister, and]. R.Stauffer. 1980. Atlas qf
North American fishes. North Carolina State
Mus. Nat. Hist. 867pp.

Mettee, M. F., P. E. O'Neil and j. M. Pierson. 1996. Fishes of Alabama and the Mobile Basin.
Oxmoor House, Birmingham. 820pp.

153

Page, 1. M. and B.M. Burr. 1991. A field guide to freshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp.
c. Rhode, F. R. G. Arndt,D. G. Lindquist and]. F. Parnell. 1994.
Freshwater fishes of the Carolinas, Virginia, & Delaware. Univ. North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill. 222pp. Written by Dr. Byron]. Freeman
154

State Status: Threatened Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: A relatively small minnow, up to 6 em (2.4 in) standard length, with a deep, compressed body, the pretty shiner is characterized by broad black bands edging the dorsal, anal and pelvic fins. Body color is pale olive above, fading towards the belly with black specks along the back and upper side. A dark lateral stripe runs from below the dorsal fin to the base of the caudal fin, and both the chin and lips are dusky. Breeding males develop red coloration in the fins.

Range and Habitat: Pretty shiners range from the Mobile Bay drainage in Alabama, Mississippi, and Georgia, as well as the Bear and Yellow creek systems of the Tennessee drainage in Alabama and Mississippi. They primarily occur in the middle and upper Coastal Plain; the species is not known from the upper Coosa River system. In Georgia, the pretty shiner is known only from the Tallapoosa River system in Haralson and Paulding counties. The species apparently does not occur in the Little Tallapoosa River system. The upper Tallapoosa River occurrences of the pretty shiner are of particular ecological interest because they represent Piedmont populations of a primarily Coastal Plain species.
Pretty shiners are found mainstream and in tributaries but are most abundant in tributary streams and small rivers. Habitat characteristics include pools and runs: low velocity habitats over sand, silt and clay substrates (especially on Coastal Plain) or gravel or bedrock.
Diet: Drifting aquatic insects, including both immatures and adults.
Life History: Little is known, especially for Piedmont populations. One study observed pre-spawning aggregations of pretty shiners over longear sunfish nests in a Coastal Plain stream in May. The shiner probably requires gravel substrate for spawning and may commonly spawn over nests constructed by sunfishes or other fishes.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Threats/Comments: Threatened in Georgia because of restricted distribution, the pretty shiner occurs only in the Tallapoosa River and its tributaries, exclusive of the Little Tallapoosa River system. Impounding streams should be a last resort for developing water supplies. Despite its use of low velocity habitats, the pretty shiner is a stream-dwelling species and is unlikely to persist in impoundments.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conserving populations of pretty shiners in Georgia will depend upon maintaining free-flowing waters in the Tallapoosa River. Surveys to determine the distribution of the species need to be conducted, and management plans for these populations should be developed. These should include elimination of sediment runoff from land-disturbing activities (such as roadway and housing construction) and inputs of contaminants (such as fertilizers and pesticides). Forested buffers should be maintained along the banks of the river and the smaller tributary streams that feed the river. Maintaining natural patterns of streamflow by preventing excessive water withdrawal or unnaturally flashy runoff (such as from urban storm water runoff) also is an essential element of protecting riverine habitat quality.

155

Selected References: Lee, S. L., C. R. Gilbert, C. H. Hocutt, R. E.Jenkins, D. E.
McAllister, andJ. R.Stauffer. 1980. Atlas of North American
fishes. North Carolina StateMus. Nat. Hist. 867pp.
Mettee, M. F., P. E. O'Neil andJ. M. Pierson. 1996. Fishes of
Alabama and the Mobile Basin. Oxmoor House, Birmingham. 820pp. Page, L. M. and B. M. Burr. 1991. A field guide tofreshwater fishes of NorthAmerica north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp. Snelson, F. F., Jr. 1972. Systematics of the subgenus Lythrurus, genus Notropis (Pisces: Cyprinidae). Bull. Florida State Museum, Biological Sciences 17 (1): 1-92.
Written by Dr. Byron J. Freeman
156

State Status: Rare Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The Suwannee bass is a robust relatively small black bass that attains a maximum length of about 42 em (16.5 in). It resembles the largemouth bass somewhat, especially in the profile of the head and body. The Suwannee bass has a large mouth with the upper jaw extending under eye. The body color is brown overall, with about 12 olive lateral blotches on the sides. Anteriorly, these blotches are wider than the interspaces between them; they fuse together on the caudal peduncle to form a lateral band. There is a large caudal spot that is obviously bordered by a light area, especially in smaller specimens. Breeding males develop bright turquoise blue on the cheek, breast, and belly.

Range and Habitat: The Suwannee bass is endemic to the Suwannee and Ochlockonee river drainages in Georgia and Florida. In Georgia, individuals have been collected from the Alapaha River (Echols County), Ochlockonee River (Grady County) and Withlacoochee River (Lowndes County). The largest populations in the Ochlockonee drainage occur in Georgia.
Suwannee bass occupy a wide range of habitats, including rocky riffles, runs, pools, large springs, and spring runs. They are apparently absent from the more acidic portions of the river drainages they occur in, for example, in the upper Suwannee River in Georgia.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
total length and weighed 1589 gm (56.8 oz). Spawning occurs from February through May, with
peak spawning occurring in April and May, when water temperatures range from 18-19 C (64-66 "F). Nest preparation, spawning and parental care is similar to that of other sunfish. Eggs are deposited and fertilized in circular depressions swept out near stream margins. Males guard the incubating eggs until they hatch.

Diet: Crustaceans, primarily crayfish; secondarily, fishes and aquatic insects; in estuarine areas, blue crabs
Life History: The Suwannee bass is generally restricted to rocky shoal areas, as well as springs and spring runs in the Suwannee and Santa Fe rivers in Florida. Populations in the Ochlockonee utilize different habitats, since rocky shoal habitats are absent, especially in Georgia. The largest known specimen from the Santa Fe is 390 mm (15.4 in) total length and weighed 1180 g (42 oz), while the largest known specimen from the Ochlockonee is 419 mm (16.5 in)

Threats/Comments: The Suwannee bass has the most restricted range of all the black basses. A good sports fishery exists in the Ochlockonee River drainage in Georgia, and to some extent in the Withlacoochee and Alapaha river systems. A long history of fish kills exists for the Ochlockonee River in Georgia, due to poor water quality as influenced by industrial discharges. The primary threats to the Suwannee bass are poor water quality and perhaps overharvest.

Conservation and Management Recommendations:

Conserving populations of the Suwannee bass as well as man-

aging a unique sports fishery will require periodic monitoring

of populations and harvest rates, as well as adopting land

management practices that ensure good stream habi-

tat. Habitat loss through pollution, drainage,

and hydrologic alteration of Coastal Plain

swamps and rivers must be avoided. ,.' "~~ Maintaining natural patterns of streamflow

....... """"'''"''

" 7 by preventing excessive water withdrawal or ~ unnaturally flashy runoff (such as from urban

stormwater runoff) also is an essential element of protect-

157

ing riverine habitat quality. Surveys need to be conducted throughout the potential range in appropriate habitats to determine if other populations exist. Once identified, additional populations should be protected by appropriate management plans.
. Changes in habitat due to drainage modification, reduced plant cover, changes in water chemistry, and general habitat degradation should be avoided.
Selected References: Bailey, R. M. And C. L. Hubbs. 1949. The black basses (Micropterus) of Florida, with description of a new species. Occ. Papers of the Museum of Zoology, Univ. Michigan. 516:1-43. Keefer, L. C.And R. D. Ober. 1977. A survey of the Ochlockonee Riverand itsfishery. Final Report Federal Aid Fish Restoration Project F-28-4. Ga. Dept. Nat. Res. 47pp. Lee, S. L., C. R. Gilbert, C. H. Hocutt, R. E. Jenkins, D. E.
o McAllister, andJ. R.Stauffer. 1980. Atlas of North American
fishes. North Carolina State Mus. Nat. Hist. 867pp. PaRe, L. M. and B. M. Burr. 1991. A fieldguide tofreshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp. Stroud, R. H. And H. Clepper. 1975. Black bass biology and management. Sport Fishing Institute, Washington, D.C. 534pp.
Written by Dr. Byron J. Freeman
158

State Status: Rare Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The river redhorse is a large, heavy-bodied sucker that can attain total lengths greater than 75 cm (30 in). It is distinguished from sympatric suckers by having large molariform pharyngeal teeth, bright red coloration in the dorsal and caudal fin, and an attenuated upper caudal fin lobe. The body coloration is brassy olive. Breeding males develop large tubercles on the snout, anal, and caudal fins. During spawning, males develop a prominent dark lateral stripe, bordered above by a tan stripe, another dark stripe, and a tan or pale dorsum; there is often a dark mask on the head. These spawning colors are ephemeral and will quickly vanish, especially if the fish is disturbed. There are 13-14 dorsal fin rays, and a complete lateral line usually with 42-44 scales.

Range and Habitat: The river redhorse occurs in the upper and central Mississippi River basin (north to Minnesota, west to Oklahoma, east to North Carolina), in scattered localities in the Great Lakes drainages, and in Gulf slope rivers from the Pearl to Escambia drainages (Louisiana to Florida). In Georgia, the river redhorse is known historically from Indian middens on the Etowah and Coosawattee rivers in the upper Coosa river system. Georgia populations are known from the upper Mobile River drainage tributaries (Conasauga, Oostanaula, Coosawattee, Tallapoosa) and from Brasstown Creek in the Hiawassee River system.
River redhorse inhabit medium to large rivers and streams and may be found in riffles, runs, and pools. Adults are usually found in the swiftest portion of streams in deeper runs and are apparently intolerant of silty muddy habitats. Spawning occurs in riffle habitat over coarse gravel.
Diet: Freshwater mussels and aquatic insects.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Life History: Redhorse suckers are often sought and utilized for food fish. They are indicators of good water quality and may aptly be termed the "salmon" of the southeast, given their biomass and importance in fish assemblages. One of the most interesting behaviors of river redhorse is the spawning aggregation and associated behavior. Spawning occurs from April to May in southern populations.
Varying numbers of males and females arrive at spawning shoals, which are often relatively shallow, with substrates composed of small gravel and sand up to large gravel and small cobbles and having moderate current velocities. Males hold and defend positions on the shoal against other males, and they may often be seen spaced approximately two body lengths or more apart. Often loose lines of these males (with their ephemeral coloration turned on) are spaced across a shoal. A single female will approach a pair of males, and after a period of alignment, all three individuals will spawn vigorously, with the female positioned between the two males. The spawning act may last from 2-8 seconds, and large amounts of gravel, some quite large, may be displaced downstream aided by the water current. Fertilized eggs are deposited in the gravel; hatching will occur within 3-5 days depend-
ing upon water temperatures and developing larvae will remain in the gravel for a week or longer until they are capable of swimming. The river redhorse may occupy reservoir habitats but requires riverine riffles for reproduction. Life span ranges from 12 to more than 20 years.

159

Threats/Comments: The river redhorse occurs only in isolated locations in Georgia and is relatively rare. Impoundments have eliminated and fragmented appropriate riverine habitat and restricted movements, isolating populations. Poor water quality in the upper Coosa River system below Dalton, Cartersville and Rome may limit habitat suitability. Further water quality deterioration in the upper Coosa River system, siltation of riffle habitats necessary for spawning and feeding, and flow alteration in the upper Coosa system that would reduce depths and velocities in riffle and run habitats are also threats. Rapidly changing flows downstream from Allatoona and Carters dams may reduce habitat suitability for spawning and recruitment in riffles. Water withdrawal by the city of Dalton can dramatically reduce flows in the lower Conasauga River during summer months, contributing to poor water quality and low flow in riffle habitats.
Increasing water withdrawal in the upper Coosa basin may eliminate suitable riffle habitat during low flow periods. Tallapoosa River populations could be threatened by plans to construct a mainstem dam which will fragment the upper main Tallapoosa and pose water quality and habitat alteration problems for the downstream reach of the river. The Brasstown Creek population is threatened by the rapid development in the area around Young Harris, Georgia. Brasstown Creek is the only known stream in Georgia that provides spawning habitat for five species of redhorse suckers.

Selected References:

Etnier, D.A. andW C. Starnes. 1993. The fishes of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Press. 681pp.
Hackney, P A., W M. Tatum and S. L. Spencer. 1968. Life history of the riverredhorse, Moxostoma carinatum (Cope) in the Cahaba River, Alabama, with notes on the management of the species as a sport fish. Proc. 21stAnn. Con! SEAssoc. Game and Fish Comm.: 324-332.

Jenkins, R. E. and N. M. Burkhead. 1993. Freshwater fishes of
Virginia. American Fisheries Society. 1o79pp.

Lee, S. L., C. R. Gilbert, C. H. Hocutt, R. E. Jenkins, D. E.
McAllister, andJ. R.Stauffer. 1980. Atlas of North American
fishes. North Carolina State Mus. Nat. Hist. 867pp.
Mettee, M. F., P E. O'Neil andJ. M. Pierson. 1996. Fishes of
Alabama and the Mobile Basin. Oxmoor House, Birmingham. 820pp.

Page, L. M. and B. M. Burr. 1991. Afield guide tofreshwater

fishes of North America north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin,

Boston. 432pp.

.

Written by Dr. Byron J. Freeman

Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conserving populations of the river redhorse in Georgia depends on maintaining habitat quality in the Conasauga River upstream from Dalton, in the Coosawattee and Oostanaula rivers, in the Tallapoosa River system and in the Brasstown Creek system. It is essential to eliminate sediment runoff from land-disturbing activities (such as roadway and housing construction) and inputs of contaminants (such as fertilizers and pesticides). Forested buffers should be maintained along the banks of the river and the smaller tributary streams that feed the river. Maintaining natural patterns of streamflow by preventing excessive water withdrawal or unnaturally flashy runoff (such as from urban stormwater runoff) also is an essential element of protecting riverine habitat quality. The river redhorse and other fishes that depend on riffle habitats are especially vulnerable to streamflow depletion because habitats with swift currents are diminished at low flows.

160

State Status: Endangered Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The robust redhorse is a large, heavy-bodied sucker that attains total lengths greater than 70 ern (28 in) and weights up to 8 kg (17.6lbs). Like the river redhorse, which is a related species, the robust redhorse has large molar-like pharyngeal teeth which are a specialization for crushing hardbodied prey such as native mussels. The robust redhorse is bronze on the back and sides, and adults are faintly striped along lower sides. Juveniles will have intense red in the caudal fin, which becomes less so in adults. Adult males develop large prominent tubercles on the snout, head, anal, and caudal fins during the spawning season.

Range and Habitat: The robust redhorse historically occurred in southeastern Atlantic slope river drainages, from the Altamaha in Georgia northward to the Pee Dee of North and South Carolina. Today the largest known population occurs in a 55-mile stretch of the Oconee River from Milledgeville south to above Dublin, Georgia. A recently discovered population of presumably small size still persists in the Augusta Shoals of the Savannah River. Only one individual has been collected from the Pee Dee River since 1980, and the status of this population is unknown. The robust redhorse has been re-introduced into the Broad River system, a tributary of the Savannah River, and the Ogeechee River, and monitoring studies are being conducted to follow the success of these efforts.
The robust redhorse is known only from habitats in mainstream rivers and has been collected in riffles, runs, and pools. Adults in the Oconee River have usually been found in association with (tree) snags, often in deeper water near shore. Spawning occurs in course gravel habitats.
Diet: Asian clams (non-native) and a variety of aquatic insects.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Life History: Spawning occurs from late April through early June in the Oconee River population when water temperatures approach 18-20 C (64-68 OF). Spawning has been observed in shallow water over coarse gravel substrates and also occurs in deeper water over gravel. The spawning act almost always involves a female flanked on either side by two males. Fertilized eggs are buried in the gravel as a result of the vigorous spawning act. A muddy plume often appears downstream from the three spawning fish due to the magnitude of disturbance of the substrate. Young robust redhorse remain in the gravel after hatching, until they have absorbed the yolk-sac and can swim. Robust redhorse live at least 25 years, and research being conducted on the Oconee River population may reveal an even longer life span. Diet studies on the robust redhorse are limited to Oconee River fish and hatchery reared individuals recently released into the Broad River.

Transportation accidents that result in spills of hazardous chemicals could result in a major fish kill that would effectively eliminate the robust redhorse in the Oconee River.
Much more likely threats to the robust redhorse are increasing water pollution and habitat degradation that result from poor land-use practices in forestry, agriculture, and industry. This region of the Oconee River basin is heavily mined for kaolin clay, and chronic industrial spills have occurred in tributaries to this reach of the Oconee River in the recent past. Species like the robust redhorse which depend upon clean gravel substrates for spawning and early development of young are especially vulnerable to siltation and any activities that contribute excessive amounts of sediment to the river are major threats.
The robust redhorse and other species in the Oconee river system are also threatened by the introduction of the flathead catfish, a large species native to most rivers draining into the Gulf of Mexico. The flathead catfish is not native to streams draining into the Atlantic Ocean, but it has unfortunately been widely introduced into many of them. Many of the streams into which the flathead catfish has been introduced have lost populations of suckers, sunfishes, and other catfishes. The flathead catfish has only recently appeared in the upper Oconee River, where the robust redhorse also occurs, but clearly represents yet an additional major threat.

Selected References:
Bryant, R. To, J. W Evans, R. E. Jenkins, and B.J. Freeman. 1996.
The mystery fish. Southern Wildlife. Vol. 1 (2) 26-35.
Jenkins, R. E. and N. M. Burkhead. 1993. Freshwater fishes of
Virginia. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, Md. 1o79pp.
Page, L. M. and B. M. Burr. 1991. A field guide tofreshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp.
Written by Dr. Byron J. Freeman

Conservation and Management Recemmendationsr The robust redhorse is one of the most threatened species of fishes in Georgia and North America. Conserving populations of the robust redhorse in Georgia depends upon unraveling the mysteries of its life history in the Oconee River and developing management strategies which will help ensure the long-term viability of this population. Long-term research is essential to gather important information needs for future management decisions. Improving water quality and preventing any future habitat degradation in the Oconee River are two essentials needed to help protect this population.
A recovery goal established by the Robust Redhorse Conservation Committee is to establish populations of robust redhorse in at least three river systems within the historic range. This will require the development of consistent effective artificial propagation techniques to produce young as well as the identification of suitable re-introduction sites. Robust redhorse have been released into the Broad River and the Ogeechee River so as to begin establishing new populations. In order to establish a population that is old enough to reproduce, the release of large numbers of young individuals and the monitoring of their fate are necessary. State and local governments as well as private industry must be convinced of the need and the benefits of re-introducing the robust redhorse into additional river systems if long-term recovery is to succeed.

162

State Status: Threatened Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The pop eye shiner is silver with very large eyes, a slightly pointed snout, and a terminal mouth. In breeding males, the rays of the dorsal and caudal fins are distinctly outlined in black. The popeye shiner is a medium-sized minnow attaining a maximum total length of approximately 9 em (3.5 in).

Range and Habitat: The popeye shiner occurs spottily in drainages within the Ohio River basin. It is apparently extirpated from streams north of the Ohio River and occurs in disjunct populations in the southern portion of its range. It is usually an uncommon species. Georgia records are known only from the South Chickamauga Creek system. This population is important because it is the only known one still extant in a southern tributary to the Tennessee River drainage.
The pop eye shiner is found in clear warmwater streams, usually in association with gravel-cobble substrates and moderate currents in runs and flowing pools.
Diet: Little is known. In a recent study, adult and immature insects were found among the stomach contents of several specimens.
Life History: Spawning occurs from May to late June in Virginia and Tennessee populations, based upon tubercle and gonadal development.
Threats/Comments: The popeye shiner is a species that was uncollected for a 50-year period (1894-1948) at several sites where it had been previously taken. Various hypotheses have tried to account for this, the most probable being either failure to sample larger stream habitats adequately or the fact that the popeye shiner is very sensitive to the detrimental effects of siltation and sedimentation. In some streams in Virginia, the popeye shiner was not collected until the 1970s and later, in spite of these areas' having been collected over the past 100 years by various ichthyologists. The popeye shiner has apparently been extirpated from Ohio Basin tributaries to the north of the river and has not been collected in Alabama since 1889.

Shadingindicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Various authors have thus surmised that the popeye shiner is very sensitive to excessive siltation and sedimentation.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conservation of populations of popeye shiners in Georgia will depend upon maintaining habitat quality in the South Chickamauga Creek system. Streams in this area of Georgia are very susceptible to modification. The West Chickamauga Creek system is currently extremely silted due to poor landuse practices and has lost several species of fishes. It is essential to eliminate sediment runoff from land-disturbing activities (such as roadway and housing construction) and inputs of contaminants (such as fertilizers and pesticides). Forested buffers should be maintained along the banks of the mainstem and the smaller tributary streams. Maintaining natural patterns of streamflow by preventing excessive water withdrawal or unnaturally flashy runoff (such as from urban storm water runoff) is another essential element of protecting stream habitat quality. The popeye shiner and other fishes that similarly depend on clean gravel habitats and moderate currents are especially vulnerable to streamflow depletion, because habitats with swift currents are diminished at low flows.

Selected References: Etnier, D. A. and We. Starnes. 1993. The fishes of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Press, Knoxville. 681pp.
Gilbert, e. R. 1969. Systematics and distribution of theAmerican
cyprinid fishes Notropis ariommus and Notropis telescopus. Copeia 1969: 474-492. Jenkins, R. E. and N. M. Burkhead. 1993. Freshwater fishes of Virginia. Am. Fish. Soc., Bethesda, Md. 1079pp.
Lee, S. L., e. R. Gilbert, e. H. Hocutt, R. E. Jenkins, D. E.
McAllister, and]. R.Stauffer. 1980. Atlas of North American fishes. North Carolina State Mus. Nat. Hist. 867pp. Mettee, M. F., P. E. O'Neiland]. M. Pierson. 1996. Fishes of Alabama and the Mobile Basin. Oxmoor House, Birmingham. 820pp. Page, L.M. and B. M. Burr. 1991. A field guide tofreshwater fishes of NorthAmerica north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp. Written by Dr. Byron]. Freeman
164

State Status: Rare Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The redeye chub is small minnow reaching 6 cm (2.4 in) total length, with a slender, compressed body. It is characterized by a bright red eye, a rounded snout, and a small barbel (sometimes absent) at each corner of the mouth. Sides are marked by a black lateral band from the snout to a spot at the base of the caudal fin, bordered above by a light stripe that also extends to the snout, and reddish-tan dorsal coloration.

Range and Habitat: Redeye chubs occur from below the Fall Line in the Atlantic and Gulf Slope drainages from the Altamaha River in Georgia, to the Escambia River in Alabama and south to the St. Johns and Suwannee drainages in Florida. Distribution is spotty within this range, possibly reflecting the species' affinity for spring habitats. In Georgia, the redeye chub has been taken from Coastal Plain sections of the Oconee, Ocmulgee, Flint and Chatahoochee, and Suwannee river systems.
Redeye chubs are found in mainstream and tributary reaches, but are most abundant in springs and spring-fed streams. They are often found near aquatic vegetation, in the margins of springs and in flowing spring runs, but also in sinks and caves lacking current and vascular plants. Collections in tributaries to the lower Flint River, primarily in Ichawaynochaway Creek, revealed redeye chubs in main channel habitats unassociated with springs, often near riffles with limestone cobbles and sand substrate, and moderate current velocities.
Diet: Invertebrates and small fish.
Life History: Little is known, especially concerning streamdwelling populations. One study found gravid individuals throughout the year in lime-sinks in north-central Florida.
Threats/Comments: Factors affecting the survival of redeye chubs include discontinuous distribution in Georgia, vulnerability of spring habitats to contamination, effects of groundwater withdrawal, and flow reduction and water quality degradation in springs and spring-runs.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conservation of the red eye chub depends upon identification of critical spring habitats and developing management plans for these habitats. Maintaining natural patterns of streamflow by preventing excessive water withdrawal or unnaturally flashy runoff (such as from urban stormwater runoff) also is an essential element of protecting riverine habitat quality. Surveys should be completed to determine the extent and current status of populations, especially those dwelling in streams.
Selected References:
Dahlberg, M. D., and D. C. Scott. 1971. The freshwater fishes of Georgia. Bull. Ga. Acad. Sci. 29:1-64.
Herald, E. S. and R R Strickland. 1949. An annotated list of the fishes of Homosassa Springs, Florida. Quart. [ourn. Fla Acad. Sci.
11: 99-109.
Lee, S. L., C. R Gilbert, C. H. Hocutt, R E. Jenkins, D. E.
McAllister, andJ. RStauffer. 1980. Atlas of North American
fishes. North Carolina State Mus. Nat. Hist. 867pp.
Marshall, N. 1947. The spring run and cave habitats of Erimystax harperi (Fowler). Ecology 28: 68-75.
Mettee, M. F.,P E. O'Neil andJ. M. Pierson. 1996. Fishes
of Alabama and the Mobile Basin. Oxmoor House, Birmingham. 820pp.

Written by Dr. Byron J. Freeman
165

State Status: Threatened Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: A slender, compressed minnow reaching 6.4 em (2.5 in) total length, the highscale shiner is characterized by large eyes set high on the head, a small subterminal mouth, and a blunt snout. The dorsum is pale yellow, with the uppermost scales darkly outlined. A broad, clear stripe lays over a narrower, dusky stripe along the sides. This dark lateral band continues onto the snout. At the base of the caudal fin is a wedge-shaped spot that is distinctly separated from the lateral stripe.

Range and Habitat: Highscale shiners are primarily found in tributary streams, often near stream confluences with larger rivers. These shiners inhabit runs and pools over sand and bedrock substrates. The highscale shiner primarily occurs in the Chattahoochee and Flint river systems of Georgia and Alabama, from the headwaters of these systems to just below the Fall Line. This minnow is also known from a tributary to the upper Tallulah River (Savannah River drainage) in Georgia.
Diet: Probably aquatic insects or terrestrial insects captured from stream drift.
Life History: The highscale shiner probably spawns in late spring or early summer; however, little else is known about this small minnow's life history.
Threats/Comments: Highscale shiners have a limited range and uncommon occurrence. Habitat loss in the upper Chattahoochee and Flint river systems as a result of tributary impoundment for water-supply reservoirs, intensive development, and corresponding sediment and contaminant input threatens the highscale shiner's survival.

Shadingindicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conserving populations of the highscale shiner depends on maintaining and restoring habitat and water quality in tributaries and the main channels of the upper Chattahoochee and Flint river systems. It is essential to eliminate sediment runoff from land-disturbing activities such as roadway and housing construction, maintain forested buffers along stream banks, eliminate inputs of contaminants such as fertilizers and pesticides, and maintaining natural patterns of stream flow. Watershed clearing and urban development can lead to unnaturally flashy stormwater runoff, which scours stream channels and results in lower baseflows. For these reasons, containing and slowly releasing stormwater runoff from developed areas is an important element in protecting stream habitats for fishes and other aquatic organisms. Impounding streams should be a last resort for developing water supplies.

166

Selected References:
Dahlberg, M. D; and oi: Scott. 1971. The freshwater fishes of
Georgia. Bull. Georgia Acad. Sci. 29:1-64.
Lee, S. L., e. R Gilbert, e. H. Hocutt, R. E. Jenkins, n E.
McAllister, and]. RStauffer. 1980. Atlas of North American fishes. North Carolina StateMus. Nat. Hist. 867pp. Mettee, M. F., P. E. O'Neil and]. M. Pierson. 1996. Fishes of Alabama and the Mobile Basin. Oxmoor House, Birmingham. 820pp. Page, L.M. and B. M. Burr. 1991. A field guide tofreshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp.
Suttkus, R nand E. e. Raney. 1955. Notropis hypsilepis, a new
cyprinid fish from theApalachicola Riversystem of Georgia and Alabama. Tulane Studies in Zoology 2: 161-170. Written by Dr. Byron]. Freeman
167

State Status: Endangered Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The silver shiner is a slender, compressed fish that reaches lengths up to 14 ern (5.5 in). It is characterized by two black crescents between the nostrils, a large, terminal mouth on a long snout, large eyes, and a dorsal fin origin behind the pelvic fin origin. The back is a light olive color, the sides are bright silver with blue reflective stripes, and the lips are black.

Range and Habitat: This species occurs in Lake Erie and

Ohio River drainages from NewYork and Ontario to Michigan

and south to North Georgia. In Georgia, the silver shiner has

been collected only from Betty Creek, a tributary of the Little

Tennessee River in Rabun County.

.

Silver shiners are found in rocky runs and riffles in

small and larger rivers with firm substrates. They prefer clear

waters and flowing pool habitats.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences

Diet: Silver shiners feed mainly on terrestrial insects, but aquatic insects and other macroinvertebrates have been reported as prey items. Schools of silver shiners feed near the surface and have been seen jumping from the water to feed on flying insects.
Life History: Spawning has not been observed for silver shiners. Tubercu1ate males have been collected from late April to mid June in Tennessee and Virginia. They have been found in smaller streams during the presumed spawning season in Tennessee, indicating an upstream migration to spawn, since they are normally found in large streams. Sexual maturity for these fish is reached when the fish is 1-2 years of age; maximum age is about 3 years.
Threats/Comments: The silver shiner is imperiled in Georgia because of its limited distribution. It is associated with relatively silt-free bottoms. Recent collections at 24 stream sites in the upper Little Tennessee River system yielded only two specimens of silver shiners from one site downstream of Franklin, North Carolina. This further suggests that silver shiners are rare in this system and perhaps vulnerable to

the rampant siltation, especially in the upstream portions of the upper watershed. Threats to existence of the silver shiner in Georgia include impacts from poor land use practices as a result of farming, road-building, and increasing urbanization. Much of the riparian buffer along streams has been impacted or eliminated in the more developed region of Rabun County. This allows for increase in sunlight which can result in changing the water temperatures, as well as allowing sediment and excess nutrients to reach the stream more quickly. Hydrologic alteration as a result of increased paving and other impervious surfaces is also a threat.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conservation of the silver shiner and other stream fishes in the Little Tennessee River system depends upon maintaining habitat quality. Increasing urbanization in the Rabun County area will be reflected as declining water quality and habitat loss in streams draining the landscape, unless certain activities are modified. It is essential to eliminate sediment runoff from land-disturbing activities (such as roadway and housing construction), maintain forested buffers along stream banks, eliminate inputs of contaminants (such as fertilizers and pesticides), eliminate chronic discharges of industrial effluent and sewage and maintain natural patterns of stream flow.
Watershed clearing and urban development can lead to unnaturally flashy storm water runoff, which scours stream channels and results in lower baseflows. For these reasons, containing and slowly releasing stormwater runoff from deve1-

168

oped areas is an important element in protecting stream habitats for fishes and other aquatic organisms. Selected References: Etnier, D. A. and We. Starnes. 1993. The fishes of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Press, Knoxville. 681pp. Jenkins, R. E. and N. M. Burkhead. 1993. Freshwater fishes of
Virginia. Am. Fish. Soc., Bethesda, Md. 1o79pp.
Lee, S. 1., e. R. Gilbert, e. H. Hocutt; R. E. Jenkins, D. E.
McAllister, andJ. R.Stauffer. 1980. Atlas of North American
fishes. North Carolina StateMus. Nat. Hist. 867pp. McLarney, W 0. 1991. A watershed survey and educational program to enhance environmental qualityin the upper Tennessee RiverValley. Report to theWestern North Carolina Alliance and the Tennessee Valley Authority. 134pp. Page, 1. M. and B. M. Burr. 1991. Afield guide tofreshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp. Trautman, M. B. 1981. The fishes of Ohio with illustrated keys, revised edition. Ohio State Univ. Press, Columbus. 782pp.
Written by Dr. Byron J. Freeman
169

State Status: Rare Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The sandbar shiner is a medium-sized minnow attaining lengths up to 9 em (3.5 in). It has prominent silvery sides and an olive dorsum, lacking any chromatic coloration in the fins. The eyes are large, longer than the snout, and the lateral band is dusky.

Range and Habitat: The range of the sandbar shiner extends from the Cape Fear drainage in North Carolina down to the Savannah drainage in Georgia. This species occurs primarily in Piedmont streams in the area, and only very rarely in Coastal Plain streams. Georgia records are from Franklin, Hart, Madison, Elbert, Oglethorpe, and McDuffie counties in the Savannah River drainage.
The sandbar shiner is found over sandy bottoms in flowing pools, near gravel rocky riffles, in medium-sized streams. It avoids small headwater tributaries, mainstem rivers and reservoirs.
Diet: Primarily terrestrial and aquatic insects.
Life History: The life span of the sandbar shiner is approximately 3 years. Most individuals reach sexual maturity at 2 years. Studies indicate that spawning occurs during late May through early July in South Carolina populations when water temperatures range 18-24 C (64-75 OF). Spawning behavior is unknown and has not been studied.
Threats/Comments: The sandbar shiner occurs in clear streams with high water quality. One study concludes that the sandbar shiner is primarily a sight feeder, based upon the species' large eyes and the prey items the fish consumes. The sandbar shiner is threatened by stream degradation resulting from poor land-use practices in forestry and agriculture, and failure to control soil erosion from construction sites and bridge crossings. Increased stormwater run-off from developing urban and industrial areas further threatens the sandbar shiner where populations still exist. The central portion of its range, especially in the Carolinas, is an area of intense current growth and historical widespread textile development.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conserving populations of the sandbar shiner in Georgia depends on maintaining habitat and water quality in streams of the middle Savannah River drainage. These streams are highly susceptible to impacts from various land-disturbing activities. It is essential to eliminate sediment runoff from activities such as roadway and housing construction, maintain forested buffers along stream banks, eliminate inputs of contaminants (such as fertilizers and pesticides), eliminate chronic discharges of industrial effluent and sewage, and maintain natural patterns of stream flow. Watershed clearing and urban development can lead to unnaturally flashy stormwater runoff, which scours stream channels and results in lower baseflows. For these reasons, containing and slowly releasing stormwater runoff from developed areas is an important element in protecting stream habitats for fishes and other aquatic organisms.
Selected References:
Harrell, R. D. and D. G. Cloutman. 1978. Distribution and life history of the sandbar shiner, Notropis scepticus (Pisces: Cyprinidae). Copeia 1978:443-447.
Lee, S. L., C.R. Gilbert, C.H. Hocutt, R. E. Jenkins, D. E. McAllister, and]. R.Stauffer. 1980. Atlas of North American fishes. North Carolina StateMus. Nat. Hist. 867pp.

Written by Dr. Byron]. Freeman

170

State Status: Threatened Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: This species is a rather short, heavy-bodied mad tom attaining a maximum total length of around 8.5 cm (3.3 in). It is usually mottled dorsally with a wide pale margin on the adipose fin, which is fused to the caudal as in other madtoms. Fins and sides are mottled brownish-yellow, and four light brown dorsal saddles may be present. The pectoral spines are slightly curved and have small anterior serrae (teeth) and large sharp posterior serrae.

Range and Habitat: Distribution east of the Mississippi covers the Ohio, Cumberland, and Tennessee drainages. West of the Mississippi the mountain madtom can be found in Missouri, Arkansas, and Oklahoma. In Georgia, this species has been collected from the south fork of Chickamauga Creek in Catoosa County.
This species inhabits medium to large rivers and is found in greatest numbers at gravel shoals. It is not known from impoundments.
Diet: Larvae of aquatic insects such as mayflies caddisflies and stoneflies.
Life History: The mountain madtom was first described in 1877 by ichthyologist David Starr Jordan, who plucked a specimen out of the mouth of a.water snake in the Tennessee River drainage. Spawning occurs in June and July, and egg clutches are deposited underneath flat rocks in cavities in gravel and cobble bottomed pools. The eggs are then guarded by males. The mountain madtom lives about 4 years and may be sexually mature after 1 year. It feeds at night.
Threats/Comments: Degraded habitat and water quality in the South Chickamauga Creek watershed are the primary threats to the mountain madtom, a species rare in Georgia with a limited range. Stream degradation results from failure to employ Best Management Practices (BMPs) for forestry and agriculture, failure to control soil erosion from construction

Shadingindicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
sites and bridge crossings, and increased stormwater runoff from developing urban and industrial areas. Fishes such as the mountain madtom which depend upon clean gravel and cobble substrates are eliminated from habitats destroyed by excessive sedimentation.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conserving populations of the mountain madtom and other rare fishes in the Chickamauga Creek system which utilize coarse substrates depends on maintaining habitat quality in the creek and its tributaries, and ultimately on improving habitat and water quality in degraded streams. It is essential to eliminate sediment runoff from land-disturbing activities, such as roadway and housing construction, and inputs of contaminants such as fertilizers and pesticides. Forested buffers should be maintained along the banks of Chickamauga Creek as well as smaller tributary streams. Maintaining natural patterns of streamflow by preventing excessive water withdrawal or unnaturally flashy runoff (such as that from urban storm water runoff) also is an essential element of protecting riverine habitat quality.

171

Selected References:

Jenkins, R E. and N. M. Burkhead. Virginia. Am. Fish. Soc., Bethesda,

1993. Freshwater
Md. 1o79pp.

fishes

of

Lee, S. L., C. R Gilbert, C. H. Hocutt, R E. Jenkins, D. E.
McAllister, andJ. RStauffer. 1980. Atlas of North American
fishes. North Carolina State Mus. Nat. Hist. 867pp.
Mettee, M. F., P E. O'NeilandJ. M. Pierson. 1996. Fishes of
Alabama and theMobile Basin. Oxmoor House, Birmingham. 820pp.

Page, L. M. and B.M. Burr. 1991. Afield guide tofreshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp.
Taylor, W R 1969. A revision of the catfish genus Noturus Rafinesque with an analysis of higher groups in the Ictaluridae. Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus. 282:1-315.

Written by Dr. Byron J. Freeman

172

State Status: Rare Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: Madtoms are small catfish distinguished by having the adipose fin fused to the caudal fin. In other North American catfishes the posterior tip of the adipose fin is free and not attached. The black madtom is a moderately-sized heavy bodied species attaining a total length of up to 17.8 cm (7 in). The black madtom is generally blue-black in coloration with the ventral surface lighter and sprinkled with large chromatophores, giving the fish a mottled appearance. One of the most distinguishing features of catfishes are the spines in the leading edge of the pectoral and dorsal fins. Madtom spines may vary from smooth to armed with recurved teeth or spines on the posterior edge, depending on the species. Black madtoms have at most only knob-like teeth on the pectoral spines. Madtoms possess glands associated with these spines which can deliver a painful sting to humans and presumably other predators.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences

Range and Habitat: The black mad tom has a broad distribution in the Southeast that includes eastern Gulf of Mexico drainages from the Pearl River system in Mississippi and Louisiana to Enconfina Creek in Florida. Georgia records of the black madtom are primarily from the Tallapoosa River system, with most records from the Tallapoosa as opposed to the Little Tallapoosa system. A few scattered populations exist in Chattahoochee River tributaries that arise close to the Little Tallapoosa system. The black madtom is usually found in small to medium-sized streams over substrates of gravel and coarse sand, usually in fast clear water near vegetation and occasionally from undercut banks.
Diet: Probably benthic aquatic insects and crustaceans.
Life History: Little is known of the life history of the black madtom. Presumably this species spawns in cavities under rocks or logs in late spring and early summer.

Threats/Comments: The black mad tom is locally abundant in Tallapoosa system streams in Georgia. Stream impoundment and habitat degradation are the primary threats to the species. Stream degradation results from failure to employ Best Management Practices (BMPs) for forestry and agriculture, failure to control soil erosion from construction sites and bridge crossings, and increased stormwater runoff from developing urban and industrial areas. An impoundment on the Tallapoosa River upstream from Harris Reservoir would inundate mainstem and tributary habitat for the black madtom and may fragment populations remaining in that system.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conserving populations of the black madtom and other rare fishes of the Tallapoosa River system which utilize coarse substrates depends on maintaining habitat quality in the river and tributaries, and ultimately on improving habitat and water quality in degraded streams, especially in the Little Tallapoosa system. It is essential to eliminate sediment runoff from landdisturbing activities, such as roadway and housing construction, and inputs of contaminants such as fertilizers and pesticides. Forested buffers should be maintained along the banks of the river and the smaller tributary streams that feed the
river. Maintaining natural patterns of streamflow by preventing excessive water withdrawal or unnaturally flashy runoff (such as that from urban stormwater runoff) also is an essential element of protecting riverine habitat quality.

173

Selected References:

Birkhead, W S. 1972. Toxicity of stings of ariid and icialurid catfishes. Copeia 1972: 790-807.

Jenkins; R. E. and N. M. Burkhead. Virginia. Am. Fish. Soc., Bethesda,

1993. Freshwater fishes
Md. 1o79pp.

of

Lee, S. L., C.R. Gilbert, C.H. Hocutt, R. E. Jenkins, D. E.
McAllister, andJ. R.Stauffer. 1980. Atlas of NorthAmerican
fishes. North Carolina State Mus. Nat. Hist. 867pp.

Mettee, M. F., P E. O'Neil, andJ. M. Pierson. 1996. Fishes of
Alabama and theMobile Basin. Oxmoor House, Birmingham.
820pp.

Page, L. M. and B. M. Burr. 1991. Afield guide tofreshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp.

Taylor, W R. 1969. A revision of the catfish genus Noturus
Rafinesque with an analysis of higher groups in the Ictaluridae. Bull. U. S. National Museum 282:1-315.

Written by Dr. Byron J. Freeman

174

State Status: Endangered Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: This small catfish which grows to 9.9 ern (3.9 in) total length displays striking yellow and brown coloration. Four dark saddles cross the yellow dorsum. Black pigment speckles the sides, belly, and barbels. As in all madtom catfishes, genus Noturus, the entire length of the small adipose fin is joined to the fish's back, in contrast to other catfishes in which the tip of the adipose fin is free from the dorsum. The other fins on the frecklebelly madtom are yellow with dark bands. The rounded caudal fin has two distinct dark bands. Like most catfishes, the madtom has spines at the front of the dorsal and pectoral fins which can deliver painful jabs to a careless handler. The pectoral spines of the frecklebelly madtom have 6-10 well-developed serrations (teeth) along the posterior edge.
Range and Habitat: The frecklebelly madtom occurs in the Mobile River and Pearl River drainages. In Georgia, this species has been found in the Etowah River upstream from Allatoona Reservoir and in the upper Conasauga River (Murray and Whitfield counties).
This madtom may be found in small and large rivers, where it inhabits fast to moderate current velocity, especially areas with boulders, cobbles, or coarse gravel and clumps of riverweed.
Diet: Aquatic insect larvae.
Life History: Little is known about this small catfish, which may live about 4 years. Spawning may occur in late spring and summer. Females deposit eggs in cavities, sometimes including discarded soda cans or bottles. Males typically guard the nests and eggs until the fry hatch and disperse. This species likely feeds primarily at night and hides beneath cobbles or among gravel during the day.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Threats/Comments: Across its range, the frecklebelly madtom exists in isolated populations, some of which (in the Tombigbee and Alabama rivers) have declined as rivers have been channelized and dredged to accommodate barge traffic. The Georgia populations, in the upper Etowah and Conasauga rivers, are widely separated from all other populations and are threatened by habitat degradation. Stream degradation results from failure to employ Best Management Practices (BMPs) for forestry and agriculture, failure to control soil erosion from construction sites and bridge crossings, and increased stormwater runoff from developing urban and industrial areas. Water-supply reservoirs constructed on tributaries to the Etowah River, includingYellow Creek and Sharp Mountain Creek, could significantly alter water flow and thermal regimes in main channel riffles that provide habitat for frecklebelly madtoms. Increasing human development in the Etowah and Conasauga watersheds threatens to degrade river and stream habitat by accelerating sediment and contaminant input to the river. Potential point sources of contaminants include landfills located adjacent to the Etowah River in Forsyth and Cherokee counties within the madtom's range.

Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conserving populations of the frecklebelly mad tom in Georgia
depends on maintaining habitat quality in the lessimpacted portions of the Etowah River upstream from Allatoona Reservoir and the Conasauga River upstream from Dalton, and ultimately on improving habitat and water
quality in the lower parts of the systems. It is
175

essential to eliminate sediment runoff from land-disturbing activities (such as roadway and housing construction) and inputs of contaminants (such as fertilizers and pesticides). Forested buffers should be maintained along the banks of the river and the smaller tributary streams that feed the river. Maintaining natural patterns of streamflow by preventing excessive water withdrawal or unnaturally flashy runoff (such as from urban stormwater runoff) also is an essential element of protecting riverine habitat quality. The frecklebelly madtom and other fishes that depend on riffle habitats are especially vulnerable to streamflow depletion, because habitats with swift currents are diminished at low flows.
Selected References:
Etnier, D.A. and we. Starnes. 1993. The fishes of Tennessee.
Univ. Tennessee Press, Knoxville. 681pp.
Lee, S. L., e. R. Gilbert, e. H. Hocutt, R. E. Jenkins, D. E.
McAllister, andJ. R.Stauffer. 1980. Atlas ofNorth American
fishes. North Carolina State Mus. Nat. Hist. 867pp.
Mettee, M. F., P E. O'Neil andJ. M. Pierson. 1996. Fishes of
Alabama and the Mobile Basin. Oxmoor House, Birmingham. 820pp. Page, L. M. and B. M. Burr. 1991. Afield guide tofreshwater fishes of NorthAmerica north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp. Suttkus, R. D., and W R. Taylor. 1965. Noturus muniius,a new species of madtom, family Ictaluridae, from southern United States. Proc. BioI. Soc. Wash. 78:169-178. Taylor, W R. 1969. A revision of the catfish genus Noturus Rafinesque with an analysis of higher groups in the Ictaluridae. Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus. 282:1-315.
Written by Dr. Byron J. Freeman
176

State Status: Endangered Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The freckled madtom is a small (up to 15 em or 5.9 inches total length) yellowish brown to dark gray catfish, complete with barbels on the upper jaw and chin. As in all madtom catfishes, genus Noturus, the entire length of the small adipose fin is joined to the fish's back (in contrast to other catfishes in which the tip of the adipose fin is free from the dorsum). The other fins on the freckled madtom are darkly colored and may be edged in white or cream. The caudal fin has a rounded edge. Catfishes typically have spines at the front of the dorsal and pectoral fins, which can deliver painful jabs to a careless handler, and mad toms are no exception. A distinguishing characteristic for the freckled mad tom is the lack of distinct serrations (teeth) on the pectoral spines.

Range and Habitat: The freckled madtom occurs in Gulf of Mexico tributaries from the Mobile River drainage in Alabama, westward to the Red River in Texas, and in central Mississippi River basin tributaries including the lower portions of the Ohio and Tennessee river systems. This madtom is known from only one collection in the Cahaba River system in Alabama, and it is apparently scattered throughout the lower Mobile River drainage below the Fall Line. The freckled madtom is known in Georgia from one collection in the Etowah River near Ballground (Cherokee County).
The freckled madtom inhabits gravel and rocky substrates in medium to large streams, with moderate to fast currents, and in slower-water habitats around brush, vegetation or submerged logs.
Diet: Benthic aquatic insects.
Life History: Life span of these small catfishes probably is . 4-5 years. Spawning may occur in late spring and summer. Females deposit eggs in cavities, sometimes including discarded soda cans or bottles. Males typically guard the nests and eggs until the fryhatch and disperse. This species probably forages primarily at night, spending much of the daytime concealed beneath rocks, logs, or on the stream bottom.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Threats/Comments: The freckled madtom is exceptionally rare in Georgia, known only from the upper Etowah River. Stream impoundment and habitat degradation are the primary threats to the freckled madtom. Stream degradation results from failure to employ Best Management Practices (BMPs) for forestry and agriculture, failure to control soil erosion from construction sites and bridge crossings, and increased stormwater runoff from developing urban and industrial areas.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conserving populations of the freckled madtom and other rare fishes of the Etowah River system depends on maintaining habitat quality in the river upstream from Allatoona Reservoir, and ultimately on improving habitat and water quality in the lower part of the river. It is essential to eliminate sediment runoff from land-disturbing activities, such as roadway and housing construction, and inputs of contaminants such as fertilizers and pesticides. Forested buffers should be maintained along the banks of the river and the smaller tributary streams that feed the river. Maintaining natural patterns of streamflow by preventing excessive water withdrawal or unnaturally flashy runoff, such as that from urban storm water runoff, also is an essential element of protecting riverine habitat quality.

177

Selected References: Boschung, H. T. 1992. Catalogue offreshwater and marine fishes ofAlabama. Bull. Alabama Mus. Nat. Hist. 14. 266pp.
Etnier, D. A. and we. Starnes. 1993. The fishes of Tennessee.
Univ. Tennessee Press, Knoxville. 681pp.
Mettee, M. F., P. E. O'Neil andJ. M. Pierson. 1996. Fishes of
Alabama and the Mobile Basin. Oxmoor House, Inc., Birmingham. 820pp. Page, L. M. and B. M. Burr. 1991. Afield guide tofreshwater fishes of NorthAmerica north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp.
Pierson, J. M., W M. Howell, R.A. Stiles, M. F.Mettee, P A. O'Neil, R. D. Suitkus, andJ. S. Ramsey. 1989. Fishes of the
Cahaba River System in Alabama. Geological survey of Alabama. Bulletin 134. 183pp. Taylor, W R. 1969. A revision of the catfish genus Noturus Rafinesque, with an analysis of higher groups in the Ictaluridae. Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus. 282:1-315.
Written by Dr. Byron J. Freeman
178

State Status: Endangered Federal Status: Endangered

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: Distinct in appearance from all other darters in the upper Coosa River basin, the amber darter is distinguished by four dark saddles that contrast with the golden brown dorsum. The sides are marked with indistinct, small brown blotches; the belly and underside of the head are light in color. The snout is pointed, and a wide, dark teardrop extends below the eye. The fins are mostly clear, with faint banding on the dorsal, pectoral, and caudal fins. Breeding males develop tubercles on the paired fins and on the anal and caudal fins, belly, and caudal peduncle. Males also have an elongated anal fin, a characteristic that can be used to distinguish mature males from females. This slender darter grows to a maximum total length of about 80 mm (3.1 in).

Range and Habitat: Endemic to the upper Coosa River basin in Georgia and southeastern Tennessee, the amber darter was first discovered in 1948 in Shoal Creek (Cherokee County), a tributary to the Etowah River and now emptying into Allatoona Reservoir. Subsequent collection efforts in the Etowah River system yielded only a single specimen until the early 1990s, when amber darters were discovered at eight localities in the mainstem Etowah River above Allatoona Reservoir, and in the lower portion of Sharp Mountain Creek (an Etowah River tributary, Cherokee County). In June 1993, the amber darter was rediscovered in the lower portion of Shoal Creek, upstream from the 1948 locality and just above the area influenced by Allatoona Reservoir.
In addition to the Etowah River system, the amber darter occurs in an approximate 55 km (34 mi) reach of the mainstem Conasauga River, from the vicinity of the U.S. Route 411 bridge in Polk County, Tenn., to the vicinity of Browns Bridge, in Dalton, Ga. (Murray and Whitfield counties).
The amber darter inhabits the main channel of the Conasauga and Etowah rivers and larger tributaries. Amber darters prefer riffle habitats with moderate to swift currents, typically 30 to 70 cm/s, over gravel and cobble, often with

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
patches of sand and riverweed, (Podostemum ceratophyllum). Individuals commonly occur in depths ranging from about 20 cm (7.9 in) to over 60 ern (24 in). Amber darters rarely occur in very shallow 20cm, 8in) or low-velocity (<IOcm/s, 4in/s) microhabitats, or areas with significant accumulations of silt. The color patterns formed by the amber darter's dark dorsal saddles against the lighter dorsum well-camouflage the fish as it forages over gravel and sand substrata. Amber darters are also capable of burrowing into loose gravel and sand, possibly as a tactic for hiding from predators.
Diet: Snails, limpets and immature aquatic insects such as midge, blackfly, and caddisfly larvae.
Life History: Amber darters probably live 3-4 years. Spawning occurs in late winter and spring. Females, mounted by males, bury their eggs in gravel. Closely related species (such as the snail darter and river darter have a drifting larval stage; newly hatched young emerge from the gravel and drift downstream from riffle spawning sites. The larvae presumably occupy lower velocity habitats while they complete development. Juveniles less than 20 mm (0.8 in) in length return to
the riffle habitats occupied by adults. Amber darter larvae may similarly occupy pool or edge-pool habitats near riffles; juveniles appear in riffles during the summer.

179

and Conasauga watersheds that degrade water quality, increase sediment input, and may alter thermal regimes. Water supply reservoirs under construction or planned on tributaries to the Etowah River, includingYellow Creek and Sharp Mountain Creek, could significantly alter water flow and thermal regimes in main channel riffles that provide habitat for amber darters. An offstream water storage reservoir recently constructed adjacent to the Conasauga River near Dalton may similarly affect amber darter populations by altering flows and water temperatures. Increasing human development in these watersheds threatens to degrade river and stream habitat by accelerating sediment and contaminant input to the river. Potential point sources of contaminants include sanitary landfills located adjacent to the Etowah River in Forsyth and Cherokee counties within the amber darter's range.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conserving the amber darter and other unique aquatic resources of the upper Coosa River system depends on maintaining habitat quality in the less-impacted portions of the Etowah River upstream from Allatoona Reservoir and the Conasauga River upstream from Dalton, and ultimately on improving habitat and water quality in the lower parts of the systems. It is essential to eliminate sediment runoff from land-disturbing activities such as roadway and housing construction as well as inputs of contaminants such as fertilizers and pesticides. Forested buffers should be maintained along the banks of the river and the smaller tributary streams that feed the river. Maintaining natural patterns of stream flow by preventing excessive water withdrawal or unnaturally flashy runoff, such as from urban stormwater runoff, also is an essential element of protecting riverine habitat quality. The amber darter and other fishes that similarly depend on riffle habitats are especially vulnerable to stream flow depletion because habitats with swift currents are diminished at low flows.

Selected References:
Freeman, B. I, and M. C. Freeman. 1994. Habitat use by an
endangered riverine fish and implications for species protection. Ecology of Freshwater Fish 3: 49-58.
Lee, S. L., C. R. Gilbert, C.H. Hocutt, R. E. Jenkins, D E.
McAllister, andI R.Stauffer. 1980. Atlas of NorthAmerican
fishes. North Carolina StateMus. Nat. Hist. 867pp.
Page, L.M. and B. M. Burr. 1991. A field guide tofreshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp.
Starnes, W C. 1977. The ecology and life history of the endangered snaildarter Percina (Imostoma) tanasi Etnier. Tenn. WildI. Res. Agency, Tech. Rep. No. 77-52.
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1985. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; determination of endangered status and of critical habiunfor the amber darter and the Conasauga logperch. Federal Register 50(150): 31597-31603.
Williams, I D, and Etnier, D A. 1977. Percina (Imostoma) ante-
sella, a new percid fish from the Coosa Riversystem in Tennessee and Georgia. Proc. Biol. Soc. of Washington 90: 6-18.
Written by Dr. Byron I Freeman

180

State Status: Threatened Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: One of the largest darters with a maximum total length exceeding 17 cm (6.7 in), the tangerine darter takes its common name from the brilliant orange coloration that adorns the belly and underside of the head of adult males. Females and juveniles are less intensely colored with yellow on the undersides. Both sexes have dark blotches that blend together to form a dark stripe along the fish's sides, with a single row of small dark spots above. The dorsum is tinted yellow; the dorsal fins are bright orange in males, yellow in females. Males may retain the orange coloration on their bellies past the spawning season and throughout much of the year.

Range and Habitat: The tangerine darter only occurs in the upper Tennessee River drainage. In Georgia, this large darter is known from the Toccoa River system. The tangerine darter inhabits high gradient rivers and large streams, where adults occupy swiftly flowing, moderately deep riffles and runs, and deeper pools in winter. Juveniles occupy shallower, slower habitats adjacent to faster water areas.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
industrial areas. Increasing development of second homes utilizing poor construction and riparian management practices poses a significant threat to this species.

Diet: Adults: aquatic insect larvae picked from rocks and aquatic vegetation (such as riverweed). Juveniles: smaller aquatic invertebrates common in slower-water habitats.
Life History: This large darter may live 4 years. Spawning occurs in May and June, with spawning pairs depositing fertilized eggs onto gravel or between rocks in riffle habitats.
Threats/Comments: Impoundments throughout the upper Tennessee River system limit available habitat for the tangerine darter. The portions of the system that remain free-flowing are vulnerable to degradation by excessive inputs of silt and sediment, which fill-in the gravel and cobble substrata that support the fish's prey and developing eggs. Stream degradation results from failure to employ Best Management Practices (BMPs) for forestry and agriculture, failure to control soil erosion from construction sites and bridge crossings, and increased stormwater runoff from developing urban and

Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conserving populations of the tangerine darter will require maintaining and improving habitat quality in the upper Toccoa River by eliminating sediment runoff from land-disturbing activities such as roadway and housing construction, maintaining forested buffers along stream banks, eliminating inputs of contaminants such as fertilizers and pesticides, and maintaining natural patterns of streamflow.
Selected References:
Etnier, D.A. and we. Starnes. 1993. Thefishes of Tennessee.
Univ. Tennessee Press, Knoxville. 681pp.
Jenkins, R. E. and N. M. Burkhead. 1993. Freshwater fishes of
Virginia. Am. Fish. Soc., Bethesda, Md. 1o79pp.
Lee, S. L., e. R. Gilbert, e. H. Hocutt, R. E. Jenkins, D. E.
McAllister, andJ. R.Stauffer. 1980. Atlas of North American
fishes. North Carolina State Mus. Nat. Hist. 867pp.
Page, L. M. and B. M. Burr. 1991. Afield guide tofreshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp.

Written by Dr. Byron J. Freeman

State Status: Threatened Federal Status: Threatened

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The goldline darter is slender-bodied and can reach 9 cm (3.5 in) total length. This darter is characterized by 8-9 oval blotches along the sides, above which lays a brown or amber wavy stripe. The fins are lightly banded, and three vertically-aligned spots are found at the base of the caudal fin. Juveniles have dorsal blotches that usually become indistinct in adults. Breeding males develop bright yellow coloration dorsally, including a yellow or orange submarginal band on the dorsal fins, and bluish coloration ventrally.

Range and Habitat: The goldline darter is known only from two widely separated localities, the Coosawattee River system in Georgia (Gilmer County) and the Cahaba River system in central Alabama (Bibb and Shelby counties). In Georgia, this species is historically known from the Cartecay and Ellijay rivers, Mountaintown Creek, the mainstem Coosawattee River, and Talking Rock Creek (a tributary to the Coosawattee River downstream of Carters Reservoir).
Goldline darters occupy medium-sized rivers and large tributary streams. Their preferred habitat comprises riffles and runs with swift current over gravel, cobble, bedrock and boulder substrate, often with patches of sand and riverweed.
Diet: Aquatic invertebrates.
Life History: Spawning probably occurs in spring and early summer, with spawning pairs burying eggs in gravel substrata. Other aspects of the life history of the goldline darter are unstudied.
Threats/Comments: Increasing urbanization and residential development in the Coosawattee River system pose the major threat in Georgia, resulting in deleterious effects on water quality and stream habitat. Water quality degradation has already reduced the goldline darter's range in the Cahaba River in Alabama, and further deterioration in water quality (from urbanization, sewage and mining activities) continue to threaten the species.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conserving the populations of the goldline darter depends on maintaining habitat quality in the Coosawattee River system upstream from Carters Reservoir. It is essential to eliminate sediment runoff from land-disturbing activities, such as roadway and housing construction, and inputs of contaminants such as fertilizers and pesticides. Forested buffers should be maintained along the banks of the river and the smaller tributary streams that feed the river. Excessive sedimentation especially degrades riffle habitats by filling in the spaces between gravel and cobble, reducing abundances of aquatic invertebrates and destroying spawning habitat. Maintaining natural patterns of streamflow by preventing excessive water withdrawal or unnaturally flashy runoff (such as from urban stormwater runoff) also is an essential element of protecting riverine habitat quality.
Selected References:
Lee, S. L., C. R. Gilbert, C. H. Hocutt, R. E. Jenkins, D. E.
McAllister, andJ. R.Stauffer. 1980. Atlas of North American
fishes. North Carolina state Mus. Nat. Hist. 867pp.
Mettee, M. F.,P. E. O'Neil andJ. M. Pierson. 1996. Fishes of
Alabama and the Mobile Basin. Oxmoor House, Birmingham. 820pp.

Page, L. M. and B. M. Burr. 1991. A field guide tofreshwater fishes of NorthAmerica north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp.

Sutikus, R. D. and]. S. Ramsey. 1967. Percina aurolineaia, a new percid fish from theAlabama Riversystem and a discussion of ecology, distribution, and hybridization of darters of the subgenus Hadropierus. Tulane Studies in Zoo[ogy 13: 129-145. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1991. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; proposed threatened status for thefish thegoldline darter (Percina aurolineata) and blue shiner (Cyprinella caerulea). Fed. Reg. 56(76): 16054-16059. Written by Dr. Byron]. Freeman
183

State Status: Endangered Federal Status: Endangered

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: A large darter reaching a maximum 14 em (5.5 in) in length, the Conasauga logperch has a conical snout and narrow vertical bars on the sides. This fish is distinguishable from the co-occurring Mobile logperch (Percina kathae) in lacking a red or orange band on the first dorsal fin and by having numerous, narrow vertical bars overlying the tan upper body. Eight dark bars extend ventrally below the lateral line, and these are separated by narrower half- and quarter-length bars. The darter has a dark bar extending below the eye, a large spot at the base of the caudal fin, and light banding on the dorsal and caudal fins.

Range and Habitat: The Conasauga logperch is endemic to the Conasauga River (upper Coosa River system) in southeastern Tennessee and northwestern Georgia. Its known range is an approximate 45-km (27-mile) reach of the river, from the vicinity of the mouth of Minnewauga Creek downstream to Mitchell Bridge in Georgia's Whitfield and Murray counties. Critical habitat designated for this endangered darter by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service includes the Conasauga River from the confluence of Half-way Branch with the Conasauga River in Polk County, Tennessee, downstream approximately 18 km (11 miles) through Bradley County, Tennessee, to the Georgia Highway 2 bridge, Murray County, Georgia.
The Conasauga logperch inhabits riffles and runs in the main channel of the Conasauga River, generally occurring in moderately deep water with swift current over cobble and gravel.
Diet: Aquatic invertebrates.
Life History: The Conasauga logperch often finds its prey by using its conical"pig-like" snout to turn over rocks on the stream bottom (a behavior employed by other species of logperches, Percina sp., as well). A snorkeling observer may see other fishes, such as redeye bass, positioned just downstream

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
of a foraging logperch, apparently waiting for invertebrates sent into the current by the stone-flipping darter.
Threats/Comments: The primary threat to this species is its extremely limited range in the upper Coosa River basin. Additionally, the Conasauga logperch does not appear to be abundant anywhere within its range, in contrast with the more common and widespread Mobile logperch. Habitat loss and degradation in the upper Conasauga River, including impoundment, excessive siltation, and water quality degradation threaten the survival of this fish. Development of water storage reservoirs adjacent to the Conasauga River also may adversely affect habitat conditions in the lower portion of the Conasauga logperch's range by altering flows and water temperatures.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conserving the unique aquatic resources of the Conasauga River, such as the endemic Conasauga logperch, depends on maintaining habitat quality in the less-impacted upstream portion of the river,and ultimately on improving habitat and water quality in the lower part of the river. It is essential to eliminate sediment runoff from land-disturbing activities, such as roadway and housing construction, and inputs of contami-
nants such as fertilizers and pesticides: Forested buffers should be maintained along the banks of the river and the smaller tributary streams that feed the river. Maintaining natural patterns of streamflow by preventing excessive water withdrawal or unnaturally flashy runoff (such as from urban

184

stormwater runoff) also is an essential element of protecting riverine habitat quality. The Conasauga logperch and other fishes that similarly depend on riffle and run habitats are especially vulnerable to streamflow depletion because habitats with swift currents are diminished at low flows. Selected References:
Etnier, D.A. and we. Starnes. 1993. The fishes of Tennessee.
Univ. Tennessee Press, Knoxville. 681pp. Page, L. M. and B.M. Burr. 1991. A field guide tofreshwater fishes of NorthAmerica north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp. Thompson, B. A. 1985. Percina jenkinsi, a new species of logperch (Pisces, Percidae) from the Conasauga River, Tennessee and Georgia. Occasional papers of the Museum of Zoology, Louisiana State Unio., Number 61. 24pp. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1985. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; determination of endangered status and of critical habitat for the amber darter and the Conasauga logperch. Federal Register 50(150): 31597-31603.
Written by Dr. Byron J. Freeman
185

State Status: Endangered Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The largest darter, reaching 20 ern (7.9 in) total length, this species is characteristically dusky in appearance with at least 77 lateral scales, about eight dark blotches and smaller spots along the sides, eight dorsal blotches and three dark spots at the base of the caudal fin. Males have 1-2 rows of enlarged, toothed scales on the belly. There may be a dark teardrop beneath each eye, and the fins are darkly banded. A basal black spot characteristically occurs at the front of the second dorsal fin. Neither males nor females develop bright coloration during the spawning season.

Range and Habitat: The freckled darter occurs in Gulf of Mexico tributaries from the Pearl River drainage east to the Mobile River drainage (Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Georgia). In Georgia, this species is known from isolated localities in the Etowah River (Cherokee County) and the Conasauga River in the upper Coosa River system (including a single specimen collected near U.S. Highway 76 bridge; Murray-Whitfield county line).
Found in larger streams, this darter prefers riffles and runs with swift current over rocky substrates or around large woody debris. The freckled darter may occupy relatively deep (>50 cm, 20 in) portions of riffles and runs.
Diet: Aquatic invertebrates.
. Life History: Little is known of the life history of this relatively rare darter. Freckled darters most likely spawn in the spring months, burying their eggs beneath gravel or sand in riffles and run habitats.
Threats/Comments: Extensive habitat loss because of impoundments threaten the survival of this fish. Water development and construction projects in the Etowah and Conasauga basins that reduce water quality and increase sediment input, or that may diminish flow in riffle and run habitats, especially threaten this species in Georgia. An

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
offstream water storage reservoir with a water withdrawal site just upstream of two of only three known freckled darter localities in the Conasauga River could affect this species' habitat. Similar water-supply reservoirs are planned or under construction on Etowah River tributaries, includingYellow Creek and Sharp Mountain Creek, that could affect streamflow in freckled darter localities.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: The freckled darter requires swift-flowing habitats in medium to large streams with good water quality. Maintaining populations of this species in Georgia depends on maintaining instream habitat quality in the less-impacted upstream portions of the Conasauga and Etowah rivers. Thiscan be accomplished by eliminating sediment runoff from land-disturbing activities (such as roadway and housing construction) and inputs of contaminants (such as fertilizers and pesticides), maintaining forested buffers along the banks of the rivers and their tributary streams, and maintaining natural patterns of streamflow by preventing excessive water withdrawal or unnaturally flashy runoff (such as from urban storm water runoff). The freckled darter and other fishes that similarly depend on riffle and run habitats are especially vulnerable to streamflow depletion, because habitats with swift currents are diminished at low flows.

186

Selected References: Lee, S. L., C. R. Gilbert, C. H. Hocutt, R. E. Jenkins, D. E.
McAllister, andJ. R.Stauffer. 1980. Atlas of North American
fishes. North Carolina StateMus. Nat. Hist. 867pp.
Mettee, M. F.,P E. O'Neil andJ. M. Pierson. 1996. Fishes of
Alabama and the Mobile Basin. Oxmoor House, lnc., Birmingham. 820pp. Page, L.M. and B. M. Burr. 1991. A field guide tofreshwater fishes of NorthAmerica north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp. Richards, W 1. and L. W Knapp. 1964. Percina lenticula, a new percid fish, with a redescription of the subgenus Hadropterus. Copeia 1964(4): 690-701.
Sutikus, R. D. andJ. S. Ramsey. 1967. Percina aurolineaia, a
new percid fish from theAlabama Riversystem and a discussion of ecology, distribution, and hybridization of darters of the subgenus Hadropterus. Tulane Studies in Zoo(ogy 13: 129-145.
Written by Dr. Byron J. Freeman
187

State Status: Rare Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: A slender darter growing to a maximum total length of about 13 em (5.1 in), the dusky darter typically is tan or gray in color, with 8-12 dark oval blotches along the sides and 7-9 dark blotches on the dorsum. The fins are speckled (or darkened in breeding males) and three spots form a vertical row at the base of the tail, although the lower two spots often blend together. The dusky darter lacks bright breeding coloration.

Range and Habitat: The dusky darter is found in Gulf Coast drainages from Texas to west Alabama, including the Mississippi River basin northward to Indiana and Ohio. In Georgia, the dusky darter has been found in the Chickamauga Creek, Lookout Creek, and Toccoa river systems. This widespread species occurs in Coastal Plain streams and upland rivers. The dusky darter typically is associated with moderate current velocities, in habitats ranging from rocky riffles to sand-bottomed areas with abundant woody debris.
Diet: Aquatic insect larvae, including caddisflies, black flies, midges and mayflies.
Life History: Breeding season occurs from late spring to early summer. Dusky darters probably bury their eggs shallowly in gravel and sand substrata. Maximum life span is about 4 years.
Threats/Comments: The dusky darter, although abundant in parts of its range, is a rare species in Georgia. The Georgia localities for this small, versatile darter represent populations along the Tennessee River system that have been isolated from other populations by impoundments. The principal threat to the dusky darter in Georgia is stream degradation resulting from failure to employ Best Management Practices (BMPs) for forestry and agriculture, failure to control soil erosion from construction sites and bridge crossings, and increased stormwater runoff from developing urban and industrial areas.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences

Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conserving rare Georgia species restricted to Tennessee River tributaries, including the dusky darter, depends on protecting stream habitat quality in these streams by eliminating sediment runoff from land disturbing activities such as roadway and housing construction, maintaining forested buffers along stream banks, eliminating inputs of contaminants such as fertilizers and pesticides, and maintaining natural patterns of streamflow. Special efforts must be taken to minimize contaminant, sediment and stormwater runoff from urban and residential developments if stream habitat and sensitive aquatic species are to be protected.

Selected References: .

Etnier, D.A. and We. Starnes. 1993. The fishes of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Press, Knoxville. 681pp.

Jenkins, R E. and N. M. Burkhead. 1993. Freshwater fishes of Virginia. Am. Fish. Soc., Bethesda, Md. 1079pp.

Lee, S. L., e. R Gilbert, e. H. Hocutt, R E. Jenkins, D. E.
McAllister, andJ. RStauffer. 1980. Atlas of NorthAmerican
fishes. North Carolina StateMus. Nat. Hist. 867pp.

Page, L. M. and B. M. Burr. 1991. Afield guide tofresh-

waterfishes of NorthAmerica north of Mexico.

."

Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp.

Written by Dr. Byron J. Freeman

188

State Status: Endangered Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: This medium-sized darter reaching up to 8.9 ern (3.5 in) total length is marked by 8-15 elongated blotches along its side, a mottled back with 5-9 ill-defined dorsal blotches, a small caudal spot, and a black teardrop beneath each eye. The dorsum and sides are dusky or gray; the venter is pale. There are black spots on the anterior and posterior portions of the first dorsal fin. Individuals from the Alabama River system each have a bright orange submarginal band in the first dorsal fin. Breeding males have an elongated anal fin and develop tubercles on the anal, caudal and pelvic fins, as well as on the venter.

Range and Habitat: The river darter ranges from the

Hudson Bay drainage in Manitoba and western Ontario, and

south in the Mississippi River drainage to the Gulf Coast, where it occurs from Texas to the Mobile River drainage. In

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences

the Mobile River drainage, the river darter only commonly

occurs below the Fall Line (for example, in the lower

Life History: The river darter spawns early in the spring,

Tallapoosa River, the Alabama River, and in the lower Cahaba February to May, in fastwater habitat. The newly hatched lar-

River) with the exception of the upper Conasauga River popu- vae may drift downstream, probably to pool and stream mar-

lation and scattered records from the Coosa and BlackWarrior gin habitats. As they grow, the young darters shift into faster

river systems. In Georgia, the river darter is known only from water. Life span is probably 2-4 years.

the Conasauga River at the Tennessee-Georgia state line

(Murray County). Fewer than five specimens have been taken Threats/Comments: The river darter is exceptionally rare in

at this locality, these collected over a period of several years

Georgia. The Georgia and southeastern Tennessee population

after 1969.

in the Conasauga River represents an isolated population in

River darters are found in larger streams where they the upper Coosa River system. The river darter could be extir-

inhabit riffles and runs with swift currents and rock to sand

pated from Georgia by habitat destruction in the upper

substrates, including chutes over about 1 m (3 ft) deep. The

Conasauga River. Of specific concern are increased siltation

river darter displays some tolerance to turbidity and may also and use of agricultural chemicals, impoundment, and general

survive in the fluctuating waters downstream from hydroelec- degradation of riffle habitat.

tric dams.

Conservation and Management Recommendations:

Diet: Macroinvertebrates including midges, mayflies,

Conserving the populations of the river darter in Georgia

caddisflies and snails.

depends on maintaining habitat quality in the less-impacted

upstream portion of the Conasauga River, and ultimately on

improving habitat and water quality in the lower part of the

river. It is essential to eliminate sediment runoff from land-

disturbing activities, such as roadway and housing construc-

tion, and inputs of contaminants such as fertilizers and pesti-

cides. Forested buffers should be maintained along the banks

of the river and the smaller tributary streams that

feed the river. Maintaining natural patterns

of streamflow by preventing excessive

..~9 water withdrawal or unnaturally flashy ~~. runoff (such as from urban stormwater

~,,--..~---

runoff) also is an essential element of protect-

189

ing riverine habitat quality. The river darter and other fishes that similarly depend on riffle and run habitats are especially vulnerable to streamflow depletion, because habitats with swift currents are diminished at low flows. Selected References:
Etnier, D.A. and we. Starnes. 1993. The fishes of Tennessee.
Univ. Tennessee Press, Knoxville. 681pp.
Lee, S. L., e. R. Gilbert, e. H. Hocutt, R. E. Jenkins, V. E.
McAllister, andJ. R.Stauffer. 1980. Atlas of NorthAmerican
fishes. North Carolina StateMus. Nat. Hist. 867pp.
Mettee, M. F., P. E. O'Neil andJ. M Pierson. 1996. Fishes of
Alabama and the Mobile Basin. Oxmoor House, Birmingham. 820pp. Page, L. M. and B. M. Burr. 1991. Afield guide tofreshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp.
Pierson, J. M, W M Howell, R. A. Stiles, M. F.Mettee, P. E. O'Neil, R. D. Suttkus, andJ. S. Ramsey. 1989. Fishes of the
Cahaba Riversystem in Alabama. Geological surveyofAlabama, Bulletin 134. 183pp. Robison, H. Wand T. M. Buchanan. 1988. Fishes of Arkansas. Univ. of Arkansas Press, Fayetteville. 536pp. Trautman, M. B. 1981. The fishes of Ohio. Ohio State Univ. Press, Columbus. 782pp.
Written by Dr. Byron J. Freeman
190

State Status: Rare Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: A slender darter reaching up to 7.5 em (3 in) in total length, the muscadine darter is marked with 8-12 black, rounded blotches on the sides that merge into a lateral stripe and an off-center black blotch at the base of the caudal fin. The upper sides and dorsum are pale brown with irregular darker brown markings, contrasting with the pale venter. The black lateral stripe continues as a stripe through each eye and onto the snout. The first dorsal fin is narrowly edged in black and has a black basal band.

Range and Habitat: The general description given above actually applies to two or possibly three forms that should most appropriately be treated as separate species. One form, referred to as the "bridled darter," occurs in the Conasauga River in Georgia and southeastern Tennessee, and the Coosawattee and Etowah river systems of Georgia. The form that carries the name"muscadine darter" occurs in the Tallapoosa River system above the Fall Line in Alabama and Georgia. A third population, either a third form or possibly also the muscadine darter, is widely separated from the others, occurring in the Sipsey Fork of the Warrior River in Alabama. Thus, two distinct forms occur in Georgia. The muscadine darter occurs in the Tallapoosa River system. The bridled darter occurs in the Conasauga River from above the confluence with the Jacks River, downstream approximately to the GA State Route 2 bridge and in the Etowah River system above Allatoona Reservoir. The bridled darter is rare in the Conasauga and Etowah river systems, and only a single specimen is known from the Coosawattee River system.
Muscadine darters are found in a wider range of stream sizes (smaller streams to the main channel of the Tallapoosa River) than bridled darters, which occur in medium-sized cool-water rivers of the upper Coosa River system. Preferred habitats for both species include riffle and flowing pool areas, in moderate to swift currents over sand, gravel and cobble substrates.
Diet: Aquatic invertebrates.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Life History: These fishes probably live three years, spawning in the spring and early summer months. In the Conasauga River, spawning pairs have been observed in swiftly flowing run habitat over silt-free cobble and gravel. Unlike many darters that forage almost exclusively on benthic prey, these darters forage on the stream bottom and also hover above the bottom, capturing animals drifting in the current.
Threats/Comments: The upper Coosa River system populations are threatened by water development and construction projects in the Etowah and Conasauga systems that degrade water quality and increase sediment input. Impoundment of the Tallapoosa River upstream from Harris Dam would destroy habitat and fragment populations in the upper Tallapoosa River and tributaries feeding the new impoundment. As a riffle-dwelling drift feeder, the muscadine darter will not persist in reservoir habitats. In the upper Coosa and Tallapoosa watersheds, stream degradation results from failure to employ Best Management Practices (BMPs) for forestry and agriculture, failure to control soil erosion from construction sites and bridge crossings, and increased stormwater runoff from developing urban and industrial areas.

Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conserving populations of the muscadine and bridled darters
depends on maintaining and improving stream habitat quality by eliminating sediment runoff from land-disturbing activities (such as roadway and housing construction), maintaining forested buffers along stream banks, eliminating
191

inputs of contaminants (such as fertilizers and pesticides), and maintaining natural patterns of stream flow. Watershed clearing and urban development can lead to unnaturally flashy stormwater runoff, which scours stream channels and results in lower baseflows. For these reasons, containing and slowly releasing stormwater runoff from developed areas is an important element in protecting stream habitats for fishes and other aquatic organisms. Impounding streams should be a last resort for developing water supplies. Selected References:
Etnier, D.A. and We. Starnes. 1993. Thefishes of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Press, Knoxville. 681pp.
Mettee, M. F., P E. O'Neil andJ. M. Pierson. 1996. Fishes of
Alabama and theMobile Basin. Oxmoor House, Birmingham. 820pp. Page, L. M. and B. M. Burr. 1991. A fieldguide tofreshwater fishes of NorthAmerica north of MeXICO. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp.
Wieland, Wand J. S. Ramsey. 1987. Ecology of the muscadine
darter, Percina sp. cf P macrocephala, in the Tallapoosa River, Alabama, with comments on related species. Proc. Southeastern Fishes Council 17: 5-11.
Written by Dr. Byron J. Freeman
192

State Status: Threatened Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: This large greenish-colored darter reaches a maximum total length in excess of 13 cm (5.1 in) and is characterized by an exceptionally pointed snout. Young fish are marked with dark blotches along the sides and on the dorsum, but these marking become less distinct with age. All ages have a small, distinct spot at the base of the caudal fin. The only noticeable bright color on this darter is an orange band in the first dorsal fin.

Range and Habitat: The olive darter is restricted to the upper most portions of the Tennessee River and Cumberland River systems in Tennessee, Kentucky, North Carolina, and Georgia. In Georgia, this species is known from the Toccoa River and the Little Tennessee River system.
The olive darter inhabits deep, swift, rocky habitats of high elevation rivers, where the fish forages in very fast current around boulders.
Diet: Benthic aquatic insects, including caddisflies and mayflies.
Life History: Total life span is about 4 years. Spawning may occur from spring into midsummer. Few other details of the life history of this darter are reported, perhaps partly because its use of fast-water, boulder-strewn habitats make individuals hard to observe or catch.
Threats/Comments: The olive darter depends on good water quality and fast-water habitats in upland streams. Impoundments have reduced available habitat for the olive darter, and remaining free-flowing mountain streams are vulnerable to degradation by excessive inputs of silt and sediment. Stream degradation results from failure to employ Best Management Practices (BMPs) for forestry and agriculture, failure to control soil erosion from construction sites and bridge crossings, and increased stormwater runoff from developing urban and industrial areas. Increasing development of houses utilizing poor construction and riparian management practices poses a significant threat to the olive darter in the Toccoa and Little Tennessee river systems.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conserving populations of the olive darter will require maintaining and improving habitat quality in the Toccoa River and Little Tennessee River system by eliminating sediment runoff from land-disturbing activities such as roadway and housing construction, maintaining forested buffers along stream banks, eliminating inputs of contaminants such as fertilizers and pesticides, and maintaining natural patterns of streamflow.
Selected References:
Einier; D.A. and We. Starnes. 1993. The fishes of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Press, Knoxville. 681pp.
Lee, S. L., e. R. Gilbert, e. H. Hocutt, R. E. Jenkins, D. E.
McAllister, andf. R.Stauffer. 1980. Atlas of North American
fishes. North Carolina State Mus. Nat. Hist. 867pp.
Page, L. M. and B. M. Burr. 1991. Afield guide tofreshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp.
Written by Dr. Byron f. Freeman

State- Status: Threatened Federal Status: Threatened

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: A small but robust fish reaching up to 85 em (3.3 in) in total length, the snail darter is distinguished by four dark brown saddles that cross and contrast with the lighter brown dorsum. The saddles extend downward and join a lateral band formed by 9-12 indistinct blotches along each side. The eyes are positioned high on the head, with a dark blotch below each orbit. The dorsal and caudal fins are lightly banded, and on males the anal fin is noticeably elongated. Breeding males develop blue-green and gold coloration. The darter is named"tanasi"for the capital of the Cherokee Nation which was located on the Little Tennessee River.The modem day derivation of tanasi is"Tennessee."

Range and Habitat: The snail darter is endemic to the upper Tennessee River system in Alabama, Tennessee, and Georgia. In Georgia, the snail darter is known from South Chickamauga Creek near Graysville.
The snail darter inhabits larger creeks and small rivers, where it occurs in areas with moderate to swift flow over mixed sand and gravel. Similar to its close relative, the amber darter, the snail darter has dorsal saddles which provide cryptic coloration when the fish is over gravel and sand stream bottoms. This species also shares the amber darter's ability to burrow into sand and gravel substrata.
Diet: Small river snails and limpets; aquatic insect larvae.
Life History: Spawning takes place from February to April in gravel shoals. Males aggressively court females; spawning pairs most likely bury eggs into the gravel. Following hatching, larvae drift downstream to deeper-water areas; juveniles return to the shoal habitats occupied by adults later in the summer. Sexual maturity is reached at age 1-2; life span is 3-4 years.
Threats/Comments: Extensive impoundment of the upper Tennessee River system has removed suitable habitat from most of the snail darter's native range. Isolated populations

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
survive in larger tributaries where the principal threat is stream habitat degradation as results from failure to employ Best Management Practices (BMPs) for forestry and agriculture, failure to control soil erosion from construction sites and bridge crossings, and increased stormwater runoff from developing urban and industrial areas.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: River-dependent fishes including the snail darter can only be conserved by protecting habitat quality in sufficiently long reaches of stream habitat to meet the needs of all life stages, and to support the diverse aquatic invertebrate populations on which these fishes feed. It is essential to eliminate sediment runoff from land-disturbing activities, such as roadway and housing construction, and inputs of contaminants such as fertilizers and pesticides. Forested buffers should be maintained along the banks of the river and the smaller tributary streams that feed the river. Maintaining natural patterns of streamflow by preventing excessive water withdrawal or unnaturally flashy runoff (such as from urban storrnwater runoff) also is an essential element of protecting riverine habitat quality. The snail darter population in South Chickamauga Creek is especially susceptible to detrimental effects of increasing urbanization near Chattanooga; special efforts should be taken to min-
imize contaminant and sediment runoff to the stream and its tributaries.

194

Selected References: Etnier, D.A. and We. Starnes. 1993. The fishes of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Press, Knoxville. 681pp. Lee, S. 1., e. R Gilbert, e. H. Hocutt, R. E. Jenkins, D. E.
McAllister, andJ. RStauffer. 1980. Atlas of North American
fishes. North Carolina StateMus. Nat. Hist. 867pp. Page, L, M. and B. M. Burr. 1991. Afield guide tofreshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Roughton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp. Starnes, W e. 1977. The ecology and life history of the endangered snaildarter, Percina tanasi Etnier. Tenn. Wild/. Res. Agency Tech Rep. 77-52. 144pp.
Written by Dr. Byron J. Freeman
195

State. Status: Endangered Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The fatlips minnow is slender and elongated with a sucker-like mouth. The body is olive to brown dorsally with an iridescent lateral gold stripe on the back. The pale gold stripe is larger than the diameter of the eye. Breeding males develop rusty tints in the middorsal and lateral stripes as well as in the fins and on the sides of the head. The body below the lateral stripe is white as are the pelvic and anal fins. The pectoral, dorsal, and caudal fins are pale olive. The maximum reported length for the fatlips minnow is 11.2 em (4.4 in). "Suckermouth"minnows have a pad on both jaws behind the lips. The fatlips minnow differs in having prominent tooth-like ridges on this plate.

Range and Habitat: The fatlips minnow has a restricted range. It is found in the Blue Ridge mountains and in the edges of the upper Tennessee River system of Georgia, Tennessee, North Carolina, and Virginia. In Georgia, the fatlips minnow has been collected from Betty Creek in Rabun County, a tributary to the Little Tennessee River.
The fatlips minnow occupies riffles and runs in medium-sized streams and small rivers with clean gravel, cobble, and boulders. It is often found in streams that are cold enough to support populations of trout
Diet: Primarily midge and cranefly larvae; larval caddisflies and beetles.
Life History: Very few individuals live past three years of age. Spawning occurs from April to June based upon collection of animals in spawning condition during these months in Virginia and Tennessee. The only description of spawning behavior for fatlips minnows was an observation of males defending territories on the stone nests of chubs. Spawning occurred at 15-17'C (59-63 OF) and involved 1-2 males and a female. No additional spawning observations are known for the fatlips minnow or any of the other suckermouth minnow species.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Threats/Comments: Threats to the existence of the fatlips minnow in Georgia include road-building, increasing urbanization, and failure to implement Best Management Practices (BMPs) for forestry and agriculture. The preference of fatlips minnows for clean coolwater streams with gravel bottoms suggests that they may not fare well in urbanized settings. Much of the riparian buffer along streams has been impacted or eliminated in the more developed region of Rabun County. This allows for increase in sunlight which can result in changing the water temperatures, as well as allowing sediment and excess nutrients to reach the stream more quickly. Hydrologic alteration as a result of increased paving and other impervious surfaces is also a threat
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conservation of the fatlips minnow and other stream fishes in the Little Tennessee River system depends upon maintaining habitat quality. Unless certain activities are modified, increasing urbanization in the Rabun County area is likely to cause a decline in water quality and habitat loss in streams draining the landscape. It is essential to eliminate sediment runoff from land-disturbing activities (such as roadway and housing construction), maintain forested buffers along stream banks, eliminate inputs of contaminants (such as fertilizers and pesti-
cides), eliminate chronic discharges of industrial effluent and sewage, and maintain natural patterns of stream flow. Watershed clearing and urban development can lead to unnaturally flashy stormwater runoff, which scours stream channels and results in lower baseflows. For these reasons,

196

containing and slowly releasing stormwater runoff from developed areas is an important element in protecting stream habitats for fishes and other aquatic organisms. Selected References:
Ernier, D.A. and W C. Starnes. 1993. The fishes of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Press. 681pp. Jenkins, R. E. and N. M. Burkhead. 1993. Freshwater fishes of
Virginia. American Fisheries Society. 1o79pp.
Lee, S. L., C. R. Gilbert, C. H. Hocutt, R. E. Jenkins, D. E.
McAllister, andJ. R.Stauffer. 1980. Atlas of NorthAmerican
fishes. North Carolina State Mus. Nat. Hist. 867pp.
Minckley, W L.And J. E. Craddock. 1962. A new species of
Phenacobius (Cyprinidae) from the upper Tennessee River System. Copeia 1962: 369-376. Page, L. M. and B. M. Burr. 1991. Afield guide tofreshwater fishes of NorthAmerica north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp.
Written by Dr. Byron J. Freeman
197

State Status: Threatened Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The stargazing minnow is a very long, slender, silvery fish with a sucker-like mouth attaining a maximum total length of 11.9 em (4.7 in). There are five species in this distinctive genus, which also includes the fatlips minnow. The stargazing minnow is olive dorsally with a brassy middorsal stripe. The prominent mid-lateral stripe is variously flecked with silver to metallic blue and is narrower than that of the fatlips minnow. The lower portion of the body is white, and the pelvic and anal fins are yellowish -olive to white. Like those of the closely related fatlips minnow, the dorsal, caudal, and pectoral fins are light olive. The stargazing minnow exhibits no sexually dimorphic coloration. The name"stargazing" refers to the upward tilt of the eyes.

Range and Habitat: The stargazing minnow occurs in the Tennessee, Cumberland, and Green river drainages of Tennessee, Virginia, and Georgia, in Ridge and Valleyand Highland Rim provinces, avoiding the Blue Ridge province. The stargazing minnow has been collected in Georgia in West and South Chickamauga creeks in Catoosa County.
This species prefers clear riffles and shallow runs in moderately sized streams and small to medium rivers. It is found in warmwater streams with clean gravel and small cobbles.
Diet: Primarily benthic aquatic insects, especially fly larvae and caddisflies.
Life History: Stargazing minnows spawn from late April to early June in Virginia, according to results of collections of individuals in spawning condition during those months. Individuals in spawning condition have been collected in the same macrohabitat as they are found in during the rest of the year, so presumably spawning also occurs in gravel-cobble riffles and runs. Life span is estimated to be about two years, due to the absence of individuals 2 years of age after the spawning season.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
These minnows have been observed foraging in groups of 1020 individuals, sometimes in association with other fishes such as chubs. They feed during daylight hours and use their sensitive lips to find food on top of and around rocks.
Threats/Comments: All fishes that are dependent upon clean gravel substrates are vulnerable to changes in habitat from excessive sedimentation. Several species of fishes have apparently been locally extirpated from the West Chickamauga and South Chickamauga creek systems. Although stargazing minnows are found in streams and habitats that may currently have some slight amount of silt, the clear preference for nonsilty gravel-dominated substrates suggests that they may be vulnerable to habitat modification. Potential threats to the stargazing minnow in Georgia are principally degradation of tributary streams and the mainstems of South Chickamauga and West Chickamauga creeks. Stream degradation resulting from failure to employ Best Management Practices (BMPs) for forestry and agriculture, failure to control soil erosion from construction sites and bridge crossings, and increased stormwater runoff from developing urban and industrial areas further threatens the stargazing minnow where populations still exist.

198

Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conserving populations of the stargazing minnow depends on maintaining and restoring habitat and water quality in streams in the South and West Chickamauga creek systems. It is essential to eliminate sediment runoff from land-disturbing activities (such as roadway and housing construction), maintain forested buffers along stream banks, eliminate inputs of contaminants (such as fertilizers and pesticides), eliminate chronic discharges of industrial effluent and sewage, and maintain natural patterns of stream flow. Watershed clearing and urban development can lead to unnaturally flashy storm water runoff, which scours stream channels and results in lower baseflows. For these reasons, containing and slowly releasing stormwater runoff from developed areas is an important element in protecting stream habitats for fishes and other aquatic organisms. Selected References: Etnier; D. A. and We. Starnes. 1993. The fishes of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Press. 681pp. Jenkins, R. E. and N. M. Burkhead. 1993. Freshwater fishes of
Virginia. Am. Fish. Soc., Bethesda, Md. 1o79pp. Lee, S. 1., e. R. Gilbert, e. H. Hocutt, R. E.Jenkins, D. E.
McAllister; and]. R.Stauffer. 1980. Atlas of North American fishes. North Carolina State Mus. Nat. Hist. 867pp. Minckley, W 1. And]. E. Craddock. 1962. A new species of Phenacobius (Cyprinidae) from the upper Tennessee RiverSystem. Copeia 1962: 369-376. Page, 1. M. and B. M. Burr. 1991. Afield guide tofreshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp.
Written by Dr. Byron]. Freeman
199

State Status: Rare Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The broadstripe shiner is a colorful minnow attaining a maximum total length of about 7 em (2.8 in). Broadstripe shiners have a deep anteriorly compressed body that tapers toward the caudal fin and large dorsal and anal fins. The dorsal and anal fins of males have much longer rays than those of females. Breeding males develop bright orange in the caudal fin. The broad lateral stripe covers over half the area of the side, extending from the tip of the snout to the base of the caudal fin. The lateral stripe is bluish-gray and is bordered above by a narrow orange band. The caudal spot is small and is bordered above and below by small red spots. Anterior to the caudal spot is a clear window in the center of the fin.

Range and Habitat: The broadstripe shiner is endemic to the middle Chattahoochee River system of Georgia and Alabama, near and below the Fall Line. Broadstripe shiners are primarily located in tributary streams to the Chattahoochee River.
Preferred habitats include pools and runs, in moderate current velocities over sand, silt, bedrock, often near logs, snags, and aquatic vegetation.
Diet: Little is known concerning the diet of the broadstripe shiner; probably various aquatic insects abundant in stream habitats, especially with aquatic vegetation.
Life History: The broadstripe shiner is tolerant of moderately low pH waters that are often stained with organic acids. These stained water streams, or blackwater systems, have naturally low pH values ranging down to pH 4 or even less.
Threats/Comments: The major threat to the survival of broadstripe shiners is water quality and habitat degradation in tributary streams to the Chattahoochee River. Restricted range and localized distributions further contribute to the vulnerability of this species.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conservation of the broadstripe shiner depends upon identifying and protecting specific habitats within its range. This includes protecting brownwater streams that have abundant aquatic vegetation. Watershed clearing and increasing urban development can modify habitats by changing the hydrology and increasing nutrients in stream systems that may be naturally nutrient poor. Status surveys are needed to determine the extent of the distribution of the broadstripe shiner and to identify the range of habitats that it utilizes. This information will be critical to assessing any change in conservation status and in designing management programs.
Selected References:
Lee, S. L., C. R. Gilbert, C.H. Hocutt, R. E.Jenkins, D. E. McAllister, and]. R.Stauffer. 1980. Atlas of North American fishes. North Carolina StateMus. Nat. Hist. 867pp.
Page, L.M. and B. M. Burr. 1991. Afield guide tofreshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp.

Stokes, G. D. and W S. Birkhead. 1987. pH discrimination of two cuprinid fish. ASB Bulletin 34:115 (abstract).

Suttkus, R. D. 1955. Notropis euryzonus, a new cyprinid fish

from the Chattahoochee Riversystem of Georgia and Alabama.

. .'

Tulane Studies in Zoology. Vol 3: 85-100.

' }~<~~~ Written by Dr. Byron]. Freeman

200

State Status: Rare Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: A slender minnow with a compressed body and pointed snout, the bluenose shiner reaches 6.5 em (2.6 in) in total length and is characterized by a black stripe running along the sides from the chin and snout to the black spot in front of the caudal fin. A light yellow stripe runs along the side just above the black lateral band, and the fins are light yellow. The body is dusky olive-brown dorsally, with these scales outlined in black. Breeding males and females develop a bright blue snout. Males develop an enlarged black dorsal fin which contrasts with the also enlarged bright yellow and black anal and pelvic fins.

Range and Habitat: The bluenose shiner occurs below the Fall Line in the Apalachicola River system, and westward to the Pearl River drainage in Mississippi and Louisiana, and in the St. Johns River drainage in Florida. In Georgia, the bluenose shiner is known from tributaries to the Flint River system in southwest Georgia. Bluenose shiners are primarily found in tributary streams, inhabiting pools with abundant vegetation, slow current, and moderate to deep water.
Diet: Probably aquatic and terrestrial insects.
Life History: Relatively little is known about the life history of this striking minnow. Collections of brightly colored males suggest a spring or early summer spawning period.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
frequently be overlooked as important habitats for rare aquatic species. Special care must be taken to protect small and medium-sized streams from unnecessary runoff, contamination by pesticides or fertilizers, and streambank disturbance. These streams must also be protected from excessive water withdrawals (for irrigation, for example) that diminish streamflow, especially during dry periods.
Selected References:

Threats/Comments: Bluenose shiners only occur in isolated localities in Georgia. Habitat degradation resulting from poor riparian management and flow reduction in tributaries dependent on groundwater inflow in Southwest Georgia threaten the survival of this fish.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conserving populations of bluenose shiners depends on protecting habitat quality in Coastal Plain streams that may

Lee, S. L., C. R. Gilbert, C.H. Hocutt, R. E. Jenkins, D. E.
McAllister, andJ. R.Stauffer. 1980. Atlas of North American
fishes. North Carolina State Mus. Nat. Hist. 867pp.
Mettee, M. F.,P E. O'Neil, and]. M. Pierson. 1996. Fishes of Alabama and the Mobile Basin. Oxmoor House, Birmingham. 820pp.
Page, L. M. and B. M. Burr. 1991. A field guide tofreshwater fishes of NorthAmerica north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp.
Pritchard, P C. H. 1978. Rare and endangered biota ofFlorida.
Vol. 4. Fishes. C. R. Gilbert, ed. Univ. Florida Press, Cainesville. 58pp.

Written by Dr. Byron J. Freeman

201

State Status: Rare Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The southern cavefish is a small, blind, pinkish-white denizen of underground pools and streams. It reaches up to 8.6 ern (3.4 in) total length. The large, broad head is flattened, with a protruding lower jaw, tubular nostrils, and only vestigial eye tissue covered by skin. The fish also lacks pelvic fins, but has a single dorsal fin, an anal fin, two pectoral fins and a caudal fin. Rows of sensory papillae occur on the head, sides and caudal fin.

Range and Habitat: The southern cavefish is found west of the Mississippi River in the Ozark Plateau of southern Missouri and northeast Arkansas. East of the Mississippi River it is found from extreme southwest Indiana to northwestern Georgia and northern Alabama. Georgia records are from caves in Dade County. The species is also known from caves in the Coosa River system in Alabama, but no confirmed records exist for the Coosa River system in Georgia. This species is found only in subterranean spring and cave waters.
Diet: Small invertebrates, including microcrustaceans.
Life History: The southern cavefish has a life span of about 4 years, reaching sexual maturity after 2 years. Spawning probably occurs during springtime flooding in caves. The fish detects its prey in the darkness of caves with its sensory papillae.
Threats/Comments: Groundwater pollution and water withdrawal that diminishes subterranean springs and caves threaten the survival of this fish, as does cave habitat destruction.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conservation of cave-dwelling animals, and especially aquatic species including the southern cavefish, depends on protecting subterranean stream systems from inputs of fertilizers, pesticides, and other toxic chemicals as well as from excessive water withdrawal. Care should be taken to prevent groundwater pollution, especially in areas with extensive limestone

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
formations that allow contaminants to percolate easily into underground stream systems.
Selected References:
Cooper, John E. and Anthony Iles. 1971. The southern cavefish, Typhlichthys subterraneus at the southern periphery of its range. National Speleological Bulletin. 33:45-49.
Etnier, D.A. and We. Starnes. 1993. The fishes of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Press, Knoxville. 681pp.
Lee, S. L., e. R. Gilbert, e. H. Hocutt, R. E.Jenkins, D. E.
McAllister, andJ. R.Stauffer. 1980. Atlas of NorthAmerican
fishes. North Carolina StateMus. Nat. Hist. 867pp.
Mettee, M. F., P. E. O'Neil andJ. M. Pierson. 1996. Fishes of
Alabama and the Mobile Basin. Oxmoor House, Birmingham. 820pp.
Page, L. M. and B.M. Burr. 1991. Afield guide tofreshwater fishes of NorthAmerica north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 432pp.
Poulson, T. L. 1963. Cave adaptation in amblyopsid fishes. American Midland Naturalist 70:257-290.

Written by Dr. Byron J. Freeman

203

State Status: Endangered Federal Status: Endangered

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The inflated, heavy, subquadrate shell of this medium-sized to large mussel reaches a length of 102 mm (4.0 in). Older specimens become so inflated that their width is about the same as their height. The shell is dark brown to black and strongly sculptured with 7 to 9 prominent parallel ridges. The nacre is bluish white to light purple and is very iridescent.

Range and Habitat: This species was originally described from the Flint River near Montezuma, Macon County, and was known historically from the mainstems of the Flint in Georgia and the Apalachicola and lower Chipola in Florida. During a recent status survey of 86 sites within the historical range, live individuals were found at only 6 sites on the Apalachicola and lower Chipola rivers in Florida, including only 1 of 8 historical sites checked. Populations averaged only 6.4 live individuals per site. The species was last seen alive in Georgia in 1988. This mussel inhabits substrates of gravel, rocky rubble with sand and sandy mud, or sand and sandy clay in reaches of slow to moderate current in small to large rivers.
Diet: Probably plankton, bacteria, algae and other organic matter filtered from flowing water; larvae are parasitic upon the gills or fins of host fishes
Life History: Verylittle is known about the life history of this species. Like other mussels, they probably live for many years in good habitat. Spawning is probably influenced by water temperature and level of flow. Spatial aggregation of mussels within a population influences reproductive success

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
through rate of egg formation, rate of fertilization, or both. Females filter sperm, released by nearby males, from the water to fertilize vast quantities of eggs. Each egg develops into a parasitic larval form known as a glochidium. Females release batches of thousands of tiny glochidia into the surrounding water. Glochidia that are able to attach to particular host fishes survive as parasites for 30-60 days, then drop off to spend the rest of their existence on the substrate. Host fishes are unknown, but likely are sunfishes, as used by other mussels in this genus, and possibly minnows as well. Glochidia that are not able to attach to a host soon perish. Mussels obtain food by filtering tiny organisms and detritus particles from flowing water. Predators probably include fishes, turtles, wading birds, and mink.

Threats/Comments: As filter feeders, mussels extract and concentrate harmful contaminants such as runoff from agricultural and livestock operations, urban runoff, municipal and industrial waste discharges, chemical spills, and other sources of point and nonpoint source water pollution. Probably an even greater factor in the demise of this species and other freshwater mussels has been the impact of siltation, which entombs mussels and covers up suitable sand or gravel benthic habitat. Erosion and siltation are caused extensively by streamside livestock trampling, forestry operations, development projects, and other soil-disturbing activities, as well as in-stream activities such as sand and gravel mining, channelization, dredging, dredge spoil disposal, and snag removal. The fat threeridge is not known to tolerate stream impoundment, which eliminates water flow and increases siltation.
204

Mussel populations are usually eliminated by impoundment, but even if adults continue to survive there is likely no recruitment in these populations. Actually, there is limited evidence of recruitment in any remaining populations. With few new individuals reaching maturity, populations will likely not persist. Impoundment, siltation, and pollution can also affect the population health of host fishes necessary for successful mussel reproduction.
An additional potential threat is the exotic, and extremely opportunistic and prolific, Asian clam. This small introduced mussel has spread throughout most of our waterways. It probably competes with native mussels for nutrients and space and possibly inhibits the reproduction of native mussels by filtering sperm from the water. Still another looming threat is posed by the exotic zebra mussel. This species has spread rapidly since being introduced into the Great Lakes in the late 1980s, and it might expand its range into Georgia soon. In addition to competing with native mussels, zebra mussels in dense concentrations attach directly to native mussels and impair their ability to function normally.
Freshwater mussels were important in Native American culture. The meat was used for food and the shells for tools, decorations, and tempering pottery. Shell collectors possibly continue to have a minor impact.

Selected References:
Brim-Box, J. andJ. D. Williams. (in press) Unionid mollusks of
theApalachicola Basin in Alabama, Florida, and Georgia. Bulletin ofAlabama Museum of Natural History, Tuscaloosa, Alabama
Butler, R. S. 1993. Results of a status survey for eight freshwater mussels (Bivalvia: Unionidae) endemic to eastern gulf slope drainages of theApalachicolan region of southeast Alabama, southwest Georgia, and north Florida. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Seru. Jacksonville, Fla. 41pp.
Butler, R.S. 1998. Determination of endangered status forfive freshwater mussels and threatened status for twofreshwater mussels from the Eastern GulfSlope drainages ofAlabama, Florida, and Georgia. March 16 Federal Register 63 (50):12664-12687.
Williams, J. D., M. L. Warren, Jr., K. S. Cummings, J. L. Harris, andR.J. Neves. 1992. Conservation status offreshwater mussels
of the United States and Canada. Fisheries 18(9):6-22.
----' and R. S. Butler. 1994. Fat threeridge. Pages 66-69 in M. Deyrup andR. Franz, eds. Rare and endangered biota of Florida. Vol. N Invertebrates. Univ. Press of Florida, Gainesville. 798pp.
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1997. Protected species inventory and identification in theAlabama-Coosa-Tallapoosa and Apalachicola-Chattahoochee-Flint riverbasins. Vol. 1. Appendix
C.

Conservation and Management Recommendations: For the fat threeridge to survive, extensive land-use practices that have degraded water and stream substrate quality must be modified. Buffer zones need to be implemented to reduce erosion and siltation from urban development, farming, and forestry activities. Nonpoint urban pollution and runoff from livestock and poultry operations must also be reduced. The impacts of in-stream substrate-disturbing activities and impoundments need to be fully evaluated before more projects of this type are initiated. More information is needed about the life history of this species to facilitate the development of conservation strategies.

Written byJames c. Ozier

205

State Status: Threatened Federal Status: Threatened

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The subrhomboidal shell of this large mussel reaches a length of 200 mm (8 in). The brownish-black to black shell is moderately inflated, heavy, and strongly sculptured. The nacre is white in the center, becoming deep purple toward the edges, and is very iridescent posteriorly.

Range and Habitat: This species was originally described from the Chattahoochee River at Columbus, and was known to occur historically in the Chipola and Apalachicola rivers in Florida, the Ochlockonee River in Florida and Georgia, and all along the Flint River in Georgia. It has apparently been extirpated from the Chattahoochee and Chipola rivers, and its range in the Ochlockonee and Flint rivers has been reduced. During a recent survey of 222 sites within the historical range, live individuals were detected at only 41 sites, including six of 14 historical sites checked. Populations averaged 54 individuals per site. Most sites were on river main stems rather than tributaries. This species inhabits sand or sand mixed with mud or gravel substrates in areas of medium-sized streams to large rivers with slow to moderate current.
Diet: Probably plankton, bacteria, algae and other organic matter filtered from flowing water; larvae are parasitic upon the gills or fins of host fishes.
Life History: Verylittle is known about the life history of this species. Like other mussels, it probably lives for many years if good habitat is available. Spawning is probably influenced by water temperature and level of flow. Spatial aggregation of mussels within a population influences reproductive success through rate of egg formation, rate of fertilization, or both. Females filter sperm, released by nearby males, from the water to fertilize vast quantities of eggs. Each fertilized egg develops into a parasitic larval form known as a glochidium. Females release batches of thousands of tiny glochidia into the surrounding water. Glochidia that are able to attach to

Shadingindicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
particular host fishes survive as parasites for 30-60 days, then drop off to spend the rest of their existence on the substrate. Glochidia that are not able to attach to a host soon perish. Host fishes for this mussel include eastern mosquitofish, blackbanded darter, and possibly sunfishes. Mussels obtain food by filtering tiny organisms and detritus particles from moving water. Predators probably include fishes, turtles, wading birds, raccoons and mink.
Threats/Comments: As filter feeders, mussels extract, concentrate, and are harmed by contaminants such as runoff from agricultural and livestock operations, urban runoff, municipal and industrial waste discharges, chemical spills, and other sources of point and nonpoint water pollution. Probably an even greater factor in the demise of this species has been the impact of siltation, which entombs mussels and covers up suitable sand or gravel benthic habitat. Erosion and siltation are caused extensively by streamside livestock trampling, forestry operations, development projects, and other soil-disturbing activities, as well as in-stream activities such as sand and gravel mining, channelization, dredging, dredge spoil disposal, and snag removal.
Mussels are usually eliminated by stream impoundment, which eliminates water flow and increases siltation; purple bankclimbersare particularly susceptible. But even if adults continue to survive there is likely no recruitment in these populations. Actually, there is very little evidence of recruitment in any remaining populations. With few or no new individuals reaching maturity, populations will not survive. Impoundment, siltation, and pollution can also affect the

206

population health of host fishes necessary for successful mussel reproduction.
An additional potential threat is the exotic, and extremely opportunistic and prolific, Asian clam. This small introduced mussel has spread throughout most of our waterways. It probably competes with native mussels for nutrients and space and possibly inhibits the reproduction of native mussels by filtering sperm from the water. Still another looming threat is posed by the exotic zebra mussel. If this species spreads into Georgia, it will likely become a problem. In addition to competing with native mussels, zebra mussels in dense concentrations attach directly to native mussels and impair their ability to function normally.
Freshwater mussels were important in Native _ American culture. The meat was used for food and the shells for tools, decorations, and tempering pottery. Purple bankclimbers have more recently been collected for commercial use by biological supply houses, and the shells are used in the manufacture of costume jewelry. The species has also been harvested for fish bait and by shell collectors.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: For the purple bankclimber to survive, extensive land-use practices that have degraded water and stream substrate quality must be modified. Buffer zones need to be implemented to reduce erosion and siltation from urban development, farming, and forestry activities. Nonpoint source urban pollution and runoff from livestock and poultry operations must also be reduced. The impacts of in-stream substrate-disturbing activities and impoundments need to be fully evaluated before more projects of this type are initiated: More information is needed about the life history of this species to facilitate the development of conservation strategies.

Selected References:
Brim-Box, J. andJ. D.Williams. (in press) Unionid mollusks of
theApalachicola Basin in Alabama, Florida, and Georgia. Bulletin ofAlabama Museum of Natural History, Tuscaloosa, Alabama.
Burch, J.B. 1975. Freshwater Unionacean Clams (Mollusca: Pelecypoda) of North America. Malacological Publications, Hamburg, Michigan.
Butler, R. S. 1993. Results of a status survey for eight freshwater mussels (Bivalvia: Unionidae) endemic to Eastern Gulf Slope drainages of theApalachicolan region of southeast Alabama, southwest Georgia, and north Florida. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Sera. Jacksonville, Fla. 41pp.
_ _. 1998. Determination of endangered status for five freshwatermussels and threatened status for twofreshwater mussels from the Eastern GulfSlope drainages ofAlabama, Florida, and Georgia. March 16 Federal Register 63 (50):12664-12687.
Williams, J. D.,M. L. Warren, Jr., K. S. Cummings, J. L. Harris, and R.J. Neves. 1992. Conservation status offreshwater mussels
of the United States and Canada. Fisheries 18(9):6-22.
-----J and R. S. Butler. 1994. Purple bankclimber. Pages 74-77 in M. Deyrup and R. Franz, eds. Rare and endangered biota of Florida. Vol. W Invertebrates. Univ. Press of Florida. 798pp.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1997. Protected species inventory and identification in theAlabama-Coosa-Tallapoosa and Apalachicola-Chattahoochee-Flint river basins. Vol. 1. Appendix
C.
Written byJames c. Ozier

207

State Status: Endangered Federal Status: Endangered

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The upland combshell is a small mollusk with a maximum length of 6 em (2.4 in). Both genders are shaped rhomboidal to quadrate, but are sexually dimorphic. Females have a swollen posterior portion of the shell which accommodates developing larvae. The periostracum is yellowish-brown, and there may be broken green rays or small green spots.

Range and Habitat: The historic range of the upland combshell included the BlackWarrior, Cahaba, and Coosa river systems and tributaries in Alabama, Georgia, and Tennessee. The only recent record of the upland combshell is from the Conasauga River in the vicinity of the Georgia-Tennessee state line.
The upland combshell was historically found on stable gravel-cobble substrate in shoals in medium rivers and large streams with medium to fast current velocities.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences

Diet: Captured detritus and algae (adults); juveniles are parasitic upon host fishes.
Life History: Adult freshwater mussels are filter feeding organisms, living off captured detritus and algae drifting in the water currents in streams. Juvenile mussels are parasitic upon host fishes for generally 30-60 days. The life history specific to the upland combshell is largely unknown; however, based on observations of the similar related southern combshell, it likely releases glochidia during late spring and early summer. As in many other freshwater mussels, the fish hosts are unknown.
Threats/Comments: All freshwater mussels are threatened by degradation of water quality, loss of instream habitat, and the additional constraint of finding a suitable host fish. Increased siltation resulting from failure to employ Best Management Practices (BMPs) for forestry and agriculture, failure to control soil erosion from construction sites and

bridge crossings, and increased stormwater runoff from developing urban and industrial areas contributes to loss of habitat. Mussels such as the upland combs hell require clean gravel riffles and are especially susceptible to the threat of stream degradation resulting from low dissolved oxygen levels or high chlorine concentrations in waterways. Because mussels rely on various schemes to visually attract fish close enough for effective release of glochidia (larval mussels), waters that are turbid or carrying a lotof suspended sediment will likely interfere with the ability of mussels to infect a host fish.
Like many freshwater mussels, the upland combshell does not survive in impoundments and reservoirs. The appearance of the Asian clam has been suggested as a contributing factor in the decline of many freshwater mussels.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conservation of the upland combshell first requires that populations are located; only then can critical life history data be collected on fish hosts, time of spawning, habitat requirements of adults, and tolerances to degraded water quality conditions. In particular, efforts should be made to understand susceptibility of mussels in the upper Conasauga River to chemicals found in runoff. Methods ef artificial propagation should also be investigated. Conserving populations will depend on maintaining and improving habitat quality in small to medium-sized streams. Improving or changing water quality quickly is very difficult in large streams but achievable in smaller ones. Watershed clearing and urban development can lead to unnaturally flashy stormwater runoff, which scours stream channels and results in lower baseflows. For these rea-

208

sons, containing and slowly releasing storm water runoff from developed areas is an important element in protecting stream habitats for mussels and other aquatic organisms. Impounding streams should be a last resort for developing water supplies. Reintroduction efforts should focus upon identifying high quality streams within the range of the upland combshell that would be suitable for reintroduction. As with other upper Coosa River system mussels, additional surveys need to be quickly accomplished throughout what remains of high quality streams in the upper Coosa River system in Georgia.

Selected References:

Anderson, P G., B. G. H. Browne, M. H. Hughes, B. J. Freeman

and Z. E. operation

KofovthaetsR. i1v9e9r7R.oaCdoRnaessearuvgoair,baDsaelltionne,mGoan. itPorreinp.gfoprreu- .s.

Army Corps of Engineers, Atlanta, Ga., by Golder Associates, Inc.

84pp.

U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1993. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; endangered status for eight freshwater mussels and threatened status jor three freshwater mussels in the Mobile Riverdrainage. U.S. Dept. Interior. Federal Register
58:50.14330-14340.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1994. Technical-agency draft Mobile RiverBasin aquatic ecosystem recovery plan. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Jackson, Miss. 128pp.

Written by Dr. Byron J. Freeman

209

State Status: Endangered Federal Status: Endangered

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The southern acornshell is a small, oval mussel that reaches up to 3 cm (1.2 in) in length. The smooth and shiny periostracum is yellowish.

Range and Habitat: The distribution of the southern acornshell historically ranged above the Fall Line in Alabama, Georgia, and Tennessee in the Coosa and Cahaba river drainages. However, most records were from the upper Coosa River system. This species was described from Othcalooga Creek, a tributary to the Coosawattee River in Gordon County, Georgia. It was previously collected from the Conasauga River but has not been collected in recent times.
The southern acornshell has been reported as being found on flowing shoal areas in small streams to small rivers on stable substrates of sand, gravel, and cobble.
Diet: Captured detritus and algae (adults); juveniles are parasitic upon host fishes.
Life History: Adult freshwater mussels are filter feeding organisms, living off captured detritus and algae drifting in the water currents in streams. Juvenile mussels are parasitic upon host fishes for generally 30-60 days. Life history specific to the southern acornshell is unknown.
Threats/Comments: All freshwater mussels are threatened by degradation of water quality, loss of instream habitat, and the additional constraint of finding a suitable host fish. Increased siltation resulting from failure to employ Best Management Practices (BMPs) for forestry and agriculture, failure to control soil erosion from construction sites and bridge crossings, and increased stormwater runoff from developing urban and industrial areas contributes to loss of habitat.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Mussels such as the southern acornshell require clean gravel riffles and are especially susceptible to the threat of stream degradation resulting from low dissolved oxygen levels or high chlorine concentrations in waterways. Because mussels rely on various schemes to visually attract fish close enough for effective release glochidia (larval mussels), waters that are turbid or carrying a lot of suspended sediment will likely interfere with the ability of mussels to infect a host fish. In addition, mussels are sensitive to various pesticides.
Like many freshwater mussels, the southern acornshell does not survive in impoundments and reservoirs. The appearance of the Asian clam has been suggested as a contributing factor in the decline of many freshwater mussels. Othacoolga Creek, the type locality for this species, is extremely impaired, and best serves as an example of why so many mussel species have disappeared from small to medium streams in Georgia.

Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conservation of the southern acornshell first requires that populations are located; only then can critical life history data be collected on fish hosts, time of spawning, habitat requirements of adults, and tolerances to degraded water quality conditions. Methods of artificial propagation should also be investigated. Conserving populations will depend on maintaining and improving habitat quality in small to mediumsized streams. Improving or changing water quality quickly is very difficult in large streams but achievable in smaller ones. Watershed clearing and urban development can lead to unnaturally flashy stormwater runoff, which scours stream channels
210

and results in lower baseflows. For these reasons, containing and slowly releasing stormwater runoff from developed areas is an important element in protecting stream habitats for mussels and other aquatic organisms. Impounding streams should be a last resort for developing water supplies. Reintroduction efforts should focus upon identifying high quality streams within the range of the southern acornshell that would be suitable for reintroduction. Finally, additional surveys need to be conducted soon throughout what remains of high quality streams in the upper Coosa River system in Georgia.

Selected References:

Anderson, P. G., B. G. H. Browne, M. H. Hughes, B. J. Freeman

and Z. E. operation

KofotvhaetsR. i1v9e9r7R.oaCdoRnaessearuvgoair,baDsaelltionne,mGoan. itPorreinp.gfporreu- .s.

Army Corps of Engineers, Atlanta, Ga., by Golder Associates, Inc.

84pp.

u. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1993. Endangered and threat-
ened wildlife and plants; endangered status for eight freshwater mussels and threatened status jor three freshwater mussels in the Mobile Riverdrainage. U.S. Dept. Interior. Federal Register
58:50.14330-14340.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1994. Technical-agency draft Mobile RiverBasin aquatic ecosystem recovery plan. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Jackson, Miss. 128pp.

Written by Dr. Byron J. Freeman

211

State Status: Endangered Federal Status: Not Listed

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The Atlantic pigtoe is thin-shelled and slightly rhomboidal in shape. Its height is approximately three- to four-fifths of its length, which is seldom greater than 5 em (2 in). The periostracum is cloth- or parchment-like and ranges in color from green to yellow to yellowish-brown; the yellowish-brown hinge is short and raised above the dorsal margin. The adult shell is smooth except for folds and ridges in the skin which represent growth checks or rings. The nacre is smooth and varies from white to iridescent and becomes so thin in places that the growth rings in the skin show clearly through to the inside of the shelL

Range and Habitat: The Atlantic pigtoe historically ranged from the Ogeechee River system in Georgia northward along the Atlantic Slope drainages to the James River in Virginia. This species is rare to uncommon across its range, known historically from the Broad River, Mill Race, and the Savannah River in the Savannah River drainage and from Buckhead Creek, Williamson Swamp Creek, and the Ogeechee River in the Ogeechee River drainage. The only known recent occurrence in Georgia is from Williamson Swamp Creek.
The Atlantic pigtoe can be found in clean waters with moderate current velocities over soft substrates that range from sand, mud, and silt to soft sand and graveL The Atlantic pigtoe has been collected in areas downstream of log-jams and below riffles in streams that range in size from tiny creeks to large rivers.
Diet: Captured detritus and algae (adults); juveniles are parasitic upon host fishes.

Shadingindicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Life History: Little is known of the life history of the Atlantic pigtoe. Female freshwater mussels hold developing larval mussels in special structures in their gills prior to release. Observations by researchers suggest that Atlantic pigtoe females are gravid as early as June and have released all larvae by September. Different species of fishes may serve as hosts for larval mussels, but neither the species of fish host(s) nor the development time to metamorphose from a larvae to juvenile mussel are known for the Atlantic pigtoe. Adult freshwater mussels are filter feeding organisms, living off captured detritus and algae drifting in the water currents in streams. Juvenile mussels are parasitic upon host fishes for generally 30-60 days.

Threats/Comments: Threats to all freshwater mussels include stream degradation resulting from failure to employ Best Management Practices (BMPs) for forestry and agriculture, failure to control soil erosion from construction sites and bridge crossings, and increased stormwater runoff from developing urban and industrial areas contributes to loss of habitat. Other threats include pollution such as low dissolved oxygen levels and chlorinated wastewater discharges, as well as the potential loss of fish hosts from the stream system. Like many freshwater mussels, the Atlantic pigtoe does not survive in impoundments and reservoirs. The appearance of the Asian clam has been suggested as a contributing factor in the decline of many freshwater mussels.

212

Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conservation of the Atlantic pigtoe requires that critical life history data be collected on fish hosts, timing of reproduction, habitat requirements of adults, and tolerances to degraded water quality conditions. Methods of artificial propagation should also be investigated. Conserving populations will depend on maintaining and improving habitat quality in small to large streams. Improving or changing water quality quickly is very difficult in large streams but achievable in smaller ones. Watershed clearing and urban development can lead to unnaturally flashy stormwater runoff, which scours stream channels and results in lower baseflows. For these reasons, containing and slowly releasing stormwater runoff from developed areas is an important element in protecting stream habitats for mussels and other aquatic organisms. Impounding streams should be a last resort for developing water supplies. Reintroduction efforts should focus upon identifying high quality streams within the range of the Atlantic pigtoe that would be suitable for reintroduction.
Selected References:
Aldennan, J.M. 1991. Status survey for theAtlanticpigtoe lfus-
conaia masoni) in Georgia. NC Wild Res. Comm., Nongame and Endangered wild. Prog. 36 pp. Burch, J.B. 1975. Freshwater Unionacean Clams (Mollusca: Pelecypoda) of North America. Malacological Publications, Hamburg, Michigan. Fuller, S. H. L. 1973. Fusconaia masoni (Conrad 1834) (Bilvalvia: Unionacea) in theAtlantic Drainage of the Southeastern United States. Malacolgical Review 6:105-117.
Gerberich, A. 1991. Atlantic pigtoe. Pages 275-276 in Terwilliger, K., coordinator. Virginia's endangered species. McDonald and Woodward, Blacksburg, Va.
Johnson, R. I. 1970. The systematics and zoogeography of the Unionidae (Mollusca: Bivalvia) of the southern Atlanticslope region. Bull. Museum of Compo Zool. Vol. 140 No.6
Stevenson, P 1992. Element stewardship form for Fusconaia masoni. Georgia Dept. Nat. Res., Ga. Natural Heritage Program, Social Circle.
Written by Dr. Byron J. Freeman
213

State Status: Threatened Federal Status: Threatened

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The finelined pocketbook is a medium-sized

mussel with a maximum length of 10 em (4 in). It is sub-oval

and the females have a pointed posterior margin. The perios-

tracum is yellowish- to dark brown with fine rays on the pos-

e,

terior half, and the nacre is white.

Range and Habitat: The historic range of the finelined pocketbook includes the Tombigbee and Alabama rivers and their tributaries in Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, and Tennessee. Very localized populations still exist in these systems, but most are restricted to small creeks, and the finelined pocketbook appears to be eliminated from most river habitat throughout its range. In Georgia, the finelined pocketbook is currently known from the upper Conasauga River and from a recent collection from a tributary to the Etowah River in Polk County. Recent collections in the upper Tallapoosa River in Alabama suggest that this species may occur in the Tallapoosa River in Haralson County.
The finelined pocketbook can be found in high quality streams with stable substrates, including sand, gravel, and cobble in flowing currents.
Diet: Captured detritus and algae (adults); juveniles are parasitic upon host fishes.
Life History: The finelined pocketbook uses a remarkable method to help ensure reproduction. All breeding female mussels attempt to attract fish in order to complete the obligatory parasitic life stage of their young (glochidia). In the case of the fine-lined pocketbook, the female produces a long (up to 2 m or 6.6 ft) transparent mucous strand with the glochidia attached to the end of the strand. Therpackaged" glochidia appears to be a small minnow, and the movement in the water suggests a lure. Laboratory studies have confirmed that bass

Shadingindicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
will attack this "lure" and in the process will become infected with young mussels. The glochidia then encyst on the gill filaments of the host fish and develop until they are ready to transform into juveniles and drop off into the stream bottom. Little is known about additional life history requirements.
Adult freshwater mussels are filter feeding organisms, living off captured detritus and algae drifting in the water currents in streams. Juvenile mussels are parasitic upon host fishes for generally 30-60 days.
Threats/Comments: All freshwater mussels are threatened by degradation of water quality, loss of instream habitat, and the additional constraint of finding a suitable host fish. Increased siltation resulting from failure to employ Best Management Practices (BMPs) for forestry and agriculture, failure to control soil erosion from construction sites and bridge crossings, and increased stormwater runoff from developing urban and industrial areas contributes to loss of habitat. Mussels such as the finelined pocketbook require clean gravel riffles and are especially susceptible to the threat of stream degradation resulting from low dissolved oxygen levels or high chlorine concentrations in waterways. Because mussels rely on various schemes to visually attract fish close enough for effective release of glochidia (larval mussels), waters that are turbid or carrying a lot of suspended sediment will likely interfere with the ability of mussels to infect a host fish. In addition, mussels are sensitive to various pesticides. The finelined pocketbook is especially susceptible to turbid waters; the packaged glcchidiar'lurevwill become quickly coated with sediment, rendering it less effective or even ineffective to fishes.

214

Like many freshwater mussels, the fine-lined pocketbook does not survive in impoundments and reservoirs. The appearance of the Asian clam has been suggested as a contributing factor in the decline of many freshwater mussels.

Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conservation of the finelined pocketbook requires that critical life history data be collected on fish hosts, time of spawning, habitat requirements of adults and tolerances to degraded water quality conditions. In particular, efforts should be made to understand susceptibility of mussels in the upper Conasauga River to chemicals found in runoff. Methods of artificial propagation should also be investigated. Conserving populations will depend on maintaining and improving habitat quality in small to medium-sized streams. Improving or changing water quality quickly is very difficult in large streams but achievable in smaller ones. Watershed clearing and urban development can lead to unnaturally flashy stormwater runoff, which scours stream channels and results in lower baseflows. For these reasons, containing and slowly releasing stormwater runoff from developed areas is an important element in protecting stream habitats for mussels and other aquatic organisms. Impounding streams should be a last resort for developing water supplies.
Reintroduction efforts should focus upon identifying high quality streams within the range of the finelined pocketbook that would be suitable for reintroduction. Finally, additional surveys need to be conducted soon throughout what remains of high quality streams in the upper Coosa River system in Georgia. The appearance of a recent population in the Etowah River system is a hopeful sign; however, it is most likely that this population is another very localized one of old individuals.

Selected References:

Anderson, P. G., B. G. H. Browne, M. H. Hughes, B. J. Freeman

and Z. E. operation

KofovthaetsR. i1v9e9r7R.oaCdoRnaessearuvgoair,baDsaelltionne,mGoan. itPorreinp.gfporreu- .s.

Army Corps of Engineers, Atlanta, Ga., by Golder Associates, Inc.

84pp.

Burch, J.B. 1975. Freshwater Unionacean Clams (Mollusca:
Pelecypoda) of North America. Malacological Publications, Hamburg, Michigan.

U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1993. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; endangered status for eightfreshwater mussels and threatened status jor three freshwater mussels in the Mobile Riverdrainage. U.S. Dept. Interior. Federal Register
58:50.14330-14340.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1994. Technical-agency draft Mobile River Basin aquatic ecosystem recovery plan. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Jackson, Miss. 128pp.

Written by Dr. Byron J. Freeman

215

State Status: Endangered Federal Status: Endangered

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The sub elliptical shell of this medium-sized mussel reaches a length of about 85 mm (3.3 in). The shell is smooth and shiny, light yellowish-brown with wide emerald green rays. In older mussels, the shell becomes darker brown and the rays less distinguishable. The nacre is white with occasional salmon tinting.

Range and Habitat: This species was originally described from the Chattahoochee River at Columbus, and occurred widely through the lower Chattahoochee system in Georgia and Alabama, the Flint in Georgia, the Ochlockonee in Georgia and Florida, the Chipola in Alabama and Florida, and the Apalachicola in Florida. It is currently known from only two Chattahoochee tributary sites, one in Alabama and one in Georgia, from a few Chipola River sites in Florida, from a few Ochlockonee sites in Georgia and Florida, and from several Flint River system sites, mostly tributaries, in Georgia. During a recent status survey of 380 sites within the historical range, live individuals were found at only 23 sites, including only six of 28 historical sites checked. Populations averaged only 2.9 live individuals per site. Ten additional sites were discovered subsequent to the status survey. The shinyrayed pocketbook inhabits clean sand or silty sand substrates in areas of slow to moderate current in medium-sized creeks to rivers.
Diet: Probably plankton, bacteria, algae and other organic matter filtered from flowing water; juveniles are parasitic upon the gills or fins of host fishes
Life History: Very little is known about the life history of this species. Like other mussels, they probably live for many years in good habitat. Spawning is probably influenced by

Shadingindicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
water temperature and level of flow. Spatial aggregation of mussels within a population influences reproductive success through rate of egg formation, rate of fertilization, or both. Females filter sperm, released by nearby males, from the water to fertilize vast quantities of eggs. Each egg develops into a parasitic larval form known as a glochidium. Host fishes appear to be primarily largemouth bass and spotted bass. Glochidia that are not able to attach to a host soon perish. The female shinyrayed pocketbook practices a highly specialized, recently discovered technique to facilitate transfer of the glochidia to the host fish. The glochidia are encased in a mucous packet that mimics the appearance of a small fish. This packet, called a superconglutinate, is trailed into the current on a mucous strand that might stretch 250 cm (98 in). Predatory fishes, including the specific hosts, attack and attempt to consume the lure, resulting in the release of the glochidia directly into the fishes'mouths. Many of the glochidia that are not swallowed should then be able to attach to the host fishes' gills. Mussels obtain food by filtering tiny organisms and detritus particles from flowing water. Predators probably include fishes, turtles, wading birds, raccoons and mink.

Threats/Comments: As filter feeders, mussels extract and concentrate harmful contaminants such as runoff from agricultural and livestock operations, urban runoff, municipal and industrial waste discharges, chemical spills, and other sources of point and nonpoint source water pollution. Probably an even greater factor in the demise of this species and other freshwater mussels has been the impact of siltation, which
216

entombs mussels and covers up suitable sand or gravel benthic habitat. Erosion and siltation are caused extensively by streamside livestock trampling, forestry operations, development projects, and other soil-disturbing activities, as well as in-stream activities such as sand and gravel mining, channelization/ dredging, dredge spoil disposal, and snag removal.
The shinyrayed pocketbook is particularly susceptible to the effects of impoundment, which eliminates water flow and increases siltation. Mussel populations are usually eliminated by impoundment, but even if adults continue to survive there is likely no recruitment in these populations. Actually, there is limited evidence of recruitment in any remaining populations. With few new individuals reaching maturity, populations will likely not persist. Impoundment, siltation, and pollution can also affect the population health of host fishes necessary for successful mussel reproduction.
An additional potential threat is the exotic, and extremely opportunistic and prolific, Asian clam. This small introduced mussel has spread throughout most of our waterways. It probably competes with native mussels for nutrients and space and possibly inhibits the reproduction of native mussels by filtering sperm from the water. Still another looming threat is posed by the exotic zebra mussel. This species has spread rapidly since being it becomes established in the Great Lakes in the late 1980s, and if it becomes established in Georgia, it will likely become a problem. In addition to competing with native mussels, zebra mussels in dense concentrations attach directly to native mussels and impair their ability to function normally.
Freshwater mussels were important in Native American culture. The meat was used for food and the shells for tools, decorations, and tempering pottery. Shell collectors possibly continue to have a minor impact.

Selected References:
Brim-Box,]. and]. D.Williams. (in press) Unionid mollusks of theApalachicola Basin in Alabama, Florida, and Georgia. Bulletin of Alabama Museum of Natural History, Tuscaloosa, Alabama.
Burch, ].B. 1975. Freshwater Unionacean Clams (Mollusca: Pelecypoda) of NorthAmerica. Malacological Publications, Hamburg, Michigan.
Butler, R. S. 1993. Results of a status suroey for eight freshwater mussels (Bivalvia: Unionidae) endemic to eastern gulf slope drainages of the Apalachicolan region of southeast Alabama, southwest Georgia, and north Florida. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Sen: Jacksonville, Fla. 41pp.
_ _. 1998. Determination of endangered status for five freshwatermussels and threatened statusfor twofreshwater mussels from the Eastern Gulf Slope drainages ofAlabama, Florida, and Georgia. March 16 Federal Register 63 (50):12664-12687.
Williams, ]. D./ M. L. Warren, Jr./ K. S. Cummings,]. L. Harris, and R.]. Neves. 1992. Conseroation status offreshwater mussels of the United States and Canada. Fisheries 18(9):6-22.
- ' and R. S. Butler. 1994. Shiny-rayed pocketbook. Pages 113-115 in M. Deyrup and R. Franz, eds. Rare and endangered biota of Florida. Vol. IV Invertebrates. Univ. Press of Florida, Gainesville. 798pp.
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Seroice. 1997. Protected species inventory and identification in the Alabama-Coosa-Tallapoosa and Apalachicola-Chattahoochee-Flint river basins. Vol. 1. Appendix C.
Written byJames c. Ozier

Conservation and Management Recommendations: For the shinyrayed pocketbook to survive, extensive land-use practices that have degraded water and stream substrate quality must be modified. Buffer zones need to be implemented to reduce erosion and siltation from urban development, farming/ and forestry activities. Nonpoint source urban pollution and runoff from livestock and poultry operations must also be reduced. The impacts of in-stream substrate-disturbing activities and impoundments need to be fully evaluated before more projects of this type are initiated. More information is needed about the life history of this species to facilitate the development of conservation strategies.

217

State. Status: Threatened Federal Status: Threatened

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The Alabama moccasinshell is a small elliptical freshwater mussel with a maximum length of 3 cm (12 in) and a delicate shell. The periostracum has broken green rays along the length of the yellow-brown shell. The nacre is clear along the margins and pink in the beak cavity.

Range and Habitat: The Alabama moccasinshell is historically known from the Alabama, Tombigbee, Black Warrior, and Coosa river systems in Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, and Tennessee. Many of these populations have been lost due to habitat alteration. Roughly 483 km (300 mi) of free-flowing riverine habitat have been impounded in the Tombigbee River, and more than 418 km (260 mi) of the Coosa River are impounded. The only recent records of the Alabama moecasinshell in Georgia are those of a single specimen collected from the upper Conasauga River on the Georgia-Tennessee state line and a relict specimen from downstream of the Ga. Hwy 2 crossing.
The Alabama moccasinshell can be found in streams and small rivers along moderate- to fast-flowing shoals. It inhabits the interstices of gravel and cobble substrates.
Diet: Captured detritus and algae (adults); juveniles are parasitic upon host fishes.
Life History: Breeding females attempt to attract fish in order to complete the obligatory parasitic life stage of their young (glochidia). The female mussels do this by migrating to the top of the substrate and gaping, or opening their shells to expose the gills with glochidia. Observations of this behavior have been recorded in March and June. The identity of the host fish is unknown. Adult freshwater mussels are filterfeeding organisms, living off captured detritus and algae drifting in the water currents in streams. Juvenile mussels are parasitic upon host fishes for generally 30-60 days.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Threats/Comments: All freshwater mussels are threatened by degradation of water quality, loss of instream habitat, and the additional constraint of finding suitable host fish. Increased siltation resulting from failure to employ Best Management Practices (BMPs) for forestry and agriculture, failure to control soil erosion from construction sites and bridge crossings, and increased stormwater runoff from developing urban and industrial areas contributes to loss of habitat. Mussels such as the Alabama moccasinshell require clean gravel riffles and are especially susceptible to the threat of stream degradation resulting from low dissolved oxygen levels or high chlorine concentrations in waterways. Because mussels rely on various schemes to visually attract fish close enough for effective release of glochidia (larval mussels), waters that are turbid or carrying a lot of suspended sediment will likely interfere with the ability of mussels to infect a host fish. In addition, mussels are sensitive to various pesticides.
Like many freshwater mussels, the Alabama moecasinshell does not survive in impoundments and reservoirs. The appearance of the Asian clam has been suggested as a contributing factor in the decline of many freshwater mussels.

Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conservation of the Alabama moccasinshell requires that critical life history data be collected on fish hosts, habitat requirements of adults, and tolerances to degraded water quality conditions. In particular, efforts should be made to understand susceptibility of mussels in the upper Conasauga River to chemicals found in runoff. Methods of artificial propagation should also be investigated. Conserving populations will
218

depend on maintaining and improving habitat quality in small to medium-sized streams. Improving or changing water quality quickly is very difficult in large streams but achievable in smaller ones. Watershed clearing and urban development can lead to unnaturally flashy stormwater runoff which scours stream channels and results in lower baseflows. For these reasons, containing and slowly releasing stormwater runoff from developed areas is an important element in protecting stream habitats for mussels and other aquatic organisms. Impounding streams should be a last resort for developing water supplies. Reintroduction efforts should focus upon identifying high quality streams within the range of the Alabama moccasinshell that would be suitable for reintroduction. Finally, additional surveys need to be conducted soon throughout what remains of high quality streams in the upper Coosa River system in Georgia,

Selected References:

Anderson, P. G., B. G. H. Browne, M. H. Hughes, B. J. Freeman

and Z. E. operation

Kovats. 1997. Conasauga baseline of the RiverRoad Reservoir, Dalton,

mGoan. itPorreinp.gfoprreu- .s.

Army Corps of Engineers, Atlanta, Ga., by Golder Associates, Inc.

84pp.

Burch, J.B. 1975. Freshwater Unionacean Clams (Mollusca:
Pelecypoda) of North America. Malacological Publications, Hamburg Michigan.

U. S. Fish and Wildlife Seroice. 1993. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; endangered status for eight freshwater mussels and threatened status Jor three freshwater mussels in the Mobile Riverdrainage. U.S. Dept. Interior. Federal Register
58:50.14330-14340.

_ _. 1994. Technical-agency draftMobile RiverBasin aquatic
ecosystem recovery plan. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Jackson, Miss. 128pp.

Written by Dr. Byron J. Freeman

219

State. Status: Endangered Federal Status: Endangered

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The Coosa moccasinshell is a small mussel with lengths up to 4 cm (1.6 in). The shell is elongated and elliptical and is very thin and fragile. The posterior ridge ends in a broad, rounded point, and the posterior slope is noticeably corrugated with many fine points. The periostracum is yellowish - to dark brown, with thin green rays. The nacre is greenish-blue and may sometimes be spotted pink.

Range and Habitat: The Coosa moccasinshell is known historically from the Cahaba River, Sipsey Fork in the Black Warrior River system, and the Coosa River system. Recent records are known from the Conasauga River in Georgia and Tennessee and the Sipsey Fork and the Little River in Alabama. A locally abundant population exists in the Conasauga River in the vicinity of the Georgia-Tennessee state line; however, no recent specimens have been collected downstream from the state line in the Conasauga River.
The Coosa moccasinshell inhabits the interstices of gravel and cobble in flowing shoals of streams and small rivers.
Diet: Captured detritus and algae (adults); juveniles are parasitic upon host fishes.
Life History: Little is known of the life history of the Coosa moccasinshell. Due to the close relationship to the Alabama moccasinshell, life history traits should be similar. Breeding females should attempt to attract fish in order to complete the obligatory parasitic life stage of their young (glochidia). The female mussels probably do this by migrating to the top of the substrate and gaping, or opening their shells to expose the gills with glochidia. This behavior has been observed for the Coosa moccasinshell during March and June. The identity of the host fish is unknown.

Shadingindicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Adult freshwater mussels are filter-feeding organisms, living off captured detritus and algae drifting in the water currents in streams. Juvenile mussels are parasitic upon host fishes for generally 30-60 days.
Threats/Comments: All freshwater mussels are threatened by degradation of water quality, loss of instream habitat, and the additional constraint of finding a suitable host fish. Increased siltation resulting from failure to employ Best Management Practices (BMPs) for forestry and agriculture, failure to control soil erosion from construction sites and bridge crossings, and increased stormwater runoff from developing urban and industrial areas contributes to loss of habitat. Mussels such as the Coosa moccasinshell require clean gravel riffles and are especially susceptible to the threat of stream degradation resulting from low dissolved oxygen levels or high chlorine concentrations in waterways. Because mussels rely on various schemes to visually attract fish close enough for effective release of glochidia (larval mussels), waters that are turbid or carrying a lot of suspended sediment will likely interfere with the ability of mussels to infect a host fish. In addition, mussels are sensitive to various pesticides.
Like many freshwater mussels, the Coosa moccasinshell does not survive in impoundments and reservoirs. The appearance of the Asian clam has been suggested as a contributing factor in the decline of many freshwater mussels.

220

Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conservation of the Coosa moccasinshell requires that critical life history data be collected on fish hosts, time of spawning, habitat requirements of adults and tolerances to degraded water quality conditions. In particular, efforts should be made to understand susceptibility of mussels in the upper Conasauga River to chemicals found in runoff. Methods of artificial propagation should also be investigated. Conserving populations will depend on maintaining and improving habitat quality in small to medium-sized streams. Improvingor changing water quality quickly is very difficult in large streams but achievable in smaller ones. Watershed clearing and urban development can lead to unnaturally flashy stormwater runoff, which scours stream channels and results in lower baseflows. For these reasons, containing and slowly releasing stormwater runoff from developed areas is an important element in protecting stream habitats for mussels and other aquatic organisms. Impounding streams should be a last resort for developing water supplies. Reintroduction efforts should focus upon identifying high quality streams within the range of the Coosa moccasinshell that would be suitable for reintroduction. Finally, additional surveys need to be conducted soon throughout what remains of high quality streams in the upper Coosa river system in Georgia.

Selected References:

Anderson, P G., B. G.H. Browne, M. H. Hughes, B. J. Freeman

and Z. E. operation

KofotvhaetsR. i1v9e9r7R.oaCdoRnaessearuvgoair,baDsaelltionne,mGoan. itPorreinp.gfporreu- .s.

Army Corps of Engineers, Atlanta, Ga., by Golder Associates, Inc.

84pp.

U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1993. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; endangered status for eight freshwater mussels and threatened statusjor three freshwater mussels in the Mobile River drainage. U.S. Dept. Interior. Federal Register
58:50.14330-14340.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1994. Technical-agency draft Mobile River Basin aquatic ecosystem recovery plan. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Jackson, Miss. 128pp.

Written by Dr. Byron J. Freeman

221

State Status: Endangered Federal Status: Endangered

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The rhomboidal or elongate-elliptical shell of this small mussel reaches a length of 55 mm (2.2 in). The mostly smooth, fairly inflated shell is yellowish to greenish brown with narrow, interrupted green rays. The nacre is smoky purple or greenish and slightly iridescent posteriorly.

Range and Habitat: This species was originally described from the Chattahoochee River at Columbus and Atlanta and the Flint River near Albany. It was known to occur historically in the Flint in Georgia, the Chattahoochee in Georgia and Alabama, the Chipola, Choctawhatchee, and Yellowrivers in Alabama and Florida, and Econfina Creek in Florida. During a recent status survey of 330 sites within the historical range, the species was detected at only 8 sites, including only one of 13 historical sites checked. An average of only 1.4 live individuals was found at each site, and all were adults so there was no evidence of recruitment. Six additional sites were discovered subsequent to the status survey. Most remaining occupied habitat is in Flint River tributaries, with a very few additional sites in the lower Chattahoochee and Chipola systems in Georgia and Florida, respectively. The species appears to have been extirpated from all other sites. Remaining populations, which are so small that viability is questionable, are found in areas with sand and gravel substrates in sections of mediumsized creeks to large rivers with slow to moderate currents.
Diet: Probably plankton, bacteria, algae and other organic matter filtered from flowing water; larvae are parasitic upon the gills or fins of host fishes
Life History: Verylittle is known about the life history of this species. Like other mussels, it probably lives for many

Shadingindicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
years if good habitat is available. Spawning is probably triggered by water temperature and flow. Spatial aggregation of mussels within a population influences reproductive success through rate of egg formation, rate of fertilization, or both. Females filter sperm, released by nearby males, from the water to fertilize vast quantities of eggs. Each egg develops into a parasitic larval form known as a glochidium. Females release batches of thousands of tiny glochidia into the surrounding water. Glochidia that are able to attach to particular host fishes survive as parasites for 30-60 days, then drop off to spend the rest of their existence on the substrate. Glochidia that are not able to attach to a host soon perish. Host fishes for this mussel are the brown darter and the blackbanded darter. Mussels obtain food by filtering tiny organisms and detritus particles from flowing water. Predators probably include fishes, turtles, wading birds, raccoons and mink.

Threats/Comments: As filter feeders, mussels extract and concentrate harmful contaminants such as runoff from agricultural and livestock operations, urban runoff, municipal and industrial waste discharges, chemical spills, and other sources of point and nonpoint source water pollution. Probably an even greater factor in the demise of this and other freshwater mussels has been the impact of siltation, which entombs mussels and covers up suitable sand or gravel benthic habitat. Erosion and siltation are caused extensively by streamside livestock trampling, forestry operations, development projects, and other soil-disturbing activities, as well as in-stream activities such as sand and gravel mining, channelization, dredging, dredge spoil disposal, and snag removal.
222

The Gulf moccasinshell is particularly susceptible to the effects of impoundment, which eliminates water flow and increases siltation. Mussel populations are usually eliminated by impoundment, but even if adults continue to survive there is likely no recruitment in these populations. In fact, there is little or no evidence of recruitment in any remaining populations. With no new individuals reaching maturity, populations will not survive. Impoundment, siltation, and pollution also affect the population health of host fishes necessary for successful mussel reproduction.
An additional potential threat is the exotic, and extremely opportunistic and prolific, Asian clam. This small introduced mussel has spread throughout most of our waterways. It probably competes with native mussels for nutrients and space and possibly inhibits the reproduction of native mussels by filtering sperm from the water. Still another looming threat is posed by the exotic zebra mussel. This species has spread rapidly since being introduced into the Great Lakes in the late 1980s, and if it spreads into Georgia, will likely become a problem. In addition to competing with native mussels, zebra mussels in dense concentrations attach directly to native mussels and impair their ability to function normally.
Freshwater mussels were important in Native American culture. The meat was used for food and the shells for tools, decorations, and tempering pottery. Shell collectors possibly continue to have a minor impact.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: For the Gulf moccasinshell to survive, extensive land-use practices that have degraded water and stream substrate quality must be modified. Buffer zones need to be implemented to reduce erosion and siltation from urban development, farming, and forestry activities. Nonpoint source urban pollution and runoff from livestock and poultry operations must also be reduced. The impacts of in-stream substrate-disturbing activities and impoundments need to be fully evaluated before more projects of this type are initiated. More information is needed about the life history of this species to facilitate the development of conservation strategies.

Selected References:
Brim-Box, I andI D. Williams. (in press) Unionid mollusks of theApalachicola Basin in Alabama, Florida, and Georgia. Bulletin of Alabama Museum of Natural History, Tuscaloosa, Alabama.
Burch, IB. 1975. Freshwater Unionacean Clams (Mollusca: Pelecypoda) of North America. Malacological Publications, Hamburg, Michigan.
Butler, R. S. 1993. Results of a status suroey for eight freshwater mussels (Bivalvia: Unionidae) endemic to eastern gulf slope drainages of theApalachicolan region of southeast Alabama, southwest Georgia, and north Florida. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Sero. Jacksonville, Fla. 41pp.
_ _. 1998. Determination of endangered status for five freshwatermussels and threatened status for twofreshwater mussels from the Eastern Gulf Slope drainages ofAlabama, Florida, and Georgia. March 16 Federal Register 63 (50):12664-12687.
Williams, I D.,M. L. Warren, Jr., K. S. Cummings, I L. Harris, and R.I Neves. 1992. Conseroation status offreshwater mussels of the United States and Canada. Fisheries 18(9):6-22.
- - / and R. S. Butler. 1994. Gulfmoccasinshell. Pages 82-84 in M. Deyrup and R. Franz, eds. Rare and endangered biota of Florida. Vol. Iv. Invertebrates. Univ. Press of Florida, Gainesville. 798pp.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Seroice. 1997. Protected species inventory and identification in theAlabama-Coosa-Tallapoosa and Apalachicola-Chattahoochee-Flint river basins. Vol. 1. Appendix C.
Written byJames c. Ozier

223

State Status: Endangered Federal Status: Endangered

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The slightly elongate-elliptical shell of this small mussel is generally less than 55 mm (2.2 in) in length. The shell is light brown to yellowish-green with a series of connected chevrons or undulating lines forming dark green rays across its length. The surface of the shell is smooth with some sculpture along the posterior edge. The nacre is bluish white.

Range and Habitat: This species was originally described from the Ochlockonee River in Grady County, Georgia; it is endemic tci the Ochlockonee system. During a recent status survey of 8 sites within the historical range, one live individ. ual was found at each of 2 sites in Florida, including one of 3 historical sites checked. A recently dead shell was found in Georgia. This mussel inhabits sand with gravel substrates in reaches of large creeks to medium-sized rivers with moderate current.
Diet: Probably plankton, bacteria, algae and other organic matter filtered from flowing water; larvae are parasitic upon the gills or fins of host fishes
Life History: Verylittle is known about the life history of this species. Like other mussels, they probably live for many years in good habitat. Spawning is probably influenced by water temperature and level of flow. Spatial aggregation of mussels within a population influences reproductive success through rate of egg formation, rate of fertilization, or both. Females filter sperm, released by nearby males, from the water to fertilize vast quantities of eggs. Each egg develops into a parasitic larval form known as a glochidium. Females release batches of thousands of tiny glochidia into the surrounding water. Glochidia that are able to attach to particular host fishes survive as parasites for 30-60 days, then drop off to spend the rest of their existence in the substrate.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Host fishes for the Ochlockonee moccasinshell are unknown, but likely are darters, which serve as hosts for some other mussels in this genus. Glochidia that are not able to attach to a host soon perish. Mussels obtain food by filtering tiny organisms and detritus particles from flowing water. Predators probably include fishes, turtles, wading birds, and mink.
Threats/Comments: As filter feeders, mussels extract and concentrate harmful contaminants such as runoff from agricultural and livestock operations, urban runoff, municipal and industrial waste discharges, chemical spills, and other sources of point and nonpoint source water pollution. Probably an even greater factor in the demise of this species and other freshwater mussels has been the impact of siltation, which entombs mussels and covers up suitable sand or gravel benthic habitat. Erosion and siltation are caused extensively by streamside livestock trampling, forestry operations' development projects, and other soil-disturbing activities, as well as in-stream activities such as sand and gravel mining, channelization, dredging, dredge spoil disposal, and snag removal. The Ochlockonee moccasinshell is not known to tolerate stream impoundment, which eliminates water flow and increases siltation. Mussel populations are usually eliminated by impoundment, but even if adults continue to survive there is likely no recruitment in these populations. Actually, there is little or no evidence of recruitment in any remaining populations. With very few new individuals reaching maturity, populations will likely not persist. Impoundment, siltation, and pollution can also affect the

224

population health of host fishes necessary for successful mussel reproduction.
An additional potential threat is the exotic, and extremely opportunistic and prolific, Asian clam. This small introduced mussel has spread throughout most of our waterways. It probably competes with native mussels for nutrients and space and possibly inhibits the reproduction of native mussels by filtering sperm from the water. Still another looming threat is posed by the exotic zebra mussel. This species has spread rapidly since being introduced into the Great Lakes in the late 1980s, and it might expand its range into Georgia soon. In addition to competing with native mussels, zebra mussels in dense concentrations attach directly to native mussels and impair their ability to function normally.
Freshwater mussels were important in Native American culture. The meat was used for food and the shells for tools, decorations, and tempering pottery. Shell collectors possibly continue to have a minor impact.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: For the Ochlockonee moccasinshell to survive, extensive land-use practices that have degraded water and stream substrate quality must be modified. Buffer zones need to be implemented to reduce erosion and siltation from urban development, farming, and forestry activities. Nonpoint urban pollution and runoff from livestock and poultry operations must also be reduced. The impacts of in -stream substrate-disturbing activities and impoundments need to be fully evaluated before more projects of this type are initiated. More information is needed about the life history of this species to facilitate the development of conservation strategies.

Selected References:
Butler, R. S. 1993. Results of a status surveyfor eight freshwater mussels (Bivalvia: Unionidae) endemic to eastern gulf slope drainages of the Apalachicolan region of southeast Alabama, . southwest Georgia, and northFlorida. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Servo Jacksonville, Fla. 41pp.
Butler, R.S. 1998. Determination of endangered status for five freshwater mussels ana threatened statusfor twofreshwater mussels from the Eastern Gulf Slope drainages ofAlabama, Florida, and Georgia. March 16 Federal Register 63 (50):12664-12687.
Williams, J. D., M. L. Warren, Jr., K. S. Cummings, J. L. Harris, and R.J. Neves. 1992. Conservation status offreshwater mussels
of the United States and Canada. Fisheries 18(9):6-22.
---J and R. S. Butler. 1994. Ochlockonee moccasinshell. Pages 64-66 in M. Deyrup and R. Franz, eds. Rare and endangered biota of Florida. Vol. IV Invertebrates. Univ. Press of Florida, Gainesville. 798pp.
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1997. Protected species inventory and identification in the Alabama-Coosa-Tallapoosa and Apalachicola-Chattahoochee-Flint river basins. Vol. 1. Appendix C.
Written byJames c. Ozier

225

State Status: Endangered Federal Status: Endangered

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: With a maximum length of 7 cm (2.8 in), the southern clubshell is a medium-sized mussel. The shell is long, thick, and somewhat rectangular; the periostracum is yellowish -brown.

Range and Habitat: The southern clubshell is historically known from most major stream systems in the Mobile River drainage, with the exception of the Mobile Delta. Current populations are known in Mississippi and Alabama. Georgia historical records of the southern clubshell are from the Oostanaula, Etowah, Coosawattee, Conasauga, and Chattooga rivers. Recent records exist for specimens from the Conasauga River during the 1960s and 1970s, but only relict shell material has been recorded from the Conasauga River during the 1990s. Five species of Pleurobema have recently been reported from the Conasauga River, including some previously believed to be extinct.
The southern clubshell occurs in sandy, gravel-cobble habitat in shoals and runs of large streams and small rivers.
Diet: Captured detritus and algae (adults); juveniles are parasitic upon host fishes.
Life History: Adult freshwater mussels are filter feeding organisms, living off captured detritus and algae drifting in the water currents in streams. Juvenile mussels are parasitic upon host fishes for generally 30-60 days. Life history specific to the southern clubshell is unknown.
Threats/Comments: All freshwater mussels are threatened by degradation- of water quality, loss of instream habitat, and the additional constraint of finding a suitable host fish. Increased siltation resulting from failure to employ Best Management Practices (BMPs) for forestry and agriculture, failure to control soil erosion from construction sites and

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
bridge crossings, and increased stormwater runoff from developing urban and industrial areas contributes to loss of habitat. Mussels such as the southern clubshell require clean gravel riffles and are especially susceptible to the threat of stream degradation resulting from low dissolved oxygen levels or high chlorine concentrations in waterways. Because mussels rely on various schemes to visually attract fish close enough for effective release of glochidia (larval mussels), waters that are turbid or carrying a lot of suspended sediment will likely interfere with the ability of mussels to infect a host fish. In addition' mussels are sensitive to various pesticides.
Like many freshwater mussels, the southern clubshell does not survive in impoundments and reservoirs. The appearance of the Asian clam has been suggested as a contributing factor in the decline of many freshwater mussels.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conservation of the southern clubshell requires that critical life history data be collected on fish hosts, time of spawning, habitat requirements of adults, and tolerances to degraded water quality conditions. In particular, efforts should be made to understand susceptibility of mussels in the upper Conasauga River to chemicals found in runoff. Methods of artificial propagation should also be investigated. Conserving populations will depend on maintaining and improving habitat quality in small to medium-sized streams. Improving or changing water quality quickly is very difficult in large streams but achievable in smaller ones. Watershed clearing and urban development can lead to unnaturally flashy storm water runoff, which scours stream channels and results in lower baseflows. For

226

these reasons, containing and slowly releasing storm water runoff from developed areas is an important element in protecting stream habitats for mussels and other aquatic organisms. Impounding streams should be a last resort for developing water supplies. Reintroduction efforts should focus upon identifying high quality streams within the range of the southern clubshell that would be suitable for reintroduction. As with other upper Coosa River system mussels, additional surveys need to be quickly accomplished throughout what remains of high quality streams in the upper Coosa River system in Georgia. Finally, the taxonomic status of the
Pleurobema species found in the upper Conasauga needs to be
resolved. Selected References:
Anderson, P G., B. G. H. Browne, M. H. Hughes, B. J. Freeman
and Z. E. Kovats. 1997. Conasauga baseline monitoring pre-
operation of the RiverRoad Reservoir, Dalton, Ga. Prep. for us.
Army Corps of Engineers, Atlanta, Ga., by Golder Associates, Inc. 84pp. U S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1993. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; endangered status for eightfreshwater mussels and threatened status jor three freshwater mussels in the Mobile Riverdrainage. U.S. Dept. Interior. Federal Register
58:50.14330-14340.
US. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1994. Technical-agency draft Mobile RiverBasin aquatic ecosystem recovery plan. US. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Jackson, Miss. 128pp.
Written by Dr. Byron J. Freeman
227

State Status: Endangered Federal Status: Endangered

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The southern pigtoe is a small mussel up to 6 cm (2.4 in) in length, with an elliptical to oval, flat shell. The periostracum is yellowish-brown and with numerous dark brown growth lines. The nacre is white.

Range and Habitat: The historic distribution of the southern pigtoe is limited to the Coosa River system in Alabama, Georgia, and Tennessee. Current populations are small and appear to be present only in the Conasauga River in Georgia and Tennessee. Five species of Pleurobema have recently been reported from the Conasauga River, including some previously believed to be extinct.
This mussel is present in shoals and runs in cobble gravel and sand substrates in large streams and small rivers.
Diet: Captured detritus and algae (adults); juveniles are parasitic upon host fishes.
Life History: Life history of the southern pigtoe is unknown. Reproduction is apparently occurring in the upper Conasauga, as evidenced by presence of juvenile specimens. Adult freshwater mussels are filter feeding organisms, living off captured detritus and algae drifting in the water currents in streams. Juvenile mussels are parasitic upon host fishes for generally 30-60 days.
Threats/Comments: All freshwater mussels are threatened by degradation of water quality, loss of instream habitat, and the additional constraint of finding a suitable host fish. Increased siltation resulting from failure to employ Best Management Practices (BMPs) for forestry and agriculture, failure to control soil erosion from construction sites and bridge crossings, and increased stormwater runoff from developing urban and industrial areas contributes to loss of habitat. Mussels such as the southern pigtoe require clean gravel riffles

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
and are especially susceptible to the threat of stream degradation resulting from low dissolved oxygen levels or high chlorine concentrations in waterways. Because mussels rely on various schemes to visually attract fish close enough for effective release of glochidia (larval mussels), waters that are turbid or carrying a lot of suspended sediment will likely interfere with the ability of mussels to infect a host fish. In addition, mussels are sensitive to various pesticides.
Like many freshwater mussels, the southern pigtoe does not survive in impoundments and reservoirs. The appearance of the Asian clam has been suggested as a contributing factor in the decline of many freshwater mussels.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conservation of the southern pigtoe requires that critical life history data be collected on fish hosts, time of spawning, habitat requirements of adults, and tolerances to degraded water quality conditions. In particular, efforts should be made to understand susceptibility of mussels in the upper Conasauga River to chemicals found in runoff. Methods of artificial propagation should also be investigated. Conserving populations will depend on maintaining and improving habitat quality in small to medium-sized streams. Improving or changing water quality quickly is very difficult in large streams but achievable in smaller ones. Watershed clearing and urban development can lead to unnaturally flashy storm water runoff, which scours stream channels and results in lower baseflows. For these reasons, containing and slowly releasing stormwater runoff from developed areas is an important element in protecting stream habitats for mussels and other aquatic organ-

228

isms. Impounding streams should be a last resort for developing water supplies. Reintroduction efforts should focus upon identifying high quality streams within the range of the southern pigtoe that would be suitable for reintroduction. As with other upper Coosa River system mussels, additional surveys need to be conducted soon throughout what remains of high quality streams in the upper Coosa River system in Georgia.
Finally, the taxonomic status of the Pleurobema species found
in the upper Conasauga needs to be resolved.

Selected References:

Anderson, P. G., B. G.H. Browne, M. H. Hughes, B. J. Freeman

and Z. E. operation

KofotvhaetsR. i1v9e9r7R.oaCdoRnaessearuvgoair,baDsaelltionne,mGoan. itPorreinp.gfporreu- .s.

Army Corps of Engineers, Atlanta, Ga., by Golder Associates, Inc.

84pp.

U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1993. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; endangered status for eight freshwater mussels and threatened statusjor three freshwater mussels in the Mobile River drainage. U.S. Dept. Interior. Federal Register
58:50.14330-14340.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1994. Technical-agency draft
Mobile River Basin aquatic ecosystem recovery plan. U.S. Fish and Wild/. Serv., Jackson, Miss. 128pp.

Written by Dr. Byron J. Freeman

229

State Status: Endangered Federal Status: Endangered

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The ovate clubshell is oval or elliptical in shape and rarely grows larger than 5 cm (2 in). The periostracum may have broad green rays that overlay its normal yellowish to dark brown background. The nacre is white.

Range and Habitat: The historical range of the ovate clubshell includes streams in the Tornbigbee and Alabama river systems in Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, and Tennessee. The species is currently known only from widely separated streams in the Tombigbee and Warrior river systems, and one stream in the Tallapoosa River system. This species occurred in Holly Creek and the Conasauga River and the Etowah River in Georgia. It has not been collected anywhere in the Coosa River system since 1974. Five species of Pleurobema have recently been reported from the Conasauga, including some previously believed to be extinct.
The ovate clubshell utilizes habitat consisting of sand and gravel shoals and runs in large streams and small rivers.
Diet: Captured detritus and algae (adults); juveniles are parasitic upon host fishes.
Life History: Adult freshwater mussels are filter feeding organisms, living off captured detritus and algae drifting in the water currents in streams. Juvenile mussels are parasitic upon host fishes generally for 30-60 days. Little is known concerning the life history of the ovate clubshell.
Threats/Comments: All freshwater mussels are threatened by degradation of water quality, loss of instream habitat, and the additional constraint of finding a suitable host fish. Increased siltation resulting from failure to employ Best Management Practices (BMPs) for forestry and agriculture, failure to control soil erosion from construction sites and bridge crossings, and increased stormwater runoff from developing urban and industrial areas contributes to loss of habitat.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Mussels such as the ovate clubshell require clean gravel riffles and are especially susceptible to the threat of stream degradation resulting from low dissolved oxygen levels or high chlorine concentrations in waterways. Because mussels rely on various schemes to visually attract fish close enough for effective release of glochidia (larval mussels), waters that are turbid or carrying a lot of suspended sediment will likely interfere with the ability of mussels to infect a host fish. In addition, mussels are sensitive to various pesticides.
Like many freshwater mussels, the ovate clubshell does not survive in impoundments and reservoirs. The appearance of the Asian clam has been suggested as a contributing factor in the decline of many freshwater mussels.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conserving populations of the ovate clubshell will depend on maintaining and improving habitat quality in small to medium-sized streams. Improving or changing water quality quickly is very difficult in large streams but achievable in smaller ones. Watershed clearing and urban development can lead to unnaturally flashy stormwater runoff, which scours stream channels and results in lower baseflows. For these reasons, containing and slowly releasing stormwater runoff from developed areas is an important element in protecting stream habitats for mussels and other aquatic organisms. Impounding streams should be a last resort for developing water supplies. Reintroduction efforts should focus upon identifying high quality streams within the range of the ovate clubshell that would be suitable for reintroduction. Finally, additional surveys need to be conducted soon throughout

230

what remains of high quality streams in the upper Coosa River system in Georgia.

Selected References:

Anderson, P. G., B. G. H. Browne, M. H. Hughes, B. ]. Freeman

and Z. E. operation

KofotvhaetsR. i1v9e9r7R.oaCdoRnaessearuvgoair,baDsaelltionne,mGoan. itPorreinp.gfporreu- s.

Army Corps of Engineers, Atlanta, Ga., by Golder Associates, Inc.

84pp.

Burch, ].B. 1975. Freshwater Unionacean Clams (Mollusca: Pelecypoda) of North America. Malacological Publications, Hamburg, Michigan.

US. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1993. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; endangered status for eight freshwater mussels and threatened status jor three freshwater mussels in the Mobile Riverdrainage. U.S. Dept. Interior. Federal Register
58:50.14330-14340.

US. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1994. Technical-agency draft Mobile River Basin aquatic ecosystem recovery plan. US. Fish and Wildl. Sero., Jackson, Miss. 128pp.

Written by Dr. Byron]. Freeman

231

State 'Status: Endangered Federal Status: Endangered

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The suboviform compressed shell of this small to medium-sized mussel reaches a length of about 60 mm (2.4 in). The shiny, smooth shell is yellowish, chestnut, or dark brown with no rays, but with distinct growth lines. The nacre is iridescent toward the rear, and its color ranges from salmon to bluish white.

Range and Habitat: The oval pigtoe was originally described from the Chattahoochee River near Columbus, and occurred historically in abundance in the Flint River in Georgia, the Chattahoochee River in Georgia and Alabama, the Chipola River in Alabama and Florida, the Ochlockonee River in Georgia and Florida, the Apalachicola and Suwanee/Santa Fe rivers in Florida, and Econfina Creek in Florida. Present distribution is limited to the Flint and lower Chattahoochee systems (mostly tributaries) in Georgia, the Ochlockonee in Georgia and Florida, and the Chipola and Santa Fe in Florida. During a recent status survey of 410 sites within the historical range, this species was found at only 24 sites, including seven of 20 historic sites checked. Populations averaged only 5.2 live individuals per site. Five additional sites were discovered subsequent to the status survey. Remaining small populations of this mussel inhabit silty sand or sand and gravel substrates in sections of medium-sized creeks to small rivers with slow to moderate current.
Diet: Probably plankton, bacteria, algae and other organic matter filtered from flowing water; larvae are parasitic upon the gills or fins of host fishes
Life History: Very little is known about the life history of this species. Like other mussels, it probably lives for many years in good habitat. Spawning is probably triggered by water temperature and flow. Spatial aggregation of mussels

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
within a population influences reproductive success through rate of egg formation, rate of fertilization, or both. Females filter sperm, released by nearby males, from the water to fertilize vast quantities of eggs. Each egg develops into a parasitic larval form known as a glochidium. Females release batches of thousands of tiny glochidia into the surrounding water. Glochidia that are able to attach to particular host fishes survive as parasites for 30-60 days, then drop off to spend the rest of their existence on the substrate. Glochidia that are not able to attach to a host soon perish. The host fish for this mussel is the sailfin shiner. Mussels obtain food by filtering tiny organisms and detritus particles from flowing water. Predators probably include fishes, turtles, wading birds, raccoons and mink.
Threats/Comments: As filter feeders, mussels extract and concentrate harmful contaminants such as runoff from agricultural and livestock operations, urban runoff, municipal and industrial waste discharges, chemical spills, and other sources of point and nonpoint water pollution. Probably an even greater factor in the demise of this and other freshwater mussel species has been the impact of siltation, which entombs mussels and covers up suitable sand or gravel benthic habitat. Erosion and siltation are caused extensively by streamside livestock trampling, forestry operations, development projects, and other soil-disturbing activities, as well as in-stream activities such as sand and gravel mining, channelization, dredging, dredge spoil disposal, and snag removal. The oval pigtoe is particularly susceptible to the effects of impoundment, which eliminates water flow and increases siltation. Mussel popula-

232

tions are usually eliminated by impoundment, but even if adults continue to survive there is likely no recruitment. Actually, there is very little evidence of recruitment in any remaining populations. With few or no new individuals reaching maturity, populations will not survive. Impoundment, siltation, and pollution also affect the population health of host fishes necessary for successful mussel reproduction.
An additional potential threat is the exotic, and extremely opportunistic and prolific, Asian clam. This small introduced mussel has spread throughout most of our waterways. It probably competes with native mussels for nutrients and space and possibly inhibits reproduction of native mussels by filtering sperm from the water. Still another looming threat is posed by the exotic zebra mussel. This species has spread rapidly since being introduced into the Great Lakes in the late 1980s, and if it spreads into Georgia, will likely becoma a problem. In addition to competing with native mussels, zebra mussels in dense concentrations attach directly to native mussels and impair their ability to function normally.
Freshwater mussels were important in Native American culture. The meat was used for food and the shells for tools, decorations, and tempering pottery. Shell collecting might still be impacting this species.
Conservation and Management Recommendations: For the oval pigtoe to survive, extensive land-use practices that have degraded water and stream substrate quality must be modified. Buffer zones need to be used to reduce erosion and siltation from urban development, farming, and forestry activities. Nonpoint source urban pollution and runoff from livestock and poultry operations must also be reduced. The impacts of in-stream substrate-disturbing activities and impoundments need to be fully evaluated before more projects of this type are permitted. More information is needed about the life history of this species to help with development of conservation strategies.

Selected References:
Brim-Box,]. and]. D.Williams. (in press) Unionid mollusks of theApalachicola Basin in Alabama, Florida, and Georgia. Bulletin of Alabama Museum of Natural History, Tuscaloosa, Alabama.
Butler, R. S. 1993. Results of a status surveyfor eight freshwater mussels (Bivalvia: Unionidae) endemic to eastern gulf slope drainages of theApalachicolan region of southeast Alabama, southwest Georgia, and north Florida. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Servo Jacksonville, Fla. 41pp.
_ _. 1998. Determination of endangered status forfive freshwatermussels and threatened status for twofreshwater mussels from the Eastern Gulf Slope drainages of Alabama, Florida, and Georgia. March 16 Federal Register 63 (50):12664-12687.
Williams,]. D.,M. L. Warren, Jr., K. S. Cummings,]. L. Harris, and R.]. Neves. 1992. Conservation status ofjreshwatermussels of the United States and Canada. Fisheries 18(9):6-22.
----J andR. S. Butler. 1994. Oval pigtoe. Pages 87-89 in M. Defrup and R. Franz, eds. Rare and endangered biota of Florida. Vol. Iv. Invertebrates. Univ. Press of Florida, Gainesville. 798pp.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1997. Protected species inventory and identification in the Alabama-Coosa-Tallapoosa and . Apalachicola-Chattahoochee-Flint riverbasins. Vol. 1. Appendix C.
Written byJames c. Ozier

233

State Status: Endangered Federal Status: Endangered

Other Commonly Used Name(s): None

Description: The triangular kidneyshell is a medium-sized freshwater mussel that grows up to 10 ern (4 in) in length. The shell is oval and may be compressed. The periostracum is yellow-brown, and green rays may be present, although the appearance is highly variable.

Range and Habitat: The historic range of the triangular kidneyshell includes streams in the Warrior, Cahaba and Coosa river systems. In Georgia, populations are currently known from the Conasauga and Oostanaula rivers. In Alabama, current populations are known only from the headwaters of the Sipsey Fork and Little Warrior rivers.
The habitat where this species is most commonly found are areas with rapid currents over shoals and riffles in large streams and small rivers.
Diet: Adults: detritus and algae. Juveniles: parasitic upon host fishes.
Life History: Adult freshwater mussels are filter feeding organisms, living off captured detritus and algae drifting in the water currents in streams. Juvenile mussels are parasitic upon host fishes for generally 30-60 days.
In order to complete the obligate parasitic life stage, the mussel must somehow attract a host fish. The strategy of the triangular kidneyshell mussel is to make its glochidia (young mussels) resemble an aquatic fly larvae. A gravid female packages all glochidia into a structure called a conglutinate. The conglutinate is then anchored by a mucous strand to the substrate, thus completing the mirage of an aquatic insect larvae. The host fish is currently unknown, but it apparently is a species that preys on aquatic fly larvae. Observations of gravid females have been recorded in March.

Shading indicates range Dots indicate counties with known occurrences
Threats/Comments: All freshwater mussels are threatened by degradation of water quality, loss of instream habitat, and the additional constraint of finding a suitable host fish. Increased siltation resulting from failure to employ Best Management Practices (BMPs) for forestry and agriculture, failure to control soil erosion from construction sites and bridge crossings, and increased stormwater runoff from developing urban and industrial areas contributes to loss of habitat. Mussels such as the triangular kidneyshell require clean gravel riffles and are especially susceptible to the threat of stream degradation resulting from low dissolved oxygen levels or high chlorine concentrations in waterways. Because mussels rely on various schemes to visually attract fish close enough for effective release of glochidia (larval mussels), waters that are turbid or carrying a lot of suspended sediment will likely interfere with the ability of mussels to infect a host fish, especially species that employ superconglutinates. In addition, mussels are sensitive to various pesticides.
Like many freshwater mussels, the triangular kidneyshell does not survive in impoundments and reservoirs. The appearance of the Asian clam has been suggested as a contributing factor in the decline of many freshwater mussels.

Conservation and Management Recommendations: Conservation of the triangular kidneyshell requires that critical life history data be collected on fish hosts, time of spawning, habitat requirements of adults, and tolerances to degraded water quality conditions. In particular, efforts should be made to understand susceptibility of mussels in the upper Conasauga and Oostanaula rivers to chemicals found in
234

runoff. Methods of artificial propagation should also be investigated. Conserving populations will depend on maintaining and improving habitat quality in small to medium-sized streams. Improving or changing water quality quickly is very difficult in large streams but achievable in smaller ones. Watershed dearing and urban development can lead to unnaturally flashy stormwater runoff, which scours stream channels and results in lower baseflows. For these reasons, containing and slowly releasing storm water runoff from developed areas is an important element in protecting stream habitats for mussels and other aquatic organisms. Impounding streams should be a last resort for developing water supplies. Reintroduction efforts should focus upon identifying high quality streams within the range of the triangular kidneyshell that would be suitable for reintroduction. As with other upper Coosa River system mussels, additional surveys need to be quickly accomplished throughout what remains of high quality streams in the upper Coosa River system in Georgia.

Selected References:

Anderson, P. G., B. G.H. Browne, M. H. Hughes, B. ]. Freeman

and Z. E. operation

KofotvhaetsR. iv1e9r97R.oaCdoRnaessearuvgoair,baDsaelltionne,mGoan. itPorreinp.gfoprreu- .s.

Army Corps of Engineers, Atlanta, Ga., by Golder Associates, Inc.

84pp.

U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1993. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; endangered status for eight freshwater mussels and threatened status Jor three freshwater mussels in the Mobile Riverdrainage. U.S. Dept. Interior. Federal Register
58:50.14330-14340.

Hartfield, Paul. 1996. Observations on the conglutinates of Ptychobranchus greeni (Conrad 1834) (Mollusca: Bivalvia:
Unionoidea). Amer. MidI. Nat. 2: 370-375.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1994. Technical-agency draft Mobile River Basin aquatic ecosystem recovery plan. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Jackson, Miss. 128pp.

Written by Dr. Byron]. Freeman

235

236

WILDLIFE RESOURCES DMSION CHAPTER 391-4-10 PROTECTION OF ENDANGERED,TI-IREATENED, RARE, OR UNUSUAL SPECIES
TABLE OF CONTENTS 391-4-10-.01 Purpose 391-4-10-.02 Definitions 391-4-10-.03 Determination of Protected Species 391-4-10-.04 Land Acquisition 391-4-10-.05 Interagency Cooperation 391-4-10-.06 Prohibited Acts 391-4-10-.07 Exceptions 391-4-10-.08 Penalty 391-4-10-.09 Protected Species of Plants and Animals
391-4-10-.01 Purpose. Amended. The purpose of these rules and regulations is to establish the organizational structure and administrative procedures to be followed in the protection of endangered species of plant and animal life.The Department of Natural Resources is authorized by the Wildflower Preservation Act of 1973 (Ga. Laws 1973, p. 333, et seq.), the Endangered Wildlife Act of 1973 (Ga. Laws 1973, p. 932, et seq.), the laws relating to game and fish (Ga. Laws 1955, p. 483, et seq.) as amended, in particular by (Ga. Laws 1968, p. 497, et seq.) and other laws administered by the Department of Natural Resources, to promulgate rules and regulations for the protection of designated species. The Department of Natural Resources is required by the Endangered Wildlife Act of 1973 and the Wildflower Preservation Act of 1973 to designate all plant and animal species indigenous to the state which are determined by the Department to be"rare","unusual", or in"danger of extinction". Such species are then"protected species" and subject to the provisions of the above-cited laws and the rules and regulations of the Department of Natural Resources. The Department is required to review periodically its"protected species"list and to make additions or deletions when appropriate.
Authority Ga. L. 1973, p. 932 History. Original Rule entitled "Purpoee''ioas filed onAugust 5,1976 as rule 391-4-13-.01; effective August 25, 1976. Amended: Rule renumbered as 391- 4-10.01. Filed December 22, 1980; effective January 11, 1981.

plants and animal life which the Department shall have designated as such and has made subject to the protection of these Acts. Protected species shall be interpreted to include those classified as follows:
1. "Endangered species" means any resident species which is in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range, or one which is designated as endangered under the provisions of the Federal Endangered Species Act of 1973 (P.L. 93-205).
2. "Threatened species" means any resident species which is likely to become an endangered species within the foreseeable future throughout all or a significant portion of its range or one that is designated as threatened under the provisions of the Federal Endangered Species Act of 1973 (P.L. 93-205).
3. "Rare species" means any resident species which, although not presently endangered or threatened as previously defined, should be protected because of its scarcity.
4. "Unusual species" means any resident species which exhibits special or unique features and because of these features deserves special consideration in its continued survival in the State.
(e) "Public lands" means all those lands within this state which are owned by the State of Georgia.
(f) "Resident species" means any species, subspecies or variety of plant or animal life that is genetically, morphologically, ecologically, or geographically distinct, and which interbreeds freely with its kind at maturity, and which exists in this state, including its waters, in the wild during any part of its life.
(g) "Status Undetermined species" means a resident species which is not afforded protection under these rules and regulations, but should additional research showthe need for protection these or any other species may be moved to the protected category.
Authority Ga. L. 1973, p. 932, o.c.G.A. Sees. 12-6-172,27-3-132.
History. Original Rule entitled "Definuions" was filed onAugust 5, 1976 as Rule 391-4-13-.02; effective August 25, 1976. Amended: Rule renumbered as 391-4-10-.02 Filed December 22, 1980; effective January 11, 1981. Amended: F. Nov. 4, 1992; eff Nov 24, 1992.
391-4-10-.03 Determination of Protected Species. Amended.

391-4-10-.02 Definitions. Amended. All terms used in these rules and regulations shall be interpreted in accordance with the definitions as set forth in the Acts or as otherwise herein defined.
(a) The "Acts" as used in these rules refer to the "Wildflower Preservation Act of 1973", the "Endangered Wildlife Act of 1973!!, and other laws relating to game and fish.
(b) "Department" means the Department of Natural Resources.
(c) "Person" means any natural person, firm, corporation, partnership, proprietorship, local government of the state, or other legal entity.
(d) "Protected species" means those species of

(1) Criteria. The criteria for the determination as to whether any resident species is an endangered, threatened, rare, or unusual species are as follows:
(a) The present or threatened destruction, modification or curtailment of its habitat.
(b) Overutilization for commercial, sporting, scientific, or educational purposes.
(c) Disease or predation. (d) The inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms. (e) Other natural or man-made factors affecting its continued existence. (2) Procedures. General procedures for modifying the state

237

"protected species"list are as follows: (a) Any member of the public may nominate a species
for consideration. An application for nomination, in the form prescribed by the Department, must be submitted to the Department with all supporting data.
(b) If the Department determines that review is warranted, additional data is solicited from all relevant sources and notice of the nomination is published in the Department news release.
(c) All available scientific and commercial data is evaluated by the Department and tentative determination is made regarding the status of the nominated species.
(d) If the nominated species is determined by the Department not to warrant review or not to be endangered, threatened, rare or unusual, the person making the nomination is notified in writing of such determination.
(e) If the nominated species is tentatively determined by the Department to be endangered, threatened, rare, or unusual, public notice is given by publishing the proposal in the Department news release and by any other method required by the Georgia Administrative Procedures Act (Ga. Laws, p. 338 et seq.) as amended. The Department shall also distribute a public notice to all persons who have requested to be placed on the mailing list. Such request shall be made in writing and shall be renewed in December of each year. Failure to renew the request shall result in the removal of such name from the mailing list.
(f) A minimum of 20 days is allowed for public comment, during which time a public hearing may be requested pursuant to the Georgia Administrative Procedures Act.
(g) The Department considers public comment and, if necessary, compiles and analyzes additional data.
(h) The Department will submit its recommendation to the Board of Natural Resources no later than one year after the initial nomination of the species.
(i) The Board will then determine appropriate classification of nominated species by either adopting, modifying and adopting, or rejecting the submitted classification.
(3) General Procedures for deleting a species from the state "protected species"list are as follows:
(a) Any member of the public, or the Department on its own initiative, may propose that a protected species be deleted from the state protected species list.
(b) If the Department determines that review of such proposed deletion is warranted, additional data is solicited from all relevant sources and notice of the proposed deletion is published in the Department news release.
(c) All available scientific and commercial data is evaluated by the Department and tentative determination is made regarding the status of the species proposed for deletion.
(d) If the species proposed for deletion is determined by the Department not to warrant review the person making the nomination is notified in writing of such determination.
(e) If a species proposed for deletion has been tentatively determined by the Department as appropriate for deletion from the list as endangered, threatened, rare, or unusual, public notice is given by publishing the proposal in the Department news release and by any other method required by the Georgia Administrative Procedures Act as amended. The Department shall also distribute a public notice to all persons

who have requested to be placed on the mailing list. Such request shall be made in writing and shall be renewed in December of each year. Failure to renew the request shall result in the removal of such name from the mailing list.
(f) A minimum of 20 days is allowed for public comment' during which time a public hearing may be requested pursuant to the Georgia Administrative Procedures Act.
(g) The Department considers public comment and, if necessary, compiles and analyzes additional data.
(h) The Department will submit its recommendation to the Board of Natural Resources no later than one year after the initial proposal for deletion of the species.
(i) The Board will then determine whether the species proposed for deletion should be deleted or its current classification modified.
Authority Ga. Law 1973, p. 932. o.c.G.A. Sees. 12-6-172,27-3132. History. Original Rule entitled "Determination ofProtected Species" wasfiled onAugust5, 1976 as Rule 391-4-13.03; effective August25,1976. Amended: Rule renumbered as 391-4-10-.03. Filed December 22,1980; effective January 11,198-1. Amended: F, Nov 4, 1992; eff Nov. 24, 1992.
391-4-10-.04 Land Acquisition. Amended. The acquisition of natural areas and/or unique habitats upon which are rare and endangered species depend shall be continued for the purposes of protection, conservation and preservation. Lands or aquatic habitats acquired for these purposes shall be managed or protected with this principal objective in mind. Acquisitions of lands, aquatic habitats, or interest herein may be made pursuant to any of the following:
(a) through the Georgia Heritage Trust Program of the Department;
(b) through joint State and Federal agreements; (c) by donation of gift to the State, in part, or in full; or (d) by any other means or by any combination of the above.
Authority Ga. L. 1973, p. 932. History. Original Rule entitled "Land Acquisition wasfiled onAugust5. 1976 as Rule 391-413.04; effective August25,1976. Amended: Rule renumbered as 391-4-10-.04. Filed December 22, 1980; effective January 11,1981.
391-410-.05 Interagency Cooperation. Amended. The Department shall cooperate with other state agencies, authorities, local governments federal agencies, other states, counties, and organizations in carrying out land acquisitions and management programs for the purpose of conserving any endangered or threatened species. Authority Ga. L. 1973, p. 932. History. Original Rule entitled "Interagency Cooperation"was filed onAugust5,1976 as Rule 3914-13-,05; effective August25,1976. Amended: Rule renumbered as 391-4-10-.05. Filed December 22, 1980; effective January 11, 1981.
391-4-10-.06 Prohibited Acts. Amended. The following acts regarding protected species of animals and plants are prohibited. (a) ProtectedAnimal Species.
1. Any activities which are intended to harass, capture, kill, or otherwise directly cause death of any protected animal species are prohibited, except as specifically authorized by law

238

or by regulation as adopted by the Board of Natural Resources. 2. The sale or purchase of any protected animal
species or parts thereof is prohibited and the possession of any such species or parts thereof is prohibited unless the possession is authorized by a scientific collecting, wildlife exhibition, or other permit or license issued by the Department.
3. The destruction of the habitat of any protected animal species on public lands is prohibited.
4. The authorization to take certain nongame animal species set forth in O.C.G.A. Section 27-1- 28 shall not apply to any protected species whether on public or private land.
(b) Protected Plant Species. Prohibited acts concerning protected plant species include:
1. No person within this State shall cut, dig, pull up or otherwise remove any protected plant species from public land unless such person has secured an appropriate permit from the Department.
2. No person within this State shall sell or offer for sale, for any purpose, any protected plant species, unless such species was grown on private land and is being sold by the landowner or with the permission of the landowner.
3. No person within this State shall transport, carry, or otherwise convey any protected plant species from the land of another unless each shipment thereof has affixed a tag supplied by the Department showing that the person so transporting, carrying or conveying such protected species has removed such specimen(s) from the private lands of another person with the permission of such other person and has a written document in his possession evidencing such permission, and further evidencing that such specimen has not been sold in violation of Section 2 above.
Authority Ga. L. 1973, p. 932, o.c.G.A. Sees. 12-6-172,27-3-132. History. Original Rule entitled "Prohibited Acts"wasfiled on August 5,1976 as Rule 391-4-13-.06; effective August25,1976. Amended: Rule renumbered as 391-4-10-.06. Filed December 22. 1980; effective January 11. 1981. Amended: F. Nov. 4, 1992; eff. Nov. 24, 1992.
391-4-10-.07 Exceptions. Amended. The Department may issue permits for the collection, transportation, and/or possession of protected plant and animal species. Such permits do not alleviate the responsibility to acquire specific federal permits, if required. Authority Ga. L. 1973, p. 932. History. Original Rule entitled "Exceptions"wasfiled onAugust5,1976 as Rule 391-4-13-.07; effective August25, 1976. Amended: Rule renumbered as 391-4-10-.07. Filed December 22, 1980; effective January 11, 1981.
391-4-10-.08 Penalty. Amended. Any person violating these rules and regulations shall be guilty of a misdemeanor and upon conviction thereof, shall be punished for a misdemeanor. Authority Ga. L. 1973, p. 932. History. Original Rule entitled "Penalty"was filed on August5,1976 as Rule 391-4-13-.08; effectiveAugust25,1976. Amended: Rule renumbered as 391-4-10 .08. Filed December 22,1980; effective January 11, 1981.
391-4-10-.09 Protected Species of Plants and Animals. Amended.

(1) Mammals: (a) Eubalaena glacialis: Northern Right Whale (endangered) (b) Felis concolor coryi: Florida Panther (endangered) (c) Felis concolor cougar: Eastern Cougar (endangered) (d) Megaptera novaeangliae: Humpback Whale (endangered) (e) Myotis sodalis: Indiana Bat (endangered) (f) Myotis grisescens: Gray Bat (endangered) (g) Neofiber alleni: Round-tailed Muskrat (threatened) (h) Plecotus rafinesquii: Rafinesque's Big-eared Bat (rare) (i) Sylvilagus transitionalis: New England Cottontail (rare) (j) Trichechus manatus: West Indian Manatee (endangered)
(2) Birds: (a) Aimophila aestivalis: Bachman's Sparrow (rare) (b) Campephilus principalis: Ivory-billed Woodpecker (endangered) (c) Charadrius melodus: Piping Plover (threatened) (d) Charadrius wilsonia: Wilson's Plover (rare) (e) Corvus corax: Common Raven (rare) (f) Dendroica kirtlandii: Kirtland's Warbler (endangered) (g) Elanoides forficatus: Swallow-tailed Kite (rare) (h) Falco peregrinus: Peregrine Falcon (endangered) (i) Haematopus palliatus: American Oystercatcher (rare)
0) Haliaeetus leucocephalus: Bald Eagle (endangered)
(k) Mycteria americana: Wood Stork (endangered) (1) Picoides borealis: Red-cockaded Woodpecker (endangered) (m) Sterna antillarum: Least Tern (rare) (n) Sterna nilotica: Gull-billed Tern (threatened) (0) Thryomanes bewickii: Bewick's Wren (rare) (p) Vermivora bachmanii: Bachman's Warbler (endangered)
(3) Reptiles: (a) Caretta caretta: Loggerhead Sea Turtle (threatened) (b) Chelonia mydas: Green Sea Turtle (threatened) (c) Clemmys guttata: Spotted Turtle (unusual) (d) Clemmys muhlenbergii: BogTurtle (threatened) (e) Dermochelys coriacea: Leatherback Sea Turtle (endangered) (f) Drymarchon corais couperi: Eastern Indigo Snake (threatened) (g) Eretmochelys imbricata: Hawksbill Sea Turtle (endangered) (h) Gopherus polyphemus: Gopher Tortoise (threatened) (i) Graptemys barbouri: Barbour's Map Turtle (threatened)
0) Graptemys geographica: Map Turtle (rare)
(k) Graptemyspulchra: Alabama Map Turtle (rare) (1) Lepidochelys kempii: Kemp's Ridley Sea Turtle (endangered) (m) Macroclemys temminckii: Alligator Snapping Turtle (threatened)
(4) Amphibians: (a) Ambystoma cingulatum: Flatwoods Salamander (rare) (b) Amphiuma pholeter: One-toed Amphiuma (rare) (c) Aneides aeneus: Green Salamander (rare) (d) Cryptobranchus alleganiensis: Hellbender (rare) (e) Haideotriton wallacei: Georgia Blind Salamander (threatened) (f) Notophthalmus perstriatus: Striped Newt (rare)

239

(g) Plethodon petraeus: Pigeon Mountain Salamander (rare)

(5) Fishes:
(a) Aeipenser brevirostrum: Shortnose Sturgeon
(endangered)
(b) Alosa alabamae: Alabama shad (unusual) (c) Ameiurus serracanthus: Spotted Bullhead (rare) (d) Cyprinella caerulea: Blue Shiner (endangered) (e) Cyprinella callitaenia: Bluestripe Shiner (threatened) (f) Cyprinella gibbsi: Tallapoosa Shiner (rare) (g) Cyprinella xaenura: Altamaha Shiner (endangered) (h) Enneacanthus chaetodon: Blackbanded Sunfish (rare) (i) Erimystax insignis: Blotched Chub (threatened) (j) Etheostoma brevirostrum: Holiday Darter (threatened) (k) Etheostoma chlorobranchium:Greenfin Darter
(threatened)
0) Etheostoma ditrema: Coldwater Darter (threatened) (m) Etheostoma duryi: Black Darter (rare) (n) Etheostoma parvipinne: Goldstripe Darter (rare) (0) Etheostoma tallapoosae:Tallapoosa Darter (rare) (p) Etheostoma trisella: Trispot Darter (threatened) (q)Etheostoma vulneratum: Wounded Darter (endangered) (r) Etheostoma sp. cf coosae: Cherokee Darter (threatened) (s) Etheostoma sp. cf jordani: Etowah Darter (threatened) (t) Etheostoma sp. cf jordani: Lipstick Darter (endangered) (u) Fundulus auroguttatus: Banded Topminnow (rare) (v) Fundulus bifax: Stippled Studfish (endangered) (w) Fundulus catenatus: Northern Studfish (threatened) (x) Hemitremia flammea: Flame Chub (endangered) (y) Hybopsis amblops: Bigeye Chub (rare) (z) Ichthyomyzon bdellium: Ohio Lamprey (rare) (aa) Lucania goodei:Bluefin Killifish (unusual) (bb) Lythrurus bellus: Pretty Shiner (threatened) (cc) Micropterus notius: Suwannee Bass (rare) (dd) Moxostoma carinatum: River Redhorse (rare) (ee) Moxostoma robustum: Robust Redhorse (endangered) (ft) Notropis ariommus: Popeye Shiner (threatened) (gg) Notropis harperi: Redeye Chub (rare) (hh) Notropis hypsilepis: Highscale Shiner (threatened) (ii) Notropis photogenis: Silver Shiner (endangered) Gj) Notropis scepticus: Sandbar Shiner (rare) (kk) Noturus eleutherus: Mountain Madtom (threatened) (11) Noturus funebris: Black Madtom (rare) (mm) Noturus munitus: Frecklebelly Madtom (endangered) (nn) Noturus noctumus: Freckled Madtom (endangered) (00) Pereina antesella: Amber Darter (endangered) (pp) Percina aurantiaca: Tangerine Darter (threatened) (qq) Pereina aurolineata: Goldline Darter (threatened) (rr) Pereina jenkinsi: Conasauga Logperch (endangered) (ss) Pereina lenticula: Freckled Darter (endangered) (tt) Pereina seiera: Dusky Darter (rare) (uu) Percina shumardi: River Darter (endangered) (vv) Percina squamata: Olive Darter (threatened) (ww) Pereina tanasi: Snail Darter (threatened) (xx) Percina sp. cf macrocephala: Muscadine Darter (rare) (yy) Phenacobius crassilabrum: Fatlips Minnow
(endangered)
(zz) Phenacobius uranops: Stargazing Minnow (threatened) (aaa) Pteronotropis euryzonus: Broadstripe Shiner (rare) (bbb) Pteronotropis welaka: Bluenose Shiner (rare) (ccc) Typhlichthys subterraneus: Southern Cavefish (rare)

(6) Invertebrates:
(a) Epioblasma metastriata: Upland Combshell
(endangered)
(b) Epioblasma othcaloogensis: Southern Acornshell
(endangered)
(c) Fusconaia masoni: Atlantic Pigtoe Mussel (endangered) (d) Lampsilis altilis: Fine-lined Pocketbook (threatened) (e) Medionidus acutissimus: Alabama Moccasinshell
(threatened)
(t) Medionidus parvulus: Coosa Moccasinshell
(endangered)
(g) Pleurobema deeisum: Southern Clubshell (endangered) (h) Pleurobema georgianum: Southern Pigtoe (endangered) (i) Pleurobema perovatum: Ovate Clubshell (endangered)
G) Ptychobranchus greeni: Triangular Kidneyshell
(endangered)

(7) Plants:

(a) Allium speculae: Flatrock Onion (threatened)

(b) Amphianthus pusillus: Pool Sprite (threatened)

(c) Arabis georgiana: Georgia Rockcress (threatened)

(d) Asplenium heteroresiliens: Spleenwort (threatened)

(e) Balduina atropurpurea: Purple Honeycomb Head (rare)

(f) Baptisia arachnifera: Hairy Rattleweed (endangered)

(g) Bumelia thomei: Swamp Buckthorn (endangered)

(h) Cacalia diversifolia: Indian Plantain (threatened)

(i) Calamintha ashei: Ohoopee Wild Basil (threatened)
G) Carex baltzellii: Baltzell Sedge (endangered)

(k) Carex biltmoreaila: Biltmore Sedge (threatened)

0) Carex dasycarpa: Velvet Sedge (endangered)

(m) Carexmanhartii: Manhart Sedge (threatened)

(n) Carex misera: Sedge (endangered)

(0) Carex purpurifera: Purple Sedge (threatened)

(p) Ceratiola ericoides: Rosemary (threatened)

(q) Chamaecyparis thyoides: Atlantic White-cedar (rare)

(r) Chrysopsis pinifolia: Sandhill Golden-aster (threatened)

(s) Croomia pauciflora: Croomia (threatened)

(t) Cuscuta harperi: Harper Dodder (threatened)

(u) Cymophyllus fraseri: Fraser Sedge (threatened)

(v) Cypripedium acaule: Pink Ladyslipper (unusual)

(w) Cypripedium calceolus: Yellow Ladyslipper (unusual)

(x) Draba aprica: Draba (endangered)

(y) Echinacea laevigata: Smooth Purple Coneflower

(endangered)

(z) Elliottia racemosa: Georgia Plume (threatened)

(aa) Epidendrum conopseum: Greenfly Orchid (unusual)

(bb) Evolvulus sericeus: Silky Morning-glory (endangered)

(cc) Fimbristylis perpusilla: Harper Fimbristylis (endan-

gered)

(dd) Fothergilla gardenii: Dwarf Witch-alder (threatened)

(ee) Gentianopsis crinita: Fringed Gentian (threatened)

(ft) Hartwrightia floridana: Hartwrightia (threatened)

(gg) Helonias bullata: Swamp Pink (threatened)

(hh) Hexastylis shuttleworthii var. harperi: Harper Wild

Ginger (unusual)

.

(ii) Hydrastis canadensis: Goldenseal (endangered)

Gi) Hymenocallis coronaria: Shoals Spiderlily (endangered)

(kk) Illieium floridanum: Florida Anise (endangered)

(11) Isoetes melanospora: Black-spored Quillwort

240

it

dSi

(endangered)

(mm) Isoetes tegetiformans: Mat-forming Quillwort

(endangered)

(nn) Isotria medeoloides: Small Whorled Pogonia

(threatened)

(00) }effersonia diphylla: Twinleaf (endangered)

(pp) Leavenworthia exigua var. exigua: Gladecress

(threatened)

(qq) Lindera melissifolia: Pond Spicebush (endangered)

(rr) Lindernia saxicola: False Pimpernel (endangered)

(ss) Litsea aestivalis: Pond Spice (threatened)

(tt) Lysimachia fraseri: Fraser Loosestrife (rare)

(uu) Lythrum curtissii: Curtis Loosestrife (threatened)

(vv) Marshallia mohrii: Coosa Barbara Buttons (threatened)

(ww) Marshallia ramosa: Pineland Barbara Buttons (rare)

(xx) Matelea alabamensis: Alabama Milkvine (threatened)

(yy) Matelea pubiflora: Trailing Milkvine (rare)

(zz) Myriophyllum laxum: Lax Water Milfoil (threatened)

(aaa) Nestronia umbellula: Indian Olive (threatened)

(bbb) Neviusia alabamensis: Alabama Snow-wreath

(threatened)

(ccc) Oxypolis canbyi: Canby Dropwort (endangered)

(ddd) Panicum hirstii: Panic Grass (endangered)

(eee) Penstemon dissectus: Cutleaf Beardtongue (rare)

(fff) Physostegia leptophylla: Narrowleaf Obedient Plant

(threatened)

(ggg) Pinguicula primuliflora: Clearwater Butterwort

(threatened)

(hhh) Platanthera integrilabia: Monkeyface Orchid

(threatened)

(iii) Potentilla tridentata: Three-toothed Cinquefoil

(endangered)
GiD Ptilimnium nodosum: Harperella (endangered)

(kkk) Quercus oglethorpensis: Oglethorpe Oak

(threatened)

(lll) Rhododendron prunifolium: Plumleaf Azalea

(threatened)

(mmm) Rhus michauxii: Dwarf Sumac (endangered)

(nnn) Sabatia capitata: Cumberland Rose Gentian (rare)

(000) Sageretia minutiflora: Climbing Buckthorn

(threatened)

(ppp) Sagittaria secundifolia: Kral Water-plantain

(threatened)

(qqq) Salix floridana: Florida Willow (endangered)

(rrr) Sanguisorba canadensis: Canada Burnet (threatened)

(sss) Sarracenia flava:Yellow Flytrap (unusual)

(ttt) Sarracenia leucophylla: Whitetop Pitcherplant

(endangered)

(uuu) Sarracenia minor: Hooded Pitcherplant (unusual)

(vvv) Sarracenia oreophila: Green Pitcherplant

(endangered)

(www) Sarracenia psittacina: Parrot Pitcherplant

(threatened)

.

(xxx) Sarracenia purpurea: Purple Pitcherplant

(endangered)

(yyy) Sarracenia rubra: Sweet Pitcherplant (endangered)

(zzz) Schisandra glabra: Bay Star-vine (threatened)

(aaaa) Schwalbea americana: Chaffseed (endangered)

(bbbb) Scutellaria montana: Large-flowered Skullcap

(endangered)

(cccc) Scutellaria ocmulgee: Ocmulgee Skullcap

(threatened) (dddd) Sedum nevii: Nevius Stonecrop (threatened) (eeee) Sedum pusillum: Granite Stonecrop (threatened) (ffff) Senecio millefolium: Blue Ridge Golden Ragwort (threatened) (gggg) Shortia galacifolia: Oconee Bells (endangered) (hhhh) Silene polypetala: Fringed Campion (endangered) (iiii) Silene regia: Royal Catchfly (rare)
GiiD Spiraea virginiana: Virginia Spirea (threatened)
(kkkk) Spiranthes magnicamporum: Great Plains Ladiestresses (endangered) (llll) Stewartia malacodendron: Silky Camellia (rare) (mmmm) Stylisma pickeringii var, pickeringii: Pickering Morning-glory (threatened) (nnnn) Thalictrum cooleyi: Cooley Meadowrue (endangered) (0000) Thalictrum debile: Trailing Meadowrue (threatened) (pppp) Tillandsia recurvata: Ball-moss (threatened) (qqqq) Torreya taxifolia: Florida Torreya (endangered) (rrrr) Trientalis borealis: Starflower (endangered) (ssss) Trillium persistens: PersistentTrillium (endangered) (tttt) Trillium reliquum: Relict Trillium (endangered) (uuuu) Veratrum woodii: Ozark Bunchflower (rare) (vvvv) Viburnum bracteatum: Limerock Arrowwood (endangered) (wwww) Waldsteinia lobata: Barren Strawberry (threatened) (xxxx) Xerophyllum asphodeloides: Eastern Turkeybeard (rare) (yyyy) Xyris tennesseensis: Tennessee Yellow-eyed Grass (endangered)
Authority Ga. L. 1973, p. 333, et seq.; Ga. L. 1973, p. 932, et seq.; 0.C. G.A. Sees. 12-6-172, 27-3-132. History: Original Rule entitled "Protected Species of Plants andAnimals"wasfiled onAugust 5, 1976 as Rule 391-4-3-.09; effective August 25, 1976. Amended: Filed September 14, 1977; effective October 4,1977. Amended: Rule renumbered as 391-4-10-.09. Filed De cember 22,1980; effectiveJanuary 11, 1981. Amended: Filed April20, 1984; effective
May 10, 1984. Amended: F. Nov 4, 1992; eff Nov. 24, 1992.

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Little Tennessee 243

Use for Protected Species Listing or Status Change Georgia Department of Natural Resources* Scientific Name & Author Citation: Common Name(s): Habitat:
Distribution: Population Status:
Proposed Status Category: If unlisted, give proposed status as Endangered, Threatened, Rare, or Unusual Species. If listed, but status change is recommended, give current then proposed status. Threats:
Remarks:
Name of Nominator: Affiliation: Address:
Phone: *Note: Include distribution maps, descriptive materials, references, drawings, reprints, and any other supportive data and mail to:
Georgia Department of Natural Resources Wildlife Resources Division
Nongame Wildlife-Natural Heritage Section 116 Rum Creek Drive Forsyth, GA 31029 (912)994-1438 phone 244

Chromatophores. n. Cells bearing pigment that give color to surrounding tissue.

Adipose fin. n. A small, fleshy fin occurring on the dorsum between the dorsal and caudal fins.
Aestivate. v. To spend the summer in a dormant state.
Algae. n. Mostly aquatic, tiny single-celled plants.
Ammocoetes. n. Larval lamprey.
Amphidromous. adj. Describes organisms that remain year-round in or near the saltwater/freshwater interface in coastal rivers.
Anadromous. adj. Describes organisms that migrate up freshwater rivers from the sea in order to breed.

C.I.T.E.S. n. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. An international regulatory initiative.
Clutch. n. A group of eggs laid in a single nesting attempt.
Crustaceans. n. Mostly aquatic species that have rigid shelllike coverings on their bodies. Examples of crustaceans include shrimp, crabs and amphipods.
Detritus. n. Fragments of organic material.
Dimorphic. adj. Having two distinct forms.
Diurnal. adj. Active during the daytime.

Anal plate. n. The last belly scale of a snake that covers the anal opening.

Dormant. adj. Sleeping or otherwise inactive with some bodily processes such as heart rate and breathing slowed down.

Annuli. n. Ring-like growth markings found on turtle scutes. Dorsal. adj. Relating to the back.

Arabada. n. A large number of sea turtles nesting during a short period of time on a small streach of beach.
Attenuated. adj. Gradually tapered to a slender point.
Baleen. n. Horny, flexible plates in the upper jaws of whales used to strain plankton from the water.
Barbels. n. Slender, fleshy whisker-like organs found on the heads of some fishes which help them sense environmental conditions.
Benthic. adj. Living at or close to the bottom of a body of water.
Bivalve. n. A type of mollusk with two hinged shells, such as a mussel or clam.

Dorsum.n. Upper surface of the body.
Endemic. adj. Native or confined to a certain region.
Estrus. n. A regular recurrent period of ovulation in female animals other than humans.
Estuary. n. The lower part of a freshwater river where it meets the ocean.
Eutrophic. adj. A condition in which an increase in mineral and organic nutrients in water has reduced the dissolved oxygen levels, favoring plant over animal life.
Extirpate. v. To eliminate a population from a given area.
Fecundity. n. The capability of producing offspring.

Bridge. n. In turtles, the portion of the shell that connects the Flashy (stream). adj. Describing a stream that rises and falls

plastron with the carapace.

very quickly in response to rainfall.

Calving ground. n. An area where females of certain mammal species gather to give birth.

Forage. v. Towander in search of food. n. Plants, including grains and grasses, eaten by animals.

Carapace. n. The upper, usually domed, portion of a turtle's shell.
Carrion. n. The decaying flesh of dead animals.
Catadromous. adj. A fish that migrates down freshwater rivers to breed in the ocean.

Forb. n. A herbaceous plant other than a grass, sedge or rush. Fossorial. adj. Adapted for living underground. Fry. n. A small fish, especially one recently hatched. Gametes. n. Mature eggs or sperm.

245

Gape. v. To open the mouth widely.
Glochidia. n. The larvae of freshwater mussels, some of which attach themselves to the gills or fins of a host fish until the young mussels are large enough to survive on their own.

Monoculture. n. A planned colony consisting of a single species.
Monogamous. adj. Having only one mate for a season or a lifetime.

Gravid. adj. Carrying eggs or developing young. Gular. adj. Pertaining to the throat region. Ex. gular scuies.

Mother-of-pearl. n. The pearly, shiny inside of some mussel shells formed by the same secretion which coats a grain of sand to become a pearl. See nacre.

Hatchling. n. A young animal that has just come out of its shell (hatched).

Nacre. n. The glossy, sometimes iridescent, inner lining of a mussel shell, also known as "mother of pearl."

Hibernaculum. n. The case, covering or structure in which an organism remains dormant for the winter.
Hibernate. v. To go into winter dormancy with reduced body temperature, heart rate, breathing rate and metabolism.
Impoundment. n. The gathering of water behind a dam; a reservoir.
Inferior (mouth). adj. Describes mouth positioned on underside of head.
Interstices. n. Small spaces between objects such as between grains of sand or pebbles.
Invertebrate. n. An animal that does not have a backbone. Insects, snails and worms are examples of invertebrates.

Nestling. n. A bird not old enough to leave its nest.
Nocturnal. adj. Active during night hours.
Nuchal (scute). n. Marginal scute on a turtle's carapace immediately above the neck.
Old growth (forest). n. A forest made up of very large, old trees that has not been significantly disturbed by man.
Omnivorous. adj. Having the ability or natural inclination to use both animal and plants as food.
Organic. adj. Material made up of carbon. All plants and animals are made mostly of carbon.
Oviposit. v. To lay eggs, especially with an ovipositor.

Krill. n. Tiny marine crustaceans that are major food items of Outcrop. n. A portion of bedrock protruding through or

whales, some fish and certain birds.

above the soil level.

Larva. n. The earliest stage of life of certain species during which the newly hatched do not resemble the adults. The young undergo a change known as metamorphosis.

Parasite. n. An organism that draws nutrients from another living organism. The second organism, called a host, is often harmed by the relationship.

Lichen. n. A plant-like organism made up of a fungus in a close biological relationship with blue-green algae.

Pelagic. adj. Of, pertaining to, or living in open oceans or seas rather than waters adjacent to land or inland waters.

Marine. adj. Having to do with the sea, including salt water gulfs and oceans.

Periostracum. n. Cloth-like tissue which completely covers the shell of a mussel.

Medial. adj. Toward the middle.
Melanophore. n. A color cell with melanin, a dark pigment which can produce shades ranging from gray to black.
Mesic. adj. Moderately moist, as in habitat characteristics.
Metamorphosis. n. The change in the structure and habits of an animal during normal growth, usually in the postembryonic stage.
Migrate. v. The periodic movement of animals from one region of land or water to another.

Periphyton. n. Microscopic plants that attach to aquatic substrate.
Pesticide. n. A chemical used to kill animals, especially insects, considered to be pests.
Pharyngeal teeth. n. The teeth found on the posterior-most bony modified gill arch in minnows and suckers.
Phytoplankton. n. Extremely small, suspended aquatic plants.
Pied. adj. Covered with patches or spots.

Mollusk. n. An animal that has a shell and a muscular organ, Plankton. n. Tiny aquatic plant and animal organisms that

sometimes called a foot, used to move the animal around or

drift together in large numbers.

attach it to something else. Examples include clams, oysters,

mussels and snails.

246

Plastron. n. The lower, typically flattened, portion of a turtle's shell.
Poaching. v. The illegal taking of fish or game.
Posterior. adj. Located toward the rear.
Predator. n. An animal that preys upon other animals for food.
Prairie swamps. n. Large areas of emergent grasses, sedges, forbs, and shrubs within swamps and marshes.
Quadrate. adj. Shaped like a square.
Raptor. n. A bird of prey such as a hawk, owl; falcon, or eagle.

Substrate. n. Materials that compose the ground, the bottom of an aquatic system, such as a stream or other habitat surfaces used by wildlife.
Superconglutinate. n. A mucous-encased packet, resembling a small fish and containing one year's entire larval (glochidial) production, that is produced by the females of some freshwater mussel species and trailed into the current on a mucous strand to lure potential predatory host fishes into attacking such that the parasitic larvae are released to infect the fish.
Sympatric. adj. Relating to two or more closely related forms occurring together in the same geographic area without inbreeding.
Talon. n. The claw of a bird of prey.

Rhomboidal. adj. Shaped like a parallelogram with unequal Terminal (mouth). adj. Describes mouth positioned so that

adjacent sides.

it opens forward, not overhung by a snout.

Riffles. n. Areas of shallow, choppy water caused by rocks or sandbars below the surface of rivers and streams.
Roost(ing site). n. A place where birds or bats rest or sleep.

Terrestrial. adj. Living on land.
Tributaries. n. Streams or rivers that flow into larger streams or rivers.

Saddle. n. A pigmented area on the backs of some fish. It may extend onto the sides.

Troglobite. n. An animal adapted to life within a cave or other underground structure.

Scute. n. A plate-like segment of a turtle's shell.
Serrae. n. Small, pointed, tooth-like projections.
Sexual dimorphism. n. The state of having distinct differences in color, size, or physical structure between males and females of the same species.

Trotline. n. A fishing line set with baited hooks and unattended for a certain period of time.
Tympanum. n. A round, flat external eardrum.
Type locality. n. A geographic place where specimens were collected for the original scientific description of a species.

Siltation. n. The build-up of sediment (silt) which damages water purity and can eventually block streams and rivers and cover gravel spawning substrate.

Undescribed species. n. A species with physical, behavioral, reproductive, and other characteristics that have not been formally described by scientists.

Silviculture. n. The cultivation of trees.

Venter. n. The undersurface of the body.

Spawn. v. Laying and fertilizing fish eggs.

Ventral. adj. Relating to the belly, or underside.

Spelunker. n. A person who explores caves on a casual basis, Vestigial. adj. Occurring or persisting as a rudimentary or

typically inexperienced and under equipped.

degenerate structure.

Subelliptical. adj. Approximating the shape of an ellipse. Suboviform. adj. Approximating the shape of an oval.

Watershed. n. The geographic area drained by a river and its tributaries. The waters in the area eventually drain into the main river.

Subquadrate. adj. Approximating the shape of a square.
Subrhomboidal. adj. Approximating the shape of a rhomboid, which is a parallelogram with unequal adjacent sides.

Some definitions from The American Heritage Dictionary. 1991. 2nd College Ed. Houghton Mifflin,Boston.

Subspecies. n. A subdivision of a species based on geographic distribution; a subspecies is usually formally named.

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N ONGAME-ENDANGERED WILDLIFE PROGRAM GEORGIA DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES WILDLIFE RESOURCES DMSION NONGAME WILDLIFE-NATURAL HERITAGE SECTION