Preliminary report on the sand and gravel deposits of Georgia

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA
S. W. McCALLIE. State Geologist
/
BULLETIN No. 37
PRELIMINARY REPORT
ON THE
SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS
OF
GEORGIA
BY
L. P. TEAS
Assistant State Geologist
1921 BYRD PRINTING COMPANY,
ATLANTA, GA. .

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSI1'S OF GEORGIA

FRO.NTISPIECE PLATE I

PLANT AND PIT OF THE GEORGIA SAND & GRAVEL COMPANY, AUGUSTA, RICHMOND COUNTY

--

THE ADVISORY BOARD
OF THE
_Geological Survey of Georgia
IN THE YEAR 1921
(Ex-Officio) His Excellency, HUGH M. DORSEY__________ Governor of Georgia
-President ofthe Board- ____ _ HON. S. G. McLENDON_____ ~---------------- ..Secretary of State HON. W. J. SPEER______________________________ State Treasurer HON. W. A. WRIGHT ____________ -; __________Comptroller-General HON. R. A. DENNY __.__________________________Attorney-General HON. J. J. BROWN __________________ Commissioner of Agriculture HON. M. L. BRITTAIN____________Commissioner of Public Schools

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
Geological Survey of Georgia, Atlanta, Jan. 15, 1921.
To His Excellency, HUGH M. DORSEY, Governor, and President of the .lldvisory Board of the Geolo~ical Survey of Georgia. SIR: I ave the honor to transmit herewith the report of Mr.
L.~ P,. Teas, Assistant State Geologist, on t].:le Sand and Gravel Deposits of Georgia to be published as Bulletin ~o. 37 of.this Survey~
Very respectfully, S. W. McCALLIE, S.tate Geologist.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PA.GE

.ADVISORY Bo.A.BD ---------------------------------------------------- iii

LETTER OF T~SMITTA.L --------------------------------------------

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS ------------------------------------------------ v-ix

ILLUSTRATIONS ----------------------------------------------~------ xi-xiii

NATURE, CL.AJSSIFICATION, AND PROPERTIES OF SAND AND

GRAVEL Definitions - _-- ----------------------------------..,----------------Origin ----------------------------------------------------------
~echanical action---------------------------------------------Chemical action ----- -----~--------- ---------------------------Classification of sand ----------------------------- _____________:_-
Olassification by origin ---------------------------------------Classification by chemical cont_ent -----------------------------Classification by mineral content ------------------------.,.-----Classification by grain size -----------------------------------Classification by uses -- _-------------------------------------- _
Color-------------------------------------------------~---------
Cleanness ------------------------------------------------------Clay ---------------------------------1 ---.--------------------Organic matter ------------------------------------------------
Mineral and rock composition -------------'-------------,---------Sand-producing minerals ---"------------ __ ------------------ __ _ Sand-producing rocks ------------- ___________ --------- __ ,_ _____ _
Sedilnentary rocks ------------------------------------------Crystalline rocks --------- __ --------------------------------~ineralogical examination of sand _________________________ ..: ___ _
Chemical composition ----------- ____ -------------- _______________
Physical character of sand grains --------------------------------
Size of grain -----------------------------------------------Grain size by screening -------------------------------------Grain size by other methods ---------------------------------Graphic representation of granulometric composition- ____:., ____ _ Numerical representation of gr~nulometric composition_________ _
Effective size _____ -------- __ -------------- __________ ------ _
Uniformity coefficient _______ --------------------------- __ _
Average finene,ss ------------------------------------------
Fineness modulus -----------------------------------------Shape of grain and pebble -------------------------------------Durability of grain and pebble ----------------------------------

1 2-4 2-3
g
4-8 4 5 5
6-7 7-8
8 8-9 - ---------9-10 10-13 13-17 13-14 15-16 15 15-16 16-17 17-18 18-33 18-32 19-23 23-25 25-27 27 27-28. 28-'9 29-31 31-32 32 32-33

v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

Cementing value ----------------------------------------- __ -----
\Toids ---------------------------------------------------------Methods of determination --------------------------------------
Specific graviliy __ ::___ .:.__--~-..:__________ -------------------- _______

33-34 34-39 35-39 39-41

Methods of determination ------------------------------------- 40-41
VVeight of sand and gravel -------------------------------------- 41-43 Methods of determination ___ -------------------------- -'--- __ _ 42-43
Mortar tests of sand ----------- _______ - ____ ------------ ___ ------ 43

THE USES OF S.AND .AND GR.A\TEL ------------------------------ 45-95
Building sand and gravel ---------------------------------------- 45 Concrete aggregate --------- ____ ---------------- ______________ _ 45-59.

Sand ------------------------------------------------------Gravel. ------------ _---- _----------- -----~------------------Size of grain --------------------------------------~--------\Toids -----------------------------~-----: __________________ _
Impurities ___ ----------- _- _----.,..---.-------------------------Clay --~~-------------------------------------------------Organic matter --------------------- --------~-.,..-----~- ____ _ Mineral and .chemical impurities _____ -------------------- __ _
Brick mortar -------------- _-- __ --------------- _~ ______ ---- __ _
Stone masonry mortiu -----------------------------------------Plaster ---~--------------------------------------: ____________ _
Glass sand - ..,=,....--------- ----------------------------------- --'-----
Ohemical composition ----------- ___...;L ------ ~---;-- ____________ _

46-47 47
47-52
53 54-59 54-56 56-57 57-59
59 59 59-60 60-68 61-63

Silica ----"'...:_____ ---------------- -- ----,---------------------- 61

Iron ___ ------------ __.___ .!. __ - -------------------------------- 61-62 Alum.ina _____ ------ __ ------------.-------------- ____________ _ 62

Magnes~a ---------------------------------------~----------- 63

Mineral composition ------------------------------------------- 63-64

Mechanical co'inposition ------------------------- -----~-------- 64-65

~

Shape of grain ------------------------------------------------ 65

Method:s of improvement -------------------------------- ____ --- 66-68

VVashing ---------------------------------------------------- 66-67 Magnetic treatment ------------------- _- ----~- ----:----------- 67

Screening --------------------------------------------------- 67-68
Preparation gJ glass sand -------------------------------------- 68

Fotrndry sana-------------------------------------------------- 68-72.'
Permeability --- --~- ___ _.:__________ ------------------------ ----- 69-70 '11exture ------- -~ ------------ --~----- ------.,---- __ -----.---- ____ _ 70

Cohesiveness -- _______.:__ -- ------------------------------------- 70-71

Durability ----------------- ____ ------------------------ ______ _ 71

F'usibility ------- __ -------------- ______ ----------- ________ ----.- 71-72
Core sands --------------------------------------~--------------- 72-73
.Sand-lime brick _______ ------ ____________________ ---,..---------- __ _ 73-76

'''Methods of manufacture ---------------------------------------- 74-76
Boad gr~vcl ----------------------------------------------------- 76-81

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

The binder ---------------------------------------------------Strength of the pebbles ----------------------------------------
Grading of the pebbles ---------------------------------------Sand-clay roads _--------------- ___ _: ________ --~ ____ -------- ______ _

76-78 78-79 79-81 81-84

The sand and the clay _:_ __________ -------------- ____ ------------- 8.S'-84

Mechanical 'analysis ___ -------------- _________ ----------------
Asphalt pavements ---------------------------------------------Sand-oil roads ____ - ---------------------------------------------Paving sand ___ -- ---------------------------- -------------------
Pavement foundations ___ ------------------ __ ------ ____________ _

84 84-8-6
87 87-88
87

Cus-hion sand -------------------------------- ------------------- _ 87-88 Filler sand ___ -- -------- ---------------- ------'--- ------ ----~- _- _ 88 Railroad ballast ______ -------' -- ________________________________ _ 88-90

Filter sand and gravel ------------------------------------------
Engine and trolley sand ------------------------------------------
Roofing gravel _------------------ __: __--:_ ------------------------- _ Abrasive uses ----------------------------------------~----------
Sand-blast ----- ____ -------- ______ ------ ____ ------------ ______ _

90-92 92
92-93 93-94
93

Stone sawyers' sand-------------------------------------------- 93-94

Grinding and polishing _________________________________ __: _____ _

94

Sand-cement -- ___ - ------ __ _:_ ______ - -------- __________ --------- ____ _ 94

Fire sand -------------------------------------------------------- 94 Minor uses ---------- _____:,__-____ -------------------------------- _ 94-95

METHODS OF TRANSPORTATION,_ J?RODUCT:i:ON, AND PREPARATION --------------- ---~ ----------------- -~ -- __ __: 95,128-
Transportation _----:--------------- _______________ ------------------ 96-100

MV 0oatgoor n st r u-c-k- - ~------------_-:-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-__- _- _- _- _- _- _- _- _-_-_-_-_-_- -_

96 96-97

Ra-ilroad ------------------------------------------------------ _ 97

Boat --------------------------------------------------------- 97-98 Mechanical conveyors _- --------------------------------------- 98-99

Belt conveyors -------------~-------------------------------- 98-99

_Elevators ---------------------------------------------------

99

Production methods ---------------------------------------------- 10-0 Ra~d labor _____ ---- ____ -------- -------------~ --------------- -.10'0-101

Trap loading ------------------------------------------------ _101-103 Car loaders _______________ _:_ __ ~-------~-------------------------103-104

Power shovels -------- _--------------- _- -------------------- ___104-106 Keystone excavatoJ;s ------------------- _- -------------- _____106-107
Power scrapers _------------------------------------,------- ___107-109 Albrecht excavators ----------------------------------------- 107 Drag-line cableways .------------------------------------------107-109 errick scrapers ----------------------------------------------109-110
Power-operated grab-buckets -----------------------------------110-112 Locomotive cranes ------------------------------------------ llO Travelling towers ------------------------------------------- 111

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

Stiff-leg derricks ----------------------- _---------- ____ ______ _ 111 Cableway dredges ------- __ -----'- __ -------- __________________111-112

Floating dredges -------------------- ______________ ------ ____ 112

Buckets ----------- __ ------------ __ ------ ______ ____ __ _____

112

Centrifugal pumps ----------------------- ____ --~--- ------ ____ .112-117

Centrifugal dredges --------------------------------------

117

L!'tdder dredges _------------------------ ______________________ .117-113

Hydraulieking - __ ---------------- ____ ------- ___ ----------- _______118-119 Preparation of sand for the market ------------------~--~--------119-128

Washing and sizing ------------------------------------------120-124

Screens _-----------------------------------------------------122-123

Separators -------------------------------------------------- 123 Screw washers ------------------- -----------:!"-- -----~-------123-124
Scrubbers ------------------------- __ ------------ ____ ------ _ 124 Crushing meth~ds ------------------------------~---------------124-126

Crushers ---------------------------------------------------- 125 Chaser mills - -----;;-- ---------------------------- __ ------ ___ 1J::'5-126
Dryers -------------------------------------------------------~126-127 Storage --- ~--------------------- _____ ..:~- ------------------- ---127-12'8

PROSPECTING F9'R SAND AND GRAVEL ----------------------128-139 Stream. deposits --------------------- ~--- ----------------------.128-130
Character of deposits ------------..------------------------------ 128 Testing --- -~-- --------- _-------------- ____ ------- ____ ____ _____ 129

Bank deposits --------- -"----- -- -'-"'-------------.: ------------ ------.130-135 Sand-hill deposits ------- ---- _____ :___ ----:--- -~------- -----------130-132 Fluvial sand hill:s --- ------~--- ---------- ---------- ---- ____:_130-132 Fall line sand hills ----------------------------------------'-- 132
Fall line gravel deposits ----------~---------~-----------------132-135
Testing -------------------------------------------------------133-134 SampHng ----- ____ _,_ __ ------------------------------------ _.134-135
Co~ditions affecting development ---------------------------------136-138 Workable thickness and extent -------------------------------- 136 1Cover _---------- _____.:.___: ___ -- ------------------------------ -136.137
Rejected material --------------------------------------------- 137 Variations ---------------------------------------------------- 137
Water -------------------------------------------------------- 138 Accessibility -------------------------------------------------- 138 Sandstone deposits - _______________ ::,____ ------------------------.138-139

Sampling ..,------------------------------------------- -------- 139 THE SAND AND GRAVEL INDUSTRY ----------------------------139-143
Price ------------------------------------------------------------141-142
Royalties -------------------------------------:-------------'----- 142 Labor costs ----------------------------------------------------- 142 Markets ----------------------.---------------------------------- 143 SAND AND GRAVEL PRODUCERS IN GEORGIA IN 1920---------- 143
viii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

P.A.GE

DISTRIBUTION OF SAND AND GRAVEL IN GEORGIA BY GEO-
LOGIC PROVINCES ------------------------------ _-------146-367 The Coastal Plain -----------------------------------------------146-281
Extent and size ----------------------------------------------- 146 Physiography _------ ___ _: ----------------------------------- ___146-148 Geology ------------------------------------------------------148-152 Detailed description of individual counties -----------------~----152-281 The Crystalline Area ---------------------------------- _________ -282-341 Extent and size ----------------------------------------------- 282 Physiography ______ - ----,------------------------------------ ___ 282'-283
Geology -------------------------------------------------------283-285 Detailed description of individual counties ----------------------285-341 'I'he Paleozoic Area --------------------------------- _____________ 342-367
Extent and size ---------------------------------------------- 342 Physiography ----------- ____ ----------------------------------- 342 Geo1ogy _____ - _----------- _-- _- --------------------------------342-344 Detailed description of individual counties _--- _____ ---- ____ ---344-367
Bibliography ------------------------------------------------------368-371 Appendix A, Sap Brown ------------------------------------------373-375 Appendix B, Black sand -----------------------------------------,_376-377 Appendix C, Singing sand __________ : _______________________________ 378-380

Appendix D, Molding sand ----------------------------------------380-383 Index --------------~---------------------------------------------384-391

- - -- - -~ - - - - - - ------ ---- ---------- -

..

ILLUSTRATIONS

PLATE

FACING PAGE

I. Plant and pit of the Georgia Sand & Gravel Company, Augusta.,

Richmond County ________ -------------------------Frontispiece

II. A. Haist car-loader, J. R. Hime Sand Company, Junction City, Geo.rgia ------ _---------------------------- ________ ____ _ 32
B. Mining gravel by gasolene shovel, Muscogee County pit, 3lh
miles east of Columbus ---------------------------------- 32 III. ~- Keystone excavator used in loading trucks, Richmond County
gravel pit, August-a -------------------------------------- 48 B. Mining sand by drag-line scraper, J R. Rime Sand Com-
pany, Junction City, Talbot County --~------------------- 48 IV. A. Mining gravel by crane drag-line system, Richmond County
gravel pit, Augusta-------------------------------------- 64 B. Mining sand by travelling derrick and clam-shell bucket,
Smiley Sand Company, near Gaillard, Crawford County____ 64 V. A. Intake and_ pipe-line, Georgia Sand & Gravel Company, Au-
gusta, Richmond County -----------~-------------------- 80
-B. Mining sand hydraulicly, Atlanta Sand &-Supply- Company,------------------ -
1 mile south of Gaillard, Cra.wford County________________ 80
VI. A. Washing and screening plant, Georgia Sand & Gravel Com-
pany, Augusta, Richmond County ---------------:---------- 96 B. Washing and screening plant, Acme' Sand & Supply Company,
Peachtree Creek, near Peachtree Road, Atlanta, Fulton
County __ - -------------- ----------- --------------------- 96 VII. A. Sand-washing plant, Kirkpatrick Sand & Cement Company,
2 miles west of Howard, Taylor County--------:------------ 112 B. Screw washers, Kirkpatrick Sand & Cement Company, 2 miles
west of Howard, Taylor County -------------------------- 112' VIII. A. Bins . and delivery trucks, Acme Sand & Supply . Company,
Pe13,chtree Road at Peachtree Creek, Atlant~, Fulton

!County ------------------------------------------------- 128 B. Looking up Magruder Creek from bridge on Fort Gaines-
. Georgetown road, 12 miles north of Fort Gaines, Clay County _______:_ ___ ---- __ -------------------------------- 128
IX. A. General view, C. C. McCarty sand pit, 2% miles south of Gail-
lard, Crawford County ---------------------------------- 144 B. Mining sa.nd by locomotive crane and clam-shell bucket, Allou
Sand Company, 2 miles south of Ga:lllard ------------------ 144

xi

PLATE
X.
XL

F.A.CING P.A.GE

A. Water pipe and sand sluice used in hydraulicing system, At-

lanta Sand & Supply Company, 1 mile south of Gaillard, Crawford County ------------------~------------------~-- 160 B. General view, Alt;;tmaha Supply Company, 32 miles east of

Everet;t QH;r, ~cip.to.;s~ Opu~ty .---,---;---r+-------------- 160

A.

Sand

stream,

1 '

mile

nor.th

of

Tazewell, ,

M

a

rr

i

~
o

n

C o u n t y ______

176

B. Drag-line incline and screening plant, Rutledge & Chestnut,

Bull C:reell;, 3 miles southeast of Columbus, Muscogee County 176

XII.

A. Exc-avation by drag-line on Bull Greek sand and gravel bar, Ru-tledge & Chestnut plant, 3 miles southeast 'of Columbus, Muscogee 'County -----~----------~.:.___:_:. __ _: ___ :.. __________ 192
B.Face .of Muscogee G'ounty :road. gravel pit; 32 miles east of Columbus _---------------------- __ ------""--'"----------- __ 192

XIII.

A. Gravel pit; W. A. Fitzgerald's property, l:Jh miles. south of
Omaha, Omaha-Florence road; Sti:rwart' County -------,----- 208 B'. P:lt of Kirkpahick Sand & Cement- Company, 2- miles 1west.
of Howard, 'Thtylor~ County ___ _: _____.:_:_ ___________________ 208

Xtv. A.' Working face showing w~~y str:ata, J'. W. _Dillo_n pit, Wil-

liams Station, 'Thomas County ___ -'~_-_____-_ ___ ------ _______ 224

. ' I

'.

I.

.

.

.



B. White sand bar on Ocklocknee River just 11bove the Thomas-

ville-Albany road,_ TP,omas Oou~ty _.:__ ~;-----------;-.- _-~ ---- _ 224

,_l. XV.. Gene;al vie; of sa:n,d_ and .gravel pit, Lumber.. Gity Sand &

.Gra'!el Qol)lpany, ~ miles north, :of, Lum-ber City, Telfair

County ------------------.----.-..,---- -.-.---;------ _-- --------- 240 B. GJ.as~ s.and pit, ~insoJ!. Band ,Mines, J mij~_.nor;theast of Lum-
ber City, Telfair...County --.- ~-~-----,--.,..--,--------:------ -- _---- 240

XVI~ A. SmalL-sand and gra.vel deposit,.,Mounta;in Qreek, .neal' Alto,

Banks County --..:--~----'----'=---- ..;_:_~--'"':.-"---'~'-:, __ .._~:.---------- 256 _B. Sana, an-d gra;vel deposit,. -Procter -C'reek, 3 miles south ~of Ac-

worth on Ma-rietta- -road, Cobb County --~'----'----.: _________ 256

XVII.

A. Sand bars in Broad River above steel bridge' on ElbertonBerkley road; 10 miles' southwest of Elbertbn; Elbert Bounty 272
B. Molding sand pit, Yellow River Mo1ding Sand Oompany, 1 mile east;,of Almon on the -co-vington road, Newton County 272

XVIII. A: Concrete sand deposit on bank of Yel1ow River, 1 mile east

of Almon on :covington road; Newton CbuntY--------------288 B. Saiid bar in Appalachee River above steel b~idge, Athens-

. Madison road, Oconee and Morgan count~es :.. _____________ 288

mile XIX.

A.\ CJ:hert pit, H. K.
vilie, Chattooga

,Bittings Colinty

-p-r-o-p-e-_-rt-y-1~-1----

south o:l; -~-- -~--~~--

Summer--------

320

B. G:r:avel ;pit, H. A,. Dean ;pJ;operty, Blac~ Bluff -road, l mile

southwe~t of Rome, ':Floyd Co'ul{ty .---_:-_:._~------~---------- 320

PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND GEOLOGIC FEATURES OF GE0RGIA----144-145

.~!~;~~~r~~~~-============-~=,~=~ =~:= =-~~='=:~=~ ~===~= ~===:=== ~~==~== =144.-i!~

xii

PLATE
XX.

F.A.CINGP..A.GE
A. Gravel deposit near Rome-Livingston road, 7 miles west of Rome, Floyd County ------------------------------------- 352:
B. White s,andstone deposit, Rockwood formation, Rocky Face, Whitfield County ----------- __ ------------ ______ --------- 352

FIGURE:S
1. Curve of uniformly graded concrete sand -------------------------- 26 2 & 3. Diagrams showing methods of graphically illustrating the mechan-
ical analysis of a sand ------------------------------------------ 27 4. Relation between :fineness modulus of aggregate and strength of
concrete ------------~-------------------------~----------------- 51 5. Relation between fineness modulus Of aggregate and strength of con-
crete using different mixes -------------------------------------- 52 6. Six-inch centrifugal sand pump. (Morris Machine Company) ------ 113 7. Portable centrifugal sand pump. (Erie Pump & Engine Works) ---- 115 8. General arrangement of washing and screening plant using Gilbert
screens. (Stephens-Adamson Company) -------------------------- 121 9. Generalized section of Fall Line and :fluvial sand-hill deposits -------- 131 10. Method of placing test pits on an acre of ground by quadrilateral
system --------------------------------------------------------- 134 11. Method of placing test pits on an area of slightly more than an acre
by staggered system -------------------------------------------- 134 12. Sand pits along Southern Railway betw.een Gaillard and Zenith ---- 182 13. Sand pits along Central of Georgia and Atlanta, Birmingham & At-
lantic railways near Junction City, H_~>yard, a_~d_J:{orwich in -~aylor and Talbot counties --------------------------------------------- 244
M.A.PS
I. Map of Georgia, showing sand and gravel deposits ------------------ 152

xiii

.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS OF GEORGIA
NATURE, CLASSIFICATION AND PR-OPERTIES OF SAND AND GRAVEL
SAND
Sand consists of fine particles of crushed or worn rock. The term sand refers particularly to the condition and size of the grains making up the material rather than to their chemical or mineralogical composition. Thus we may have silica sand, calcite sand, or black sand, provided the size of the grains falls within certain arbitrary - -- limits. We may define sand as an incoherent material made up of
rn grains ranging from 16 o of an inch to t inch in size. Unconsolidated
material, whose grains lie between Th- and of an inch, is known
as silt; and if the grains fall below -d-0 of an inch we have clay or mud.
GRAVEL
When the grains of any natural, unconsolidated substance be-
come larger thao i inch in diameter, the term gravel is applied to them.
Like sand, gravel may be made up of pebbles of quartz, chert, limonite and many other substances. As a rule gravels consist of harder rock types such as quartz, flint, granite, etc., since they better resist constant attrition. The pebbles are usually characteristically rounded, or at least sub-angular, from the rolling and tumbling they have been subjected to. Usually, considerable sand and clay are included with the pebbles so that the material may be known as a sand ~ravel or a clay ~ravel. When the pebbles attain 4 or 5 inches in diameter the term cobble is applied to them. Boulder ~ravel refers to material consisting of boulders ranging from 10 inches to 4 feet or more in diameter.

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA
ORIGIN
The grains and pebbles of which sand and gravel are composed have beE:!n derived from the mechanical disintegration and chemical deco:rpposition of rocks. Later concentration of the particles by water or wind produces t4e deposits as we know them today. The .weathering processes which are constantly at work upon the_ rocks are of t:wo types, mechanicd.l and chemical.
.Meahaniaal aatlon.-Water that has been introduced into rocks through pores or joints, _upon freezing exerts an expansive fJrce of 150 pounds to the square inch. Such pressure breaks off large Iriaf?ses ~ of rock which in time are broken up into smaller pieces and finally crumble into sand. In arid regions, wide daily extremes of temperature set up strains in minerals having unequal rates of expansion, causing- both the minerals themselves and the rocks which they form to disintegrate ioto sd.nd. Even in ordioary climates the unequal expansion of rock miberais is an important factor in sand production, though not so striking as .in desert regions. Pebbles and rock fragments, carried by -streams whose velocities in :flood periods are often capable of moving boulders exceeding a foot in diameter, exert a constant abrasive acti~n on the stream bed- and upon each other' producing_much sand as they roll down-stream.
_The gouging action of rock fragments held by glacial ice as it passes over the surface is one of the most e:ff~ctive means of rock disintegration in high latitudes and in lofty mountain areas. The extensive gravel and sand deposits of our northern states are largely of glacial origin. -The materials were first produced by the grinding action of the ice and later heaped into deposits as it advanced, or concentrated by water flowing from the ice as it melted. The expansion of tree. roots and the action of burrowing animals also aids in breaking up. the rock into fragments.
In all rock disintegration_ the softer and less resistant rocks or minerals composing the rocks, such as calcite, hornblende, and similar minerals, are more rapidly broken up and ground into silt or clay. The harder min{;lrals such as qvartz and feldspar, break up much more slowly, although the removal. of the softer minerals loosens up the harder ones and permits rain and small streams to carry them down the slope into larger streams where the finer particles are quickly swept -away, thus concentrating the sand jnto banks and bars.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

3

One, therefore, may rightly expect to form some opmwn of the character of parent rocks from the sand that has been produced from them. Granite will form a sand composed of quartz, feldspar, mica, and hornblende. As the sand is carried further from the parent rock, the mica and hornblende and finally the feldspar will be broken up into clay, so that the resulting material will be largely composed of quartz. Sand containing large amounts of the feldspars, such as that making up much of the Altamaha formation in South Georgia, was probably rapidly transported by large, swift streams over .comparatively short distances, else the feldspars would have not occured in it. Sandstone and arkose upon disintegrating will leave quartzose and- feldspathic sand. Limestone and marble may rarely produce a calcareous sand, but their decay is more usually effected by solution without the production of sand. Shales and slates will, of course break up into silt and clay from which they were formed ..
Chemical action.-Decomposition proceeds usually through the solvent action of dilute reagents carried in surface and underground waters, or in atmospheric moisture. Rain, in passing through the atmosphere, acquires sufficient amounts of carbonic acid to render it capable of dissolving practically every type of rock in minute quantities. Organic acids, sulphuric acid, and .other solvents produced in water as it passes over vegetation and certain more easily soluble minerals, have a strong solvent effect on the rocks, especially if the .water can deeply penetrate them through faces or joints. In this manner, decomposition of the softer and less resistant minerals in arock mass relieves the harder particles of their support, thus preparing them for-removal by water or wind action.
Some rock minerals will take up water or become hydrated, so that their mass is increased, thus exerting a disintegrating force and at the same time making them more susceptible to further decomposition.
Some minerals, containing iron and manganese, have a marked affinity for oxygen, so that they are readily oxidized. This weakens the rock structure, and even highly resistant fragments become loosened and the rock further disintegrates.
As a sand and gravel producer the action of decomposition is indirect. It removes support frt>m the more resistant particles by dissolving or weakening the less resistant, consequently the rock tends to break up, and clay, silt, and the larger grains of sand, and even pebbles, are washed into streams. The sand and gravel, being coarser

4

GEOLOGIC'AL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

are not carried away as rapidly as is ~he clay and silt, but become concentrated in the stream bed and in bars along its course.
The feldspars and hornblende in a granite will be decomposed into clay and iron oxide leaving the quartz, which is only slightly affected by solvents, to accumLllate as saud. In .more basic rocks, orthose containi.1g less quartz or silica, the effect of solution is greater, and the resultant quartz,- or ultimate sand, much less.
Schists, gneisses and slates, so common throughout the Piedmont area of Georgia, are decomposed much as are unaltered igneous rocks, except that the process is more rapid since the foliations permit a more thorough impregnation by the dissolving solutions. The pToportion of quartz, howe~er, in the resulting sand is usually considerably less than in sand from fresh igneous rocks.
. CLASSIFICATION OF SAND
Although commercial sands are frequently d~vided into bank and stream sands, a further and- more detailed classification is necessary and desirable. Sand may be classified, according to its origin, chemical and mineralogical content, grain size and use.
CLASSIFICATION BY ORIGIN1 Sand prod~ced by v~rious weathering agencies and remamll,lg where it was produced is known as residual sand. Sand having an aqueous origin m?-y be found in streams, along sea or iake beaches, in lakes or at the sites of ancient lakes: Sand of glacial origin is common in _our northern states in poorly stratified, irregular deposits, but it is entirely absent, of course, in Georgia. Aeolian, or windblown sand, is common along sea coasts, where dunes as much as 100 feet in height have been piled up. These dunes may gradually advance and engulf buildings and whole villages. Volcanic sahd has been ejected from active volcanoes as lapilli or finer particles. Such sand occurs in parts of the West. Sands of organic origin and made up of oolites, rounded concretionary grains produced by microscopic algae, are found on the shores of Great Salt Lake, Utah. 2 Sand formed by concentration of solutions J on, evaporation has been called concentration sand. Examples of this tYP.e are found in the salt 3 sand.
1 Condit, D. D., Petrographic character of Ohio sands with relation to their origin: Jour. Geology, Vol. 20, pp. 152-163.
2 Rothpletz, Uebur die Bildung de~ oolithe Botanisches Centralblatt, Vol~ 51, p. 267 ,1892. Translation in American Geologist. Vol. 10, p. 279, 1892.
3 Darton, N. H., Zuni salt deposits, U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 260, p. 565

SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

5

and gypsum 1 sand deposits of New Mexico. W. H. Sherzer 2 has taken up in detail the classification of sand with respect to its ongm.

CLASSIFICATION BY CHEMICAL CONTENT
Chemically, sands differ widely. The most common type probably is silica sand whose purity depends on the amount of decomposition ~the minerals other than quartz have undergone. Most of the Georgia Coastal Plain sands are of this type. Generally a small quantity of iron, less than 2 per cent, will give a yellow or reddish color to a sand. Such sands are called ferruginous. Calcareous sands, or those containing SUl.ificient calcite to effervesce with acid, occur in the Bermuda Islands. and on some of lihe coral. islands off the coast of Florida.
. Sands containing organic matter are common in swampy regions. In parts of southeast Georgia the organic matter is in sufficient quantities to afford a brown dye source. Such material is called sap brown ore. (See page 373.)
Bituminous or asphaltic sands, 3 occur in Alberta, Canada; Kentucky, Missouri, and many other state~, and may contain suffi- cient bituminous matter to permit their use in street paving.
Gold-bearing sands occur in the stream and flood plain deposits . of)he Appalachian Mountains of Georgia.
CI.JASSIFICATION BY MINERAL CONTENT
Although quartz, due to its durability, is the most common mineral composing sand, practically every type of mineral may be represented among the grains of a sand deposit.
Sands composed entirely of calcite occur on the beaches of the Bermudas and other coral islands; and in parts of New Mexico extensive areas occur covered with white sand cor:nposed entirely of gypsum. 4
Feldspathic sands contain fragments of the feldspars and are com-

1 MacDougal, D. T., Carnegie Institution, Publication No. 90, p. 11, 1908. 2 Criteria for the recognition of the various types of sand grains: Bull. Geol. Soc. America, Vo 21, No. 4, pp. 625-662. 3 Ellis, S. E., Investigation of bituminous sands in northern Albetta: Canada Dept. of Mines, Mines Branch, Sum. Rept. for 1915, pp. 67-76, 1916. 4 Herrick H. N.; U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 223, p. 98.

6

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGI.A

mon in the. sands of the Cretaceous and the so-called Altamaha formation of Georgia. Kaolinitic sands are those intermingled with blebs of fine, white kaolin, and are common in the Lower Cretaceous.
.Micaceous sand contains scales of mica, either muscovite or biotite; and is common in the ~iedmont and some of the Coastal Plain streams. The mica frequently occurs in large flakes. Such sand may produce a crunching noise when rubbed or walked in and hence it hasbeen referred_ to as "whistling" or "singing" sand. 1 (See page 379.)'
.Magnetite sands, suitable for iron making occur in _Quebec, 2 in New York, on the coast of Lake Champlaine, in Brazil, and in New Zealand. Glauconite 3 sands, or green sands, sometimes containing 75 per cent of glauconite, a silicate of iron and potash, are common along the. Atlantic Coast as far south as Florida.
Black 4 sands may contain a vari~ty of dark-colored minerals, such as magnetite, ilmenite, zii-con, chro:rnite, monazite~ and cassit-
erite, and are a source of the rarer elements such as cerium, thorium,
and. zirconium. They are particularly abundant in the streams of the Pacific slope. Such sands are also found on the islands bordering the Atlantic Coast of Florida 5 and. Georgia.
Chromite6 sands occur in Mazyland and are mined on a small scale for their chrome content.
.Monazite sands contain thorium and cerium phosphate and result from the decomposition of monazite-bearing igneous rocks. They arj found in smaU quantities in many of the streams of the Piedmont
Plateau and on the islands off the Atlantic Coast of Georgia:

CLASSIFICATION BY GRAIN SIZE
Just as the term sand. refers to grains havillg certain arbitrary upper and lower size limits, just so may sand itself be classified according to the size of its grain. Such a classification is especially desirable for sands. used for concrete, mortar and filter purposes.

1 King, W. J. H., Travels in the Li.byan desert: Geog. Journal, Vol. 39, pp. 133-137.

2 Mackenzie, G. C., Magnetic iron sands of Natashkwan County of Sagnenay, providence o

Quebec: Canada Dept, of Mines, Mines Branch, 19.12.



3 Mansfield, G. R., General features of the New Jersey glauconite beds: Econ. Geol.,. Vol. 14

pp. 555-567, 1919.

-

4 Day, David T. and Richards, R. H., Mineral Resources of the United States: pp. 175-1258, 1905.

5 Liddell, D. M., Eng. & Min. Journal, Vol. 104, p. 4, 1917.

6 Singewsld, J. T., Maryland sand chrome ore: Econ. Geol. Vol. '14, pp. 189-199, 19!9.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

1

Condra 1 considers three sizes:
Fine sand________0.5 mm. or 0.02 inch in diameter Medium sand____ 2 .0 mm. or 0.08 inch in diameter Coarse sand______5.0 mm. or 0.20 inch in diameter
In this report when coarse, medium, or fine sands are mentioned, it is understood that the sizes will be those of the foregoing table.
E. P. Rosa, of the U. S. Bureau of Standards, suggests 2 the following classification for building sands and gravels:

Suggested classifications of building- sands

Grade called

Suggested limits

No.1 No.2. No.3
No.6 No.8 No.lO

Passing an 8- mesh sieve Passing a 4 mesh sieve
t Retained on a 4-mesh sieve and passing a inch screen
i inch to i inch
i inch to It-inch
It-inch to 3 inches

According to Dake3 the following tenus-applied to gravel are widely

used in Missouri:



Sand__________ Through i inch
Torpedo graveL Through i inch on t inch; .also called torpedo sand Roofing gravel_ Through i inch on i inch
Binder gravel _ Through 1t inch on i inch Concrete gravel Through 2! inch on 1t in~h

CLASSIFICATION BY USES

Probably the most widely used method of sand classification is by _their uses. For building purposes we have concrete sand and gravel, brick sand, plaster sand, and paving sand. Glass sand is one of exceptional freedom from iron. Foundry sands consist of a variety of types such as molding sand, core sand, or brass sand, depending on the kind of metal to be cast and the size and quality of the casting. Other uses require the designation of filter sand, loco-

1 Condra, G. E., Sand and gravel resources and industries of Nebraska: Nebraska Geol. Survey. Vol. 3, pt. 1, p. 29, 1908.
2 Rock products and building materials: Oct. 10, 1917, p. 26. 3 Dake, C. L., The sand and gravel resources of Missouri: Missouri Bureau of Geol. and Mines Vol. XV, p. 7, 1918.

8

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

motive sand, abrasive sand, and fire sand. we also have gravels for ballast, roofint, road buildin~, and for use in tube mills. As this report is intended to emphasize the economic features of sand and gravel, the classification by uses will be followed.

COLOR

The color of sand serves as an index of its purity. Pure quartz

sand is as white as snow, but only a few tenths of a per cent of iron oxide coating the grains will materially discolor it. Most of the Geor-

gia Coastal Plain sands a,re a pale yellow, caused by an iron content of from one half to. two per cent. Many fine-grained sands of the

Piedmont Plateau are speckled, due to black magnetite or ilmenite

grains among the lighter quartz grains, and many are dark-colored,

due to grains of schist; gneiss, and hornblende. The sands of the

Upper Cretaceous occur in brightly colored beds, ranging from white

to yellow, pink, red,- and even purple. The sands of the Barnwell formation of South Georgia are characteristically bright red, or red-

dish-brown, as are many of those of the Lower Cretaceous along the

Fall Line between ;M:acon,_ ap.d Augusta. .

Sands high in organic matter, and which oc-cur in or near swampy

regions. in Southeast Georgia, ar~ dark brown and even black.

'

In general, a white or _light:.coloted sand is pure and composed principally of quartz, while dark gray, brown, and black ~ands are

usually lower in quartz and more likely to be impure. A white or

light-colored sand, however, does not mean a low clay content. More usually a darker sand c~:mtains less clay than a paler sand. In the

case of many 'pure. white sands of Lower Cretaceous age associated with the kaolins near the Fall Line, a chemical analysis shows a sur-

prising large iron content. This high percentage is due to ilmenite (FeTiO a) which upon close examination will be revealed in the form

of tiny' black specks scattered through the pure white sand.

CLEANNESS
_. The elearines_s of a s~nd is measure.d by_ its impurities, What may
b~ impurities fu. . sorrie sands may be necessary for the usefulness of
in other :typ~s, _or irp.pur.ities .h~;~.rrole.ss in certain sands -wm entirely dis-
qualify others. Iron quanti.tie::? as sinali as_ 0.'05 'per cent eliminates sand for use in high-grail~ optical glass, in fact most sands_ with

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

9

more than one per cent of iron are uri.fit for use in any kind of glass manufacture. For abrasive work, in which only the hardest sand grains are desirable, all grains softer than quartz are considered impurities. Clay or silt may be an impurity in mortar and concrete sands, but necessary in most molding sands. Impurities in molding sand consist rather of coarse particles, the most desirable feature, however, of concrete sands.

CLAY

Clay, by reason of its colloidal properties, will sometimes readily adhere to the quartz sand grains and materially hinder the action of the cement while the mix is hardening. Silt or clay also occurs as separate grains scattered through sand. The amount of clay consl.dered harmful to sand for concrete use depfnds sometimes on the type of concrete to be made and the personal equation involved. . Many concrete users believe that silt or clay up to 15 per cent iD lean mix-

tures is beneficial rather than harmful to the resulting concrete. In

rich mixtwes, however, 5 per cent is often believed to be too much.

This question will be considered in detail under the uses of sand. (Pages

54-56).

...

Bank sands usually contain the most silt and clay. In recovering stream sands, most of the clay and dirt is carried away by the water draining from the sand, although sometimes a persistent slimy film. sticks to the grains. Impurities in sand ca,n usually be reduced

by washing, so that a sand otherwise useless may be made available for commerce.

Simple tests will generally determine the cleanness of a sand. Sand that soils the hands when rubbed between them, or one that has not a marked gritty feel, is dirty. A clean sand is usually "sharp"; that is

when the grains are rubbed together, and held near the ear, a crack-

ling sound is emitted showing that little clay exists between the grains

to deaden the sound of their impact. Another way of quickly finding whether a sand is clean is to drop a quantity of it into a bucket of clear water. If the sand is clean, the water will be clear enough withiD 2 minutes to enable one to see the sand in the bottom.

For a closer determination of the clay io a sand, put a small amount in a tube or bottle with some water and shake well. After the water has cleared, the clay will form a layer at the top of the sand. The

10'

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

proportion of clay to sand can be readiiy approximated from the thickness of this layer.
Dake, t i:ti determining accurately the percentage of dirt in a sand, stirred a given amount of the dried and weighed sana in a pan with water and then allowed it to settle a given length of time. The water was then poured off and clean water added, and the process repeated until the sand no -longer dirtied the water. The clean sand was then drie1 and weighed, and the percentage of "dirt" determined_ by the following -formula:
W-W'
w b = - - x 100, in which
. D = percen!age of clirt
W =weight of sample before washing W' =weight of sample after washing
In this method, particles of wood and other organic matter as well as silt, clay, and iron stains are determined as dirt. The addition of
a few drops of a Th normal solution of sodium hydroxide to a jar
containing sand and water will cause the clay in the sand to remain in suspension after the jar is shaken, so that it can be easily decanted.
In testing Georgia sands, the clay percentage was arrived at by shaking up 50 grams of the sand_ in a half-liter jar, and allowing the material to settle 15 seconds, and then decanting the water and suspended silt and clay. This was repeated until clean water was not clouded when shaken with the sand. The sand was then dried and weighed, and the clay percentage computed in accordance with the preceeding formula..
ORGANIC MATTER
Organic or vegetable matter consists of pieces of coal or lignite, _ twigs, leaves, and finely divided parts of plants. It may occur as particles scattered through the sand, or as a thin, loamy film or coating on the sand grain which is frequently_ imperceptible. Organic matter, even in small amounts, is usually undesirable and even harmful in sand. used for most purposes, particularly in sand for use in con.struction work. (See page 56).
In the field organic matter can be detected by taking double handsful of sand from the bank or pile and letting it run through the hands.

1 Op. cit., p. 9.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

11

As this is done the hands should be held with the palms facing each oth,er and about an inch apart, with the thumbs up. To hasten the experiment the hands may be moved backward and forward at the same time. If a dark shining material collects between the fingers it indicates harmful organic matter 1 The mere fact that a sand is dark-colored is no gage of its organic content. The color may be due to dark mineral grains.
Laboratory tests of organic matter can be made by the loss-onignition method in which the sand is first thoroughly washed. After drying and weighing the. silt and clay, which were washed out, they are ignited and weighed ag~in. The difference in weight represents not only the organic matter, but the water of crystallization and hydra.tion, and the c,atbon dioxide. In some limestone sands the loss on ingition, due to carbon dioxide, may exceed 10 per cent, although no organic matter occurs in the sand.
Abrams and Harder2 have recently divised a colorimetric test for detecting organic impurities in sands which is believed to be reliable. For approximate tests, a 12-ounce graduated prescription bottle is filled to the 472-ounce mark with sand. To this is added a 3 per cent solution of sodium hydroxide until the volume of the sand and solution, after shaking, amounts to 7 ounces. This is then shaken . thoroughly and allowed to stand' over night. If the liquid in the bottle, after settling, is colorless, or has a sFght yellow color, the sand issatisfactory as far as organic impurities are concerned. If, however, a dark-colored solution is obtained, ranging from dark red to black, the sand should be rejected or used only after mortar-strength tests have been made. A chart 3 , showing in colored plates 5 different intensities of the reaction in this test, has been prepared and may be obtained at the Atlanta office of the Portland Cement Association. Comparision of the color obtained in the field tests with the plates will show whether the amount of organic matter is injurious. The
proportion of clay or silt in a sand can be determined it the same
time by noting the thickness of the silt layer above the sand.
For laboratory work the method recommended is as follows:

1 Thompson, S. E., Am. Soc. Civil Eng. Trans., Vol. 51, p. 252, 1911, 2 Abrams, D. A. & Harder, 0. E., Colorimetric test for organic impurities in sand: Circular No. 1, Struc. Mat. Res. Lab., Lewis Inst., Chicago, 1917; also in Proc. Am. Soc. for Test. Materials Vol. 17, pt. 1, pp. 327-333, 1917. 3 Concrete Highway Magazine, February, 1918.

12

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

"To 1 a 200-gram sample of dry s~nd add 100 cc. of a 3 per cent solution of sodium hyCI.roxide (NaOH) and digest at ordinary temperature, with' occasional stirring, for 24 hours. Filter this solution thiough a good grade of filter paper; refilter if necessary; The filtrate must be clear. Place 10 cc. of the clear filtrate in a 50 cc. Nessler ~ylinder and dilute to 50 cc. with distilled water. Shake thoroughly and let stand until all foam and bubbles disappear. Determine the color value of this cylinder by comparing it with cylinders containing standard solu-tions of alkaline sodium tannate. Compare the colors by looking through the full depth of the solution'With the cylinders held toward a good natural light.
Standard Tannic Acid Solution for Color Compari$on.-The preparation of the standard tannic acid solution for comparing the color of the filtrate should be begun at the same time as the treatment of the sand. Add10 cc. of a 2 per cent solution of'tannic acid in 10 per cent alcohol to 90 cc. of a 3 per cent solution of sodium hydroxide. The sodium hydroxide combines with the tannic acid to form sodium tannate. Let the solution stand 24 hours at room temperature. Place 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 cc. respectively, of this solution in 50 cc. Nessler cylinders and dilute to the tnark with distilled water. The amolints of tannic acid in the different cylinders will then be as shown in the folloWing table:

-

Alkaline Sodium

- Tannate in each

cylinder-co. ____ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

8

9

10

Tannic acid in

each cylinder-

millgrams ______ 2 Color value in

4- 6

8 10 12 14 16 18

20

parts of tannic

acid per million

of sand by weight_________ 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

It is desir_able to have. good sm;tgght for comparing .the colors; if sunlight is not

available, the amount of ta:rii:iicaciil in each of the cylinders containing the standard

solutions may be decreased by one"half and the other values in the table modified

accordingly.'

. .,

. -

In case the solution obtained by digesting the sand with the sodium hydroxide is

very dark, use less than 10 cc. for the comparison and make the necessary modifi-

cations in the calculation of the color values. With very light-colored solutions use more than 10 cc. of the filtrate for the comparisons. The depth of color of the solution decreases on standing, arid for that reason the- solution should be made up fresh for each day's work.

Method of Calculation-An example will make clear the method of calculating the color value of a sand. Suppose that 10 cc. of clear filtrate obtained by digesting

the sand with 100 cc. of a 3 per cent solution of sodium hydroxide when diluted to
50 cc. corresponds in color to_ the Nessler cylinder containing 12 millgrams of
tannic acid, or 6 cc.- of the alkaline tannate solution. The sand will then have a
color value of 600, The 10 cc. of the filtrate placed in the Nessler cylinder is -l.tr of
the 100 cc. of 3 per cent sodium hydroxide solution which was added to the sand,
and the sample of sand (200 grams) is i- of a kilogram; therefore, t'he milligrams
of tannic acid per kilogram of the sand, by weight, are 12x10x5=600; or the tannic acid equivalent when expressed .irl' parts per million of the sand, by weight, is 600.
It 2 is impracticable to give exact values for the r.elation between the color value of a sand arid the strength of mortars made from the same sand. However, the t.ests made-~hus far show this relation to. be about as follows:

1 Op. cit., pp. 3-4 2 Op. cit., p. '5.

SAND AND. GRAVEL DEPOSITS

13

Color values Plate

of sand

number 1-

Reduction in compressive
.strength of 1-3 mortar per C''2Dt

250

2

500

3

1,000

3-4

2,000

4

3,000

4-5

1D-20 15-30 20-40 25-50 30-60

1. Plates may be obtained from Atlanta office of Portland Cement As&ociation.
In the testing of Georgia sands, the color value tests indicating the comparative amounts of organic matter in the sand, were made in the Survey laboratory by Dr. Edgar Everhart, and the res}llts have been tabulated with the other tests made on the sands.
MINE.RAL AND ROCK COMPOSITION
The mineralogical composition of _a sand depends entirely on the mineral character of the component grains. As previously stated (pages 5-6) we may have quartz, calcite, gypsum, feldspar, mica, magnetite, and many other types of sand. Since quartz is so predominate in most sands, the examination from a mineral standpoint is not always necessary. Mariy sands, however, particularly those in the streams of the Piedmont area in Georgia, contain a considerable proportion of feldspar, hornblende, and mica, which may seriously affect the value of mortar or concrete made from them. From a casual examination, harmful amounts of such minerals can generally be detected. A more detailed microscopic examination, however, is sometimes necessary before deciding which of several sands is best suited for a particular purpose.
SAND-PRODUCING MINERALS
Quartz. (Si02). Most sands are composed almost entirely of quartz. It generally occurs as irregular angular grains having the appearance of broken glass, although frequently the edges and corners are rounded, but the faces are generally rough and pitted. Quartz is hard and easily scratches glass. It is usually colorless or gray, but may be stained yellow to red with iron oxide or clay.

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

Feld8par (KAlSiaOs) .-Feldspar is a group term applied to several minerals resembling each other. They form angular grains, but differ from quartz in having smooth, tabular faces, or sides. Feldspar may be white, pink, or yellow. It is softer than quartz, and lacks the glassy appearance of that mineral. Feldspar is common in . the Piedmont stream sands and in the mottled grits of the central Coastal Pla,in.

Mica (H 2K Ab (SiO 4)3)-Mica is easily recognized by its fiat, shining, scaly flakes. In sand, these flakes may occur smaller than a pinhead or as much as an inch across. It occurs as the white variety, muscovite, (H2K Als(SiO 4)3 and as the black variety, biotite, (H,K) 2 (MgFe)2 Al2 (SiO 4)3, and is found in most Georgia sands,- but it is particularly common in some of the Piedmont streams. In amounts
over 272 per cent it is considered harmful to concrete sand.

Hornblende (CalVIga (Si04)3)-Hornblende is usually black or
dark green, an<;l forms irregular, angular grains, generally prismatic
in form. It is about as hard as feldspar and scratches glass with dif-
ficulty: Due to its ready decomposition it is not found far from the
igneous rocks in which lt was formed. It occurs in small quantities
in most of the Piedmont sands.

Calcite (CaCOa).--calcite is genera-lly white and usually forms grains with sharp, rhombic angles. It is easily scratched with a knife. Calcite is rarely found in Georgia sands.

Lim,onite -(2 FeaOa. 3H20).-Limonite is a fairly soft, yellow to brown; lusterless oxide of iron, and is a principal impurity in glass sands, although very valuable as a binder in road gravel. -

Jv.la~netite (Fe 304) .-Magnetite is a heavy, black mineral, capa-

ble of bemg attracted by a magnet. Its grains are usually small and

irregular. It may be seen arranged in layers. or streaks in sand, or

standing out as black- specks. With it, ilmenite (FeTiQ a), which is

similar in appearance, but not as magnetic, occurs in considerable

amounts in the sand on the islands off the Atlantic coast. Numerous

other miner_?,ls, sv.ch as brookite, rutile, chromite, and glauconite, are

dark colored and c:in be detected in these sands with the aid of the

microscope or heavy solutions.

_

In addition to the foregoing minerals, garnet, a hard, red or brown mineral of ir~egular, angular grains, is sometimes found in sand. Mona-

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

15

zite, a yellowish to reddish, hard, sharp-cornered mineral is found in stream sand at The Glades in Hall County and on the coastal islands.
SAND-PRODUCING ROOKS
Since Georgia sands and gravels in many places contain fragments of rocks, which are merely large aggregates of one or more minerals,
a brief description of the commoner types is given to serve in their
identification.
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
The sedimentary rocks are those formed under water by the accumulation of sediment carried and deposited by the water and later hardened by pressure and cementation. They are found in the Paleozoic area of northwest Georgia and at a few places in the Coastal Plain.
Sandstone.-Sand that has become indurated through pressure, or the cementing action of percolating solutions, is known as sandstone.
Quartzite.-Sandstone that has been subjected to pressure, heat, or solvent action, until the outlines of the original sand grains are almost obliterated, causing the rock to crack across the individual grains, rather than around them, is called quartzite. It forms a large percentage of the pebbles in Georgia gravels, particularly those of the Coastal Plain and Fall Line regions, and is very resistant.
Conglomerate.-Gravel that has been cemented into a hard rock by water containing silica, carbonates, or other substances in solution, is called conglomerate.
Limeston_e.-L:i.mestone, or its crystalline equivalent, marble, is usually gray or blue. It may be pink, green, or black. It is soft enough to be scratched easily with a knife, and effervesces with acid or strong vinegar. The stream gravels of the Paleozoic area have a considerable amount of limestone pebbles.
>
Shale.-Shale is hardened clay or mud. It is of various colors, although usually gray or brown, and generally forms thin, fiat, soft pebbles which occur in the stream gravels of the Appalachian Valley provmce.
CRY,STALLINE ROCKS
The crystalline rocks are those formed by the cooling, on or beneath the earth's surface, of lava that has been forced up from the earth's

16

GEOLOGIOAL SURVE-r- OF GEORGIA

nterior; or by the metamorphosis, by heat or pressure, of sedimentary rocks. They are found in the Piedmont Plateau and .in the Appala~hian Mountains of North Georgia.

Granite.-The most common igneous rock is granite. It is gray, or pink, and composed principally of quartz, feldspar, and mica, which form a closely interlocked crystalll.ne texture.

,.

Diabase.-Diabase is a hard, dark, fine-grained, heavy rock, which

in Georgia generally occprs in long, thin formations known as trap

dikes. Pebbles of diabase occur rarely in Georgia gravels.

Gneiss.-Gneiss is composed of thin, paralled bands of light and dark minerals and results from the metamorphosis of igneous and sedimentary rocks. Pebbles derived from it are not so hard or resistant as those from granite or. basalt.
Sohist.-Schist is perhaps the most common crystalline rock in Georgia. It is a thinly laminated, flaky rock. Fragments of it are common in the Piedmont sands and gravels, but they readily tend to break up into smaller fragments and for that reason are an undesirable constituent.
Slate.-Slate is metamorphosed shale. It occurs in the stream gravels in Polk and Ba;rtow counties as thi:11; flat, hard fragments.

.

c

MINERALOGICAL EXAMINATION OF SAND

To determine roughly the mineral and rock content of a sand, some of it can be spread out on a sheet of paper and the va~ious mineral types sorted with a small, blunt stick into separate piles. The percentage proportion of each mineral, or rock, is then roughly estimated. Another-portion of the 'sal).d is then examined under a microscope to discover any minerals not seen in the rough division and to note the shape of the sand grains and whether they are coated with day, iron oxide, or ot:1er materials.
Sands containing a fairly large amount of the heavier J;D.inerals, suL-h as tnose found on the sea l'oast of Georgia, can be panned. A <shallow, circ11lar pan, about 24 inches across, is used for this pur-;:>ose. Tbe sand is gently agitated under water with a sligh.t rotary motion and a jerking throw. The heavier minerals are conrentrated at the bott-om of the sand and the quartz can be easi1y removed. The process is repeated until very few light grains remain in the ;Jan.

SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

17

Tomlinson, 1 in testing Wisconsin concrete sands, used a detailed method in which the exad proportion of each of a number of mineral groups was obtained. Tile sand to be examioed was firsc sized by screening through 10--, 20--, 40--, and 100-mesh sieves. The sand retained on the 20-mesh sieve was then immersed in Thoulet's solution of potassium mercuric iodide, the density of which can be changed by increasing or decreasing the water A funnel whose spout i; fitted with a stop-cock is best suited for this treatment. The heavy grains will collect in the lower part of the spout, above the stop-cock, and can be easily removed by opening the cock. The sand retained on the 20-, 40-, and 100-mesh sieve was treated in the same manner. The sand that remained on the 10-mesh sieve was sorted into the component minerals by hand.
Since two or more minerals or rocks may have the same density, it is necessary to examine each of the divisions made by use of the heavy solution. This was done with a microscope or large hand lens. The grains to be examined were spread out evenly upon a glass plate overlying a ruled counting sheet. The number of grains of any particular mineral occurring in one or more squares, depending on the size of the sample, was counted and multiplied by the total number of squares occupied by the sample,
The results of the examination were tabulated under the following groups: Igneous rocks, shale group, quartz group (includes quartz, chert and quartzite), dolomite group (calcareous sediments), feldspar, and heavy minerals. Bromoform, having, a density of 2.84, and methyl iodide, density of 3.3, have also been used in separating the heavy minerals.
I
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Aside from a scientific interest, there is little practical value iri a chemical analysis of sands except for those used in glass making or for refractory purposes. The iron content as Fe20a, the alumina as AlzO a, and the silica as SiO 2 are the most important determinations in glass sands. Magnesia (MgO), titania (TiO 2), and organic matter are also usually determined. In refractory sands the silica, and fluxing materials such as iron, soda, potash, magnesia, and lime, are generally found. Sometimes a. chemical analysis of filter sands .

I Tomlinson, C. W., Method of making mineralogical analysis of sand: Am. Inst. Min. Eng. Trans., Vol. 52, pp. 852-862, 1916.

18

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.OF GEORGIA

is made to determine the silica, iron, lime, magnesia, alkalies, and organic matter. In concrete sands, it is necessary to know on!ly the organic content of the sand. In sands used for ores, such. as those containing magnetite; chrome, monazite, zircon, and other rarer material$, the constituepJ elements of these minerals are determined in addition to the commoner elements. In sap-brown the amount of material soluble in alkalie is usually determined as a guide to the dyemaking content of the substance.
In sand the silica is largely in the form ofquartz with smaller amounts in silicate grains such as feldspar, hornblende, mica, and other minerals. The iron generally occurs as the oxide, limonite, or more rarely in magnetite and ilmenite, and in smaller quantities in hornblende and biotite. Clay, kaolinite, and feldspar generally account for the alurpina in the sand. Lime and magnesia come from grains of limestone, .from calcite or dolomite occurring as cementing material, or from. shell. particles. Grains of feldspar, hornblende, and olivine supply lime and magnesia in smaller amounts. The alkalies, soda and potash, are usually derived from the feldspars and micas. Tita-
.,/
nium may come from ilmenite and rutile, Water (H20) and carbon dioxide (C02), found in a detailed analysis, or simply as volatile matter, usually come from the kaolinite, and from the ~e or magnesia occurring either in limestone or P!ecipitated in small quantities in the sand as carbonates.
A ~umber of analyses of all types of Georgia sands have been made both to determine their value in glass-making .and for their scientific value.
PHYSICAL CHARACTER OF SAND GRAINS
The size, shape, and strength of the individual sand grains or gravel pebbles are important fact~rs in determining the desirability of sand and gravel for every use.
SIZE. OF GRAIN
The usual method of determining the grain size of sand is by screening or sieving. The size of the grain may also be determined by the aspirator method, in ~which the time required for air to pass through a mass of sand is used to determine the average size of the grain composing. the mass. Division of sand into its different grain sizes is

SAND .Al{D GRAVEL DEPOSITS

19

also made by elutriation. The actual size of sand grains can be directly measured by the use of a micrometer scale in a microscope.
GRAIN SIZE BY SCREENING
The size of the particles composing sand is usually determined by passing the sand through a series of sieves having meshes of decreasing size. Since the grading of a sand, or the proportions of grains of each size, is known to greatly influence the value of a sand for either concrete, glass, or molding purposes, the necessity of a reliable granulometric or mechanical analysis is at once apparent.
In making . the mechanical analysis several systems of screens are in use. That most generally employed is the so-called standard screen system, whose mesh increases by ten to the igch from one screen to the next smaller. A more logical system, how-ever, has been devised
in which a constant ratio, v2 or 1.414, exists between the diame-
ters of the apertures of the screens. The area of the mesh opening in each screen in then just t!V"ice that of the next smaller sized screen.
It was found that the latter of these two systems gave the most satisfactory results since it divides the material in much better pro.:. portion. In the old system, too few a number of sieves are used where the most grains of equal size occur, and too many are used where the least grains of equal size are found.
To illustrate this, in one hundred and five sands from Nebraska, Missouri, Pennsylvania, and New York, an average of 61 per cent of each sand remained on a 50-mesh screen, 23 per cent passed the 50-mesh, jlnd 16 per cent remained on the 10-mesh. In the old system of screens only- 5 sieves, (50-, 40-, 30-, 20-, and 10-mesh), are used to apportion this 61 per cent into its various grain sizes, and 7 sieves, (60-, 70-, 80-, ~0-, 100-, and 200-mesh), are used to divide up the 23 per cent. In the new system 6 screens (10-, 14-, 20-, 28-, 35-, and 48-mesh) would be used to divide up the 61 per cent, and 4 screens (65-, 100-, 150-, and 200-mesh) to divide the 23 per cent. The average of 16 per cent that remains on the 10-mesh sieve can be divided by four screens or by three (4-,6-, 8-mesh) as was done in .testing Georgia sands for this report.
It is thus seen that for most sands a screen system, having the areas of the apertures of the same proportionate difference between each screen, is the most desirable. By excluding every other screen

20.

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

in making mechanical analysis by this system, the material can be divided into parts whose average diameters arejust half that of the next coarser screen. This system is used in several 'leading concrete testing laboratories in -the United States, including that of the Bureau of Standards, the Bureau of Public Roads, Lewis Institute, and is also used in the work of the Canada Department of Mines. Objection to the us.e of this system :r:night be made on the ground that sand users in general are not familiar with the significance of several of the screen sizes when seen in an analysis. This is especially true of asphalt sands since specifications for such sands are universally made in terms of the standard system. Either system, however, can be readily interpreted in terms of the other, if the results are plotted to scale on coordinate or chart paper.

Table of ~oreen mesh sixes used in testin~ Geor~ia sands

Mesh

IDiameter of wire in inches

Diameter of opening

inches

mm.

4

.065

.185

4.699

6

.036

.131

3.327

8

.032

.093

2':'362

10

.035

.065

1.651

14

.025

-046

1.168

20

.0172

.0328

.833

28

.0125

.0232

.589

35

.0122

.()164

.417

48

.0092

.0116

.295

65

.0072

.0082

.208

100

.0041

.0058

.147

150

.0026

.0041

.104

200

.0021

.0029

.074

The following procedure was followed in testing Georgia sands: the entire field sample weighing from 5 to 12 pounds was halved with a sampling shovel until about 200 grams remained. This was thoroughly dried at l00C. to prevent cohesion of the grains by moisture. A 100-gram sample was then selected and placed in the upper of 6 sieves a!lranged in order of their size: 4-,6-,8-, 10-,14-, .and 20-mesh. This nest of sieves was shaken for about five minutes, and the amounts remaining on each sieve weighed separately, after first shaking each . sieve ove;r a paper to insure complete separation of fines. The sand passing the 20-mesh sieve, and caught in the pan, was placed in the

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

21

28-mesh sieve, or the upper of the 7 remaining sieves, and after 5 minutes shaking, the separates were weighed.
Two samples of the same sand were subjected to this method and the following constant r.esults obtained:

Table ~ivin~ percenta~e of sample retained on each sieve

Sample T-60a _______ T-60b _______

Mesh Sizes

10 14
--

20

28
--

-3-5

48
--

65
--

100
--

150
--

200
--

-20-0 -To-tal

.5 1.9 5.8 13.1 22.8 23.5 17.9 9.9 2.9 1.2 .3 99.7

.4 1.8 5.6 12.9 22.6 23.1 18.5 9.5 2.7 1.4 .5 99.0

Since it is practically impossible to avoid loss in screening, the percentages listed in the tables iri this report were recomputed to a 100 per cent basis, thus the results from T-60b in the foregoing table with the 1 per cent loss proportionately distributed over the entire number of separates would be as follows:

Table showin~ uncorrected and corrected percenta~e of sample . - retained on each sieve

Sample
T-60b _______ T-60b _______

Mesh Sizes

10

-1-4

20
--

28
--

35
--

48
--

65
--

100
--

150
--

200
--

200
--

Total
--

.4 1.8 5.6 12.9 22.6 23.1 18.5 9.5 2.7 1.4 .5 99.0

.4 . 1.8 5.7 13.0 22.8 23.4 18.7 9.6 2.7 1.4 .5 100.0

This necessary error might also have been allowed for by adding it to the percentage of the sample under 100 mesh, or by starting with a gram more than the required 100 grams.
F'or a closer determination of the fines, sifting under water is desirable, since clay particles that might adhere to larger grains are thus loosened. and go with the smaller sizes. In very exact work t~e sand samples are sent from the field in air-tight containers and weighed with the original pit moisture. They are then dried and the percentages of the various separates based on this weight.
In testing sandstones it is necessary to crush the rock. Care should be taken so that the crushing does not break up individual grains and

22

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

that it does not leave two or more grains cemented together. No Georgia sandstones were 'submitted to mechanical analyses.
In the case of a few sands dredged from river beds by centrifugal pumps most of the fines have been washed out with the water. Mechanical analyses of such sands are therefore not representative of the true character of the natural sand, but do indicate the grading of the commercial product.
In place of hand sifting, the sieves may be agitated automatically by a small motor, or geared to a crank which is turned by hand. Many of the larger sand-testing laboratories have adopted mechanical shakers of some sort, not only to reduce the manual labor but to obtain more constant results with less loss of the original sample. Forrest! gives the following comparisons between results obtained from the same samples by hand and by mechanical sifting. The figures represent the smn of the percentages retained on each screen an:.d passing the finest.
Comparative results of hand and mechanical sifting

Total percep.tage from 50 gram sample of sand

Total percentage of 1000 gram sample of concrete aggregate

1 1 Hand sifted 1---M_e_ch_a_n_ic_a_lly_sif_t_ed_~_. _._H_a_n_d_sif_t_ed_ __M_e_c~h-aru__ca_ll_y_s_ift_e_d_

I 99.4199.2

99.7

99.8

98.4

99.5

l I

Gravel.-,For the complete mechanical analysis of gravel, screens
of the following sizes may be used: ~' i, ;Y2, %:, 1, l;Y2, 2,~2;Y2, and
3 inches. The use of all these sizes is only recommended where the
gravel is to be used in very large and important work, usually the
~-, Y2-, 1-, and 3-inch screens are sufficient. In this report screens of ~-, %:-, and 1~-inch mesh were used.
In the gravels tested the sand was first screened out, and after its
proportion of the whole sample was found, a granulometric analysis
of botp. the sand and gravel was made.
For finding the relative amounts of sand and gravel in small stream
deposits, which may be utilized for local concrete construction and
building, Clifford Older 2 has described a system requiring the use of

1 Forrest, C. N., New device for the analysis of concrete aggregates: Am. Soc. for Test. Mat. Proc., Vol. 6, pp. 458-461. 1906.
2 Eng. News, Vol. 72, pp. 1204-1205, 1914.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

23'

portable sieves and containers of simple construction. The apparatus consists of a testing can, 4 inc~es in diameter and 10 inches deep;
three screens of 10 mesh, 74:-, and Y2-inch mesh, which fit into the
can; a 200 cc. graduate, 1 inch in diameter; and a 10-inch scale divided into inches and tenths of inches.
To test a creek deposit the can is filled level full with gravel and
the sand separated out by the 7.4:-inch sieve. The sand is poured
back into the can an.d its proportion to gravel measured by the scale, the zero rn.ark of the scale being down. The following formulae are used to determine the amount of cement to be added to the unscreened gravel to produce a concrete having a required sand-cement ratio

28.4x

0.95 a

C= bx-y

A

B=---:---

a

X

in which,

A= Bags cement required per cubic yard gravel

B = Cubic feet of gravel to be used with each bag of cement

C = Amount of stone to be added to a unit volume of gravel in order a minimum

amount of cement be used



x = Ratio of volume of separ2ted .sand to unscreened gravel.

y= Ratio of volume of separated stone to unscreened gravel; (x-y) should

equal about 1.10 to 1.25 in well-graded gravel.

a= Required ratio of sand to cement

b= Maximum ratio of stone to sand

GRAIN SIZE BY OTHER METHODS
Screen methods of mechanical analysis apply to most sand for concrete and glass uses, since such sands are relatively coarse. Molding sands, however, due to the large admixture of clay required to produce a sand capable of retaining shapes, require, in addition to a screen analysis, some other method .of separating the finer silt and clay grains into their different sizes. This large clay content also causes the sand to cake or "ball up" so that accurate separation by screening can only be effected by screening in water and by placing light washers or steel balls on the sieve with the sand. The washers or balls, rolling about on the agitated screen, break up the lumps into separate grains.
In determining the amount of silt and clay in a molding sand Ries and Rosen 1 used a metho.d applicable to all kinds of sands. A 50gram sample of the sand was first thoroughly shaken with water in a mechanical shaker for a half hour. The sample was then screened

1 Ries, Heinrich, and Rosen, J. A., Report on foundry sands: Michigan Geol. Survey, 9th Ann.
Rept., p. 46, 1908.

24

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

through a set of 2o-,4o-, 6o-, 80, and 100-mesh sieves, and all that ' passes the 100-mesh sieve was allowed to settle in a jar for 45 seconds.
The suspended matter, called clay, (passing. 2h mesh) was decanted, dried and weighed, and the sediment, called silt (~t~ tio mesh),
was also dried and weighed and the proportion of each in the original sample determined.
In the elutriation method, a constant amount of water is passed through flasks of increasing size. The current is swiftest in the smallest flask, and the largest grains can settle out in this flask only; the rest will be forced over into the next larger flask with the water, where the current is decreased, permitting settling of a group of smaller grains. The process is continued until as complete a division of the material as is desired, is effected.
The tirrle necessary for a known volume of air under a known pressure to pass through a tube of sand is ,:used to complete the average size of the grains in a sand or clay. This method is particularly applicable to molding sands and soils and is called the aspirator method. It was devised by Prof. King 1 and has been used by Rosen 2 in determining the- average grain size of Michigan moldiri.g s::rnds.
In testing these sands the sample is first dried and pulverized and then passed through a 1-mm. sieve (20 mesh). The sand is then put into a soil tube, which is lightly tapped, and more sand is added imtil the tube is full. Air under known pressure is aspirated through the tube and the length of time necessary for the passage of one or more liters is found. This data is lised in a formula to determine the average size of the grain particles in the sand. Objection to this method is made on the ground that as the first part of the air passes through the sand, channels are set up in the sand which allow the more rapid progress of the rest of the air. The character of these channels is likely to differ in different sands, so.that the method is not entirely comparative.
A similar method, involving the length of time elapsing between the entrance of an inflammable gas at the lower end of a sand-filled tube and its exit at the upper end, has been used by L. H. Cole3 in testing Canadian molding sands. A small tube about 6 inches long and 1 inch in diameter is fitted with 60- and 12-inch Wire gauzes at

1 King, F, H., Michigan Acad. Sci., .2d Ann. Rep., 1894. 2 Ries, Heinrich and Rosen, J. A. op. cit., pp. 53-56. 3 Canada Dept. of Mi;tes Branch, Bull. 21 or Sum. Rept. for'1916.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

25

the bottom and attached to a gas pipe having a manometer so that the pressure of the gas can be kept constant. Sand is added to the tube one inch at a time and tamped as it is added until the tube is full. Gas :ls then passed through the sand and a device is arr-anged to ignite it, as soon as it begins to escape at the top. The time required for the gas to pass through the sand is determined with a stop watch. For No. 0 Albany molding sand about 22 seconds are needed and
t4 seconds for No. 3. This. method is not open to the same objec-
tion as the previous method, but the character of the gas and the pressure must be closely watched in order to be certain of comparative results.

GRAPillC REPRESENTATIONS OF GRANULOMETRI0 COMPOSITION

The significance of a granulometric analysis of a sand when pre-

sented in the usual tabular form is difficult to comprehend unless one is experienced in examining such analyses. By graphically represent-

ing these results either by curves, radiating lines, or by some other

system, their meaning can be quickly and effectively grasped. Granul-

ometric analyses, arrived at by using one set of screen sizes, can also

be converted into terms of any other size or set -of sizes by plotting

th~ original data graphically on chart or co-ordinate paper.

.

The usual method is that shown in Fig. 1 and consists in divid-

ing the ordinate, or horizontal base line, into proportionate parts to

represent the size of the sand grains in terms of millimeters, inches, and sieve sizes; and in dividing the abscissa, or vertical line, to repre-

sent the percentages of grain sizes either passing, or retained on, the

different screens. Within the space formed by these lines the percen-

tage of each size to the whole sample is marked by a doi and these

dots later connected by a smooth curve. By comparing curves of

this kind with curves of ideal sands, or with curves representing certain features of excessive coarseness or fineness, a close idea of the granulo-

metric character of the sand in question is obtained. For comparison

and to save space, a number of sands can readily be plotted together.

The graphical method used by Ries 1 in figuring Wisconsin and

Michigan molding sands is excellent. On the four lines a, b, c, d

(Fig. 2), equal distances are laid off to represent 100 per cent. On a the clay percentage is laid off, on b the percentage retained on 100-

1 Ries, Heinrich and Gallup, F. L., Wisconsin Geol. & Nat. Hist. Survey, Bull. 15, p. 207, 1906.

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

~

tl

...z
t.trc
'"6"S
~g

" ~
.3o~
z.

.l!.c ~ a '
/ ...
.,_
"~ '
~ /0

.,
b ~ 3

(ll
""3 ' '
3

.c..
. 33
(A

?ercenl rel.;;;i'lecl 011 et7'cl7 ~/eve

lu

u.

~

~

~

..

. .

./

/
. vI

'

j_

I

\':,\

1/

I -
I

I
I

/
1/

.,



Q
il ~

:

/
-!::

"'
./
.
;;
~
+ ;;
i>
~
~-
~
Ill ~
' ~
~
~
~

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

27

mesh, on c the percentage obtained by settling, and on d the combined percentages of sand retained on the 20--, 40-, 60-, and 80-mesh sieves. The points on the forir lines are then connected by straight lines and the figure produced shows at a glance the texture of the sand (Fig 3). For coarser building and glass sands each line may be made to represent some other arbitrary size or sizes best suited to display the texture of the particular type of sand.

a

6

G

d.
Figs. 2 & 3.-Diagrams showing methods of graphiGally illustrating the mechanical analysis of a sand.
NUMERI04.L REPRESENTATIONS OF GRANULOMETRIG COMPOSITION
To provide rapid means of comparing the granulometric composition of sand and gravel, and for comparing the value of sand and gravel for concrete and filter purposes, a number of methods have been devised ~o represent by a single number the coarseness and fineness of a sand, its uniformity, or the average size of all the component grains. Some have condemned such methods because of their inadequate expression of the true character of the sand, or on account of complexities which are not readily understood by those for whose help the methods were devised. Nevertheless, some of these means are undoubtedly of value and a few of them will be outlined.
EFFECTIVE SIZE
The term effective size was introduced by Hazen 1 and is defined
1 Hazen, Allen, Massachusetts State Board of Health Rept., 1892, pp. 549, 550.

28

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

by him as a size "such that ten per cent is of smaller grains, a~d 90 per cent is of larger grains than the size given." In other words, if
10 per cent of the sand iii a given sample passes a 1-mUlimeter screen,
and 90 per cent is retained on the screen, then the effective size of the sample would be 1. The effective size of a sand can be readily found by plotting the mechanical analysis of the sand and noting the size in millimeters than which 10 per cent of the material is finer. To compute the effective size without the curve, the mechanical analysis should be arranged to show the percentages retained on each screen. The percentages between which 90 per cent lies should then be noted . as well as the mesh opening in millimeters on which these percentages are retained. _The proportionate differences between 90 per cent and the adjoining percentages are found and used to determine a mesh .size having a similar position between the two mesh sizes on which the percentages were retained. This mesh size represents _the effective size of the sand.
The effective size is used in computing the uniformity coefficient of a sand, and it serves as an index of the coarseness of a sand. It has been used principally in describing filter sands and to a smaller extent for building sands. Both the effective size and'the uniformity
coefficient are of more value when considered .tog~ther in determining
the coarseness or uniformity of a sand.

UNIFORMITY COEFFICIENT
The uniformity coefficient was also introduced by Hazen 1 to give expression to the uniformity of the grains composing a sand or soil. This figure is determined by making a mechanical analysis of the sand and then finding the size of grain of which 60 per cent of the grains is smaller and 40 per cent larger, either by plotting the curve or by interpolation, as was described in finding the effective size. This size is then divided by the effective size of the sample, and the uniformity coeffieient is obtained.
Thus, if 60 per cent of a sample is finer than 0.45 millimeter and 10 per cent finer than 0. 30 millimeter (effective size), the uniformity
coefficient is %:8 ot 1. 5. In other words one half of the sand grains
lie betw.~en 0. 30 millimeter and 0. 45 millimeter. In another sand, if 60 per cent ofits grains were finer than 0. 3 millimeter, and the effec-

1 Op. cit., p. 550.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

29

tive size was 0. 2 millimeter, the same result 1.5 would be obtained,

showing that the uniformity coefficient in itself is not a gage of a sand's

coarseness, but merely a relative expression of uniformity. As this

figure increases it indicates a greater range in size of 50 per cent of the

sand grains, which is believed desirable for mortar and concrete sands.

Taylor and Thompson 1 consider a sand, .whose coefficient exceeds

4.5, to be a good concrete sand and of two sands the one having the

largest coefficient is likely to be the best. Should it drop nearly to 1,

it would indicate that almost half of the sand grains was of the same

size, a condition particularly desirable in filter sands where uniformity

is a necessary quality. The use of the term is largely restricted to

the description of filter sands. (Page 90).

\

AVERAGE FINENESS

It is sometimes desirable, especially in molding sands, to express by a single figure the average grain size, or average fineness, of a sand in terms that will be comparable when different methods of mechanical analyses are used.
The system described in the Textbook of Molding Sand issued by the International Correspondence Schools at Scranton, Pa., is as follows: A 100-gram sample is sifted for one minute on 2o-, 40-, 6080-, and 100-mesh screens separately. Any loss is added to the 60mesh and all sand coarser than the 20-mesh is said to be of 1 mesh. The weight of sand passing each sieve and retained on the next is multiplied by the mesh of the retaining sieve and the total divided by 100. The following example illustrates the method:

Mesh

Weight in grams passing first screen a:p.d retained on next

Product of mesh size by percentage on that mesh

1

2.0

2

10

8.0

80

20

12.0

240

40

20.0

800

60

30.0

1800 (60 = 1% loss)

80

25.0

2000

100

2.0

200

99 .0 (1% loss)

5182

1 Taylor, F. W. and Thompson, S. E., Concrete, plain and reinforced: 2nd. ed., p. 182, 1911.

30

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGI:A

By dividing 5182 by 100 we get 51.82, which is the average fineness of the sand. This figure is not an index of the uniformity, sin{le the same percentage might express the fineness of a well-graded sand, or of one whose grains were practically all one size.
C. W. Parmelee 1 took the sum of the percentages passing each screen and divided it by the number of screens used, which gavethe per 'cent of fineness. As he points out, this method is comparable only with sands that have been screen'8d by the same number of sieves and of th~ same size, since the per c~nt obtained varies with the number of screens used.
Ries 2 , in testing 1\d:ichigan molding sands, uses a method which gives the average size of the grains in a sand, thus providing a much better index of the fineness of the sand than either of the other methods offered. The results obtained from this me.thod are comparable no matter how ;many screens or what size screens were used in testing the sands. In applying the method it is first necessary to compute .an average size of the grains retained on each screen. This figure is then multiplied by the weight of sand retained on the scre~n and the sum of these products divided by the weight of the sample. The foregoing analysis illustratep the method:
Table showing method of derivation of the "average size"

Mesh

Average size in kches Weight of sand in

of grain retained on grams retained on

f!ach screen

each screen

Product of screen mesh size by weight
on screen

I

6

.158

2

.316

w8

.112 .019

3 6

.336 .474

14

.056

8

.448

20

.0394

9

.3546

28

.0280

10

.2800

35

.0196

12

.2376

48

.0140

20

.2800

65

.0099

20

.1980

100

.0070

5

.0350

150

.0050

3

.0150

200

.0035

2

.0070

1QO

2.9812

1 Kummell, H. B. and Hamilton, S. H., New Jersey Geol. Survey, Ann. Rept. for 1904, pp. 208-209, 1905.
2 Ries; Heinrich and Rosen, J. A., Michigan Geol. Survey, Ann. Rept. for 1907, pp. 50-51, 1908

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

31

By dividing 2.9822 by 100 we get 0.029822, which represents the diameter, in millimeters, of the sand grains, if all the grains in this sand were reduced to a uniform size. With this diameter all the grains would just pass a 35-mesh sieve.
F~ENESS MODULUS
The fineness modulus is a term developed by Prof. D. A. Abrams 1 in an extended series of tests to determine the influence of size, grading, and water content of concrete mixtures on the resulting strength of the concrete. In calculating the fineness modulus, the following Tyler Standard sieves are used in determining the mechanical analyses
of the sand or gravel: 100, 48, 28, 14, 8, 4, ~' -!, and 172.
The results are expressed in percentages of material coarser than each sieve. The sum of these percentages divided by 100 is the fineness modulus. In case the sieve analysis is expressed in percentages of material finer than each sieve, the fineness modulus may be found by subtracting their sum from 900 and then dividing by 100.

Sample calculations to determine fineness modulus

Mesh

Per cent coarser than each sieve

100 48 28 14

8

4

!

]. 4

--------- -- -

Per cent_ _________. 89 82 72 62 51 38 25 11

H -
0

The sum of the percentages equals 430. 4307100=4. 3, the fineness modulus of the sand

Mesh Per cent____________

Per cent passing each sieve

100 48 28 14

8

4

~

t It

- -- -- -- -- -- - - -- -

11 18 28 38 49 62 75 89 100

The sum of the percentages equals 470. 900+470=430; 430+100=4.3, the finess modulus of the sand.
When the sand is tested by the old system of sieves the fineness
.
1 Abrams, D. A., Design and concrete mixtures: Struc. Mat. Res. Lab., Lewis Inst., Chicago, Bull. 1, 1919.

32

GEOLOGIOAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

moduluEl'is found by adding the percentages retained on the 4-, 10-,

30-, 50-, and tOO-mesh sieves, and divide the sum by 100.

In a series of tests in which concrete composed of. aggregates of

varying grading, but with the same fineness moduli, was compared

with concrete made of aggregates of varying fineness moduli, the in-

fluence of the coarseness of an aggregate was strikingly shown. From

these tests it appears that the fineness modul:us is a factor to be con-

Sidered in determining the relative values of different sands and gravels

and for that reason it has been determined for the sands investigated

in this report.



SHAPE OF GRAIN AND PEBBLE
Sand grains and gravel pebbles asstime a variety of forms due .to the rolling about they receive in stream beds, or to abrasion when carried by the wind, or by grinding action when carried by ice. In general, the more angular a grain or a pebble, the closer it is to its point of origin. Rounding is only acquired after being carried for long distances by the methods mentioned. In small mountain streams, near their' head waters, the pebbles and grains are angular; in glacial .deposits, or further down the course of the mountain streams, the pebbles become sub-angular; and finally, at great distances from their source, the pebbles are alrr;wst completely rounded. Grains of dune or desert sand, thathave been blown about by the wind for long periods, are usually well rounded. Beach sands are more likely to be angular since it has been pointed out 1 that sand grains under 0.75 millimeter (35 mesh) in diameter can not be rounded under water. Except in a few subordinate uses, the shape of the grain or pebble has little signifi_cant influence on the value of sand or gravel.
DURABILITY OF GRAIN AND PEBBLE
The durability or resistance of sand gr~ins and pebbles is largely a function of their mineral composition. Since quartz is the most resistant common mineral, sand grains composed principally of this mineral will be the soundest. Soft and easily soluble minerals such as gypsum and calcite, as ,well as minerals that readily tend to break up along cleavage lines, are not desirable components of commercial sands. Pebbles made- up of soft, readily disintegrated, or readily
. decomposed rocks, produce gravels of little durability.

1 Zeigler, V., Jour. Geology, Vol. 19, pp. 645-654.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS OF GEORGIA

PLATE 11

A. HAIST CAR -LOADER, J. R. HIME SAND COMPANY, JUNCTION CITY, GEORGIA

B. MINING GR AVEL BY GASOLINE SHOVEL M USCO GEE COUNTY PIT, 3 'h MILES EAST OF COLUMBUS

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

The durability of rock fragments and gravel may be found by testing in a Deval abrasion machine. This machine consists of a cylinder mounted at an angle of 30 degrees with its axis of revolution. Pieces of stone or gravel are put into the machine and shaken by its revolu-

'tions. The weight of the material that is worn off after 10,000 revo-

lutions, and which passes -frr-inch mesh, expressed as the per-

centage of the weight of the original charge, is the measure of abrasion

of the stone, and is called the "per cent of wear." Wear is also ex-

pressed by the "French coefficient of wear," arbitrarily derived by

dividing 40 by the per cent of wear.

'

In testing Canadian gravels for abrasion, L. Reinecke 1 describes two methods used in the laboratories of the Canada Department of

Mines. In the first method 5000 grams of the run-of-bank gravel,,
screened to pass a two-inch screen and retained on a }:.1- inch screen,
was put into the machine and the per cent of wear determined. The

other method consisted in separating the gravel into the following
sizes: 7i - Y2 inch, Y2 - % inch, %:__ 1 inch, 1 - 1n inch, 1n - 172
inch.

Five hundred grams of each size were taken and run separately in the abrasion machine with 20 steel balls, 1 inch in diameter, for

51000 revolutions and the per cent of wear calculated as previously described. In the :G.rst method the influence of the grading factor
on the wear is considered, and in the second this is eliminated.

Objection to the Deval machine, in its usual form, is raised on the ground that the dust, abraded from the stone fragments, acts as a cushion and prevents as great an amoupt of wear as would occur if the dust were gotten rid of as fast as it is formed. An alteration in the machine, consisting of narrow slots running lengthwise to the

machine and permitting the dust to pass out as it is produced, has recently been devised, and is in use in many of the road material test-

ing lab<Dratories.

CEMENTING VALUE

The most desirable property of a gravel to be used- in gravel roads is its bonding power or cementation. The action of water on the fine rock particles and clay in a gravel road bed forms colloidal or glue.: like materials, which cement the gravel, and form hard surfaces in

1 Non-bituminous road materials: Econ. Geology, Vol. 13, p. 588, 1919.

GEOLOGICAL SURVFJY OF GFJORGIA

wet' Gr dry weather. It has been shown 1 that when :to(}k powders
ate ground with water in a ball mill, alkaline l:iydroxydes and free silicic acid are generally formed, causing tlie deposition of a g't,J.'fr#fiy
substance o:ii tlie fresh mineral particles. This material, whose particles have been studied in detail, is believed to be col10idal substance
formed by the action of water on the rock powders.
To test2' for tlie cementing value of a gravel1 500 grams of the matetialwliich passes a >1-inch screen is ground with 90 centimeters
of water for 5;000 revolutions in a small ball mill. The dough is then
removed and made into briquettes, 25 milHmeters in diameter and 25
Iilil1imeuers ih height, in a spe-cial hydraulic briquetthig m:::L(]nine. The
briquettes are dried for 20 hpurs in room temperature and for 4 hoi.ii's
m an air bath at 1000. They ate then cooled iii a dessicator; and
broken by the blows of a one .k\ilQgram hari:i.mer falling through a ver... tic3'1 distance of one centimeter, The nil.n1bei' of bltJws neecl:ed to destroy the resilience of the briquette is considered the cementing
value of the gravel. Georgia gravels included iii this_ rep0rt were
not subjected to this test.

VOIDS

. The term voids refers to the porosity, or the total space between the grains of a sand. A knowledge of this factor is thought to be .necessary when the sand is to be used for concrete purposes. The percentage of voids depends on the grading of the grains. According
to Stichter, a ih sands where the grains are of tiniforrb. size the voieis
will be greatest. Even though the grains b~ uniform spheres, the
Voids' fje:teentage will differ with their arrangement from 47.65 per
cent t6 25.95 pet cent. The porosity, however, is independent or the size of the grain, if the gtairi. size is uniform throughout the sand.
A sand composed entirely of 20-mesh grains has the same porosity as a sand made up of 100-mesh grains, provided the grains are similarly arranged in both sands.. In the coarser sand there will be fewer, but larger pores, and in the finer sand there will be more, but smaller pores.
In well-graded sands smaller grains will fill the spaces between . the largest..,,. and still smaller ones will.occupy the remailiing interstices,

i Cushman, A. S., The effect of water on rock powders: U.S. Dept. Agr., Bilr. of Chem., Bull.

92, 1905.

2 3

SRleicin.hetcekr,e,CLha.,s.Esc.o,nT. hGeeomloogtiyo,nsVoolf.

13, p; 566, underground

1919. waters:

U.

S.

Gecll

. Survey Water

Supply

Paper 67, p. 20, 1902.



SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

35

until in some sands the voids percentage may be as low as 10 or 15 per cent. Coarse sands are more likely to be better graded than fine sands, hence their voids are usually less. Such sands are considered desirable for concrete, since they leave fewer spaces to be filled with cement and thus produce a strong concrete with less cement than a poorly graded sand would require.
The value of voids determination for concrete sands is questioned by many engineers due to frequent opportunities for errors arising from t1J_e conditions under which they were made and from incorrect application in practical work.
The percentage of water or moisture in sand influences its volume, since the water forms a film around the grains, forcing them apart and increasing the volume and pore space of the sand, and causing a moist sand to weigh less than a dry sand. The voids increa:?e by 25 per cent of their original percentage, -as water up to 7 per cent of the weight of the sand is added. The voids percentage found in the laboratory in a dry sand sample is therefore of little value unless the actual amount of moisture is known in the sand which is to be used in construction work. It has also been frequently po~nted out that the voids percentage in a sand is not an accurate indication of the effective voids in the sand after mixing with cement and water. In practiec, the volume of gravel is not nearly so much affected by moisture as is sand, since gravel rarely takes up more than two per cent of moisture.
Difficulties in the exact determination of voids in the laboratory will be brought out as the different methods are described.

METHODS OF DETERMINATION
A field approximation of the voids percentage of a sand or gravel may be made by filling a bucket, of known capacity, level full with the sand or gravel to be tested. The material should be allowed to fall from the same height and at the same rate, and the container should either be given a few taps, an equal number -with each sample, to settle the sand, or else none at all, in order that the sand will not be unequally compacted in different samples and incomparable results obtained. When the sand container is full, a known volume of water is added until the water is also even with the top of the bucket. The percentage of the volume of water to that of the bucket is the voids percentage by volume. This result, however, is inaccurate,

.36

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

smce considerable air may still remain in the sand pores which has not been forced out by the water. If the bucket is marked at a certain content then only a certain amount of sand need be put in and the sand and water can be agitated to permit complete saturation by the water.
In the laboratory more exact methods can be used. Dakel describes a method used at first in testing Missouri sands. A measured volume of water was P,oured into a graduated tube. Into a similar tube, a tneasured volume of sand dried at l10C., 'was slowly poured without shaking down. This sand was then poured slowly into the measured quantity of water in order that no air wot4d be included with the grains.. The mixture of sand and water was tapped until no further settling results and its total "rolume read onthe graduate. The height of the sand surface was also read, or the volume of the wet, compacted sand including pore space. With these data the porosity of the wet, packed sand, and the dry, unpacked sand can be found, The following formula 1s g1ven for finding the porosity of the wet. packed sand:

. Vw ___;_ (Vt-'- Vs),

Voids =

in which

Vs

.

Vw = volume of the water in the tube before adding sand .

Vt = total volume of sand and water-in the tube
Ys = volume of sand wet and compacted (including pore space) whence (Vt - Vs) = volume of water above compacted sand,. and

Vw---'" (Vt- Vs) = water in the pores of the sand (the total water less the water

'

above the sand), or

.

Vw- (Vt- Vs) = actual porosity in the wet .packed sand, whence

Vw -(Vt- Vs) = proportion of porosity in wet packed sand

Vs

The following formula is used to get the porosity in the dry unpacked sand:

Vw- (Vt-Vd)

Voids percentage =

X 100, in which

Vd

Vd = the volume of dry sand, all the other symbols being the same as in previous

formula

As pointed out by Dake there is a tendency, to stratification when the sand is poured into the water. Since stratification forms layers of equally sized grains, th~ voids in these layers would be greater than if the different grains were thoroughly mixed. Thoroughly mixing before adding to the water and a minimum fall to the water will help to minimize. this error.

1 Op. cit.; pp. 22-24.

SAND AND GBAVEL DEPOSITS

.37

The water might be poured into the sand but an error of greater

magnitude in the opposite direction is produced, since air will remain

in the pores, thus preventing complete saturation by the water. Dake

found that in tests of this kind, after standing five hours, air bubbles

that could not be shaken out still persisted. He also found in several

tests of the same coarse-grained sand, differences of two per cent in

the pore space, but with fine sand the results of the latter method are

more unreliable. With moderately fine-grained sand, by pouring

the sand into the water, tests on the same sand differed by less than

two per cent in three tests, but when the water was poured into the

sand, three trials differed from each other by over four per cent and

ran from three to six per cent lower than when the sand was poured

into the water. Dake also found that if small samples (under 100 cc.)

were used in the voids determination the results showed differences of

from 2 to 5 per cent, but in samples of 300 cc., or larger, repeated trials
Yz checked to within to 2 per cent. The smaller samples showed less

porosity.



Another method frequently used in sand-testing .laboratories,

which obviates the inaccuracies of the foregoing methods, is to intro-

duce the water into the sand-containing vessel from below. In a

variation of this system described by R. L. Humphrey 1 , a percolator

about three inches in diameter is used, having a funnel-shaped orifice

at the bottom, which is connected by a rubber hose to a graduated

burette standing higher than the percolator. A small, perforated,

porcelain dish or strainer fits over the opening in the bottom of the

percolator. A given quantity of the sand for determination is placed

in the apparatus, filling it to a mark which indicates a definite volume.

Water is allowed to fill the tube and percolator until even with the

strainer to avoid compution of the water in the tube. The level of

water in the burette is then read, and water is allowed to enter the

percolator from the bottom until it reaches the top of the sand. The

difference in the burette readings equals the amount of water required

to fill the voids in the sand. The percentage of voids can be com-

puted from the following formula:

C =---V:vwb x 100, in which

Vw = volume of water introduced
Vb = voiume of sand in percolator C = percentage of voids

1 Am. Soc. for Test. Mat. Proc., Vol. 6, pp. 405-411, 1906.

38

GEOLOGIC4.L SURVEJ[ OF GJ]JO~(fiA

Although tb.is method reduce~ the error du~ tP in.~l~Q,e~ J::~,jr hll.bbles,
it does not entirely exclu.de the ~ir, ancl. +t=!E3ultEl hqm it will, t.h@r~fo:re, be lower than actual. lf the w~ter is ip,tro9,-uGed f~st ~:p,Q.ug;P, to ?-g~t~te
the sand, slightly better results are obt~i!led.
!!;<
For the determination of voids in gravels by these methods, large
containers must be used. In the cone-specific-gravity method 1, a
truncated steel cone, 10 inches in over-all height, 10 inches in over-all diarp,eter of the bottorp:, and 3 inche~ inside opening at the top, is filled
wit}l gravel which is completely compacted and kept full until no
more gravel can enter. The following formula- is used:

0-A

e 1 -

x 100 = percentage of voids, in which, .

(B-A) D

A = weight in gr~ms of empty cone
J? = weight in grams of cone filled with clean water

= C ::h wei'glit in grams of cone filled with compacted aggregate
D s~ecifi.c gra:vity of the aggregate

In testi;ng Georgia sands, none of the previously described methods

were used, but the voids were computed from the specific gravity of

the sand which had already been found after the method described

on page 40. In the case of a sand whose specific gravity was 2.66, which is the ave~age specific gr11v!ty of sand, 100 cc. of the sand should

we~gh; if it were soljd~ ~66. grams On account of the veids in the
sand,:: however, it. will we1gh much less, le"ji us say 1'60 grams. The
dl.ff~reh.c~; then, between the actual weight. of the sana ari.d Tts weight
i( no voids existed, represents the weight of sand need~d to fill the
voi~s in the sample.

\'

266. gr?tms .,...-- 160 gra,ms = 106 grams .Qf t3anq. req;uireQ. ~o @ ~4e voids

lQ~
266

x 100 = 39 .8 per cent voids

The percentage of this figure to the solid weight of the sand is the voids percentage, since the weights are in proportion to the volumes.
The formula is as follows:
(V X s. G.)- w v - - - - - - - - x- 100 = voids percentage, in which,
X S.G.
V = volume of sample in centimeters S. G. = specific gravity of sample
W = weight of sample in g11ams

1 Blanchard, Arthur A., Elements of highway e:o,gi.neering, pp. 494, 495, 1915.

BAND AND GRAVEL DEPO.SITS

39

In construction work it may be more convenient to weigh a cubic foot of sand, in which case the formula is as follows:
(V X 62.5 X s. G.) - w
- - - - - - - - - x 100 = voids in which,
v X 62 .5 X s. G.
V = volume in cubic feet
S. G. = specific gravity
W = weight in pounds 62 .5 = weight in pounds of one cubic foot of water
In finding the weights of 100 centimeters of different sands considerable range in the compacting powers of the different sands was noticed; so that in order to insure as comparable results as possible, the container was tapped against the palm of the hand, as the sand was added, until the volume was 100 centimeters and the sample was then weighed. Compacting produced changes in the voids percentage ranging .from 5 to 25 per cent of the total percentage, depending on the grading of the sand. The use of the weight of 100 centimeters upon which to base the voids percentage of a sand, gives accurate results, since a difference of 0.1 gram in the weight of 100- centimeters of sand makes a difference of only 0.03 per cent in the voids percentage.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
The specific gravity of sand depends entirely upon its constituent mineral or rock fragments. A pure quartz sand will have a specific gravity of about 2.65 to 2.66. Any appreciable variation from this shows impurities. A magnetite sand may have a specific gravity as high as 6.18. Very often the heavier minerals have a harmful influence on the strength of mortar, since they may split up and decompose. Some Missouri sands 1 show a low specific gravity which has been attributed to the porous and decayed condition of the chert grains which occur in large amounts in these sands.

Table showint specific travity of sand train minerals

Quartz ___________________________2.653- 2.66

Flint___________________________ } o 60 Chert___________________________ ""'
Feldspars_________________________ 2.50
ICaolOinrittheo_c_l_a_s_e_______________-_-__-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-______22..6507

- 2.64
-- 2.9
-- 2.63

1 Dake, C. L., The sand and gravel resources of Missouri: Missouri Bureau of Geol. and Mines, Vol. 15, 2d ser., p. 18, 1918.

40

GEOtOGIOAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

LIIhonronrbdlteen-d-e-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-__-_-_-_-_-_~_-_-_-_-32..96 Olivine___________________________ 3.26

-4.0 -3.4
-3.4

Calcite____ ---- ________ -~-- _______2 .71

Lignite___________________________ 1 .15 - 1.3

ICthurtoilner_i_t_e_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_~_-_-44..158 Zkcon____________________________4.5.
Magnetite___ ._ _________________ -'" _5 .17

-5.0 -4.25 -4.7 -6.18

Monazite__ _: ___ ------ ____________ A\19 -5.3

Although the specific gravity/ of a sand is not necessary in testing, ~t is of value in computing the very important factor of voids content, and for ~hat reason it has been included in the tests in this report. The average specific gravity of Georgia sand is 2.66.

METHODS OF DETERMINATION

In testing Missouri sands Dakel first _used an ordinary graduated
tube. A measured quantity of water was put into the tube and into
this 100 grams of sand were poured,. and. the mixture of sand and water . thoroughly shaken to remove included air bubbles. The new height of the water was then noted and the data used in the following formula:

w
S. G. = - - - - - - - , in which
Vt- Y.w

W = weight of. dry sand in gr.ams

Vw = Volume of water in tube in cubic centimeters

Vt

=

total

volume

of

sand

a\ nd

watel'

-in

the

tube

in

cubic

centimeters .

The graduate was read to the nearest cubic centimeter and interpolation to_te?-ths was tried, but it was impossible to read the volume closer than 0. 3 ec. These results gave variations of from 0. 01 to 0. 06- in the specific gravity of the sand which were considered too large, To increase the accuracy of the determination a Le Chatelier bottle was itsed;

ALe Chatelier apparatus was also used in finding the specific gravity of Georgia sands. It has a large, globular base, into which 50 grams of sand were placed, and a long, narrow, graduated neck, thus permitting very sensitive readings of the liquid. Since many of the sands tested contained clay in amounts large enough to produce a slight foam at the top, which gave trouble in reading the meniscus, gasolene was used instead of water. A sharp reading could then always be. obtained'" and the bottle cleansed itself much more readily after

1 Op. .cit., p. 19.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

41

each sand than when water was used. The formula given above can be used with this method.
When doubt existed as to the results obtained by the Le Chatelier apparatus, p~rticularly in fine-grained sands, a picnometer bottle was used. The picnometer is a small, globular-shaped bottle, with a perforated stopper, which permits the water to overflow when it is inserted, so that the bottle is always filled to the same point. The weight of the picnometer empty, and full of water, is then found, and a known weight of sand is placed in the bottle which is filled with water and weighed, care being taken to exclude air bubbles. To get the best results a constant temperature should be maintained when using this apparatus. It will give results accurate to within five thousandths. The following formula is used to find the specific gravityi by this method:
Ws
+ - - - - - - = specific gravity
(Ws Wb)- Wt
Ws = weight of sand (in grams) Wb = weight of bottle filled with water only (in grams) Wt = total weight of bottle with sand and water (in grams), whence
+ Ws Wb. = the total weight of the substance involved, and + (Ws Wb) - Wt = weight of the water displaced, and hence its volume.
The specific gravities of Georgia sands are listed in the tables. The average for all the sands tested was 2. 66. To get the specific !::.1av-ity of gravels or coarse aggregates, the specific g-ravity of material
Y2 72 over inch and under inch in size is separately determined, and
the specific gravity of the whole can be calculated, if the proportion of the materials of these sizes is known 2

WEIGHT OF SAND AND GRAVEL
The ;weight of, sand and gravel is valuable as a guide in certain transportation questions; in proportioning sand and gravel of one kind with other kinds, or with other materials; and in converting one unit of measurement into another. The weight is usually given in pounds per cubic foot or pounds per cubic yard. Sand and gravel are generally sold by the ton or by the yard. Dealers may wish to

1 Op. cit., p. 21.
2 Hubbard, Prevost, and Jackson, F. A., Jr. The specific gravity of non-homogenous aggregates. Proc. Am. Soc. Test. Mat. Vol. 16, Pt. 2, pp. 378-402, 1916.
See aleo Am. Soc. Test. Mat. Pwc. Vol. 17, pt. 1, pp. 776-778, 1917.

42

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

convert t:ms into yards, cnr yards into tons, to fix an equal.priGe for their product when sold on either basis. To convert yards into short tq:g.~ it is n~c~esswy to know the weight pe.:r GUbic y~:rd of the s~;~.nd.
This can be f;tGtU!1llY dete:vrpined for the :;ll:\>nd i:O. que~tion or a.n aver~ge
figwe can be ta.keJ,i. The U:nited Stl:l!'tes GeolQgioa.lSu:rvey 1 has co~-
. put.ed the average weight of 11 y?;rd of sand to be.2&6.5 pounds and the
average weight of a yard of gravel to he ~820 poUJ.ld!S. The average
weight per cubic yard of l50 sa:t;D.ples of Ge(,:wg~ !:ll:\>u.ds was ~660 poup_ds. TaJP..ng the average weight of a cubic yard of sa.nd from the Federal
Survey's estimate, 2665 pounds, a,nd dividin..g it by ~Q,PO we get 1.33, or the number of short tons in a cubic yard of sand. To convert 300 yards -of sand, for ex:"8-mple, into short tons we multiply 2665 by 300 and get 799, 500 pounds, wJ;rich we divide by ~000 a,nd find 399.7 short tons. To convert short tons into yards we divide 2665 into the tott;tl number of pounds in the quantity in question. To find the value of a
ton of sand selling at $1.30 a yard, we multiply $1.30 by 2000, getting 2600, wh' ch we divide by 2665 and get $0.9772 as the value
. of a ton.
M~THOPS OF DET:ERl\UNATIQN

The simplest way to find the weight of sand is to fill a box of known

volume. and weight, with the sand or gravel and th"Em weigh the box,
the-difference in weight eqa3illing'ihe weight perUE.it of-sand. Care

m. ust

be

taken,.

however,

to

see

t.hat

the sand .

is

added

to

the

container

in the same way for each sample and that it receives just the same

amount of packing, else the results will not be comparative. Dif-

ferent persons in finding the weight ef the same sand will inva:viahly

arrive at different results unless each takes great care in perlorl'Qing

the operation in tp.e same manner. Differences in weight of the same

volume of sand .of fr.om 3 to 25 per cent are possible, depending on whether or ~ot the sand iE? shaken down as it is added to the container':

In this report .the volume weight of sand was found by weighing

to the nearest tent}). of a gram1 100 cubic centimeters of thoroughly dried sand in a bottle after Qomplet~ly settijng the sand as it was added, by

tapping the bottle ~gainst the palm of the hand, and then multiply-

ing this weight by a factor depep.ding on whether the weight of a cubic

fo9t pr a cubic yard was desired. '

Since there are approximately 28,317 centimeters in a cubic foot,

then. the weight iP. g:r~m$ of a cubic foot of s11n,d may b~ fgp.p.d by m.u.lti-

1 Stone, R. W., U. S. Geol. Survey Mineral Resources, 1918, p. 314, 1919.

/

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

43

plying the weight of 1 centimeter by 28,317, or the weight of 100 cen..

timeters by 283.17. This number of grams can then be converted

into pounds by dividing by 453.3, the number of grams in a pound.

The actual weight in pounds of a cubic foot of sand can be found di-

rectly by multiplying the weight of 1 centimeter in grams by 62.5,

which represents the two combined factors. To find the weight of a

cubic yard, simply multiply the weight of a cubic foot by 27. An

accurate determination of the weight of a cubi_c foot based on so small

a sample as 100 cubic centimeters is possible, since a difference of one-

tenth of a gram in the weight of 100 centimeters only affects the weight

of a cubic foot by 5 ounces.

'

MORTAR TESTS OF SAND 1
Actual tests, to determine the tensile, transverse, and compressive strengths of the concrete a given sand will make, are the most satisfactory, and they should be made in all important work, when there is sufficient time. However, only those who are experienced in the hand mixing of mortar should make the tests, as there is a knack in properly mixing the materials, and the amount and manner of puddling and ramming is so important that the results of tests by inexperienced persons will be practically valueless.
The strength of the concrete made from the unknown sand is compared with the strength of concrete made from a standard sand, and this proportion reduced to percentage is known as the "strength ratio'' of the sand. In the United States, natural Ottawa (Illinois) saJ;l.d, screened to pass 20 mesh and retained on 30 mesh is used for this purpose.
The tensile strength i~ generally found in mortar tests, since it requires simple apparatus and is easily made, although, consistent accurate results are sometimes hard to obtain and the test itself is not of much practical application, nevertheless it serves very well for comparative testing. It is made by subjecting a mortar briquette, which is of 1-square-inch cross section at the center, and bulged at the ends, to tension induced at the ends.
Transverse strength, or modulus of rupture, is of less importan~e than the crushing strength, but due to the greater ease of making both,
1 For detailed description of mortar tests see Taylor and Thompson, op. cit., pp. 343348.

GEOLOGIQAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

!
this test and the tension test, it is more frequently made. The timsion and transverse tests serve, when made comparatively with some standard sand, to show the proportionate values of different sands.

Compression tests are usually made on cylinders of concrete, whose heights are twic~ their diameters. These cylinders are sub-

jected to pressure in a hydraulic compression testing machine. The

machine is quite expensive and although thee;e. tests are probably of

more value in showing the a;ctual strength value of the concrete, they

are not used gene~ally in testing sands.

'

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

45

THE USES OF.SAND AND GRAVEL
BUILDING SAND AND GRAVEL
Sand and gr~vel used in concrete; sand used for brick mortar and plaster; and roofing gravel, are included in this report under building sand and gravel. Approximately 73 per cent or 282,165 tons, of the sand and gravel commercially produced in Georgia during 1919 has been used for these purposes. Almost every one has had occasion to use sand for such work, and hence an enumeration of its requirements should aid in making a selection of materials when a choice is possible.
CONCRETE AGGREGATE
With the advent of concrete roads, and the ever-increasing use of concrete for practically all building purposes, a consideration of the fine aggregate, or sand, and the coarse aggregate, which may be gravel, broken stone, slag, cinders, or broken bricks, becomes necessary if economical and durable results are to be obtained. Until within the last ten years very little attention had been given to the matter of determining what constituted good concrete aggregate. Tests were restricted to a casual inspection and rarely, if ever, was the sand or gravel made in concrete briquettes and subjected to tension and com- pression tests. At present the Federal government and some of the State governments, as well as the Portland Cement Association, nuplerous universities and private laboratories, are making elaborate tests on sands and gravels not only to determine those tests of most practical value, but to actually determine which of a number of equally available aggregates will prove most economical and lasting.
In Georgia, the Road Materials Testing Laboratory, at the Georgia School of Technology, in Atlanta, makes thorough tests of sand and gravel for which a nominal charge is made to cover the expense of the work. Tests for building and road sand and gravel are made free of charge at the Bureau of Public Roads, and tests of molding sands at the Bureau of Standards, both at Washington, D. C.
Testing of the sand should not be confined merely to the selection of the best pit, but it should be continued on each shipment of the material to the construction work. With a knowledge of the size of the grains a great saving can frequently be affected by combining two cheaper sands and thus substitute sand or stone for more expensive cement without reducing the desired strength of the concrete.

46

G1UJLOIJ.10AL KrJRVEY OF GEORGIA

Due to its bulk, tarely more than a day's supply of .aggregate can be stored near the work,; consequently there is not sufficient time to
make mortar tests; ihvolving a::t l~ast 7 day~; nevertheless, the need
for such tests exists. To take the place of such long tests, shorter tests, based on the relation between the grain sizes of the sand and the mortar strength, have been- devisea. By applying these methods the quality of each carload or shipment of sand can be quickly found. Such tests, however, should not replace mortar tests wlieri there is
plenty of t:ime. In small jobs, requiring only a few wagon-loads of
mateHai, elaborate testing would of course be unwise; nevertheless, fio job is too small to neglect the application of a ntih1ber of easily applied field tests. . Very often a few hours additional search or inquiry will disclose sand much more desirable, and such a search is certainly not wasted, when the effect of the aggregate upon the resulting concrete is so marked.

SAND
In general a good concrete sand should conform to the following requirements:
(
1. The grains should be coarse, i ,to } inch, with a smaller amount of fines (under i- inch), Tather than all fines. ' Sands whose
grams are mostly under ~ of an inch will require twice the cement a coarse sand would require to make a concrete of equal strength 1 Uniform grading of the grains may be desirable but not necessary; coarseness is the most important quality.

2. Vegetable matter even iii minute quantities is particularly injurious in a mortar sand.

3. dlay and silt exceeding 8 to 12 per cent is also harmful in sand,
although where the local supply is limited, a high-'clay sand, or dirty sand, may be used in very small and unimportant work rather than to incur the expense of shipping in more desirable sand.
The U. S. Bureau of Public Roads reccommends the following
specifications for sand for use 'in first class concrete:

"All to pass a l-inch sieve, to hav~ at least 20 and not more than 50 per cent

retained on a 20-:fuesh sieve, at least 80 per cent retained on a 50-mesh sieve, and at

le:ast 97 per ceiit retained on a 200~mesh sieve.

.

"To have a ten.Sile strength ratio, when compared to standard Ottawa sand mortar

o:i:'iquets,. of .at least 100 per cent."

1 Taylor, F. W. and Thompson, S. E. ,Concrete, piairi and reinforced, 2d. ed., p. 159 a, 1911

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

47

For concrete of the second class the following are suggested:
"All to pass at-inch sieve, to have not more than 80 per cent retained on a 20mesh sie:v;e, and to have at least 50 per cent retained on a 50-mesh sieve, and at least 95 per cent retained on a 200-mesh sieve.
"To have a tensile strength ratio, when compared to standard Ottawa sand mortar briquets, of at least 75 per cent."
GRAVEL
1. The pebbles should be composed of durable unrotted material, not likely to disintegrate when subjected to the pressure of the settling concrete.
2. The gravel should be entirely free from vegetable matter and contain as little clay or silt as possible. What clay or silt exists in the gravel should be uniformly distributed through it.
3. Coarse pebbles with a maximum of 2,72 inches in diameter are desired.
The U. S. Bureau of Public Roads suggests the following specifications for gravel to be used iri concrete aggregate:
"All to pass a H-inch screen and to be retained on a !-inch screen, and to have at least 25 and not more than 60 per cent retained on a -!-inch screen."
For emphasis and convenience of discussion, the following characteristics of the concrete aggregate will be considered: Size of grain and impurities, which include the clay, organic matter, and mineral and chemical content.
SIZE OF GRAIN
Numerous tests of various sands have shown conclusively that the relative proportions of grains of different sizes have a great effect on the strength of the mortar produced from the sand and also upon the quantity of cement required to produce a mortar of given strength. Many of these investigations have indicated that the grading should be uniform - that is, the sand should contain as nearly as possible equivalent amounts of each size grain from~ inch down to 100 mesh.
Fuller and Thompson 1 after making numerous tests of differently graded aggregates arrived at the following conclusions of which an abstract of those affecting sand and gravel is given:
1 Fuller, W. B., and Thompson, S. E., Laws of proportioning concrete: Am. Soc. Civil Eng. Trans., Vol. 59, pp. 67-143, 1907.

48

GEOLOGICAL SUP,VEY OF GEORGIA

1. Stone of largest size makes strongest concrete; a graded mix-
ture, in which the maximum size of the stone is 272 inches in diameter,
gives stronger concrete than a mixture where the maximlllN? stone is 1 inch in diameter.
2. Aggregates in which particles have .been specially graded in sizes, produce cements of high~r strength than mixtures of cement and natural material in similar proportions. The average improvement in strength by artificial grading under the conditions of the tests was about 14 per cent. Comparing the tests of strength of concretes having different percentages of cement, it was found that for similar strengths the best artifically graded aggregate would require about 12 per cent less cement than a like mixture of natural materials.
3. The strength and density of concrete is affected by the variation in the diameter of the particles of sand more than by variation in the diameter of the stone particles.
4. An excess of fine or of medium sand decreases the density and also the strength of concrete, htt a deficiency of fine ~rains of sand in a lean concrete decrease the strength of the concrete.
5.. T:he best mixture of cement 'and aggregate has a mechanical ~nalysis curve resembling a parabola, although the ideal mechanical analysis curve is slightly different for. different materials.!
. The tabulated results of mechamcal analyses of an aggregate are _practically meaningless to many. Curves have been devised, which show at a glance the granulometric compositio;n and which afford means of comparing the grading of two or more sands.
In Fig. 1 the curve represents approximately a granulometric analysis of so-called ideal uniformity 2 The character of other sand curves, so far as their uniform grading is concerned, shows up favorably or unfavorably as compared with the ideal curve.
Chapman and.Johnson3 have shown how a considerable saving may be effected by using a cheaper and poorly graded sand, if the lacking grades are supplemented by the addition of sufficient stone screenings or other sand to produce an artificial mixture whose grading approximates that indicated by the ideal cp.rve. In the particular case m

1 Op. cit., pp. 192193.



.

2 After Fuller, W. B., in Taylor, F. W. and Thompson, S. E., op. cit., p. 183.

3 Chapman, C. N., and Johnson, N. C., Economic side of sand testing: Eng. Record, Vol. 71,

pp. 734-737 (correction p. 813) 1915.

SA.ND A.ND GRA.Vl!."L DEPO l1'S OF Gl!-'OlWI Ll

PLATE lll

A. KEYSTOI\E EXCAVATC'R USED IN LOADING TRUCKS, RICHMO D COUNTY GRAVEL PIT, COLUMBUS

B. MINING SAND BY DRAG-LINE SCRAPER, J. R. HIME SAND COMPANY, J UNCTION CITY, TALBOT COUNTY

SAND AND GRAVEL DF..POSITS

49

question, sand A, a naturally well-graded sand, could be obtained for $2.24 a ton including freight, while the poorer sand,. B, cost only $1.92. Stone screenings cost $0.88 a ton, and the cost of mixing them with the sand was about 3 cents a yard.
To determine the amount of each type of sand needed to form the artificial mixture, it is necessary to plot the mechanical analyses of the sands on the ideal curve (See fig. 1). From the diagram we see that the ideal grading curve cuts, let us say, the 40-mesh ordinate at 78 per cent; the analysis of the cheaper sand cuts this ordinate at 40 per cent and the analysis of the stone-screenings curve at 90 per cent. making the difference between the ideal curve intersection and that of the two aggregates respectively 38 per cent and 12 per cent. Each of these differences are then divided by their sum to determine the proportion of each necessary to make an ideal mixture, which in this case is 76 and 24 per cent respectively. The process is repeated for all mesh sizes and the average taken. This figure then shows the proportion of screenings and sand to be used to make a mixture conforming to the ideal grading. In this way a sand capable of producing a concrete conforming to the specifications can be obtained at a smaller cost than if the naturally well-graded sand was used.
Feret 1 made a large number of experiments to determine the re~ lation between the grain sizes of sand and the compressive strength of mortars. He divided the sand into three sizes corresponding to the mesh sizes, which he called coarse, medium, and fine:
Coarse ______Passing 5 mesh and retained on 15 mesh Medium____ passing 15 mesh and retained on 46 mesh Fine ________ passing 46 mesh and retained on
By combining various amounts of each size and testing the strength of the mortar made from the combination he found that the densest mortars uare those in which there are no medium grains, and in which the coarse grains are found in a proportion double that of the fine grains, cement included."
Taylor and Thompson 2 , in commenting on Feret's method, say that the method is undoubtedly valuable for sand-mortar mixtures but that for concrete mixtures having coarse aggregate to be con-
1 Feret, R., Annales des Ponts et Chaussees II, p. 182, 1892. See also Taylor, F. W., and Thompson, S. E., Concrete, plain and reinforced, pp. 155-162, 1916.
2 Op. cit., p. 192. (Footnote)

50

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

, sidered, more than two sizes of materials are theoretically necessary to obtain the densest mixture.
. Recently, the relation between the surface area of the sand grains and the amount of cement required to produce a mortar of given strength has been 'emphasized. Of two sand grains the larger will have less 'surface area, in proportion to its volume, ~han the smaller. The total surface area of a given volume of coarse sand will be much less than the surface area of the same volume of fine sand. A large surface area requires more cement to produce a. given mortar strength than a small area, because a larger are!:!- must be coated with cement, and more points of contact exist between the grains which must be 'bridged over with cement. Edwardsl has made a number of tests which show that a given cement .mix will produce the strongest concrete with sand of the least surface area. This paper illustrates the method of proportioning the mix, in practice, by curves.
Quite recently Professor Abrams 2 has produced evidence which appears to show that the usual methods of proportioning concrete by sieve analysis of aggregates are open to considerable error. His conclusions were reached after three years of experimenting during which many thousands of tests were made. Abrams emphasizes the necessity of using coarse sand or a coarse total aggregate, which is really another way of considering the surface-area principle, since the coarser the aggregate the less its surface area. A simple method of application to practical work, however, has been found. The conclusions reached, which affect the proportioning of the fine and coarse aggregate~ are as follows:

1. The sieve analysis furnishes the only correct basisfor proportioning aggre-

gates in concrete mixtures.

2. A simple method of measuring the effective size and grading of an aggregate

has been developed. This gives rise to a function known as the "fineness modulus"

of the aggregate. (See page 31).

3. The fineness modulus of the aggregate furnishes a rational method for com-

bining materials of different size for concrete mixtures.



4. The sieve analysis curve of the aggregate m:ay be widely different in form

_without exerting any influence on the concrete strength.

5. Aggregates of equivalent concrete-making qualities may be produced by an

infinite number of different gradings of a given matedal.

6. Aggregates of equivalent concrete-making qualities may be produced from

materials of widely different size and grading.



7. In general, fine and coarse aggregates of widely different size or,grading can

, be combined in such a manner as to produce similar results in concrete.

l'lEdwarda, L. N., Am. Soo. for Test. Mat. Proc., Vol. 18, pt. 2,_p. 235, 1918. 2 Abra:ins, D. A., Design of oonorete mixtures: Struo. Mat. Res. Lab., Lewis Inst., Chicago, Bull. 1, 1919.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

51

8. The aggregate grading which produces the strongest concrete is not that giving the maximum density (lowest voids). A grading coarser than that giving maximum density is necessary for highest concrete strength.
9. The richer the mix, the coarser the grading should be for an aggregate of given maximum size; hence, the greater the discrepancy between maximum density and best grading.
10. There is an intimate relation between the grading of the aggregate and the quantity of water required to produce a workable deposit.
11. The water content of a concrete mix is best considered in terms of the volume of the cement - the water-radio.
12. The shape of the particle and the quality of the aggregate have less infl.uence on the concrete strength than has been reported by other experimenters.
These conclusions present an entirely new understanding of the .functions of the sand and gravel in a concrete mix. Although the
importance of good grading in the coarse and fine aggregate is still
apparent, it is of less force than the necessity of having a coarse sand
as shown by the fineness modulus (See fig. 4),. together with the least
amount of water necessary to produce a plastic and workable mix.
Sand having a fineness modulus of less than 1.50 is undesirable as a
fine aggregate in most concrete mixes, and sands whose fineness modulus
exceeds 3.00 will generally give a concrete of normal strength ratio.

0
/.(70

V-5/Y/x

~~o-R,n. 0'4//~

4/>

/
.r::4~~~~/h ~r~are

l

?CJO ,300 4.CJO

S'OCJ

6.00

7.00

.l'l~ne~ Mod4"/~ o/'A_9.9a"'P

Fig. 4.-Relation between fineness modulus of aggregate and strength of concrete.

52

GEOLOGICAL SVRYEY OF GEORGIA

In applying these principles to concrete mixtures, the coarsest grained sand and the coarsest aggregate should not be ,used rega,rdless of the richness of the mixture. The richer the miX the higher the fineness modulus of the sand may be that can be used with it; in lean mixtures the coarseness of the sand is limited.
Fig. 5 shows the maximum values of the fineness moduli of aggregates used in various mixes. In general the aggrl;)gate having the highest fineness modulus for the mix to be used will produce the str.ong-
~st concret~.
For details regarding the method of proportioning coarse and fine aggregates of different fineness moduli, the reader is referred to the pa-per of Professor Abrams already cited.

0 4.oo 4-SO soo ~o &Oo ~so' zoo
.19/A:?nessMoobhs or~..9re9ok
Fig. 5.-Relation between fineness modulus of aggregat~ and st,:ei!.gth of concrete.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

53

VOIDS
Since the percentage of voids of a sand depends or:. the grading, it is generally thought, when low, to indicate a good concrete sand. There is considerable doubt, however, whether the voids percentage of a dry sand is an accurate estimation of the voids in the sand when it is in concrete mix.
Tests of 34 sands selected at random from a much larger number made by the New York State Highway Department! from 1908-1910, show the sand having the least voids to be the best.
Jewett2 believes a low .percentage of voids does not give mnch indication of the value of a sand, unless accompanied by coarseness of grain. Withey 3 ; after testing 15 sands and fine aggregates, came to the conclusion that the laws of Feret could probably be applied to the tensile and transverse strengths of mortars as well as to the compressive strength. Although these experiments illustrated the value of well-graded sands, they showed no well-defined relation between mortar strength and either percentage of voids, uniformity coefficient, or percentage of silt.
The work of Abrams 4 would indicate that the value of the percentage of voids is not of major importance, unless the fineness modulus of the aggregate is high. In this report a determination of the voids of the various sands has been included.
Although a range of opinion regarding the grading of a concrete sand and gravel has been presented, the various ideas as to their effect on the strength of concrete only emphasize the importance of knowing the mechanical analysis of representative samples of the sand to be used in construction work. With a knowledge of the grading we can determine the value of the sand whether the theories of Fuller, Feret, or Abrams are favored.
Present knowledge indicates that a uniform grading is not the most desirable property of a concrete aggregate, but rather a minimum of surface area of the grains in proportion to the cement used. Coarse
1 Greenman, R. S., Practical tests for sand and gravel proposed for use in concrete: Am. Soc. for Test. Mat. Proc., VoL II, p. 516, 1911.
2 Jewett, J. Y., Some sand experiments relating to per cent of voids and tensile strength: Am. Soc. for Test. Mat. Proc., Vol. 6, pp. 405-411, 1906.
3 Withey, M. 0., Tests of mortar made from Wisconsin aggregates: Am. Soc. for .Test. Mat. Proc., VoL 13, pp. 834-857, 1913.
4 Op. cit.

54

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

sands best answer this requirement. The accompanying tables in elude calculations of the fineness moduli of Georgia sands, so that in less important work a simple comparison of the fineness moduli of sands from different localities may serve as an indication of the value of a concrete sand. For work involving a large mori.ey outlay, more refined application of Abrams' principles is desirable from the economic standpoint.
IMPURITIES
The impurities affecting a concrete sand or gravel are clay, (under which, silt, soil, and loam are here included), organic matter, and mineral grains other than quartz.
The subject. of impurities in sand, or its "cleanness," has called forth much discussion. Tests have been made which seem to show that clay, silt, and even vegetable. matter have little bad effect upon the concrete-making qualities of a sand. In fact some experiments have indicated the desirability of a high clay content in sand. Many of these results must be accepted with caution and some unconditionally rejected, however, and in all of them the conditions under. which they were made should be. considered. Thus, sand with a clay content of 20 per cent or even more, if used with.a lean cement mix~ ture, may. :i:nake strong concrete, while sand with a small (3-10 per cent) clay content produces best results, ~ a rich mixture is Uf?ed.
Taylor and Thompson 1 say "as a matter of fact it is impossible to make a general statement. either to the effect that natural impurities in sand are beneficial or that they are detrimental. .In some cases fine material may be of actual benefit; while in others the con.trary is true."
CLAY
Clay has a more harmful effect in concrete made from natural cement than on that made from Portland cement. Sabin thinks amounts of clay up to 6 per cent are not harmful with either cement, 2 altho1,1gh with lean mixtures with Portland cement, clay, in amounts from 10 to 25 per cent of the sand adds to their strength, 3 and renders them more waterproof. Clay, however, is harmful in concrete which will be subject to immersion in salt water. 4

1 Op. cit. p. 168. 2 Sabin, L. C., Cement and Concrete: 2d ed., pp. 319-320, 1907. 3 Op. cit., p. 271. 4 Op. cit., p. 364.

SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

55

In a senes of tests made by C. E. Sherman, 1 in which differing proportions of clay and loam were used with differing cements and sands, it was found that with other factors being equal, the resultant concrete strength increased with the proportion of clay in the sand. The 15 per cent clay mixture proved to be the strongest at the end of 6 to 12 months in 8 cases out of 12.
Rain 2 made a number of tests of washed and unwashed sands in which the washed sands gave.poorer results than the natural material. He concludes that clay up to 12 per cent, if evenly distributed throughout the sand, is not harmful, but rather beneficial. Whether a sand need be washed should first be determined by actual mortar tests of both the natural and washed product, since the consideration of the saving on washing is important.
Others tests showed that with a 1:2 mixture sand with an increasing clay content reduced the crushing strength of the mortar, but with a 1:3 proportion the strength of the mortar in general increased up to 15 per cent clay in the sand.
A small amount of clay in sand gives the concrete a smooth surface. Finely powdered clay when free from vegetable matter acts as a void filler and is said 4 to produce a more water-tight mortar. About 5 per cent of the weight of the sand is generally effective.
The harmful influence of reasonable amounts of clay, free from organic matter, in sand is likely to be over-estimated. To be on the safe side, tests of the mortar-making qualities of the sand should be made when time permits, since other factors may produce r~sults that the amount of clay has not warranted. In specifying the amount of clay permissible in sand, it is wise to set a conservative limit, since with a high limit, some contractors may believe that little regard is held for a clean sand, and the limits are likely to be exceeded and very harmful organic matter also included.
The exhaustive tests of Abrams indicate that the less fine material, and consequently the less clay in a sand, the better. A large amount of clay, unless it is allowed to coat the sand grains, will require an excess of water in the mix. This water excess is probably harmful,

1 Effect of clay and loam on sand mortar: Eng. News, Vol. 50, p. 443, 1903. 2 Hain, J. C., Some tests of impure sand for concrete: Eng. News, Vol. 53, p. 127, 1905. 3 Griesenauer, G. J., Loam and clay in sand for concrete: Eng. News, Vol. 51, p. 413, 1902. 4 Taylor, F. W. and Thompson, 0. E., op. cit., p. 301.

66
,P

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGI..A

sinee it iiici'.eases the amount of cement necessary to secure a desired GOncrete. strength. On the other hand, clay coated grains; most certainly do not readily aid in the setting of the concrete; but hinder it. Numerous clay particles also increase the amount of cement needed, since there is a much greater number of contacts to be bridged by the cement.

The quality of "sharpness" so long included in sand requirements may be considered an index of the clay content, rather than of the angularity of the' grain, Sand containing much clay, shale, or claycoated grains, will not produce the grating peculiar to a clean, "sharp" sand when rubbed between the fingers, since the clay acts as- a cushion between the grains. Although there is little reason why sand grains should be sharp 1 and the use of the term "sharpness" in specifi-cations is condemned by many, it nevertheless is an important guide m a casual estimate of the clay or soft mineral content of a sand.

ORGANIC MATTER
Sometimes a sand that apparently conforms to all the requirements of an ideal concrete aggregate, produces mortar that does not give nearly the amount of satisfaction expected of it. The clay content has .beensfuall to negligible-, the :grading,appare:htly perfect, yet something in it produces bad effects. This peculiarity has been attributed
-to 01;ganic or vegetabie matter, generally in the form of a more or less
visible brown coating of the grains, which prevents .or hinders the complete setting of the concrete. The term loam has sometimes been used to refer to the organic matter l.n sand. Loam usually contains organic matter, but it is largely composed of clay and silt; the term organic matter as used here indicates true organic matter only. Such sands generally show in a chemical analysis a large amount of organic matter, and upon washing show marked improvement. It has been noted that the addition of small amounts of fertilizer to a clean sand gives low concrete tests. 2 Many defective sands will give different results if another brand of cement is used. In one instance the variation was from 20 to 80 per cen.t _of normal strength, although analysis of the cements gave no clue.
Frees states that sand in swampy regions becomes coated with
1 U. S. Bureau of Standards, Circular No. 45, p. 36, 1913. 2 Freeman, J. R., Proposed study of concrete sands: Eng. News, Vol. 67, p. 1022, 1912. 3 Free, E. E., Proposed study of concrete sand: Eng. News, Vol. 67, p. 1024, 1912.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

5i

tannic and gallic acids, which hinder and even prevent the normal chemical action of the cement. Such material usually is in the colloidal form and can be removed by washing or by the l:Lddition of inorganic salts to flocculate it. The use of salt water has been suggested.
That the amount causing trouble in a sand is small is shown by the statement of Gaines 1 that 0.1 to 0.2 per cent organic matter is sufficient. Sands obtained from rivers running through regions in which coal or lignite occurs may contain injurious amounts of coal and lignite grains. Tan bark has been known to seriously affect the quality of river sands in which it occurs. Rivers flowing through densely populated regions generally have sands with large amounts of organic matter.
The Bureau of Standards 2 considers organic matter, sulphides, and soluble alkalies in sands as highly objectionable. On pages 10-11 tests are given for the determination of organic matter in sand, and these tests have been made on most Georgia sands. In general, Georgia sand's are quite free from, harmful organic content.

MINERAL AND CHEMICAL IMPURITIES
Under mineral impurities mineral grains of less resistance than quartz might be included. Feldsp:;tr, which occurs in many Georgia sands particularly those in the Piedmont region, although it is subject to disintegration into kaolin, or clay, is usually sufficiently durable when it occurs in sands to cause ,no trouble in mortar. Hornblende is still less common in sand, due to its weaker resistance t-o abrasion. Quantities exceeding 5 to 10 per cent of either mineral in sand might produce weakness. due to disintegration under the pressure caused when the cement sets. The writer knows of no experiments that have been made to determine the effect of different amounts of feldspar or hornblende on concrete sand.
In the case of mica, however, Willis 3 found that the addition of
272 per cent of finely ground mica to Ottawa sand reduced the strength
of the mortar at 28 days about 33 per cent, and also increased the per cent of voids in the sand. This decrease in strength may have been due largely to the increased voids in the sand.
1 Gaines, R. H., Am. Soc. for Test. Mat. Proc. Vol. II, p. 522, 1911. 2 Circular No. 45, pp. 35-36, 1913. 3 Willis, W. N., Cement Age, p. 172, March, 1907.

58

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

Particles of schist, gneiss; slate, and shale are common in the small stream sands of North Georgia. Due to the fissility of the schist~ gneiss and slate, and the softness of the shale, these substances should be guarded. against, and sand containing over 20 to 25 per cent of such material should be rejected even for small operations.
Pebbles of the coarse aggregate should be hard and resistant. The character and properties of weak pebbles in a gravel mass can readily be found by breaking some of the pebbles with a hammer. (See page 78). .Pebbles of sandstone and shale likely to, disintegrate to sand and clay during the mixing or settling of concrete, are undesirable in aggregate gravels. Schist pebbles are also weak, and gravel containing many of them should not be used. Some of the Georgia gravels contain pebbles of originally hard material that has rotted during long exposure and now has very little resistance.
Aiken1 suggests tha~ a concrete sand should contain 95 per cent silica at least. He found that of two sands having the same granulometri~ content, that with the higher silica content produced much stronger cement than that whose silica content was less. Sands with over 90 per cent silica tested' appro:xiill.ately 25 per cent stronger than s~nds whose silica was under 80 per cent.
Although the silica. factor is worthy of noting in a few sands which manifestly contain a large percentage of minerals other than quartz, it is hardiy worth while to include it in specifications; since ,the great majority of sands. rarely owe what di:fficiencies they possess to their lack of silica.
Calcareous sands .-Calcite or limestone grains do not appear to injure a concrete sand. Coral sand has been: successfully used where 2 no other kind was available. Limestone screenings are ferquently used as the fine aggregate in concrete, and tests have shown as much as 50 to 100 per cent strength increase over silica sands of the same granulometric composition. 3
Sea-sand.-Due to the coating of salt which the grains of seasand usually possess, it is not advisable to use it for mortar. The salt is deliquescent and a wall or structure made fromr such sand will

1 .Aiken, W. A., A sand specification and its specific application: Am. Soc. for Test. Mat. Proc.,

Vol. 1, pp. 341-348, 1910.



2 Webb, D. C., Tests of coral sand and rock with reference to their use in concrete: Eng. News,

Vol. 59, p. 524, 1907.



3 Taylor, F. W. and Thompson, S. E,, op. cit., p. 166.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

59

always be damp, unless the sand is exposed to the weather, away from salt water, for several weeks before using.
BRICK MORTAR
According to Condra 1 sand for brick mortar should pass a 10-mesh screen and 80 per cent of it should be coarser than an 80-mesh sieve. Mortar in brick and masonry work is subjected to compressive strains, particularly if used in tall buildings, and the grains should preferably be all as coarse as the thickness of the joint will permit, since mortars made from the coarsest sands are the strongest. Sand whose grains are mostly between 6 .and 20 mesh in size are probably the best for brick mortar. Good grading is secondary, as far as strength goes, but it reduces the amount of cement required.
Cleanness.-Small amounts of clay, if evenly distributed through the sand, are not harmful, but they are to be avoided if they occur coating the sand grains. Organic matter is to be guarded against, particularly if it coats the grains. Particles' of lignite and similar materials are undesirable, especially if they occur on the outer surface of the mortar in the wall, since they cause unsightly marks.
Color.-Color is usually not an important quality, except in fine work when a sand is desired to match the color of the brick as nearly as ppssible. Round-grained sands are, in practise, as effective as sharp-grained sands.
STONE MASONRY MORTAR
The characteristics of sand for stone masonry work are practically similar to those for brick work, except that in rough stone work the joints are thicker and a coarser sand may be used. In fine work, such as that connected with dimensioned blocks in buildings and monuments where the joints are made as thin as possible, a very finegrained sand is generally used, corresponding in color to that of the stone. Organic matter in fine stone work is to be avoided, particularly particles of lignite.
PLAST:ER
Plaster is a mixture of sand and some other material depending on the finish required on the surface to which it is applied. The plas-
/
1 Condra, G. E., The sand and gravel resources and industries of Nebraska: Nebraska Geol. Survey, Vol. 3, pt. 1, p. 150, 1908.

60

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

ter may be made from gypsum, (plaster of Paris), lime, or cement. The sand used in plaster should be clean, even-:-grained, and as coarse as the thickness of the plaster coat will permit.
Cleanness .-Clay disseminated throughout the sand if in small quantities is not particularly harmiul, but it should not coat the grains. Plaster used in lining reservoirs or in places requiring water tightness
may cantain as much as 10 pet_cent of clay; which is believed to make
. it mote impervious to water. 1
Organic IJJ,attet in all am6unts is to be avoided. Lignite or peat in the sab.d is very injurious, since it expands on drying, and if on
or near.the sutface, it will cause the plaster to pop and leave unsightly
pits. Georgia sands have very little lignite.
Grain size.-Sand for plaster may be as thick as the coatint?;, but usually it shoulg. pass a 10-iri.esh sieve. Much fine material is harmfUl, since it causes the plaster not to ''clinch" well behind the lathe, b~t to "fall through.'; 2 Factors such as grading and coarseness of grain, that are essential for strong mortar and concrete, are not so important in plaster sands1 since strength is not bf major importance.
Color .-Except in finishing coats color is not importa:q.t. Out sid.e coats usually require a light-colored sand and where extreme whiteness is desired a pure white sand is used.
The sand from the Crawford and Talbot county regions is excellently suited for plaster and mortar work, as are most of the South Georgia sands, unless the cl~y adnrixture becomes too great. The coarser rivet sands, particularly the creek sands of th~ Piedmont region, are sometimes too coarse for plaster and mortar work.

GLASS SAND
Sand composes from 52 to 70 per cent of the bulk of the mixture of raw, glass-making materials, and upon it depends the transparency, lustre, and hardness of the glass. A careful consideration of its qualities is, therefore, extremely impqrtant. Although purity and grading of the sand is essential, it is _only rarely that these qualities- are
1 Taylor, F. W., and Thompson, S. E., Concrete, plain and reiniorced, 2d ed., p. 343, 1911. 2 Dake; C. L., Sand and gravel resources of Missouri: Missouri Bur. Geol. and Mines; Vol. XV, 2d ser., p. 52, 1918.

SAND :AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

61

ideally developed in the natural product. It is interesting to note that generally throughout the world, the purest sands, from the standpoint of silica content, are found in the later geological formations. This is due to the longer period during which the quartz grains have been reworked by water many times and their impurities carried off. Both unconsolidated sand and ceme:q.ted sand, or sandstone, are used in glass manufacture. When sandstone is used crushing is necessary, and consequently a fairly friable stone which breaks down easily between the grains, rather than across the grains, is desirable.
Frequent attempts have been made to use ground quartz in the manufacture of glass, but they have invariably been failures1 due to the great cost of crushing the tough quartz to the requisite fineness.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
The chemical analysis of a glass sand should show the percentages of silica .(Si02), iron (Fe20s), alumina (Al20s), and the loss on ignition, (water and organic matter).
Silica.-Boswell 2 says the silica percentage should be preferably over 98 per cent, although for common bottle glass the percentage may drop as low as 95 per cent and in the best optical glass at least 99.5 per cent silica should be in the sand. Some Illinois and Pennsylvania sands attain a content of 99.9 per cent silica. In 600 analyses of 210 different glass sands cited by R. L. Frink, 2 the highest silica content was 99.71 and the lowest 88.51:, but it is said that the latter made better glass than the former, due to alumina in the sand.
Iron.-Iron, either in the form of the oxides, limonite or magnetite, or in other minerals, is particularly undesirable in glass sands, since it gives the glass a green or yellow color. Much more laxity has been allowed in the past few years in setting the iron content limits than formerly, since it has been found that for most purposes just as good glass can be made with a somewhat higher content. Although a glass sand, comparatively free from iron, is generally snow-white, the color of a sand alone is not an indication of its purity, since minute particles of magnetite or ilmentite may occur through the sand and be almost invisible, yet they will sometimes giVe the sand an uon content of as much as one per cent..
1 Mining & Scientific Press, Oct. 16, 1915, pp. 599-600. 2 Some fallacies and facts pert3.ining to ghss-making :A.m. Cenmic So~. Trans., Vol. II, pp. 296-317, 1909.

62

GEOLOGJC.AL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

For the best flint and optical glass Boswell1 believes the iron, as Fe203, should not exceed 0.05 per cent, but for window and plate glass, 0.1, 0.2, and even 0.3 per cent are permissible. Burchard 2 considers 0.2 per cent Fe20 a as the _limit for sand used in plate glass manufacture.
Buttram3 gives 0.3 to 0.4 per cent as petmissible percentages in plate glass when decolorizing agents are used and calls attention to some grades of English plate and. window glass containing as much as 1.92 per cmt iron. French mechanically pressed plate glass averages 0.14 pe:r cent iron. The same authority speaks of lead glass containing up to 1.93 per cent'iron and 5 per cent iron in some lime glass, with the better grades of bottle glass averaging 0.65 per cent.
The Pittsburgh Plate Glass Company4 considers the iron limit for plate gl~ss as 0.1 per cent, but prefers 0.05 per cent. For white bottles the iron content should not much exceed 0.5 per cent, but for other bottles the iron content may range frorri 0.5 per cent to 7 per cent.
.fllumina.-Alumina in glass for use in refractory work is desirable, since it makes a glass that stands melting without change5 Alumina in the form of clay is generally thought to be. highly undesirable, since it clouds the glass. Buttram 6 gives 0.1 per cent A120 3 as the 1hlli.t in sands for the manufacture of high grade flint ware, while up to 0.6 to 0.7 per cent alumina occurs in many sands for window and plate glass manufacture. In bottle glass 2.2 per cent is about the average.
Frink? believes that alumina is bad for optical glass, but that for most other glass, alumina is not harmful. He cites cases in which excellent glass was made from a sand containing 6 per cent and thinks even as much as 10 per cent not prohibitive. The alumina aids the annealing of the glass,. reduces the coefficient of expahsion, and prevents, to a large extent, the formati0n of cords or strings, making the .glass more homogeneous. On the other hand alumina decreases

1 Boswell, P. G. H., Memoir on British resources of sands suitable for glass-making with notes on certain crushed rocks and refractory materials, 1916.
2 Burchard, E. F., Glass sand, other sand, and gravel: U.. S. Geol. Survey Mineral Resources, 1911, pt. 2; p. 594, 1912.
3 Buttram, Frank, The glass sands of Oklahoma: Oklahoma Geol. Survey, Bull. 10, p. 11, 1913, 4 Dake, C. L., op. cit., p. 83. 5 Havestodt, Jena glass, translated by J.D. and A. Everett, Munn & Co. London, p. 21 6 Buttram; op. cit., p. 11. 7 Frink, R. L., Effects of alumina on glass: Am. Ceramic Soc. Trans., Vol. XV, p. 296, 1909.

SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

63

the fusibility of glass, and increases the viscosity where it occurs in amounts over 3 per cent. On the whole, then, for most grades of glass, alumina in small amounts may be considered beneficial rath~r than harmful.
.Magnesia.-Formerly 0.2 to 0.4 per cent magnesia was believed the limit in the batch, but Frink 1 mentions a plant producing good
.glass and using 6 to 9 per cent of magnesia i~ the limestone alone.
He believes, however, the total magnesia in sand and limestone should not exceed 6 per cent.
Analyses of high-grade glass sand

Constituents

1

2

3

4

5

6

Silica (Si02)--------------- 99.85 Alumina. (A120s) __________ .14

99.22 .32

99.89 99.34 99.88 .105 .297 .18

99.80 .13

Iron oxide (Fe20s)-------- .012 .14

.005 .043 .02

.006

Lime and magnesia________ trace (CaO & MgO)
TotaL __________ 100.002

.18 99.86

trace 100.00

.15 -------- trace
99.830 100.08 99.936

1.-0riskany sandstone, Mapleton, Pa. 2.-Burgen sandstone, Talbequah, Okla. 3.-0riskany sandstone, Berkely, W. Va. 4.-Dakota sandstone, Perry County, Mo. 5.-Best Lippe sand, Saxony. 6.-Fontainbleau sand, near Paris, France.
As a rule, sands whose chemical composition conforms to the silica, iron, and alumina limits, will not show more than a trace of lime, magnesia, titania, and the alkalies. A high alumina content frequently means a high titania content. The effect of titania, although injurious, is little known. Water, since it causes air bubbles. and organic matter due to its reducing qualities, are both objectionable where a high grade of glass is desired.
MINERAL COMPOSITION
In view of the fact that quartz is pure Si02, a sand that is almost entirely composed of quartz grains will most likely be free from
1 Frink, R.L., Some fallacies and facts pertaining to glass-making: Am. Ceramic Soc. Trans., Vol. XI, pp. 296-317, 1905.

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

impurities. The heavier and da:rker minerals such as magnetite, hornblende, leucoxene, titanite, and ilmenite, are undesirable, since such +ninerals often ao~tribute largely to the iron content of a sand. Their elimination, therefore, will greatly improve a sand. Examina-
tion of a sand mineralogically also serve~ as a ch<:)ck on its character
and on the deposit from which the sand came, since usually glass sands are uniform in their mineral content, and any change noted will indicate a change in source, or the introduction of some impurity in transit.
A mineral examination of sand is readily made with a pocket magnifying glass. If some of the sand is placed in a drop of clove oil under a microscope, the fine quartz, since its index of refraction is about the same as that of clove qil, will stand out in relief. Any coating, likely to account for a high iron content, can be observed in this way, since such coating cause otherwise pure quartz to be visible through the oil.

MECHANICAL COMPOSITION

Some glass makers who have studied their sand in great detail

put the question of grain size on a par with that of chemical composi-

tion. Grading is indeed a most important factor as numerous me-

chanica,! analyses have shown, yet few glass makers give it much at-

tention.

.

Boswell 1 thinks a batch should have at Jea,st 70 per cent of the sand of one grade, preferably from 7.4: to ~ mm; in diameter (30 to 55 mesh). Coarse grains are left unmelted as stones in the moltep. batch. Fine material such as silt and clay is particularly undesirable, sin.ce it clouds the glass and permits the inclusion 6f air which causes bubbles. Fine mate:Fial also melts first and sinking to the bottom causes layers of uneven density,. which later produces "wavy" or "cordy" glass when
blown.

Burchard 2 considers that the sand should be of medium fineness passing a 20 to 50-mesh screen, and that sand uniformly finer than one sixtieth of an inch is said to burn out. Boswell, however, says that sand of this latter size will not burn out. In general, finer sand is used by British glass-makers than by American glass-makers.

Kii.mmel and Gage3 say "If the majority of the grains have a dia-

1 Op. cit.

2 Op. cit., p. 595.



3 Kummel, H. B. and Gage, R. B., The glass sand industry of New Jersey: New Jersey Geol.

Sm:vey, Ann. Rept. for 1906, ptJ. 77-96, 1907.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSI1'S OF GEORGI.t1

PLATE IV

B. MINING SAND BY TRAVELLING DERRICK AND OL.AM-SHELL BUCKET, SMILEY SAND COMPANY, NEAR GAIDLARD, CRAWFORD COUNTY

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

65

meter less than 0.136 millimeter (passing a sieve having 120 meshes per linear inch) .the sand is said to 'burn out' in the batch and will not produce as much glass per unit as when composed of coarser grains. When the grains are uniformly larger than 0.64 millimeter (30 mesh) in diameter more time is required to fuse them than otherwise. This lowers the amount of sand each furnace can melt per day and increases the cost of the glass produced."
Similar limits for the size of the grain are given by Buttram. 1 The following mechanical analyses of typical glass sands from various sources are given: 2

.Mechanical analyses of ~lass sands

Operator

Locality

Color

Percentages passing
20 40 60 100
mesh mesh mesh mesh

Ottawa Silica Co.____ Ottawa, ill,_____ White_________ 99 85 18

3

E. J. Reynolds & Co._ Utica, ill,_______ Grayish yellow_ 99 45 11

3

Tav.ern Co.

Rock

Sand Klondike, Mo. __

Faint pinkish yellow ________

100

82

17

2

Pacific Glass Sand Co. Pacific, Mo. ____ Faint yellow___ 100 96 46

2

Direct from quarry

West Virginia Sand Berkeley Springs, Grayish White_ 100 98 25

1

Company

W.Va.

Finish product

~

SRA.PE OF GRAIN
A sharp gram, since its edges fuse more readily, is generally believed more desirable. Many plants in the Mississippi Valley region and .in other parts of the United States are producing all grades of glass, including the best flint ware, from sand of rounded grains. 3 Whatever effect the shape of the sand grains may have upon the melting of the batch, or upon the glass, it is probably too insignificant to be. worthy of consideration.
1 Op. cit., pp. 16-17. 2 Burchard, E. F., op. cit., p. 626. 3 Burchard, E ..F., op. cit., p. 595.

66

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

METHODS OF IMPROVEMENT

Very often, sand, apparently unsuited for the manufacture of glass, may be ridden of its impurities, by simple and comparatively inexpensive treatment. Sands used for making inferior grades of bottle glass can SOfl+etimes be improved in this way, so that they can be employed in the manufacture of better glass and so increase their value.
Washint.-As a means of repwving the clay, with its iron and alumina content, washing has been most frequently resorted to, and it is surprising how many apparently worthless sands can be made suitaple for glass by washing. The following table shows the result of washing a sand (No. 1) from near Blackshear, Georgia (see page 228), the average an~lysis (No. 2) of a large number of sands made by the Pittsburgh Plate Glass Company, 1 and the analysis of a slime .from a washed Ottawa sand.

Analyses of washed and unwq_shed tlass sands and slime

Constituents
..

Vnwashed

1

2

Wa. shed

-

1

2

.

Slii:ne

Silica (Si02 )--------------- 95.20

99.405

99.49

.782

87.21

Ferric oxide (Fe20a) ______-_ 2.11

.075

.31 .031

7.50

Alu:milla (AhOa) ____ ------- 1.16

.210

.05 .049

.. 52

Alkalies___________________ ---------- ---------- ----------- ---------- .20

Loss on ignition____________

.76

.170

.04 .100 ----------

Sometimes the improvement of the iron content by washing is too small to warrant the expense, in 'view of the corresponding loss in alumina, which, as previously pointed out, is a desirable constituent of the sand.
Washing not only removes a large part of the iron content, but it also removes, even from high-grade S?-nds, considerable finely divided
1 Dak:e, C. L., Sand and gravel resources of Missouri: Missouri Bur. Geol. and Mines, Vol. XV, p.42, 1918.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

67

silica, which may be injurious, as well as organic matter and other impurities whose detrimental action it is desirable to reduce. If the iron occurs in the sand as magnetite, ilmenite, or similar minerals,
which occur in small grains; or if the quartz grains are coated with a
persistent film of limonite, washing will not materially improve the sand.

Washing is extensively employed in Illinois, West Virginia, Penn-

sylvania, and to a lesser extent, in Indiana, Ohio, and Missouri. The

methods are briefly described under Preparation of Sand for the Market.

(Page 120.)



Maflnetic treatment.-~ince magnetite and ilmenite, which frequently are. a source of iron in glass sand, are magnetic, the possibility of removing these minerals by the use of electromagnets is suggested, as well as particles of iron abraded from the crushing machinery by the hard quartz grains. At least one 1 glass maker uses this method to improve his sand.

Screening.-Ki.i.mmel and Gage 2 have made experiments showing that minerals such as magnetite, titanite, ilmenite, and leucoxene, which are highly ferruginous, generally occur in sand as grains which pass an 80-mesh screen. Their suggestion, of screening out the grains passing 80 mesh, before marketing, is an excellent one, and should be investigated by producers wishing to increase the value of their sand, although it is likely . that with the present methods of screening, considerable difficulty will be encountered in doi:~1g this economically. Not all sands, however, owe their iron content to these fine-. grained black minerals. Many Georgia sands, as they occur in the pit are barred from use in glass-making by their limonite content, rather than their magnetite content.

1 Fettke. C, R., Glass manufacture and the glass sand industry of Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania Top. and Geol. Survey Comm., Rept., XII, p. 64, 1919.
2 Op. cit., p. 92.

68

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

Table showinf! improuenu,nt effected by sareeninf! out sand passinf! 80 mesh
-

Sample 669 A

Sample 672 A

-

.

Constituents "

Before screening

After screening

Before screening
--

After screening

Iron oxide (Fe20 3)- '-- -------- 0.0068

0.0022

0.0114

0.0029

Titania (Ti02)--------------Alumina (AhOg) _____________

0.117 0.276

0.024 0.085

0.234
-~
0.366

/
PREPARATION OF. GLASS SAND

0.0434
0.106
--

In West Virginia, Pennsylvania, Missouri, ~ansas, and Oklahoma, most of the glass sand produced is from .sandstone. This must, of course, be quarried or mined, crushed, screened, washed, drained; dried, and finally. screened into the desired sizes. If the sandstone is friable, hydraulic quarrying is generally employed but usually the use of some dynamite is necessary to loosen the harder ledges. Fairly pure sandstone is found in Walker County on Rocky Face this state and an attempt was made in 1915 to work it.
.Glass sand obtained from the Coastal Plain area of Georgia is unconsolidated and may be recovered by hand or power shovels, loaders, or centrifugal pumps~ In many places the overburden is so unsuited for-glass purposes that it is necessary to keep it and the glass sand apart, so that hand recovery has been found more satisfactory than mechanical means.
The various methqds of mining, . washing, screening and other treatments are described elsewhere in the report.

FOUNDRY SAND 1
The term foundry sand includes molding sand, which is generally fine-grained and contains a clay bond, and core sand, which is coarser-

1 For detail~ regarding molding sand see, Ries, Heinrich and Rosen, J. A., Michigan Geol. Survey, 9th Ann. Rept., pp. 33-85, 1908.
Kummel, H. B. arid Hamilton, S. H., New Jersey Geol. Survey, Ann. Rept. for 1904, pp. 189243, 1905.

SAND AND GRA"V'EL DEPOSITS

69

grained, and usually requires the addition of an artificial bond. Molding sand is used to construct the forms into which the molten metal is poured, and the core sand is used to fill up the hollow spaces in the cast. The demand for molding sand in Georgia is supplied almost entirely from within the state. Small amounts are also shipped to markets outside the state. Molding sand is mined near Almon in Monroe County along Yellow River; at Ri'nggold in Catoosa County along Chickamauga Creek; and just north of Dalton in Walker County. In 1919 the production of molding and core sand in Georgia was 64,491 tons, having a value of $33,883.
The many different kinds of metals cast and the differences in the manner of casting require molding sand with exacting and sometimes indefinable characteristics. Foundrymen are frequently prone to reject a local sand in favor of one that must be transported long distances, sometimes across the continent, or from Europe, but which . is believed to have qualities that can not be found elsewhere. In selecting a molding sand, unbiased judgment of it from its results will often save a foundryman consider'able money in freight charges: The determination of the value of a molding sand is a much harder matter than of sand used for other purposes. The practical foundryman usually squeezes some of the sand in his hand to test its power of retaining a form, or he will blow through it to determine its ve:qting power or permeability. Numerous laboratory tests have been devised, but it is not likely that any of them will give an exact idea of the performance of the sand in practice. They serve rather for comparative purposes, and to eliminate sands from further consider- ation. Actual testing with the molten. metal in the foundry is the only reliable way to find out what a sand can do. The sand as it comes from the pit is rarely exclusively used in foundries, but is added little by little to an old sand already in use, to replace the burnt-out grains that have been previously removed by screening. At. best, then, laboratory tests are really only comparative.
The essential qualities of molding sand are permeability, texture, cohesiveness, durability, and refractoriness.
Permeability.-The ready escape of gases from the molten metal through the sand mold is essential to proper founding. If the gases cannot escape, "scabs" or blow holes will be formed on the .surface of the casting. The facility with which the gases escape depends on the shape and size of the pore passages in the sand, and the extent

70

'GEOLOGICAL SVRVEY OF GEORGIA

to which these openings are maintained after the metal is poured. Porosity, therefore, is not -an indication of t:Q_e per'i:neability, or venting power, of a sand. A large porosity caused by numerous minute passages does not necessarily mean that the sand is permeable; on the other, hand, a small porosity, if induced by a small number Qf larger passages, will produce a highly permeable sand. Permeability is rather a function of the texture. Small castings do not require a sand -of as high a permeability as larger castings where more steam arid gases are produced. The amount of water added to temper the sand, or bring out its cohesiveness, is often too great, and the permeability of the sand is thereby decreased. Just enough water should be added to lubricate the grains. Methods of testing the permeability of a mnd are described on pages 24-25. . -
Texture.-Maxi:tnum permeability in a sand of given fineness is usually attained when the- component sand grains are rounded and of equal size. Upon the texture of the sand depends the smoothness of the face of the casting. For heavy iron castings a coarse sand .c11n be used~ but for stove-pl11te work, brass, and ~lumirium, the sand should be fine-gmined, and have _a high degree of permeability as well. The size of the gmin, therefore, l11rgely determines the grade of the sand. Th_e texture c11n- be fom:id either by the use of sieves, -or by elutriation and a~piration methods described on page 24.
. Cohesiveness.-Cohesive:q_ess, or bonding power of a moldingsand, refers to_ its property of ret11ining a sh11pe .when slightly moist. This quality is prohably the most important molding s11nd can possess. It is 'due, in p11rt, to clay in the sand, and also depends, somewhat, ou the fineness of the s11nd and the sh11rpness of the gr11ins. It is not - so much the. amount of clay in 11 s11nd th11t incre~ses its cohesiveness but rather the "fatness", or plastici~y, of the clay. The least possible amount of clay _in a molding sand is best. N eitP,er 11 chemical nor mechi:mic11l 11n11lysis serves as 11n index to the cohesiveness.
Richard Moldenke' considers a s11nd h11ving 20 per cent of plastic chy to be the most desimble. He gives the results of the rational an11lyses _of 11 number of molding sands as follows:

,-1 The molding sand problem is important: Iron Age, Vol. 94, pt. 1, pp. 544-546, 1914.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS
.l.lvera~e r_ational analyses of moldin~ sands

Constituents

Average per Maximum per Minimum per

cent

cent

cent

Quartz------------~------------ClaY---------------------~------
Feldspar ________________________

65.53 21.73 12.74

68.7 41.2 32.4

45.6 8.9 2.3

The general method of testing a sand for its cohesiveness used by the Bureau of Standards, is to mix 500 grams of the sand with a definite quantity of water and mold some of it in a snap flask on a piece of plate glass. The dimensions of the flask should be 1 x 12 inches and the sand should be tamped firmly in with the thumb and forefinger. The plate and bar of sand ar.e then weighed, and the bar is slowly pushed over the edge of the glass plate until the weight of the unsupported end is sufficient to cause the bar tG brea~. The fragment remaining on the plate is then measured, and the data used in the following formula:

Wt. of bar (in grams)

S =

x - - , in which

s

=transverse

4
strength.

45.6-

L = length of overhang in inches.

Average tests of samples are made with increasing quantities of water until thE) bar is deformed when pushed.
Durability.-After a molding sand has been used a number of times, depending on its quality, the continual action of great heat causes the clay to become de-hydrated and the grains to fuse slightly causing two or more to stick together and form lumps. The cohesiveness is reduced and the sand is said to be "dead", or burnt out. To improve it, the burnt out or coarse particles are screened out, and new, or "green". sand, is added. The only way to judge the dura--bility of a sand is to actually use it in commercial foundries until it is burnt out.
Fusibility.-The fusibility or refractoriness of a sand is the measure of the amount of heat a sand will stand without fusing. If the

't2

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEOJWI.A.

grains formiilg the inner surface of the mold fuse even slightly, escape of the gases will be difficult or impossible, and scabs will form on the casting. Sands used in iron and brass work are not so likely to fuse, since the heat is not so great and a silica percentage of 70 or 80 is sufficient except in very large castings. For steel castings sands should contain at least 96 per cent of silica, and a little clay. The fluxing materials in molding sands are lirrie, magnesia, iron oxide and the alkalies. The finer-grained portion of the .sand is likely to be richest
in fluxes. To test for fusibility a cone 2Yz inches high by i inches
-wide at the base is made of the moistened sand. The sand is subjected to great :\leat with standard seger cones and the melting temperature determined.
Substitutes for moldinfi ~and.-Satisfactory molding sand has been prepared 1 by crushing a friable sandstone; decayed granite; or shattered sandstone, whose fractures are filled with a plastic clay. Earthy loams are also washed to re~ove part of the_ clay and used for _molding. Clay has also been added to pure quartz sand to produce molding .sands. The adoption of such methods. will assure an adequate supply of sand, even thougli the natural deposits should be exhausted, and also a uniform sand for each requirement.

CORE SANDS
To form molds for the cores or ~nterior spaces of castings, cqre sands are used. To such sand, artificial binders are added, which will be destroyed by the heat of the metal and cause the sand mold' to fall apart and be easily removed when the castjng has cooled. Core - sands are, therefore, generally a fine-to mediuin-gniined sand of un:iform size, thus insuring the maximum venting. Unless the surface of the mold is protected with a coating of silica wash, th,e sand should be :tine enough to prevent penetration of the molten metal. The following mechanical analysis is of a sand from near Howard, which IS used largely in core work.
1 Cole, L. H., Summary rept. for 1_916, Canada Dept. Mines, Mines Branch, 1917.

SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

73

Mechanical analysis of a washed core sand, Howard, Geor~ia,
(T-88)

Percentages retained on following screen sizes

'
8 10 14 20 28 35 48 65 100 150 200 200

- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

.1

.5 1.7 5.0 12.3 21.0 20.8 19.9 1S.O 4.2 1.3 .2

'

In large iron cores a coarse sand with a clay bond can be used; but in smaller castings an artificial bond such as molasses-water, flour, starch, or dextrine, is added. Core sands for steel castings should not contain more than 3 per cent of material other than silica (fluxes), so that the heat of the molten steel will not fuse the sand.
Large quantities of core sand a::re shipped from the Talbot and Crawford County pits to Atlanta and Birming~am foundries.

SAND LIME BRICK

Although sand-lime brick as known to-day, has been developed

within the last 25 years, they were made by the. ancient Egyptians

and Babylonians. Examples of their product have often been found,

and they appear to have well withstood the ravages of time.

In brief the manufacture of sand-lime brick consists in mixing

sand and lime moist; molding under pressure; and hardening by steam,

forming a chemical bond of calcium silicate.

..

The industry was first developed in Germany and a't present hun-

dreds of plants exist in England and France. In the United States

the growth has been more recent, dating from 1902, although today

there are a great many plants manufacturing sand-lime products,

particularly in Michigan, New York, California, and Indiana. The Tift
Silica Brick Company, located about lYz miles from Albany, east

of Flint River, is the only sand-lime brick plant operating in Georgia.

Sand requirements.-A comparatively pure quartz sand or granular silicate (quartzite or sandstone), with a quartz sand most in favor, all of whose grains pass 20 mesh, is desirable. The sand should have at least 80 per cent of silica, consequently the ordinary silicate impurities in sand are not a detriment. More than 4 to 5 per cent of clay will cause the product to disintegrate easily under the influence of the weather; the sand should preferably have not

74

_GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

more than 2 per cent- of clay. 1 Peppel2 made a number of experiments to determine the effect of clay on the sand and concluded that clay up to 10 or 12 per cent was not injurious and that possibly as
small an amount as 2Yz per cent might be desirable.. Feldspar which
usually occurs in sand, will decrease the crushing strength and increase the tensile str~ngth, if more than 10 per cent is present.
The grains of sand should be preferably of various siz_es. If the sand is all fine, the. amgunt of soluble silica is increased. A large amount of fines will prevent air and gases from escaping when the brick is put into the steam cylinder, and cracks will result; but some fines are necessary to fill- in the spaces abbut the coarse grains, and to aid in the formation of a strong bond. As a rule3 the more fine sa:tJ-d (80 to 150 mesh) in a brick the less the crushing strength, but the -greater the tensile strength. The best sand for sand-lime brick should have most of its grains between 60 and 1:00 mesh. Peppel4 believes with a sand whose grains are all retained on a 40-mesh sieve, one fourth should be pulverized so that one eighth -of the total sand will pass 150 rhesh. The grains should be sharp and f:ree from alkalies. 5
- The lime.-The lime tests 6 have shown -a high calcium lime to be more desirable than a magnesian ljme since calcium silicate is the
.stronger bond.- UsuaUy from 5 to' TO per cent of lim~ is used, de-_
pending upon the quantity of silica in the.., sand. Peppel 7 found t~at aliliough the str~ngth of the brick increased with the addition of lime, the strength gained by its. addition above 10 per cent did not warrant the increased expense. Parr and Ernest8 found that too much lime weakens the bond and. increases the absorption.

METHODS OF MANUFACTURE
There have been developed a number of ways of treating the sand and lime and making it up into the resultant brick. The general principles are equally applicable to all of these methods and these will be considered here.

1 P.arr, S. W. and-Earnest, T. R., A study of sand-lime brick, Illinois Geol. Survw, Bull. 18, 1912,

2 Peppel, S. V., The manufacture of artificial sandstone or sand-lime brick: Ohio Giiol. Sur.

Bull. 15, 4th ser., 1906.

-

3. Parr, S. W. and Earnest, T. R., op. cit.

4 Peppel, S. V., Qp. cit.

5 Coons, A. T., U.S. Geol. Survey Mineral Resources, 1900, p. 1154, 1905:

6 Peppel, S. V., op. cit.

.



7 Peppel, S. V., o_p. cit. p. 36.

8 Parr, S. W., and Earnest, T. R., op. cit.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

75

The sand is first screened to remove twigs, leaves, and pebbles, and then it should be thoroughly dried. The value of drying is sometimes underestimated. It aids in grinding the sand and .permits of a more accurate proportioning of the water .added to .the mixture. Part of the sand, ranging from one-fourth to two-thirds, is put through a large tube mill, with silex lining, and using silex or chert pebbles, similar to those in use in a cement plant. Here the grains larger than 20 mesh are reduced; the dry granulated lime and the coloring matter, if any, is added. The rest of the sand is then added and the whole mixture passes dry to a pug mill, where the necessary water for slacking is added. This method is known as the quick-lime process and is the most general and desirable method in use. From here the wet mixture passes to one compartment of a large cylindrical silo where it remains for 24 hours, permitting each sand grain to become coated with lime. The two compartments of the silo permit use from it on alternate days.
From the silo, the m?-terial which is now in a moist, warm condition, passes to circular press.es after the addition of a small amount of water where about 100 tons pressure is applied to each bric~. The molded bricks are then placed in long steel t"tl:bes, called hardening cylinders, ranging from 50 to 80 feet in length, where steam pressure of fmm 110 to 175 pounds is later turned on and maintained for 8 to 14 hours. The usual practice is to maintain the 120-pound pressure for 8 hours. Mter removal from the cylinder, the bricks are ready for use, but they gain in strength for 8 to 10 months after pressing.
The natural color is pale ivory often tinted with pink or yellow. By the addition of mineral pigments or lamp black, almost any desired color may be produced.
Several variations of the method of mixing the sand and lime are in use and are described by Peppel. 1 In the wet slacking process, the lime is slacked to a fat putty and then mix~d with the sand and water in a wet pan or pug mill. The dry slacking process differs little from the wet slacking method except that the lime is slacked with just enough water so that the heat generated will dry the finished hydrate. In the acid slacking method .5 to 10 per cent of a hydrochloric acid solution is added to the lime after slacking has begun. The acid is said to hasten slacking and shorten the time for hardening in the steam cylinder.

1 Peppel, S. V., op. cit., pp. 19-22.

76

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

Character of briak-.-The sand-lime brick .makes a beauti"ul, neat, and exceedingly durable building material, either for residences, large office buildings, or factories, and its strength compares very favorably with that ofJclay bricks.

ROAD GRAVEL

In 1914, 42 per cent of the surfaced roads of the United States

were constructed of gravel. A gravel road is similar in many ways

to a sand-clay road except that a coarser sand or gravel is used. The

requirements of an effective binder; good grading; and contact of

.the coarser particles,- thus insuring a minimum of the less resistant

binder, apply, with equal-force to the gravel as to the sand in sand-

clay roads. (Page 81).



Although there are few gravel roads in Georgia as a whole, due to the frequent remoteness of the deposits, excellent examples may be seen in the vicinities of Savannah, Augusta, Macon, and Columbus.- On account of the freight costs gravel can rarely be hauled more than 100 miles by rail. Although some gravel is brought 'to Georgi!'! points from the Montgomery district in Alabama; and considerable South Carolina gravel is used .in Chatham and a few adjoining counties, most of the road gravel used in the state must be obtained locally. Very often such deposits present little choice. Nevertheless, it is quite necessary that those in charge of road construction be familiar with- the proper qua'ities of good Georgia road gravel- and that they -select the best possible gravel where a choice
is afford'ed.-
The three requisite~ of a good road gravel are:

1. . An effective binder 2. Resistant pebbles or rock fragrp.ents 3. Well graded pebbles

The Binder.-The following extract from Bulletin 2 of the Micbigan State Highway_ Department is qf value in emphasizi~g the de-
sirable features of the binder: ~
"Authorities have differed as to the requirements of suitable road gravels, most of them, in my opinion, placing too much stress on the immediate packing qualities. Indeed, the average township commissioner and farmers generally have become so imbued with the idea that it is necessary to use a gravel that will pack quickly that they have almost lost sight of the fact that the only thing which makes a gravel road better than an earth roa,d is the pebbles, real stones, that it contains and is dependent upon tu bear up traffic and resist wear.

SANp AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

77

"The most common material sought after for the binder :in gravel roads is clay. But, considering all kinds of weather, it is probably the poorest cementing material we have. If present, much in excess of 10 per cent of the mass, it will make mud whenever there is a prolonged wet spell, and especially when frost is coming out of the ground in the spring. Ideal clay gravels contain only enough clay to coat the pebbles, with no free lumps. Such gravels are excellent for the first layer on sandy soils, but sand gravels are much better for the first layer on clay and loamy soils.

"Gravels that come from the pit with the pebbles cemented together, even though

they contain no clay, will recement in the road and become harder than they we;re in

the pit. Tests of specimens of this kind always show that there is much lime present

and usually some iron, both of which are excellent cementing materials. Briefly, the

experience of the Rtate highway department warrants the statement that there are

few, if any, bap.k gravels in Michigan that do not contain enough limestone and other

soft pebbles, which grind up under traffic, to furnish sufficient binder to cause them

to consolidate in a few months' time, if separated from the surplus sand and earth, and

properly treated after applying to the road.



"In accordance with these suggestions, gravels are considered valuable for road purposes in the following order:

(1) Almost in direct proportion to the percentage of pebbles constituting the mass.
(2) In direct proportion to the value as road metal of the rock fragments constituting the pebbles.
(~) fn direct proportion to the value as a cementing material under all conditions of weather, of the finer particles of earthy matter constituting the filler or binder."

Due to the low cementing value of so many gravels used in road building, the question of binder is considered by some of more importance even than that of the durability of the pebbles. Observation of the natural bank or face of a gravel depo~it is an excellent guide to the cementing qualities of the binder. Where the face stands vertical, requiring loosening by shovels, with large lumps of cemented pebbles at the base, the binder is probably very effective. Gravel from the vicinity of Augusta, Georgia, and across Savannah River in South Carolina, is noted for its high cementing qualities, which are due to a kaolinite binder making up 10 per cent of the material. Where iron oxide or clay does not occur with the gravel, and where limestone pebbles are also lacking, the most commonly added binding material is clay. Clay for such use should possess the same characteristics as the clay similarly used in sand-clay roads. (See page 81).
As is the case with sand-clay roaas, gravel roads too often prove defective because of too much binder rather than too little. It is generally believed the best results can be obtained from a gravel having from 8 to 15 per cent clay. Heavy auto traffic is particularly hard on gravel roads containing an excess of clay, hence in some localities less than the required amount of clay is used and the attrition of the pebbles by traffic is depended upon to supply the additional fine material or binder. (See pages 33-34.)

78

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

'.

J. R. Gregory 1 recommends the use of washed gravel SCJ:'eened
to p~ss a 2-~nch ring, the pebbles larger than 2 inches to be crushed and ..;returned with the dust to the main body of gravel. Sar_1d, if

needed, should be added so that it makes up at least 35 per cent of

the total volume, but not DJ.Ore than 40 per cent.

The relative proportions of pebbles and clay canbe easily deter-

mined by shaking a known volume or weight of the gravel in a glass }ar and allowing it to settle. 'The clay and finer materials will form

a layer above the pebbles, which c&n be measured. and its percentage

of the whole readily determined.

Sfren~th of the pebbles.-.Since a road gravel should be largely

composed of pebbles with a minimum amount of binder, it is essential

that these pebbles be sufficiently durable to _resist the wear of tra:(Eic.

The pebbles composing Georgia gravels are mostly of vein quartz

and, ill- a few instances, fragments of tough crystalline rock, and con-

sequently capable of great wear: In sonie places, pebbles that .have

been exposed to weathering or erosive influences for long periods,

become decayed and show a tendency to easily break up into smaller

fragments and even into dust. Such a constituted gravel would of

course be of little value in road building, since an excessive amount
to of qinding_ materi~l would soon be prodt.lCed. by th~ attrition of the
pebbles 'under" or(}inary traffic, causing the road become muddy and, "rutty" after ~rains and dusty in dry weather

Where a choice of gravel exists, a casual inspection of the pebbles yvill often aid in s~lecting the .most durable materiaL By breaking the. pebbles with a hammer,. an approximate idea of their toughness

may be had. The relative proportion of durable and decayed pebbles

can then be found by a simple measuring or weighing device. In

examining two gravels, pebbles of the same size from each gravel

should be compared, since the larger pebbles sometimes differ radi-

cally in composition from the smaller ones.

In the counties of the Georgia Paleozoic area, (northwest Geor-

gia), limestone, chert, and shale frequently make up a large percen- tage of the stream gravels. Although limestone pebbles are less re-

sistant than quartz, they possess a high cementing value since the

limestone dust worn from them is an effective binder. Shale and

sandstone pebbles, on the other- hand, readily break up into clay and

sand respectively, and a preponderance of either will soon cause a

1 Excerpt supplied by Am. Assoc. of Sand & Oravel Producers, Chicago, Ill.-

/

SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

79

road to go to pieces. Chert is a brittle material, and its dust makes a fair binder. Small quantities of decayed chert are not generally harmful.
The shape of the constituent pebbles has a less important bear ing on the value of a gravel. Sharp, angular, fragments bind much more readily than rounded pebbles and form a less mobile gravel. The movements of angular pebbles in the road bed are restricted due to their more frequent contact with each other and the stability of the road under pressure is greatly increased. Chemical reactions between the pebbles are facilitated when the number of points of contact and the pressure are increased. It is well known that solution is produced when moist particles are in contact under pressure. The dissolved material is later deposited where less pressure exists. Stream gravels usually contain rounded pebbles and bank gravels contain a larger percentage of angular, or sub-angular, fragments.
Gradin~ of the pebbles.-For. the same reason that the sand to be used in sand-clay roads should be well-graded, the pebbles making up a road gravel should contain as nearly as possible equivalent amounts of pebbles of each size. The spaces in such a gravel will be :filled by smaller pebbles, and all the pebbles will be in contact at the maximum number of points, and a minimum of the less resistant binder will be required. But grading is not essential in road gravel, since the constant attrition of traffic will usually make up for the voids deficiency in a short time. In general, the pebbles of a gravel are naturally well-graded. Almost Universally, however, pebbles of too large a size occur, and these must be screened out. Such pebbles tend to work to the surface causing rough places, or become loosened, and cause holes around which the road surface may break up.
In the field a ready. determination of the ratio of pebbles to finer material may be made by passing a sample of the gravel through a
7.4:-inch screen and then finding the proportions of clay to the entire
sample and to the fine material by washing out the clay (.see page 9 for field test for clay percentage). Such an analysis will show what proportions of coarse or fine material must be added or removed in order that the grading will conform to the limits most desirable for road gravels. Where the traffic is not exceptionally heavy a large amount of sand in the gravel is not especially harmful provided there is sufficient binder present. Such gravels will produce a road tending to resemble the sand-clay type.

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

Baker 1 made a meyhanical analysis of 12 good road-making gravels from various parts of theUnited States, and found that the sand (unsuspended material under }4: inch) ranged from 23 to 73 per gent of the total, and that in 9 of the 12 gravels the sand exceeded 57 per cent. Moorefield 2 gives the following limits of fine and coarse material inla roa::l gravel:

"1. Material retained on a. ~-inch sieve, 55 to 75 per cent.

2. Material retained on a %-inch sieve, not less than 15 per cent.

3: Material (clay) passing a 200-mesh sieve fur the surface course, 8 to 15 per

, cent.

-

.

4; Material (clay) passing a 200-mesh sieve for the foundation course, 10 to 15

per cent.

,

The sand content should be at least twice as great as the clay content, and the

sand and clay, when thoroughly mixed, should be sufficient to -fill the vo!ds between

the larger gravel particles. The percentages given above usually will conform to this

requirement... The maximum limiting size for the pebbles ordinarily should be from

2~ to 3 inches, because where larger pebbles are permitted in the surface the rate of

wear is made uilequaf, and it is more difficult to maintain a satisfactory bond between

the different partides."

' The following .limits are recommended by tlie United States Office

of Public Roads fen; gravel to be used in the construction of gravel

roads:

BASE COURSE

"All to pass a 2~-inch screen and to have at least 55 and not more than 75 per

cent retained on a ~- inch screen. .

. - ...

'"At least 25 and not more than 75 per cent of the total coarse aggregate (material

over ~ inch in size) to be retained ori a 1 inch screen.

"At least 65 and not more than 85 per cent of the total fine aggTegate (material

under ~ inch in size) to be retained on a 200 mesh sieve."

The cementing value of the materia,l under ~ inch to be at least 50.

TOP COURSE

"All to pass a 1~ inch screen and to have at least 55 and not more.than 75 per

cent retliiried on a ~ inch screen.

'

"At least 25 and not more than 75 per cent of the total coarse aggregate to be re-

taied on a % inch screen.

1'At least 65 per cent and not more than 85 per cent of the total fine aggregate to

oe retained on a 200-mesh sieve."

The cementing value ()f/ the material under ~-inch to be at least 50..

In the construction of Michigan state roads at least 60 per cent
of the pebbles must be larger than t inch, while the largest pebbles
must pass a 2Yz-inch ring. Such pebbles can be used only in the bottom course. Clay must not exceed 10 per cent of the whole. In New .Jersey, gravel with over 5 per cent retained on a 1Yz-inch ring and over 35 per cent retained on a. Yz-inch ring is rejected.

'I Baker, I. 0., Roads and pavements, p. 156-157.

.

2 Moorefield, C. H., Earth, sand-clay, and gravel roads: U.S. Dept. Agr;, Bull. 463, p. 52, 1917.

:SAND AND GRAVEL DE POSITS OF GEORGIA

PLATE V

A. I 'TAKE AND PIPE-LINE. GEORGIA SAND & GRAVEL COMPAKY. AUGUSTA. RICHMOND COUNTY

B. MINING SAND HYDRAULICLY, ATLANTA SAND & SUPPLY COMPANY, 1 MILE SOUTH C'-F GAILLARD, CRAWFORD COUNTY

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

81

On the other hand, Illinois permits gravel containing uniformly graded pebbles up to those just passing a 3J,1-inch ring. Not more tpan 5 per cent loam should be present but it must contain l.t'i to 20 per cent clay by dry measure.
In roads made up of one course only the coarser pebbles should be placed at the bottom of the gravel. Even in two:..course construction work, unless the bottom course is to exceed four inches it is unwise to use stones larger than 3 inches.
It is thus seen that the range of opinion regarding the best kind of road gravel is wide. The most essential quality of a good gravel is a binder of high cementing value. Clay in a gravel does not indicate that the gravel will make a hard road surface. Even though a gravel should be entirely lacking in clay or fine sand, the dust abraded by traffic from certain types of component pebbles, particularly limestone, will soon render the gravel surface hard and durable.

SAND-CLAY ROADS
Perhaps the most common use of sand throughout the Georgia Coastal Plain is in the construction of sand-clay, roads. The stability and life of such roads depend largely on the character and proportion of the sand used in the sand-clay mixture. In some counties these roads are hard and durable in all kinds of weather, comparing favorably with gravel roads, but elsewhere the so-called sand-clay roads are little better than dirt or clay roads.
Since the materials for the construction of excellent, durable, sand-clay roads are almost universally found in the southern and. eastern parts of the state at least, there appears to be little excuse for poor roads in this section. In the Piedmont portion, careful examination on hill slopes will generally reveal sand clay mixtures which
can be made into excellent roads, if from 10 to 40 per cent of stream
sand is added.
The construction materials generally occur in three conditions: (1) A natural mixture of sand and clay, often suitable without alteration for use on roads, or less easily rendered so by the addition of small amounts of clay or sand, (2) A naturally sandy soil with clay deposits beneath or in certain parts of the region, (3) A natural clayey soil with sand deposits composing the smal1er proportion of the materials.

82

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

THE SAND AND THE CLAY

_ Sand comprises from 70 to 90 per cent of the mixture. Normally there should be just enough clay to fill the voids between the sand when the grains are aH in contact. If there is an excess of clay, then the sand grains are free to move about in the mass and no grain is able to resist pressure more than what might be expected from a mass composed entirely of clay. With too little clay, on the ot}fer hand, the mixture, lacking binding power, will quickly disintegrate.
-- The proportion between the sand and clay is also ~ffected by the fineness of the sand, since fine sand usually contai:Q.s more voids, and hence requires more clay to fill them. . The most desirable sand, then, should be coarse-grained, and the grains should be angular. A plastic or "sticky" cl~y will require more sand than one not so plastic. Clay may be tested 1 by wetting the thumb. and placing it against the cl?>Y If it sticks to- the thumb, then the clay is good for sandclay roads. A plastic clay is usually much more desirable than a porous clay. However, some days have a high shrinkage, so that when they dry out they contract. When water is added the clay expands, if clay of this type is used_ in a sanp.-clay road, the grains of sand are forced apart and the s_urface of the road weakened. .In a
dey climate the proportion of clay should be larger.than in wet climates.

The bst way to determine the value of a mixture, either :natural or artificially blended, is to make a short strip of test road and watch the effec~ of weather. and traffic upon it. Since local conditions may require a proportioning peculiar to a particular region, an examination of the .material composing a road which is giving staisfacti.on in a . loca-lity will be valuable as a standard with which to compare. avail-

able sand-clay mixtures in that locality. Material so taken from -the wearing surface of the road should be tested for the proportion
of sand and clay after the manner described on page 9. The grad-

ing of the sand should also be determined by screens.

A simple field test of the available materials may be made as fol-

lows:2 .



"Take samples of each of the available sands and clays and make a set of small uniform-sized ~pheres. Use varying proportions of the sands and clays and take care that the material for each f3phere is well worked. Place these spheres in the sun and let them bake hard. Note which ones show the most and largest cracks. These represent the mixes which would probably go to pieces in dry WElather. Now place the ipheres in a shallow pan of water; note wliich ones disintegrate first. These represent

1 Pratt, J. H., Good Roads Inst., North Carolina Geol. and Econ. Survey, p. 27, 1917. 2 Coghlan, B. K., Sand-clay roads: Texas Eng. Exper. Sta., Bull. 19, p. 8.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

83

the mixes which would not stand up under traffic during wet weather. Some samp:es will usually be found which neither check badly in drying nor disintegrate quickly when wet. These should be used as a guide for the mixing of the material in the construction of the road.
Since the amount of clay required to mix with the sand depends on the voids percentage of the sand a determination of this will show the approximate amount needed. The voids percentages have been found for many Georgia sands and these are listed herein. A simple method of finding the amourtt of clay needed to fill the voids in a unit quantity of a given sand is described by W. L. Spoon: 1
"Two ordinary glass tumblers of the same size are filled to the brim, one with the dry sand, to be tested, and the other with water. The water is then poured carefully from one glass into the sand in the other until it reaches the point of overflowing. The volume of the water taken from the glass which was originally full of water can be taken as an approximate measure of the voids in the unit volume of sand contained in the tumbler. A simple calculation will reduce this to percen~age volume."
The U. S, Bureau of Public Roads recommends the following specifications for a natural top-soil or sand-clay mixtu:re:
"To have not more than 10 per cent retained on aU-inch screen, at least 10 and not more than 50 per cent on a 20-mesh siev~, at least 30 and not more than 80 per cent on a 50-mesh sieve, at least 45 and not more than 85 per cent on a 80-mesh sieve, and at least 60 and not more than 90 per cent on a 200-mesh sieve.
"To have a cementing value of at least 35."
In localities where a natural sand-clay mixture occurs, which more or less closely approaches the ideal composition for sand-clay roads, a simple treatment2 may be used to determine it qualities Take a known amount, about two pounds, of the natural soil, and after grinding up the coarse particles in a mortar, place it in a shallow pan and thoroughly wash out all of the clay. Then dry and weigh the sand remaining and compute the amount of clay contained in the natural sample. The next step is to determine the percentage of voids in the washed sand by the method described on page 83. From the percentage of voids we can easily find the amount of clay actually
needed to fi1l the voids in the sand. This amount is then subtracted
from the total amount of clay in the sample leaving usually an excess of clay. The amount of sand needed to utilize the excess clay can easily be determined, since the ideal proportion of sand to clay has already been found. From this we can easily find the percentage of sand to be added to the natural sand-clay mixture to obtain one of ideal proportions.

1 Sand-clay and burnt-clay roads: U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmer's Bull. 311, p. 10. 2 Smith J. E., Economic paper No. 39, North Carolina Geol. and Econ. Survey, p. 43, 1914.

84

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

- Such tests are by no means to. be ever considered final, but should serve as a basis upon which to apportion mixtures at first; later observations on the road as its construction proceeds will indicate what mixtures are best.

.Meahaniaal analysis .-Coarse sand is generally considered most
desirable for s'and-clay roads, since it packs when wet. With fine
sands 'there is little packing,. the materi~l assuming_ the nature. of a quicksand. 1 A sand containing uniform amounts .of each sized grain is best, si~1ce it insures the complete filling of the spaces between the coarser grains by grains of smaller size and guarantees the maximum
stability of the mixture. --Such grading requires the least clay or
binder, which is desirable, since the clay is least able.. to resist wear:.
Small pebbles in the sand are also desirable provided there is regular
grading of the fine material.

The U. S. Bureau of Public Roads suggests the following specifica-

tions of sand for use in sand-clay roads:

~

.

"All to pass a ~-inch sieve, to have at least 5 and not mote than 50 per centretained on a 20-mesh sieve, and at least 50 per cent retained on a 50-:r,nesh sieve."
'
Moorefield 2 recommends the following simple test of the grading

of a sand for sand-clay roads:

"Place a sample of the sand in a vessel containing water and agitate the water \mtil the sand is thoroughly in suspension. Then after the sand has been allowed a few moments to settle, pour off the water slbwly. If of g()Od quality the sana will not be carried out with the water, but will remain in the vessel until practically all the water has been drained off. Sand containing a large percentage of mica or other light mineral matter will not meet this test and is not generally suitable for use."

Medium- to coarse-grained, angular. sand, then, should con-

stitute the great bulk of the material used in building sand-clay roads.

The amount of clay to be added depends on the percentage of voids

in the sand and on the plasticity of the clay. The best way to deter-

mine the mixture suitable for any locality is to actually test it out

in a road, after first making a. few preliminary tests.

ASPHALT PAVEMENTS

Sand makes up from 70 to 80 per .cent of the wearing surface of asphalt pavements. It is mixed with pulverized limestone and heated, and then thoroughly mixed with asphaltic cement which has been separately heated. This mixture is spread upon the binder course which in turn lies upon a concrete foundation.

1 Cogh'an. B. K., Sand-clay roads: Texas Eng. Exper. Sta., Bull. 19, 0. 6,1917. 2 Moorefield, C. H., Ear:th, sand-clay and gravel roads: U.S. Dept. Agr., Bull. 463, p. 40, 1917

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

85

Baker 1 sums up the requirements of a good asphalt paving sand as follows:
"The sand should be clean, sharp, and composed of grains not easily crushed, and have as small a proportion of voids as possible."
If the sand grains are coated with clay or other material, the asphalt can not properly adhere, although clay in separate particles is not particularly harmful. Sharp grains probably allow a better adhesion of the asphalt and prevent less rolling of the pavement under traffic.
The U. S. Bureau of Public Roads reccomends sand of the follow- ing specifications for use in sheet asphalt:

"All to pass a 10-mesh sieve, to have at least 20 and not more than 30 per centretained on a 40-mesh sieve, at least 40 and not more than 50 per centpassing the40 and retained on the SO-mesh sieve, and to have at least 25 and not more than 35 per cent passing the 80 and retained on the 200-mesh sieve."

Uniformily graded sands since they usually possess fewer voids are desirable. AR the asphaltic cement is something of a liquid with capillary action between the sand grains, the smaller the individual pore space the stronger the attraction between the asphalt and the sand. 2 This implies the use of a fine sand. Baker, 3 in speaking of the sand for asphalt paving, says:

" . . . . Fine sand is usually less sharp than coarse and the finer the sand the greater the surface to be coated and hence the greater the ainount of asphalt required. The asphalt is not only more expensive than the sand, but it is less able to resist displacement by pressure; and consequently the greater the amount of asphalt present, the more expensive the pavement and the more liable it is to flow under traffic. On the other hand, the smaller the voids, the greater the binding action of the cement; and also the finer the sand, the smaller the voids (interstices), although the per cent of voids may be greater than with sand having grains. of graded sizes."

As pulverized limestone is added to fill the voids between the coarse and fine sand grains and to make the individual interstices smaller, so that the capillary action may be increased, it would seem that a large amount of fines in sand for asphalt paving would, therefore, be a very desirable feature. Sand with a large voids percentage allows the asphalt to work down through it in hot weather, and the surface of the pavement is then likely to crack in cold weather. 4

1 Baker, I. 0., Roads and pavements, p. 410, 1913.

2 Op. Cit., p. 411.

3 Op. Cit., p. 411.



4 Op. cit., p. 414.

86

GEOLOGICAL SVRITEY OF GEORGIA

Of two sands used in paving Washington streets, that containing 42 per cent of its weight under 60 mesh proved more satisfactory than a!J.other containing only 22 per cent passing 60 mesh. 1
Richard~on in speaking of the requirements of asphalt paving sand says, in part: 2

"A clean sand is in any case probably more desirable, although satisfactory re-

sults have been obtained with many loamy ones . . . . . Organic matter in the shape

of vegeta,ble debris is sometimes found in sand. It is usually removed in screening.

.. . . . . If this is not possible and the amount remaining is excessive the sand should

be rejected.

'

"T-he shape of the grains 3 of a sand has a marked infl.uence,when combined with their size and grading, upon the character of the asphalt surface mixture made with them. . . . . Mixtures made with round-grained sands are of cours;l less stable than those made with sharp sand, since round particles move much more readily over one another- than sharp ones; but, on the other hand, with plenty of filler this tendency can be neutralized, while the round-grained san,ds can be packed much more readily and closely and with smaller v6ids and_the resulting surface can; in this way, be made denser.
"Surface of Sand 4-The different kinds of surfaces behave quite differently toward asphalt cement. The porous limestone surfaces absorb it, and it, of course, adhere very firmly. To the quartz surfaces the bitumen adheres, in most cases, well.
"The size of sand grains5 in an asphalt pavement, that is. to say, their average diameter, is of the greatest. importance. . . . In a standard sheet asphalt surface it has been found generally preferable to have no sand grains larger than 2 millimeters in diameter, passing a 10-mesh sieve m:ade of wire 0.027 inches in diameter, or smaller than 0.1'7 millimeter, which pass a sieve of 100 meshes to the inch, made of wire 0.0043 inches in diameter."

Richardson probably believes -fine sands are rrmch more desirable .since he~ays6 in'speaking of a Kentucky asphalt sand:
"The sand grains are extremely coarse, the maJority of them being of 40 and 50 mesh iri size in one instance, and larger than 30 mesh in another. Such a sand grading alone would make this material unsuitable for~use in an asphalt surface."

Mr. H. L. Collier, 7 chief of the Constru9tion Department of the city of Atlanta, favors a fine-grained, dustless sand for use in asphalt paving, most of which will pass a 50-mesh sieve and be retained on an 100-mesh sieve.
Just as coarsenes.s of grain is the most important characteristic of concrete sands, it would seem that fineness of grain is the most important characteristic of asphalt paving sands. Sands containing from 50 to 70 per cent of their weight between 48 and 100 mesh. are probably most desirable in the long run, for asphalt pavements.

1 Op. cit., p. 4ii3. 2 Richardson, Clifford, The modern asphalt pavement, pp. 53-56. 3 Op. cit., p. 57. 4 Op. cit., pp. 57-59. 5 Op. cit., pp. 57-59. 6 Op. cit., p. 224. 7 Oral communication.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

87

SAND-OIL ROADS
In parts of Florida and Massachusetts 1 hot asphaltic oil has been added to sand to make roads. In Massachusetts 172 gallons of the oil were used to each square yard of road, and the resulting surface was excellent for light teams and automobiles. The sand should be sharp, hard, and well-graded rather than uniform or fine-grained.
PAVING SAND
Sand and gravel are widely used as foundation or cushion layers where the streets are constructed of brick, wood, and stone blocks, or asphalt, and also as a filler between the blocks. In 1919 Georgia produced 21,2g4 tons of paving sand valued at $12,320.
PAVEMENT FOUNDATIONS 2 Usually sand and gravel are the cheapest forms of foundation for brick, wood, or stone-block pavements, and in many cases, where the traffic is comparatively light, are the most desirable, since they permit of excellent drainage. For ordinary subsoil, 5 inches of gravel, overlain by 3 inches of clean sand, makes an excellent foundation. Where the sub-grade is clay or muck, 10 or 12 inches of sand is required. Sand foundations should always be rolled. Sand and gravel used as a foundation should not contain more than 15 to 20 per cent of clay.
CUSHION SAND
In the construction of brick or- wood- and stone-block roads, streets or pavements, the sand support, or cushion, upon which the bricks and blocks are laid, is a very important feature. Such a cushion is primarily intended to smooth out the irregularities existing in the top of the base and give elasticity to the pavement. The sand must be free from pebbles, clay, loam, and other materials likely to become sticky or greasy when wet.
Tebbs 3 says that in Pennsylvania 15 per cent loam is permitted in the sand, which prevents the shifting about, characteristic of a clean, dry sand. Larger amounts will cause settling of the bricks when the loam is washed to the bottom. A reasonably dry sand should be used thus preventing the settling consequent to the drying of the sand and its resUltant shrinkage in volume. Since the function of

1 Good Roads Year Book, pp. 402-403, 1917. 2 Buckley, E. R., Public roads: Missouri Bur. Geology and Mines, p. 42, 1907. 3 Good Roads Year Book, Brick roads, p. 421, 1917.

88'

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

the sand cushion is largely to smooth out the inequalities in the base, the thinner it is the better, thus avoiding shrinkage. A cushion from
1 to 1Y2 inches thick is usiially q~te satisfactory.
At the present time in brick road paving -the sand-cement mortar cushion,having a ratio of 1 to 3 or 1 to 4 is replacing the sand cushion, since the latter has not given satisfaction when the road is subjected to heavy jars. In the case of asphalt pavements, the binder course} composed of bituminous concrete, has taken the place of the cushion sand.
FILLER SAND

Sand (now usually replaced by cement grout or tar) forms a cheap

filler without damaging the brick when the pavement is taken up.

It is easily washed or swept out, however, and does not prevent the

edges of the brick frnm chipping. It has proved very satisfactory in

wood-block pavements. i

-

RAILROAD BALLAST

Most of the gravel now used for railroad ballast in Georgia has

been brought in from Alabama, although a~number of years ago gravel

was extensively used from a pit on the Central of Georgia Railway

near Georgetowp_.

- Chert gravel has been used in ;northwest Georgia, and large quan-

tities were formerly quarried near Summerville. The Southern Rail-

way at present is ...using a partially disintegrated quartzite schist from extensive pits n~ar Alto., Cinders, crushed rock, and sand are also

generally used throughout the state; and elsewhere, clay, burnt clay_

or burnt gumbo, and chert are extensively used.

The function of ballast is to make a stable, resilient road bed,

which will quickly drain off water preventing the decay of ties. There

is considerable diversity of opinion as to the relative merits of gravel

and crushed ~stone for railway ballast. Gravel is usually cheaper

and permits greater ease in tie renewals, but has the disadvantage of

dust, inability to hold the surface under extremely heavy' loads, and

permits the growth of weeds. Many believe gravel makes an easier

riding- road-bed. If the gravel is well-graded, a more solid founda-

tion of much higher binding power is secured. A ballast gravel

/

should cont.ain sand to fill up. the voids between the pebbles. Clay

hinders the drainage, makes a dusty road-bed in dry weather, and

~mcourag~s the growth of weeds.

1 Tillsen ,G. W. Am. Soc. Civil Eng. Trans. Vol. 75 ,pp. 530-532.

SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

89

The Committee on Ballasting of the American Railway Engineering and Maintenance of Way Association has made the following statements and recommendations 1 regarding the use of gravel for railroad ballast:

"1. Gravel with much over 3 per cent of dustdoes not drain freely; with less than

that amount drainage is good.

2. Gravel with less than 2 per cent dust makes a fairly dustless road-bed.

3. Pebbles should not exceed 2 inches in size. Larger pebbles should be crushed

and returned to the ballast.

4. Less than 20 per cent sand permits pebbles to shift, under load, and over 50

per cent prevents ballast from becoming firm.

5. The Committee recommends for



Class 'A' roads, 10 parts gravel and 3 parts sand.. Bank gravel with over 2 per

cent dust or 40 per cent sand should be washed and screened.

Class 'B' roads, 10 parts of gravel and 6 parts sand. Bank gravel with over 3 per

cent dust or 60 per cent sand should be screened or washed.

Class 'C' roads, 10 parts gravel and 10 parts sand. Any gravel not over-6 per cent

dust may be used."

Classes A, B, C, refer to the amount of traffic handled and are described in the manual of the American Railway Engineers' Association.
The following test 2 made on pit gravel used f9r ballasting show the effect of sand and clay (dust).

Characteristics of ballast gravels

Gravel, Sand,

Dust,

- Per cent Per cent Per cent

Remarks

81.6 61.3 86.0 59.6 58.7

27.0 50.9 12.5 55.4 49.1

1.3 2.8. 6.5 3.6 12.9

Very good.
Fait.
Poor cementing nature.
Good but dusty-sand excess increases labor.
Very poor.

Gravel near Omaha and Columbus and also near Warrenton was formerly used for ballast, but owing partly to exhaustion of the more acces~ible material and partly to opening of larger and more cheaply worked deposits in Alabama, its use has been discontinued. Large
1 Engineering News, Vol. 61, pp. 404-405, April 15, 1909. 2 Op. cit.

90

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

deposits, however, await development within a nrile or two of railroads, particularly along the Fall Line and along Chattahoochee River. Most of this material is better suited for road purposes than
. for ballast because of comparatively large amounts of clay. FILTER SAND AND GRAVEL
In a way, sand is the most important part of a water filtration plant: Specifications for filter. sand and grayel have been investigated in considerable detail, particularly by{Hazen.l
Filter sands, contrary to the requirements ~or concrete sands, . shorud be as uniform in grain size as possible. Freedom from clay and organic matter is of course essential. The terms "uniformity coefficient" and "effective size" (see pp. 27-28) have been introduced
largely for the purpose of describing filter sands.
The specifications for the filtration plant at Washington, D. C., for which over 180,000 cubic yards of sand and gravel were required, were as follows: 2
"Filter gravel.-On the floor of the filters and surrotincling the underdrains shall be placed gravel or broken stone having a maximum depth of 1 fo'Ot. Instructions will be given by t:lle Engineer officer in charge as to the exact arrangement and positic:ms of the various layers when the stone commences to be received upon the ground, but the arr_angement will be. approximately as'follbws: Th~ lower 7 inches shall consist of broken stone or gravel which will remain upon a screen with a mesh of 1 inch, arid which has .but very few stones over 2 inches in diameter. Above this shall be placed 272 inches of broken stone or gravel which has passed a screen with a mesh of
1 inch, and which remains upon a screen with a clear mesh of t incihes. Above this
shall be placed 272 inches of broken stone or gravel, which has passed a screen with a
mesh of t inch, and which is coarser than the ordinary sand, and entirely free from
fine material.
'iThe material for all of the layers may be broken trap rock or granite screened to the proper sizes, or gravel screened from sand and gravel banks of a sandy nature. Gravel screened from hardpan or clayey material can not be suffiCiently cleaned. The gravel shall not contain more than a very small ammiiit of shale or limestone. The gravel shall be washed entirely free from fine material, so that water passing through it or agitated in contact with it will remain substantially clean.
"Filter sand.-The filter sand shall be clean river, beach or bank sand, with either sharp or rounded grains. It shall be entirely free from clay, dust, or organic impurities and shall, if necessary, be washed to remove such materials from it. The grains shall, all of them, be of hard material which will not disintegrate and shall be of th-e following diameters: Not more than one-half of 1 per cent by weight shall be less than 0.13 millimeter; not more than 8 per cent less than 0.26 millimeter. At least 7 per cent by weight shall be less than 0~34 millimeter, at least 70 per cent less than 0.83 and at least 90 per cent less than 2.1 millimeters. No pa_rticle shall be ~ore than 5 millimeters in

1 Hazen, Allen, Some physical properties of sands and gravels: Massachusetts State Board of Health Re)2t., p. 541, 1892.
2 Stone, R. W., Mineral resources of the United States for 1913;- pt. 2, pp. 336-337, 1914.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

91

diameter, and the sand shall be passed through screens or sieves of such mesh as to stop all such particles, and-no screen or sieve shall be used containing at any point holes or passages allowing grains larger than the above to pass. The diameters of the sand grains will be computed as the diameters of spheres of equal volume. The sand shall not contain more than 2 per cent by weight of lime and magnesia taken together and
calculated as carbonates. In all other respects the sand shall be of a quality satisfactory
to .the Engineer officer in charge.
"The filter sand shall be placed in the filters in three layers, each layer to be about 1 foot thick, and the sand shall not be dropped from a height into final position or otherwise unduly compacted. The first two layers may be :filled in to only approximate depths and the surfaces need not be smoothed. The :final layer shall be brought to a true and even grade, and the surface left smooth and uniform."

The sand and gravel specifications at the Queen Lane filters, in Philadelphia, contained the following requirements:

Least effective size of sand_____________________________ 0.30 Greatest " " " " __________ -- __ --------------- 0. 38 Least uniformity coefficient_____________________________ 1.70

Greatest "

" ----------------------------- 2. 70

The sand and gravel sizes were placed in the following order in the filter beds of the Queen Lane plant:

1. 3- to 2- inch graveL ______________________ ,;._ 6 inches

2. 1~ " i " 3. ~ " t "

" -------------------------- 4 " " -------------------------- 3' "

4. 74 " i " " -------------------------- 2 "

5. Through 8 mesh with less than 0.5 per cent passing

20 mesh__________________________________ 1 " 6. Sand----------------------------------~------ 26 "

The sand used in the filters at the waterworks supplying Atlanta, Ga., must pass a 20-mesh screen and be retained on the 40-mesh. It must be clean, sharp, and free from clay and dirt. The sand in filters must be washed every year or so to free it of the accumulated sediment collected from th~ water. A certain proportion of the original sand, from 10 to 20 per cent, must be replaced each year, due to tl;e wearing out or breaking up of some of the grains. In the case of the Atlanta filtration plant from 2 to 3 carloads yearly must be supplied.
Filter sand produced at Crystal City, MiEsouri, 1 conformed to the following specifications:

"The sand shall be composed of hard and durable grains, either sharp or rounded, substantially free from clay, loam, dust, or organic matter and flat particles.
"When the sand, crushed and powdered, is digested for twenty-four hours in strong, warm hydrochloric acid, without stirring, at least 95 per cent shall remain insoluble. The sand shall not contain more than two per cent of calcium and magnesium, taken together, and calculated as calcium carbonate (CaCO a).

1 Dake, C. L., Sand a~d gravel resources of Missouri, Missouri Bur. Geology and Mines, Vol. XV, 2d ser., p. 80, 1918.

.92

G.EOLOGIG.AL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

"The sand shall have an effective size of not less than 0.40 nor more than 0.50 of a. millimeter and a uniformity coefficient not greater than 1.65. Not more than onefourth. of one per cent shall he finer than 1.2 millimeters. The diameters of sand grains shall be c~;~mputed as the diameters of spheres of equal volumes, and all percentages shall be calculated by weight."
Some of tl;le washed grades from the Taylor and Crawford counties pits have been used throughout the state in. filters and compare very favorably with sands brought from a distance.

ENGINE AND TROLLEY SAND
A large amorint of the sand produced in South Georgia from the fluvial sand hills is used by the railroads to sand rails to facilitate the action of the driving wheels of the locomotives. In the southern states, with the heavy rainfall and persistence of vegetation along the track throughout the year, the demand is probably uniform in all seasons. '-In northern states, however, spr~ng and summer produce the greatest demand. In 1919 Georgia produced 9,091 tons of engine sand valued at $4-,988. , Condra 1 says such sand should be _hard, sharp, clean, and of a medium degree of fineness. It .should }?e sufficiently coarse to remain on the rails in a moderately strong wind, and free from clay, twigs, and pebbles, -which will clog the feeding pipes; or prevent the free running of the sand in these pipes. For the same reason the sand must be quite dry. Most locomotive and trolley sands are artificially dried. As high a quartz content as possible is desirable to insure the 'grains from being crushed to an impalpable powder.
Practically all of the South Georgia sand coiiforms to these specifications for engine sand.
The Georgia Railway and Power Company,_ operating the street cars in Atlanta, obtains its sand from Terrill and Proctor creeks, .near Atlanta~ and from the west bank of Chattahoochee River, near Bolton.
ROOFING GRAVEL
Roofing gravel is used extensively in buildings having practically fiat roofs. It is usually a screened product retained on a .~-inch screen and passing a %-inch screen. 2 -The pebbles should preferably
1 Conda, G. E., Sand' and gravel resources and industries of Nebraska; Nebraska Geo!. Survey, Vol. 3, pt. 1, pp. 186-190, 1908.
2 Dake, C. L., Sand and gravel resources of Missouri: Missouri Bur. Geology and Mines, Vol XV, 2d ser., p. 63, 1918.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

93

be rounded to prevent cutting of the tar-paper base, and sufficiently coarse to prevent removal from the roof when the tar is melted by the sun. Sometimes stone crushed to smal_l sizes is used for roofing purposes.
So far as the writer could learn, no roofing gravel is now being produced in Georgia, although about 1900 some was shipped from the vicinity of Kingston, in Bartow County

ABRASIVE USES
SAND-BLAST
Considerable sand is used in sand-blasts for cleaning and smoothing casting faces, for removing paint from steel structures preparatory to re-painting, and for cleaning stone surfaces of large buildings. Sand for this work should be hard, containing as much quartz as possible, sharp, moderately coarse, new, _and free from clay. It should preferably be uniform in size and sliould pass an 8-mesh screen. Much
of the Taylor and Crawforc!- County sand of Georgia is suitable for
such work. Cape May grit, from the southern coast of New Jersey, composed
of rounded ovoids and containing over 98 per cent silica, has proved an excellent sand. 1
The granulometric analysis of this material is as follows:

Mechanical analysis of Cape May grit

8 mesh 20%

Passing

10 mesh 70%

I 20 mesh
I 3% I

30 mesh trace

STONE SAWYER'S SAND
In the marble district of Georgia considerable sand is used with . the steel saws cutting the large blocks of marble as they come from
the quarries. Similar sand, free from coarse grains or pebbles, is used in the rubbing beds to give the initial smooth surfn.ce to the marble.
Sand for this work should be usually hard and sharp, with as lar~e

1 Sand blast macJ,ine, Am. Soc. Mech. En_g. Trans,, VoL 33, pp. 835-840.

\)4

GEOLOGICAL .STJRVEY OF GEORGIA

a quartz content as possible, uniform in grain size and free from clay. The Taylor and Crawford counties sand proves very satisfactory
in the Geergia marble finishing works, although some fine-grained sand from local stream bars is used. Sometimes a l~yer of very angular sand occurs in the sand pits and care in the selection of this bed in filling orders from the marble- works would be sJ.esirable.

GRINDING AND POLISHING
Some sand is used to polish wood, stone, glass, and similar surfaces. Such sand should be hard, preferably all quartz, particularly that for use in glass polishing, sharp, uniform in size, and free from romse grains likely to scratch the polished surface.

SAND-CEMENT
In large engineering projects in the West, such as the construction of dams, .aqueducts, and reservoirs, ground sand or siliceous rock has been blended with cement and 'a pro4uct obtained that has appar.ently given satisfaction and materially reduced the cement costs.
In the case of the Arrow Rock dam in Idaho, 1 a plant was constructed at a cost of $40,000 for this purpose. To the cement, 40 per cent of ground siliceous rock was l:l>dded, and a saving of $250,000 was affected,
.FIRE-SAND
Fire, or furnace sand, is used with either a lime or fire:-clay binder, for lining and patching furnaces, converters, cupalos, and ladles for containing molten metal. 2 This sand should contain as high a silica content as possible, preferably 9'7 per cent or more, to prevent fusing when in contact with molten metals. Its reqllirements so far as can be learned,' are similar to those of steel molding sand. (See pp. 68-69.)

MINOR USES
In addition to the uses .already enumerated, many of less importance may be tabulated.~~ Such uses include sand used for bedding stock cars, whi.ch should be free ,frotn pebbles and clay, and permit proper drainage.
In California, and in other regions subject to high winds carrying sand, clean, white sand is evenly applied to. freshly-painted surfaces,

1 Eng. Record, Vol. 65, p. 320, 1920. 2 Dake, C. L., op. cit., p. 85.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

95

thus preventing abrasion of the wood and adding somewhat to its appearance.
Clean, white sand is used to provide play places for children, and also in certain mechanical toys. Sand is also used on sand-:paper, in scouring soaps, and when ground to pass 120 mesh and containing Jess than one per. cent iron, as a constituent of pottery glazes. Sand, free from pebbles and lime,- is added to clay to reduce shrinkage. Finely ground silica or "silex", is used in the manufacture of paints for outdoor use, in the manufacture of various chemicals, metal polishes, silicon and its alloys, and in the production of silica apparatus for laboratory uses. Sand used in the manufacture of carborundum must contain over 99 per cent silica and be preferably of even grain. Sand makes up over 50 per cent of the raw material in this product. Round-grained, even-textured sand between 80 and 100 mesh in size is required for hour-glasses.
White, dustless sand, approximately 65 mesh in size, is. used by roofing companies to dust the coatings of tar paper to prevent stickmg. Sand is also added to sweeping compounds.
Sand, owing to its incoherency, makes an excellent filler for fertilizers, and large quantitie.s are used for this purpose. In engineer:.. ing work sand has been -successfully used in filling mines, particularly the anthracite mines of Pennsylvania. Sand in _huge sand-boxes is used to lower bridge spans or other heavy loads supported on the boxes. Crystalline quartz and sand have been used in the manufacture of silicon and its alloys with various metals.

METHODS OF TRANSPORTATION, PRODUCTION~ AND PREPARATION
In handling bank sand in most of the sand-producing regions -of Georgia, hand labor is still largely employed, although the use of steam shovels, car loaders, and other mechanical contrivances are being slowly extended. Stream sand is produced more frequently on a commercial scale by mechanical means, but at a few places in the state, production is obtained by hand loading. The following description of methods of producing sand has not been drawn entirely from obs~rvations in the state, but it is hoped that it may aid in the selection of suitable labor-saving devices where conditions warrant their substitution for less economical hand methods.

96

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

TRANSPORTATION

In the case of commodities like sand and gravel, having so little

intrinsic value, the item of transportation makes up at least half, and

frequently as much as three-quarters of the cost to the consumer.

The consumer is therefore interested in reducing the cost of transpor-

tation to the lowest figure possible. This may frequently be accom-

plished by utilizing nearby deposits, provided their quality is suffi-

ciently high, and if modern convenient methods of handling and trans-

portation are used. In some instances heavy transportatioJ1. charges

are assumed in order to get a certain far-famed sand wp.ich may be

no better and possibly not as good as a local product.

'

,

Wagons .-Two-horse wagons are most economical where the

requirements. are small and the 'distance from pit to 'consumer is short. With two~horse wagons more than twice the load can be transported

at little more than the expense of one-horse carts. Wagons are more

economical than trucks_ where the haul is only a small .fraction of a.

mile, provided the truck cannot be used continuously. Wagon trans-

-portation is usually employed in the smaller towns where the local

supply is obtained from a small pit nea;.by. In some places the pit

is common property and. anyone ..can get._ sand to. supply his needs for

the expense of hauling; at other places a no'minal charge of from 5. to

25 cents a yard is made and the consumer does the hauling, or the

owner of the land may agree to keep the deposit free of overburden

and even do the hauling, charging from 50 cents to $1.50 a yard for

the delivered product.

Jl!lotor truck.-The advantages of motor haulage of sand and
gravel from local pits to the consumer and from railroad cars to the
.construction job are daily becoming more realized. The length of the haul, of course, depends on the character ~f the sand and its
sc~rcit)r. Sand is hauled 2 miles at Fitzgerald, 1Y2 miles at Quit-
man, 4 miles at Thomasville, from 1 to ~ miles at Moultrie, and 1 mile at Tifton. In Atlanta, sand from the plant of the Acme Sand Company, on :peachtree Road at Peachtree_ Creek, is hauled to all
.Parts of the city, the hauls ranging from a fraction of amile to 5 miles
and the price of the sand increasing as the haul increases.
In Youngstown, Ohio, 1 a 5-ton truck with a rear-end dump body,

1 Eng. Record, Vol. 66, p. 473, Hl12.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS OF GEORGIL1

PLATE 11I

A . WASHING AND SCREENING PLANT, GEORGIA SAND & GRAVEL COMPANY, AUGUSTA, RICHMOND COUNTY

B . WASHING AND SCREENING PLANT, ACME SAND & SUPPLY COMPA Y, PEACHTREE CREEK ~~AR PEACHTREE ROAD, ATLANTA, FULTON COUNTY


SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

97

and requiring only one minute from the time of arriving at the sand storage bins until it left loaded, regularly made 50 round trips of 1.3 miles each in 10 hours. Two men were required on the truck and it did the work of seven wagons, having the added advantage of being able to operate in all kinds of weather. Assuming the cost of the truck to be $30 a day, then the cost per ton-mile would .be 18.5 cents, or less than two-thirds the cost of hauling the sand in wagons. It must be remembered, however, that the value of motor haulage is greatest when it can be .employed continuously and where the roads are at least fairly good.
Railroads .-Railroad haul is generally restricted to commercial sand consigned to distant points. In many places the combined expense of railroad freight and. drayage from the car to the job at the destination, is more than the expense of hauling sand by wagon or truck directly from a local source to the job.
As the minimum freight rate on sand and gravel differs little on hauls from 10 to 100 miles, the development of nearby deposits is often hampered, since it is more convenient to obtain the sand from established pits. Pits on small railroads, Irom which sand must be shippe4 over at least two lines to get to the large markets, can rarely be financially successful, since the sum of two or more short-haul charges will usually equal or exceed the charge for a much larger haul between points on the same railroad.
Although most of the sand and gravel used in Georgia is produced in the state, great quantities are shipped to Atlanta from points in Alabama conveniently situated with respect to through railroads. In this case it is questionable whether much of the Alabama sand is better than, or even as good as, Georgia sand, its use having been largely encouraged by cheaper freight charges.
Short rail hauls of sand and gravel are few in Georgia. Cairo has been obtaining considerable sand from the vicinity of Gradyville, about 3 miles distant by rail, and sand used in Douglas is hauled only 6 miles by rail. In some places advantage is taken of the nominal charge for switching cars from one part of a town to another in transporting sand and gravel.
Boat.-Very little sand is transported by boat in Georgia except where the sand is dredged from the river bed to a scow and ~hen towed.

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

on tiC> .the pier for Unldading. This is the case Savannah River at

Savannah t:' ~

.. ' .

a. ntd.

o' n.

St: Mary's

R.. i'ver

., . ~ .
above

St.

M- a'ry.s.

~.

.

At Rome sand

on it lo1ided Efcdws eitlier from islands or along the river banks and

tli~n towea to' a pier fordisposal by land. Practically all of the navi-

gaBle rivers of Georgi~ contain iJ:iexhaustible .supplies of excellent

s~hd: This :sand could be loaded on barges or flats and dtifted to the
tiearest railway poiri.t.

Mbst of the smaller scows or barges having capacities of from 10
to ioo dub1c yards, are built of wood arid of the usual square type,

having sides from 12 to 24 inches high.. The larger barges, used on

Mississippi a:hci bhio rivers are of either the decked .type, used on

the Missi:ssi.ppi, and the open-holtl type, preferred on the Ohio. The
dedk~d barge l.s best where' loadiri.g is by centrifugal purnp in order
to p'ehriit the water to drain off. For Htrg~ production, wliere un-

loading is by heavy grab buckets, steel construction is by far the best, since it has three times the life of ~ood under similar conditions; Large,

modern, steel-decked barges now in use on Mi'ssissippi River, have

cap::tcities of roni 300 to 400 yards and are 130 x 30 x 7Y2 feet. When

loaqed they draw from 5 to 7 feet of water.

In the Pittsburg district where ladd~r-elevator dippers are used,
op'e:ii hold barges transport the sand .since little water remains in it.
Tnefr iltial capaicity is. frdm 150 to 200 yards and their dimensions

about 100 x 24 x 8 feet.

MECHANICAL C0NVEYORS

....

"

Unde! mechanical conveyors, belt conveyors and bucJret elevators (\I)

may be considered. Conveyors of this kind are coming into more

general use in transporting sand directly from the excavating machine

orto the screemng plant, or in raising .it from track hoppers to the top

the plant. .

'

Belt conveyors.-The _belt usually has a canvas body with a rubber cover and run,s on troughing idlers. Belt conveyors are in use in sand and gravel pits to transport the material from the pit to the washer for distances up to 1,000 feet. It is questionable whether leri.gths of over ~ few hundred feet are eco~omical under most conditions. Where the distance from pit to plant exceeds 500 feet it is usually best to deliver the sand in hopper cars.



SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

Table showin~ capacities and requirements of belt conveyors

Sand and gravel hauled per hour
in tons

Distance in feet

Horizontal

Vertical

Horsepower required

Width of belt in inches

20

50

10

2

12

40

100

20

3

14

60

150

30

4

16

80

200

40

6

18 .

100

300

60

8

20

200

400

80

16

26

For elevating sand and gravel, belt conveyors can run at a maximum angle of 20. The same amount of power will convey on belts five otimes the distance it will elevate on belts.
Elevators .-Elevators of four types may be used for raising sand and gravel to washing plants. (1) The continuous bucket elevator, whose buckets are carried on a chain, requires less space, but is likely to permit of some spillage; (2) The inclined or stone elevator, which is most gene-ally, used, has steel buckets closely spaced on a canvas or rubber belt .which operates on a wooden frame. It has a high capacity although running at low speed and is satisfactory, unles3 the height is too great; (3) The centrifu~al dischar~e type discharges the material from the buckets by centrifp.gal force and is operated at high speed. The cost of this elevator is less than the others, but the upkeep expense is greater, due to its greater speed and consequent wear; (4) The dred~in~ elevator obtains its load under water and for this reason is desirable in plants having the sand delivered to a dump or pit by a centrifugal pump. The dredging elevator is inclined farther from the vertical than the other types, thus allowing the empty buckets more slack to aid the digging.
In small sand and gravel plants bucket elevators are said to be more economical than inclined belt conveyors in raising material to

100

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

the top of the plant. To insure their m~ximum efficiency, .bucket elevators should be installed as nearly vertical as possible.

PRODUCTION METHODS
HAND LABOR
Loading by hand directly into a wagon, railway car, or scow, IS common, and in fact usual, throughout Georgia. Colored labor is usually employed for this purpose. The track must be kept. close to the working face for the best economy. It is said that one man can load from 10 to 22 yards in a 10-hour day, lifting it from 8 to 10 feet. This method is used entirely wbere sand is obtained from nearby local pits and hauled to town in wagons and trueks. Although it frequently permits of a better selection of material than is possible with mechanical methods, particularly where the different grades of sand lie in thin beds. In a few cases where the deposit is unifol.'m, and the product does not require preparation before shipment, the .use of .hand labor may be the r;heapest; but installation of mechanical loaders or a small steam shovel would soon pay for itself in de creased. costs and increased production in many :places. In some of the Crawford County pits several grades of sand ocpur from 2 to 4 feet in thickness. It would be. practically impossible to handle these separately with a steam shovel. This is true of unconsolidated glass sand, where a cover of irregular thickness occurs above the white sand, whos~ upper surface may also be undulating.
At some piaces the sand is loaded from the ereek bar into ;wagons,
and hauled to raihyay cars to which it is transferred by hand or by traps (see p. 288). At Mandeville, in Carroll County, sand is loaded into wagons from bars in Bear Creek and hauled to the top of a steep hill, where it is dumped and later loaded into motor trucks for transportation to railroad cars or for local use.
In the spring of 1920 in Georgia the daily wage paid shovelers in . sand and gravel pits ranged from $2.50 to $4.00. In a number of places it has been found most desirable to pay a man. a certain amount for loading a 30-ton car. This usually insures completion of the work in the least time. The amount paid is usually about $4.00, and, many shovelers .can load a car and part .of another in a day.

SAND AND GR.AVEL DEPOSITS

J OJ

Table showing average amount of work and cost of handling sand and gravell

Method

Cu. yards per man Cost per cu. yard

per hour

at $0.15 an hour

Sand into cars from high face____________ Sand into carts_________________________ Gravel into wheelbarrows________________ Gravel into carts____________________ ~___ Gravel into wagons______________________ Average earth___________________________

1. 8 2.0 1. 7-2.7 1. 0 1.3 1. 75

$0.0825 0.075 0. 07 0.150 0.113 0.086

Sand from river bars and islands is also loaded o~ fiats directly by hand. The fiats are then pushed or towed by a gasolene launrh or even poled to a pier, where the sand may be unloaded by hand into wagons or to stock piles. It is said than one man can load 4 to 7 yards in a 10-hour day, the amount depending on the distance the scow must be towed. At Rome, on Etowah River, local dealers load sand into small scows by means of a large dipper attached to the end of a long pole. When the sc.ow is loaded, it is poled to the bank and the sand loaded into wagons.
Wheelbarrows are commonly used in loading cars and fiats. Where box cars are used for transporting Rand, direct hand loading is impracticable. The wheelbarrows are hand-loaded and then wheeled along planks or rough trestles to the car, generally less than 50 feet away. Wheelbarrows are also used in loading fiats and barges m streams.
TRAP LOADING
It may be convenient to construct a bridge over a railroad spur or road with gentle slopes at either side. A hole or trap is cut in the floor of the bridge, and wagons can be driven up the inclines, and their contents dumped directly into waiting railway cars. Drag and wheel scrapers are also used in this manner to load cars, trucks, or
1 Complied from McDaniel, A. B. Excavation machinery, methods, and costs: McGraw Hill Book Co., New York.

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

"o/ag~rw. It ,is usually des~:rable and econprnic::tl; in. tb.~ cas.~ of irreg-

ular wagon' loading, .to COllStruct a small bin for storage purposes

beneath the trap. By raising a slide a wagon can be filled from the

qin
\..

at

any .

~i.me.

This method. is employed at the sand pit on the

Fort J?.<:pnnin,g Reservation near Columbus.

A still better method is to construct a pocket or l;>oot beneath
the trap from which the material is carried by some type of conveyor to large~ bins above. In view of the limited economical haul of the smaller scrapers, i~ will be necessary to move the platform and trap
as the sand is worked out, or else to lengthen the conveyor, so that
other traps can be built over it.

Sorapers.-Scrapers are of two main types, horse-drawn and

power:.operated. Horse scrapers can be used to advantage in pits

whose production is not large or those having no rail cormectio:ns

and also in removing the overburden from sand or gravel deposits.

Tlt:~~~. are, four t~y:pe~.: .. ~!8:~ ~cra:B~rs., t~9-!h~~led scra:pers<. Fresno

scrapers, and !our-whe.eled scrapers.

.

' '

;:

"

;.

~ ;

\



'

' .I ,. ,

I

:O.r~jtg sc~ap(3f'S are p:ql;led by. '?r~r o,r t\Y9 horses, have a c~pacity of

:rt?. fro!Il

p cubiq feet, 1-yei~h fr~~ ~g. ~() 110 pounds, and cost fro!Il

$10 to $13 (1920).. The cost P,Y.r C1Jbie, yard iJj average soils for a

haul of 50 feet or less is 12 cents. For each additional 50-foot haul

.' ~ ,

,:; ;1

1,~

'

' ,

..

t '_

~: , "' ;

'

,~ , , ,



t~y. qi~t '~cr.eases. 3 ye:t;t~s I>'eJ. yard s~q};l scr.l:}p~r~ ~r~ :q;,tost econom-

ic~~-~~ to 190-foot hauls, b~t for greater cli~tances whe~led scrapers

should be used.

Table showihg avera~e aniount of material handled in 10-hour day by scrapers

Length of haul in feet

Capacity in cubic yards per 10-hour day

Drag scraper

Wheeled scraper

25

70

50

60

100

50

50

150

40

200

35

50

300

40

400

30

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

103

Wheeled scrapers are operated by 2, 3, or 4 horses and have capacities of from 7 to 16 cubic feet. Their weight ranges from 400 t~ 800 pounds, and the cost from $51.00 to $82.50 in 1920. Wh~eled. scrapers may be economically used up to 400 feet, and the . cost i~ about the same as for the drag scraper.

The Fresno scraper has a narrow pan from 3~ to 5 feet long and may be economically used to 200 feet. It requires less time than the two-horse wheeled scraper, but 4 horses are necessary with the larger

sizes. The cost ranges from 10 to 15 cents a yard where the haul is from 75 to 150 feet, and the capacity is 60 to 125 cubic yards in a ten-hour day. These machines weigh from 270 to 340 pounds and cost from $30 to $32.

Four-wheeled scrapers are used to a small extent only in sand and.

gravel wOTk.



CAR LOADERS
Car or wagon loaders, sometimes styled scooped conveyors or ele vators, are a comparatively recent development, and their wider us.e in small sand and gravel pits to load freight cars directly has been recommended as a labor saver and as a means of increasing the prOduction. Car loaders can be used to load either box cars or gondolas; or to load wagons or trucks from the car hopper. They may be also . used to load barges from river bars and to unload them, especially when the wharf is 8 to 10 feet above the barge, and the productio11 is not too large.
These devices are of two general kinds, (1) the endless chain type and (2) the scoop-conveyor type.
The endless chain loaders are of a number of different varieties. A desirable type consists of a four-wheeled truck supporting an endless chain excavator equipped with a gear-raising and -lowering mechanism. The weight is from 7,000 to 8,000 pounds, and the buckets are revolved, and the machine propelled by a 10-horsepower gasolene or electric motor. From 20 to 30 l;mckets, each having' a capacity of ~ cubic foot are required, and the loading capacity is said to be one yard per minute under ideal conditions. Two men are required to load with the machine, but it can be done in from one-fifth to onesixth of the time needed for hand loading. Smaller sizes are made suitable for loading trucks either directly from sand and gravel pits

l04

GEOLOGiCAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

or from stock piles. Sand br gravel can be loaded into cars by this
mearis for about 5 cents a yard, as compared with 15 cents a yard by
hand labor. The cost of, these m~chines ranges from $900 to $1,400. A loader of this kind has been used at the J. R. Rime Sand Company's pit near Junction City (Plate IIA), and at the Allon Sand Company's pit near .Gaillard.
' A somewhat similar loader, mounted on a three-wheeled truck, and of heavY" construction suitable.for rough work and able to feed automatically into a bank or pile, is also .put on the market. The' motive power is either electricity or gasolene, and the machine is selfpropelled. The capacity of such machines under ideal conditions is_ said to be about one yard per minute. The weight ranges from 5,000 to 7,000 pounds and from 5 to 8 horsepower are required to, operate.
Scoop conveyors are usually of lighter construction than the bucket loaders and consist of a revolving rubber or duck belt from 12 to 16 inches wide, divided into partitions spaced from 10 to 15 inches apart. The length of the conveyor ranges from 14 to 24 feet, and it may be mounted on two wheels. The weight with gasole~e motor ranges from 900 to 1,800 pounds, and the horsepower required
to drive i~ ranges from 172 to 3. The price ranges from $300 to $800. The capacity is said to range from 72 to 1 ton per minute, and one
man only is requi ed' to load with it~ Electric motive power would be much more satisfactory than gasolene if it were available.
The principal difficulty to be considered in the use of mechanical loaders in sand pits is that unless the mac~e is exceptionally well cared for, it will depreciate rapidly and require frequent repairs, due to sand ge~ting into the machinery. This probably accounts for the many abandoned car-loaders, still in fairly good condition, seen in
sand and gravel pits.

POWER SHOVELS
Although few power shovels are used in sand and gravel produGtion in Georgia, they have a wide range of usefulness in o.ther parts of the country, and their more general use in this state is to be hoped for. A small steam shovel operating against a face has proved economical even with common labor as low as 20 cents an hour, and the production under 100 yards a day. With wages at 40 or 50 cents an hour, 'such machines can operate economically where the production

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

105

is even lower. Power shovels may be used either to load cars below the face, or, if the face has only a reasonable height, a shovel with a high boom may be used to load wagons or trucks on top of the bank. Some shovels are now manufact11red that allow the dipper to be replaced by a grab bucket, or the boom to be replaced by a longer one from which a cable dragline may be operated. This arrangement is desirable in pits having sand and gravel below the ground water level, since after working the material above the water with the shovel dipper, the grab bucket can be used to excavate below water.
Power shovels range in size from 10 tons up to 250 tons, and the
buckets may be had from Y2 cubic yard up to 10 cubic yards capacity.
Their production ranges from 200 to 5,000 cubic yards daily.
Power shovels may either be steam-, electric-, .or gasolene-driven. The steam shovel is much more extensively used than either of the other types. The electric shovel, however, is more economical where electric current is available, since it requires less labor and uses rower only when the shovel is actually working. The gasolene shovel is desirable in regions where gasolene or kerosene is the most convenient form of fuel, and where water is scarce.
From the standpoint of construction power shovels may be divided as follows:

Types of power shovels
1. Mounted on fixed platform. 2. Mounted on rotating platform, with
a. Standard gage trucks. b. Trucks other than standard gage. c. Small, broad-tired wheels. d. Caterpillar traction.

Either of the two main types are in use in sand and gravel pits. The fixed-platform type is capable of rotating over arcs of less than 200, and is used in cemented gravel, and in sand and gravel plants where an exceptionally large daily production is necessary. They range from 60 to 150 tons in weight and can produce from 500 to 2,000 cubic yards daily, requiring 3 men for their operation. They generally require considerable time to be moved back to the starting point. The cost of a 107-ton shovel, equipped with a 5-cubic-yard bucket was about $37,000 in 1920.

10~

G

E

O

L

O.

G '

I

C

AL .

SV.RVEY

OF

GEORGIA

'

'

The smalh:,r, revolving-p1~tform Sh9vels ;:tre be~ter suiteq fo~ smaJl
or moderate-sized. and al).d gravel pits. Th~y ur:ru,.ally ra,ngEl from
79. 14: t9. tons ~ 'Yeig4t a~d can produce fr?m ?QQ to QOO ~-qpic ya,rds
in a 10-hour day, the smaller types requiring only QJ?.e man for their
be 9peratioJ;1. ~t has been found desiraqle to use a ~lightly smaller bucket
.for !1. given sized shovel in order that there may plenty o.f power,
thu~ avoiding delays due to rep~irs.

Table showing avcrqge capacities and costs of sm~ll

.re~olvin'g sh'avels '

,

Weig];Lt in tons
..
14 20 2::1: &2 40

Dipper capacity in
cu. yds.
'

Average daily
capacity per:.
10-l!QU'!' (!.ay

Net cost (1920_)"

Additional

cost

Additional

for scraper c.ost for
bu'okit' grairhucket

equipment equipment

V2

300

$8,200

$1,000

$1,000

%:

450

8,.800

1.4DP

1,300

1

600

w;ooo

2,000

1,900

17<1:

750 ------------- 2,200

2,100

'

1V2

900

12,000

2,400

2,300

'

In Georgia sand and gravel plants revolving steam shovels are
used at the pits of the Atlanta Sand & Supply Co~pany, at Gaillard,
{;,;. at the Muscogee County gravel pit near Cohimbus .(Plate II-B), and
at the Altamaha Supply Company's pit near Everett City.

KEYSTONE EXOAVATORS

The K~ystone excavator is sm;newhat akin to power shovels. It

consists of fram.e wor~ or body similar to that of a well drilling

machine with a s~t of j!1Gk arms for steadying it while working. The

machine is light, ay,.to,-tractiy~, and therefore e~sily moved from one part of t4e pit ~9. another. T4~ p9om is of light steel and' to it is

attached

th. e

dipper., ~

which m.ay: be

pf three types.

(

.

The skimmer dipper is shaped like a drag scraper and in operation

the boom is dr:opped close to the ground, and the dipper skims over

the top. When loaded the boom is raised, revolved, and dumped.

SAND AND GB.A.VEL DEPOSITS

107

This dipper permits of shallow and deep cutting and is especially desirable for stripping small thicknesses of overburden or digging thin beds of sand or gravel. (Plate III-A.)
The draw ditcher scoop or dipper is suited for trench and ditch work. It is shaped like a steam shovel dipper and has a hinged motion at the end of the boom, but digs toward the machine and below the grade of the wheels. With this dipper clay pockets can be readily remoyed in a sand deposit, and sand and gravel below the water can be handled by it.
The third type of dipper is similar in appearanc<? and mode of operation to the regular steam shovel type, but is lighter.

POWER SCRAPERS
The use of power scrapers and drag-line cableways, operated at small cost by a hoisting engine, are among the most desirable means of working sand and gravel pits.
ALBRECHT EXCAVATORS
For limited outputs from pits where wagons or trucks are used for direct delivery the Albrecht type of excavator can be used. This machine is generally located above the pit face and operates a scraper bucket by means of a cable hoist, which dumps through a chute into a wagon. This device is said to be able to excavate to a distance of 75 feet below or to its rear, requiring one man to operate tlie machine and one man to handle the scraper. From 10 to 20 horsepower are needed.
DRAG-LINE CABLEWAYS
For larger outputs, ranging from 200 to 600 yards daily, a permanent mast from 50 to 100 feet high is set up near the bin or beside a railroad spur. The upper end of a steel cableway is attached to the top of the mast and the lower end to a tree, or a "dead man" consisting of a buried log. In dry pits, to insure a wider operating range, the lower end of the cable can be attached to a pulley which can be shifted over a cable stretched between two trees or "dead men." A scoop or bucket, open in front, whose size may range from 0.3 to 3 cubic yards depending on the desired output, is suspended from the cableway by a pulley and operated by a drag-line from a two-drum

108

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

"

hoisting engine. The empty bucket slides down the track cable until over the point of excavation, when the drag-line cable is tightened and the track cable slackened,' permitting the bucket to drop to the ground. The drag'-line is then pulled in toward the bins causing the bucket to pick up a load. When loaded, the track cable is tightened, raising the bucket, and the drag-line is pulled in with the loaded bucket, until over the bins,- car, or stock pile, where it is dumped.

, A cableway BOO to 700 feet long can excavate over an area of about

3 acres and has the additional advantage of being able to dig to a considerable depth under water. The system is' especially well adapted

to recgvering river-b:;tr sand and gravel. A system of. this kind was formerly in operation on Bull Creek, near Columbus, Ga., and at

Augusta, Ga.

Drag-line cableways have a wide range of usefulness, are efficient, simple in their construction, and have a low cost. Only 4 or 5 men

are required for a daily production of 400 yards. Their capacity depends on the length of the span, the depth of the. pit, tP,e size and

character of the bucket, the character of' the material, and the efficiency of the operator. They are more efficient for wet excavation than in dry pits.

Table showing average requirements, capacities, and cos.t of drag-line scrapers

Bucket capacity in
cu. yds.

Double-driven skeleton hoisting engine

Diameter of front drum
in inches

',,~
Production in 10 hours,
cu. yds.

Approximate total cost of installation

:u

8>i x 10 or equivalent

20

1 .

9 X 10 " "

24

172

10 X 12 " "

26

125

$8,000

225

10,000

400

13,000

A drag-swiper bucket of % to 1 cubic yard capacity costs about $750.00.
In Georgia a simpler and less expensive. form of the drag-line system is in use at Rutledge and Chestnut's plant, on Bull Creek, near Columbus, and at the plant of the J. R. Rime Sand Company, near J'Qnction City. (Plate III-B). No cableway is used in this variation, the drag bucket being simply pulled backwards and forward over the sand. In order to elevate the bucket it is necessary to construct a

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

109

wooden incline up which the loaded bucket is pulled to a loading platform or screening plant which may be from 20 to 30 feet high. Where the sand pit has a high face that has already been opened the loading platform or screen can be built in the worked-out portion of the pit in front of the face, so that the top of this structure will be level with the natural top of the sand and the loaded drag-bucket dumped at this point. Besides having fewer parts to get out of order, this system only costs from $2,500 to $3,000 to install, depending on the equipment.
Drag-line cableways can be used to advantage where a greater reach is necessary than that of a power shovel or a boom drag-line excavator. They per:mit digging over larger areas and to much greater depths. Production is not so great as with the other two methods,
\
since the digging, conveying, and elevating is all done by one machine. The cost, however, is probably less than that of doing the same amount of work by other methods, and ranges from 3 to 15 cents a yard. Steam-, electric-, or gasolene-driven drag-lines are in use as well as many variations depending upon local conditions.
The system has the disadvantage, however, of traveling empty one-half the time. This feature may, in a measure, be remedied by operating two scrapers at a slight additional cost: one scraper would then be digging while the other is dumping. Drag~line scrapers frequently leave the pit in bad condition, with steep grades, making a future change to steam shovel operation, when it is desired to increase the production, very exp~nsive. Scrapers can not dig to such great depths under water as can drag-line dredges.

DERRICK SCRAPERS
Quite generally scrapers are suspended and operated from the boom of a locomotive crane or steam shovel or from a derrick car. (Plate IV-A.) With such an arrangement the system is more flexible and portable than the cable drag-line system, but the span and range of operation, and the depth to which digging is possible, is not so great. Digging can be carried on with equal ease in water, but frequent moving is usually nec-essary, especially with short booms.. The boom may be from 30 to 140 feet in length, carrying a bucket of from
Y2- to 5-cubic-yards capacity. The digging radius depends on the
length of the boom and the angle at which it is working and rarely extends more than 10 or 15 feet beyond the end of the boom. The

110

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

depth to which such an excavator can dig dep~rids c>i the skill of the operator and the chiiracter 'of the material handled and usually ranges from a few feet to 4b feet. Thiw may be mounted oh standard gage trucks, caterpillar trucks, or skids :ind rollers. Their production
ranges, on the average, ''from 200 to 1,000 yards per 10-hour day, de-
pending entirely on local conditions and the size of the bucket used. Several companies build stea:tn shovels with interchangeable shovel and drag-line booms, the additional equipment costing from $1,000 to $2,500. In this case the same power plant used in shovel work must be used for drag-line work. Before ordering such equipment it is best to be silre that efficient results can be obtained from such
an arrarigement.

POWER-OPERATED GRAB BUCKETS

Buckets of the clam-shell or orange-peel type are used in excavating ahd loading sand directly from the river or pit into cars, bins, or elevating devices, and in unloading barges and transferring the material to cars, hoppers; or stoek piles. Various types of machines have beeri developed to operate, E)UCh buckets. Among these are locomotive cranes, travelling towers, movable bridges, . telpher systems, lighters, dredges, and derricks of either the stiff-leg, travelling, or skid-excavator types. The use of buckets is rapidly becoming general throughout the country for reclaiming and storing material even when the quantity handled is as little as 2;500 tons a year. They. possess the additional adv~ntages of being able to operate with equal ease both above and below the water level and of taking the place of the elevating conveyor systems necessary if power shovels are used in pits where the material must be washed and screened. From one to two round trips per minute can be made with the bucket, but the production will largely depend oh the capacity of the bucket.

Locomotive cranes .-Locomotive cranes are used in Georgia by

the 4-llon Sand Company at Gaillard, and by the Kirkpatrick -Sand

arid Cement b'ompany and the Central of Georgia Sand Company at

Howard. Their type$ and specifications Closely .follow those of the ppwer 'shovei~ and in fact some of the steam shovel companies put OJ;l

the market machhies with interchangeable booms. Locomotive cri:mes
a have much wid'er range .of activity than power shovel~, especially

in pits with high faces, and if the boom is high enough the sand can b~ delivered d1rectly to th~ top of the washing plant without the use

of elevator conveyors.

.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

111

Travelin~ derricks .-The most frequent ~pplication of bucket excavators in sand and gravel pits is some form of travelling derrick (see Plate IV-B). These usually have an A-frame beneath which a mast is mounted on a platform and capable of swinging about on a track over an arc of almost 180. They are moved either on rails or on skids. Those moved on skids are called skid excavators. The range and depth of digging depends on the length of the boom, the power, and the skill of the operator. The bucket is operated by cabies passing over the top of the mast from the drums located behind the frame. The horse-power capacity required ranges from 15 to 50 and the production from 200 to 500 cubie yards per 10-hour day. The material can be loaded directly on cars or delivered to the w~shing plant.
Travellin~ towers .-At a few of the largest plants travelling towers have been erected for unloading sand and gravel from barges. Their capacity is very high and their range large.
Stiff-Je~ derricks .-A single mast or tower made of wood or steel may be erected at the unloading point of sand barges. A revolving boom similar to that in the travelling derrick excavator, and constructed of wood or steel, has the bucket suspended from it. The horsepower required is from 20 to 30, and the cost of erection and equipment around $2,500. Stiff-leg derricks of wood are fairly common in sand pits. At Rome an unloading arrangement of this kind is used by the Rome Sand and Gravel Company to unload sand from scows.
The stiff-leg American derrick is of steel and consists of a tall ver-
tical mast from which a revolving carrier projects horizontally a con-
siderable distance. The bucket is suspended from this and may be moved and operated at any point along it.
Cableway dred~es.-In some parts of the country, particularly in Nebraska, 1 sand is dredged from under water by means of a clamshell bucket or dredge which runs along a cableway. A double cable from 300 to 350 feet long is suspended between two towers, which are from 30 to 50 feet high and from 180 to 250 feet apart. A clam-shell bucket is attached to a clam-head, which in turn is attached to a carrier running along the cableway. The construction is very heavy

1 Condra, G. E., The sand and gravel resources and industries of Nebraska: Nebraska Geol. Survey, Vol. 4, pt. L pp. 65-69.

112

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

the bucket weighing about 3,000 pounds and the carrier 1,500 pounds. The c~pacity of the bucket averages from one to two tons of sand or gravel. In operation the open dredge descends by gravity along the

cableway to the water and sand, and the clam shells are closed on a

load as they are raised. The dredge is first raised to the carrier and is.then drawn to. the tower where it is dumped into a car or hopper.

The dredge makes a trip usually in about 80 seconds and a car can

be loaded easily in an hour.



This method is economical and affords a means of producing sand

from beneath water, either 'in natural lakes or where the ground water

is soon reached. The method is superior to pumping, since the dredge can be operated to depths of 30 to 80 feet. A selection of sand

is impossible with the dredge, and when a portion of the. deposit is

worke_d out the cableway must be moved.

Floatin~ dredtes.-The system is capable of producing large quantities of sand and is more suitable for use in deeper water where the centrifugal dredge can not be efficiently operated, or where the
sand and gravel is too hard-packed to be handl;ld by th~ pump. ~t
can dredge much deeper than most 1ladder 'drec!ges and in this respect is more suitable under certain conditions. The bucket is suspended from a revolving boom attached to tlie stern of the scow or barge.
~;
The cob,struction is similar to that 1:1sed in derricks on land. The capacity would range from .15 to 800 cubic yards per hour with buckets of from _7i cubic yard to 13 cubic yards capacities. A dredge of this type is used by the General Building Supply Company, on Savannah River at Savannah.

Buckets...-The clam-shell and the orange-pee~ ar~ the two gen.,. .eral types of buckets used. The clam-shell bucket ranges in capacity
from U cubic yard to 13 cubic yards and from Yz ton to 13 tons in
weight. The orange-peel bucket is not so widely used as the clam-shell
bucket, nor is it so well adapted to digging hard-packed sand or gravel.
Its size ranges from 2 Cll;bic feet to 10 cubic yards. The cost of either
type of '!Juc_ket of one or two cubic yards capacity is from $700 to
$850.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS OF GEORGIA

PLATE VII

A. SAND-WASHING PLANT, KIRKPATRlCK SAND & CEMEN:.r COMPANY, 2 MILES WEST OF HOWARD, TAYLOR COUNTY

B. SCREW WASHERS, KIR~PATRICK SAND & CEMENT COMPANY, 2 MILES WEST OF HOWARD, TAYLOR COUNTY

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSI TS

113

CENTRTh'UGAL PUMPS

For the production of sand from the bed of streams, or from artificial ponds, centrifugal pumps are the ~post economical devices and have the largest capacity. In Georgia, centrifugal pumps are used on Ocmulgee River at Dames Ferry and Macon; on Peachtree Creek and Sotlth River, near Atlanta; on Savannah River at Augusta and Savannah; _in pumping gravel from an artificial pond at Augusta (Plate V-A); and for temporary use on one or two smaller streams.
Centrifugal sand and gravel pumps usually range in diameter from 4 to 18 inches, although pumps up to 48 inches in diameter have been u ed on Mississippi River for channel-deepening purposes. The capacity of sand pumps is said to range from 12 to 600 cubic yards per hour, depending on their size and the percentage of solids in the liquid. (Fig. 6.) The horsepower required to operate them ranges from 6 to 300. Centrifugal pwnps or hydraulic uction dredges are superior to steam shovels and dipper or elevator dredges, in that they not only pick up the material, but deliver it to any desired point within a reasonable distance of the dredging location. Surh pumps w.iJl

Fig. 6. Six-inch centrifugal sand pump. (Morris Machine Works .)
handle most types of submerged sand and gravel, although where
the material is hard-packed it is necessary to cut it up first with a re-
volving cutter or by a water-jet system. Ordinarily, however, no such arrangement is needed.

.114

GJ?OLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

Usually a pump can handle a liquid having from 10 to 15 per cent of solid material in ."suspension, although the character of the sand or gravel will considerably alter this figure. In some places as high as 40 per cent .solids has been handled. The most efficient proportion of sand to water usually depends on local conditions, and careful experimentation will generally determine this ratio. Due to the nature of the work done by pumps of this type, the efficiency is comparatively low, ranging from 40 to 50 per cent. The constant passage of sand and gravel through the plimp cuts oU:t the manganese linings requiring their Teplacement in the larger pumps every montli or two, but in the smaller. machines their life is much longer. The size of the gravel which can pass the pump openings ranges from a screen, to prevent the entrance of sizes larger than the coarsest grade for .commercial use. Centrifugal pumps may be operated in water ranging from 2 to 30 'feet in dep~h. The most desirable depth for the efficient operation of the pump ranges from 4 to 7 feet. The deeper the '.Vater the more power is reqlrired to suck the sand through the intake pipe, consequently for dredging in deep water grab buckets are more economical. There should be at least 4 feet of .sand in the stream bed where recovery by puniping is planned. Frequently grea~ inconvenience ~s caused by roots and fragments of wood clog-. ging the intake, f:>.artic~Iarly with 4-inch pumps, so that the suction must be reduced unt!i 'the debris frees itself, or the pump may have to be stopped entirely.,a,nd .th,~ intake raised and freed of rubbish by hand. On larger streams such as Ocmulgee and Savannah rivers this trouble is not so co.niJ:hon, but in the smaller creeks it is likely to cause considerable del~y and even prohibit the use of a pump.
Centrifugal pumps may be located to delivei: their product directly into railroad cars, as is 'the case at Dames Ferry and Macon em Ocmulgee River, into bins, or into hoppers, from which it can pass to a grading plant or to a bucket elevator. If delivery is made direct to the shore by the pump. considerable energy will be required to overcome the friction of the delivery pipe, especially if it is very long. The 'maximum economic length of the delivery pipe in Georgia, for 6..,inch pumps, is about 300 feet. Each additional 20 feet reduces the production of the pump half a car daily. With larger pumps longer deliveries are possible. It is economy to deliver the sand direct to cars, provided the track is on a firm foundation to prevent the overflow undermining it.

SAND AND GRAVEL_ DEPOSITS

115

Centrifugal pumps are desirable not only because they can produl)e immense q':lantities of sand but because they furnish a thoroughly washed product, and also because the.v afford a means of economical sand production in pits from below the water level. Their initial cost is low, and the expense of producing sand by this method is, in many cases, actually lower than in any other system. They are not so cumbersome as are other methods of recovering sand from water, ancl since they can be made for smaller capacities than other systems, they enable a mall producer to operate at little cost.

Fig. 7. Portable centrifugal sand pump, (Erie Pump & Engine Works.)
For small production, especially in road and bridge building work, 6-inch pumps, driven by gasolene or steam, have been used. In many cases their work has not been found to be as satisfactory as was expected, usually because the power requilements were underestimated and because twigs and debris so quickly clogged the intake, but it is believed that portable pumps and power outfits similar to that pictured (Fig. 7) hould prove crviceahle, e pecially in the

116

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

northern part of Georgia where sand and gravel deposits are generally confined to the beds of creeks and rivers. Practical sand and gravtl men say it is almost impossible. to use a 4-inch pump, due to debris preventing .the entrance of the sand. In the case of gasolene-operated pumps they should be -belt-driven rather than directly connected to the engine.
In some p~ts, where the ground water is near the surfa;ceand where the sand i~ loosened hydraulically, an artificial pond or sump is created - in the center of the pit, and a eentrifugal pump installed to suck up the sand and raise it to the top of the screening plant or to the washers, scr:eens, or bins. This system is used in connection with hydraulic jetting in sandstone quarries in Pennsylvania and West Virginia,. where the rock, is easily loosened. In Georgia,. the Georgia Sand and Gravel Company, at Augusta, uses a 4-inch pump to raise the material from the pit, which is full "of water due to the high vv'ater table, to the top of the screening plant 24 feet above.

Table giving description and average capacity of - centrifugal sand pumps

Size of pump
in inches
4

Cubic yards material Horse- Will pass Floor
handled power. solids: space per hour required. Diam:-.: required
with fo:r:.each-: eter:k ; <in -.
10 per cent 10 feet'. inches inches .
of solids elevation

14

4

2;\1 40 ..X 31

Max. head, f.eet:
35

---

W~ight.

MR)C Max.

m

R:P;M. H.P. pounds.

---- -

550 15

1,200

-6

30

8

4

68 X 40 28

500 27

2,500

8

60

- 15

6

72 X 48 40-

350 65

5,000

10

90

25

8

94 X 54 35

325 65

7,000

'

12

125

30

10 n4x 66 35

250 100 10,000

15

2_10

50'

10 154 X 78 50

250 180 18,000

18

300

70

10 160 X 80 55

250 208 20,000

20

360

80

10 ---------- ------ -------- ------ --------

24

480

100

10 ---------- .------ --------- ------ --------

32

900

200

10 ---------- ------ -------- ------ --------

36

1,140

250

12 ---------- ------ -------- ------ --------

48

2,040

450

12 ---------- ------ -------- ------ --------

SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

117

CENTRIFUGAL DREDGES
For the production of immense quantities of river sand and gravel large, floating, centrifugal-pump dredges are used. These have been developed to a considerable degree on Mississippi and Ohio rivers. In general they consist of wooden or steel hulls, of light draft but heavy construction, and housed over. The dredging end has an A-frame projecting beyond the hull. The dredging end is usually downstream when working. The centrifugal pump has a steel runner of four curved blades, closely fitted to the casing to prevent leakage back. A large space is provided in the discharge volute due to the wearing action of the sand and gravel. No sharp bends are allowed and all passages in the pump must be larger than those. in the suction pipe to prevent obstruction.
Stirring devices, consisting usually of water. jets, agitate the sand and permit it to be easily sucked up. The discha-rge pipe delivers the material into a barge or scow which is fitted with a screen to keep out large stones and debris., The largest dredges have two engines, one on each side, usually steam-driven, and either vertical or horizontal, to permit loading two barges at once. The man feeding the suction head is situated so he can see the discharge mixture and reg.:: ulate the depth of the pump thereby.
Although the cost of reclaiming sand arid gravel by this method is small, averaging from 10 to 30 cents a yard in 1919, the necessity of rehandling from the barges to cars as well as the lack of conven- , ient storage facilities, adds greatly to the marketing cost.

LADDER DREDGES
When a large production is necessary in rivers wher:e the sand and gravel is so hard-caked that it will not readily flow into the suction head of centrifugal pumps, ladder or belt-bucket dredges are used. This type is not at present operated in Georgia, although the Rome Sand and Gravel Company formerly used one in dredging on Ostanaula River, at Rome. They are used mostly on upper Ohio River and on Allegheny River near Pittsburgh, at Buffalo, and at Philadelphia;. A large dredge has recently been placed in operation on Chesapeake Bay near Baltimore. Although a tremendous production is possible with this type of dredge it can be used only in comparatively shallow water.

118

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

The hullls of heavy wood or steel construrtion and of the. Equare barge type with light draft. The dredging apparatus is placed either at the end .Or on the side. The 'buckets must be of extremely heavy construction and consist of steel plates riveted together by a chain formed of steel-bar links so as to .per:nht working around tumblers. Roller. bearings are placed along the ladder at intervals to insure uniform sup19ort. The material is dumped at the top tumblE;r on to moving screens, the sand passing in one direction and the gravel in the other, and the empty buckets returning. unsuppQrted. The boiler and engine equip~ent must be sufficient to revolve the buckets, raise and lower dredging end of ladder, operate capstans and siphons, and possibly propel the dredge.
'rhe buckets used on ladder dredges range in capacity from 1 to 14 cubic' feet and almost any production desired can be oBtained. The dredges may simply dig the sand and_ gravel; or, as in Il\orc recent types, the barge may be equipped with complete washing and screening apparatus. Gillette 1 gives an average cost of 23 cents a yard in 1918. to produce sand and gravel by this method. It is certainly inferior to drag-line and pumping systems, and its use should only be considered where compact, indurated material is concerned.

HYDRAULICKiNG

A method of loading san~, not generally used in the East, is to direct a strong jet of water against the sand-pit face, and carry the lopsened sand and water in troughs supported ~y light trestle work direct to the car, plant, or to a sump from _which it is delivered by a centrifugal.pump.

At Gaillarcl, Georgia (see p. - ) , the Atlanta Sand and Supply

Company produces sand from one of their pits hydraulically. (Plate

V-B.) In Pennsylvania, in some of the glass sandstone quarries, the

'san9-stone is friable. enough to be loosened in this way. 2 The water

carries the sanc:l down to a central sump, or pond, from whkh it is

delivered to the washing, screening; and drying plant by a 4- or 6inch centrifugal pump. Sand and gravel is produced by this ~ystern:

at many places on the Pacific coast. The hydraulic method insures

economical production of washed sand, since the run-of,f water from

-

~

1 Gillette, H. P.', Handbook of cost data, 1919.

.

2 Boehringer, R. A., Hydraulic sand-mining plant: I}ng, News, Vol. 72 pp. 372-374, 1914.

S..AND ..AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

119

the car or bin carries with it considerable clay and foreign matter. It is not to be recommended, however, where the water supply is small or where it is required to be raised a great distance to the face. The grade necessary to carry the sand from the face to the point of delivery, generally from 6 to 15 per cent, is such. that unless the sand
deposit is of great thickness, or unless it slopes down toward the work-
, ing face, a height equal to the thickness of the deposit will soon be necessary to transport the water and sand to the cars or bins. Six volumes of water to one of sand, five volumes of water to one of gravel, and four volumes of water to one of a mixture of sand and gravel, are required in the hydraulic system.
Deposits containing from 20 to 25 per cent waste were reclaimed by this method at a cost of 15 cents a yard in 1915, on the Pacific coast. Plants producing from 300 to 2,500 yards daily were able to operate at a cost per yard, including recovery and treatment, of 8 to 15 cents in 1915. A Seattle sand plant used two hydraulic giants delivering water at the face at 90 pounds pressure. A continuoutS bucket elevator carried the sand to the top of the screening piant. Six men were employed and 800 yards were produced in b hours.
Hydraulic jets have also been _used in stripping saud or gravel deposits. For this pu.rpose ample water, good grades1 and drainage are necessary. For day overburden more water, higher pressure,. and steeper grades are required than for loam. Usually the amount of water is more important than the pressure. In the case of a deposit described by W. H. Wilms 1, soft loam needed 8 per eent grades and 1,500 gallons of water at 75 pounds pressure for each cubic yard removed. An average c.ost of 6 cents a yard is given for hydraulic stripping.

PREPARATION OF SAND FOR THE MARKET
Very little Georgia sand or gravel is washed or screened before shipment. Most of it is loaded directly from the bank into cars or pumped into cars or bins from streams. This is undoubtedly the cheapest way to handle sand, but in many cases it is certainly not the most economical. Although the clay content may not always detract from the value of a sand so far ::LS producing concrete is concerned, there is a growing demand for clean sand. Since screening
i Development of sand and gravel deposits: Eng. News, Vol. 72, pp. 908-911, 1914.

120'

GEOLOGIGJJ,L -SURVEY OF GEORGIA

i .s usually a process requiring little additional outlay, if the sand is washed, the division of the product into several uniform grades is
especially desirable. A much higher price can be obtained for the
cot'l,rser, cleaner grades, so that the additional expense of treatment .is well repaid. In installing washing and screening plants the future growth of the .business should be considered, and the plant' constructed to allow of ready additions or alterations. [t should also be borne in mind that the most ecomonical operation of .such plants depends largely .on a steady flow of. material through them. Intermittent de-
a -liveries of sand to the plant are costly' and rp.ay in the end consume
the profits. It is also absolutely essential, if the plant is to b,.) success, that the operator be thoroughly acquainted with the demand for its products as well as their character and amount, before deciding how much money to spend on a plant. There have been a I;J.Umber of failures _in Georgia due to incorrectly estimating the supply _and demand and buying too much equipment. A knowledge of . the market for the different grades is also essential in designing the plap.t, in order that there will be no wastage of any. of the sizes, particularly the finer-gra~ned size~.

WASHING AND SIZING

-

.

-

Aside Jrom; the natural. washing sand receives when pumped from

. -strearp.s, only two plants in Ge0rgia wash their p~oduct. (Plates

V.l:A,. VII-A.) Much ~of Georgia sand is riaturaUy clean, and waslr-

ing, for most purposes,. might not improve it, except that the water

would aid screening.

The usual principle 1 employed. in washing and sizing sand or

gravel is to conduct _the material to the top of a frame-work structure

or tower .and allow it to work its way downward by gravity through

mvolving screens of different sizes which separates it into the various

.grades desired and direct its course to the several bins, cars, or pits.
A two- .to: four~inch stre:am of_water is raised to the top of the tower

and is jetted on the sand as it passes over the screens. (See Fig. 8

and Plate. VI-B.) About 60 per cent of the sand and water deliv-

ered to the receiving hopper is water. It usually requires about one

gallon of water per minute per cubic yard of material handled.

1 Wilms, W ..H., Operation of sand and gravel plants: E:qg. News, Vol. 72, pp. 962-966; 1914.

Concrete Gravel

Roofing Gravel

Torpedo Sand

Fig. 8. General Arrangement of Washing and Screening Plant, Using Gilbert Screens.

(Stephens-Adamson Company )

.

Sand

. .

122

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

The essential idea in washing is to ~gitate the material sufficiently to reduce the lumps of clay, so that they can be carried away in the

wash water, leaving the sand and gravel behind. Such agitation should remove films of clay from the individual sand grains or pebbles. In screening or sizing, the raw material sllould pass first to the coarsest screen, s~nce here the largest proportion of material will be removed, and the construction of this screen is better able to stand the strain and vV-ear o{ the entire product passing over it. The screens

of the next smaller sizes should follow, so that the finest and lighest screen will have the least amount of material to handle. Better screening efficiency is also obtained in this. way, since the screens are

not overcrowded. SoJJ?.e clayey materials require a preliminary wash-

ing before going to the screens. This is usually accomplished by

scrubbers or screen washers. No two sand pits afford :exactly sin:iilar conditions, hence it is nee-

-essary to carefully. study local conditions befere deciding upon a de-

sign for a plant.

Screens.---8creens may be- either conical or cylindrical. the

conical type,. however, is prefe;rable. Conical screens may be either

horizontal or inclined.
In the horiwntal type the material is :feq from the spout or trough into the 'lntetror; or ~mallei' end- ofth~ screen and works down the' con.e slop~ against.. water jets toward the next h;gher /

screen
. '\

until

it

reaches

the

l
.

a.rg

e

r
.

.e.nd

of

the

screen where

it

drops

to a trough or launder and IS cairned downward .to the next lower

scree:o.. Each screen is rotated~ on a separate shaft, ,the revolutions

being about 12 to 14 per minute for smaller screens and fr.om

Q to 11 for larger sizes. Since the material works against a stream of water, better separation of clay and other impurities is obtained

in this type of screen. The capacity is also said to be greater than

one in which water and sand flow in the same direction.. A separate

drive, for each screell shaft, however, requires the use of more power.

It is said that screens of this typeare in use in 90 per cent of the gravel

washing plants in the United States.



Inclined conical screens are also. widely used in sand and gravel plants. The angle of inclination should be such as to insure the ready

mo'Vement of the material through the system and 'at the same time

not allow so rapid a progress as to prevent thorough washing_ and
screening. This angle will vary with different types of material and
'different capacities but in .general it is about 172 inches per foot. The

SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

123

sand is fed to the upper, or larger end of the screen and works down. ward, passing into the next lower screen. All the screens are gen-
erally mounted on the same continuous shaft which in operation makes 10 to 12 revolutions per minute.
Cylindrical screens are used in some of the older plants, but they are not so efficient as the inclined conical type, except possibly where the material is screened dry. They frequently consist of two screens one within the other. Screens of this type were used at the plant of the Rome Sand and Gravel Company at Rome.
Shaking screens are sometimes used but they are advised against, since the constant agitation quickly wears them out. Screen apertures should preferably be round, since stones will not plug up round holes as readily as square holes. Any number of screens may be used, depending on the number of grades of material desired. If three screens are employed they are usually 17'2-inch, %-inch, and n-inch.
Separators.-Sand separators are usually of two types, (1) valved and (2) tippint. The valved or stationary separators are usually of conical- _or wedge-shaped construction with the smallest end downward and are most desirable in large plants. The sand accumulates in the tank until its weight is sufficient to overcome the counterweight which operates to hold a valve tightly seated over the opening fn the bottom, when the valve opens and the sand runs out into cars or bins until equilibrium ]s restored and the valve closes. At some places the valves are opened by. a man at the "top."
Tipping separators are of wood or steel construction, either wedgeshaped or square, 'and generally balanced on knife edges and held upright, when empty or only partially filled, by a counterweight. After a certain. weight of sand is in the tank, it becomes overbalanced and tips causing the sand to dump out into cars or bins. Some small plants have two sand separators, the coarse sand collecting in one, and the fine sand passing over the top with the overflow into another separator where it collects, and the silt and mud passing off into launders with the wash water.
Screw washers .-Crushed sandstone for glass-making purposes is generally washed in sand-washing screens. The plant of the Fitzpatrick Sand and Cement Company at Howard, Ga., uses five wash-

124

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

ing screws 1272 feet long for washing its product. (Plate VII-B). Plants producmg concrete aggregate in other states use this type of washer to some extent. The usual type of screw washer consists of a wooden trough from 8-to 12 feet long and from 16 to 24 inches wide, inclined. from 186 to 20 from the horizontal (31 to ?4 per cent), and containing a cast-iron rotating screw conveyor with wide blades. Sand to be washed is fed i:a at the~lower end of the washer and water enters at the top. The ro~ating screw forces the sand upward against the stream of water which cleanses it of clay. and silt and carries away -those materials in suspension. The screens may be set up in batteries of two, three, four, five, ancl. six washers each, arranged either parallel to each other, or in tandem. When arranged in parallel th~ sand leaving the top of one washer is delivered at the bottom of the ne1.'t parallel washer. When arranged in tandem the sand falls directly from the top of one washer to the bottom of the one above. Screw washers can handle from 10 to 20 tons of sand each per 10-hour day, and require about one horsepower for the operation of each screw, which cost froni $100 to $175 each. Wash~rs of this type are desirable. in small plants, and they are considered more effective in freeing the grain from adhering clay than ordinary revolving screens.
. Scrubb'ers.-Where a -gr_avel or .sa,nd contaip.s .a ~ar:ge percentage
ofci~Y., ii{rb.~y be ;e;;;.o"ved before or during screening by a preliminary vJashing called scrubbing. The preliminaty washing. is generally accomplished by .passing the materiaL through ~ solid cy1indrica1 shell with internal retaining ririgs which divide it into compartments. The$e retaining rings slow up the passage of the mat.erial t~ough the cylinders and allow lifting vanes, which project inward a few inches, to raise the sand and gravel and drop it into -water, thus washing it and carrying it forward to the opening through which it passes to the scr.eens. For scrubbing a small scrubber of one compartment _is attached to the end of each screen at which the sand is introduced.

CRUSHING METHODS

When sandstone or quartzite is quarried for glass manufacture it

.is necessary to crush the hard rock into the component grains. Some

No gravel plants use crushing machinery to r~duce oversize pebbles and

boulders to commercial sizes.

sandstone is crushed in Georgia

now, but in 1915 a few carloads of sandstone from Rocky Face, in

Walker C-ounty, were crushed and shipped.

In Pennsylvania,- where
-,

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

125

great quantities of Oriskany sands~one and Pottsville conglomerate are quarried for glass making; in West Virginia, where the Oriskany sandstone is quarried; and in Missouri, where the Dakota sandstone is used, most of the product is put through various types of crushing devices for its reduction to grain size. To a lesser extent crushing is practiced in a few glass factories 'o reduce sand to a finer-grained product than the form in which it is mined. Crushing of silica rock, either as sandstone, quartzite, ganister, or incoherent sand, is necessary in the manufacture of silica and sand-lime brick. In Georgia, sand for the manufacture of sand-lime brick is crushed at the Tift Silica Brick Company's plant at Albany.
The following types of machines are in general use in washing and grinding silica rock and sand:

Crushers

Jaw crushers~(Blake typ-e ~Gates type

Gyratory crushers

Chaser mills

Grinding pans

Pulverizers and disintegrators

Tube mills



Pall mills

Crushers.-Crushers are used for crushing the. large blocks of . sandstone as they come from the quarry. Jaw crushers consist of the Blake type, which is the one most generally used in sand crushing work, and the Gates type. A jaw crusher having a 20 x 10-inch opening can handle from 15 to 25 tons of sandstone daily, crushing it to a diameter of 3 inches. Such a machine requires 15 to 25 horsepower to operate it and costs about $600.
Gyratory crushers consist of a central tapering spindle which rotates on an eccentric and grinds the rock between it and the outer circular walls of the machine. These crushers have much larger capacities than the jaw crushers, and a few are in use in sandstone quarries and in gravel plants for the reduction of oversize boulders. Gyratory crushers 4 x 15 inches in size of receiving opening, have a daily capacity of from 20 to 40 tons, requiring from 3 to 4 horsepower and costing about $700.

Chaser mills and grinding pans .-To further reduce the sandstone after it has come from the crushers, or to handle directly the smaller material from the quarry that has passed through the grizzly, chaser mills and grinding pans are used.. These machines may be

126

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

used either to grind the rock with the addition of water or to grind it dry. Wet grinding machines consist of fixed circular steel pans, ranging from 6 to 9 feet in diameter, in which- two heavy steel rollers, mounted on a horizontal shaft, revolve. The rollers in a 9-foot pan have 12 inches rolling su:t:face and weigh from 5,000 to 6,000 pounds each. The ground material leaves the p~n through screens on opposite sides; A 9-foot pan will handle from 100 to 250 tons daily, depending on the friability of the sandstone. About 35 horsepower is reqUired to operate .a pan of this type, and the cost ranges from $1,200 to $1,500. The dry-grinding pans are used in plants where the sand is sh,ipped without washing. The rolls of these- machines turn on a horizontal axis and the pan also. rotates.
' Tube mills .-Tube mills are used in grinding sand to smaller sizes for sa:qd-lime brick manufacture, and in grinding quartz and quartzite to fine grains, and even_ powders, for use in the arts and industries. They are cylindrical in shape, built of heavy boiler-plate steel, and are revolved on a horizontal shaft. They range from 3V2 to 6 feet in diameter and from 14 to 22 feet in length. Enough steel
1
or flint balls, 2 to 3 inches in diameter, are put into the mill to fill it one-third; and the sand, which is introduced through an opening at orie end with the lime or: other materials used in the manufacture of the- product, learves the mill at the other end~ A 6-'fo-ot mill makes 25 revolutions per minute, and has ail average caparcity of from 40 to 60 tons darily.
DRYERS
Sand used in locomotives is always dried, and at many places the sand used in the manufacture of glass and sand-lime brick is also dried. In Georgia the various railroads have usually installed small -conical dryers at sand pits along their line for preparing the sand, or _in some. cases have built large dryers at ~heir main shop.
The usual type of small dryer consists of a stove around which cylindrical or conical sheathing of sheet iron is built forming a space holding from one to two cubic yards of sand betweeri the sheathing and the stove. The lower part of this container is perforated with holes one inch in diameter and three inches apart,. so that the sand as it dries trickles out through the holes into a bin or other receptacles. In warm, dry weather from 30 to 40 minutes are required to dry a yard of sand.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

127

The general system in use where large quantities of sand are dried is to construct a frame house of two or three stories. The stoves are placed in the first story and drums, two feet in diameter, are placed around them, which extend upward through the roof, but are much smaller in the upper stories. Around the stoves sheet-iron jackets -are placed which expand at their upper ends permitting the sand to settle between them and the stove. The jackets are perforated at their base to allow the dried sand to escape jnto chutes or bins.
The wet or green sand is discharged from cars into the second story from which it works its way downward around the stoves to the first story. From here it may be delivered directly to cars or locomotives or elevated to a third story where it can be stored.
There are several types of dryers for glass sand in use, but the steam dryer is the most modern and efficient. The sand is discharged into horizontal steam pipes arranged in tiers in the dryers. 1
Direct heat dryers are also used. This type consists of a rotating cylinder, heated by gas, oil, or coal fuel, into which the wet sand is . fed at one end and discharged dry at the other end.

STORAGE
In plants producing washed sand and gravel it is desirable, and in fact profitable, to have surplus storage facilities, which can be drawn upon when the plant is temporarily shut down for repairs, .or in winter, and in which the various sized products may accumulate in dull seasons or when the demand for certain grades is temporarily slack. For example, a large order may be received for gravel, but there may be no ready sale for the sand. In order to avoid sacrificing the sand at an unprofitable figure, which would be necessary if there was no place to store it, it can be put into bins or stock piles for use a few days later when the demand increases.
Sand and gravel for structural purposes cari. be piled in large stock piles in the summer for winter use without harming the sand. This is the most general way of storing the material. The piles can be built up by transporting the sand over belt conveyors supported on a wooden or steel framewo k and, in the case of the larger plants, distributed over a large area from a wooden or steel trestle. Loading is accomplished usually by bucket and crane or stiff-leg derrick. Many
1 Fettke, C. R., Glass manufacture and the glaRs sand industry of Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania Geol. Survey, Rept. XII, 1919.

128

GEOLOGICAL SuRVEY OF GEORGIA

of the larger plants have storage bins of steel or wood of "from 200 to 600 cubic yards capacity, the sand being delivered to cars by gravity. (Plate VIII-A.) These bins prevent waste and afford ,more economical means of handling, but they are not necessary. Plants producing locomotive sand require inside storage, since this type of sand must be kept dry.

PROSPECTING FOR SAND AND GRAVEL
J!or convenience we may describe the prospecting of sand and gravel deposits .under three main headings :
L Stream deposits. 2. Bank deposits. 3. Sandstone deposits.

STREAM .DEPOSITS CHARACTER OF DEPOSITS

_ In placing a value on river or creek deposits of sand and gr_avel,

the size of the stream, its rate of flow, and the amount of detritus . carri~d must be considered, since it is on these factors that the replenishment of the . deposit~ depend. Large streams like Ocmulgee or

Oc:qnee rivers will bring sufficient sand down during a rise of a foot

m two to completely replace sand that has been removed during
motfiJh.s of pumping.
T~e stream bed is an ir:q.portant matter also. VVh.ere it is shoaly

and:the water swift, there is little opportunity for very large deposits,

but in the quiet reaches beyond the shoals, the slackened, sand-laden

wat~r deposits immense quantities of its burden...

Usually a prominent point on the inside of a curve is especially

favorable. for. the collection of sand. The coarseness and quality of

this sand will differ with the swiftness of the stream. VVh.ere the

stream is broad and sluggish for long distances, a finer deposit is to

be expected than in the narrow, swifter parts.

.

~_At .the confiuencesof smaller, swifter streams with the main stream,

the consequent slowing of the current of the smaller, sand:,;bearing

streams usually produces thick sand or gravel deposits. Old mill;..

ponds or areas of backed water due to damming further down the

stream afford excellent settling basins for sand.

SANTJ AND GllLlVEL DEPOSI1'S OP Gb'OLWIA

Pf,A'/'8 JI L/i

A. BINS AND DELIVERY TRUCK<S, ACME SAND & SUPPLY COMPANY, PEACHTREE ROAD AT PEACHTREF: CREEK. ATLAl\"TA. F LTON COUNTY

B. LOOKING UP MAGRUDER CREEK FROM BRIDGE ON FORT GAl ES-GEORGETOWN ROAD, 12 MILES NORTH OF FORT GAINES, CLAY COUNTY

SAND AND GRAVEL .DEPOSITS

12~

TESTING.

The sand supply which a .stream, ~nd particula:r;:l:v. the smaller ones;

is likely to maintain, ,is usually conside_rably -. over~est~mated. -, An

error of this character will be c~stly, since the instaliatio~n 'of a pl)mp

and loading facilities requires a considerable rri~riey .Qutl~y.'_ A depth

of at least four feet of sand iri the stream bed i,s necess~~y before pumP:

ing is warranted.

. .

- :_ - '

.~

For local purposes small creeks- 8 to 2U feet. wide. ~ilf usually produce sufficient sand. As the san~ 'in such streams is \isually under-
lain at a shallow depth of two or three feet 'by clay or ':r:riud, the actu~l

thickness of the sand can be easily determined by fbrcirig a strong

stick or iron rod down into the sand. :As long as it passes' througH

sand it ~ill require considerable energy to' work it' in, but the moment

it enters the clay a' mark~d contrast is: noted, anc(ihe stick can' b~

pushed in quite easily. A -coatfug of blue clay may adhere, to the

.lower part of the rod after removing it from- the ~t~eam: bed.

'.

For finding. the depth of sa~d ~nd graver iil larger, deepet

streams a man in a boat with a longiron or wo'6de{pole can u~u~lly

locate the sandy or gravelly areas by the gritty' feel,: as well as est~

mate their thickness by forcing the pole into the sand.

To obtain a sample of sand and grav.el in deeper streams a tin pail
securely fastened to the end of a st~ong poie is used. The sand should

be taken at different points .across the stream a,nd also in the direc-.

tion of flow, Samples representing as great a depth of the sami a$' possible should be obtained .and all thoroughly m:ix~d and quartered

down to convenient size. Areas in the stream bed showing differ.-

ences in the sand should be represented by separate samples.

In some larger streams the sand deposits are -constantly shifting

and it may be impossible to tell whether a great ,rise in the wate:r

stage will leave a large deposit, sweep the bed entirely, clear, or change

the character of the sand itself from place to pl'ace. -

Estimation of the amount of. sand carried daily by mall streams

. is important. An approximation of this can be rnaae by, sinking a

wooden

box

to

the

level

of

the

top

of

the '

sand

in.

the

str.eam

bed,

and

then measuring the amount of sand that collects in :the: box during a

certain period. From this amount the total sand carried oown bj

the entire width of the stream in a day can be. easily figured which

will serve as an estimation of what can 'be removed daily. from the

stream. Tests of this kind can also be made during: a: :freshet to find

the amount of sand likely to be replaced.

1:30

GJJtO~OGIOAL SURVEY .OF GEORGIA

BANK DEPOSITS
Sand or .gravel deposits outside a stream bed or bar may be broadly termed baiik: .deposits. The most favorable places for detailed prosvee:tihg for ba.llit deposits are along streams. In. making such examlnati.ons it should. be reinemberecf that the stream was not "always in
its present positlon with respect to' elevation, except in the case of those streams in the lowlands of the eastern Coastal Plain.
'
Throughout most g Georgia the. streams have gradually cut out
ar valley for themselves of diff~rent depths depending on the age of the stream. In- former ages the stream occupied different higher
fuvels for some time, so that the deposition of sand and gravel was
permitted. . B;ence careful search along the terraces of rivers or on
or the sides or top hills near streams, but at present 15 to 100 feet above
them, may prove. successful. Deposits or this character occ:ur along Little Ocmulgee River- at and above Lumber City, along Coosa and Etowah rivers. ill Floyd and Bartow counties, along the first and second terraces of Chattahoochee River, south of Columbus, and along
many other rivers ~nd streams.

SANb'"ltti::JL DEPOSIT'S
'
. Fluvial san:d. iliepositg .~ome of the most conspicuous sand deposits of the~<JoastaJ, Plain of Georgia are those that occur along the
left (east or north). banks of many of the larger streams. They are Wh1e,. gray, and yellow; genera~ly mediurn-graine<i; becoming a little coarser with depth; and, in many places, 20 to 40 feet irr thickness. Their surface. expression. is undulating, sometimes hilly, .with un-
drained tleptessions not uncommon. They support a scrubby growth of black-jack and pine. Deposits of this type ate developed t0 a
remarkable degree along Ohoopee River, west of Reidsvill.e; Little Ocmulgee River; two miles northeast ofHelena; Flint River, opposite Albany and Newton; and along Hurricane and Seventeenmile cr:eeks, near Alma- an.d Douglas, respectively. Their e;act origin has been in. doubt7 although it is believed that wind has been an important. factor in producing their present form.
When. seen in secti9ns ~(Fig. 9) the upper 5 to 10 feet show no signs . of stratification, although this sand is usually finer than the -rest of-
.the deposit Below the upper part, practically all of those sand de-
posits examined, show a more or less distinct stratification consisting

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

.131

of thin, wavy, brown layers of clayey sand, making up about onesixth of the total section, between thicker layers of clean, yellow sand. In some regions the clayey strata are so indefinite that a slightly darker

layer, a few grains thick, is all that

.5-to' indicates them; elsewhere the clay

may form so large a proportion of

the bed as to spoil the sand for

commercial purposes. The thick-

Fig. 9. Generalized section of Fall Line and fluvial sand-hill deposits.
1. Reddish..;yellow clay;

ness of this stratified portion is from 10 to 20 feet, and it is usually succeeded below by a coarser,

2. White sand.
3. Yellowish to brown sand with wavy strata.
4. Gray to yellow, wind-blown sand.

white, exceptionally clean sand, broken by lenses or strata of red clayey sand.

From the distinctly stratified character of the lower part of practically all these deposits, together with their association with streams, it would seem that they were originally formed on both sides of the streams as flood deposits, the sand having been deposited when the current was swift, and when it became slower a thinner layer of clayey sand was laid down. Later, upon drying, this sand was easily transported by wind, and since the prevailing winds are from the south and west, it is natural to suppose that the sand. on the south and west sides of the streams has been blqwn by the wind to the opposite sides where a greater thickness has accumulated. Much of the sand has, of course, been blown far beyond the stream banks, infact, the origin of the widesprea<f surficial interstream deposits, so typical of the Coastal Plain, and which cover a large part of South Georgia with sand to a depth of from a few inches to several feet, may possibly be explained in this way rather than to a recent advance of the sea. The fact that this surficial layer is simply a veneer on the older deposits and conforms closely to the present topography, together with the sharp contacts it makes with underlying red and yellow clays, or clayey sands, also indicates that its origin is neither marine, nor due to river terraces, nor is it always due to leaching of the iron oxide coloring material.
Similar deposits on the east and north sides of streams are known along Sautee River in South Carolina; along many streams in Western Florida and also along Red River in Texas.

132.

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

Prospecting for medium-grained sand of this kind is a simple matter, consisting merely..in .visiting t~e east and north. sides of the Coastal Plain rivers or larger creeks near railway crossings. Cannoochee, Ogeechee, Oho.op~e, Altamaha, Satilla, and Little Ocmulgee riverS' are paltticularly favorable for sand accumulation as well as a number of
smaller creeks and rivers in the south and southeast part of Georgia.

Fall Lfne sand hills.-.Heavy and extensive deposits of -pale

yellow sand occur along the Fall Line almost from A-ugusta to Co-

lumbus, either close to the Crystalline rocks or more usually separated
frbm the ~ctua1 Fall Line .by from Yz mile to 5 miles. This sand

closely resembles the fluvial sand hills of the Coastal Plain, but is more extensive and usually thicker. It is ~eadily located by the scrubby vegetation- of sharp-leafed black. jack, ahd the general ~are

;ness of the area. In deposit:f.l S() extensi:v~ as these.the,pri~cipal con-

sideration is nearness to railway transportation.



FALL LINE GRAVEL DEPO~ITS

The vicinity of the Fall Lin~ along t~e entire eastern Unit.ed States

is fav:orable for sand and gravel deposits, siri.ce it represents the gen-

era) outcrop of basal .deposits of' great rivers and of the sea upon an

ancient E;liore. Deposits of thirs kind; particularly when Close to their

source, are apt to contain large. perceni'ages of gravel and sand. Much
evidence of gravel can he found along the.Fa,l Lme iii Geo.rgia, at and

ne,ar the tops of the uplands, or hills, especia1ly near the cities of A11-
gusta, Macon, a~d Columbus. . In passi~g .southeastward froni the areas of schists and gneisses

in the Coastal Plain the first deposits encountered are usually gravels

with layers and lenses of clay: Examples of these are clearly seen

along the Hamilton road four miles from Co'umbus arid along the

Mitchell and Mayfield roads a few miles south ofWarrenton. Gravel

/

ir~dications are particularly abundant J;lear the intersection of large

strea~s with the Fall Line, as al9ng Chattahoochee, Flint, .Ocmulgee,

Oconee, Ogeechee, and Savannah rivers. The deposits usually occur
at or. near the tops o:f terrace hills along the rivers, but in the inter-

stream areas the gravel; may occur underlying almost any type 9f

topography. Their thickness, however, is usually much less than

those near the rivers. This entire region has numerous water wells

which, together with road-cut data, render a detailed search for gravel

simple, and productive of definite results.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

.133

Gravel deposits in other parts of the Coastal Plain do not appear to follow any regular arrangement. Where indications of them are found, further search is invariably most profitable on the tops of hills, or on the hillsides near the top.
Considerable gravel occurs along Chattahoochee River on its upper terraces and especially along tributary .streams from one to two miles back from the river. These deposits usually are found at or near the top of hills, but they may compose both the first and second bo toms of the tributaries, and extend for some distan~e back from them.

TESTING

The money and time spent in a preliminary examination and t-est-

ing of supposed sand and gravel deposits is spent simply to insure, in

a measure, any future outlay that may be made in their development.

Its necessity may be unapparent to some, but the wisdom of such work

has been 'demonstrated on .numerous occasions,_ when it has disclosed

conditions which, if disregarded, would have resulted in considerable

financial loss. Although considerably more extensive and less subject

to injurious lateral variation than most mineral deposits, sand and

gravel beds very frequently and commonly pinch out or deteriorate

in quantity in short distances. It is to determine the character of

the numerous layers both in thickness and quality, that detailed in-

vestigation of a reputed deposit is so desirable. Road and railway

cuts, rain-worn gullies and exposures along streams, or even the sur-

face expression and vegetation of the deposits will genera.ly serve as

an index of their character. Lacking these a careful examination of

dug or bored wells in the area should be made, either by actual in-

spection of the well, or if this is impossible, by obtaining the data

from the well digger or wel' driller.



In districts where the local peculiarities of the sand or gravel are

already well known, evidence such as the foregoing might furnish,

may be sufficient to base an opinion as to the value of the deposit;

more usually, however, such data serves merely to reject a deposit

entirely, or to warrant the time and expense of a more detailed exam-

ination. When a sand deposit is believed to fully warrant such work

the best way to test it is by boring and digging holes either by hand,

post-hole augers, or post-hole diggers. Pits are by far the best means

of prospecting a sand deposit, since day-free sand will not stand un-

supported long enough to go sufficiently deep with augers or post-hole

134

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

diggers. The holes should b.e laid off in some regular fashion either in regular or staggere9; rows. equally separated. In the method shown by Fig. 10 the maximum distance any point in the tested area can be from a hole or pit is 35 feet; and in that shown in Fig; 11 the maximum distance is 40. feet. In. the first method 25 holes would be nec-
essl;llry to completely test an acre, and in the second only 18 are :o.eeded.
Pits should be dug so that -ail accurate representative sample can be obtained:, .and the actual. thicknesses of gravel and. clay. or sand layers measured.. Holes or pits need :not be so closely spaced where the deposits tend to considerable 1egularity; usually the distance between pits can be changed to suit the local conditions.

Q_-,.,5.~.!...,0.

0

.I

~

oI, - o.

0

0

o. 0

0

0

0

0

.If!

Q

0

0-70'-,0

-~~ .I

\ ; '~- "<""

!\~

~ 0 ~
I

0

0

0
0 -0

0 0 -
0

Q

9

0

0

0

0 -

0

0

0

.0

0 .. 0

0

.

Fig. 10; Method of placi.rig test

pit.s.i o::Q. an acre of gtound by.

quadrilateral_ system...

0

0

0

0

Fig. H. Method of placing test pits on an area of slightly more
than an acre by otaggered syotem.

} ''Tlie.. data 'obtained from the test;pits should be plotted on a map
of "tlie prbperty upon which the relief has been indicated' by rough
cont:<iu.t~, in .order to show the relation between the oveiburden and
the slope of the ground. This data shquld consist of a description of the nature of the material penetrated, with its thickness; the thick- .. ness of waste material, both above the commercial sand and gravel,
oi hi.t~r-calated; the .depth of the pit; the .depth to water and the-ap-
proxinlate amount of water and a description and samples of the sand and gravel. Where any considerable change is eiicountered from'.one pit to another, or at different levels in the same pit, a separate _sample should he taken to be tested..

Sa-mpling.-Probably the most difficult thing in connection with
the ex:amination of a sand or gravel deposit is the sampling. Minor changes in a bed occur s~ quickly that even if a sample is to repre-

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

135-

sent the true character of the material within a radius of a few feet it must be very carefully selected. It must represent the entire face sampled and not a few feet of the best material. To accomplish this a narrow trench should first be scooped or picked out; the point of a shovel or the mouth of a sample bag is then held close to the face and moved slowly down as the uniform removal of the sampled m~ terial progresses, taking care that everything is caught. In this way there is greater possibility of obtaining an equal amount of material from each inch or foot of the face.
Where the sand or gravel is of the same general character throughout the pit, a number of samples taken as indicated from differe:r;it parts of the pit should be assembled and thoroughly mixed and then smoothed out into a circular area. This circle should be divided into quarters.: two diagonal quarters should be rejected) and the two remaining mixed and .again quartered, .the operation repeated "Qntil a sample of convenient size has been obtained.- _If the pit shows differences from one_ part to another, samples representative of each part should be treated in the manner just described.
In_ many Georgia sand deposits, even in those apparently most uniform, careful scrutiny will show two or more grades of sand, which if handled separately would be more profi.tabl~. In such deposits it would be unwise to judge the whole by a mixture of two or more parts, unless no attempt is to be made to grade the sand. On the other hand, a high rating placed on the pit on the basis of a very high-grade sand, occurring only over half the area, would manifestly lead to inconvenience, if not ruinous trouble. By properly blen.ding {see pp. 48-49) two types of sand occurring in the same pit, a mixed sand may be obtained for which a higher price may be had than for either of the unmixed grades.
If the sample is to be shipped a folded paper should be put insid'e with the description written in pencil, as well as. a description or nui:hber on the outside. Canvas or cotton bags holding from 10 to 25 pounds are suitable_for most purposes, although for refi-ned work _air.:... tight tin containers are used for larger samples.

...~I..~ .

; :/;

Jl~H~

GEOLOG-ICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

!

-.,,,

1~. !l i .

.CON.. DlT.IO. NS AF. FECTIN. G DEVELOPMENT

~- Tyorkabie plii~~n~ss .-arid extent.-The thiclaiess of a deposit
.wm ori n~cessary to' warrarit the' expe~s~ of opening depend the' scarcity
of the materiaV, its accessibility,- arid it~ quality; Due to distance from railro~ds, :large deposits o~ sand 20 to 30. feet thick in Crawford

and Taylor counties., and along many South Georgia streamf? are_not :p-eing work;ed,, J:m~ ,i:q. .reg~ons wp~re .sand. is m~ch less. plentiful deposits of from 4 to 6 feet are being profitably utilized. No definite . limits .can be placed on the thickness. f~dtor d.ue to. the influence of

lo.c:tl conditions.. As 'a rule, 'however, a deposit of less tha!l 10 feet,

without overhurden:, is hardly worth ;spending much money on, unless

there is a large ~nd,. steady .demand for the product, with excellent

t-ransportation.: J.f we_ :;tssume ~hat 20.,000 tons_, or 6Q_O cars, of. sand

can be dug from..a~ acre of sand )'0 feet thick, one acre would last 6n_f3 year, shipping two cars a day~ ' It -is well to be sure of at least .20' ~years' .supply 'bef'ore speri~ing .much mo~ey on machinery and

trackage. : .: ' '

~ '



in~e the thickness will largely dete'fmine the manner of recovering the sand or gravel; it is neces~ary.' that a:reliable approximation

c;>f the thickn~~s b_e f_oun,d. T~e ext~Iit will also affect the installa-

tion: of 'expensive, 'high-capacity machinery, and_ hat also should be

?~refully de~~n~hiecl.' _

. -. . .

-- : In~fue case o{ glass sand Burchard1 recommends at least 20 acres

where .the deposit i~ 20. feet. thick.. This ttiaterial was in the forrh of Sa~dstone a~rl r~qulred a crushiirg and screening plant, costing from
to $10,000 $50,000; for the preparation of. the. sand. It is safe to say

tP,at in SoutP, Georgia deposits of- glass sand one quarter the above

amount, say. 10 .f~et. thick and covering 10 acres, could be worked

profitably wiU~ proper ti~n~po;r~~tion facilities,. si_nce usually no plant

is required. . . . . '

.

.

~

. :" .. ,.

Cover.-The thickness and character of the cover or overburden
of a deposi~ is. o~ extr~me importance; Most sand and gravel deposits in Georgia have very li~tle or no cover (one to two feet) .. De-

posits with as much as 6. or 8 feet have been worked where the de-

mand is great: sometimes a loamy; sandy overburden is mined with tl;le sand itself A soft. cover is of course easier ~o 'remove th~n one

1 Burchard, E. F., U. S. Geol. Survey Mineral Resources, 1911, pt. 2, p. 636, 1912.

SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

137

partially indurated. In hydraulic removal, clay requires more water and a greater slope. than loam or sand. Since the cover is likely to differ in thickness from one part of the pit to another, it is wise to determine its thickness and character beforehand by adequate holes or pits. In gravel deposits the cover usually increases as the top of the hill is approached, but in the Fall Line and fluvial sand deposits generally little difference is shown.
Rejected material.-In examining a pit, it is of great importance to note the amount of clay lenses, or poor sand, that must be discarded. Sand lenses, unless ferruginous, are undesirable in clay gravel for. use in road construction. Clay lenses, and more than 10 or 15 per cent clay, even though well distributed in such gravel is also undesirable.
Certain lenses may show indications of organic matter. Sand
deposits lying in, or only a few feet above the bed of asluggish, swamp-
bordered stream are likely to contain organic matter in amounts large enough to reduce the mortar strength by from 10 to 20 per cent. An. other source of Qrganic matter in bank deposits is the vegetation washed into the pit from the unbroken ground above, or the filtration of vegetable material from the surface into the sand to a. depth of even 4 to 6 feet. The practice in many localities, of mining with the sand the surface vegetation con;:;isting of leaves, grass, and small shrubs, rather than running a drag over the surface to clear it of this material, is certainly not to be recommended where a high-grade, ap.d consequently higher priced, product is the aim.
Lime and alkali crusts as well as layers of limonite or iron oxide may occur, and they should be noted, as well as their amounts.
Variations.-Changes in the character of the sand or gravel itself or in the overburden should be watched for. In localities where the preparation of sand and gravel on a large scale is the leading industry, it is becoming increasingly evident that the concern that can furnish a uniform, dependable product, month in and month out, is the most successful. The maintenance of a uniform product is possible only by keeping careful watch on the deposit to note changes in it, and to alter the mode of treatment so that these changes will cause least increase in cost and possibly even decrease the. cost; and, if the deposit and the market warrant, by installing washers and screens to insure constant uniformity.
\

-

138.

GEOLOGICAL SUEVEY OF GEORGIA

Water.~Water may determine the depth to which a pit can be

developed by a certain method, hence the importanc-e of getting in-

formation regarding it. The depth at which water is encountered

can generally be estimated from wells in the region. Very littletrouble

has been experienced in Georgia sand pits from water. Many of the

sand deposits are located. on hills or elevated areas where the water

is considerably below, or from which it can easily be drained.

In sand and gravel pits, or neaT sand and gravel deposits, stand-

ing water m::j,y be due to a substratum of impervious clay a few inches,

. or feet, below, which should be considered in judging the depth of

the deposit.



-

Where steam power, or hydraulic stripping or loading is used, a

regular, ,adequate, and convenient water supply is necessary. With

this in view a sand deposit, -if possible should be opened from the

side requiring least force to raise the water. A possible economy by

recovering the sand with a centrifugal pump from an artificial lake

cfeate,d in the sand deposit should be 9ons'dered; especially where

plenty of water is at hand. . ,

.

.!lccessibility.-Unless a sand and gravel deposit is within teaming

or trucking distance of a good market (one to three miles) it is prac-

tically useless to attempt to open it unless situated directly on a rail-
road. The ,intrinsic value of sand and gravel is so low that freight rates
ar~ responsible for over half of its cost to the consumer. Deposits
o~_liries running directly- to markets a::re in far better position than t1ibse r~quiring one or more. transfers to other railroads before the

principal market is reached! In Georgia much sand territory, and

s6Irie. good gravel deposits are eliminated because of distance from

markets ,or railroads.

Persist~nt deposits of sand in the beds of Oconee; Ocmulgee, Ohoo-

. pee, Altamaha and other South Georgia rivers, although inaccessible

to ra,.il transportation, are ideally located for large bmit shipments. His likely that these d~po~its will be more fully utiliz~d in the future.

SAND~TONE DEPOSITS1

Extensive deposits of sandstone, quartzite, and quartz occur in the Paleozoic and Piedmont areas of Georgia; Practicaliy none of these deposits are now being utilized, but they afford a possible future

1 For detailed quarrying methods see Bowles, Olivet. Sandstone quarrying in' the United States: U. S. Bureau of Mines Bull. 124, 1917.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

139

supply of sand for glass and refractory brick purposes. Such de-posits are usually easily traced by their outcrop. Due to their resistance they generally form long, narrow ridges, such as the ridges of northwest Georgia; or Pine and Oak mountains, north of Columbus.
The bedding planes or strata of these deposits are generally apparent, although inclined at a considerable angle to the horizontal. This inclination is called the dip. The strike of such a deposit is the direction the strata take across country, or the direction at right angles to the direction of dip.

SAMPLING
Since the contents of the same bed in a deposit of this nature are more a.pt to be uniform than those of several different beds, samples are always taken at right angles to the strike, or across the dip, so that they include portions of each bed. Pieces of uniform size are taken at uniform intervals, or a narrow groove is cut across the cleaned rock sur ace, and the cuttings used as samples. These may be crushed and quartered if too bulky. Samples should be taken at intervals of from 25 to 100 feet along the dip, or closer, if the material shows marked changes. Where changes occur from bed to bed, each bed, or each group of beds showing similar characteristics, should be separately sampled.
In prospecting inclined or dipping beds of sandstone it must be remembered that the width of the outcrop in such cases does not represent the true thickness of the sandstone bed, but that the width of the outcrop increases proportionately as the dip of the rock increases, and may be two or three times the actual thickness of the bed. This factor also influences the thickness of the cover or overburden, since the more steeply a bed is inclined the greater the depth to the bed from a point at a given distance from the surface outcrop.

THE SAND AND GRAVEL INDUSTRY
The demand for sand and gravel in 1919 and 1920 has been very large in Georgia as elsewhere. The shortage of railway cars, together with an unfair distribution of the supply, has compelled a number of plants to cut down their production by half and even two-thir_ds, although the overhead expense of these plants is practically the same as when they maintained a maximum production, so that they are

14b

GEOLOGICAL SURfEY OF GEORGIA

unable to make as fair a return on their investment as they are entitled to.

Whether the demand for sand and gra.vel is temporary and will

cease after the housing shortage, occasioned by the war, has been over- '

come, is uncertain. Although the total cost of construction work in

Georgia is .exceeding that of any previous year,_ it must be remem-

bered that the actua~ volurrie of construction is considerably below

the record, since the cost in 1920 is over double that of 1912.

Owing to the abnormal conditions it would be well at this time to be cautious in installing too exp~nsive sand-handling machinery,

but in view of the fact that the volume of construction itself may not

be considered remarkably abnormal when compared with some other

years, ~ moderate expenditure for more e_fficient handling methods is

advised.

/

. Production and valuf!- of sand in Georgia ;!rdm 1912 to 1919

Building sand

Gravel Molding sand Engine

Other uses

Year

Ton- Value Ton- Value Ton- Value Ton- Value Ton- Value

nage

nage

nage

nage

---'---1----1---1---L..'- 1 - - - - 1 - - - - - - - - - - -

--

~912_~- 304,882$116,614 86,540$37,554 ------ ------ 10,245$2,640 7,225$2,325 l . 1913___ 355;289 132,381 18,792 15,970 6,500$4,919 2,700 65017,700 8,500

1914___ 2ob,3o9 51,782 12,244 7,87510,427 .6,247 5;032 86516,830 5.175

1915 ___ 527,258 163,932 22,848 15,071 3,898 2,883.1,865 390 ______ ------

1916___ 319,467 77,081 39,889 20,148 3,545 1.75610,889 1,80110,091 3,127

1917___ 257;880 78,409 27,149 32,97531,793 8,95033,342 6,568 6,600 1,950

1918___ 187,171 75,253 18,500 19,900 35,00112,705 15,121 3,800 L6,862 6,864

19192 _"' 269,059 13L5n 13,106 13,76664,-49133,883 9,091 .4.98830,61420,345

1 Glass sand. 2. Figures are preliminary and subject to revision.
. As the margin of profit on sand and gravel is so small, probably in no other business is there greater need for business acumen and foresight if ultimate success is desired. The failures of enterprises

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

141

formed to produce sand and gravel have been numerous both in Georgia and in the United States at large. Many of these failures were due to the expending of more capital in plants and machinery than the demand and market price of the product warranted, so that the interest on the capital could not be met after all other necessary expenses had been paid. Failure in less pretentious enterprises has been due to ill-advised location of the pit with respect to quantity of sand and gravel, and to distance from, and size of the principal markets. Rarely can a sand plant be. made to pay where it is necessary to ship the product over two or more independent railways. In some instances failure has been attributed to mismanagement and neglect to watch the .many small leaks through which any possible profit may vanish. These include machinery, methods of production, and track layout unsuited to a particular deposit; failure to constantly utilize labor or machinery which. is creating expense; variableness of product so that the consumer can:i:wt. depend upon its character from ~ne shipment to the next; loss of sand in transit through chinks in freight cars, such
loss may amount to froin 15 to 20 per cent of the original shipment

Prices .-In the smaller towns- throughout the state where the sand supply is obtained from local pits, no production or price record is kept, but it is likely that the amount of sand so obtained will equal one-third of that for which records are kept. Sand from such local sources may either be had for the expense of hauling, or on payment to the owner of the pit of a small amount ranging from 5 to 25 cents .a yard, although larger sums have been demanded. At other places, where the demand is greater, the owner or leaser of the pit uses his own delivery trucks or teams and may charge from $1.00 to $1.50 a yard for the delivered sand. At larger pits where shipment is made by rail, brick and plaster sand costs from 40 to 60 cents a yard, although 50 cents was the usual price in 1920; coarser sand, for concrete, costs from 75 cents to $1.0~ a yard. Gravel at the pit costs from $1.00 to $3.00 a yard, depending on the demand.

142

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

.!lvera~e prioe per yard of sand and ~ravei tn G'eor~ia and the United States

Building sand

G, lass sand

Molding sand

Gravel

Year

Georgia u.s.. Georgia u.s. Georgia u.s. Georgia u.s.

191-2______ $0.38 1913 ______ 0.37 1914______ 0.26 1915______ 0.3i 1916______. 0.24 1917______ 0.30 1918 ___ ~-~ 0.40 1919 ______ 0..45

$0.3:i -------- $0.97 -------- $o.61 $0.43 $0.27 0.32 -------- 1.06 $0.76 0.63 0.84 0.24
- 0.33 ... ....----- 0.97 - 0.60 0.64 0.66 0.~3
- 0.30 -------- 0.85 0.70 0.59 0.65 0~26
. 0.32' -------- 0.97 0.51 0.69 0.50 0.31
0-.40 -------- 1.38 0.29 0.92 1.22 0.48
0.50 . $1.00 1.94 0.37 1.04 1.08. 0.57
---=----- 1.01 -------- 0.53 -------- .1.05 -----1:--

. RQyalties.-In many .. cases sand OF gravel property is leased and the owner pays a fixed sum per yard or car produced, and may or may 110t be required_ to pay for a minimum production. For brick
a or mortar sand the royalty is $2.00 cat' and for gravel from 5 to 25
cents per yard, although in 1920 the average for gravel was 15 to 20 cents. In ~orne places an annual rent is paid the owner of a sand depbsit regardless of the amount produced.
To recover' sand from navigable streams pe mission must be obtained fr0rn the United States War Department by a petition which. describes the details of the proposed business. On other streams the owner must be consulted.
. Labor costs.-In 1920 unskilled labor in sand pits. cost usually about $3.00 per 10-hour day, although in some places such labor could be had for $2.50 to $2.75, elsewhere as much as $3.25 and $3.50 had to be paid. In many places the contract system is in use and the men paid a certain rate for each car loaded by hand, ranging from $4.00 to $6.00; depending on the amount of seiection required and the difficulty of loading.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

143

Markets.--The principal markets open to Georgia sand producers
are Atlanta and Birmingham, provided the pits are on direct lines
to these points. Macon and Savannah, although producing s.and
within their limits, use some sand that has been shipped in. Due to
proximity to stone-crushing plants and to the cheapness of Birming-
ham slag, Atlanta, and to a large extent Macon, are independent of
the gravel supply. Augusta, Columbus, and Rome, owing to the
large amounts of sand and gravel locally available, use practically
no imported product. In most of the other Georgia towns of 2,500
population and upward there is a brisk demand for both the finer
grades of plaster and mortar sand and for coarse concrete sand and
gravel. The following is a list of the sand and gravel producers of
the State:
SAND AND GRAVEL PRODUCERS IN GEORGIA IN 1920
Acme Sand and Supply Company, Atlanta, Georgia. Alexander Sand Company, Junction City, Georgia. Allon Sand Company, Zenith, Georgia. Altamaha Supply Company, Brunswick, Georgia. Atlanta Sand and Supply Company, Atlanta, Georgia. Atlantic Coast Line R. R. Company, Wilmington, N. C. Pit at Darrow, Ga. Augusta Silica Mining Company, Augusta, Georgia. Baum, Leo P., Dublin, Georgia. Brockman, Edward, Ringgold, Georgia; molding sand. Brown, 0. 0., Sand Company, Howard, Georgia. Central of Georgia Sand Company, Howard Georgia; steel molding and building
sand. Clark, J. H., Ringgold, Georgia; molding sand. Crutchfield, F. A., Flintstone, Georgia; molding sand. Dillon, J. W., Thomasville, Georgia. Downing, J. J., Nicholls, Georgia. Downs, L. J., Junction City, Georgia. Gailey, C. K., Conyers, Georgia; molding sand. General Building Supply Company, Savannah, Georgia. Georgia Sand and Gravel Company, Augusta, Georgia. Harkey, W. C., Sand Company, Mauk, Georgia. Heath, John M., Talbottom, Georg!a. Hime Sand Company, Junction City, Georgia. Hinson Sand Mines, Lumber City, Georgia; glass and building sand. Houser, J., Tivola, Georgia. Kirkpatrick Sand and Cement Company, Birmingham, Ala.; steel molding and
building sand. Lumber City Sand and Concrete Company, Lumber City, Georgia. McElroy, J. E., Norcross, Georgia. Macon Fuel and Supply Company, Macon, Georgia. Morningstar, L. E., Junction City, Georgia. Morris, W. Mercer, Columbus, Georgia. Puckett, C. A., Emerson, Georgia. Rome Sand ana Gravel Company, Rome Georgia. Rutledge & Chestnut, Columbus, Georgia. Smiley Sand Company, Atlanta, Georgia. Thompson, J. T., Carrolton, Georgia. Watson, N. G., Rome, Georgia. Wiggins, T. 0., Waycross, Georgia.

'144

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND GEOLOGIC FEATURES o-F GEORGIA
1.
PHYSIOGRAPHY
.The physiographic features of Georgia present great contrast. From a flat,. featureless plain near the coast, the relief gradually becomes more pronounced toward the northwest until. steep, rugged mountains, almost 5,000 feet in height, are encountered in the extreme northern part of the state.
This diversity of topogra-phy includes five major divisions which occur in roughly parallel bands along the eastern border of the United States from New York to Alabama. These divisions beginning at the the Atlantic Ocean,, are the C. oastal Plain., which extends to- the Fall Line, or roughly to a line passing through Augusta, Macon, and Collunibus ;. the Piedmont Plateau, which extends 'from. the Fall Line to the high mountain region of Georgia and is roughly limited on the north by a line from Clarks~ille through Marietta to Rockmart in Polk County;- the Appalachian Mountains which extend from the Piedmont Plateau to the northern boundary of the- state and on the east to the Appalachian Valley area, roughly marked by .a line running .south from Tennessee through C~rtersville and Cedartown to Alabama; the Appalachian Valley, which extends west from the Ap
palachian Mountains and includes the .rest ot northwest Georgia ex-
cept a small area in Dade and Walker counties; the Cumberland
Plateau, which includes parts of Dade; fValk:er; and Chatooga .coun-
ties in the extreme northwest corner of the state.
The physiographic divisions of the state will be described in more detail in the report preceeding the sections devoted to the description of the sand deposits of the geologic provinces of the state.
GEOLOGY
Owing to charaeteristic differences in ongm, texture, and structure, the rocks of Georgia are separated into three distinct divisions which are common to the entire eastern border of the United States, wliere they occupy long, irregular, but roughly parallel belts. These
three provinces are the Coastal Plain, the Paleozoic area and the
Crystalline area. The Coast:;tl Plain strata occupy most of the region known as. the
Coastal Plain, which is a relatively fiat plain paralleling a great part

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS OF GEORGI A

PLATE IX

A. GENERAL VIEW, C. C. McCARTY SAND PIT. 2'h MILES SOUTH OF GAILLARI. CRAWFORD COUNTY

MINING SAND BY LOCOMOTIVE RANE AND CLAM-SHELL BUCKET, ALLON SAND COMPANY, 2 MILES SOUTH OF GAILLARD, CRAWFORD COUNTY

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

145

of the entire Atlantic Coast of the United States. In Georgia it ex-

tends westward from the sea to the vicinity of the Fall Line which

passes through Macon, Augusta, and Columbus. The Coastal Plain

sediments consist of alternating beds of sand, clay, marl, and lime-

stone.

The Crystalline area comes next, extending from the Fall Line

from Alabama to Maine and forms the basement upon which the

Coastal Plain sediments_ were deposited. It occupies all that part

of Georgia northwestward from the Fall Line except all or part of

eight counties in the extreme northwest corner.



The Paleozoic area occupies the seven or eight counties and parts

of counties in the extreme northwest corner of Georgia not included

in the Crystalline area. Limestone, shales, slates, and sandstones,

which have been somewhat altered along the eastern margin, com-

prise this area.

Inasmuch as the sand and gravel deposits of Georgia are found

throughout th~ entire state in all of its three geologic provinces. pos-

sessing characteristics distinctive of the division in which they occur,

the deposits of each will be treated separately.

146

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

DISTRIBUTION OF SAND AND GRAVEL IN GEORGIA BY GEOLOGIC PROVINCES

THE COASTAL PLAIN1
EXTENT AND SIZE
The Coastal Plain. of Georgia includes; roughly, that part of the state from tP.e Atlantic Ocean to the Fall Line. The Fall Line extends nQrtheast and southwest across the state from Augusta through Milledgeville and Macon to Columbus and marks the location of rapids and falls in the streams as they pass from the hard crystalline rocks on the \northwest to the soft or unconsolldated materials on the southeast. The area of the, Coastal Plain is approximately 35;000 square n;1iles1 or seven-twelfths of the entire area of Georgia. Tt is part of the great Coastal Plain bordering the eastern United States :which merges into the Gulf- Coastal Plain bordering the sQutheastern states.

PHYSIOGRAPHY
In general appearance, the flat, or gently rolling topography of the Coastal Plain shows a marked contrast to the rugged, hilly, and even mountainous termin peculiar to that part of Georgia north of the Fall Line. Much of the plain. is practically the same as it was left when the sea retreated eastward. Its more rollihg and even rugged appearance as one goes nort4westward is due to its greater elevation and to the fa:ct that the time elapsed since the retreat of the sea has been longer, and consequently more opportunity has been afforded weathering agencies and streams to cut into the original even surface.
Physiographically, the Coastal Plain is divided into a number of distinctive parts, which, beginning at the coast, are: the Satilla Lowland, the Okefenokee Plain, the Altamaha Upland, the Fall.Line Hills, the Dougherty Plain, and the Southern Lime-Sink region.

1 Abstracted from the following sources:

Veatch, Otto, Geology of the Coastal Plain of Georgia: Ga. Geol. Survey, Bull. 26, pp. 25-50,

1911.

.

.

.

Stephens~n. L. W. and Veatch, Otto, Underground Waters of the Coastal Plain of Georgia;

U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 341, pp. 28-115, 1915.

Cooke, C. W. and Shearer, H. K., Deposits of Claiborne and Jackson age in Georgia, U. S.

Geol. Survey Prof. Paper !20-C, 1918.

-

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

147

Satilla Lowland and Okefenokee Plain.-Commencing at the coast, a flat, sandy plain, from 40 to 60 miles wide, occurs broken only by gentle depressions produced by the larger streams. This plain, .which includes the Satilla Lowland and the Okefenokee Plain, rises gradually from sea level to a height of 125 feet. The area is marked by swamps, including the famous Okefenokee r and Buffalo swamps, as well as less extensive swampy areas confined to the streams and coastal flats .
.llltamaha Upland.-The Coastal lowland on the northwest merges into the Altamaha Upland. The. approximate division runs from Springfield, in Effingham County, to Statenville, in Echols County. It is marked by gently rolling, park-like topography, rang:. ing from 125 feet in elevation, near its eastern boundary, to 470 feet, where it merges into the Fall Line Hills. Streams are more numerous than in the Coastal Lowlands, and "wire-grass" and long-leafed pine are the outstanding types of vegetation. Most of the streams are bordered on their east or north banks by hilly belts of yellow sand, rising from a few feet to 50 feet above the streams themselves. The Altamaha region is considered by many to be the most beautiful in Georgia.
Fall Line Hills .-The relief of the Altamaha Upland becomes sharper until the Fall Line Hills are reached. The division runs roughly through Waynesboro, Tennille, Dublin, Cochran1 Vienna, and thence along Flint River to Decatur County. It occupies a strip 40 to 50 miles wide extending aeross the state and merging into the Piedm.ont Plateau on the north. Its greater altitude and longer exposure to denuding agencies have produced a somewhat rugged, gullied terrain, marked by deep washes. The relief vari_es from 100 to 350 feet. The "red" hills are most prominent, but an extensive belt of gray sand hills, ranging from 4 to 7 miles wide, extends with some interruptions from Augusta almost to Columbus.
The remarkable gullies near Milledgeville, and in Stewart County, seven miles west of Lumpkin, are worthy of note in that they represent the extreme manifestation of modern erosion in this area.
The Dougherty Plain.-The Dougherty Plain, which occupies a wedge-shaped area between Flint and Chattahoochee rivers, extends

1 V.eatch, Otto, Geology of the Coastal Plain of Georgia: Georgia Geol. Survey, Bull. 26, pp. 44-46, 1911.

148

GEOLOG1CAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

north between the Fall Line Hills and tlie Altamaha Upland.. It is a relatively level area, with few hills and creeks, but has numerous circular depressions or lime-sinks. It merges into the Fall Line Hills to the northwest; but rather sharply contrasts with the Altamaha Upland to the east.
The Southern Lime-sink, retion.-The Southern Lime-sink
region occupies a narrow strip, 15 to 20 miles wide, along the south-
ern border of the state, extending from the vicinity _of Flln.t River to Allapaha River. The topography is rolling, the depressions being due largely to solution and caving of the underlying limestones.
GEOLOGY
As the Coastal Plain topography is so diff~rent from that of the ,., rest of Georgia, its geology is even more unique when compared with
that of the state north. of the Fall Line. Layer after layer of sediments ranging in composition from sand
to marl, .and in hardness from that of mud to flint have been deposited by terrestrial and marine agencies froff:l. the bower Cretaceous Period to the present. _The~e deposits, dipping gently to the southeast, form the youngest in the state and were deposited directly upon the upturned and truncated beds -of the oldest rocks (Pre-Cambrian) in the state. Their thickness ranges ftbm a few incli~s, near the Fall Line,. where th.e -~ncient basement is exposed, to_ alniost 4,000 feet along the eastern margin- of the state. This variation is accounted '-- for by the gradual recession of the sea, which exposed mdre and more of the- area to erosion, while still de:r:>ositing material at the eastern edge. For convenience and identification the deposits have been divided and subdivided into series and formations.
CJR,ETACEOUS SYSTEM
LOWER CRETACEOUS sERIES
The Lower Cretaceous deposits extend irr a very irregular belt from 2 to 30 miles in width from Augusta to Columbus and lie directly upon the Pre-Cambrian crystalline roc~s. They consist chiefly of coarse, cross-bedded, arkosic, and clayey sands of fresh, shallow water. origin, and lenses of clay approaching kaolinite in composition. Beds. of pure white argillaceous" sand ap.d irregular, thin, deposits of' clayey gravel occur through the formation. The sand _if washed woUld be suitable for glass or construction purpbses and the gravels are thick enough in' many places to supply local road material.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

149

UPPER CRETACEOUS SERIES
Eutaw formation.-The Eutaw formation is of relatively small extent in Georgia. Although its basal beds resemble those of the 'Lower Cretaceous, it overlies the latter .unconformably. It consists of coarse, arkosic, micaceous sands interbedded with lenses of dark clay. The upper parts consist of compact, green, marine clays and lignitic beds, overlain by gray, limy, and clayey sand, and mergmg into sandy limestones in places.
Ripley formation.-The Ripley formation is exposed in central and west-central Georgia and is conformable with the Eutaw when the latter is present. The materials composing the Ripley formation are almost entirely marine, consisting of gray, limy fine-grained sands and clays.
The Cusseta sand member consists of irregularly bedded sands with smaller clay lenses. As a rule the sands are coarse-grained and resemble those of the Midway beneath.
The Providence sand member consists mainly of coarse- and fine~ grained, irregularly bedded sands with lenses of clay.

TERTIARY SYSTEM
EOCENE SERIES
Midway formation.-The Midway. is a shallow water, marine formation, consisting of colored sands and clays in the lower part, and of marls, clays, and thin, usually impure, fossiliferous limestones m the upper part.
Wilcox formation.-The Wilcox formation usually consists of sandy, glauconitic shell marl; dark lignitic sand; and lignitic sandy clay. In Schley and Macon counties red sands with pure white clay occur and are probably referable to the Wilcox.
CLAIBORNE GROUP
McBean forrrwtion.-The 1v1cBean formation is made up of sandy, shell marls and clayey, calcareous sands. Its extent is limited to valleys in Richmond and Burke counties. No sand or gravel deposits of commercial value occur in it. In southwest Georgia along Chattahoochee River blue- to ash-colored calcareous and sandy fossiliferous marls occur which belong to the Claiborne Group, and have :not yet been differentiated.

.1. 50

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

J AOKSON GROUP
Deposits of Jackson age attain in Georgia tneir greatest thickness east or Mississippi.

Ocala limestone.-The Ocala limestone is a thick deposit of flinty limestone and marl. Its largest extent is in southwest Georgia between Flint and Chattahoochee rivers, where it is usually marked by residuai boulders of flint, and by soft, gray limestones that are encountered in wells.

Barnwell formation.-The Barnwell formation consists principally of argillaceous sand becoming red or mottled on weathering. Local clay and chert layers with occasional limestone beds occur. The lower part of the formation consists of clay lenses, most of which resembles fuller's earth. This material constitutes the Twiggs clay member. Although the Ba~nwell formation is exceptionally ~andy, the sand is of such impure character that it is of little value for construction purposes.

OLIGOCENE SERIES

. Chattahoochee formation.-The Chattahoochee. formation out-

crops in a strip a few miles wide from the v.icinity .of Cordele south-

westward. through Camilla and Bainbridge to the extreme southwest

corner of the state. It consists of gray, compact, fossiliferous lime-

stone, and a few thin sandstone layers and cherty replacements at

its base. No commercial sand occurs in it.



.!llum Bl1f:ff formation.-The Alum Bluff formation is of consid-

erable extent in Georgia paralleling most of the streams of the Alta~

maha Upland and .Southern Lime-sink region, and presents a ni:unber

of varying lithologic pha(3es. It is composed mainly of greenish, or

gray, calcareous clays and marls inte:rbedded with argillaceous and

feldspathic sand and sandstones. Beds of coarse conglomerate and

hard vitreous quartzite are fairly common. Beds of fuller's earth,

rounded siliceous and calcareous nodules, and beds of low-grade phos-

phate are also characteristic of the formation.



Although considerable sand occurs in the Alum Bluff, it is usually

so argillaceous as to be practically useless commercially. The con-

,glomerate has broken/up in places and thin, sur~cial deposits of clean

gravel, well suited for concrete, ha~e resulted.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

151

PLIOCENE SERIES
Char~ton formation.-The Charlton formation outcrops along the St. Marys' River, in Charlton and Camden counties. It is made up of soft, white, clayey limestone and fossiliferous clay and is not a source of sand or gravel.

QUARTENARY SYSTEM
PLEISTOCENE SERIES
COLUMBIA. GROUP

Okefenokee formation.-The Okefenokee formation and the Satilla formation occupy a strip along the entire coast of Georgia approximately 20 miles in width. The Okefenokee formation occurs . as a thin coastal terrace deposit of incoherent gray sand, and as terrace deposits bordering many of the larger streams of the Coastal Plain of Georgia.
The fluviatile deposits consist chiefly of red, clayey sands, pebbly in places, and coarse gravels. Along some of the streams a gray incoherent sand appears to be the only deposit. The gravels and sands occurring near Montezuma, Lumber City, Fort Gaines, Omaha, and Columbus are probably referable to this formation as are the gravels found along the Fall Line.
Satilla formation.-The Satilla formation occupies a terrace belt paralleling the Atlantic Ocean and extending westward from 20 to 30 miles. It consists of greenish and bluish marine clays, green sands, and thin gravel layers. The clays are generally massive, and the sands are fine-grained and white on the surface, but become gray to brown at depth. These sands are used locally for building purposes and as a source of brown dye.
The fluviatile terrace deposits of this formation form low plains a few feet above the .Coastal Plain rivers and consist of clays, sands and gravels and afford sources of commercial gravel and sand in a few cases.
Undifferentiated deposits.-Extensive areas in the Coastal Plain are underlain by vari-colored deposits of sand, grit, and clayey sand which may be quite indurated in places. This material has generally been considered the equivalent of the Lafayette formation, but its exact. age is uncertain, and in Georgia it is known as the- Altamaha formation.

Hi2

GEOLOGICAl- S71RVEY OF GEORGIA

Its ciay content is too large to afford a suitable source for sand, but its weathered products, accumulating in and along streams, afford nunierous_ sources of sand for local use.
Surficial gray sands.-A great part of the Coastal Plain of Georgia is covered with a veneer of white to gray, fine-grained sands, ranging from a few inches to many feet in depth, their general average is from one to two feet. They attain a maximum thickness on the north and east sides (left hand) of many of the rivers and large creeks of the area, affording an almost inexhaustible supply of fine- and medium-grained sand. These sands are sometimes very pure, both in the stream bank deposits and in. the widespread surficial deposits, making them. suitable for use in the manufacture of glass.
. Thick deposits of yellowish sand, rangirig from 2 to 5 miles in width, parallel the -Fall Line, with several interruptions, from 'Augusta almost to Columbus. A rough stratification prevails in the lower half of their thickness where the clay content usually inc~eases. In place' s these .sands are over 40 feet thick, although they usually range from 10 _to 25 feet. . Their exact age is uncertain, but it is probably comparatively recent. Numerous saud pits have been opened in these deposits along the railroads crossing them.

. DE.TAILED

DESCRIPTION

OF

INDIVIDUA. L

COUNTIES .

APPLING COUNTY

The surface of Appling County consists principally of gray sands underlain by sandy .clays at depths ranging from one to ej.ght .feet. Sand is most ~bundi:mt on narrow terraces along Altamaha River, which bounds ~he cpunty on. the north, and in small hills which irregularly line the north side o'f Little Satilla River..
The surficial sand is fine-grained an;d dirty, but some local deposits appear to be pure enough for glass. ' The best building sand occurs
a in the bed of Altamaha River and to much less degree in Little Sa-
tilla River. Sand for local use is obtained from stream branches or from the surfi'cial deposits.
-~
ATKINSON COUNTY

Loose sand, ranging in. depth from a few inches _to 6 feet, and underlain. by yellow and reddish clays, covers most of the county. No sand is commercially worked, although large deposits of pale yel-

MAP OF GEORGIA
Showing distribution of

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

Base map by the U.S. Geological Survey

0

Scrue 1:1,500,000

1 inch = approximately 24 miles

Sand and gravel deposits indicated by red dots

. D
0
(
/

m
c( ...J c(

'i I. I I
...
~
~
~r----------t~~~~~--~~~~+r~~~~~~~~;Q~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~ 0

F

L

0

R

D

A

SAND AND GJtAVEL DEPOSITS

153

low, c~ean, medium~grained sand compose the upper- half of hills from 30 to 45 feet high which extend in an almost uninterrupted belt along the east side of Seventeenmile Creek, and which are found to a lesser extent al-ong Satilla River. Sand, suitable for brick mortar, plaster, or sand-lime br.ck, comprises from 1,000 to 2,500 feet of the width of the belts.
Some sand occurs east of Allapaha and Withlacoochee rivers, bounding the county on the west, but there is very little sand at the Georgia & Florida Railway crossing of Allapaha River. Bars of fairly coarse white sand occur along both rivers, but such sands are practically inaccessible due to the swamp.
Practically no sand of commercial value exists near a railroad, although the Atlantic Coast Line at Millwood apprOE\-yhes to within two miles of the deposits along Satilla Riv~r.

BACON COUNTY
Loose yellowish to white, fine- to medium-grained sand covers a considerable part of Bacon county to. a depth of from 2 to 6 feet. Sometimes local deposits are sufficiently pure for the manufacture of glass, but distance from transportation prohibits their use.
Extensive sand hills border the east side of Big. Hurricane Creek from the viGinity of Alma southward to the county line... This sand is yellow, medium-grained, and dean. It is particularly prominent along the Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic Railway, east of Alma, where it forms a belt 1,500 feet wide and over 10 feet thick. Seven hundred feet of this width exceeds 20 feet in thickness. Its greatest
apparent thickness is 25 feet' at a point 200 feet east of where the
following section was taken:

Section of sand deposit on Big Hurricane Creek, east of .!llma
Feet Sandy soiL _____________________ "______________________ 1 Fine, yellow sand_______________ - _- _____________________ 4 Medium-grained yellow and gray sand____________________ 4-7 Irregular, poorly stratified sand. Reddish clayey sand forms
strata lines i to i- inch wide occurring every 2 t.o 6 inches 4-7
The sand here is somewhat coarser and of better quality than the usual type of sand bordering the South Georgia streams. Sample T-21;.3, representative of the deposit, has a fineness modulus~ of 1.40

-
154
/

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

and 41 per cent is' retained ,on the 48-mesh screen. The organic matter shows a color value of 100. The sand is pale yellow and is composed almost entirely of sub-angular to angular stained quartz.
On the public road just east of Big Hurri9ane Creek bridge, and about one mile east of Alma, the local sand supply for Alma is obtained from a small pit. Sand also occurs in small quantities along Little Hurricane Cr~~k in the western part of the county.

BAKER COUNTY
Thin, surficial sands, generally white, cover most of the area of Baker County. Bordering Flint River and Ichawaynochaway and Chickasawhatchee creeks, irregular te;race deposits of rather inferior sand occur. Good coarse sand occ{rrs generally in Flint River, and medium-grained sand is found in small bars along the two creeks mentioned above.
A la:r;:ge sand bank occurs below the mouth of Ichawaynochaway Creek on Flint River at the Kelly place, and dunes of medium-grained, yellowish sand occur along Flint River 19 miles below N~wton. This sand is quite similar to- that occurring in Mitchell County opposite Newton~ (See sample T-220, in table.)
' The local sand supply of Newton is obtained from the banks of Cooleewahee Creek, half a mile north of-the town o~ tlie Albany road. This sand is fine-:-gramed, but is suitable for plaster or brick mortar. The whiteness of this sand suggested its use for glass-making and an analysis was made.

.!lnalysis of sand from Cooleewahee Creek, }vewton
Magnesia (MgO) ________ ---~ ______ ------ ____ __ __ __ __ _ 0.12 Alumina (AlzOs) _--~-- __ ___ _____ __ ____ ________ ______ _ 0.12
ISriolincao(xSidie02(LFe_2_0_s_)_-_-_-_-__-_-_~_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-__--.::-_-_-_-------_-_-_-_-_-_ 918..2217
'
Total------------------------------------------- 99.72

BALDWIN COUNTY
No sand or gravel is pommercially worked in Baldwin County, although sand in large quantities occurs in Oconee River, and small\ gravel deposits are scattered over the county near the Fall Line.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

155

Baldwin County pit.-Six miles southwe8t of Milledgeville on the Upper Macon road (Dixie Highway) a small pit has been opened in a deposit of coarse, red, clayey sand, with gravel layers from 6 to 18 inches. thick, in the upper and lower parts of the pit and underlain by mottled clay. The deposit extends along the road for 400 feet and for a little over half that distance to either side of the road, covering about 4 or 5 acres. The red, gravelly sand and clay is about 7 or 8 feet thick at the center of the pit and is used for local road material. Sandy, gravelly clay of this character is rather common in the county, particularly in the southern part. ,
Red, coarse, clayey sand 6 feet thick occurs in cuts along the road from the Lower Macon road to Darling, a quarter of a mile from the Macon road. On the Lower Macon road between 4 and 5 miles from: Milledgeville, cuts expose a maximum of 10 feet of red, coarse sand ' with a few pebbles and some white kaolin balls scattered through it.
Similar sand 7 feet thick occurs in the village of Darling on the Milledgeville-Gordon road close to the railroad. Such sand is of little value except for local road purposes, unless freed of its clay content.

Oconee River.-Oconee River has immense quantities of excellent medium- to coarse-grained sand in its bed which can be easily_ obtained at Milledgeville by pumping. This sand was used in the construction of the electric plant at Milledgeville and the concrete 1s of remarkably high quality.

Fishing Creek.-Fishing Creek, which runs close to the Georgia Railroad from near Milledgeville to the Jones County line, has deposits of clean, coarse sand suitable for concrete work along most of its course. A small amount occurs in this creek near the crossing of the Dixie Highway, a mile southwest of Milledgeville. Eight miles west of Milledgeville, where the Georgia Railroad crosses it, 10 feet of medium- to coarse-grained, clean, concrete sand occurs along the creek banks for some distance along the stream. This deposit may be large enough to warrant development.
Ca-mp Creek.-On the Gordon road, 4 miles from Milledgeville, brown sand similar to that found in Oconee River, occurs in Camp Creek from 5 to 10 feet thick and over an area 75 feet wide along the stream. The banks above are composed of red, pebbly, clayey sand for 200 feet badr from the stream.

156

GEDLOGIGAL SURVEY OJ! GEORGIA

BEN HILL COUNTY

In many par:_ts of Ben Hill County a fine-grained, gray sand oc-

curs,

from

2

to.

4

feet. thick,

but

it

is

of

no

value. commercially. -

Fitz~erald.-Very little good sand occ~rs close to -Fitzgerald,

although a fine-grained sand is found covering the surface to a shallow

depth just north and northeast of the town near the Camp Brooklyn

road. .Most of the local sand supply is obtained. f:rom the Sydney

Clare pit, 3 miles northwest of Fitzgerald on the Seba (Rochelle) road.

Sydney Glare property.- Fairly good coar; e sand occurs on the Clare farm just to the south of the Seba road. The following section is exposed:

Section of Sydney Clare property, 3 miles northwest of
-Fitz~erald

Soil and coarse, gray sand____________ _--_______ ~----------

Feet 1

Coarse; yellowish sand, somewhat clayey but well graded___ _ 2

Pale red, coarse sand, wavy stratificatlon lines'X inch thick

and }1 to 1 inch apart. Parts are indurated for 3 or 4

inches sliowing large clay cop.tent_-------------------- 3-4 -

White to yellowish, medium- and coarse-grained sand with small amount of clliy__ ~----------------------------- 1-2

- Irregular layers, 2to 3 inches thick, of pebbles from Y2 to %inches
in diameter occur through the sand. Sand has been removed from abouttwo acres, but apparently several tiines that area still remains untouched, the thickness of which ranges from 4 to 8 feet. In places the thickness is decreased by. the underlying clay coming almost to the surface._ On th~ whole, the sand' should make good concrete. It is hauled to Fitzgerald in trucks and teams and used locally. Sarn:ple T-236, representative of this sand, has a fineness modulus of 2.71J and 88 per cent is retained on the 48-mesh sieve. It has just a ~race of organic matter. The sand is pinkish-gray and the coarser quartz grains are rounded, but those less than 10 mesh are angular. _ This sand, occurring as it does at a comparatively high elevation, is a remnant of an ancient stream deposit, probably Pleistocene in age. Similar high-level deposits of saud in smaller quantities and less favorably situated commercially, occur at a few other points in the county, notably north of Ashton School on the Broxton road, and at Union School in the extreme .eastern part of the county.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

157

A.llapaha River.-Alob.g the eastern side of Allapaha River, in the western part of the county, is a belt of sand ranging from 400 to 800 feet wide and from 8 to 15 feet thick. The sand is of medium coarseness, clean, and white to pale yellow. It is mined for local use south of the Fitzgerald-Rebecca road, just east of Rebecca. It forms low bluffs 15 to 20 feet above the river bed and 300 feet back from it and has a width of 400 feet. The sand averages about 10 feet in thickness, the upper 6 feet is loamy, but the lower 4 feet, as exposed in the pit, is composed of coarser, clean, white sand.
This sand belt continues along the river .in bo~h directions beyond the county boundaries, but its occurrence at the Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic Railway crossing 2~ miles southeast of Rebecca is worthy of note. The belt at the railroad is about 700 feet wide, beginning 800 feet east of the trestle, and is 15 feet thick over most of the width; 10 feet of this, however, is below the railroad grade. No stratification lines occur in the sand, nor does it appear to have E)Ver been mined. It is similar in ~haracter to the sand along Seventeenmile Creek near Douglas (see T-231;. in table). Another extensive area of shallower sand of this type occurs in the northern part of the county on both sides of House Creek.
Numerous bars of excellent coarse-grained sand occur in Ocmulgee River, which bounds the county on the northeast, but this is practically. inaccessible except for transportation by boat.

BERRIEN COUNTY
Loose, gray sand covers a large part of Berrien County to depths ranging from 1 to 10 feet. Clays and sands alternate to a depth of about 50 feet below the surface near which level Alum Bluff strata are encountered.
Jv"ashville.-The local sand supply for Nashville is obtained 1.2 miles northwest of the town on the Tifton road, 200 feet west of Withlacoochee River. This sand is said to be the best close to Nashville and is rather fine-grained but suitable for plaster and brick work. The lower white sand is a little coarser and cleaner and is the best.

158

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

Section at small sand pit, northwest of Nashville
Feet Loamy, yellow, fine-grained sand___ ------- ______________ :_ 4-5 YelloWish-white to white fine-grahied sand_________________ 3

Sample T-~37, representative of this deposit, has a fineness modulus of 1.42 and 44 per c~nt is retained on the 48-mesh sieve. The or, ganic matter in the sand shows a color value of 500. The grains are mostly of stained, angular quartz.
The sand alori.g Withl~coochee River is not so prominent as along Allapaha River or other rivers, and at the crossing of the Georgia &. Florida Railway there is practically none of any account. At Sandy Bluff; however, west of the river, and a third mile south of the railroad trestle, north of the Adel road, the sand is 10 feet thick, usually yellowish to white, and fine.:.grained in texture. This Eand is not available, as a cemetery covers most of the area.
.!lllapaha River.-The sandy. be~t east of Allapaha River continues through Berrien County, but is much thinner and narrower, and the sand is of poorer quality than in Irwin County to the north.. At the Ocilla Southern Railroad crossing, near the Allapaha-Ocilla road, 4~ miles north of Allapaha, otrly from 3 to, 4feet of silty, finegrained sand is exposed in the cuts, although it probably attains a greater thickness. The belt is half a mile wl.de here, but clay comes
close to the surface at several points. A somewhat coarser sand
OCCUrf? S~Uth .Qf the river in .a small deposit 4 or 5 feet thitk.
At the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad crossing of the river, 3 miles
east of Allapaha, . a poor grade of sand, very fine-grained and silty, shows in the railroad cut 500 feet east of the trestle. The belt is 2;000 feet wide, but 1,000 feet of this exposes yellowish red clay be-
neath, and in the rest of the cut the thickness is from 8 to W feet,
although in places it is thinner. To the north of the railroad the hill rises somewhat indiqating a thickening of the .sand.. In the river itself a small bar, typical of the bars occurring at intervals along the river, and made up of whity, coarse sand, occurs.
The entire northern part of the county is very sandy. Dug wells have passed through from 5 to 10 feet of coarse, gray sand in many places, and in some instances a thickness ~f 15 feet and more has been noted. Two miles east of Milltown the Satilla terrace is prominent

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

159

and is about 15 feet above the river. Veatch 1 gives the following section:

Section at ;wagon bridge two miles east of Milltown

Pleistocene

Feet

Satilla formation

3. Brownish or chocolate-colored sand, gray or white over tbe surface of the plain____________________________ 5

2. Brown or yellow, coarse sand, quartz, and quartzite peb-

bles, also contains small white pebbles of phosphate___ 2

Oligocene

Alum Bluff formation
1. Greenish, laminated sandy clay_________________________ 8

Glass sand.-At many places thicknesses of from 3 to 5 feet of pure white sand occur associated with cypress swamps and other undrained depressions. The original yellow or gray sand has probably been leached of its iron oxide content by the organic acids produced in the swamp humus, and the sand is apparently pure eriough for glass manufacture. Deposits of this kind occur throughout the county; their thickness is uncertain and they depend upon the size of the swampy area for their extent. The sand is of little value now, due to lack of rail transportation, but it may be a future source of supply.
Pure, white sand also underlies the yellowish sand to a thickness of from 3 to 6 feet along Withlacoochee River and represents ancient deposits made by the river. No analyses were made -of any of this sand, but the reader is referred to the analysis of T-238 (p. 180), a similar sand occurring west of Little River on the Adel-Moultrie road.

BIBB COUNTY

Sand is produced commercially in Bibb County from Ocmulgee River, at Macon, and was formerly mined at Hardy's Crossing. Numerous gravel deposits occur near the city of Macon, and some of these are used as a local source of road and building material.
Ocmulgee River.-The Macon Sand and Supply Company operates two 6-inch Morris centrifugal pumps driven by 25- and 35. horsepower engines from the west bank of Ocmulgee River about 1,000 feet above the Spring Street bridge in the city of Macon, on the Southern Railway. The river at this point is normally from 2 to 5 feet deep, and the nearest shoals are one mile above, consequently the spot is

1 Veatch, Otto, and Stephenson, L. W., Geology of the coastal plain of Georgia: Georgia Geol. Survey, Bull. 26, p. 445, 1911.

160

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

well located to maintaill a constant sand supply. Each pump is capable of producing from 7 to 8 carloads a day, using up to 250 feet of pipe, and pumping can be carried on as deep as 20 feet, or until soij.d rock is reached. With every additional 20-foot joint of pipe after 250 feet, the sand capable of being pumped daily is reduced one~half carload. The sand from the river is run thrGmgh a halfinch mesh screen, which is laid across the car as it is loaded, to rid it of.twigs and other foreign matter, and it then passes into the car from which the water and- clay drain off leaving the clean sand behind. It is necessary to stop with wood all cracks and chinks in the car larger than a quarter inch or a large proportion of the sand will be lost' i!r transit. This work may take as much time as the actual load~ ing of the car~ No trouble has been experienced since the pumps were installed in obtaining an adequate supply of' sand. Sample T-_7' .It, representative of the sand as shipped, shows a fineness modulus of 2.83 a1ld 95 per ce:Q.t retained on tlie 48-mesh sieve; A concrete strength ratio test made by Prof. F. C. Snow at the Georgia Tech Laboratory gave 128 and f31 per cent of normal __at 7 and 28 daysJ respectively.. It contains only a trace of. organic matter. The sand is used lo~ally _or shipped tv Atlanta and vther points on the Southern Railway in Georgia.
East or- the. river, opposite Macon, g~nerally a few hundred feet from _the"' stream1...patches of coarse, gray sand, well' suited for concrete work, are foun.d.- These deposits are usually small, rarely more than an acre in 'extent and from 1 to 6 feet deep, but they should afford a local supply of fairly gaod sand.
Fprther back from the river .the sand becomes finer and on the - 'slopes of the second terrace it is dug from banks along the roads or
s~reets and hauled across the river to Macon. Sample T-68, ob~ tain~d a few hundred feet north of the Central of Georgia Railway, about a third mile from the river, shows a fineness mo~ulus of 1.75 . arid 37 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. Practically no organic matter occurs in the sand. Such sand is suitable only for brick mortar and should only be used for. concrete where a coarser sand is not 1avail-
able.
-Walnut Oreek.-Three miles northwest of Macon,- where the Camp Wheeler road crosses Walnut Creek, near the county line, the creek is 25 feet wide and has a bottom 250 feet across. Fairly good

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS OF GEORGIA

PLATE X
.-..

A. WATER PIPE AND SAXD SLUICE USED IN HYDRAULICING SYSTEM, ATLANTA SAND & SUPPLY CO ~If'AXY. 1 MILE SOUTH OF GAILLARD, CRAWFORD COUNTY

B. GENERAL VIEW, ALTAMAHA SUPPLY COMPANY, 3 ., MILES EAST C'F EVERE'];T CITY, MciNTOSH COUNTY

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

161

sand in large quantities occurs in the bed and along the banks of this stream and should be well suited for local construction and road-. building work.
Hardy's Crossing.-For two or three miles southeast of Lizella on the Macon & Birmingham Railway, a very sandy belt, an extension of the one so prominent in Taylor and Crawford counties to the south, occurs. One mile west -of Hardy's Crossing there is an abandoned sand pit of an acre in extent, to which a spur t:r:ack has been laid. The cut shows from 10 to 12 feet of sand which -is underlain by yellow clay. The sand is gray, fine-grained, and below the upper foot or two it is very clean and free from organic matter.
Tittlf? property.-Mrs. J. M. Tittle of Macon, owns 13 acres at Hardy's Crossing. Prior to 1908 sand was shipped from this property. The pit, just east of the crossing, covers over an acre. About 10 acres of this property appear to be underlain by sand from 6 to 15 feet deep. The sand is gray and coarser than that west of the crossing. Sample T-10, obtained from the pit face on this property, shows a fineness modulus of 1.93 and 69 per cent coarser than the 48mesh sieve. The sand contains only a trace of organic matter. It is grayisn-yellow and except for a few grains of feldspar and ilmenite
the sand is composed of clean, angular quartz grains. This sand _is
well suited for brick and plaster mortar and may also be used for concrete, although a coarser sand would be preferable.
One mile east of Hardy's Crossing, ten acres appear to be covered with sand to .a depth suitable for commercial development. The sand is similar to that further west.
Sand in small amounts, but of good quality and sufficient for local road uses, occurs along and in Rocky, Tobesofkee, and Echeconhee . ' creeks, throughout most of their courses in the county..

GRAVEL DEPOSITS
Macon.-The Fall Line, or contact of the unconsolidated Cretaceous sediments and the ancient Crystalline basement, runs across Bibb County from northeast to southwest, passing through the city of Macon. The clays and sands just southeast of this contact are favorable places for the occurrence of gravel. A number of such deposits exist in. the county, but they are usually too thin or of too limited extent to warrant extensive commercial development. They

Jf62

GEOLOGICAL SURVE'Y OF GEORGIA

afford a. fair supply of road material and have also been used, after removal Of the clay by washing; for concrete aggrega-te. In the vicinity of Macon the gravel occupies the hill tops south and west of the city.
Just west of the Central of Georgia Railway yards, 2 miles south of Macon, and a little north of the overhead bridge, clay gravel from 5 to 10. feet thick occurs, generally at or near the tops of hills. Th~ pebbles are of sub-angular quartz and range from ;!4 to- 4 inches in diameter, although th~ir average size is from 1 to 2 inches. In the road r>aralleling the railroad, and about 1,000 feet west of it, two road cuts show -the following section:

Section 1,000 feet east of Central of Geor~ia Railway two miles south of .Macon

.

Feet

PCelbayblgyr,avsae{n_d_y_s_o__i_L_-_-_-~--_-________________________:_.___~___-_-_--_-_-_-:-_-_-____________ .2-35

Red, clayey sand___ ---------- _________________._________ 1-2 Sandy, clay graveL _______________ :_____________________ 1-5

Th.e lower bed in the section is very irregular, ch-anging to white sand and thinning Dut entirely in short distances. It also contains limonite .concretions. The gravel exposed in thls se.ction does not ex:tend:,to. the top of the hills to the east which are underlain by another layer. Probably a total of 30 acres are underlain -with gravel in this locality. Sample T-60, taken from the upper layer in .the section given above, shows a fineness modulus of 6.46 and 76 per cent retained on the 4-mesh sieve, with 18 per cent of the pebbles larger. than 1;!4 inches. The clay -content of 12 per cent makes an excellent cementing material, adapting the . gravel for use in road construction. If w:ished of the chiy it would make concrete aggr,egate. The pebbles are rounded, granular quartz, but are rather soft and easily broken.
A cut on the Central of Georgia Railway 5 miles south of Macon was also examined.
Section on Central of Geor~ia Railway, l5 miles south
of .Macon
Feet Inches Sandy soiL ___ --------- __ -~ __ --------------------- 2 Red, clayey, well-cemented graveL __________________ 2 Reddish-brown clay-______________________________ 5
Red clayey graveL _______ --------------- ___:._----- .3 6
Red, clayey, slightly indurated sand _________________ 12

SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

163

This material is suitable .only for road purposes, as the propor-
tion of gravel is too small to warrant washing. It is typical of the
Cretaceous gravels in the vicinity of Macon. The sand at the base has variable lenses of white kaolinitic sand from 1 to 3 feet thick containing black specks of ilmenite. Sample T-8, representative of the white, kaolinitic sand so common along the Fall Line, shows a fineness modulus of 2.59 and 92 per cent coarser than the 48-mesh sieve. The clay content is 15 per cent. Such sand would make excellent concrete aggregate if washed of its clay and if found with a cover thin enough to warrant mining.
A cut on the Central of Georgia Railway 4Yz miles south of Macon shows the following section:

Section 4Yz miles south of .Macon on Central of Geor~ia

.

Railway

Feet Inches Sandy loamy soiL ____ ------- _____________ ::______ _ 1 Medium grained, yellow, clayey sand_______________ _ 1

Red, clayey quartz graveL-------------~----------- 1

6

Coarse grained, clayey sand_____ -.- __ -~ ____________ _ 1 6

Clayey, quartz graveL _______________ ----- ____ ---- 2

White, kaolinitic sand containing pebbles of white

kaolin----------------------------------------- 15

The upper sand in this section contains too niuch clay for use in building, but when mined with the gravel should make a good, wellcementing road material. The white sand at the base of the section was .analyzed to determine its value for glass purposes, but the iron content of 1.25 per cent is too high. This iron occurs mostly combined with titanium in the mineral ilmenite, which occurs through the otherwise pure white sand in small, almost invisible, black specks.

Analysis of white sand on Central of Geor~ia Railway, five

miles south of Macon

Moisture at 100 C _________________________________ _ Loss on ignition____________________________________ _
Lime (CaO) ___ ----- ________________________________ _ Magnesia (MgO) ___________________________________ _

0.06 1.93
trace 0.34

Alumina CAI20 3)-- ------------------------- -- ------- 3.95 Ferric oxide (Fe20 3)_ __ - _____ - _____________ --- ------- 1.25

Titanium dioxide (Ti02) ____________________________ _ 0.36'

Silica (Si02) __ ----- ____ ----------------------------- 92.56

Total __________________________________________ 100.4fi

164

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

Six miles south of Macon on the Central ofGeorgia Railway, cut show lenses of gravel 1 to 2 feet thick. Th~se lenses may unite to form a. deposit of good road. gravel 5 or 6 feet thick. About 5 acres appear to be underlain with clay gravel a quarter mile north of Rutland Station. The overburden is variable and may be too thick to permit recovery of the gravel. The irregularity and thinness of the gravel must also be considered.

Macon-Columbus road (Wire road).-Many outcrops of gravel

.occur along the old ''Wire" road between Macon and Lizella: North

of this road, 3~ miles froni Macon, Small pits have been opened in

the gravel. It is a sand gravel-only a foot or two thick and most of

it has been removed. The cut on the south side of the road shows

.

,t:

5 feet of clay gravel.

A mile south:of the road at this point a high hill, clearly visible

from the road, is capped with a sandy, clayey quartz gravel. A pit
w:;Ls in operation on the s<mth side of the hill about 191~, and most of the grav~l was hauled away for construction purposes after having

been first washed and screened at the pit. The opposite side of the

hill appears to still contain considerable gravel, although not so good

as that. on the south side. A pile of good coarse concrete sand con-

..-taining about 25 car loads has been formed from the gravel screenings.

The. hill contains .about 15 acre.s either in the pit or untouched, and

the gravel ranges from -1 to 4 feet in thickness.

On the Columbus road, 7 miles from M~con, clay gr.avel up to 8

. feet in thickness appears in road cuts for 500 feet. The upper 4 feet

of the gravel is usually sandy, but the lower part has a red clay ma-

trix. A well on the Amerson property, at the 7-mile post, is 17 feet

deep, and shows only a few feet of gravel.at the bottom. Further

west of this road 4 or 5 feet of clay gravel is expos_ed in a road cut west

of a small ditch. Sample T-66 is typical of the clay gravel along the

Columbus road and was obtained at the cut on the Amerson property.

It shows a fineness modulus of 6.44 and 73 per cent coarser than 4

mesh. The clay content is 14.3 per cent, it has a high cementing value,

and is composed of tough, quartz pebbles. A large deposit may exist '

up or down the branch from the Columbus road.

. Saunders' property.-From' 15 to 20 acres on the Reuben Saunders' property, 1Yz miles west of Lizella, are covered with coarse, quartz

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

165

gravel. Most of this has worked down from the tops and sides of surrounding hills where it is at the most about 5 feet thick and covers from 1 to 2 acres.
Castleberry property.-The Robert Castleberry property, two miles west of Lizella on the Knoxville road, and a quarter mile from the Macon & Birmingham Railway, has a sandy gravel deposit covering several acres. Prospect pits dug in 1917 are reported to have
penetrated an average of 272 feet of gravel. The pebbles are of fairly tough granular quartz and range from Y2 to 3 inches in diameter.
the gravel is used _locally and although this deposit is probably the largest in this vicinity it would not warrant commercial development except to supply the local demand for concrete or road building.

BLECKLEY COUNTY
The Ocala limestone underlies the northern three-quarters of Bleckley County, ahd the remainder is covered with the variegated clays and sands of the Altamaha iformation. Sand for even local construction purposes is of J are occurrence throughout most of the county, and none is produced for commerciaL purposes.
Some sand occurs east of Gum Swamp Creek, but the amount is small and the quality poor. Sand used for construction purposes in Cochran -is generally scraped up from ditches or obtained from nearby branches. A sample from a sinall branch north of Cochran is typical of the sand found in such small deposits. This sand (T-2;/.5) is yellowish-brown, and the grains are mostly angular quartz. The fineness modulus is 2.13 and 15 per cent is retained on the "48-mesh sieve. The organic content shows a color value of 100.

BROOKS COUNTY
The surface of Brooks County is mostly sandy and underlain at depths of from a few inches to several feet by days and clayey sand and still deeper by Alum Bluff strata which. outcrop along some of the streams. Although considerable surficial sand exists in the county, deposits of commercial value are meager.
Quitman.-Sand for use in Quitman has been obtained from a pit on the A. S. Perry property, 1.4 miles east of Quitman on the Valdosta road, just west of Okapilco Creek. About one and a half acres

166

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

have been uncovered showing a maximum thickness of from 4 to 5 feet of loamy, fine-grained sand becoming coarser near the bottom. At the east end of the pit the sand is somewhat coarser and of better quality. . From 1 to 2 feet of sandy soil must be removed to expose the building sand. Sample T-21;.0, taken 'from this pit, shows a fineness modulus of 1.49 and about 45 per cent is retained on the 48mesh sieve, indicating a rather fine-grained sand. The organic content shows a color value of 100.
Similar deposits, less favorably situated with respect to .roads, occur a half mile south of Quitman on the South Georgia Railway, and one mile east of the town on the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad.
A small deposit" also occurs 1Y2 miles north of Quitman on a planta-
tion road leading north from the lumber mill.
Okapiloo Creek.--A. fairly coarse, clean, gray sand obtained from Okapilco Creek, 2 miles north of' the Quitman-Valdosta. road, . has been used in the constructiQn of the concrete bridge across that creek. The sand is much better than any seen elsewhere around Quitman.
Withlaoooo,hee Rive~.-Withlacoochee River, forming the boundary_ b~tween Brooks and Lowndes counties, has a number of bars of coarse, white sand; similar, although somewhat firier sand, is found along the stream above the channel, particularly near the Blue Springs bridge. The sand is underlain usually with blue or green clay at a depth of from 2 to-. 5 feet.
Th~ Satilla terrace which ext'ends along Withlacoochee River about. 20 feet above the bed is covered with fine-grained sand which becomes coarse and even pebbly a few feet below the surface. No samples of this sand were analyzed, but som~ of it appears sufficiently pure for glas~ manufacture.
Other deposits .-small scattered deposits of sand, ranging from loamy and clayey to coarse and ~lean, occur throughout the county, especially on terraces, or oii the. terrace slopes of streams. Deposits of this character occur on both sides of Piscola Creek as far west as Dixie. A rather large deposit is found just west of Piscola, in the southwest part of the county, and near Ochlawilla Church in the southeast part of the county. Most of these deposits are so far from railroads as to be of only local value.

SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

167

BRYAN COUNTY

No commercial sand pits are operated in Bryan County. The potential sand and gravel deposits of value are restricted to bars in and along Canoochee and Ogeechee rivers and to sand belts north and east of Canoochee River.
Canoochee River.-Sand hills occur east of Canoochee River, but their height is not so great as along Alta:rriaha River at Barrington and Ludowici. On the Claxton-Pembroke road, east of the river from 5 to 7 feet of yellow, fine-grained sand has been deposited upon_ clay. In the river bed, and in bars, there are large quantities of white, medium- to coarse-grained sand from a few hundred square feet to almost an acre in extent suitable for building purposes. This sand in the river bed has the property of whistling or singing when the heels are shuffied through it. The Seaboard Air Line Railway crosses the river west of Groveland and furnishes the only means of trans- portation of sand for commercial purposes_ from the river in the county, except in the eastern part of the county where the main line of the Seaboard crosses the river north of Ways Station.
Ellabell.-Along the Ellabell-Clyde road, 3 miles north of Clyde, a coarse sand grading into a fine, sandy gravel occurs for a distance of 1,000 feet. The gravel appears to be confined to the tops of the higher areas, and although it may appear extensive on the -surface, it is not likely to exceed 2 feet in thickness at any point. No Iailroad runs within 5 miles -of the material.
On the Ellabell-Guyton road, 3 miles north of Ellabell, a cut shows 6 feet of fine-grained, loamy sand and red clay beneath. Deposits of this character are typical of the county and are of questionable value even if located- on a railroad or close to a mark~t.
Other deposits .-Throughout the county the surficial sand ranges from 2 to 8 feet in depth and is underlain by yellow, red, and blue plastic clays. This sand is fine-grained and has a large amount of organic matter and is of poor quality for building purposes.; occasionally, however, it becomes coarser and cleaner and suitable for such uses.
The white sand exposed in the bars of Canoochee River is be..;. lie.ved to be sufficiently pure for the manufacture of glass. Constant

168

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

replenishment of -the bars would go on if they were to be exploited, but the most serious question at present is that of transportation.

BULLOCH COUNTY
No sap.d is produced in Bulloch County in quantjties large enough for shipment.
Statesbo,ro.-Most of the. sand used locally in Statesboro is obtaine~ from the J. B. Lee pit,- on the Savannah road about a mile
from the courthouse. The pit covers 1Y2 acres, and the sand as shown
ranges from 10 feet in thickness at the northwest end to 6 feet at the southeast end.

Section at southeast end of J. B: Lee's pit, Statesboro.

Feet Sandy soiL ____ --------------- ______ --------------_____ 1 Fine-grained, yellow sand______ -.-- __________ ~ __ c. ______ "_ w 3

Medium-grained, yellow sand____ ------------------------ 2. White; medium-grained sand of irregular extent and thlck-

rless----------------------------------------------Reddish-yellow claY------~-;:-----~----------------------

1-2
1

+

The northwest end of the pit shows a reddish-brown clayey sand

of inferior quality. The. sand is. haul~d to all parts of Statesboro,

the price depending on the length of the hauL A slightly higher

~harge is made for the white sand. The sand was used in concrete

paving of the streets- of Statesboro. Sample T-264, from this pit,

showed a fineness modulus of 2.12 and 80 per cent coarser than 48

m~.

,

Of!eechee Riv~r.-Ogeechee River has in it's. bed, along pr.actically its. 'entire course on the northeast and easter~ margin of the county, coarse sand and gravel from 1 to 3 feet thick and very little mud or clay. At the crossing of the Savannah road (DixieOverland. Highway) the sand and gravel is particularly prominent and was used in the concrete .work on the new bridge .constructed in 1920.
The east and north sides of many of the streams in the county have deposits of fine-grained sand. This is especially true of Lotts
Creek. East of Register and near the Central of Georgia Railway, . the belt is 500 feet wide and from 4 to 10 feet thick.

SAND AND, GRArEL DEPOSITS

169

BURKE COUNTY

Considerable sand occurs in Burke County near Keysville and in and along Savannah River, and gravel is reported on the southeast edge of the county, but neither sand nor gravel is produced commercially in the county at this time.
Waynesboro.-Sand for local use in Waynesboro is obtained from the Glenn Fulcher property, on the Augusta road, two miles from Waynesboro. The part dug over is about two acres, ranging from 2 to 4 feet deep, and the sand is' fine-grained, loamy, and white, suitable only for brick mortar. Sa:rn,ple T-263, from this pit, has. a fineness modulus of 1.68 and 54 per cent coarser than 48 mesh.
Keysville.-In 1895 considerable sand was shipped from the J. P. Clarke property in Keysville to an Augusta glass company, and in 1906 an elaborate plant for the manufactu e of cement blocks was . installed and operated for a few years. The sandy area in and around Keysville covers about 500 acres. The upper 2 to 4 feet is usually a clean, white sand, sufficiently pure for glass making.

Analysis of white sand from J.P. Clarke property, Keysville, T-262

Loss on ignition____________________________________ _ Lime (CaO)________________________________________ _ Ma.gnesia (MgO) ___________________________________ _
Alumina (AhO 3) -- _------- -------------------------Ferric oxide (Fe20 3) _______ -------------------------Manganous oxide (Mn0) ____________________________ _
Titanium dioxide (Ti02) ___ -- ___ ---- __ ------ _- _____ -Silica (Si0 2) _________ - _- _-- - - -- -- - - - - -- - - -- - - - - - - - - -

0.30 0.00 0.14.
0.55 0.32 0.09 0.14 98.30

Total__________________________________________ 99.84

Beneath the white sand is from 5 to 15 feet of 'yellow, fine- to medium-grained sand below' which red and 'Yhite clay, interbedded. with coarser yellow sand, occurs. Sample T-262, from this deposit, has a fineness modulus of 1.75 and 68 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. As two lines of the Georgia & Florida Railwa:y- diverge at Keysville, there is adequate rail transportation.

170

GEOLOGIGAL SURVEY Oli' GEORGIA

CALHOUN COUNTY
The surface of Calhoun County is usually covered to a depth of from a few inches to $everal feet, with gray, fine-grained sand. No COilllllercial sand deposits are either worked or. known in the cou!!ty. Sand for building. purposes is usually shipped in from Albany or Columbus or else scraped up from creek beds or ditches.
Fine..,.grained sand occurs in the beds or along the banks of Chickasawhatchee, Ichawaynochaway and Pachitla creeks, but the amount is small and the quality poor. Small areas of white sand are scattered through the county near str_eams or sloughs, and an amilysis of some from Pachitla Creek on the Morgan-Arlington road is given.

.!lnalysis of sand f'rom Pachitla Creek, .Mor~an-.!lrlin~ton road, Calhoun County

lron oxide (Fe20 3) _____ ------------ _---------------- 2. 00 Silica (Si02)-- ---- _________ .: --- -~-- ~ --~-- ____'_______ 97.10

TotaL _____________ .:_ __ ---- __ --'--;--------~- __ --~ 99.10

The iron content of this sand is too high for glass-making.

CAMDEN COUNTY

The surface of Camden County is covered with sand which is

underlain by clays and clayey sands. Sand is obtained commercially fro:rD, St..Mary's River above St. Maty;s: Deposits of black

sand occur on the coastal islands which may be later utilized as a

source of the rarer elements and are described in Appendix B, p. 377.

;

',

St . .Marys.-According io S..W. McCallie, 1 sand from the bed

of St. Mary's River is loaded on barges and shipped to St. Mary's and the adjoining coastal islands for local use. Most of this sand is

obtained 2 or 3 miles above the town and is a fairly coarse, clean,

white sand.

CANDLER COUNTY
No sand or gravel has been produced in Candler County except for local purposes.
.Metter.-The best sand close to Metter occurs on theW. L. Jones place, 3 miles south of the town on the Cobbtpwn road.. The over-
burQ.en is 2 f~et thick, but t~e sand is coarse-grained, clean, and hence of excellent quality. The deposit covers several acres.

. 1 Oral communication.

SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

J71

Deposits of fine-grained sand are common throughout the county, but they are not suitable for concrete work. A deposit of this kind occurs on the J. M. Lee property, 2 miles northwest of Metter.
Fifteenmile Creek.-Fine-grained sand, from 8 to 15 feet thick, occurs in a belt from 500 to 1,000 feet wide east of Fifteenmile Creek along most of its course in the county. At the Central of Georgia Railway crossing east of Metter, the. belt is 800 feet wide and the sand 10 feet deep. Further north the sand becomes deeper, and the belt widens until about 5 miles north of the railroad where it appears to reach its greatest development.
. Canoochee River.-A belt of fine- to medium-grained, gray to yellow sand about a mile wide extends east of Canoochee River along its entire course in the county. The sand ranges from 10 to 35 feet in depth, and its topography is .rolling. The sand is exposed along the Central of Georgia Railway east of Canoe Station, although only a part of its total thickness can be seen. The deepest cut is 500 feet west of the station and shows 8 to 10 feet of sand for 900 feet. A well at the sawmill, north of the r~ilroad, and 10 feet below the top of the highest .part of the sand hill at this point, encountered over 15 feet of yellow sand. West of the first railroad cut is a depression which is succeeded by 1,500 feet of what appears to be deep. sand, although only a small cut was necessary here for the railroad. Sample T-265,. from this deposit, has a fineness modulus of 1.71 and 65 per cent coarser than 48 mesh.
CHARLTON COUNTY
The eastern part of Charlton County is flat and sand-covered, while the western part forms a portion of the great Okefenokee Swamp. Incoherent white and yellow sands cover a large part of the county. They are underlain by red and white sands and clays of Pleistocene or Pliocene age, and still deeper by the clays, marls, and limestones of the Charlton formation.
Folkston.-Gray to white sand becoming pale yellow at a depth of a few feet is exposed just east of Folkston, according to Veatch. 1 The sand here averages 6 to 8 feet in thickness, but locally it attains a depth of 15 to 20 feet. Elsewhere in the county the sand ranges in depth from 2 to 15 feet. Along St. Mary's and Sa-

1 Op. cit., pp. 426, 427.

172

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

tilla rivers, the sand has been piled up into a permanent ridge which borders these rivers particularly on the west.
St. .Mary's River.-A :immber of sections observed by Veatch 1 along St. Mary's River show from 2 to 6 feet of white to brown sand belonging to 'the Satilla formation and occuring from 10 to 25 feet ahove the river bed. It is likely that sand of this type attains a thickness of from 15 to 20 feet thr9ughout the county, but very little of commercial .value lies close to the railroads.
A deposit of brown to black indurated sand cemented with organic acids from which brown dyes are made, lies three miles west _of St. George, and smaller deposits of lower grade material have been found along the Suwannee Canal. near Camp Cornelia. A detailed description of these deposi~s is given on- page 373.
CHATHAM COUNTY
The surface formation of most of Chatham County c0nsists of finegrained quartz sands of the Satilla formation. Argillaceous sands with reddish and bluish clays occur beneath the surficial sands and in places are exposed at the surface. Sand is commercially produced from 8avannah River. Bank deposits of sand are scattered through the county, particularly along Ogeechee. River.
. Savannah_ River.-The General Building S-qpply Company of Sav~nnal;l, of which Mr. F. H. Opper. is presid nt, ha~ be.en dredging from the bed of Savannah River from 5 to 6 miles above Savannah since 1911. A one-yard clam-shell bucket is operated by means of a 40-horsepowe:r hoisting engine on a dredge boat, and the sand is piled on a lighter of 100 cubic yards cap::tcity and towed to a wharf at the city, from which it is transferred to boats for shipmen:t to Jack-
sonville, Charleston, and sea-uoast points,- or to railroad cars for in-
terior shipment. The sand in the river bed r1:1,nges from 1 to 8 feet deep and generally lies in lop.g, narrow strips parallel to the direction of the stream. The river is from 16 to 18 feet deep. The coarser sand is found in the deeper part of the channel and the dredge gener-
ally works there. Beneath the sand a white gravel is usually found,
the pebbles being about one inch in diameter. 'The gravel or sand is underlain by' gray mud or clay.. In order for the dredge to work effectively there should be at leaE~t 4 feet of sand in the river bed. The d:redge has been working in practically the same location, 6 miles

1 Op. cit., pp. 393, 400.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSI1'S

l73

west of Savannah, opposite the Whitehall plantation, since 1916. A hole may be dredged out during the day, but it is usually filleq up over night. Sample T-35, taken from the lighter during dredging, shows a fineness mudulus of 2.19 and 93 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. The color value of the organic content is 100. Concrete tests of sand from Savannah River made by the Pittsburg Testing Laboratory, gave a tensile strength of 229 pounds per square inch or 100 per cent of the strength of concrete made from standard Ottawa sand. Tests of sand from bed No. 4, and reported to Mr. W. F. Brown, county engineer, showed 109 per cent of the standard sand strength.

Analysis of sand from bed of Savannah Jf,iver, 6 miles north of Savannah

Soda (Na20) _____ ------ __ -- ------------------------J?otash (K20) ________________ ----------------------Lime (CaO) ___________________________ - - ____ - _- _- _- Magnesia (MgO) __ ~ ________________________________ _
Alumina (Al20 s) __ --- ___ ---------------------------Ferric oxide (Fe 20 s) __ -- _--- - _--------------"------ - Manganous oxide (MnO) ____________________________ _ Titanium dioxide (TiO 2) ____________________________ .Silica (Si02) ___________ - _- ___ ------ _----------------

0.10 0.15 0.24 trace 1.94
1.15 trace
1.33 ' 94.85'

Total__________________________________________ 99.74

Salt Creek.-Excellent, quartz gravel is reported to occur beneath the marshes adjoining Salt Creek, near the Seaboard Air Line Railway crossing. The material is spotty, however, and is found in two layers separated by a layer of mud, 2 or 3 feet thick. The upper layer is 3 feet thick and the thick~ess of the lower layer has not been determined. The spotty character and the thinness of the deposit has prevented its development up to this time.
A narrow belt of fine-grained, yellow sand lies north of Ogeechee River westward from the old Ogeechee Canal. The deposit is nowhere moe than a mile wide, and its thickness ranges from a few feet to 12 feet. It is typical of the fluvial sand hills common in South Georgia and is of small value at this time.
On a small branch entering Ogeechee River from the north, and crossed by the Savannah-Darien road, 12 miles south of Savannah, a white sand is found which is representative of much of the sand occurring along the streams in Chatham and adjoining counties.

174

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

.ll.nalysis of sand from Of!eechee River branch, 12 miles south

of Savannah; T-31;.

Loss on ignitioiL __ __ __ ___ __ ____ __ __ __ __ ______ ______ _
Alumina (Al20 3) -- _____ ----- _____ ~- ______ -- __ __ ___ __ Ferric oxide (Fe20a)__ __ _____ ___ __ _____ ____ ___ _____ __ Titanium dioxide (Ti02) ________________________ ----Silica (SiO 2) ______________________ ,_ ____ ~ ____ ~ _______

0. 20
0. 01 0. 79 trace 99 . 06

TotaL __-__ ~~- __________________ --~- ____________ 100.06

The iron content of the sand is.low enough to warrant its us~ in the

manufacture of colored bottle glass, if a deposit. sufficiently large -for

commercial development can be located along a railroad.

.

CHATTAHOOCHEE COUNTY

Although no sand or gravel is commercially- exploited in Chatta-
hoochee County, large deposits of sand are found not far .from the
Central of Georgia and Seaboard Air Line railways in the center of
the county, and also in Upatoi Greek. .Gravel is found on the ter- -
races overlooking Chattahoochee River.

The FaJl Line sand-hill belt crosses most of the northern part of the. co~nty where it is from 2 to 4: miles wide, and the sand ranges

in depth from 5 to 15 feet. The extent of the belt is not so uninter-

.rupted .as is-true in Taylor, Talbot, and Crawford counties, nor is

rail . transportation so convenient. , Between Ochillee and Christo-

pher the Central of Georgia Railway _follows Ochillee Creek arid no .

sand is exposed except in the stream bed,- although considerable quan-

tities of sand occur on the higher ground from a quar ~r to a half

mile .from .the

railroad,

between
.

these

two

points.

Upatoi Creek.-Excellent deposits of coarse, white sand and gravel

occur in bars along Upatoi Creek almost from Chattahoechee River

to the Buena Vista road. Large bars are especially prominent at and

between the Seaboard Air Line and Central-of Georgia railway bridges.

The terrace above the creek contains some gravel that has been used

for local road building.

Fort Benning .Military Rese~vation.-Although no longer part of the county, deposits of gravel formerly included in the countyand now in the reservation may be tnent~oned here.

Just within the main entrance to Fort Benning 8 miles from Co-
lumbus a. small pit has been opened with.a Y2:..yard Marion stearri shoveJ.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

175

The gravel occupies a small hill in the forks of the in-going and outgoing roads and appears to underlie at least 4 acres.
Section at gravel pit at entrance to Fort Benning
Feet Red clay and fine-pebbled graveL________________________ 3 Coarse clay graveL _____________ ~_______________________ 3 Sandy clay and graveL___________ ~- _____________________ 3-4
The gravel is used in gravel road construction in the reservation.-
Rocky Creek.-On both sides of Rocky Creek from 20 to 40 feet above the stream on the old Lumpkin road 12 miles south of Co- lumbus, large deposits of gravel occur. North of the stream on this road the gravel is composed of medium-sized quartz pebbles in a highly cemente_d clay matrix and has been quarried for road material.

Section north of Rocky Creek on Lumpkin road, 12 miles south Qj Columbus
.Feet Hard, red, clay-graveL_------ ___________________________ 5-6 Partially indurated stratified yellow clay___________________ 6-
. Coarse, clayey graveL____________________________ ------- 3
The cover increases toward the top of the hill and the thickness and extent of the gravel lenses is variable, although apparently_ continuous along the stream.
South of the creek on this road from 3 to 7 feet of solid gravel occur, having medium to coarse, well-rounded pebbles. The cover ranges from a few inches to 7 feet. Beneath the upper gravel, coarse sand and gravel at least 5 feet thick are found. The material is ex- cellent for road building~
It is probable that gravel such as that described occurs on the first terrace overlooking Chattahoochee River along its entire course through the reservation and that it will be th:cker and more extensive close to tributary streams.
CLAY COUNTY
No large deposits of commercial sand or gravel ha-ve been opened in Clay County, although small pits near Fort Gaines supply most of the local demand.
J. C. Sutton property.-A gravel pit has been opened on the Locofokee Road 1.8 miles north of Fort Gaines about 200 feet west of

176

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

the road. .The pit is near the top of a 25.:.foot hill and is ~bout a tenth

of an acre in extent and shows a loamy, pebbly cover 2 or 3 feet thick. The grayel ranges from 2 tq 5 feet in thickness a~d consists of quartz,

quartzite, and a few limestone fragments, generally rounded, and

from a quarter inch up to 2 inch~sf with an average size of one inch.

A clayey sand occurs with the pebbles which becomes more clayey

near the bottom, until the underlying limestone is reached a few inches

beneath the floor of the pit. Sample T-2.12 from this pit .shows a

fineness modulus of 5.40 with 61 per cent of the pebbles retained on

./

a {"-mesh screen~ The pebbles are of sub-angu.lar, fairly tough quartz

or quartzite;

Gravel ofsimilar character, but of uncertain thickness, caps another

hilLjust west of the pit. A small knob about 200 yards south of this

last hili snows, in the gullies, about 5_:eet of sandy gravel covering

the surface. It is concentrated near the base of the hill and probably
a half acre IS c6vered'with good gravel to a maximum depth of' 5.feet.

Acut in the road 200 yards sduth of the pit shows 4 feet of clay gravel

suitable for road material. Most of the depo _its in t~s locality ap-

pear to be thin veneers only, very irregular ab.d discontinuous in their

extent. The Central of Georgia Railway is about a half mile east of

these deposits.

iMacgruder .Creeh-On the Eufaula-Fort Gaines 'road, 13 miles north of Fort Qaines, large quantities of excellent quartz.gravel o~cur in Magruder Creek for several hundred yards north and. south of the bridge. (Plate VIII-B). The creek channel is ordinarily about 30 feet wide, _and the first bottom is from 100 to 150 feet wide a/nd is covered with white sandy gravel ranging from 2 feet thick _in the channel to as much as 6 feet further ba~k. The pebbles are rounded tp sub-angular and range from a quarter inch to 3 inches in size. 'The sand is well graded.' Sa~ple T-225 shows a fineness modulus of 5.54 and. has 57 per 0ent coarser than 4 mesh. Thi 3 material was used in the construction of tBe hydro-electric plant on Pataula Creek one mile south of the deposit.
The bank of the ,first terri:tce overlooking the creek on the north shmys the followirJ.g. _section:

Se;e:f;ton of bank on .Matruder Creek just wes-t of Eufaula-
Fort Gaines road bridte
Feet Yellow clay overburden________ ~ __________ :_ _____________ 3-7 Sandy, white to yellow graveL-----~~-------------------- 8 Blue, green, and black clay __ ~--------------.-----------..: 3

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS OF GEORGIA

PLATE X I

B DRAG-LINE INCLINE AND SCREENING PLANT, RUTLEDGE & CHESTNUT, BULL CREEK, 3 MILES SOUTHEAST OF COLUMBUS, MTrSC:OGEE COUNTY

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

177

Strata of this nature probably underlie, for some distance along

.the creek, the entire first terrace or second bottom which ranges in

width from 100 to 200 yards. Northwest of the bridge as much as 12

feet of good sand-gravel lying between blue clay strata is exposed in

the stream cut. At this point the cover ranges from one foot near

the stream t~ six feet further back. The clay below has an irregular

upper surface. The origin of both this gravel and that in the stream

bed is due to the weathering, and subsequent deposition by streams,

of a large deposit lying close to the stream and extending from a point

half a mile below the., bridge to two miles above it. Distance from

rail transportation will probably prevent the use of these large de-

p9Sits for some time.

'

F . .M. Gay, Jr., property.-Just south of Magruder Creek on the Eufaula-Fort Gaines road and 25 feet above the bridge level, 10 feet of excellent sandy clay gravel shows in the road cut and has been used in the construction of the road. Streaks of sandy clay from 1 to 4 inches thick run through. it, but the .entire deposit will run 50 to 60 per cent pebbles over a quarter inch in diameter. It extends for 200 feet along the road an~ apparently is of considerable extent, covering at least 50 acr~s. The cover increases from a few inches to 10 . feet near the top of the hill overlooking Magruder Creek.
On the same road 0.4 mile south, 4 feet of gravel outcrops in the road, and 0.2 mile north of Pataula Creek the same thickness of finegrained sand-gravel is exposed in road cuts.
Gravel of this character usually occurs on the second terrace overlooking Chattahoochee Riv~r and is exposed by the creeks which cut through the scarp. It is usually all of similar nature and well suited for road building, although its remoteness from railroads is a hindrance to its present development.
J. C. JV'eeves property.-Seven miles from Fort Gaines on the Blakely road a few feet of sand and clay gravel show in road cuts at the top of a small hill. Very good but small deposits of gravel occur in Colomokee Creek and in its tributaries; and although the, location is inaccessible for commercial purposes these and other deposits may serve for future use in the construction of concrete roads or bridges in this part of the county.
Edward King property.-One mile north of the Early County line, on the Fort Gaines-Blakely road, there is a small hill on which the sand and gravel does not exceed 3 or 4 feet in thickness.

178

GEOLOGICAL S-URVEY OF GEORGIA.

CLINCH COUNTY

Sand., closely underlain by red and yellow clay, covers most of Clinch County; and at a greater depth the blue clays and clayey sands of the Alliin Bluff formation are found.

dJ:lapaha River.-.The Satilla terrace continues along Allapaha

River, but is not everywhere marked by deep sands. On the south

side of a small creek, about 3 miles .north of Mayday, in the south-

west corner of the county on the Statenville~Stockton road, from 8

to 12 feet of fine-grafued, irregularly stratffied, ch(y-ey sand occurs.

-,Surficial sand appears between this creek and Stockton ranging in

depth from 2 to 10 feet, although it is so remotely situated as to be

of no commercial value: Along the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad

between Stockton and the riyer no sand of coinmercial value occurs.

Small bars and deposits of white sand; suitable for glass-making,

oc.cur in and along Allapaha River throughout its entire course al9ng

'

'the west~rn edge of the county.

In the northeast part of the county, near Arabia Church, a de-

posit of over 10 -acres of pure white sand occurs suitable for glass:..mak-

ing; but <:lfsf'ance from a railroad is likely to prevent develepment.

.COFFEE COUNTY

.

.

. The' surface is covered largely with gray sand generally from a few inches_ to 3 fe~t in thickness and underlain' by' the ustial yellow

or red cl~y and sandy_ clay.

Seventeenmile Oreek.-Seventeenmile Cre~k: ~proves no .exception. to the general rule throu,ghout South Georgia that the larger streams have deep sandy: belts on their northern or eastern sides. This belt -is very prominent near Douglas at. the Atlanta, Birmingpam & Atlantic and Georgia & Florida railway crossings, but it exteJ;J..ds practically through the entire county from a quarter to threequarters of a mile in width, and from 8 to 25 feet in thickness.
Just west of Chatterton on the Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic Railway, and 6;!-i miles east of Douglas on the -Nicholls road, J. J. Downing operates a sand pit. .The pit has -been. worked at intervals since 1902, and about an ac.re has been uncovered. The -working face is _400 feet long and the sand is from 20 to .25 feet thick. The following section is shown:

- SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

J79

Section at J. J. Downing's pit, w_est of Chatterton
Feet Sandy soil with roots and vegetation______________________ 3 Rather loamy, yellow, gray sand__________________________ 3 Pale yellow sand with red, clayey sand strata one-quarter
inch thick and one inch apart. Most of this sand is rather fine-grained, sharp, and clean__________________ 13 Coarse, yellow sand, irregularly distributed over the p_it_ __ __ 1 Shell of irregularly distributed, red, sandy clay, very hard, extends in streaks or occupies isolated spots____________ 1 White, fine-grained sand with yellow strata through it, becomes pure white below_ ____________________________ 3
The sand is used in Douglas for concrete street paving, in Fitzgerald and othe:r South Georgia towns, and .in the foundries of the Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic Railway. Private tests showed it to contain one per cent of silt and the 7-day mortar test is said to have shown it to be 10 per cent better than standard Ottawa sand. (See T-234, table). Twelve hundred feet west of this pit, on the railroad, another ridge 8 feet above the grade makes favorable conditions for working the sand.
On the Georgia & Florida Railway, just east of its crossing of Seventeenmile Creek, similar sand occurs_ in the same wide ridge, from 8 to 20 feet thick. No sand is worked at this point, however. The
Douglas-Broxton road runs through this part of the belt about 272
miles north of Douglas. On the Broxton-Barrows Bluff road, between Prigderr and Dicky's
Farm, several acres of coarse, gray sand up to 6 feet thick occur along the Georgia & Florida Railway.. The probable extent of this coarse sand is small, but there appears to be plenty in this vicinity and, in fact, in the entire northern part of the county, for local use.
Ocmulgee River, bounding the county on the north, may b.e a future source of sand supply for construction work in that part of the county, but at present its large bars of coarse sand are accessible only to transportation by boat.
COLQUITT COUNTY
The surface of Colquitt County is covered with sand in the eastern part, but a light sandy loam is characteristic of the most of the rest of the county.
.Moultrie.-The deposits from which Moultrie obtains its lccal sand are of poor quality, the sand being fine-grainesl and clayey and the deposits not extensive. Some loamy sand of poor quality occurf'

180

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OE GEORGIA

in a 5-foot bank east of Ochlocknee River, 1.3 miles west of Moultrie
on the Camilla road, and in the river bed small de12osits of a fairly good medium- to coarse-gr:ained sand occur. On... th~n road,
2~ ~s northwest-~ltrie, a small p~~~"id on the Ba~ place. The sand here is loamy al!lt( the deposit usually less
than 4 feet thick. A sample (T-239) from this' deposit showed a fineness modulus or' 1.34 and M per cent was retained on the 48-mesh sieve.~ The org~nic content gave. a color value of 800.

Sand from the vicinity of O'kapilco Creek, one mile east of Moul-

? trie, on the Adel road, is also used locally. This sand is similar to

! }

~

that from the other sources. Between Moultrie and Thomasville

'there is 13ractically no sand even. for local use.

Little River.-.On the ;Moultrie-Adel road west of Little River the fol1owing section is shown:

Section West of Little River on the .Moultrie-J.ldel road
. Feet Dirty, yellow, sandy clay and silty sand___________________ 6 Fine-grained, white sand_______ ~-~_______________________ 8 (?)
A sample of the wliite sand was analyzeel to see whether it was pure enough for glass and the following results obtained:

Analysis of sand from Little Rirer, J.ldel-:Moultrie road
Lime (CaO) _______ --~-- ________________ --~ _______ _:_ _ 0 :0(} Magnesia (MgO) ____ -'- ____ __ ____ ___ ___ ____ _____ ____ _ 0.11 Alumina (AhOa)-'----------------------------------- . 0.11 Ferric oxide (Fe 20 a) _____________________ .: _~ _________ 0 .9'1: Silica (SiO 2) __________ --" ___ --- ___________ ----- __ __ _ 98.62

T-238

TotaL _____ ------ ___________ ------ __ -_________ 99.78

It _is not known whether this white sand extends to the Georgia & Florida Railway crossing one mile to the north, but it is typical of the sand so generally seen in this part of the "wire grass" region along streams and in swampy areas. A coarser-grained, white sand, probably of small thickness, parallels th~ west side of the river a few hundred feet back from it.

COOK COUNTY
The surface of Cook County is sandy to a depth of from a few inches to several feet and is underlain by clays and sands of the Alum Bluff formation. Local accumula.tions of sand, particula.rly near

SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

181

branches, supply Adel, Sparks, and the other towns of the county with sand of fair quality for less important work. No sand hills occur east of Little River as was the case to the north in Tift County, . either at the South Georgia or the Georgia & Florida railway crossings, although within the river smnJl bars of medium-grained, white sand occur, and the river bed itself is composed of similar white sand.
On the Adel-Moultrie road considerable sand occurs, probably varying in depth from 3 to 1C feet, but it is not sufficiently thick or persistent to be of much commercial value.

CitAWFORD COUNTY
Immense quantities of commercial sand are produced annually in the county from a number of pits along the Southern Railway and shipped to every part of the state as well as to points in adjoining states.
The sand area of Crawford County forms a part of a belt extending with some interruptions from Richmond County almost to Colwnbus. It ranges from 2 to 6 miles in width, and the sand is from 5 to 30 feet thick. The surface is undulating, the thicker .sand occilling usually where the land is highest. The valleys of the few streams cutting the area usually expose the underlying Cretaceous white clays, and in the shallower valleys, where the clay is not exposed, the sand. is usually thinner but coarser than that on the hills and ridges.
.McCarty sand pits .-Near the southeast margin of the sand belt, on the Southern Railway, C. C. McCarty of Fort Valley operates two pits on land leased from "VV. P. Carr. The southernmost pit is one and three-quarter miles north of Zenith and covers several acres. The face of the pit is about 18 feet high, the upper 5 or 6 feet of the sand being fine-grained and gray in color. (Plate IX-A.) The next 8 to 10 feet is reddish-yellow to brown and slightly coarser than that above
although still fine-grained. Alternating clayey layers from 72 to 2
inches thick and layers of paler, cleaner sand, 2 or 3 inches thick, give a wavy or corrugated appearance to this portion of the face. The lower 3 or 4 feet of the pit is coarser and usually yellow. The sand is loaded on cars by hand labor with wheelbarrows and is shipped principally to Atlanta. Only one grade is produced. Sample T-69 . is representative of the pit and shows a fineness modulus of 1.90 with 72 per cent coarser than 48 mesh.

182

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

The second McCarty pit adjoins on the south that described above

rend oc<:mpies several acres. The face shows an average thickness of

18 feet of sand. The sand is. similar to that in the other pit except that the coarser sand at the bottom is usually thicker, ranging from

4 to 6 feet, and consequently the sand from this pit is of better quality than that from the other. 'sample T-7d is typical of the lower part of the deposit, and- shows a fineness modulus of 2.12, with 79 per cent

coarser than 48 mesh.

A large abandoned pit, fo~merly

operated by L. A. Spillers of Gaillard, is located just south of the pit .described

above. The sand appears to be finer-

grained and hence of poorer quality than

that to the north. The color is reddishbrown and the clay content large. No-

sand has been shipped from this pit for

a(number of years.

I :'\_.',~~r.llllon Sand Company. - Several
f \.hlindred yards north of the McCarty
1 ~ pits the Allon Sand Company, managed

by Mr. F. ~ Chevis of Gaillard, owns ~02}1 . acres and operates a ' pit just

north of the Armour fertilizing plant.

"

I'

This pit covers several, acres, and the

sand is approxim~tely 11 feet thick at

D

~

-~

-~

.fcole__li-1 m1le~

the present working face at the south end of the pit near the railroad, but it . increases to 15 feet further west. This

Fig. 12. Sand pits along Southern Railway between Gaillard and Zenith. 1, Smiley pit; 2 & 3, Atlanta Sand & Supply Co. , Rollo pits; 4 & 5, Allon pits; 6 & 7, McCarty pits; 8,Spillers pit.

pit is rather remarkable in not having the stratified con'dition so apparent in the other pits in this part of the sand .. belt.
A 10-ton Buffalo locomotive crane with a %-yard clam-shell bucket and

a 35-foot boom is used. (Plate IX-B.) A 50-ton car can be easily loaded in 1}1 hours with this crane. Th~ upper 4 feet is fine-grained, pale yellow and clean and is removed first and sold for brick and plas-

ter mortar purposes. Below this a pale yellow, medium- to coarse-

SAND .AND GT...AVEL DEPOSITS

183

grained sand almost white in places and averaging 5 to 6 feet in thickness occurs. This sand is_ used throughout the state for concrete aggregate and has even been shipped as far as Nashville, Tenn. Sample T-6!;. is representative of the concrete sand, and a granulometric analysis shows a fineness modulus of 1.59 with 52 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. The sand has only a slight trace of organic matter.
Beneath the concrete sand reddish-yellow clay is encountered. At the west end of the pit, where the sand is thicker, just above the clay from 18 inches to 2 feet of sharp, fine-grained, pale yellow to white sand, silky in texture, is found. This sand is in great demand by plate glass companies and marble finishing works for abrasive, purposes. Sample T-68a, representing this abrasive sand, has a fineness modulus of 1.27 with 27 per cent coarser than 48 mesh.
Where the clean sand grades into the clay at the pit bottom, a clayey sand, making an ideal coarse molding sand, occurs, which is shipped to Savannah and Atlanta foundries, where it commands a good price. East of the railroad and opposite the .Allon sand pit, the underlying red clay comes to the surface, but the sand content is high .enough to make a coarse molding sand_ similar to that found at the contact of the sand and clay in the main pit. A small pit has been opened here and molding sand is shipped from it. Considerable fine-grained molding sand is said to occur along the creek a quarter mile east of the main pit.
Considerable prospecting has been done in this vicinity. Wells show as much as 18 feet of sand and more in places. - A hole at a spring southwest of the pit showed 20 feet of white sand with a high kaolin content. Auger borings east of the railroad showed a large acreage of sand from 14 to 20 feet thick.
The cover of sandy s9il and roots is being removed from this portion of the property to a depth of 2 feet by hand and loaded into oneyard dump cars hauled by a small dinky. Formerly a ]adder wagonloader was used to handle this sand, but due to rapid wearing of parts by the sand, which it is practically impossible to keep from the work.: ~_..g parts, it is no longer used.
/
.!ltlanta Sand and Supply Company.-The Atlanta Sand and - Supply Company, of Atlanta, owns over 400 acres of land along the
Southern Railway and operates the Rollo sand pit north of the Allon sand pit. The face is 8everal hundred feet long and the sand pale yellow to brown. The top of the main face is 25 feet above the track

184

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

a~d the sand at the face 15 to 18 feet thick from the floor to the top.

At the north end of the pit, the upper 5 feet is fine-grained and yellow

and is underlain by from 1 to 4 feet of coarse clayey sand contain-
ing numerous sub-angular pebbles up to .72 inch in diameter. Be-

neath the coarse layer alternations of yellow arrd reddish fine and

coarse sand with a rather high clay content occur from 8 to 12 feet.

At the track level a mottled sandy clay -shows. A Vulcan steam

shovel having a. i-yard dipper has recently been installed, which loads the sand dry.. A car 'ca~ usually be loaded in 40 minutes with

this machine. At the north end of this pit the sand is mined by playing a power-

ful jet of water against the face which carries the sand down an in-

. clined wooden sluice which was about 150 feet long when visited and

<.,

.

had .a 4 per cent slope. (Plates V-B, X-A.) The sand then passes

through a 1\--inch scree:a and into the railroad car. The spur track was formerly on the up-hill side of the main line, but this has been

moved to the other side of the main line to increase the fall from the

pit face, the sand sluice: passing beneath the main line. Temporary

partitions are placed in the car permitting the sand from the sluice

to be retained wb:ile the water runs off carrying some ,of the silt and

clay with it. The water is pumped through an 8-inch,. pipe first and
ilif~li through a 5-inch 'p1p(3 f,rom a pond produced oy d:all:nnmg' a small

stream about 130, -feet vertically. below the pit. From the 5-inch
pipe'the water pas~es through a 1,72'-inch nozzle directly striking the

face of the pit at the rate of' 500 gal~ons per minute. No attempt is

made to clear away the surface vegetation -before jetting. The entire

system is about 1,100feet long. The pump is 12 x 10 x 24 inches. By

this method only three men are required, one to take care of the pump, one at the face to handle the hydraulic jet, and one in the car bei~g

loaded. A car of 30 to 40 tons capacity, either of the gondola or box

type can ordinarily be loa~ed in an hour and a half.. At the same

time the sand is partially washed 'and the twigs and foreign matter

screened put.

,

Sample T-61 was taken from the upper part of a car being loaded

at the time of the writer's visit. The. sand is pale yellow, clean, and

has a .fineness modulus of 1.88 witl,l 68 per cent coarser than 48 mesh.

The color value of the organic content was 100. Concrete strength

r.atio tests made by Prof. F. C. Snow at the Georgia School of Tech-

S.AND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

185

nology on sand from this pit showed 143 and 120 per cent at 7 and 28 days, respectively.
A chemical analysis of the natural sand from this pit was made and its results typify the chemical character of most of the sand in the Fall Line sand-hill belt.

Analysis of natural sand from Atlanta Sand and Supply

Company's pit, Gaillard, Georgia

Loss on ignition____________________ _, ________________ 1. 04

Soda (Na20) ____ ----------- __ ______ ____ ___ ___ __ __ __ _ Potash (KzO)______ __ _____ _____ __ ____ __ ____ __ ____ __ _ Lime (CaO)________ ______ ______ ______________ __ _____
Magnesia (MgO) __________________________ ------- __ _ Alumina (AlzO s) __ _____ __ ____ __________ ________ ____ __ Ferric oxide (Fe zO 3) _________________________________

trace trace
. 00
.00 1:09
0 . 72

STiiltiacrau(uSmiOdzi)o_x_id_e__(_T_ _i_0_2_ )__--_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_--_-__--_-_-_ 906..1990 Rarer earths________________________________________ 0. 00

Total__________________________________________ 99.94

A partially worked-out pit adjoins the present workings on the north and about a mile south of Gaillard. According to Mr. J. C. West,,former superintendent of the pit, there is -a total thickness of 30 feet of sand here, 15 feet of which lies below the track level and consequently can not be recovered at present. The sand is fairly uniform throughout with only slight traces of stratification. Sample T-62 represents an average sample of the natural sand taken over a vertical distance of 8 feet about 10 feet below the top of the pit. A mechanical analysis showed a fineness modulus of 1.98 with 66 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. The organic content showed a color value of 40.
A typical section of the strata underlying the property is shown in the record of an auger boring furnished by Mr. West and made a short distance back of the pit face.

Section in boring at Atlanta Sand and Supply Company's

pit, Gaillard, Georgia

Feet Inches

Yellow, fine- to medium-grained sand______________ _ Kaolin _________________________________________ _

12
1

Fine yellow sand ________________________________ _

10-12

Fine white sand______________ : __________________ _ Red clay________________________________________ 2-3

0-18

White clayey sand________________________________ 1

(
I

186

GEOLOGiCAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

. '

/

- Smiley Sand Company.-The Smiley Sand Company, of At

lanta, has leased ~3 acres of sand land from W. P. Carr along the South-

ern Railway about a half mile north of Gaillard. A pit was opened

'in 1919 and a travelling derrick with a 30-foot boom and a Rawson

~-yard clam-shell bucket was installeCI.. A 35-horsepower Lidger-

wood hoisting engine is used. The pit is worked by making a narrow

. /

cut about 40 feet wide for the length of the property; from 6 to 8 cars

can be loaded at one SE?tting of the derrick and then the outfit is moved

back about 19 feet. Four men are employed.

Section at pit of Smiley Sand Company, Gaillard .
Feet Sandy soil with roots_______________ -------------~-- _____ _ 1
Yellow to brown, fine-grained sand_______________________ _ -5
Medium-grained, pale yellow to yellow-brown, faintly stratified and having irregular streaks and small splotches of clayey sand_______________________ "'-_-~ ___________ _ 7
White, hard, micaceous, fine- to medium-gr~ined sand _____ _ 3

16

. The white sand is not usually loaded as it is hard to loosen with

the grab-bucket in use. Beneath the white sand a red and yellow

sandy clay with lenses of white clay occurs.



. I

(



_Mills; property~-The;rMike Mills _property lies north _of t~e Ro""

betta-Garlla;rd road and west of the railroad, butthat part of It con-

taining sufficient sand to work lies almost half a mile from th~ railroad.

At Gaillard a smalL pit was formerly worked east of the track, a

few hundred feet south of the road. Sand somewhat finer than that



.

I

' furth"'ffi.' south occurs here. Nor.th of Gaillard the red clay comes so close

to the surface in the area directly adjoining the railroad as to prevent

the commercial use of the sand, except over small areas..

/"-Harrison property.-On the Ella Harrison property, along the

Southern RailVI(ay, 1 mile north of Roberta, a half acre sand pit has been opened, and sand has been shipped to various points. . The ma;.

teriaJ is very fine-grained and about 7 or 8 feet, thick over several acres.

/

. The sand is not stratified and is underlain by the usual red and yellow

clay. Sample T-67 is typical of the deposit and shows a fineness

modulus of 1.53 with 51 per cent coarser than 48 mesh an~ has only

a tra:ce of organic matter.

Roberta-Reynolds road.-Three miles southwest of Roberta,

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

187

three feet of clay gravel with tough quartz pebbles from 74:' to 2 inches
in size outcrops along the road for almost a quarter of a mile. The gravel is associated with irregular layers of coarse sand and fine gravel in red clayey sand and has been used in road construction for which it is fairly well suited.
Four miles from Roberta, southwest of a small branch, the sand belt begins and extends for some distance along the road. The cuts show up to 7 feet of sand underlain by red clay. Further west the material becomes coarser.
Flint River.-On the Crawford County side of Flint River, 1,000 feet back from the channel, a coarse bouldery gravel of tough quartz pebbles was noted a]ong the Reynolds-Roberta road. The thickness does not appear to exceed 2 to 3 feet, although detailed work along the river from this point may disclose workable deposits. Gravel is said to extend up and down the river from this point for three fourths of a mile occurring mostly on the J. M. Walker property.
Roberta-Macon road.-On the edge of Knoxville along both the Columbus and Byron roads, three thin layers of clay gravel from 1 to 1Yz feet thick separated by 1 or 2 feet of clay with rounded gran-
ular quartz pebbles ranging from 74:' inch to 3 inches in diameter, are
found. The deposit is small and is used for local road building.
On the Macon road 4 miles from 'Knoxville, thin surficial- gravels occur from 1 to 1;!1 feet thick. The gravel outcrops in the road cuts overlying schist and caps the tops of some of the surrounding hills. Eight and a half miles from Knoxville on the same -road, similar thin gravel layers are found in the Lower Cretaceous strata in the road cuts.
Other deposits .-ln the northern part of the county which is underlain by schists, gneisses, and granites, the sand and gravel supply is restricted to the beds of the streams. Most of the streams have deposits of good coarse-grained sand and some gravel with the quartz content ranging from 75 to 95 per cent of the material.

CRISP COUNTY

No sand is produced commercially in Crisp County, although Flint River which forms the western boundary of the county has large, but rather inaccessible deposits. Throughout most of the county a surficial deposit of gray to yellow sand occurs ranging from 1 to 4 feet in thickness. Such sand is very fine-grained and generally loamy and

188

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

consequently of little value except for unimportant local work. When concentrated in. ditches or along streams it is cleaner and coarser, usually yellow, and generally forms the supply for local work not demanding a high-grade. sand.
flint. River.-Numerou~ bars of medium- to coarse-grained brown sand in Flint River potnt to a large supply should the demand warrant. the expense of installing a pump and other necessary equipment to recover it. The most favora,ble place for pumping would be near the Seaboard Air Line Railway crossing west of Daphne.

DECATUR COUNTY

...

~side from the use of sand. in the manufacture of concrete brick



/at the plant of the Decatur Concrete Works at Bainbridge neither sand

nor gravel is exploited commercially in Decatur County. Large quan-

tities are found east' of Flint River near 'Bainbridge, and also near

Faceville. This sand is fine-grained, pale yellow, and suitable for

a plaster or brick mortar Sample T-220 taken from similar deposits

east of .Fiint River. and opposite .Newton, in Mitchell County, has a.

. fineness wodulus of 1.63 and 59 per cent coarser than 48 mesh.. At

\_Facevilleiff,the sand is buff and has a large amount of organic matter.

Fine- to medium-grained sand occurs in Spring Creek, and at Brinson small deposits of white, fine-grained sand occur west of the stream on -the Jakin road.

Chattahoochee River, forming the western boundry of the county, has enormous amounts of medium-grained sand, suitable for local construction work, but not likely to be commercially developed for some time,although the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad crosses the river west of Saffold.

Decatur Concrete Works .-The plant of the Decatur Concrete Works is located opposite the Georgia, Fiorida & Alabama. Railroad depot at Bainbridge. Various articles of concrete are manufactured I here including pressed co.ncrete brick. The sand -is obtained from a pit along the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad just east pf the bridge. This - /./ .( .sand is yellow and somewhat fine-grained, the deposit covering several acres. Sand is also obtained between the, depot and the river and about an eighth of a mile behind the plant. The sand here is coarser than at the other deposit, the particles rangi'ng up to a half inch in size and are freer from loam. The sand from the pit is .mixed with

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

189

cement in tl:;te proportion of 1 to 3 or 1 to 4, according to the quality of the brick desired, together with a small amount of water to enable the mixture to be molded. The mix is then molded into bricks in a Helm press and the bricks are then placed on racks under cover to harden. The capacity of the plant is about 12,000 -bricks a day.

DODGE COUNTY
Surficial leached or wind-blown sand covers most of Dodge Countyfrom a depth of a few inches to several feet. ND deposits of sarid are worked commercially in the county, although Ocmulgee River has large deposits, and bank sand also is found north of Gum Swamp and other creeks.
Eastman.-A deposit of buff to yellow, fine-grained sand similar to that found east of Helena, occurs ea~t- of Little Ocmulgee River (Gum Swamp Creek), three and a half miles east of Eastman. Where the Eastman-Dublin road crosses the deposit, .it is about 1000 feet wide, and from 5 to 10 feet thick, beginning 500 feet east of the creek. A red, clayey sand belonging to the Atlamaha formation underlies the yellow sand. Near the creek white sand, possibly suitable for glass, is exposed beneath the upper yellow sand. Neither the thickness nor the extent of the white sand could be determined, but it indicates that the sand occurring along this stream at Lumber City and, also outcropping east of Helena, is probably continuous along most of the stream's course. This sand is used for local building purposes in Eastman.
Ocmulgee River.-Ocmulgee River, forming the southwest boundary of Dodge County, has many bars of medium- to coarse-grained brown sand, well suited for concrete purposes. The only point accessible to rail transportation is at the Seaboard Air Line -Railway crossing between Rhine and Abbeville, elsewhere the use of boats will
\
be required in case the demand warrants the pumping of the sand.
Peacock property.-Thin, irregular patches of gravel are found on the J. Peacock plantation, west of the Dublin road. No deposits more than 2 to 272 feet thick were seen. The gravel is sandy and the pebble, which are (f angular quartz, range in size from a quarter inch to 2 inches. This gravel has few commercial possibilities, although it has been used in concrete construction at Eastman.
Low property.-Several small deposits of sandy gravel occur on the Thomas Low plantation, 4.7 miles from Eastman, on the Cochran

190

GEOLO(}ICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

road. The pebbles are of angular to sub-angular qu~rtz and attain a maximum size of two inches. Several deposits occur on the prope_rty, generally an acre or two in extent, and probably under 2 feet in thickness. The upper 8 or -10 inches of the gravel is scraped up and has been hauled to Eastman and other points for building and road purposes.
Near Gresston, along the .Seaboard Air Line Railway, and near Empire, along the Seaboard Air Line and Wrightsville & Tennille
railroads, grl'l;vel occurs generally under~ 2 feet in thickness and of only
local. value. The Gresst~n deposit occupies an irregular area northeast of the railroad and extends roughly parallel to it f9r almost 2 miles. A sample obtained from .a small CJ:eposit at Gresston: is characteristic of the many areas of this type of sand in the county. Twenty-five per cent was retained on 10 mesh and 15 pet cent was silt and clay. The fineness modulus is 2.52:

Other deposits .-A number of isolated areas of coarse, yellowish-

white, gravelly sand occur in the county, s'imilar to that near Gress-

ton. The largest areas of thjs type occur at the -heads of some of the

creeks flowing into Qcmulgee River, in the western part of the county,

notably Cypress River, Mosquito Creek, and other smaller creeks.. A .

deposit covering over TOO acres OCCtJ,tS abollt .5 miles east-northeast

of: Eastman. A sriiaUer area lies a half niile 'northwest of Beehive in

'

'j

. -

the northeast part of the: county, and a still smaller deposit is located

just,east of Chester, on the '\Vrightsville & Tennille Railroad, in the

northern part of the county.

DOOLY COUNTY
. The" western half, and a strip across the northern part of Dooly Qounty, is underlain by Ocala -limestone, expressed on the surface by the characteristic red and gray residual clayey sands and clays and some limestone outcrops. The_ remainder of the county is covered with ~ottled clays and sands of the Altamaha formation which in pfaces is indurated. ;No commercial sand is produced in the county, and few deposits of even local value occur, although Flint River has larger supplie~, but these are usually inaccessible.
A somewhat fine"-grained gray sand occurs ~long Flint River and is suitable for most construction purposes. ,A sample of sand of this type obtained at Murray's Ferry, 11 miles west of Vienna, was tested

SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

191

by the U: S. Bureau of Public Roads and found to produce concrete having a tensile strength of 90 per cent of that made from standard Ottawa sand. This sand contained 0.4 per cent of silt and a little organic rnatter.

Mechanical analysis of sand from Murray's Ferry

Per cent retained on following mesh sizes:

ME)sh size ___________ Percentage __________

10

20
--

-30- -40-

-50-

-80-

-10-0

-20-0

200

OA 9 35.2 29.2 16.6 7.0 LO LO 0.6-

DOUGHERTY COUNTY
The sand deposits of Dougherty County are restricted mostly to the vicinity of Flint River. An extensive sand hill deposit occurs along the river just opposite Albany, and smaller deposits occur in and .a....l. ong tr. ibutary streams.
Albany.-Tift Hill is the local name given to a rolling, s.andhill area lying east of Flint River opposite Albany, and to the south and west of the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad. Over 400 acres are here underlain with fine- to medium-grained, yellowish, clean sand, ranging in thickness from 10 to 40 feet.
Albany Sand, Lime and Cement Company.-A pit has been operated for some time on the north side of Tift Hill, 1.6 miles east of Albany on the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad. The pit occupies about 2 acres, and the face is from 5 to 20 feet high. The sand is very uniform throughout the pit both vertically and laterally, although a slight increase in grain size and a decrease in color is noticed toward the bottom of the pit. The usual clayey sand strata are lacking in this deposit, only faint lines of slightly darker sand, a few grains in thickness, being noteci. The sand is loaded on cars with wheelbarrows and shipped to various points throughout South Georgia. From 2 to 4 cars daily are usually loaded. A sand dryer for drying sand for use in locomotives has been built. The dryer consists of a furnace around which a compartment has been built of sheet iron capable of holding about 10 cubic yards of sand: An elevator is fed from an opening in the dryer so that the dried sand can be elevated to a bin above, from which cars

I '

192

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

or locomotives can be loaded. The sand here is similar to that represented by sample T-210, which has a fineness modulus of 2.02 and 88 per cent coarser than 48 mes,h. It has practically no organic matter.
Sand extends along the .Atlantic Coast Line Railroad in both directions, and small pits for local use have been opened at several points. Three tenths of a mile west of the large pit on the Albany road, a smaller pit, co~eririg a few thousand square feet with a face from 12 to
t5 feet high, is operated.

Tift Silica Brick Company.-The Tift Silica Brick Company,

M-r. A. S. Bacon .of Albany general manager, has a large sand pit at

Albany Junction' on.' the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad 2;Ji miles south:~west of the Albany court house. The pit covers several acre~, and the

exposed face ranges from 15 to 30 feet in height. The sand is pale

yellow, composed entirely of quartz, and is- remarkably clean and tmi-

form. Faint stratification lines dipping fror:t;l 30 to 40 to the east-
ward and consisting of'slightly coarser grains in layers 3i inch thick

and with from 2 t,o 6 inches between the layers, occur in the lower two

thirds of the deposit. Practically/no silt or clay is in the sand, although

the clay substratum is exposed in places in the pit floor. Tlle undu-

lating topOgraphy of the sand hill, visible from th~? top of the pit

banks, consists of small hills reaching a maximum of 40 feet

above the railroad grade with intervening valleys ~:r depressions where

the clay appears to come very close to the surface. Sample T-210

'

.

I

from this pit has a fineness modulus of 2.04 and 88 ,per cent~is retained

(

on t~e 48-mesh sieve. Only a trace of organic 'matter occurs.

The sand from the pit is used in the manufacture of sand-lime hl'icks

which are said to compa:r:e very favorably with clay brick in strength

ap,d price. _The sand from the pit is shoveled into a tr~m-cai' hauled

by a small electric locomotive which deposits it on a_ bucket elevator _by. ~h~ch it is delivered to a- bin in the upper part of the brick plant.

The sand -is fed from this bin to a short belt conveyor from which an

arbitrarily regulated portion (usually l5.per. cent) is removed by a

scraper and allowed to pass into a tube-mill where it is thoroughly

ground and m:Gi:ed up. with .the causticlime which. forms .the binder.

The .tube mill is 5 by 22 feet and made by the Power & Mining Manu-

facturing Company. The sand and lime are ground until90 per cent

of the mixture passes 200 mesh, and it is then mixed with the rest of

the sand which was carried along the belt conveyor beyond the tube \
mill. It is first mixed dry and then goes to a pug mill where enough

.'.lAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSl1'S OJi' GAOJ:UIA

PLA1'E Xll

A. EXCAVATION BY DRAG-LINEl ON BULL CREEK SAND AND GRAVEL BAR, RUTLEDGE & CHESTNUT PLANT, 3 MILES SOUTHEAST OF COLUM.BUS, MUSC0GEE COUNTY

B. 'F1ACE OF MU COG>EE COUNTY ROAD GRAVEL PIT , 3'h MILElS EAJST OF COLUMBUS

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSIT.B

. 193

water is added to hydrate the (;austic lime. After thorough mixing it is raised by means of a bucket elevator to the top of a silo divided into two equal parts of 100,000 pounds capacity each. The mixture is emptied into one of the halves where it remains for 24 hours. Each day one half of the silo is being filled and the other half is being emptied. The sand-lime mixture is conveyed from the silo after moistening with sufficient water to give it good pressing qualities, to a Jackson & Church rotary brick machine, having 12 molds and a daily capacity of 28,000 bricks, where it is submitted to 10,000 pounds pressure per square inch. As the bricks are taken from the rotating molds they are piled on steel trucks and then wheeled into the steam cylinder which is 72 feet long and 6 feet wide. When the cylinder is full of bricks it is closed and live steam led in and brought to a pressure of 135 pounds per square inch and maintained for 10 hours after which the bricks are removed and ready for shipment.
At the time of inspection in the summer of 1919, a 150-horsepower outfit of the Buckeye Engine Company was used. Th,e plant has since been electrified. About 110 horsepower is required to operate it.
The capacity of the plant is about 22,000 bricks daily. The product is a smooth brick, white to pale cream in color, hayjng an absorption of 14 per cent and with a crushing strength of 3200-3700 pounds per square inch and a transverse strength, or modulus of rupture, of 450 pounds per squa.re mch. The bricks are soldprincipaJly throughout South Georgia.
Muckafoonee Creek.-On the terrace west of Muckafoonee Creek, 800 feet northeast of the Georgia-Alabama Power Company's dam, excellent coarse sand has been deposjted to a depth of a foot or two and is used for local construction work. At this point the creek bank shows the following section which may be typical of the bank for a very short distance, although the lower sand is of such good quality that it would seem desirable to test the deposit to determine its extent and thickness of the cover.

Section on Muckafoonee Creek near Flint River

Flood-plain sand deposit, fine to coarse________________ Fine-grained yellow to red sand______________________
Coarse, gritty, sharp, pale yellow, excellent for concrete and overlying the Ocala limestone________________

Feet
Yz-lYz
4 -7 5 -6

194

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

Other. deposits.-.Sand somewhat similar to that at Tift Hill oc-

curs in a much smaller deposit on the Georgia Northern Railway, 800

feet east of Flint River; opposite Albany. The deposit extends for

.

I

400 feet along the track and ranges from 8 to 10 feet in thickness; _to

the north, however, the tongue which crosses the railroad widens out

into arr area of about 75 acres. Along the track to the southeast. the

sand merges into a red, clayey sand. The deposit has not been worked.

Vecy little sand occurs along Flint River at the upper terrace level,

south of Albany to the Mitchell and Newton county lines. On the

firs.t terrace, good coarse sand is found ih a few places, but usually a

fine-g_rained loamy material, possibly suitable for molding purposes

ocrupies the flood plain.

EARLY COUNTY

No sand is produced for shipment in Early County, al).d small pits generally supp~y the local demand.

underwood property.-Gullies have exposed a medium-grained yellow to white sand on the John Underwood property along Mill Creek on the Bluffton -road, a little over a mile north of Bla,kely. A small _ pit]1asbeen;opened in. the gullies, and over 400 wagon.;.l<;>ads have. b.e;en ha~lea to Blakely for local use. The good sand is at least. 5 or 6 f~et thick and is stratified. The lower part is white, and the upper part is
di?c6lored by clay carried from above by water. From 5 to li feet of
red, sandy clay covers the desirable sand, so that extensive operation of the. deposit must be made in. a narrow strip close to the creek where the cover i:;; at its minimum thickness. At present the sand is obtained byremovmg it from UJ?-der the covering of sandy ~lay, and then removing the cover to worked-out parts of the pit after it has faJlen in. Sample T-211. shows a very uniform-grained sand having a fineness modulus of 2.15, with over 99 per cent retained on the 48-mesh screen. The color is orange, and the grains are of rounded arid sub-angular quartz, highly stained with clay and iron oxide. The organic content shows a color value of 700.

. Buo.hanndn property.-Mr. W. A. Buchannon owns land on the

opposite side of the creek from Mr. Underwood, and the conditions

aff.ectfng the sand deposit there are practically the same. A sample

from this property analyzed by Dr. Edgar Everhart gave the follow-

ing results:



SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

J95

.!lnalysis of sand from W . .!/.. Bnchannon property, Blakely, Ga.

Loss on ignition_____________________________________ Lime (CaO)____ _____ ____ ______ ___ ____ ____ ______ __ __ _
~agnesm (~gO)____________________________________
Alumina (AI20 s) ___________ - _____ - ___________ -.- __ ~ __ Ferric oxide (Fe 20 s) _________________________________ ~anganous oxide (MnO) __________________________ - _ Titanium dioxide (Tit>2)_____________________________ Silica (Si0 2) _______________ - ___ -- - ______ - ___________

0. 38 0. 24
0.12 0. 39 0. 14 0. 00
0.09 98. 41

TotaL ______ ___________________________________ 99. 77

This sand is very pure and is suitable for glass. The extent of the deposit is apparently large, but the distance from a railroad (threequarters of a mile), and the inconvenience of working the deposit due to the thick overburden over most of it are disadvantages that must be considered.
Further east along Mill creek on the property of Wm. J. Davis, a white sand of unknown extent and thickness and apparently suitable for the manufacture of the cheaper grades of glass occurs.
Considerable sand is found at Everett's Mill pond northeast of
Blakely, but the cover here is thick. It is possible that detailed pros-
pecting may show deposits of good sand close to the railroad along this same creek where the overburden is less.

ECHOLS COUNTY

Echols County is practically flat, poorly drained, -and covered almost entirely with sand to a depth of from a few inches to several feet which becomes thicker on the terraces along Allapaha and Suwanee rivers. No commercial sand is produced in the county, although thick deposits occur near Statenville on the east side of Allapaha River.
Statenville.-The town of Statenville is built on the sand hills of the Satilla formation bordering Allapaha River on the ea.st. This sand is from 10 to 15 feet thi~k on the Valdosta road just above the bridge, and the belt is from 200 to 300 feet wide and extends up and down the river from this point for several miles. The sand is finegrained and somewhat clayey except about 8 feet below the surface where a coarser cleaner sand from 2 to 3 feet thick usually occurs. The character of the deposit can be easily seen in the gullies just south of the road. T-21;.2, taken from the road cut, just east of the bridge,

I

196

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OB' GEORGIA

shows a fineness modulus of 1.54, and 50 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. The color value of the organJc content is 125. The grains are .of angular or sub-angular quartz and slightly coated with clay and iron oxide.
Sand of similar character and thickness is encountered in the Stockton road in Statenville just south of Troublesome Creek. A strip of sand 200 feet wide and from 6 to 8 feet thick occurs on the south side of the same creek wliere the Statenville Railway crosses it.
A chemical analysis of sand collect.ed by ptto Veatch from the terrace above Allapaha River just north of Statenville gave the following result~:

.Jlnalysis of sand from Satilla terrace at Statenville

Loss on ignition_____________ _______________________ _ Ferric oxide (F&20 a)- - -- - ___ - - _- _- - -- - -- - --- - - - - - ---Titanium dioxide (Ti02) ____________________________ _ USinlidceate(Srmi0i2n)e_d_________-_-_-__-_--_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_._--_

.44 .17 .18 97.89 1.32

Total__________________________________________ 100.00

.

.

The sandy belt continues aJong the river intermittently to the north:.

e1;n part of the county, but it is practically absent at the Georgia &

Florida 1 Railway cr, ossing at Mayd~y.t

-

..,.

EFFINGHAM COUNTY

. White ancl yellow sand ranging from a few inches to several feet in depth and underlain by clayey sands and clays covers a large part of the northern three-quarters of the county, and in the southern part of the county gray Pleisto"cene sands appear on the surface. No sand pits are operated in the county_ on a commercial scale, although
unlimited sand is afforded IIi the bars of Savannah River, and consid-
erable quantities occur along the east side of Ogeechee River and in the river <itself.
Savannah River.-Sand deposits along Savannah River are of two types. (1) Sand which fortns bars in the stream bed. This sand !s dredged further down the river, a few miles above Savannah, and is representative of the saud in the river in the vicinity of Effingham County. The sand is medium- to coatse-grain~d, uniformly graded,'"

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

197

and suited for concrete work (see T-35 in table). The sand can be recovered by means of centrifugal pumps or dredges and loaded on barges or else put on board cars at the Seaboard Air Line crossing north of Clyo. (2) Sand deposits which cap the bluffs overlooking the river consist of the Pleistocene terrace deposits. At Parachuchla Bluff, 55 miles above Savannah, 15 feet of gray to pale yellow sand, without indication of stratification, is exposed. Such sand, so far from rail transportation, will probably not be utilized for a long time.

Ogeechee River.-Deposits of gray and pale yellow sand form-

ing the Satilla terrace occur along Ogeechee River in Effingham County.

At Eden the sand is exceptionally prominent and has commercial pos-

sibilities. Sand (sample T-251) on the property of C. F. Highsmith,

west of Eden, is said to cover over 100 acres and range from 10 to 20

feet in thickness. The highest part of this sand hill is about 20 feet

above the swamp. The sand has a fineness modnlus of 1.77 with 66

per cent retained on the 48-mesh screen. It has practically no organic

matter or c]ay:

_

Within the bed of Ogeechee River, for its entire course along the

county border, are excellent deposits of white coarse gravel and some

sand, ranging from one to four feet thick. This gravel was used in

the construction of the bridge over the river on the Dixie-Overland

Highway.

Other deposits .-Two miles south of Guyton, in the northern part of the county, the Central of Georgia Railway cuts through from 3 to 5 feet of fine-grained sand for about 800 feet. Between Ivarihoe and Guyton, along Ogeechee 'River, very little sand is exposed. Surficial fine-grained sand from 1 to 4 feet in depth_ characteristic of the county is exposed along the ra,ilroad between Guyton and Egypt.

EMANUEL C01JNTY

Large quantities of sand and many small deposits of gravel occur throughout Emanuel County, as::;ociated especially with the streams, but none are now be)ng utilized although formerly some were worked.
Swainsboro.-Local sand is easily obtained from the gullies and branches close at hand. On the Tye farm, 1 mile south of Swainsboro on the Tom road, a. road cut and gullies show 5 feet of gravel, the upper 18 inches of which is a sand gravel. The pebbles are of white, sub-angular quartz up to 2 inches in diameter. The gravel shows for 300 feet along the road and appears to underlie with little cover 15

198

GEOLOGICAL Sf!RVEI; OJ]' GEORGIA

acres in the fields to either side of the road, alon,g u. small creek. The
gravel would make an .excellen,t ro~d-surfacing material.
Corsey property.-Gravel covers a large acreage on the R. W. Oorsey property,. 5 miles 'from Swainsboro-on the Tom road. Although the gravel has the appearance of. great depth and thickness, only 1 foot was found in the well of a tenant house, 800 feet north of the road. The gravel is most promineilt at and near the hill tops. It is likely that the gravel_occurs l.n several thin layers from a few inches to a foot in thickness with from B.to 10 feet of clay between and also that the .concentration of the sand and- gravel by the washing out of. the clay has given it the appearance of great thickness. Sample T-50, typical of this deposit and most surficial gravel deposits in the county, , has a fineness modulus of 7.46 and 84 pet cent coarser than 4 mesh.
From the Oorsey property and to within a mile of Tom on the vVadley Southern .Railroad, fine- to medium-pebbled gravel shows at many places along this. road. At p.o place was a thickness exceeding 4; feet noted, such material however, can be used with little trouble in surfacing local roads.
Blun.-At Blun, on the Georgia & Florida Railway, on the property of G. \V. wiggins, 600 feet west of the railroad,-one 9r two ac:r:.es a~e underlain with from 1 to 4 feet of clay grav:el suitable for surfacing roads. The d<;lposit has a cover of about a foot of sand and clay. In 1908 a sm.a}l pit was opened, and a few carloads .were shipped to Savanuah.forroad buildi~g. The deposit, however, did not p.rove extensive enough for large shipments.
.&drian.-.Numerous thin deposits of gravel and coarse sand OC cur near Adrian along the Wrightsville road and along Ohoopee River, both on the terr.a.ce hills overiooking the stream, or as concentrations in the stteam. These terrace deposits continue down the river to Norristown where thin deposits are also abundant. Two miles east of Adrian in a cut of th~ Central of Georgia Railway, 2;!;2 feet of clay gravel outcrops <?Verlain by 8 feet of clayey sand.
On the Nunez-Vidalia road, 0.7 miles south of Nunez, from 1 to 3 feet of irregular clay gravel outcrops for 75 feet. It is not believed that the deposit is extensive as little evidence of gravel could be found in wells in this vicinity.
Oanooohe.e River.-A .thick belt of sand extends along the east sides of Canoochee River and Little Canoochee River, throughout

SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS
most of their courses in the county. At the Georgia & Florida Railway (Millen branch) crossing of Canoochee River, south of Wade, the sand is white, clean, fine- to medium-grained and ranges from 10 to at least 15 feet in thickness. The belt at this point is about a quarter of a mile wide.
Ohoopee River.-The sand belt which extends east of both Ohoo-: pee rivers in this county is riot so well exposed as that east of Canoochee River. Where the main line of .the Georgia & Florida Railway crosses Ohoopee River about 6 feet of medium-grained, gray to yellow sand is exposed for 500 feet. At the crossing of this river by the Millen branch of the Georgia & Florida Raihv-ay, the sand exposed is from 5 to 10 feet thick, and the cut 500 feet long. The sand here is finer than that further northwest.
East of Little Ohoopee River near Covena, is a belt of fine-grained sand, similar to-that further east, 1000 feet wide and of unknown thickness. The Central of Georgia Railway passes through a low part of of the belt .and only 5 or 6 feet of sand shows in the cut, although larger amounts occur 1200 feet north of the track. On the Vidalia-Nunez road the Ohoopee sand belt is from a quarter to a half mile .wide north of the stream and at least 10 feet thick.
Pendleton Creek.-At Pendleton, on the Georgia & Florida Railway, east of Pendleton Creek, the sand belt along this stream is well exposed in the cut which shows 12 feet of yellow, fine-grained sand ___ east of the track and 15 feet west of the track. The belt here is about 900 feet wide. The lower 2 feet of the sand, just above a reddishyellow clay, is almost pure- white. The sand extends eastward about 1 mile, but only 1200 feet westward in this vicinity. Most of this land is controlled by Benjamin Morris_ of Vidalia. The Georgia & Florida Railway dries this sand for locomotive use. The sand is dried in a small conical shaped drier, holding about 2 cubic yards at a time,
and built around a stove. Holes 1Yz inches in diameter are punched
in the bottom of the drier close to the furnace, and the sand when sufficiently dried falls through these holes. About half an hour is required to thoroughly dry a batch of sand.
On the Norristown-Soperton road the Pendleton Creek sand belt is 800 feet wide over which distance it is at least 8 feet thick.
Other deposits .-A narrow belt of fine-grained sand lies east of Yamgrandree Creek. Along the Vidalia-Nunez road it is from 5 to 12 feet thick, the lower 2 feet_ being pure white. This belt is also crossed

200

GEOLOGiCAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

bythe Central of Georgia Raihvay west of Nunez. Many_other streams in the county have less extensive belts of sand along their eastern and northern borders.

EVANS COUNTY

Evans County is covered almost entirely with tilln sand underlain by red and yellow clay at depths of from a few inches to several feet.. No commerciai sand pits' are operated in the county, although a number of deposits of f{:Lirly good sand are exposed in different parts of the county, particularly along Canoochee River.

Canoochee River.-The sand belt bordering the east side of Canoo-

chee River does not nearly attain j;he magnitude of that east of Ohoo-

pee River, in Tatt'nall County, but it is of the same character. (See p. 250). Deposits of the sand are exposed in a b~lt from a:- quarter to a

half mile wide extep.ding south ..from a point near the Seaboard Air

Line Railway, east of Daisy, almost to the Liberty. County. line. A

deposit covering about 50 acres of medium-grained sand that is pos-

sible of exploitation occurs -on the railroad just above Bull Creek.

Other deposits are exposed along the river near Mount Pleasant

Church1 3 miles .p.ortheast of Claxton, and in smaller quantities and

thicknesses along ;Bull and Cedar creeks.

_

Bar~' ~(wlllt~ s~nd occur in the bed of Canoochee River throughout

mest of its' course through the county. The sand is pure enough for

bottle glass,. but is difficult' to recover without considerable expense.

GLASCOCK COUNTY

No commercial deposits of sand or gravel occur in Glascock County, ~lthough-surficial sand is widespread, and small deposits of gravel and

coarse sands are known near some of the-streams.

.

.

Gibson.--One mile east of Gipsqn, 'along Rocky Comfort Creek,

near the' English bridge, deposits of fairly coarse, quartz. sand are found.

This material is used 'locally in Gibson for concrete purposes.

Gray, ffue-grained, surficial sand ranging from a few inches to 6

feet in thickness is widespread over the county, but it is of very little

value except near streams where a coarser grade of sand is generally

found. Numerous gravelly spots occur, especially. in the northern

part of the county, but none of-them are of any value except possibly

for local road use.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

201

I
GLYNN COUNTY

Most of Glynn County is a flat, poorly drained terrace lying a few feet above the sea and covered to a large extent with fine sand. Yellow and white, fine-grained sands lie on the surface near the coast. and on the islands, but to the west in the swamp areas, considerable clay occurs with the sand. No commercial deposits of sand are operated in the county, nor were any deposits noted likely to be of commercial value. On the western edge of the county from Doleridge south to Little Satilla River, a sand-hill belt occurs probably containing the best sand in the county, but it is too remote to be of any value.
St. Simon Island.-Black sand has been found by S. W. McCallie on St. Simon Island, and it is believed that commercial exploitation may be possible. A detailed description of these deposits is given on p. 377.

GRADY COUNTY
One small deposit of sand in Grady County is being worked south of Gradyville on the Pelham & Havana Railroad. Elsewhere sand deposits are confined to the bed and sides of Ocklocknee River, which flows through the southeast part of the county.
J. il. Parrish pit.-A small pit has been opened at Parrish's saw.:. mill, on the Pelham & Havana-Railroad, l;Y2 miles southeast of Gradyville, west of Big Tired Creek. The pit covers about a quarter. acre and is 300 yards from the creek and about 30 feet above it. The sand is shoveled into wheelbarrows and wheeled to the cars.
Section at Parish's .Mill sand pit
Feet Soil, dark gray and sandy_________________ c ______________ 1-2 Fine-grained, yellowish-gray sand___ -_---------_----~----- 1-1Y2 Almost white, fine-grained sand, with a few quartz pebbles
. up to -l6 inch, with wavy layers of brown, sandy clay
Y2 to 1 inch thick and occurring at intervals of from 2 to 8 inches _________________ - - ~ _- - --- - - - -- - - - - - - - -- --- 3 White and yellow, well-graded sand, clay layers not so prominent---------------------------------------------- 3
The sand is silty and has a high clay content. At the east end of the pit a pebbly, sandy clay shows at a depth of 3 or 4 feet, into which the sand appears to merge irregularly. Blue clay underlies the pit about 8 or 10 feet below the bottom. Sample. T-~13 is a representative sample of the entire face taken at the west end of the pit. It has

202

GEOLOGICAL SURYEY OF GEORGIA

I
a fineness modulus of L75 and 53 per cent of the sand is retained. on
the 48-mesh screen. The color value of the organic matter is 50;

Cairo.-One mile west of Cairo, on the Thomasvi:He-Cairo road, and

on both sides of Little Tired Creek, a yellow to white, clayey sand,

which is pebbly in places; occurs. This sand is somewhat similar to

that at Parrish's mill, and has been used locally in Cairo.

.

. Ooklocknee River.-Beautiful, white. sand, suitable for glass or building purposes, ~ccurs in the bed of Ochlocknee River tl;lroughout its co{u;se across the southeast corner 'of the county. The sand is best seen at low water and is similar in character and in manner of occurrenee to that. further up the river in Thomas County (see p. 260}. _Fine-grained sand occurs on both sides of_ Ocklocknee River varying from 3 to 12 feet in thickness. Most of this is of poor quality, even for _most building purposes, and its inaccessibility a.lso eliminates it as a source of supply for some time to co:rne.

Barnett Creek.-Aiong Barnett Creek, which forms the eastern bounEtary of the county, part!cuiarly near the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad crossing, east of Pine Park, a somewhat clayey sand uccurs from 5 to 10 feet ,thick, covering an area of several hundred ac~es .on both sides of the railroad. Further -up the creek, smaller irregular denosits of saricl. of fair quality, also occur.
The Bit! Slou;~'h.-A large area of white, coarse, pebbly sand occurs in small dunes or hills, surrouading the Big Slough: a_fl.at low area in the extreme northwest corn_er of the county. The sand contains about 12 per cent ()f clay and silt and considerable organic matter, and. is .of .questionable value for building qr _glass purposes.
In addition to the .localities mentioned, small deposits of clayey sand occur on terraces above many of the creeks, particularly Turkey, Big Tired, Black, and other creeks in the western half of the county.

HANCOCK COUNTY -
No natural sand and gravel- is produced in Hancock County. A few thin deposits of gravel are associated with the contact of the Lower Cretaceous and the c:r:.ystalline rocks, and. sand is found in the streams and in some of the Cretaceous beds.
Bi~ Shoulderbone Creek.-:Where the Eatonton~Sparta road crosses the creek it is about 25 feet wide below the mill-dam with granite boulders in it. It has excellent, coarse, clean, quartz sand

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

203

in its bed and in bars along its course. The bar just below the dam has at least 50 carloads of good sand. Sample T-110 is representative of tbe sand from this creek, and a mechanical analysis shows it to have a fineness modulus of 2.62 with 95 per cent coarser than the 48mesh screen. The sand contains only a faint trace of organic matter. It is dark brown, contains about 10 per cent feldspar and some fine mica flakes. Grains of ilmenite_ and limonite are also common.
Little Shoulderbone Creek, 231 _miles further west, has sand similar to that in Big Shoulderbone, but in much smaller quantities, as the, stream is. only 6 or 7 feet wide. The sand bars- are small, but the sand is of good quality and would supply -the need for road and oth~r local purposes.
Town Creek, in the southwest part of the county, is swampy and muddy below Allen Mill and is rocky with some sand- above the mill. In the same part . of the county small amounts of sand occur along . Spring Creek, . but Big Buffalo Creek, along its course in Hancock County, is too rocky to afford any but small quantities of sand. Little Buffalo Creek, a tributary of Big Buffalo Creek, at the point where
the Sparta-Linton road crosses it, 472 miles south of Sparta, has bars
of from 10 to 50 cubic yards of eoarse, brown sand, having 10 or l5 per cent feldspar :1nd limonite, hut well suited for concrete purposes.
Ogeechee River, which forms the eastern boundary of the county, has small deposits of sand in bars ranging from a few cubic yards to 50 cubic yards. The sand is gray or pale brown and usually coarse and well suited for concrete aggregate.
Carr's Station.-A cut in the Georgia Railroad at Carr's Station exposes f;rom 5 to 15 feet of brown and red, somewhat clayey, sand overlying white clays and white clayey sand. Pebbly layers and coarse sand occur near the contact with the white clays.'
Other deposits .-Hancock County uses on its roads a residual material, locally called gravel, produced from the weathering of crystalline ro~ks and consisting of angular fragments of chert and quartz in a clay matrix. The fragments range from half an inch up to several inches in diameter, and the material occurs in deposits from one to three feet thick. Pits have been opened in it on several of the roads leading out of Sparta, and also at Harrjs Mill. The material is fairly good for road purposes.
Just northwest of Linton, and within the town limits, on the Sparta road, from 2 to 3 feet of gravel composed of rounded quartz pebbles

204

G-EOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

in a clay matrix, outcrops in a road cut for 200 feet. On the Sandersville,road, one mile from Linton, claY gravel is exposed in several thin streaks in road cuts on the descent to Buffalo Creek. It is reported that it was found to a thickness of 5 feet in wells in this vicinity.
Powelton.-Just outside of Powelton, east of the Crawfordsville road, a hill 50 feet high is capped with good clay gravel, well suited for road material. Several streaks of gravel occur from 4 to 5 feet thick, and a small pit has been opened along the road. Other outcrops of gravel occur in the road further north.
HOUSTON COUNTY
In Houston County sand is produced for shipment on Mossy Creek, south of Tivola, and other smaller deposits of local value occur in a few other places in the county.
Perry.-On the Elko road, a half mile-from Perry, south of ~Big Indian Creek, at Galilee ~hutch, a .deposit of grayish-yellow, fine. grained, silty .sand occurs overlying. red, residual, sandy clay. The deposit appears to parallel the ci'eek with int~rruptions for some dis-
taRce and is usualiy under 5 feet irt 'thickness. A11 bout 5 acres of land in this vicinity are covered with the sarid, arid a small pit has been
opened between the stream and the_ road.. Sample T-2/;6 is typical
of the deposit and possesses a fineness modulus of o.69. On1y 8 per
cent of the sand is coarser than' 48 mesh, showing it to be of little value for construction purposes. Similar sand in sm:;~,ll quantities occurs on the National Highway, one mile west of the bridge over Big Indian Creek.
Mossy Creek.-one mile south of Tivoh, on the Georgia Southern & Florid,a Railway, and about 6 miles from Perry,. a co:q:unercial den_osit of sand has been opened. The pit has been worked since. prior
a to 1910 and covers little less than 2 _acres. The land is owned by
0. M. Grady and T. J.. Carling. Mr. J. Houser, of Tivola, operates the pit. 'l'wo types of sand are found, that in the upper part being .pure white and that in the lower part yellow. The line of contact between the two sands is very sharp, but generalty somewhat irregulBT.
Section at sand pit south of Tivola
Feet White, medium-grained sand________________________ ____ 1-3 Yellow, coarse- to medium-grained sand_------- ____ ------~ 5-6

SAND A.NB GRAYEL DEPOSITS

205

A. sample (T-21;.7) of the upper :white sand has been analyzed, and the results indicate it to be suitable for the manufacture of bottle glass ..
Analysis of u:hite sand sou,th of Tivola, T-21;7
Magnesia (MgO)- ____ - ____ - __ - ______________________ trace Ferric oxide (Fe 20 3) _________________________________ 0. f\5 Silica (SiO 2L ________________________________________ 99. 01

A mechanical analysis of this sand shows a fineness modulus of

1.93 and 75 per cent is retained on a 48-mesh screen. The organic

color value is 200. Sample 1'-21;8 is typical of the lower yellow sand,

and its characteristics are similar to the white sand except the color.

The sand is' suited especially for brick and plaster mortar and may also be used for concrete. Appar~ntly, at least 20 acres in this vicinity,

north of Mossy Creek, are underlain by sand similar to that exposed

in the pit.

Cooper property.-Mr. J. P. Cooper owns about 100 acres ad-

joining the Tivola pit, and approximately 15 acres of this are believed

to be underlain by sand similar to that at the pit although the thick-

ness is uncertain.



IRWIN COUNTY
Little sand of commercial value occurs in Irwin County near the towns, although local supplies may be had from stream branches or from local accumulations .of sand at-convenient points alongthe- roads.
Allapaha .River.-The sand-hill belt follows the east side of Allapaha River through the entire county, but only at the Atlanta, Birmingham& Atlantic Railway crossing, 10 miles southwest of Ocilla, and 8 miles northeast of Tifton, is there a possibility of commercial development at this time. The sand begins 500 feet east of the trestle and continues for 1,000 or more feet, having a thickness ranging from 10 to 20 feet. The deposit is very extensive and capable of immense production. The sand is white to pale yellow, medium- and finegrained, and suitable for plaster or mortar work. The sand has been used in making the railroad fill across the river swamp. The following section is poorly exposed in the old workings:

Section on .!f.tlanta, Birmingham 9" Atlantic .Railway
east of Allapaha .River
Feet Soil and loamy sand____________________________________ 2 Fine-grained yellow sand ________________ . _______________ 6-8 Fine-grained white sand___ ______________________________ 4-5

206

GEOLOGICAL SURTIEY OF GEORGIA

. The qmility is about the same as that along- Seventeenmlle Creek at Douglas (see :J'-fM4), and the extent of the d~posit is very much greater than that along Little River in Tift County or further up Allapaha River at Rebecca. The sand belt continues southward to the county line but is not accessible to rail transportation.
The lower five feet at. the pit described above is exposed to poor advari.t~ge and may be suitable for gla~s manufacture. The following analysis was made, but due. to the fact that a clean sample could not be obtained, it is not an accurate representation of the sand.
.flnalysis of white sand on east side of .llllapaha River, on r!f.tlanta, & Birmin~ham. .lltlantio Railway
Magnesia (MgO) __________ ---~ ____ _._______ ----'-- ____ traue Jferric oxide (Fe 20 s) __ ~ __ ~ ___ ~ _____ ~ __ ~ _~ ___ ~ ________ 0 . 64 . Silica (Si02) ____ ___ ____ __ ____ ______ ______ ____ __ __ ___ 99.21

JEFF DAVIS COUNTY

A large part of Jeff Davis County is covered with a thin veneer

of :fi.ne-grained sand which is surrounded by clay ~t depths of from

a few inches to several.feet. No commercial deposits are worked in

the county, and. local supplles. are .generally obtained from accumu-

'lations in t>t' along storeams and ditches. .

_

Fine-grained sand is particularly abundant east and north of the .

larger st:r:eams in . the county, especially Hurricane and Whitehead

creeks. Coarser sand, at least 3 feet thick,. is in. some places asso-

ciated with .the second terrace of Ocmulgee River. The largest deposit

of this type occurs about two. miles south of the Lumber City ferry.

Coarse sand, with some quartz gravel .is found at different places' .

in the county, generally along the divides. The thickness ranges

from one -to four feet, and greater depths are quite likely. None of

these. deposits appear to be of commercial value.

Immense quantities of medium- to coarse-grained sand occur in

Ocrnulgee River, which forms the northwest border of the county.

Since this river is navigable, these deposits may be utilized later,Jor

commercial purposes or for construction work close to the river.

JEFFERSON COUNTY
The surface of Jefferson County is usually covered with a veneer of residual; gray or red clayey sand: No deposits of sand or gravel are .commercially worked in the county; although small gravel de-

SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

207

posits are Jmown near Spread in the northern part of the county. Elsewhere, either sand or gravel deposits of any value are rare.

Loui.sville.-Small deposits, having a maximum thickness of 8

or 10 feet of faint yellow, rather fine-grained sand occur on the north

side of Ogeechee River along the railroad and public road. This

material is used locally. Sample T-52, representative of this sand,

has a fineness modulus of 1.98 and 81 per cent retained on the 48-

mesh sieve. The sand is composed mostly of sub-angular or angular

quartz grains, and a few coarse grains of feldspar.

Sample T-53 represents the red loamy residual sand so plentiful

throughout the county and was obtained on the Wadley road, just

east of the bridge over Ogeechee River: 1t contains about 10 per

cent of clay, but otherwise its granulometric composition corresponds

~gm~~u.



Along the Wadley road, at several points near Louisville, thin

deposits, rarely exceedi:o.g two feet, of gravel in red sand and clay,

are found. The pebbles are usually under one inch, and the material

has been locally used in roads.

Stapleton property.-On the Savannah & Atlanta Railway, a quarter of a mile north of Stapleton station or one mile from Spread postoffice on the Warrenton road, from one to three feet of sandy gravel, consisting of gran_ular quartz and limonite pebbles ranging
from Yz to lYz inches in size, occurs. The pebbles make up about
30 per cent of the whole. A small pit has been opened in the deposit, and the gravel was formerly used for railroad ballast and for local concrete aggregate. A railroad cut just north of th~ pit shows at least 3 or 4 feet of clay gravel, the upper part of which is sandy. Sandy gravel covers the surface of 4 or 5 acres close to the pit, but it is not
likely that more than half of this area contains gravel even 2 or 3
feet thick. Sample T-5.1;., taken from this deposit has a fineness mo-
dulus of 5.24 and 57 per cent is coarser than 4 mesh.

Rogers property.-On the Wrens-Spread road, half-way between the two places, about an acre of gravel occurs. The deposit does not exceed 3 feet in thickness, and the pebbles are of quartz and range up to 2Yz inches in diameter. The Augusta Southern Railroad has bought part of the deposit; but it has never been developed. Smaller shows of gravel occur along this road, but none of them are of sufficient importa:ncc to even warrant a description.

208

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

.Jlvera.-Just west of Avera on the Gibson road, near a church, and on the creek bank, from 4 to 5 feet of fine-grained sand occurs. The sand is of a very poor grade and suitable only for brick or plaster mortar.

JENKINS COUNTY

Surficial sands, light sandy elays, and clay cover Jenkins County and are underlain at depths of from 50 to 100 Jeet by ~trata of Alum Bluff age. No commercial sand pits are operated in the county, nor is there mu.Ch possibility of opening commercial deposits. The surficial sand is generally thin and of little value except for local purposes.

Millen.-Oil.e mile south of Millen on the Garfield road, near the

top of-the slope to Ogeechee River, a small,gravel pit has been opened

for road purposes., The pit is mostly on the ,east side of the road

and is about 50 by 100 feet. The gravel occurs in lenses from a few
inches to a foot in thickness, in a red clay and sand mixture with a

foot or two of sandy cover. Cross-bedding is very prominent, and

the lenses vary laterally over short distances. The pebbles are of

tough quartz, angular to sub-angular, and generally under an inc?-

in, (liaiT.l.eter, .although a coarser layer one foot thick is exposed on

the floor of the pit. The _pebbles coarser tpan 4 mesh make a fairly ..

good road material. Situated as it is on a hil,l slope, further working

will ,mean a great~r cover to be removed,. however, it seems that sev-

eral acres can still be profitably worked. Tests .of sample T-!;.8, from

the pit, show the fineness modulus to be 3.10, with 5 per cent of the

dri.ed material passing 100 rn.esh and,22 per cent coarser than 4 mesh.

~ Deposits of this character are likely to be Ioun_d in the county along

the Pleistocene terraces of Ogeechee River, which generally lie 25 to

30 feet above the stream. As a rule their extent and thickness will

be small, and they will have a large. percentage of clay.

.

.

/

'

JOHNSON COUNTY

Many deposits of thifi gravel and considerable fine.:. and coarsegrained sand are found in Johnson County, although none is produced commercially. Dr. W. R. Flanders of Wrightsville has devoted considerable time prospecting for gravel in this county for the State Highway Commission, and it is to him that the writer is indebted for much data on the sand and gravel deposits in Johnson County.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS OF GJWRGIA

PLATE X lll

A. GRAVEL PIT, W. A. FITZGERALD'S PROPERTY, l'h MILES SOUTH OF OMAHA, OMAHA-FLORENCE ROAD, STEWART COUNTY

B. PIT C'F KIRKPATRICK SAND & CEMENT COMPANY, 2 MILES WEST OF HOWARD, TAYLOR COUNTY

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

209

Wrif!htsville.-The local sand supply for Wrightsville is usually obtained from small deposits along Ohoopee River on the Dublin road. This sand is fine-grained, gray, and generally free from clay.
On the W. C. Brinson property, one mile south of wrightsvi1le on the Dublin road, several acres are underlain with a medium-grained, loamy sand said to be about 4 feet thick.
Kite.-A mile and a half north of Kite on the Wadley Southern Railroad, a cut 300 feet long exposes from 15 to 20 feet of fine- to ~edium-gniined, clean, yellow and gray sand. An additional 700 feet of the cut shows from 3 to 7 feet of sand underlain by loamy sand and yellow clay. This sand is part of the sand belt which borders the east side of Little Ohoopee River for most of its course through the western part of the county. Sample T-61, from this deposit, shows a fineness modulus of 1.96 and 74 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. The sand is used by the railroad in its locomotives.
Cheaves property.-Five miles from Kite and one mile south of Gumlog Creek on the Wylie Cheaves property, is considerable sand and gravel. The largest deposit covers at least 3 acres about 800 feet west of the store and averages 4 or 5 feet in. depth. A smaller deposit averaging_ less than 2 feet, lies just south of the store. About 2,000 feet southeast of the store is a deposit of 2 acres of fine-grained gravel averaging 2. to 3 feet in thickness. All of the gravel on this property would make excellent roads and_ if screened would serve as concrete aggregate.
Rowland property.-On the J. H. Rowland property, 5 miles from Wrightsville on the Kite road, and a quarter of a mile north of the road, is about 5 acres of thin gravel suitable for road surfacing from one to two feet thick underlain by clayey sand.
South of the Kite road and about 5 miles from \Vrightsville, are two n,cres of gravel from 2 to 3 feet thick on the Burell Wombles property.
Small, thi11 deposits of gravel occur on the G. C. Raines, R. Sammons, Green Harrison, and S. F. Harrison properties located on or near the Gumlog and Kite roads from 5 to 8 miles from Wrightsville.
Donovan.-One mile east of Donovan and 3 miles northwest of \Vrightsville on the R. E. Smith property, 20 acres of gravel occur
averaging 1Y2 feet in depth and underlain by a coarse concrete sand.
On the Annison Poole property; half a mile from the station, are

210

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

from 10 to 15 acres of sand gravel averaging 2 feet in thickness and
suitable for local road or concrete construction work.
.MoCrar_y property.-On the M. G. McCrary property, 6 miles
northeast of Wrightsville on the Bartow road, are 40 acres of excel-
lent gravel ranging in depth from f to 6 feet. Thi~ deposit has been
~ested by Dr. Flanders of Wrightsvi).le, and the average thickness
for the 40 acres is about 3 feet. -
On the Bartow road 3 miles from Wrightsville, T. -J. Brantley has
4 acres of good sand gravel from 2 to 3 feet in depth.

$m#h property.-On the. J. W. Smith property, on the Wrights-

ville-Adrian road'two miles from Adrian, are several hills capped with gravel. One of these, along the road, contains at i~ast two acres of

sand gravel from 1 to 2 feet deep and underlain by coarse sand;

another hill 400 yards southeast of the first hill has a much larger

acreage of excellent _gravel from 3 to 4 feet deep and overlain by a

few inches of sand. A very good coarse concrete sand has been de-

posited between the. two hills mentioned above. In a well on the

Smith place, 5 feet of coarse san~ was struck overlain by 2 feet of

gravel which was exposed at the surface.

On the J. M. Flanders property, 1;Y2 miles from Adrian on the

Wrightsville road, several small deposits of gravel averaging a foot
in thlckn:ess occur. Half a mil~ from Adrian on this~" road~ small de-

posits of gravel o_ccur from 1 to 3 feet thick. On the Adrian
-rdad 11 miles from Wrightsville, 5 feet of clay gravei outcrop in the

road cut just above Rose Branch. Considerable gravel 1s said to

occur in the fields east of the road.

.

. - On the terrace's along Ohoopee- Ri~er sand ~nd' gravel from 1 to

2 feet occur for most of its course through the county.

_Neels Creek.-Bordering both sides of Neels Creek on the KiteWrightsville road, a strip of clay gravel 300 yards wide and extending at least 200 yards to either side of the road up and down the stream, occurs.. The gravel has been taken from .a smaU pit at this point and has proved.an excellent material for road. surfacing.

Will-iams property.-On the C. L. Williams property 4 miles
from Kite and within two miles of the Wadley Southern Railway,
are four .acres of white sand 6 feet ih thickness and sufficiently pure to be-used ill the manufacture of bottle glass and the cheaper grad~s
of window glass. An analysis of a sample of the sand sent by Mr. Williams from this deposit gave 'the following results:

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

211

Analysis of glass sand from C. L. Williams property,

4- miles from Kite; Sample T-272

Loss on ignition___ __________________________________ Lime (CaO)____ ____ __ __ ____ __ __ ___ _________ ______ ___
Magnesia (MgO)_ ________ __ ____ ______ ____________ ___
Alumina (AbO s) __ --------- _____________ - _______ - ___ Ferric oxide (Fe 20 s) _________________________________
Manganous oxide (MnO) ____ -~ ____ ________ __ ____ _____ Titanium dioxide (Ti0 2) _____________________________ Silica (SiO 2) ________________________________________

.15 .00
. 04
1. 09 . 24
trace . 06
98. 45

TotaL _________________________________________ 100.03

LAURENS COUNTY
Most of the ::;outhern part of Laurens County is covered with the mottled clays and sands of the Altamaha fonnation. Commercial sand is found in Oconee River at Dublin, and in banks opposite Dublin on the. same river. Small de:Q_osits of gravel occur throughout the county.
Dublin.-East of Oconee River and about a mile from Dublin, an extensive area of sand occurs ranging in depth from 4 to 18 feet. The topography is rolling with ridges extending through the area. The Macon, Dublin & Savannah and the Wrightsville & Tennille railroads run through the deposit, and sand from about two acres along the former railroad has been removed and shipped to Macon and other points on the Macon, Dublin & Savannah Railroad, or used in the manufacture of artificial sandstone by the Georgia Cast Stone Company, whose plant is at the deposit, although not operating now. The sand is composed of medium-sized grains of clean quartz, generally pal~ yellow at the surface and becoming darker as one goes deeper into the sand. Toward the bottom of the cut the sand be-
comes coarser with some 74"-inch pebbles, finally grading into a red-;
dish-brown argillaceous sand, about 2 feet thick, beneath which red clay occurs. Sample T-11, from the lower half of the deposit, shows a fineness modulus of 2.54, and an effective size of 0.283 mm. Over 18 per cent of the sand is coarser than 48 mesh. The coarser grains are rounded and sub-angular, and the color is orange yellow. The organic matter color value is 1,000.
The sand apparently occurs at a depth of from 5 to 15 feet over at least 100 acres in this vicinity. The deposit extends close to and

"

212

GEOLOGiCAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

south of the Wrightsville & Tennille Railroad for about a mile, where it widens out and occupies a large area extending back from the railroad on either side for over 1,200 feet. The Macon, Dublin & Savannah Railroad after branching off from the Wrightsville & Tennille Railroad passes through the n{ain part of the sandy area for i,OOO feet and again about two miles southeast of Dublin it passes through the southeast extension of the .same deposit for over half a mile. The best and thickest deposit is near the pit already opened along the Macon, Dublin & Savannah Railroad. The sand is leased by Leo P. Baum from Mr. Crafts, the owner, and is used in Dublin and in the construction of the concrete bridge across Oconee- River at this point.

Oconee River.-A fine-grained flood-plain sand suitable for brick

' and plaster mortar ,occurs east of Oconee. River, opposite Dublin, a

few feet above -the level of the river: This sand is used locally and

is obtained from a small pit on lanq owned by Mrs. Brady, 500 feet

east of the river and about the same distance above the bridge. The

sari.d is handled by Leo Baum.

Excellent coarse-grained .sand occurs in the bed of Oconee River

and along the banks in the vicinity of Dublin and for practically the

entire course of the stream through the county. This sand has never

been used cominercially to -any extent but should the demand war-

rant it the location seems suitable for i.nstalling a centrifugal pump.

Sample T-13 was obtained from the rive.r bank a few hundred feet

north of the. wagon road, opposite Dublin, and has a fineness modulus

,

.

I

.

of 2.51. and 97 per cent is coarser than 48 mesh. The sand contains

about 5 per cent feldspar, the balance being iron-staip.ed quartz.

Other deposits.-Another extensiye area of sand similar to that on the second .terrace opposite Dublin is found o;n the Dublin...:Wrightsville road near Brown's Chapel east of the river and 4 miles northeast Of Dublin.
Smaller and more inac.eessible deposits occur west of the river, on the second terrace near Cody Spring Church, and from Turkey Creek to the Wheeler County line. A somewhat inore_loaniy sand occurs in a number o small areas on the north side of Ochwalkee and Alligator creeks in the southern part of the county. Much surficial s~nd occurs in southern Laurens County, usually less than 5 feet deep.
Considerable gravel, generally of small thickness but suitable for local road construction, occurs throughout the county.

S.AND AND GB.AVEL DEPOSITS

213

Carter property.-On the Dr. J. G. Carter and Warren Carter properties along the Central of Georgia Railway and Dixie-Overland Highway, one mile west of Scott, an average of 2Y2 feet of sand-gravel with coarse sand beneath, occurs. Over 100 test holes dug under the direction of Dr. W. R. Flanders of'Wrightsville encountered from 2 to 5 feet of gravel. In this vicinity it is believed that 3,000 acres are underlain by gravel.
Elsewhere in the county, thin but extensive deposits of clayey ferruginous gravel have been noted along the Mt. Olive road and Strawberry Branch, 4 miles northwest of Dublin, near Excelsior School. Gravel also occurs along the Hawkinsville-Blackshear Ferry road, near the_ Industrial School, 7 miles northwest of Dublin. In the southern part of the c9unty small scattered areas of thin gravel occur due to the weathering of a conglomeratic phase in the Alum Bluff. formation.

LEE COUNTY
No sand of commercial value was noted in Lee County, and very little sand suitable even for unimportant local work was found except along Kinchafoonee and Muckalee creeks. Thin gravel deposits some-_ times are found near the tops of divides..
M ucka~ee Creek.-Four miles directly east of Leesburg, on the Philema road, a small flood-plain deposit of medium-grained, fairlygood, yellow sand, ranging from 6 inches to '2 feet in depth, occurs. In the road 500 feet west of the creek, 5 feet of a loamy sand suitable for brick mortar may be seen. The Georgia, Southwestern & Gulf Railroad runs through this locality, and it is possible that larger deposits ca':n be found a]ong it.
Kinchafoonee Creek.-Kinchafoonee Creek is about 80 feet wide, rather swift, and with intermittent bars of coarse sand along its course. One and a half miles west of Leesburg, west of Kinchafoonee Creek at Jackson Bridge, a fine-grained, silty sand occurs that is hauled to Leesburg for local use. About 700 feet below the bridge on the inside of a sharp curve in the river a somewhat better and coarser sand has been deposited by the creek during high water. Sample T-222 is representative of this sand and has a fineness modulus of 1.40 and 41 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. It contains a trace of organic matter. The sand is pale buff and composed mostly of angular, iron-stained quartz and some fine ilmenite grains.

''

214

(]EOLOGICAL sURVEY OF GEORGIA

At places along .the stream bank a coarse sand suitable for concrete and underlying the surficial sand from 4 to 7 feet, may be seen. This sand usually lies directly upon the Ocala limestone or up'on a blue clay into which it 'may blend. None of this sand, however, exceeds 10 feet in thickness at the maximum, and most of it is of very poor quality and the deposit spotty.
On the Smithville-Dawson road, one mile east of Kinchafoonee Creek, loamy sand occurs_ in the road cuf, giving place at a depth of from 1 to 2 feet_ to medium- to coarse-grained, somewhat clayey, yellow sap.d. The thickness is probably less than four feet. The sand .. occurs mostly east of the creek where a small pit has been opened frqm which sand. was used in the construction of the bridge. The sand here is medium-grained and of fairly go.od quality and about 4 or 5 feet thicJ,r. A deposit of white, fine-grained sand occurs along the creek just above the level of the stream channel.

Other deposits .-The county is sandy for a mile or two south

of Smithville, but no deposits of value were seen, although loca1 accu-

mulation, particularly near the higher elevations, may be valuable for

road building.

.

In a cut on the Leesburg.:.Albany road, 1.9 miles south of Lees-

burg, 150 to 200 feet of sandy, red, clay gravel, containing _50 per cent of sub-angul~r. quartz an.d ferrugin:ous sandstone pebbles was noted.

'Fhe gravel is a small lens showing an irregular thickness of from two

to four feet- and is of poor .quality a,nd probably" of very limited ex-

tent. The deposit is at f1 comparatively high elevation and seems

to be a remnant of a more extensive deposit.

LIBERTY COUNTY

The usual gray or yellow surficial sands, peculiar to the eastern part of the state, and underlain by clays and sands at differing depths, cover- most of Ll.berty County. There is no cormnercial production of either sand or gravel in the county, although sand pits were formerly operated on the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad, east .of Altamaha River, opposite Doctortown, and gravel was mined on a small scale on the same railroad near Fleming.
.!lltamaha River.-The sand-hill belt_ extending east of Altamaha River, intermittently thro~gh Liberty County, is commercially accessible along the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad about 5 iniles west

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

215

of Ludowici. An old pit was operated by this railroad for locomo.tive

sand prior to 1914. The pit covers 8 or 10 acres north of the track,

and the face is 900 feet long, extending north and south, and from

6 to 18 feet in height, averaging 10 feet. The sand is similar to that

obtained east of Everett City, on the same side of the river, and is

fine-grained, yellowish, and clean, without signs of stratifications.

Sample T-32 is representative of the sand near this place. It has a

fineness modulus of 1.72 and 66 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. The

organic content is insignificant. The grains are almost entirely of

faintly-stained quartz.

Much sand remains along the railroad west and north of the pit

\

and also south of the railroad and for a considerable distance up and

down the river on either side of the railroad.

Fleming.-Four miles southwest of Fleming on the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad a small deposit of clayey gravel made up of quartz pebbles occurs. The deposit is on the Phillips' place, 800 yards south of the railroad, and has .been prospected to some extent. A spur was put in from the railroad, a distance of a few hundred feet, and a few carloads were shipped prior to 1900. The test pits show gravel to a depth of 5 feE:Jt. An excavation 700 feet long, 30 feet wide and 5 feet deep shows the following section:

Section at old gravel pit 4 miles southwest of Fleming

,

Fine, quartz gravel, pebbles 34' to%" inches_______________ _

Feet 1

SMaenddiyumc-lsaiYzed--s-a-n-d-y--g-r-a-v-e-l-, -p-e-b-b-l-e-s-3-4-'-t-o--1-

---------------inch_____ ------

1~
3

Sample T-36 is representative of the gravel and shows a fineness modulus of 5.00 and 57 per cent retained on the 4-mesh sieve. It would make an excellent roofing gravel. The area underlain by the deposit is probably less than 4 acres. The rather poor quality of the material for use in road building or in concrete work, together with its limited extent and thickness makes the deposit of little commercial value.
Flemington.-Gravel similar to that in the old pit south of Fleming shows at the cross-roads at Flemington and also on the road haJf a mile north of Flemington, but its extent is small and the gravel is of little value.

'

216

GEOLQGIOA_L SURVEY OF. GEORGIA

LOWNDES COUNTY

Sand or sandy clay covers most of Lowndes Corinty and is underlain by blu~ and yellow clays and sands of Alum 'Bluff age and at greater depths by the massively bedded Chattahoochee limestone.
No sand deposits are worked commercially in the county, and although p1uch of the surface is sandy, deposits of good sand for even "rocal use are scarce.

Withlaooooh-ee River.-Sand from Withlacoochee River has been

used in the construction of the concrete bridge on th.e Quitman-Val-

Gtosta road near Blue Springs and is of fairly good quality. It is

rather superficial, though, and- is restricted to bars in the river chan-

nel or to patches along and near the channel. Sample T-~41 is from

the deposit al~mg the river :;tt this point. It has a fineness modulus

of l.67 and 53 per cent is retained on the 48-mesh sieve: The color

value of the organic matter is 100.' The grains are mostly of quartz

and a few. of sandstone.

East of the river, along this road, an irregularly stratified deposit

of yellow, clayey sand, occurs, probably under 10 feet in thickness.

A similar sand has been deposited along the river on the upper Quit-

"

man road, in a strip 300 feet wide and f!'om 8 to 12 feet in d~pth. The

sand is suitable for brick mortal' and plaster, but is not so desirable

,for concrete. On. this same road, between the two channels that make

up the river at that point, a coarser, white-'sand occurs, of much better

quality but more difficult to get than that east of the bridge. In

places

this

sand

is

pure

enough -

for

the ,-

manufacture . ~

qf ' glass.

MACON COUNTY
. No sand is being produced for commercial shipment in Macon County, although Flint River has large deposits both in the bed of the stre,am and along the banks.
.Montezuma.-A bar in Flint River -just above the mouth of Spring .Creek, east of the river, owned by Mack De Vaughn, produces sand for local consumption. Sample T-~50 s~ows the sand to be of good quality for use as part of the concrete aggreg;:tte. The fineness modulus is 2.50 .and 82 per cent Of the sand is coarser than the 48 mesh screen. It is yellowish-gray and composed mostly of quartz, although the coarser grains (on 4 mesh) contain about 20 per cent. of feldspar. The organic color value is 80.

SAND AND GEAVEL DEPOSITS

211

On the upper road from Montezuma to Oglethorpe, one mile from Mo11tezuma, a small pit has been opened for local supply in a finegrained, buff-colored sand deposit occupying a small hill just above the river swamp. The sand is suitable for brick and plaster mortar, but it will not make the best concrete due to its fineness and silt content.
Excavations for the new bridge across Flint River at Montezuma exposed excellent medium- to coarse-grained sand on the east side at the swamp level. This sand has been used in some of the concrete construction in connection with the bridge. Deposits so situated, however, are of small value, since with every rise in the river they are covered with water.
Lewis .Mill.-One mile south of Montezuma; on the Cordele road, the following section was noted:

Section at Lewis Mill, one mile south of Montezuma
Sandy soil and sand_____________________________________ F2e-e4t Red and yellow, coarse, clayey, gravelly sand._____________ 4 Red, fine-grained, clay and sand graveL.__________________ 6 'White, fine-grained sand and clay_________________________ 3
MciNTOSH COUNTY
Most of Mcintosh County is fiat and sandy with a ridge of. sand hillt; paralleling Altarriaha River on the east. Terrace sands and clays of Pleistocene age cover the surface of the county and are underlain by sands, clays, marls, and limestones of the older formations. Sand is being dug along the Seaboard Air Line Railway north of Altamaha River.
A.ltamaha River.-A very prominent ridge of sand hills roughly parallels the northeast side of Altamaha River along the western half of its course along the southern border of Mcintosh County. These fand hills reach a height of 60 feet above the river bed in some places and have an enormous quantity of sand. The sand is usually finegrained, but clean, and suitable for brick mortar and plaster, and it has also been extensively used in concrete.
A.ltamaha Supply Company.-A large area of the sandy ridge near the Seaboard Air Line Railway between Everett City and Barrington is owned by the Altamaha Supply Company, of which Mr. R. R. Hopkins, of Brunswick, is president. The pit on this property

218

GEOLOGI,CAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

is located three-quarters of a mile east of the Seaboard Air Line Rail-
way trestle and 4V2 miles southeast of Everett City. (Plate X-B.)
The face of the pit is 500 feet long and from 5 to 25 -feet high, averaging about 15 feet. The pit covers about 10 acres. The sand becomes yellow to pale yellow with depth, although the upper 3 or 4 inches has been leached pure white by the action of rain. and organic acids. The sand appears to be quite uniform throughout its thickness, al~ though a slight increase in the size of the grain and an increase in purity is noted toward he bottom of the pit. A Marion steam ~hovel having a 60-foot boom and a 1%-yard dipper is used in loading the sand .on the cars. The production ranges from 3 to 10 cars daily. Sample T-31, from this pit, has a fineness modulus of 1.76 and 69 per cent coarser than 48 mesh: The organic color vall!-e is 200.
The pit has been in operation since 1911 and during that time a great deal of sand has been shipped for use in th~ construction of the acid plant near Brunswick and for the construction of a number of buildings in Jacksonville, Brunswick, River Junction, and other points.
The surficial sand so prevalent throughout the county is in places pure enough for use in glass-making. The thickness :of this sand, however, is frequently liinited to the upper 2 to 5 feet, but it is likely that deposits close to railroads may be discovered of sufficient thickness . to warrant commercial exploitation.

Orescent.-'On tl!.e bluffs,. overlo.okihg Sapelo R1ver, half a mile

east of Qrescmt, white sand two feet thick occurs, overly-ing eight

An to fifteen feet of brown, clayey sand.

analysis of the white sand

gaye the following resUlts:

'
.!lnalysis of surficial sand near Crescent, T-33

. Moisture at 100 c__________________________________ 0.00

Loss on ignition~ __ ----------=--~ ________ ------------Soda (Na20)-~-- ------ _- __ - ___ ---- _------ _--- ____ --Potash(1C20)_______________________________________ Lime (CaO) __________________ -----------~--------- __

0.13 0.23 0.61
0. 00

. Magnesia (MgO)----------'------- ---------------- ___
Alumina (A120 a)-----------_-_----_-------------_---
Ferric oxide (Fe20 a) _____________ - ___ ~,..- ___ -..:__ -~-___ Titanium dioxide (Ti02) ___________________ :._______ __

0.07 1.36 0. 55 0.19

Silica (SiO 2) ______ - __ ---------------------- _- _---- _- 96.74

White sand of similar character occurs in extensive deposits of unknown depth along the old Georgia Coast & Piedmont Railroad between Ludowici and Darien Junction.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

219

MARION COUNTY
Large quantities_ of fine-grained sand are found in northern Marion County within a mile or so of the Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic Railway. Just over the line in Taylor County the sand is commercially exploited in large pits. This deposit which forms part of the Fall Line sand-hill belt, continues westward across the entire county, although at no other point are transportation facilities so close.
In the southern part of the county the streams usually have sand. in sufficient amounts for local purposes. This is especially true of Richland, Buck, and Allonahatchee creeks. Along the smaller branches at most road intersections from 5 to 100 cubic yarcls of coarse sand occur, suitable for concrete work, which has been deposited during flood periods. Such deposits usually afford local supplies to the towns 1n the county. Almost everywhere throughout the county thin surficial deposits of fine-grajned, somewhat loamy ,sand can be found which are used in constructing the sand-clay roads.
Gullies and ro_ad cuts in the central part of the county, particularly near Buena Yista, expose g-reat thicknesses of hard, white, rather fine-grained sand of the Providence rp.ember of the Ripley formation, or coarser, yellow sand of the Cusseta member. Dt!Iing heavy rains great quantities of sand are ws.shed from the gullies and collect as sand streams along branch bottoms or hollows. A particularly prom. inent sand stream occurs about a mile north of Tazewell. (Plate XI-A.)

MILLER COUNTY

The surface of Miller County, like that of the surrounding coun-

ties, is practically fiat to slightly rolling. The Ocala limestone under-

lies the entire county, but is represented at the surface by flint boul-

ders and residual clays and sand, and has a thin veneer of gray sur-

ficial sand on top. No commercial sand or gravel deposits are worked

or known in the county. Small deposits of fine-grained, loamy sand

occur in the bed of Spring Creek and in some of its tributaries and

in small deposits in places along the banks, but the quality is very

poor and the amount usually small.



MITCHELL COUNTY
Sand covers most of Mitchell County, although clay and sandy clay are common and frequently come close to the surface in sandy parts. Sand deposits occur along Flint River, particularly opposite

220

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

Newton, and as scattered local remnants of former fluviatile deposits.

A few deposits of gravel suitable for road bUilding occur near the tops

of the higher portions of the. county.

-

Camilla.-Sand for local use in Camilla is hauled from a pit on the Camilla-Newton road, opposite the cemetery, 1 mile west of Camilla. The worked-over parts cover about 2 acres and show fine- and medium-grained sand about 5 feet. thick and underlain by yellow clay. The distribution of the sand botll as to quality and quantity is very irregular, .although the- sandy area extends for several hundred yards along the road and back from it:

Flint River.-A prominent and extensive deposit of fine and medium-grained, yellowish sand occlirs 1,000 feet east of Flint River at the ferry, just opposite' Newton. The sand occupies a long ridge and is 10 to 30 feet thick, the average thickness being at least 20 feet for a width of 500 feet. The ridge iE; said to extend north about two miles and to-the_ south about half a mile rom the Newton Ferry road. The deposit at this point is located mostly on the Lee Hill plantation. 1nterrui-ttent rid'ges of this type extend east. of the. river for most of its course through the county. The sand is similar to that at Ea~t Albany, to the north. Tests have been made on sampb.T-220, which show "it to ha,ve .a fineness modulus. of 1.63 and 59 per cent coarser than the 48~thesli screen. The organic content has a color .value of 175. The grains are of faintly iron-stained quartz.
Although deposits of this kind along this part of Flint River are inaccessible to railroads at present, it is possible that the sand could be shippe~ down the river in baTges. The bed of Flint River itself
shotrld afforli an unlimited supply of coarse sand for construction
purposes on work located near it.

- Cowart and Hand properties.-.Dark-~ed .gravel occurs in a narrow ridge extending east and west and is exposed where the PelhamC~n:iilia road cuts the ridge, 7.6 miles south of Camilla, for a distance of 150 feet, and to a maximumti?ckness of 4 feet on the A. B. Cowart and J. L. Hand properties. The matrix is clay and contains from 25 to 40 per cent quartz peb~ies from a half to two inches in diamter. The gravel is a lens sloping to the south' about 15 degrees and coming to the surface where it can be traced for 600 feet to the east of the road and about 400 feet to the west. Not more than 4 or 5 acres are covered with the gravel in this vicinity, although a larger area may

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

221

be underlain with it at a depth of from 1 to 3 feet, particularly to the east and west, along the ridge.
Samples tested in the State Highway Laboratory of the Georgia School of Technology are recorded below:
Tests of road gravel from Mitchell County

Percentage retained on following mesh sizes:

Sample

Clay

2

4

l 10 20 30 40 50 80 100. 200

- I - - - - -- -- -

------------

Organic test

1______ 24.1 36.1 43.6 56.5 73.1 82.0 85.8 90.5 91.5 97.0 34
2______ 35.8 49.3 59.5 69.1 75.8 79.1 81.8 85.4 86.2 96.0 19
3______ 17.6 36.8 54.1 62.31 65.9 70.7 78.0 85.6 88.1 97.0 18
..

Clear straw color
Clear straw color
Black

1 and 2.-Taken 100 feet east of road cut on J. L. Hand property. 3.-Taken from Wilbur Tucker property.

Wilbur Tucker property.-A small, thin deposit of sandy gravel, about an acre in extent, occurs 2 miles north of Pelham between the Dixie Highway and the Camilla-Cotton road. The actual thickness and extent of the gravel could not be determined, although it is questionable whe~her it is of sufficient size to be used even for local road purposes.

MONTGOl\1ERY COUNTY
Large quantities of good sand occur in Oconee River and this sand has been used in concrete bridge construction over the river west of Mt. Vernon. A sample tested by the State Highway Department showed its tensile strength to be 171 and 148 per cent of Ottawa sand at 7 and 28 days, respectively, and a mechanical analysis gave the following results:

Mechanical analysis of sand from Oconee River, at Mt. Vernon bridge

-

Per cent retained on following mesh sizes:

11eshes ______________

4
--

10
--

20
--

-30-

40
--

50
--

80 --

100
--

200
--

Percentages __________ 12.1 32.1 51.4 64.8 76.7 89.2 96.2 96.6 99.6

222

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF-GEORGIA

Elsewhere in the co-qnty $mall, thin deposits of sand and gravel occur, the latter usually on the tops of the hills. Altamaha River below the crossing of the Georgia .& Florida Railway has large quantities of excellent sand, and should the demand warrant, a good site for the installation of a pump is offered here.
MUSCOGEE COUNTY
Commercial sand arid gravel is produced in Muscogee County from the deposits along Bull Creek. Numerous deposits of clay gravel near Columbus furnish excellent road material for the county:
Flournoy et al. property.-The J. F. Flournoy property comprises about 14 acres along Bull Creek just below the Seaboard Air Line Railway bridge. J. M. Rutledge and G. W. Chestnut of Columbus have built a screening plant and drag-line system along the _creek on this property and pay a royalty for the sand and gravel removed.
(Plate XI-B.) A ;!:1-yard drag bucket with "72-inch steel c_able is used,
and the .sand dragged to the top of a 20-foot tower over a wooden incline and passed through a }1-inch revolving trorrimel. A 25-horsepower hoisting engine is used. An excellent coarse~grained concrete sand-is obtained willch is. delivered for use throughout Columbus and is also used in the county road paving operations. The excavation from which the sand is scooped shows up to 8 feet of a mixture of sand ahd gravel, the gravel composing 25 per cent. Tl:Pcknesses of from 15 to .20 feet of sand and gravel have been encountered on this property. The sand is recovered over a distance o:f 450 feet. (Plate' XII-A.) Formerly an e.Ia,boiate washing and screening plant was operated by the Cohimbus Sand and Concrete Company on the Flournoy property 200 yards below the Seaboard Railway crossing, but it has since been abandoned.
.Morris property._-Mr. W. M. Morris owns land along BUll Creek, a 'half mile northeast from the Buena Vista road. In this distance sand and gravel have collected in large quantities in bars alo:rag the creek. The entire creek bed has an ~xcellent clean quartz gravel which forms deposits up to 14 or 15 feet thick and .300 to 400 feet wide. In places vegetation has grown up on these bars, and the gravel
is not at once apparent. The pebbles range from. 74: inch to 3 inches
in diameter and consist of tough, vari-colored quartz generally rounded or sub-a:J:igular. The .deposits have been left by the creek in flood times and naturally decrease in coarseness the further they are located from the main channel.

SAND .AND GRA-VEL DEPOSITS

223

It is possible to obtain three grades of material from the creek (1) gravel, which has about 40 per cent sand; (2) concrete sand, ranging
in size from fine grains to X inch; (3) fine-grained, clean, white sand
used for brick and plaster mortar, which occurs on the stream bank or at the outer edge of a bar away from the stream. The .sand and gravel is loaded on wagons or trucks by hand labor and then passed through a quarter-inch screen into a bin whiC;h empties, when full, into a railroad car below. Sample T-92, taken from the Morris property, but typical of Bull Creek sand, has a fineness modulus of 2.85 and 90 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. The organic color value is 50.

Analysis of sand from Morris property alon~ Bull Creek, T-92
Ferric oxide (Fe20s)--------------------------------- 3.21 Silica (Si02) __ ----- __ ------------------ _____ ___ _____ 95.84
The bank of the first stream terrace just above the bed of the stream and usually from 100 to 400 feet back from the stream shows a cover of clay and sand from 5 to 10 feet thick, beneath which from 2 to 5 feet of very high-grade gravel shows.
Musco~ee County ~ravel pit.-North of the St. Marys road,
372 miles from Columbus, Muscogee County has operated a road-
gravel pit on its 102-acre farm since 1915. The gravel is mined with a 50-horsepower Thew No. 0 gasolene shovel using a %-yard bucket
and is loaded directly into auto trucks. (Plate II-B.) The face of the pit is about 14 feet high and 500 feet long. The gravel has a fairly large amount of clay and sand which causes it to cement so well as to be mined with difficulty even with the steam shovel. A general section at the pit is given:

Section at Musco~ee Coun~l! ~ravel pit, St. Marys road,
372 miles from Columbus
Red, sandy clay soil____________________ _________________ F1e-e2t Clay gravel, rounded and sub-angular pebbles, highly cemented 8 Coarse, clayey sand with a few pebbles____________________ 1 Reddish clayey sand, pebbles scant_______________________ 3-4 Clay gravel with fewer pebbles than upper layers__________ 2-3
Sample T-90, representing the face of the pit, shows a fineness mo-. dulus of 6.07, and 75 per cent coarser than 4 mesh. The clay content is 6 per cent.

, I

224

GEOLOGICAL SlJRVEY OF GEORGIA

At the southeast end of the pit the sand layer is from 5 to 7 feet thick. (Plat~ XII-B:) A well 25 feet back from the face, and above it, shows 22 feet or gravel, sand, and clay similar to that in the section. In the immediate vicinity at least 3-- acres are underlain- with graveL A few hundred yards west of the present pit, a small pit was opened some years ago, but the clay_ content of the gravel was found to be to'O large. The gravel north of the pit is believed to thin out and contain more clay than that now worked~
On the land of A. L. Barnes, adjoining the county land to the
east, a maximum thickness of 4 feet' of similar, althmigh more sandy gravel, outcrops in the road cut.
Fort''Bennin~ ~ravel pit.--About 5 miles from Columbus on the Cusseta roaq near the top of Torch Hill, on the Fort Benning Reservation, a pit has been opened to supply gravel for ro~d building in the reservation. A section of the deposit shown in the pit is g1ven ...

Section at pit q_n- Torch Hill_
Feet Red, coarse, clayey sand-------------------------------- 2-8 Granular rounded quartz gravel with bright red clay matrix__ 6 Coarse, red, clayey sand_________________________________ 1-2 Quartz ~a-vel with red clay ___ --'- _____________ .... _________. 4
; Cenbra.l of G_eor~ia Railway.'-A-hill of clay gravel. extends east-
watd' along tne north' side of the Central of Ch_~-orgia Railway yards,
fr0fri.a point 700 feet,east of the Muscogee Guano Co;rn.pany, for 1,000
'fee1<'_ <Duts show from 2 to 8 feet 'oi sandy, clayey gra:Vel-with little
or nO' cover. The pebbles range from 1 to 5 inches in diameter. Good
road gravel appears to underlie about 5 acres. At the eastern end of the hill Muscogee County formerly worked the gravel for road materiaL -
West (;f Midway Street a hill of sandy gravel, ranging frorri 2 to 6 feet thick, occurs.
Columbus- Talbotton road.-~Where the Talbotton road crosses Randall;,_ Creek, considerable quantities of coarse sand suitable for local uses are found in the stream bed. At Bull Creek, near this road, very little gravel was seen in the stream bed as it 'appeared to be composed of solid granite-gneiss for some distance.
Bank gravel in fairly thi~k lenses occurs in Cretaceous strata along
this road from the 9-mile post to within 3 miles of Columbus. Between

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS OF GEORGIA

PLATE XIV

A. WORKING FACE SHOWING T\'AVY S'IRATA . J. W. DILLON PIT, WILLIA11LS STATION. THOMAS COUNTY

B. WHITE SAND BAR ON OCKLOCKNEE RIVER JUST ABOVE THE THOMASVILLEALBANY ROAD, THOMAS COUNTY

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

225

53:-:i and 5Yz miles of Columbus, 5 feet of gravel is exposed in a sandy
clay matrix. The pebble proportion is smaller than is usual in such deposits, and it does not appear to be very extensive, as the outcrop extends only 200 feet along the road. Gravel also occurs in road cuts in small quantities, 4Yz miles from Columbus, but is of value only
for road material. A cut 20 feet high, 3Yz miles from the city, shows
several layers of sandy clay gravel. Cuts along the road 2Yz miles from Columbus, although in a built-up section, show up to 10 feet of clay gravel for 500 feet. 'wells~on the hills above did not appear to' encounter much gravel.
Buena Vista road.-.A ditch along the Buena Vista road, 47:2 miles from Columbus, shows a ma~um of 5 feet of coarse, well..; cemented, clayey sand gravel. The pebbles range up to 3 inches, the largest being near the base of the deposit. The extent of the gravel appears to be variable and erratic.
Four miles from Columbus, 2 feet of medium-pebbled gravel shows in a rosd cut in short variable lenses in clay. The gravel occurs in several thin layers from a few inches to a foot thick. About 5 miles from 'Columbus 1 foot of gravel shows in the road cut, but further back from the road and capping some of the hills, the gravel appears to be thicker, although the pebbles are usually small. Similar gravel 6 miles from Columbus shows in several road cuts.
River road.-At several cuts on the River road, gravel outcrops from 1 to 2 feet thick. Just east of the reservoir and near this road, the gravel is from 1 to 4 feet thick and consists of quartz pebbles 1 to 2 inches in size, making up 60 per cent of the mass and embedded in clay.
Jordan property.-A small pit has been opened along the River road on the G. Jordan property, north of Columbus. The material was used for concrete aggregate and in road construction. The pit shows about 7 feet of red clay gravel becoming lighter in color near the bottom and which cements well. Above the gravel, and grading
into it laterally, from 3 to 10 feet of coarse, red, clayey sand occurs.,
The pebbles are coarse, ranging up to 4 inc.hes in diameter and averaging from 2 to 3 inches. In the road cut .north of the pit, the pebbles make up 80 per cent of the mass.
Wynn property.-East of the road and opposite the Jordan pit, considerable gravel covers some of the fields on the T. J. Wynn farm.

226

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

A well 800 feet northeast of the road cut was reported to have encountered the following section:

Section of well on T. J. Wynri property
Feet Clayey sand and clay.: ___ "----~ _______________ w ________ _ 6-8 Red clayey graveL----- ____________ ------- __ --- _______ _ 10 Clayey sand with gravelly layers ________________________ _ 7 Red, plastic clay__________ -.: ____ ~_._________ -~----------""' 2

On a hill on theW. D. Jones p-roperty, east of the road, 15 acres

are said to be covered or underlain_ with gravel, although the thick-

n~ss could not be determined.

-

-Upatoi Creek.-Like Bull Creek, Upatoi Creek" has .immense quantities of sand and gravel in bars along its course. At the Seaboard Air Line Railway crossing~ t~e deposits are particularly prom- inent. Excellent quartz- gravel lies in the stream bed, and along the stream b~nks sand is mixed with the gravel, m:;tking a natural -concrete a;ggregate. A finer-grained sand, suitable for brick and. plaster m_ortar, lies a -few feet above the coarser_ sand and gravel, on the . banks, or on islands. The gravel bars near the bridge are almost 500 feet long and 150 feet wide, on~ lying on either side:of the crossing. The thiqkness of the gra'V'el ;ranges froffi 2 .tg 8 .Jeet.
Bars similar to this, although not so large, occur for some
distance below tills railroad crossing and also e~tend" up~stream to a
-pol:nt above the Central of Georgia .Railway crossing, 1 mile above
'the Seaboard Air Litle, where they are also very pro@n:ent. The gravel extends much further up, although in smaller quantities than ~t the railroad bridges, but it is doubtful whether it goes much be~ yond the Buena Vista road. Sample T-93, typical of the Upatoi Creek gravel and obtained at the Sea}?oard Air Line Railway cross.. ing, showed a fineness modulus of 3.11 and 8.9 per cent retained on the 4-mesh screen.

Sand Hill.-At Sand ;Hill Station on the Central of Georgia Rail-
way, 7;!.1 miles from Columpus on the Cusseta road,- a -hill 50 to 60 feet h~gh is covered with fine- to coarse-grained sand of uncertain thick:hess. A quarter of a m.il,e northeast of this hill where the railroad crosses Tiger Creek, north of the creeka section shows consid-
erable sand, representing a former deposit of this stream and Upatoi
Creek.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

227

Section at Tiger Creek, Central of Georgia Rai'lway crossing
Feet Gray to yellow clay_ ____________________________________ 3-4 Coarse, clean, white sand_______________ _________________ 6 Pebbly, somewhat clayey, yellow sand_____________________ 7 Clayey and fine-grained silty sand __________________ ______ 4 Coarse, white sand______________________________________ 3
Further up-stream more of the finer-grained sand is shown in the section. The top of the sand is on a level with the railroad grade, and the land slopes downward to the creek east of the railroad.
Through the western part of Muscogee County a continuation of the Fall Line sand-hill belt passes, and the fine-grained sand ranges from 5 to 15 feet in thickness, but no means of transportation are near.
PIERCE COUNTY
Large deposits of sand are found in Pierce County along Satilla River and the larger creeks. A pit is in operation just north of the river on the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad.
Atlantic Coast Line Ra,ilroad.-Sand, forming part of the-extensive deposit lying north of Satilla River, is being mined by the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad largely for use in locomotives. The pitis west of the railroad, a quarter mile north of Satilla River bridge, where about 8 acres of sand have been removed. The face, which parallels the railroad, is 800 feet long and from 5 to 15 feet high, although the average is about 11 feet. The sand is yellow near the surface but becomes paler in the lower half of the deposit. It is made up of sharp, iron-stained grains of quartz. No signs of stratification were noted in the deposit, and its present position appears to be due entirely to wind action. Practically no clay or organic matters occurs in the sand. The deposit is worked by colored hand labor, the sand being shoveled into wheelbarrows which are unloaded in the cars. Sample T-~7, representative of the sand from this pit, has a fineness modulus of 1.67 and 62 per cent is coarser than 48 mesh.
Analysis of sand from pit on Atlantic Coast Line Railroad, 3 miles northeast of Waycross
Loss on ignition___ __________________________________ 0 .08 Ferric oxide (Fe 2 0 s) _________________ . ______________ 0 .51 Titanium dioxide (TiO 2) _______________________ : _____ 0. 09
Silica (SiO 2l ________________________________________ 98. 74
Undetermined___ ____________________________________ 0 .58
TotaL _________________________________________ 100. 00

228

GEOLOG-ICAL SVRVEY OF GEORGIA

Sand of tliis type occurs almost continuously along the nort'h side of Satilla River. Its surface is undulating or even hilly, and thick-
nesses of from 20 to -40 feet are said to have been encountered irl wells
dug in the sand belt. On the western edge of the county, north of the Atlanta, Birming-
ham & Atlantic Railway crossing of Satilla River, is an abandoned pit, from which, prior to 1910, some sand was shipped mostly for locm;notive purposes by this rafuoad. The cut is about 1,000 feet long and 125 feet Wide and the sand is of the usual color and texture characteristic of such deposits. The deepest part of the cut shows at least 15 feet of sand without indications of str~tification. A very large' deposit is here easily accessible to transportation. Sample T-29, from this deposit, has a fineness modulus of 1.59, and 60 per cent is retained on the 48-mesh sieve.
Hurricane Creek.-Continuous sand belts lie north and east of
both Hurricane. and Little Hurricane creeks for their entire course in the. c~UJ?-ty. The only pomt at which they can b~ commercially
developed is at the ,Atlantic Coast Line Railroad crossing of Hurri-
cane Creek, 172 miles north of Blackshear. The deposit here is from
1,000 to 1,500 feet wide: and from 1.0 to40 feet thick. A section at the thi.~kest patt of the d~posit near the north abutment of the railroad
bridge was noted.

Section of sand deposit on Hurricane Creek, 1;!1 miles n.orth of Blackshear

Feet White, leached sand with some vegetable matter_____ .;______ 1 Fine-grained,-yellow quartz sand___ --- __________ -----____ 15
Coarser and paler sand with some grains up to -h inch ----- 10
White, medium-grained sand suitable for glass~------------- 6-8 Yellow, clayey sand____ ------_-------------------------_ 4
No signs of stratification were seen in the section and the yellow sand above merges gradually into the white sand below. .Streaks of stained sand occur irregularly through the white material and detract from its value for glass-making.
A section 800 feet north of the first sectioli showed similar white sand.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

229

Section 800 feet north of railroad bridge abutment, 1Y2 miles
north of Blackshear
Feet Yellow, fine-grained sand________________________________ 4 Clean, white sand_______________________________________ 2
White saud with more impurities than that above_ _________ 3-5 Yellow, clayey sand_____________________________________ 1

Analyses were made of the natural white sand from this section and also of the same sand after the clay had been washed .out.

Analyses of sand from east side of Hr~;rricane Creek, at Atlantic Coast Line Railroad, 1 mile west of Blackshear

Constituents

Washed Unwashed

LMoosisstounreigantit1io0n0__C_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-~-_-_-_-_-_-_-__~-_ Lime (CaO) __________________________ _ Magnesfu (MgO) _____________________ _
Alumina (AI20 a) __ ----_--_-_-_-------Ferric oxide (Fe20a) __________________ _ Titanium dioxide (TiO 2)- _____________ _ Silica (SiO 2) ________ ------------------

0.00 0.04 0.00
trace
0.05 0.31 0.04 99.49

0.57 0.76 0.00 0.03 1.16 2.11
0.27 95.20

On the Patterson-Blackshear road, north o"f Hurricane Creek, yellow, fine-grained sand from 10 to 20 feet thick occurs, but no white sand. is uncovered.
PULASKI COUNTY
In. the southern part of Pulaski County, surficial gray sands are common, but usually of small thickness. No sand is produced commercially in Pulaski County, although Ocmulgee River, both in bars along its course and in deposits on its banks, affords abundant supplies. Elsewhere in the county, sand is rather limited.
L. E. Jordan property.-A fine-grained, white sand is said to
occur along Ocmulgee River, 1Y2 miles above Hawkinsville. When
visited by the writer the deposit was under water due to heavy floods. About a mile below Hawkinsville, west of the river, a deposit of
fine-gl!ained, silty sand occurs suitable for brick .and plaster mortar, but hardly desirable for important concrete construction.

230

GEOLOGIC.i!L SURVEY OF GEOEGI_A

Tlie numer~us bars of excellent.sand in the bed of Ocmulgee River, which flows through the county, will furnish plenty _of sand should the dem~nd warrant the installation of a pump near the railroad crossings at Hawkinsville.

QUITMAN COUNTY

Deposits of gravel occur on the second terrace overlooking Chat-

_tahoochee River near G~orgetown, but none is produced in Quitman

County except for-loca,l purposes.



Central of Georgia Railway pit.-Prior to 1910 considerable grav~l for ballast purposes was shipped from a pit along the Central
of Georii,a-Railway, :about 172 miles southea~t of Georgetown. None
is being shipped now, although some still remains near the railroad
with a rather thick cover in places. The pit covers several acres and
is located on three sides of the hill_ in which the gravel occurs. When
the pit was opened, the cover was thill:, but as it was worked back toward the center of the hill the clay overburden became too thick to warrant the expens~ of further removal.

Section at Central of Georgia Railway pit, Georgetown, north side pf pit_
Feet. Red, sandy, pebbly cla,y______________ --- _____ ~ _________ _ 8-12
(Furthei back in hill this reaches 20 feet in thickness.) Fine,, clay gravel, pebbles il:P to 1 inch in size:: - -- - ..::. ~-.:...:- -- 5
Fine, sand,y gravel, pebbles up. to 1 inch insize__ ~---------- 2 Coarse, clay gravel, pebbles up to 3 inches in size__________ _ 1-2 Red: mottled; sandy claY-------------------------------- 4
Sample T-223, representativ.:e of the entire thickness of _gravel, s1fowed a :fineness modulus of 6~29 with 80 per cent of the pebbles coarser than 4-mesh. The pebbles are composed mostly of tough quartz and generally rounded or sub-angular. The clay percentage is 7 per cent of the total.
Gay property.-On the south side of th~ Central of Georgia Railway, and within 500 feet ofthe track, although on the opposite side of a small branch valley, on the property of H. A. and F. M. Gay, sr., a deposit of gravel occurs near the top of the hill. From 4 to 6 feet of gravel outcrop in the plantation road cut just above the Mercer
Mill site, and in a well at the house at the top of the hill 4 feet is shown.
In gullies on the west side of the same hill overlooking the clay, gravel similar to that east of the railroad,- in the pit, is shown in each of two

S.AND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

231

streaks separated by 3 or 4 feet of clay. Apparently about 10 acres at least are underlain by workable gravel from 4 to 7 feet thick, the cover increasing from a foot to an unknown thickness as the center of the hill is approached.
On the hill, east of the railroad, and 200 yards north of the old pit, separatect from it by a ravine, some gravel of unknown thickness and extent is exposed 10 feet above the road level. This material was. formerly prospected, and it is reported that good gravel was found. These pits have since filled up and only the gravel covering the surface of probably 10 acres could be noted. In an old pit along the railroad, a few hundred feet west, no gravel of any value was seen.
Lampley property.-On the I:I. Lampley property, adjoiniri.g the' Gay plantation on the east, 6 feet of gravel of fairly good quality outcrops on the old cut..off road leading from Georgetown to the Fort Gaines road, about a quarter mile from the latter road. Part of the same gravel is exposed on the opposite side. of the hill, on the Fort Gaines road. At this point the pebbles are small, the clay content very large,. and the quality much poorer than that further west.
Tobananee Creek.-Excellent gravel is being obtained from the bed of Tobananee Creek, a quarter mile from Chattahoochee River
is on the F. M. Gay, Sr., plantation. The gravel about 2 feet thick
in the stream bed and the stream 25 feet wide. A finer-grained gravel occurs in small bars of a few hundred square feet in extent along the stream. The pebbles are of rounded and sub-angular quartz, very tough, and generally white or gray. Sample T-224 shows a fineness modulus of 5.96, with 66 per cent of it retained on the 4-mesh screen. The gravel is scooped up_ out of the creek bed and placed in a bin from which trucks are loaded and the gravel used for construction work in ~ufaula, Ala., just across the river. The gravel is. of very good quality.
Quitman County Farm.-Gravel of good quality for ,road purposes occurs -On the Quitman County Farm at several places. In a road cut on the Georgetown-Cuthbert road at the crest of the hill, 1.3 miles from Georgetown, 4 feet of sandy and clay gravel are exposed. The gravel, although of good quality, is variable. in thickness and extent.
Other deposits .-some clay gravel occurs in a number of places. on the second terrace of Chattahoochee River north and south of Georgetown, but distance from railroads will prohibit its use for a

232

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

long time. Just west ,of Georgetown, as the Eufaula road descends to the first terrace of Chattahoochee River, from 3 to 6 feet of clay gravel are exposed with from 1 to 10 feet of cover. The gravel is used for road-making and is of good quality.

RANDOLPH COUNTY

The Claiborne sands and clays form the surface material in an irregular belt in the western and central parts of Randolph County, and in the southern part the Ocala limestone is foung: No commercial sand or gravel is produced in the county, although parts of the county, particularly in the west and north, contain extensive sand deposits.

Cuthbert.-Very little sand of any value is found near Cuthbert. The local supply is obtained frc;)m small deposits near small streams and branches and is usuaUy rather fine-grained;

Near Shellman, in the .eastern part of the county.., surficial sand

from 2 to 5 feet thick occurs near the Central of Georgia Railway.

This sand is usually too fuie-grained and loamy to be of .use except

for mortar or plaster purposes~ . Similar sand, 3 to 5 feet in thickness,

is found along Pachitla Creek.

-

(]_ol~man.-An extensive sandy are3t begins half a mile southwest

.of Coleman. The sand is exposed in road cuts to a maximum thick-

ne~ of 6' or 7 feet, bu~ it is nne-grained and SOp:lewhat loamy. N0

large deposits occur close to the railroad. In. this viCinity shallow

water wells. generally encounter- a medium-grained .yellow sand, at

depths of from 3 to 15_feet below the sw;face,. whicl,. ranges from 15

to 30 feet in thickness. Such sand appears to be widespread even in

the western and norlhern parts of the/county and is probably of Mid-

way ahd Wilcox age. It is possible that prospecting near raihoad

lines may reveal deposits of such sand-with-an overburden thin-enough

to warrant commercial operation.



Benevolence:-In the northern part. of the county close to the Georgia, Florida & Alabama Railway, surficial deposits from 3 to 6 feet thick occru-. The sand is particularly prominent near Barge~s
Mill Creek where it is gray and medium-gramed. This sandy area
extends with interruptions across the northwest corner of the county through Springvale. South of the Central of Georgia Railway, about two miles from Morris Station, and in the western part of the county, th~ gray and yellow sand a~tains a thickness of 20 feet or more over large areas.

SAND .AND GR.AJ"EL DEPOSITS

233

RICHMOND COUNTY
Both sand and gravel are produced commercially in Richmond County, and large gravel pits are also operated by the county for road material. The gravels usually lie directly upon the ancient schists and constitute part of the belt of Fall Line gravels. Sand is obtained as a product of gravel washing, or from the sand hills along the Georgia Railroad near Wheless Station.
Richmond County gravel pit.-Richmond County owns a large gravel pit half a mile east of the Savannah public road, opposite the cotton oil mill, near the Central of Georgia Railway. The gravel is used principally for road building throughout the county, but sand is also sold locally for concrete aggregate. The pit covers over 10 acres and
is full of water to a depth of from JO to 28 feet, which can not easily
. be drained. The gravel is mined by a Crawford excavator made by the Lidgerwood Manufacturing Company, and equipped with a 172yard drag bucket and a 60-foot boom. (Plate IV-A.) The excavator is located"'on the bank above the pit ~nd is driven by a 25-horsepower steam engine. The gravel and sand are scooped out of the pit and piled on the bank from which it can be conveniently loaded into the 3-ton trucks used by the county. The excavator when pushed can handle a yard a minute, but ordinarily half a yard a minute is a better average. The machine is equipped with 160 feet 'of steel cable and has dug 25 feet below its grade. The sand and gravel are loaded on the trucks by a Keystone excavator with a skimmer dipper. (Plate III-A.)

Section at Richmond County gravel pit, .!lugusta
Feet Sandy, loamy soil and cover_____________________________ '0-3 JCrlealylogvrnasvhesla, npdeb_b__le_s_f__r_o_m__~_t_o__2_i_n_c_h_e_s_a_n_d__h_i_g_h_ly__c_e_m__en_t_e_d_.__ 55--76 Red, clayey sand and graveL____________________________ (?) Pure white sand________________________________________ (?)

The red, clayey sand and the white sand beneath, are under water, but their occurrence was reported. The cover is thickest west of the pit, where it ranges from 3 to 4 feet, elsewhere it is generally about 2 feet thick. The faces of the pit stand well, partly because of their long exposure to the weather. The surface contour is fiat.
According to Captain Fulghum, county superintendent of roads, the pit was opened about 1909, and the excavator has been at work

-

234

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

since 1918. The natural sand and gravel proportion as mined is about equal, and this material is used directly on the roads. It has been the experience in the county that if gravel alone is used on the roads; with toomuch clay, they wash out. The good roads of the county attest the excellence of this natural mixture.
Sample T::-.1;.~; taken from the gravel face at the western end of the pit, shows a fineness modulus of 4.97 and 55 per cent coarser than 4 -mesh. The pebbles are mostly of tough angular to sub-angular quartz; a few decayed feldspar pebbles al_so occur.
Georgia Sand and Gravel Oompany.-The Georgia Sand and Gravel Company, in charge of E. W. Hancock, produces an excellent grade of washed sand and gravel for concrete aggregate and other purposes. The plant is located at the .south end of the same pit from which the county gets its gravel, the western half of which is mrned by this company:. A 6-inch, 30-horsepower, centrifugal pump made by the Augusta Iron Works has been recently installed to remove the sand and gravel from the large pit and eonvey it 250 f~et southward to a small pond-at .the foot of the screening plan~. (Plate V-A.) In June, 1920, the ptimp was sucking the sand from a depth of 26 fee~. The mixture deposited in. the small pond is then raised 24 feet by a 4-:inch, 25-horsepower pump to the top of the washer. (Plate VI.;.A,), The. -material can be p~mped -at the rate of 200 yards per 1D;.;hour day. The sand, gravel, and water from the pit pass over two sloping, concentric, cylindrical trotnmels, ml:!!king 12 revolutions per minute and driven by a 2-hor,sepower ga:solene engine, which separates the gravel and allows it to fall into a car or _small stock J?ile. The openings in the inner. trammel are half an inch, and the material retained on this is sold as gravel; the outer trammel has openings of
% x h inch, and the sand is divided into two sizes: that .retained on the oute; troffiiTlel and that passing it. The sand passing the t\--
inch mesh goes in to wooden settling banks from which the clay and
water passes into a small pit south of the washer. When the settling
bank is full it automatically dumps the sand into a freight car on the track below.
Sample T-!;..Z represents the gravel product. A mechanical analysis shows a fineness n;todulus of 5~52 and 42 per .cent coarser than 4 mesh. About 5 per cent of this material is feldspar and the rest sub-angular quartz pebbles. The gravel composes about 25 per cent ' of the product pumped from ~he pit. Most of the gravel is sold lo..: cally at the pit.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

235

Sample T-43 is typical of the sand passing the 1\--inch trommel and shipped as concrete sand. It consists essentially of angular quartz grains with some feldspar. The fineness modulus is 2.49, and 89 per cent is coarser than 48 mesh. It contains only a trace of organic matter. Mortar tensile strength tests of this sand made by the U. S. Bureau of Public Roads gave 127 per cent and 115 per cent of normal at 7 and 28 days, respectively.

Analysis of sand from pit of Georgia Sand and Gravel

Company, Augusta, T-1;.5

Loss on ignition__ ~ __________________________________ Soda (Na20)______________ __ __ ___ ___ __ ___ __ __ ____ ___ Potash (K20) ______ -------- ______ __ __ __ __ ___ _____ ___ Lime (CaO) _________________________________________ Magnesia (MgQ)_ __________ ______ __ _______ __ ___ __ ___ Alumina (Al20 s) "'- __________________________ ~- ___ ___

0 .06 0. 06 0.10 0 . 21 0. 03 2. 30

MFearnrigcaonxoiudse o(xFidee2(0Msn)-O-)-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_--_-_---'--_-_-_-_-_-_--_-_-_-_-_-_-_

0.78 trace

Titanium dioxide (TiO 2) _____________________________ 1. 61

Silica (SiO2) ________________________________________ 94. 97

Rarer earths___________________________ :____________ 0. 00

Total----------------~------------~------------ 100.12
. Augu,sta Silica .Mining Company.-The Augusta Silica Mining Company, in which Messrs. Sommers and Rox of Augusta are interested, has contracted with Richmond County for the sand in the county pit. When visited in June, 1920, preparations were under way for installing a modern washing and screening plant, the sand was to be recovered with a crane having a ~4'-yard clam-shell bucket.
Williams property.-South of the Richmond County pit, Williams (colored) owned 30 acres which is underlain with sand and gravel of unknown extent and thickness.
A well on the Augusta Abattoir property, 800 feet nortli of the county pit, is said to have encountered 80 feet of sand and gravel. None of the excavating by either the county or the Augusta Sand and Gravel Company at "this pit has penetrated the sand and gravel, although a depth of over 30 feet has been reached.
Oates property.-A gravel pit formerly operated by the county is located. on the Oates property on the Savannah road, 2 miles from Augusta. The pit covers about an acre, and the overburden ranges from a few inches to 5 feet of sandy clay near the top of the hill and has a few pebbles in it. The gravel is from 5 to 10 feet thick in the pit, has a sandy clay matrix, and is composed of quartz and feldspar pebb~es up to 3 inches in diameter. Clay stringers occur

236

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GE_ORGIA

through_ the upper part of the gravel; and the pebbles are smaller although thicker; in the lower part. The extent of the deposit is uncertain, hut it is probable that workable gravel underlies 5 acres in this vicinity.. Sample T-1;6 from this property has a fineness modulus of 4.35 and 42 per cent coarser than 4 mesh. The clay content is l3.7 per cent.
Wheless Station.-On the south face of the hill upon which Camp Hancock was located considerable surficial sand occurs as well as coarser, yellowish' sand concentrated in large quantities. in gullies. Sand from these gullies is used for local work in nearby parts of Augusta.
About a third of a mile north of WhelessStation, where gravel for camp construction was stock-piled, a pit was opened in Cretaceous sand for use during the building of the camp. The pit covers a third of an acre, and the sand ranges from 3 to 10 feet thick. It is coarse-grained and slightly .clayey but of excellent quality. On the north side the. sand merges into white and red clay. A loading trap 20 x 20 feet and 10 'feet high has been constructed. Some sand is still used from this pit.
Hepz~bah.-At the pit of Albion Kaolin Company near Hepzibah the following sectton is exposed above the white clay:

, Spotion at pit of .!llbion Kaolin Company, Hepzibah

J

Feet

Sandy, clayey soiL ______ --------_______________________ 1

Itedclay___________________ : _________ ~---------------- 3

Red clay gravel, pebbles from Yz to 2 inches --------------- 2-6

Pure white clayey sand'-----,-- ____ -------------- ___ ------ 1D-12 White clay-~-- ____________________._____________________ 20

An analysis of the white sand above the Clay shiOws 23 per cent

clay.

,



Analysis of ,washed_ white sand from .!llbion Kaolin

Company's pit, Hepzibah

Moisture at 100 0 _______________ ------~-------~---Loss on ignition____________________________________ _

Soda (Na20) ---------------------- -i----- --~-- -------

LPoimtaes

h(C(aKO2)0_)_______-_-_-__-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-

--
~-

-_-_-__-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-

-_

Magnesia (MgO) _________________ ~ _____________ ~ ___ _

AFelurrmicinoaxi(dAel(2F0eg2) _0_3-)

---- __ -- ___ -----
________________

-----------------
________________ _

Manganous oxide (MnO) _______ : __________ ------ ____ _

Titanium dioxide (Ti02)- .. ___ - -'----- ___ '- ------------ _ Silica (SiO 2)--- _-- _---------------------------------

0.00 0.55 0.14 0.21 0.00 0.02 0.61 1. 76 trace
0.1:5 95.92 .

Total------------------------------------------ 99.74

SAND AND GR.AVEL DEPOSITS

237

Some deposits of gravel have been reported from the vicinity of Hepzibah; but none of them are of value except as local road material.
Other deposits .-It is reported that preparations are under way to pump sand from Savannah River below the Center Street bridge with a 6-inch puinp, but when visited in June, 1920, no sand was being produced.
Numerous other deposits of sand and gravel occur in Richmond County, but detailed investigation of them is impossible at this time.

SCHLEY COUNTY

Although thin deposits of surficial sand are common throughout

Schley County, especially in the northern part, and are useful in the

construction of sand-clay roads, very little good sand. is found. Local

supplies for Ellaville and other. towns in the county are generally

obtained from accumulations in small branches or gullies. The larger

streams such as Buck, Richland, Muckalee, and Camper creeks, have

larger amounts along their courses.

.

A few thin deposits of clayey gravel occur throughout the county,

especially on terraces and terrace slopes of the streams. A small

deposit of this kind, about 3 feet. thick, occurs on the Dixie-Overland

Highway, a quarter of a mile east of Putnam.



In the northern half of the county, gullies expose white and yellow

clayey, fine- to medium-grained sands of the Ripley formation; and

in the southern half clayey sands of the Midway formation are ex-

posed in gullies. This sand will afford sources of local supply in the

future where the cover of sandy clay is not excessive.

SCREVEN COUNTY
Screven County, particularly in the southern part, has a thin veneer of fine-grained sand ranging from a few inches. to several feet in thickness. Local thickenings of this surficial sand constitute the rather meager sources of building sand. Such deposits can easily be found near the towns, but the sand is usually too fine-grained to make the best concrete.
Savannah River, forming the east boundary of the county, and Ogeechee River, on the west, have large bars of sand in and along , their courses, and that along Savannah River may, in the near future, be used for commercial purposes. The larger creeks and their tributaries, particularly Brier and Beaverdam creeks, have some sand in

238

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

their courses and during flood periods have .deposited irregular amounts along their banks or bottODJ.S.
Sm~ll amounts of gravel have been noted in road cuts throughout .the county, but none -are believed to_ be of any value.

STEWART COUNTY

Probably the heaviest beds of gravel in Georgia are found in Stewart County on the Chattahoochee River terraces, although neither sand nor gravel is being produced in the county at this time.
Booth property.-Ishmael Booth (colored) owns lot 226 on which is a large amount of gravel. The deposit is 1%: miles northwest of the Seaboard Air Line Railway and 3V2 miles north of Omaha. One deposit, lying on a small hill1,000feet southeast of Booth's house, has at least 4 acres of sandy gravel averaging 7 feet thick and having a cover ranging from 1 to 5 feet. A small pit has been opened in the deposit and the: gravel hauled as far as the Bradley plantation, 3 miles away. Sample T-228, froni this deposit, has a fineness modulus _ of 5.63 and 66 per cent coarser than 4 mesh. The_ clay content is 7 per cent. The largest deposit on the Booth property lies 0.3 mile east of the first deposit and is well exposed in gullies.

Section on Ishmael Booth property, 3V2 miles north

'of Omaha

Sandy .clay soil cover (averaging 3 feet over 6 acres)________ Sandy gravel, pebbles f:tomY2 to 2 inches____ :_ __________ ..:~~
Clay gravel, pebbles from 1 to 2 inches---------~---------Clay gravel, pebbles from~ to 1 inch_____________________

Feet 0-10 8
6 3

The total extent of this deposit is uncertain, but it is probable that an average of 12 feet of gravel with an average cover of 6 feet underli"es at least 10 acres of the property. Sample T-229, representa.tive of this deposit, shows a fineness modulus of 5.88 and 65 per cent coarser than 4 mesh. The clay content is 6.4 per cent. _ Pope property.--In the northern part of lot 352, owned by Warren -pope and adjoining the Booth. property, considerable gravel is exposed. Gullies 300 yards south of Booth's deposit and 100 yards north of Armstrong branch, show at least 10 feet of gravel.

Section on Pope property, lot 352
Feet Gravel, pebbles _from 1 to 3 inches, the upper half sandy and
the lower half clayey~-______________________________ 11 Red, clayey sand ______________________ ~-_______________ 5
Red, clayey gravel, pebbles up to 1 inch___________________ 1-4

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

239

The cover is of sand and clay and in this vicinity ranges from a few inches to 10 feet, the average being about 5 feet. This deposit continues southwestward along Armstrong branch and appears near the top or part way up the enclosing hills on both sides of the stream. Its average thickness is about 10 feet, and the cover may be as great as 30 feet, although the average cover over 40 acres would not exceed 5 feet. The upper part of the gravel is generally sandy, indicating that the original clay matrix has been washed away; at a de~th of from 2 to 5 feet, however, the matrix becomes clay. This deposit is from 1 to J}12 miles north of the Seaboard Air Line Railway.

Battle property.--A pit was formerly operated on the old Battle

plantation 0.8 mile north of the Omaha-Union road and 2.4 miles east

of Omaha. The deposit is 250 yards south of the railroad and about

50 feet above it.

-

Section at gravel pit on old Battle plantation, 2..? miles

east of Omaha

.

Feet

Cover of red, clayey sand_______________________________ _ 5-15

Gravsealn, dp_e_b_b_le_s__f_r._o_m__1__to__2__in__ch_e_s_,__w_i_th~ _le_n_s_e_s__o_f_r_e,d_,__c_l_a_y_ey_ 4-7 Coarse, white sand________________________ ~ ____________ _ 0-3

Coarse, yellow, somewhat clayey sand_________________ - __ _ 3-5

The pit covers 4 acres and has not been worked since about 1900. -Its operation was disconti:rued due to the increasing overburden at
the deposit and also because of the steep grade leading from the main line to the pit. There still appears to be considerable gravel in this' vicinity however. Sample T-227, representative of the gravel in this pit, shows a fineness modulus of 6.19 and 68 per cent coarser than 4 mesh. The clay content is 7.6 per cent. Gullies from 100 to 400 yards south of the pit show from 3 to 7 feet of gravel in irregular streaks, composed mostly of small pebbles and usually with from 3 to 7 feet of overburden.

Fitzgerald property.-A small sand-gravel pit has been opened for road material on the W. A. Fitzgerald property, 1.2 miles south of Omaha, on the Florence road. (Plate XIII-A.) A maximum of 5 feet of clayey sand-gravel is exposed in the pit, which is underlain by clay. The gravel appears to thin out toward the north but may continue a short distance southwest and westward. Just west of the road at this point at the edge of the upper terrace overlooking Chattahoochee River; 4 feet of rather thin clay gravel is exposed in

240

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

a plantation road cut. Nuinerous other shows of gravel, apparently of. small thickness, occur ort the face of the bluff overlooking the river b0ttom and the railroad. Bample T-226, taken from the pit on the Florence road, shows a fineness modulm; of 5..75 and 69 per cent coarser than 4 mesh. The clay. content is 7.1 per cent. Although a large acreage is underlain with gravel on this property; very little appears to exceed 3 or 4 feet in thickness.
:Excellent' .coarse sand; although somewhat clayey, is exposed at the railroad in a gul~ey, 3 miles southwest of Omaha station; The sand is at least 8 feet thick, but it all lies lower than the railroad grade.

Fort Hill.-On the River Road, 0.6 mile northwest of the Omaha depot, gravel shows in roap. cuts on Fort Hill. The gravel appears to be from 3 to 5 feet thick over a maxiinum of 4 acres.
On the same road, 1.2 miles north of Orp.aha, sandy gravel, having
pebbles.from Y2 to 1 inch in diameter, outcrops near the top of a hill
overlooking a small branch to the northward.. The maximum "thickness is about 7 feet, and the extent of the deposit is uncertain.

Kubo property.-On the Lee. Kubo property, 1.6 miles north of

Omaha on the River Road, is- a 1-foot bed of coarse, cobbly gravel

, 1

overlain by from 6 to 8. feet .of fine-pebbled clay gravel, the upper

half o! w;hic]l issand;y. A sandy clay cover increases to a ma?cimum < ori5~feettoward. tb.~ to:P of the_hiii. :Beneath the upper gravel is a

4-foqt streak separated from. the first by 5 feet of sandy clay. Gullies,

_8PO feet west of the road, showed practically no graveL

Hannahatohee Creek.-At Omaha, Ha:b.nahatchee Creek is 30

feet wide and has a large amount of excellent, coarse sand and quartz

gravel well' suited for concrete purposes. The deposit is from 2 to 5

feet .thick in the stream bed and underlain by black marl of the Ripley

for~atiori. The .deposit is said to continue upstream for at least a

mile and down to Chattahoochee River:. Sample T-~30 shows a fine-

ness. modulus of 5.24 and 48 .per cent coarS,t)r than 4 mesh. The deposit

is. especially pro.minent where the Seaboard Air Line Railway crosses

the creek.

'

Sand' streams .-On the Florence-Lumpkin road, 9 miles west of Lurripkin, a remarkable deposit of yellow sand may be seen which has been washed down during heavy storms from a number of deep gullies 1 to 2 miles further east. The sand-stream covers over 15 acres and is said to be as much as 20 feet thick. The sand is me-

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS OF GEORGIA

PLATE Xl"

A . GENERAL VIEW OF SAND AND GRAVEL PIT, LUMBER CITY SAND & GRAVEL CCMPANY, 2 MILES NORTH OF LUMBER CITY, TELFAIR COUNTY

B. GLASS SAND PIT, HINSON SAND M'INES, 1 M.ILE NOR'I\HEAST OF LUMBER CITY, TELFAIR COUNTY

\
I l

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

241

dium-grained and of fairly good quality. During the heavy storm of December, 1919, the sand came down in such volumes as to partly wash out and cover up the road so that it was necessary to move the road some distance northward.
Other deposits .-A belt in central Stewart County is underlain by the -Providence and Cusseta sand members of the Ripley formations. This sand is well exposed in numerous gullies along the Flor- ence road, 8 miles west of Lumpkin. The upper 100 feet of these gullies are a yellowish-white, rather fine-grained sand of little value either in building or in glass making, due to its impurities.
In the eastern part of the county near Lumpkin and Richland, concentrations of sand in small gullies and streams generally afford the local supply for building purposes.

SUMTER COUNTY
Numerous deposits of sand suitable for building purposes occur . in Sumter County, but none have been opened yet on a shipping basis.
Walter Rylander pit.-The Rylander pit is east of the Smithville road, 1.7 miles southwest of Americus, and a quarter mile south of the Seaboard Air Line Railway. The pit covers about an eighth of an acre, and the sand is tea.med or trucked to Americus for local use. It is white to yellow with clay lumps and layers ranging from the thickness of a knife to half an inch and occurring at intervals of from 1 to 5 inches through the sand.

Section of Rylander pit, southwest of .!lmericus
Feet Red, sandy clay exposed in gullies above the pit____________ 10 Reddish-brown and white, fine-grained sand; velvety, and hav-
ing some gritty layers_______________________________ 3 Medium- to coarse-grained, white, and yellow sand with clay
and sandy clay strata, cross-bedded___________________ 10 Brown to red, clayey sand at bottom of pit_ _______________ 1

The overlying clay may be a hindrance in the future development of the pit, although a large quantity of sand exists in this vicinity which can be obtained with very little removal of overburden.
Sample T-fE31 shows a fineness modulus of 2.26 and 80 per cent of the sand coarser than 48 mesh. The organic content factor is insignificant. The sand is made up entirely of sub-angular quartz grams.

242

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

_, Counoil pit~-The Council sand pit is located near the cor~er of Ashby and Poplar streets in Americus. The pit covers about half an acre and is situated .near the head of one of the numerous gullies in this part of the county. Twenty feet of strata are exposed.

S eotion at Counoil pit, .Jf.merious
Feet Soil, dark gray to black________________________________ 1 Yellowish:-<>range, clayey to silty sand__ '-,-- _____________ ~-_ 6-8 Coarse- to medium-grained,. yellowish-ora.nge sand having
small, brown clay balls and irregular streaks of dark, sandyclaY--------~-------------------------------~8-10 Coarse, angular, white to yellow sand having only a small claycontent________________-____________________________ 4-5
The best sand occurs in the lower 4 feet of the pit and this.may be obtained if care is taken in loading. Sample T-232 is a general sample of the lower 14 feet. The fineness modulus of this sample was 1.78, and 64 per cent was coarser than the 48-mesh screen. The sand is reddish-brown and composed of sharp, highly stained quartz grains. The sand has only a faint trace of organic matter.
Sand similar to .that found near Americus is widespread over the county beneath th~ surficial sandy clays. It can be. best observed in gullies, but the usual depth of overburden is- such as to prevent extensive production of the sand in most "Of the localities in which it is found~-
Flint River.-Flint River, which forms the eastern boundary of the county, has great quantities of medium-grained brown sand of fairly good qu~lity. The most favorable place for commercial pro-
.duction is at the Seaboard Aii Line Railway crossing in the southeast
co'rner of the county. Large quantities of fine- to medium-grained, yellow to gray sand
occur in the river swamp, _having a maximum thickness of 10 feet
in the bottom of intermittent _lakes. along the river. Such deposits
are of value only for construction purposes at points close to the river where other supplie sare not available. The results of tests of similar sand from the east side of Flint River in Dooly County are given on page 191.
TALBOT COUNTY
Along the Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic and the Central of Georgia railways, in the squthern part of Talbot County, a number
. of sand pits are in operation, and a great quantity of sand is shipped

SAND .AND GB.AVEL DEPOSITS
annually to all parts of Georgia and also to Alabama and Tennessee. The surface of the sand area is undulating and even slightly hilly. Sand is generally thickest under the hills or ridges of the area, and in the valleys the underlying clay is likely to be exposed or come so close to the surface as to eliminate the sand for commercial purposes. Talbot County produces m0rt> sq,nd thq,n any other C)unty in the state.
PITS ALONG THE CENTRAL OF GEORGIA RAILWAY
J. R. Hime Sand Company .-The pit of the J. R. Rime Sand Company, in charge of 0. A. Nix, is located a mile and a half east of Junction City on the Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic Railway and has been in operation since 1909. The area worked over is about 5 acres, and the maximum height of the face is 22 feet, although the average height is 15 to 16 feet. The sand in the upper 6 to 8 feet is finegrained and gray or yellow but becomes darker and coarser with depth. The lower 8 or 10 feet has the peculiar wavy stratification made by layers of reddish, clayey sand, but these are riot so marked as in the Crawford County pits. The lower 2 to 5 feet of the sand exposed at the face and which extends for at least two feet in places beneath
the floor of the pit, is fairly coarse-grained and white. It is used for
molding and concrete work and has been shipped as far as Nashville, Tenn., for foundry purposes. Sample T-77, representing the lower 4 feet of the deposit, shows a fineness modulus of 1.72 and 60 per cerit coarser than 48 mesh.
The sand is mined by a drag-line excavator with a one-yard Sauerman drag-bucket operated by a 30-horsepower Mondy hoisting en- gine. (Pla,te III-B.) The hoist is placed on a platform built in front of the pit face, t~e spur track passing between the platform and the face, and the drag-bucket is pulled toward the platform and the sand unloaded over a car, the cable passing around a pulley attached to an A-frame which can be easily moved when the sand is removed from one place. The range of the drag is now about 200 feet.
The sand has also been loaded from the face by a Haist Wagon Loading .Machine, requiring 8 horsepower. The device is 15 feet high and has 20 buckets each having a capacity of 3 cubic feet. With this machine two men can easily fill a car in two hours, although with fast working it has been done in 45 minutes. One man is located at a foot of the machine to keep it supplied with sand and close to the face, and the other works in the car keeping the sand distributed as 1t enters.

244

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

a To recover the coarser sand near the base of the pit so that high-
grade washed sand can be put on the market, a 12-hor.sepower cen-
trifugal pump, with .a 6-inch intake; h,as been p.sed which sucks the sand from a pond in the center of tlie pit kept supplied with water. The sand from this pit is sold direct to the .consumer in Atlanta anq other markets along the Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic Railway.

N
t

0

I

Fig. 13. Sand pits along Ce]ltra.l of Georgia and Atlanta, Birmingham

& Atlantic railways near Junction City, Howarq, and Norwich in

Taylor and .Talbot counties.

.

1, Was~er, K~k,patrick .Sand & Cement. Co.; 2, Central of Ge~rgh pit;

3, 8, K1rkpatnck Sand & Cement Co. pit; 4, 5, J. M. Heath pits; 6, L.

J. Downs. pit; 7, Alexander pit;' 9, 10, J. R Rime Sand Co. pit; 11,

Morningstar pit.





fo.bout 2}i miles southeast of Junctiqn .City, a:nd below the present Rime pit, a large pit is located which was formerly worked by the J. R. Hime Sand Compa!lY The sand facie is poorly exposed due to caving, but the material appears to. be similar to the usual run of .sand in this region. Although having a little higher clay content anQ. somewhat finer grains thap. those in the present pit, !rom 10 to 15 feet of sand show up in the pit, and .the faqe is several hundred yards long. Just east of the pit a branch valley c_uts through the



SAND Al.~D GRAVEL DEPOS.ITS

245

sand, and it is possible that testing closer to the valley may disclose coarser stream sand.

Morningstar pit.-Two miles east of Junction City, L. E. Morn. ingstar was preparing to ship sand when visited in June, 1920. At that time grading for the spur track was under way and plans made for the installation of a mining and treatment plant.

Kirkpatrick Sand and Ce7n_ent Company .-The Kirkpatrick

Sand and Cement Company, with offices at Birmingham, Ala., leases

sand land from J. M. Heath, of Talbotton, and operates a pit by col-

ored hi:md labor, half a mile southeast of Junction City on the Atlanta,

Birmingham & Atlantic Railway. The pit has been worked since

1913, and about 5 acres of sand have been removed. The face ranges

from 9 to 15 feet in height over a length of 800 feet, and holes dug

at the bottom of the pit indicate a continuatio~ of the sand downward

for 4 or 5 feet over part of the pit at least, particularly that within 75

to 100 feet of the face. The upper 6 feet of the face is fine-grained,

gray, and a little silty, but it becomes coarser and cleaner in the lower

half of the pit. The lower 5 feet, as exposed at the face, is made up

of distinct wavy strata of reddish clayey sand an inch or two thick,

separated by crusts and layers of white, coarser sand, from 2 to 5 feet

thic_k. The best sand is at the east end of the pit;- The underlying

mottled sandy clay comes to the surface along the railroad at the

southeast end of the worked-out portion of the pit. South of the

railroad the surface gradually rises indicating a considerable thick-

.

I

ness of sand.

Sample T-81, typical of the lower 6 feet of the pit and taken from

the eastern end of the face, is yellowish white, clean, and has~a fine-

ness modulus of 1.38 with 44 per cent retained on the 48-mesh screen.

The organic matter shows a color value of 200.

Surface indications appear favorable for a considerable extent and

thickness of sand along the railroad just west of the Kirkpatrick pit.

Ale:wnder pit.-The Alexander sand pit is located on the Altanta, Birmingham & Atlantic Railway just east of the depot at Junction City, on the property of C. W. Moore of Junction City, leased by Edgar Alexander of Atlanta and managed by J. E. Boswell. The face is from 10 to 12 feet high, the upper 6 feet being a fine-grained, gray sand, and the lower half is stratified, the strata consisting of alternating layers of white, medium-grained sand, 2 inches thick, and one-inch layers of a reddish, somewhat clayey sand. The lower foot

246

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

or two is still coarser, although not so white as that in some of the other pits. Sample T-78 'represents the entire face of the pit anli shows a fii:teness modulus of 1.82 with 63 per cent coarser than the 48-mesh sieve. The organic matter shows a color value of 200. The production averages about _two cars a day, and the cars ar~ loaded by hand labor.
Downd pit.-The L. J. Downs' pit is located on the Atlanta, Birmingham. & .Atlantic Railway, a quarter. of a mile west of Junction City near the western margin of the-sand belt. The pit floor covers almost~two acres, and the face is from 10 to 12 feet high. The upper 6 feet. is a fin~-grained, wind..:blown sand, gray to yellow in color, and the lower half -is stratified with alternate layers of yello"w sand a~d reddish-yellow clayey sand. The lower 4 feet consists of a fairly coarse
a stratified sand of good quality. Below this coarse, sandy clay of
unknown thickness is met with that might be suitable for use as a . coar-se foundry sand. The pit has been in op~ratiori since 1907 and
produces from one to two cars daily, which is shipped mostly to Atlanta.
Morgan property.-W. K. Morgan owns about 100 acres north-
east of the jun,ction of the .Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic Railway and tb:e Central of Gecirgia Railway at Junction City. Some of thi.13 has thick deposits of sand similar to that in the pits in this locality, although no sand is being dug from it. The greatest- thickness lies on a ridge extending approximately north and south about 1,200 feet westof the Central of Georgia Railway tracks. In a. well at the Morgan residence; 21 feet of san:d was passed through, and in a test hole, a quarter of ~ mile northwest of the house,- 25 feet: of sand was said to have been encountered. Sand from the upper 4 or5 feet of the property as shown in a hole -dug in the writer's presence was of a fairly good quality, but below this point the sand becomes somewhat finergrained. The deeper test hole and the well showed this type of sand to continue to within two or three feet of the 1:;ed underlying sandy clay, where it becomes much coarser. A small stream, affording a constant water supply, flows along the western edge of the deposit. .Tests close to the stream showed a coarser sand than that further up on the hill.
PITS ALONG THE CENTRAL OF GEORGIA RAILWAY
Kirkpatrick Sand and Cement C01npany.-A pit of the Kirk-_ patrick Sand and Cement Company is located on the Central of Georgia

SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

247

Railway, two miles west of Howard on a 400-acre tract owned by that . company. The face is from 12 to 40 feet high and about 1,500 feet in length. (Plate XIII-B.) The area already worked covers over 20 acres. The upper part of the face shows 8 feet of fine-grained, grayish-yellow sand, somewhat loamy near the top, and which has been deposited in its present position by the wind. Below the upper 8 feet the sand becomes somewhat coarser and has a corrugated or wavy appearance, due to many strata of .reddjsh-brown clayey sand and has a few clay lumps scattered thkougb it. This stratification has probably been caused by settling of the sand in water either along the shore of an ancient estuary or on the flood-plains of large streams.
The,thickness of the stratified sand ranges in different parts of the pit from 5 to 30 feet. It grades into a red, clayey sand at the bottom of the pit from 1 to 4 feet in thickness, which in.turn may merge into a fine, white sand saiGl to be from 1 to 3 feet thick. None of the white sand was exposed at the time of writer's visit in the spring of 1920.
Veatch1 gives a section of this taken in 1910, in which_he notes the white sand:

Section at Kirkpatrick Sand and Cement Company's pit west of Howard

Surficial sand

_

Feet

~:
3.

t~~~e;to!c:~!i~~~~i~~~-~~~~~-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~==~
Almost white sand showing evidences of water stratifi-

r ~

25

cation___ ------- _________________ -- ____________ }

2. Fecrrluaygi_n_o_u_s__s_a_n_d__co__n_ta_i_n_in__g_a__v_e_r_y__sm__a_l_l _p_e_r_c_e_n_ta_g_e__o_f rr 5
1. White sand____ ----- _______ -- __ ------------------- r

Microscopic examination of sample T-82, representative of the entire~ face of the deposit, and in fact of all the yellow sand throughout the Taylor and Crawford counties sand region, revealed sub-angular grains of slightly stained quartz, becoming angular as they de-. creased in size. A small amount of mica was noted in very fine flakes and also a few fragments of feldspar, generally considerably decomposed. Black sand, largely ilmenite, with a few grains of magnetite, occurs in the sand and usually passes the 65-mesh screen.

1 Veatch, Otto, and Stephenson, L. W., Geology of the Coastal Plain of Georgia: Georgia Geol. Survey, Bull 26, p. 453, 1911.

248

GEOLOGICAL SU-RVEY OF GEORGIA

The thickness of the stratified sand ranges in different parts of the pit from 5 to 30'feet. It grades into a red clayey sand at the bottom of the pit from 1 to 4 feet in thickness, which in turn may merge into a fine, white sand said to be from 1 to 3 feet thick.
The sand is loaded by means of a 50-ton Browning locomotive crane having a ,bucket of one yard capacity. The boom is 38 feet long, and a_ 40-horsepower engine and_ boiler supply the power. A 50-ton car can be loaded in .20 minutes with the crane. The face is sufficiently long and the sand so thick that a thousand- cars can be loaded at each shifting of' the track. Formerly a steam shovel was - used, but due to the height of the face it was found necessary to install the crane.
Washer.-The washer, through which part of the sand is passed to increase its silica percentage for steel foundry purposes, is located a half mile east of the pit. It copsists of 5 worm screws 127'2 feet long, each fed with water from 1;!-i-inch pipes supplied by a 5inch main through which the water is raised at the rate of _150 gallons per minute from an impounded stream, 122 feet below vertically and 2,200 feet distant horizontally._ (Pla~e VII-B.) The sand is allowed to enter,-the washer from the car above. and after befug washed is elevated 28 feet by steel buckets attached to- an endl~ss belt to the car to be filled. Power is supplied by a 15-horsepower Foos kerosene engine, which consumes 10 .gaJlons of the fuel--- daily. About. four
hours are required to load a 40-ton car. From 20 to 35 per cent of silt and other material are removed in the washing. The unwashed sand (see T-82) has 43 per cent coarser than the 48-mesh sieve, and the washed sand (see T-83) has 61 per cent coarser than 48 mesh; the tailings, or silt and clay washed }rom the sand (see T-8.1;.), has 25 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. These tailings appear to be well suited for asphalt paving sand which requires material ranging from 50 to 80 mesh in size. Most of the washed product is shipped to
foundries in Alabama and Tennessee.
-
Central of Georgia Sand_ Company;-The Central of Georgia
Sand Company, owns a sand pit on the Central of Georgia Railway, 17'2 rr.iiles west of Howard. The face shows a maximum height of 30 feet and is about 800 feet long. The sand is, in general, similar to that in the Kirkpatrick pit except that the lines of stratification are almost invisible, the whole face presenting an unbroken mass of grayish-yellow

SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

249

sand, becoming somewhat darker and a little coarser beneath the upper 3 or 4 feet, until the bottom of tbe pit is reached. Here the commercial sand grades into a reddish-brown, clayey sand from 1 to 3 feet thick, beneath which a white sand is said to occur. Sample T-87, representative of the sand in the lower 12 feet of the pit, which is used for molding, has a fineness modulus of 1.70 and 59 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. Sample T-88, typical of the white sand at the east end of the pit, has a fineness modulus of 1.69 and 64 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. A general sample tested at the Georgia School of Technology laboratory gave a concrete strength ratio of 90 and 97 per cent at 7 and 28 days, respectively.
The face is long enough to permit loading 150 cars at one movement
a of the track. The cars are loaded by Williams' crane having a %-
yard bucket. The bucket is equipped with an autQlnatic digging arrangement, and a 40-ton car can 'be easily loaded in 20 minutes. The sand from this pit is shipped pr,incipally to ,foundries in Atlanta and Birmingham, Ala., to marble works for sawing purposes, and to Birmingham for- mortar and concrete aggregate.
CarlY,le property .-Along the Central of Georgia Railway between Paschal and Geneva, heavy beds of fine-grained, gray sand occur of unknown thickness, principally on land owned by T. J. Carlyle.
Other deposits.'-On the Central of Georgia Railway, 2.3 miles west of Howard by road at the 227-mile post; 15 feet of yellow sand similar to that in pits further west are exposed for 800 feet in the cut. One third of a mile further west of this point the land again 'rises, and although so gn~at a thickness of sand is not exposed, yet the possibility of a considerable thickness is suggested.
Thin deposits of gravel usually under 2 feet in thickness are. associated with the contact of the Cretaceous sediments and the Crystalline rocks. These deposits may be found scattered along the Fall Line, just north of the Central of Georgia Railway from a. point just west of Howard, in Taylor County, to the western boundary near Box Spring. .They have little commercial value but are suitable for road building and as concrete aggregate for local construction work. Outcrops and depot3its of this gravel are especially prominent along the Columbus-Talbotton road, but all that were investigated showed less than a foot of gravel. Greater thicknesses, however, may occur in more remote places.
Most of the larger streams of upper Talbot County have deposits

2;:;o

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OJ/ GEORGIA

of -.good sand for concrete aggregate, produced from t4e weathering of the quartzite, .schists.and diQI'ite. Those of the eastern part of the county, including Flint River, have probably larger and better d~posits than elsewhere. None of this type of sand is produced for shipment.
TATTN.ALL COUNTY
No sand pits are operated in Tattnall County. The beds of Alta-
maha River, on the south, and Ohoopee River, on the east, as well
as sand hills bordering Ohoopee River, west of Reidsville, afford almost unlimited sang deposits.
Ohoopee Riv.er.-Large bars on the inside of the numerous meanders of Ohoopee River, ranging from a few hundred square feet to half an acre in extent, occur along the river from its confluence with Altamaha River through most of the county. The sand is- of pure white, medium- to cmirse:grained quartz, with coarser material, and even a few pebbles, at the sharper curves. The bed of the stream and flood deposits along the banks are composed of whiter, but finergrained -sand~ . The sand is suitable for building purpbses and some grades of bottle glass.
Sa11!d-hill deposits.-Along the east side of Ohoopee River, from Battle Creek to the north line of the county,. a remarkable area of pale yeU0w and gray~sand."oceurs in. a belt f-rom one to four miles wide. Th.e surface of the belt is level to gently ro11ing with inclutl.ed "bays" and undrained .depressions and characteristic dunes of aeolian origin. The thickness of the sand ranges from 4 to 25 f~et. At the surface it has been leache.d white by rain and organic acids, but it becomes pale yellow or gray at depths of from a few inches to a foot. The sand is medium-grained in texture, and in places gravelly, with little sign of stratification in the upper 5 to 8 feet at least. The present condition of the sand is probably due to wind action, but the lower part of the dep0sit was probably an. ancient flood-plain deposit of Ohoo.pee River. Samples T-27, T-31, T-32, are very similar to the sand in this belt, and the results of their tests can be used in judging tliis sand. Most of it ir;? suitable for brick mortar and plaster work only. Although tremendous deposits of the sarid exist in the county, at only two points is there a possibility of present commercial exploitation. (1) West of the Georgia Coast & Piedmont Railroad at Reidsville, which place is on the edge of.the belt and the thickness of the sand)s

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

251

probably considerably less than that part closer to the river. (2) The cuts of the Seaboard Air Line Railway, 4 miles west of Collins, do not expose more than a foot o:r two of sand, so that a spur at least half a mile long would be necessary to reach the belt to the south.

TAYLOR COUNTY
Much of Taylor County lying in the Coastal Plain is covered with a thick layer of current- and wind-worked residual sand which is comm~rcially exploited in several large pits along the Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic_Railway and the Central of Georgia Railway. Some gravel also occurs in the county near the Fall Line; these deposits although extensive are generally thin and suitable only for local roadbuilding purposes.
W. C. Harkey Sand Company.-The W. C. Harkey Sand Company (posto:ffj.ce, Mauk) owns 400 acres of sand land on the Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic Railway, a mile south of Norwich. The sand has been removed from over two acres, and the face of the pit ranges from 12 to 18 feet high and is about 800 feet long. The pit has been in operation since 1906. The sand is gr..ay at the top, becom-_ ing yellow a few feet below the surface, but toward the bottom of the pit it gets paler and finally grades into a red sandy clay. No signs of stratification of the sand were noted, as iS common in some other pits in the area. The sand is fine-grained, becoming medium-
grained with a few particlesup to t inch in size in the lower third of
the pit. like all of the sand in this and adjoining counties, it is free from organic matter and has practically no clay, except in the upper foot or so where it is influenced somewhat by the soil and vegetation. Sample T-76, which is an average sample from the entire face, shows a fineness modulus of 1.49 and 46 per cent coarser than 48 mesh.
The freedom from signs of stratification noticed in this pit is somewhat peculiar to the sand on the eastern border of the sand-hill area extending across Middle Georgia. Marked stratification lines in the pits in the central and western parts of the belt point to the fact that those portions may represent the original water-deposited material, and the unstratified belt to the east may have originated later through the action of the wind.
Sand from the Harkey pits is shipped to Atlanta, Manchester, and other pomts on the Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic Railway; some has been shipped to Tate, Ga., for use in sawing marble.

252

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

In the vicinity of Norwich the sand appears to be very thick and extensive, and most of the land adjoining the railroad is held for its sand. Most of the wells show sand from 6 to 30 feet in thicknes~, and some show even greater: amounts, although they generally encounter clay or kaolin strata of differing thicknesses. At a point a third of a mile east of the 227-mile post, 10 feet of sand shows in a cut through a sniall hill. A well 1,000 feet to the south showed 8 feet of sand. At the 227-mile post a maximum of 7 feet of gray sand is underlain by a coarse, reddish-yellow molding sand 2 to 3 feet thick and then byred clay. A small pit has been opened here in the sand, a few feet below the track, apparen~ly for gradiri.g purposes.
Exposures of the red clay beneath the sand show its upper surface to be very undulating which adds some uncertainty in estimating the size of a sand deposit and also seems to emphasize the necessity _of ~areful detailed testing with augers before passing fi:q.al judgment on its extent, even though the surface hidications may be very favorable.

Dry Rid~e.-A small pit is operated by 0. 0. Brown, of Howard, a few hundred yards east of Dry Ridge on the Central of Georgia Railway, ne~r the eastern edge of the sand belt. The face is from 12 to 15 feet high and about 700 feet1ong. The sand is stratified and presents a wavy, corrugated appearance from the bottom of the pit to within 5 feet of the top. The lower two feet of sand is fairly coarse, pale yellow, and of excellent quality. Below this a sandy clay occurs. Sample T-89 represents the general character of this sand, and its examination shows a fineness modulus of 2.22 and 79 per cent of the sand coarser than 48 me$h. Two miles west of Butler on the Central of Georgia Railway considerable s~nd occurs. Mr. Brown has bought 200 acres near here and contemplates opening a sand pit.

Wall' property.-Near the eastern border of the sand area along

the Atlanta, Birmingham. & Atlantic Railway, 13/z miles northwest

of Mauk, H. S. Wall owns 16 acres of land underlain by gray to yel-
low sand. Holes dug with a post-hole digger showed at least i feet

of fine- to medium-grained sand. Mr. Wall claims to have found a

depth of 20 feet of sand on this property by boringwith a soil auger.

Sample T-75, from this deposit, has a fineness modulus of 1.64, and

58 per cent is coarser than 48 mesh.



Along the railroad 2Yz miles southeast of Mauk, cuts show at

least 5 feet of fine-grained sand for a distance of 1,000 feet. Since

the land rises southward from the railroad it is possible that the sand

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

253

reaches a thickness close enough to the railroad to be exploited commercially. Eastward from this point along the railroad, although occassional thin deposits of sand occur, nothing of commercial value is found.

GRAVEL DEPOSITS
Peeble.-On the Central of Georgia Railway at Feeble, 3 miles east of Butler, a small pit has been opened in a somewhat variable deposit of red quartz gravel.

Section in gravel pit at Peeble
Feet Quartz gravel with dark red clay_________________________ 2 Red, clayey sand_ ______________________________________ 1 Gravel, composed of quartz and granular quartzitic pebbles
from Yz to 1 inch in size usually and bound with a dark
red clay___________________________________________ 6 Reddish yellow and red sand_____________________________ 6
The main gravel, as shown in the lower part of the cut, becomes thinner and breaks up into several streaks 150 feet .further east. On the south side of the cut a smaller percentage of pebbles occur i~ the gravel. .The pebbles exposed at the surface are easily broken, and some are even friable, but they are tougher a few feet below. The material appears to be well suited for road making and if washed can_ be used for concrete aggregate.
This deposit continues westward in the general direction of the railroad, and a quarter mile nearer Howard a 400-foot cut exposes a maximum of 4 feet of fairly coarse gravel in a red clay matrix with coarse clayey sand and clay lenses adjoining and merging irregularly into gravel lenses. The cover ranges from 2 to 5 feet and is clay and sand. The gravel appearing along the road may be traced in the fields north
of the road. The pebbles are of granular quartz and range from Y2 inch to 2V2 inches in diameter. In general, the gravel in the vicinity
of Feeble appears to be exceedingly irregular in extent and thickness, often thinning out entirely from one side of a railroad cut to the other, and for this reason a large commercial deposit probably does not 9ccur.
A cut of the Central of Georgia Railway, 2Y2 miles west of Reyn-
olds, shows from 3 to 5 feet of Cretaceous gravel in a clayey sand with white clay beneath. The deposit would make a good road material, but its extent 1s very irregular and uncertain.

234

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

Beechwood Station.-In a small abandoned pit at the side of a spur from the Central of Georgia Railway leading to the sawmill near Beechwood Station the following section was noted:

Section at Beechwood Station

Feet

Fine. clay. gra;yel and sand; pebbles generally under half an -

mch m diameter~-__________________________________

6

Coarse, clayey sand-~-- __________________ ---:- _______ -~___ 6

Fine to medium-clay gravel, pebbles up to 1 inch________ 6

Clay and sand gravel with irregular sand lenses through it__ 6

Sample T-73, representative of this deposit, showed a clay content of 12 per cent and a fineness modulus df 4.76 with 75 per cent of the material coarser than 4 mesh and- none ef the pebbles coarser than 1 inch in diameter.
_Along the main line of the railroad west of the station, several cuts show from 2 to 6 feet of clayey; fin~-pebbled gravel. The outcrop extends for a quarter of a mile west of the station both above and below the railroad_ grade, and indicatiqns of gravel appear in the hill north of the- railroad. The pebbles, in places, become much coarse~, ranging up to 2 inches in diameter and generally suo:.angul.ar. A coarse, slightly clayey sand generally occurs with- the gravel. A company for:rp_erly making bricks near here is said to have pros-pected in the vicinity for g:ravel and also in the bluffs overlooking Flint River 2Yz miles below. Theselioles are filled up _now and no data could be obtained from them.
Five Points .-The contact of the Lower Cretaceous and the Crystalline rocks occurs on the Carsonville road a half mile south of Five Points. Coarse gravel and clay are usually found just above the -schists; A mile and a half sou~h of Five Points, near the top of the hill, at least- 2 feet of coarse gravel sJ:lows in the road cut and also covers the fields 10 feet above the outcrop, althqugh no gravel appears in a well at the house at the t'op of the hill.
Gaultney property.-Near. the junction of the Carsonville road _ and a branch road running east, considerable gravel appears in the
road and fields. Cuts indicate. several 2-foot streaks, although the well at the house, on the E. M. Gaultney property did not show reliable indications of n1ore than a foot or two. Further east, George Greer's well- shows 6 feet of coarse gravel, and several acres_ are covered witli gravel nearby. This well is 7 feet higher than the

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

255

Gaultney well and about 25 feet higher than the first outcrop noted on the Carsonville road south of Five Points.
Gaultney property.-Gravel covers the fields over a considerable .area on theM. T. Gaultney property and on the E. C. Perkins farm further east of the Carsonville road. Gravel, however, does not show up in large amounts in the wells in this vicinity. It is generally reported by well diggers that only from 1 to 2 feet are found close to the surface, and then about 10 to 15 feet below this another streak of the same thickness occurs. On the hill.:side leading down to Patsiliga Creek several streaks of coarse granular quartz gravel from 2 to 2Yz. feet thick outcrop, usually separated by 8 or 10 feet of clay.
Flint River.-West of the river the second bottom is underlain by at least 3 feet of coarse, white, tough quartz sand and gravel. The
a material outcrops on the Wire road (Roberta-Reynolds road) 250 feet
west of the bridge and at the. road forks, quarter of a mile beyond - on the C. H. Neisler plantation, 13 feet of clay was penetrated before
reaching 2Yz feet of quartz gravel, in which the well was stopped. The second series of gravel deposits begin 30 to 35 feet vertically
above the first and outcrop on the "Wire" road where 5 feet of excellent, coarse, clay gravel can be seen in. the road cut on the face of the second river terrace. Below this, 5 feet of poorer clayey gravel occurs.. This deposit is much older than that on the second bottom below and is probably of Satilla age. A well at a negro tenant's house on the Neisler plantation, at the top of the hill, 300 feet west of the outcrop, is said to have penetrated 5 feet of clay and then 10 feet of gravel. The upper half is of very good quality, the pebbles constituting about 60 per cent of the entire mass.
On the "Wire" road, 4 miles west of the river, a 4-foot bed of coarse-pebbled sandy gravel qutcrops along the road for a few hundred feet. Sample T-71, from this locality, shows 95 per cent of the ma terial to be coarser than 4 mesh and the balance clay. The pebbles are coarse and of quartz or fine-grained quartzite, and fairly tough.
Neisler property.-About 3 feet of good sandy gravel shows at the cross roads on the J. H. Neisler property on the Reynolds-Fickling l\1ill road 674: miles northwest of Reynolds. The pebbles are of fairly
durable quartz and quartzite from Yz to 2 inches in diameter mostly.
The gravel appears to cover most of the small hills to the north and occurs on both sides of the branch. Only 2 feet showed in a well just west of the cross roads.

256

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

On the same road 3}1 miles northwest of Reynolds; ne~r a small branch from 2 to 3 feet of clay gravel with coarse sand lenses outcrop al-ong _the road. The material appears to extend 800 feet east of the road. into the fields arid is .-used for road purposes. S;:tmple T-72, from this locality, and typieal of the Fall Line,gravels in Taylor County, has a fineness modulus of 6.50 and 74 per cent coarser than 4 mesh.
A mile and a quarter northwest of Reynolds on the Fickling Mill roa~ 2 to 3feet of gravel outcrops having sub-angular, tough, quartz anc! quartzite pebbles ranging from 1 to 2 inches in size. .West of the road,_"on th,e John Musselwhite P!'Operty, ~ feet of gravel appears in a gully on the hill-side. The well at the house shows 10 feet of yellow sand beneath 4 feet of good graveL A small pit for road_ gravel has been opened along the road. East of the road on the J. Hill property, gravel caps the hills from a third to a quarter. mile fro:in the road. A good concrete sand deposit covering from 10 to 15 acr:~s occlirs on the Hill property near the road apparently 8 to 10 feet thick.
Reynolds-.Maaon Highway.-Three miles from Reynolds 3 to 4 feet of quarf.z gravel, whose pebbles range from 1 to 2 inches and having a sandy clay matrix may be seen in the road cut and in the fields on either side. Although gravel occurs il_l a well/ 17 feet below
th~ ,surface_. 700 feet west of the road, the cover is 'too thiClc. East of
the road along the branch the grayel may be utilized; however. A-81Il11ll sand pit has been opened along the road 472 miles north
of. Reynolds showjng 5 feet of coarse (~ inch and smaller) sand used in road construction and for other purposes. The sand. is of .excellent quality, and the deposit appears to cover several acres on either siqeof the road.
. ]Jo~r ~les north of Reynolds, at the F. M. Griffith place, 2 feet of vV-b:ite quartz gravel outcrops in the road, and a 4-foot bed appears ina well at the house 14 feet below the surface. At Lockett the same
bed persists, and i~ w~lls along the road from 2 to 5 feet of white gravel
are found.
Regarding the numerous indications of gravel in Taylor County,
with the possible exception of that near Beechwood, it may be said that none of those examined by the writer warranted e~tenstve commercial development on account of their distance from transporta-
tion and their small thickness and irreglilarity. They should serve
. as excellent local sources for road building material, and it is possible

.SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS OF GEORGIA

PLATE XVI

A. SM:.ALL SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSIT, MOUNTAIN CREEK, NEAR ALTO, BANKS COUNTY

B. SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSIT, PROCTER CREEK, 3 MILES SOUTH O'F ACWORTH ON MARIETTA ROAD, COBB COUNTY

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

257

that using them as a guide, more detailed prospecting may lead to the

discovery of commercial deposits close to railroads. The most favorable place for tlie accumulation of sucli deposits should be ea~t of the intersection of Flint River and the F~n' Li~e, but eve'n in tP.at .vicinity

no large, extensive deposits were noted.



TELF.AlR COUNTY

~urficial sand from one to two feet thick covers a considerable

part of Telfair County, particularly near the streams; and beneath

it the mottled, feldspathic sands and clays of the Altarp.a;ha forma-

tion are found. Commercial sand is produced along Little Ocmulgee

River above Lumber City.

Lumber City Sand and Concrete Company.-On the Southern

Railway, about 2 miles northwest of Lumber City, a pit has been

opened on the property of J. T. Wilbanks, lot 223, and a very good

quality of concrete sand is shipped to. almost every part of the state.

(Plate XV-A.)

,

.

.

Section at pit of Lumber City Sand and Concrete Company, Lumber City
SoiL _____________________ _:____________________________ Fe2et Fine sand to clayey sand________________________________ 2-4 Coarse sand, with pebbles up to %inch. The coarser sand
is in lenses which predominate and are separated by streaks of fine-grained, clayey sand. Cross-bedding of the coarser sand is prominent_ ____ ----.,.-- ___________ ~6-10
The pit covers a little less than an acre and is situated 15 feet above Little Ocmulgee River (Gum Swa:ri).p Creek), and the bed of the pit is about the same distance below the Southern Railway grade. A spur 300 feet long leads down into the pit which is quite' free from water.
The sand from this pit is of high quality and excellently suited for concrete purposes. Sample T-15 .11, representative of the sand, has a fineness modulus of 2.64 and 78 per cent is retained on 48 mesh. The coarse grains are mostly of clean, well-rounded or su~angular quartz and probably 5. per cent feldspar; a little ilmenite -occurs in fine grains. The color is yellowish-white to pale yellow. Practically no organic matter occurs in the sand. Compressive strength tests
a made of this sand for the Moultrie Construction Company at the
Georgia School of Technology showed strength of 2,950 pounds per square inch at the end of 7 days, or 110 per cent of normal.

258

GEOLOGI,CAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

Within the bed of Little Ocmulgee River, near tJ:ps pit, are large

deposits of excellent gravel capab1e of yielding probably hundreds of

?arloads and which could be obtained with little difficulty. Near the

c'urves in this stream above and .below this point similar gravel is

abundant.

Walker property.-A gravel deposit occurs on the property of
H. G. Walk:er, less than a quarter of a mile west of the house and the
Lumbe~ City-Towns road, and about 27'2 miles west of Lumber City.
An area of between 2 and 3 acres shows a sandy gravel composed of
rounded and sub-angular tough quart~ pebbles, ranging from 34' to 1 inch in size. The fineness modulus~. ~s determined from sample

T-208, is 5.72. The deposit lies about 25 feet above and a little to.

the south of a small branch. A small pit shows. the deposit near it

to, be from 2 to 272 feet thick and underlain. by yellowish-red clay. The gravel was formerly screened in a rotary scre~n through 34'-mch

mesh and hauled to Lumber City and other points: The workable

gravel is restricted to about an acre and a half. The deposit is a little

less than a mile south of the Southern. Railway.

Oamulgee River.-The bars and bed of Ocmulgee River, which

forms the southern boundary of the county, have inexhaustible de-

posits of excellent sand for concrete purposes. The barf? occur on the

points of the'river curves and u.sually are h~lf an acre or less in extent.

The remoteness of all of these deposits from rail transportation, except .at the Southern Hailway crossing east of Lumber City, will re-
quire-the use of -boats or barges-in case any of the .river ~and is exploited

cqmmer~ially.

_

Sample 'i'-207, obtained from the bed of the river at Lampkiri's

Old Field Ferry a short distance from China Hill, in the extreme south-

ern part of the county, shows a fineness modulus of 3.15 and practic-

ally none of it finer than 48 mesh. The color v:al11e _of the organic

matter is 50. The sand is mostly angular, iron-stained quartz and

some mica, feldspar, and ilmenite, and is typical of the river deposits.

Other deposits .-Along Sugar Creek, particularly where the

Lumber City-Towns road crosses it, a thick deposit of white, medium-

grained sand is found, averaging 10 to 12 feet in thickness. The de-

posit-is parti9ularly heavy on the sou.th~ast side of the creek and forms

low sand .hills, with sharp scarps in places, overlooking the creek.

-

-

TERRELL COUNTY

';['he surface of Terre11 County consists principally of red clay or

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

259

sandy clay, and deposits of any kind of sand are small, or of poor quality, and restricted to the sides and beds of the larger streams.
Sasser.-Two and a half miles southeast of Sasser, surficial, finegrained sand occurs in somewhat extensive. beds, but only from two to three feet thick. The sand is suitable for local road use.
Brantley Creek.-East of 'Brantley Creek, on the Sasser-Herod road, about seven miles from Dawson, ten feet of red sandy clay overlie at least six feet of fine-grained white sand, sufficiently pure for glass purposes, but at present of no value except for local uses, due to its inaccessibility and the thick overburden. It is possible that a search along this and other creeks in the county may disclose deposits of white sand with less overburden and nearer a railroad.
Ichawaynochaway Creek.-Ye1low, medium-grained sand, of Eocene age, underlies red clay and red sandy clay east of Ichawaynochaway Creek. Due to a thick overburden of from 8 to 12 feet the sand at this point is of no commercial value, but is used for local purposes. It is probable, however, that at other places, where this or other streams have worn down to the level of the coarse sand, good deposits may be found. The most suitable places to search for such sand would be on the slopes of the larger stream valleys.
In the northwest part of the county, along both sides of Ichawaynochaway and Turkey creeks, extending south from Macedonia Church for about 3 miles, surficial deposits of very pale yellow, fine-grained sand occurs. The largest deposit lies about half a mile southeast of Macedonia Church on the west side of Turkey Creek. These deposits are usually less than 5 feet thick, and their distl\nce from rail transportation prevents their utilization for any but lo<?al purposes.
Parrott.-In the, vicinity of Parrott, in the northwest part of the county, some medium-grained sand occurs. A sample of that from the B. F. Morgan property was a pale orange and composed of uniform, medium-grained quartz. The deposit covers several acres and is said to be over 7 feet thick.
THOMAS COUNTY
Light sandy .clay, or sand, covers most of Thomas County, but is underlain at depths of from a few inches to several feet by clay and clayey sand.
Thomasville.-..No large sand deposits occur close to Thomasville. Sand for local use is hauled from the east side of Ocklocknee River

2,60

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

~

.> , ;

l .I

I

l



?D. the C~iro ;rqadJ, 4Y2 rpil~s :west of TJ:;l;oDf~YP!,<? w~ere a sm~~l pjt

s4P.:Wt! :t4e foJ+o.;wip.g S<7.ctipp.:

.

.

Section of pit, 472 miles west Qf ThqJ,nq~vill(j, R'??' th,r:-
Cairo road

Feet S9il and lo~rr;tY sand ___________________________________ _ 2 Fme, gray, silty sand___________________________________ _ 3

Coarse; clayey sand containing strata of reddish-brown, sandy

clay 1 to 2 inches thick and occurring .every 4 or 5 inches 4

.

'.,

1



' . .

.

'

~-~~ ...

The strata in ~he lower part of the pit are wavy indicating a prob-

able fluviatile origin of the sand. The belt, of which this deposit

forms a part, ranges from 300 to 1,500 feet in width and extends along



. ,.,,

1f1

c

Ochlocknee River throughoJit the county. It is not, however, c6n-

'fined to the east sid~ o(th~, riv~~' a~ is so umver:sally gener~l in South

Georgia, lmt is I?J.Ore genera~ly Joulld on the }Ve~t 'sid~ of Oci4opkpee

River and on both sides of Little Ocklocknee Rivet, and to a lesser
ext-ent along Barnitt Qreek,' which forms the ~~stern boundary of

the county. In general, sam:t of this typ(O) is from 8 to 15 feet thick,

gradually decreasing in thickness furtper from the river, and having

a rather larg'e proportion of clay. .

Ooklooknee River.-Beautiful, clean, white sand, from fine- to

coarse-grairi.ed, .occurs in bars from an eighth of ail. acre to an acre in

extent''iri. the bed.of Ocldocknee ;River throughout most of its course in the county. Sand wa;s for~erly pumped from the river bed to rail-

road cars at the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad crossing. The railroad

. bridge here is about, 25 feet above: the stream, so that considerable

power would be required to raise the sand.

. Sand, from a half-acre bar has been successfUlly used in the con-

struction of the bridge over the river on the Thomasville-Meigs road.

(Plate XIV-B.) Sample T-214, from this deposit, shows a fineness

modulus of 2.06 and 75 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. Tlle organic

matter color .value is 125. .Tensile strength tests of mortar made
from this sand; obtained i~' the riv~r b~d 4oo feet north of the bridge

on the Meigs road, by the Pittsburg Testing Labo;ratory for :;J;'J;t,omas
County, show~d 135 per cent of that made from norrnal ~an(il in .i <;lays,

and 115 per cent of normal in .28 days.

The river s;:tnd has the peculia;r quality of "si:nging" O;J;' '':vyhistling"

when walked over, especially if the heels are dragged or shu.ffied. Sim-



'~

..

. '



\

j

SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSI1'S

261

ilar sands were noted along Allapaha River, in Echols County, and on Canoochee River, west of Groveland, by R. M. Harper. 1
Williams pit.-Sand, one mile west of Ocklocknee River,. on the land owned by Homer Williams, is mined by J. W. Dillon, of Thomasville. (Plate XIV-A.) The pit covers about 2}2 acres, and considerable sand is shipped to Waycross, Bainbridge, and other points in South Georgia. The pit contains strata of good, clean, coarse sand near the bottom, but the sand in the upper part is somewhat silty and has a large clay content. The section is as follows:

Section of Williams pit, one mile west of Ocklocknee River

Feet Sandy and silty, dark gray soiL ______ . ___________________ 1-2

Yellow, silty sand used for plaster mortar__________________ 5-6

Coarse>- to medium-grained, clayey sand with streaks of brown

clay or sandy clay, 1 to 3 inches thick every 4 to 6 inches.

Pnuebmbelreosuusptotwoar-d{6

t

inch occur thro he bottom_____

ugh it, becoming more -~--- _____________ ._

5

Goarse, gritty quartz sand, pebbles up to %' inch, some i

and '!.-2 inch, and a few 1 inch in diameter, mostly angu-

lar. Red and brown clayey strata occur. Streaks of

twhhisitest,remaked_i_u_m_-_g_r_a_in_e_d__s_a_n_d_.___W__a_te_r__l_e_v_el__a_t_b__o_tt_o_m___o_f 4

The sand is shoveled into wheelbarrows which are wheeled to the car. The men are paid so n::i.uch a ton, and one man is frequently able to loa? an entire car of 30 to 35 tons in a day.
Sample T-217 represents the general character of the sand from 6 to 12 feet below the surface. This sample has a fineness modulus of ~.18, and 68 per cent is coarser than 48 mesh. It contains only a trace of organic matter. Tensile strength tests of mortar made from this sand by the Pittsburg Testing Laboratory, and furnished by Mr. Frank Mitchell, showed a. strength of 11-2 and 99 per cent at 7 and 28 days, respectively. '
North of the railroad 4 feet of sand similar to that on the south side is exposed in the cut for several hundred yards. This land is owned by W. B. Devley. The deposit in which this pit is located extends along the west si,de of Ochlocknee River in a belt 1,000 to 2,000 feet wide beginning about 1,000 feet back from the river, from the vicinity of Chastain, in the northern part of the county, to Pine Branch, about 2 miles below the Thomasville-Meigs road.

1 Personal communication.

262

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

North of the Thomasville-Meigs road, 400 yards west of Ocklocknee River, a small pit has been opened and -shows 6 fee~ of finegrained sand, similar to the sand in the upper part of the Williams pit, indicating the extension of the deposit southward along the river.
The white sand in bars, and in the bed' of Ochlocknee River, is sufficiently pure for the manufaCture of glass, but it would berather diffi-
cult to get it to a railroad except that near the Atlantic Coast Line
-crossings, northwest and west of Thomasville. The most extensive deposit of white sand occurs beneath the upper railroad crossing (Albany branch). The stream bed is almost a _quarter of a mile wide here at low water and is covered with small dunes of fine-grained sand (T-216) of dazzling whiteness. In the present.. stream channel the sand is somewhat coarser (T-214) but almost as white as t-hat in the bars. An analysis of this sand gave the following results:

.!lnalysis of sand from Ocklocknee River bed, southwest of Williams Station, Thomas County, T-214
Ferric oxide (Fe20 g) ___ .:: ________________.______ -~_____ 0. 60 Silica (SiO 2) _____ - ________ --- --- ___ ~--- ____ ---- _____ 99 .40

White sand 'Qars continue, with interruptions, down the river to Pine Park wagon bridge; two miles below the crossing of the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad running to Bainbridge. At _the lower bridge the river is 3.5 feet wide and from 1 to 3 feet in depth (low water) and has a moderately rapid rate of flow. 'The sand in.the river bed and in the bars ranges from 2 to 5 feet in depth occupying bars from an eighth of an acre to an acre in extent and is underlain by blue clay and san.dy clay.
West of the river just north of Pine Park bridge, a fine-grained yellow and white stratified sand, 10 feet thick, occurs.

, TIFT .COUNTY

The surface of Tift County consists of a light, clayey sand with numerou's iron oxide pebbles. Clays and clayey sand, having some

pebbly layers, underlie the surface to a qepth of 75 or 80 feet, and

beneath these the AlUm. Bluff' formation occurs.

.

-

.

Tifton.-Little sand of value, eve!l for local purposes is found

near Tifton. A small pit is worked on- the Unionville road, one mile

south of Tifton, but the sand here is fine-grained and loamy.

Little River.-The usual fluvial sand hills parallel the course of

Little River through the county and range from 500 feet to a mile

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

263

in width. The belt is widest just north of the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad crossing, 3 miles west of Tifton, and to the north of Five Bridges. The topography of the belt at this point is gently -rolling with some undrained depressions in it. . Two cuts on . the railroad about 900 feet apart show about 10 feet of yellowish, fine-grained, clean sand, each having a length of 300 feet. The sand appears to thicken to the north, and the average depth over 300 or 400 acres would be about 8 to 10 feet. The most suitable place for a spur is 1 :rllile back from the railroad trestle, although the thickness of the sand would probably limit its operation to hand labor. The sand is somewhat poorer than that on Seventeenmile Creek near Douglas (see T-23/t, p. 179).
At the Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic Railway crossing of Little River near Overstreet bridge, 5~ miles west of Tifton, a cut shows. 600 feet of fine-grained, loamy sand, 10 feet thick. The sides. of the cut support vegetation and the sand is of poor quality, although suitable for unimportant plaster or _brick mortar work or for sand-clay roads.
The Bureau of Soils gives the following mechanical analyses of the general type of sand 1 occurring along the streams:

Mechanical analyses of sand-hill

Number Description
.

Medi-

Very

Fine Coarse um Fine fine Silt

gravel. sand sand sand sand

Clay

203f';' ____ Soil____________ 1.0 . 20.4 28.4 38.9 6.0 3.3 2.0 20368_ -- SubsoiL ________ 1.5 21.6 27.0 39.5 5.5 2.4 2.8

A few isolated areas of coarse, light gray to white quartz sand. with 12 to 15 per cent silt and clay occur in the county, capping rela- tively high ridges or hills to a depth of 3 or 4 feet. One area occurs: on the Georgia Southern & Florida Railway (Ashburn-Tifton road)
4 miles north of Tifton and a smaller area is found 131 miles south-
east of this on the Zion Hill church road.
1 Soil Survey of Tift County, Ga., U.S. Dept. A.gr., p. 16, 1910.

: r t. u r. _



~ - .. :. )" .

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

-~.' "'-qrrn-.~ ,.<:;{ 1 ... 1 . :
TOOl\iiJ:ts COUNTY

Much ~and occlirs east', of Peridleton Creek in. Tdombs Coutity,

but rlO sand or gravel has been COinJJ+ercially explofted.

tfj6::i;.:::..!A s&all branch in the ~estern paft d tb.~- to~n has clfi_

saha1 ' :J . f."~"

. ~ " . -:

.

.. ~

\

L~.

cient

of fairly good quality for local uses.


East

' '
of

.
Lyons,

wh.e- r" , ~

Railway Creek, a "~ , t --r"'"'""1!. ''\ t 't~.'

, :~s~r1.., .. ....

..~ ~: -"~i-::: r--- ~ ;, :

tlie Cenihtl Of Georgia.

crosses Pendleton

, .'"
belt of

s~~~. i~ f~v;?r~?Jl.-~J.tu~t~(;t f~r _t~~*spo~~~~i?~ j~s~,.~,~st.}f ~~e cr~~k; .-:!.,'

~

'\d

r::'l'''-~-'>:"'..

~'_"t''~"-t"\'

"f\1 ...... , ...... ~-:'

_ ,, . ,-.~I>:

.~

The cut sho~s 6' f~et of fiffe- to. ili~aium'-gr~inea, gray to yellow sand

....

~--."

, , , , ..

l"l'"'

....

"J~,.~ f "'/!' .

~--:

~- :~"'!



.-

.

;..;~~ ..

for about 700 feet. Tliis sanCI belt contimies east of Pendleton Creek

It for praeti6ailly its entire colirs~ thtou'gh tli~ c8tifliy. I~ espedaliy

prominent where the Lyons-Cobbtown and Lyons-C~iiins road~

cross it.

i.,""i~c,. ,.

.~~,L-,,.

1

~-

'ili

.. ~ :! -.__

,.,

,::iS:.,.,~ -~ .~ ~



~

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,TI'idalia.-S'and for use in Vidalia is ootained from the north side

-~ \ 1-..

(:.~ "~t i

.. ~~-~ ~~ {~;i:'~t[ \1

.J <'4:..tf

' :t\;it(. t'-:::'HJ $ .{"'U."?

of SWift CreeK: on the Soperton road, 2 illiles from town. . ~,., 1' . ,., .:

...... '!1" -~.'['\

' ... \~;~ . ,'": . . .,

r

;, ~ ~-4-

r :~

-l \.0\o;

} '~~-t t !~.-,

The sand

.!

'

'

is ftorii 4 to 8 feet' deep over a half acre here, and is fine-grained and

y~llo~. Sample T-~66 ha~ a firie~ess modulcts Of 1.29 and 38 per

cent coarser than 48 mesh.
A nilillH~r of tn"i'n' gritvel 'depo~its, rarely more than a foot thick
and usually of small exte~t, occm in the county, but their commercial

utilization is not possible at the yresent time.

& '

~

TREUTLEN COUNTY

(

No sand or gravel depo~its of commercial value occur in Treutlen

County, ~ithtiugh plenty of ~~:&d f~~ local use is fou~d.

Soperton.-Most of the local san~ supply of Soperton is obtained

from a small deposit of fine-grained sand, 1 mile north of the town on

the Norristown road. On this road, 2 miles north of Soperton, is a s~all deposit of much better sand, along and in a branch 300 feet

south of the old tram-road crossing, between the public road and the

tram;..road.

East of Red Bluff Creek, 3;!/z miles from Soperton on the Dublin

- road, is a narrow belt of fine-grai,ned "sand.

.

Ocm;iee River, forming the southwest boundary of th~ county, has

,haslarge qwi:tititi~s of excellent med_,illn- and coatse-grained sand that been successfully used at Dublip. and Mt. VernoR.

Thin, deposits of gravel and coarse sand are scattered throughout

the county generally at the top of small hills, but their thickness rarely

exceeds a foot, and their exten_t is small.

SAND AND GR.A~EL DEPOSITS

265

TURNER COUNTY

The surface of Turner County is sandy, but is u:o.derl;:tin by clay at slight depths, and by limestone an,d'clays of the Al~ Bluff, Chat-

tahoochee, and Ocala formations in turn, at greater depths.

Very little sand of even slight commercial value occurs in the

county. Most of the sand used in the towns is shipped in or obtained

from small local accumulation along the roads, which is lisually of inferior

quality. Northeast of Deep Creek, 5 miles east of Ashburn at Geog-

hagan bridge on the Rebecca road, an area of medium-grained, gray

sand about 5 feet thick was noted. It apparently is part of a more

or less continuous belt paralleling the creek from the vicinity of Worth

,to its confluence with Allapaha River. Sand of this character occurs

east of Little River and Daniel Creek in interrupted strips from 500

to 800 feet wide, and also in isolated areas of a few acres, especially

in the western part of the county. Due to a higher loam content,

this sand is usually somewhat inferior to that east of Allapaha River,

which partly bounds the county on tlfe east.



TWIGGS COUNTY

No commercial sand or gravel is produced in Twiggs County.

Big Sandy Creek.-Considerable coarse, gray sand, well suited

for concrete purposes, occurs along Big Sandy Creek in the northern

part of the county, both in the bed and on the banks a few hundred

feet back from the stream.

-

"

Throughout most of the county the hills are capped with a bright

red, clayey sand ranging from 5 to 50 feet thick and forming part of

the Claiborne group. In a gulley on the McCrary property, 2 miles

northeast of Jeffersonville, 8 to 10 feet of the red sand overlies 10 feet

of yellow, medium-grained quartz sand. Similar occurrences of sand

are frequent in the county, but its value is small due to lack of trans-

portation for most of it, and the heavy cover of clayey sand which

generally overlies it. Along the streams, however, this sand may be
or exposed at points convenient for extensive mining at least for use

in road building or in concrete work.

WARE CO-UNTY
No sand is produced in Ware County for shipment, although large deposits occur in the bed of Satilla River and along Seventeenri:Ule Creek. Local supplies for Waycross generally come from the deposits in Pierce County, north of Satilla River.

266

GEOLOGIC4.L SURVEY OF GEORGIA

SatilZa River.-In the_ bed of Satilla River along most of its course in Ware_ County, and particularly along that part of it northeast of WaycrO$S, which forms a boundary of the county, white, mediumto coarse-grained sand, suitable for either COIJ:Crete or the poorer grades of glass, occurs. The Atlantic Coast Line Railroad crosses the river 272 miles northeast of Waycnoss. The sand in the river bars, which are usually along the right bank, is somewhat finer-grained than the sand in the river- channel proper. The niain difficulty in recovering the sand would be in raising it from the river to the railroad, a distance of '25 feet. Unless the demand was large and steady, it is doubtful whether it would pay to install the necessary equipment to prop- erly recover the sand.
-Analysis of sand _from bed o/ Satilla River at .!ltlanti__c Coast Line Railroad bridge, northeast of Waycross Moistur~ at. ~00 q_________________________________ _ 0.04
Loss on Igmtwn______________________ ----- __._______ _ 0.35 Lime (CaO) _______________________________ ~- _______ _ 0.00 Magnesia (MgO) ________ --:- -~- _____________ --- _____ _ 0.06 Alumina (AbO a) __ ---------------------------------- 0.51 Ferric oxide (FezO ;r),..,.. -~ ________ -----~- --------------- - 0.72 Titanium dioxide (Ti02) ______ ---------- __ -----~-- ___' trace Silica- (SiOz) ___ - -- _---------------"---- -------------- 97.91
Sand.:.hill deposits occur qn both sid~s of Satilla: River, westward froth Waltertown to the Coffee Cotmty li:i:te. The sand is medium-
. grained, yellow and. has practically- no clay. It ranges in thickness
frmn 10 to 20 feet, and continuous areas of ,several hu:ridred acres are conimon. The most -extensive deposit lies just northwest of Waltertown south .of the river and extends westward for 2~ miles. _ The railroad approaches to :within half a mile of the easttfr]l end of the deposit. North of the river, oppos!te the deposit just l'nentioned, a_ less extensive deposit occurs, but more favorably situated with respect to the railroad. This deposit was formerly worked just _over the line to the east, in.Pierce County. Southwest of the rivet along
the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad and 172 miles nortJ:least of 'Way-
cross, a small deposit of fine-grained, yellow sand occurs.-
Other deposits.-.Large deposits of yellow sand of the fluVial
, bi!l type also occur east of Seventeenmile Creek from the Coffee County
line to its junction with Satilla River; and -~ast of Hog Creek, in the northwest part of the county, and Little Hurricane Creek in the northeast part of the county. Distance from transportation will prevent th.e utilization of these deposits for some- -time.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

267

WASHINGTON COUNTY
Surficial gray sands and variegated sandy clays and sands of the Altamaha formation cover most of Washington County. No commercial deposits of sand or gravel are exploited in the county, nor are there any deposits of either material of any size conveniently suited with respect to transportation.
On the Augusta Southern Railroad, just south of Warthen, 4 feet of fine-grained loamy sand occurs; and four miles beyond, similar sand, of little value and not over 5 feet thick, occurs.
Big Buffalo Creek in the westeJn part of the county, especially just south of the Linton-Sandersville road, has bars of more than 1,000 square feet of brown, coarse-grained sand. This sand contains from 1b to 15 . per cent of feldspar, limonite, schist fragments, and some gravel, but it is well suited for concrete aggregate.
Gray to white, fine-grained sand occupies large areas along the Linton-Deepstep road near Harmony Church, Pleasant Grove school and a few miles to the south. The sand is apparently part of .the Fall Line belt so prominent in Crawford and Taylor counties and
reaches a depth of from 3 to 10 feet in places.
Sand of fair quality is found in the beds of Ogeechee, Ohoopee, and Oconee rivers, but its recovery is out of the question at this time.

WAYNE COUNTY
The southeast part of Wayne County is covered with sand and underlain at depths of from a few inches to several feet by clay and clayey sands, and the rest of the county consists of the usual surficial sands and variegated clays of the Altamaha formation. No commercial sand pits are operated in the county. Aside from the surficial deposits which are almost universal, Altamaha River, bordering tb.e county on the northeast, and Satilla River on the southeast, afford the bes~ po~ential sources of sand.
Satilla River.-Bars of white, medium-grained sand, ranging from an eighth acre to an -acre in extent occur in Satilla River. The bars are prominent near the bridge on the Waycross-(Lulaton) Brunswick road, 2 miles east of Lulaton. On either bank, similar sand, but somewhat finer, from 8 to 15 feet thick, occurs. Sand hills of considerable extent, but of much less prominence than in Ware and Douglas counties, are also found on both sides of the river at this point, particularly

268

GEoioG:tbAi suiiviCi bF GEoRGIA

;

on the east side. P~o:;&-!h'ity to the .AWln:tic Coast Line Railroad

renders the cornmerc~al development of this sand possible.

Altatnaha River.-Gray and yellow silificial and residual sand
r:;tngilig frdm 2 to 10: feet in thickness borders Aitarria'ha River in
Wityne County, particWarly ea~t of Jessup, where acc~M' to them from
the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad may be naa. Depos1ts also occur
near _Moi:ilit P1easa:dt, o'n tlie Southern Railway. In the s'outhern
or p3:rt of the county, h~av}r b~Cls; gray, fifie-gtamea s'and-ate founa near
Waynesville on the -Athibtic Coast Lirie Railroad.
W-EBSTER COUNTY

The topography of most of Webster County is hilly and broken
except for a flw l~vel i:fe~s between the larger streams. The Provi:
deuce sand member Of the Ripley forrriatio# iS expos~d in the extreme
northwtist part df tn(( ccftin'ty arid sHould afforu supplies of fairly good

sand were trans:PO'itation: closer. Resiaual sands and clays generally

cover most of th:e sfuface, although no corrunercial sand is produced in

the county. A ilUirlb&r of areas in the. county are tinderlain by coarse

sa:na sand derived from the

Iefises ~ the Midway arid Wilcox forma-

tions, and these a-fe: soinetiines well exposed in gullies. Although the

sall.d.. is generally o'f fair qJiality' the cover' consisting usually of red,

clayey sand, ~s usually considerable, and will prevent extensive de-

velopment of the deposits.

~ELER. COUNTY
The surface of Whe~l~r County is usually cove;red with sand from
a few inches to several feet in depth. The mottled sands and clays of the Altamaha formation are exposed frequently beneath the gray surficial sands, and along the larger -streams, exposures of sandstone of Alum Bluff age occur. The county is abundantly supplied with commercial glass and building sand alo~g Little Ocmulgee River op- posite Lumber City and at other points.
Darcy property..-About 4 miles north~as-t of Alamo, and a mile and a_ half :o.ortl;l of the Seaboard Air Line Railway, a deposit .of good gravel, about 15 acres .in ~xtent, occur:s capping a sma11--hil.I. The de-
posit was worked in i916..:HH7 by Mr. Kennedy, and. about 10 car-
loads of gravel were shipped to Alamo over a tram-road constructed from the pit to the Seaboard Ai'r Line Raijway 'for use in buildillg the Wheeler County courthouse. The deposit has been well prospected

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

269

with many pits, and most of them show a good thickness of clayey sand gravel, composed of rounded and sub-angular quartz pebbles, from 31( to 4 inches in diameter, 16 per cent of which exceed.s 131( inches in size. The gravel contains about 20 per cent sand a;nd 5 per Gent clay.

General section of gravel deposit northeast of Alamo
Feet Sand and sandy claY------------~-~--------------------- 1-2 SandygraveL__________________________________________ 2 Sand and sandy graveL _________________________________ 1-2
Sandy clay graveL______________________________________ 3-6
The pebbles are tough and do not show any signs of decay. The gravel in the pits generally stands unsupported and is yellow to yellowish-brown. Water is encountered at about 12 feet beneath the surface. The western part of the deposit becomes very clayey, and the marginal pits show an increase of clay and a decrease in the thickness of the gravel. A small frame building stands near the deposit, and parts of screening equipment may be seen nearby. The tram grade is still in fairly good condition, but the steel has been taken up and most of the ties have rotted.
Little Ocmulgee River (Gum Swamp Creek).-Exceptionally large deposits of sand occur north of Little Ocmulgee River, f~om 100 to 1,000 feet back from the stream, and extend almost without interruption across the county. The most prominent deposit is found along the Seaboard Air Line Railway, 2 miles east of Helena and a quarter mile east of the Alamo-McRae road. The sand here is pale yellow, of a medium-grained texture and ranges from 5 to 30 feet thick, over a distance of 1,200 feet along the track. The sand has been
a used to make fill across the river swamp, and the face of the cut
is about 300 feet northwest of the track. The deposit slopes southward to the river, so that southeast of the track the cut is only 6 feet deep and 100 feet long; on the opposite side, however, it probably maintains the thickness seen at the cut for at least 1,000 feet back from the railroad and parallel to Little Ocmulgee River. It was impossible to get a detailed section of the deposit as the material that had fallen from above concealed the natural face. Probably 2 feet of sandy soil caps the clean yellow sand. At the bottom of the deposit small pits reveal a white, medium-grained sand probably less than 4 feet in thickness. Springs issue from this level indicating the prox-

270

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

imity of the underlying yellow clay. -The deposit is one of the best examples of the aeolo-fluvial deposits so characteristic of the north and east sides of the larger streams of the coastal plain of Georgia.
Along Little Ocmulgee River, from the Seaboard Air Line crossing, almost to its confluence with Ocmulgee River at the southeast corner of the county, the sand is of small thickness, probably ave!'aging .5 to 10 feet, but opposite Lumber Cityanq about a mile west of Ocmulgee River, the existence of a thicker and larger deposit of sand has been established by exte_p.sive pits.
Hinson Sand .Mines.-The property of the Hinson Sand Mines lies along Little Ocmulgee River eastward from the Alamo-Lumber City road and' includes lots 370 and 371. (Plate XV-B.)
The pit has been operated since before 1900, having been opened by L. F. Hinson, and at present is carried on by Mrs. A. H. Mobley, of Lumber City. The deposit is reached by a standard gage ,spur from the Southern Railway at Lumber City, about 2;500 feet in length The sand is shipped principally to Chattanooga, Tenn., and to Tallapoosa, Ga., for use in the manufacture of soft-drink bottles. The topography of the deposit is gently rolling, and the surface is covered with a growth of scrub oak. The .deposit occupies a ridge <:>r terrace paralleling the river and from 25 to 30 feet above it. It is believed to .represent the Satilla formation and is probably an ancient stream deposit.

Section at IJinson Sand .Mines-, Lumber City
Feet Sandy, gray soiL _____________________________ :_ ________ 1-2 Yellow, fine-grained sand______________________________ '-_ 2-4 Medium-gfained, yellow to yellowish-white sahd__ __________ 1-2 White, clean, glass sand _______ ----~---- ___ -----~-------_ 6-9 Yellow, sandy clay______________________________________ 7
The glass sand grades sharply into the yellow sand above and is firmer than the yellow material, as it stands unsupported in faces 8 feet high~ although the sand above quickly slumps down. The white sand is usually massive with little indication of stratification .and no cross bedding. Fulgutites, or lightning tubes, produced by fusion of the sand by lightning, have been found in the white sand at least 12 feet below the surface.
Due to the occurrence of patches of inferior sand, the deposit is worked by hand, since a steam shovel would not permit a proper se~

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSI-TS

271

lection to" be made. The upper cover is first removed by loading the sand in wheelbarrows and depositing it either in the previously workedout portion of the. pit, or loading it on cars and shipping it for building and locomotive purposes.. This leaves a bench of white sand from which cars are loaded for shipment to the glass factories. The present pit is about 200 feet wide at the face and extends southea::;tward over 1,500 feet almost to Little Ocmulgee River. The glass sand deposit on this property appears to be very extensive as prospect pits and auger borings have shown it at practically every place they have been made.

Analyses of ~lass sand from Hinson Sand .Mines, _Lumber City

Constituents

T-14

Moisture at 100 c____ :_ ________
Loss on ignition____________ .:_ ____ Lime (CaO)_ ------- ____________ Magnesia (MgO) __________ ~ _____ Alumina (AhOa) ____ - ----------Ferric oxide (Fe20 a)_-_------ ___ Titanium dioxide (TiO:!) ________ Silica (SiO 2)-----------------.---
Total

0.07 0.14 0.22 0.11 0.31 0.61 0.14 98.26
99.96

T-16

T-17

T-18

1113

0.01 0.30 0.00 0.03 0.58 0.72 0.18 98.03 99.85

0.02 0.24
trace
0.30 0.96 0.48 0.18 97.36
. 99.54

0.02 0.29

---0--.5-6---

00..0080} 1.59 0.64 0.18 97.34

1.85
0.14
trace
97.45

100.14 100.00

T-14.-West side of pit face. T-16.-North bank of Little Ocrnulgee River near .cailway trestle. T-17.-East side of pit face. ' T-18.-Center of pit face.
1113.-Sarnple sent in by L. F. Hinson in 1909.
Sample T-18, representing the glass sand, has a fineness modulus of 1.83 and 65 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. The organic color factor i~? 50.
.McLeod property.-West of the Lumber City-Alamo road and the Hinson ~roperty, somewhat similar sand apparently an extension of that on the Hinson property is found on the property of J. D. McLeod and brother. This deposit was worked prior to 1905, and considerable sand removed, but when visited by the writer. in 1919 it was r+ot in operation.

272
''

G

E

O
~ l

L
>,

O
t J

GI tIC

A. \

L

S.~ U: .:R;' VE, Y

OF
A

GEORGIA
"

1!7-,Cf.lY~~s .~.f !Jfq~s ~-rJ::nf!: frprn; .Af.oLepff prop_e.rty, near

L1ry.-rr.~~be1r Cr ~i.t.y.

.

. C

on
. ~

stit
.' (,

u

e

n:t~s.

T-21

Moisture at 100 C_ -------------------- _ Loss on ignition____ --------------~- ____ _
. ~_ztai'eg'l:le(_s(ra!~:?<)M_:..;,O~)-_-_-_-_-_-_--~-----_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-__-_-_-_-_--_ ~P.lfiJJ.!t :Cf\l~,Q3{o -------.---- ~ ---------- ~-
e.rrlc o::nde (Fe20 s) _________ -----------Titanium dioxide (Ti02)- ______ ------ ---~ Silica (Si02) __________ --- ---- ~--- -------

0.03
0o.:o1o2
0;16
0,44: o.56
0.14
98.38

0.01 0.12 0.03
o:oe.>
0.47 0.48 0.36 98.34

TotaL _____ ---------,.------________ 99 ..83
' '

9.9JH .'

T-21.-General sample obtained f.rom the collapsed face at the north end. of the pit.

T-25.-Sample fpom the upper part of the glass sand atthe south end of the old

pjt. Ndt a representative sample.

~;



.

.... i

; 7 !

~

Th_e ,depqsit i~ eo:ve:red with ye1low and pale yellow sand, from 3

to 10 f~et' thick, which apparently becomes thieker as the river is approached. Duet<? ,the face~ of the pit having caved in, it was im-
p6~s1ble ih obtai~ a section of the m~terial or to measure the thickness

of the glass sand,. Jmt Mr..McLeod reports that the thickness ranges

froxn' 5 to 'td feet. A mechanical ant'tlvsis of T-21 shows a fineness

71 ajld m.__--- q.__d.u_~.""1~ 1.s of-:.-~~ _,:h{_f~ p. :

. ,..,

.

1 "'"
pei

c:.: ~~n-; t,

c_oaAr-s~~rfr than

. .
the

.
48-mesh

.

:

sieve:

.
The

organic . color value is 60:

.The operations to date have. not limited the -extent of the glass

sand deposits in' this vicinity, and it is reasonable to believe that

should the demand warrant it, flirther ptdspedting alpng Little Ocmulgee River, on the Satilla or upper terrace, will pr~duce g~od re-

sults, a!lthough the quality of the sand is likely to differ considerably ,~~er short 1!~tances.

.!f.llpgator C~eek.-A &~I ,nd b~lt from 200 to 600 feet Wide paral~

lels the north side of Alligator Creek along most of its course. The

most suitable place in case of development would be at the Seaboard Air Line Railway crossing, 1 mile south of Afamo. Cuts on the

Alamo-McRae road no:r:th of the creek expose 2 to 3 feet of pure white

Stjt1fp,. s.u~ta~le for glass, 'Qeneath a ]1eavy cover of yellow sand, hut its

tqt_al t]+ickness and eXtent is unknown.

-\ ' .

~

'

,.

Or;;hwalkee Creek.-East of Ochwalkee Creek, along the Glen-

-

~

'



.

'

1

wood-Mount Vernon road, a deposit of sand of the sand-hill type

SAND AND GRAVEL DE POSI1'S OF GEORGIA

PLATE XVII

A. .Al\'l) BARS IN BROAD RIVER ABOVE STEEL BRIDGE ON ELBERTON-BERKELY ROAD, 10 MILES SOUTHWEST OF ELBERTON, ELBERT COUNTY

B. MOLDING SAND PIT, YELLOW RIVER MOLDING SAND COMPANY, 1 MILE EAST OF ALMON ON THE COVINGTON ROAD, NEWTON COUNTY

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

273

occurs. The .sand extends, with interruptions, practically from the Laurens County line to Oconee River and is cut by the Seaboard Air Line Railway. On the Mt. Vernon road it is from 5 to 15 feet thick over a distance of 800 feet. The sand is pale yellow to buff, rather fine-grained and w]th more clay than the sand along Little Ocmulgee River, and of little value for concrete, although suitable for brick and plaster mortar.
Oconee River.-Oconee River, which forms the eastern .boundary of the county, has in its bed and in the numerous bars at the outside of the curves, immense quantities of excellent medium- to coarsegrained brown sand, well suited for concrete work. Cuts for the bridge crossing the river between Glenwood and Mount Vernon sh?wed older deposits of cross-bedded, coarse sand interbedded with clayey and silty layers, lying within 1,500 feet of the river and forming the terrace just above the level of the river swamp.
Other deposits.-A small gravelly deposit was. noted on the Glenwood-Lumber City road, 3Yz miles south of Glenwood. The deposit did not exceed 2 feet in thickness and consisted of quartz pebbles up to one inch in diameter with over 60 per cent sand and extended for 1,000 feet along the road.
In the western part of the county the weathering of a quartz conglomerate of Alum Bluff age has given rise to small deposits of good gravel, which have beeD; utilized in local road construction.
WILCOX COUNTY
No commercial sand is exploited in Wilcox County, although Oc. mulgee River has .abundant supplies. The surface of :a. large part of
the county is covered with a layer of gray sand from a few inches to a foot or more in thickness, but good sand in quantity is scarce. Local supplies are generaJly obtained from ditches, where it has been heaped by rain, or from the vicinity of streams.
Small quantities occur on the banks of Allapaha River in the southern part of the county, and- medium-grained sand is found in the beds of House, Bluff, and Folsom creeks. None of these deposits, however, are of any but local value.
Small areas of qUartz gravel from a fraction of an acre to several acres in exte~t, and usually under 2 feet in thickness, occur in various parts of the county. Although such deposits are of little commercial value, they will be of value for local road constr~ction.

274

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

WILKINSON COUNTY

No sand or gravel ~eposits are worked commercially in Wilkinson County.

Gordon.-.Between . Gordon and Mcintyre a sandy belt is en-

countered, probably a northward extension of that so prominent in

Crawford and Taylor counties. The sand is gray or yellowish, fine-

grained, and ranges from a few inches to 10 feet thick in places. The Central of Georgia Railway runs throu~ the belt.

Commissioners Greek.-The north fork of Commissioners Creek,

one mile east of the Central of Georgia Railway crossing and4 miles

north of Gordon, has a wide valley, in which a mediULQ.- to coarse-

.grained yellow to brown sand, in quantities large enough for al1 local

:road-building pUrposes, occurs. Southwest of the creek,- 1,000 feet back from the stream, the sand is coarse and pebbly and occupies deposits from a fractional part of an acre up to an a~re in size.

On the same stream, where the Milledgeville-Gordon road crosses
it, 2 miles north of Gordon, a bank deposit of gray, clean, pebbly, un-

stratfied sand occurs south of the creek. The deposit .occupies a

strip 200_ to 300 feet wide and ranges from 5 to 10 feet thick, overlying a yellow clay. It appears to follow the stream for some dis-

tance; especially to the westwa:r:d, although it also is found in the str~am bed to the .eastward. The Central of Georgia Railway runs about a half niile east qf the deposit. Sample T-59 represents the sand, and a mechanical analysis shows. a fineness modulus of 2.59

and 92 per cent retained on the 48-mesh screen. The sand has practioally no organic matter. It is composed mostly of quartz with a

little feldspar that is altering to kaolin. A few small grains of ilmen-

ite ar~ visible.

.

Sand in irregular patches occurs further south of the stream and

generally parallel to. it. At Mcintyre, Wriley,. and Toomsboro, the

creek has excellent sand, and it is used locally at these places.

.Bit Saridy Creek.-On the. Gordon-Jeffersonville. road, considmable medium- to coarse~grained sand occurs in the bed of Big Sandy

. Creek and along its banks for 200 feet back -from the stream. Sand in quantities s-q.ffi.cient for concrete road purpos~s, and possibly for shipment, occurs all along this cr:eek, however, rail tra:qsportation is lacking at any point along it in Wilkinson County. Three miles

south of Irwinton on the Jeffersonville road there is a large deposit of excellent medium- to coarse-grained sand along this same creek.
'

SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

275

WORTH COUNTY
Ocala, Chattahoochee, and Alum Bluff deposits, respectively, underlie the northwest corner of Worth County as one goes tqward the southeast. The remainder of the county is covered with the irregularly colored sandy clays and feldspathic sands of the Altamaha formation. No sand is produced commercially in the county, and the loc::J demand is supplied from concentrations of the surficial sanrl in ditches and along streams. The gray surficial sands produced by the leaching of the underlying clayey sa-nds, or deposited by the wind, range from a few inches to several feet in depth.

"

I

"

T-E-STS

OF

COASTAL

PLAIN SANDS '

(0:)
-'I
0)

>=!

1Q'"')
z

Locality

4 6
---

Percentage coarser than each sieve
8- 10 14 20 28 35 48 65
- - -----------

'8. t>

.....

fi:J ~

0 'll

~ .9<

- - - - - - -]mg-a s --~- ~~ -c:e-sa -~~- -zs 100

150

200

~

I'll

Q)

t>Q)

;:l

-~

-g_J~

I'll r-.t:S <D'"tj

0 0

Q)

1:t:f
-1'1-

p

Q) >=! 0
~~-.
~

<:,)
$ <:,) Q)
wP.

~~

51
P.,

p,c;j
I'll~
'"d<D ..... ;:l

.o5.1..,~ -; .
..... ;:l

Q)
.Eo > c;j
r0-.or-o.

~<:,)

~<:,)

Q) <:,)
~

'00
0

------

,.0~
>:~...,
~Q-) >-~> P-i

fi:J
,.0 ;:I

GJ
t_:.j
a

10 11 13 15 18 21 24 27 29
31 32 33 34 35 43 45 49 51 52 59 60 61 62 63 63a

Hardy's Grossing, bk. __ ---Dublin, bk----------~ Dublin, Oconee R, _____ Lumber City, pit______ 3.2
Lumber City, glass sand Lumber City, glass sand Blackshear, bk. _______ Waycross, bk .. ________

0.1 0.4 1.2 3.9 i2.2 28.5 49.8 68.7 82.3 0.1 0.9 4.5 19.2 51.5 88.7 98.6 99.6
0.1 0'.3 1.3 5.2 .7.9 48.8 83.2 96.9 99.8 6.9 10.8 16.8 24.7 36.0 49.7 65.2 77.8 92.4
0.1 0.9 7.1 20.1 41.0 {?5.4 85.8
0.1 1.6 8.9 24.6 47.7 70.7 .90.2
0.1 0.3 }.8 11.1 42.0 76.1 93.7 0.1 0.2 0.6 6.5 28.4 62.5 89.0

91.8 99.6 99.6 98.7 96.2 98.5 98.6 98.1

95.7 99.8 99.8 99.2
98.4 99.6 99.5
99.5

98.7 99.9 99.9 99.7 99.6 99.9 99.5 99.9

Waltertown, bk, _______ Everett City, piL _____
Ludowici, bk.~-------'Crescent, bk. __ ~ ______ Savannah,. cr. _________
Savannah,SavannahR. Augusta, bk. __________ Augusta, pit__________ Stillmore, bk. _________ Kite, bk, _____________ Louisville, bk. _________

----
-------
2.1 1.9
----
----

----
------4.1 2.9 ---0.1

----
0.1
---0.2 6.8 4.2
----
0.1 0.2

0.0 0.3
0o:.11
0.7 0.7 11.0 7.9 0.1 0.2 0.5

2.9 0.5 0:4 0.2
2.8 1.9 16.3 13.0 0.3 1.7 1.2

6.3 0.9 1.9 0.4 7.9
6.p 26.1 21.9 1.3 8.5 4.9

12.7 7.4 8.5 0.6
18.8 24.1 44.9 38.7 4.6 24.9 16.9

30.2 29.6 32.8 1.5 41.3 64.3 70.8 66.0 16.5 52.0 50.3

60.1 69.4 65.8 . 5.3
66.5 93.0 89.5 88.3 42.2 74,3 81.0

81.5 91,2 88.9 14.2
86.8 99.6 96.7 97.2 76.0 87.7, 94.7

94.9 98.1 98:6 57.0
97.7 99.95 99.3 99.3 95.6 95.1 99.0

98.2 99.2 99.7 92.1 99.B 100.0 99.7 99.7 99.0 97.4 99.5

99.7 99.6 99.9 99.3 . 99.9 100.0 99.9 99.9 .99.9 99.3 99.8

Gordon, bk. __________ 0.3 0.6

Carrs Station, bk. ______

0.7

Gaillard, washed sand.~ ---- ---Gaillard, natural sand__ ---- 0.5 Macon, bk. _____ --- ___

Gaillard, abrasive _____

0.8 2.0 0.2 1..5 0.1

2.0 5.6 16.2 41.4 74.5 '92.5 97.8 5.2 15.5 34.5 59.5 79.8 89.8 94.4 0.7 2.6 8.4 21.5 44.3 67.9 85.7 4.4 8.3 15.7 26.8 46.4 66.0 83.6 0.3 0.6 2.0 9.9 40.9 69.9 87.8 0.1 0.3 1.2 5.2 16.5 37.5 63.4

99.5 97.0 95.6 93.1 94.7 84.2

99.8 98.7 98.5 96.6 97.0 93:2

99.9 99.5 99.7 99.0 98.6 97.8

.160 2.20 1.93 2_.67 38.3 102.3 2762 t.race 161 10

.402 1.68 2.54 2.66 40.7 98.4 2657 1000 211 11

.356 1.80 2.51 2.66 39.2 101.0 2727 .223 3.42 2.65 2.67 :42.5 95.6 2581

100 trace

212 257.

13 15

'.183 2.32 1.:83 2.66 37.4 104.0 2798 trace 271 18

.209 _227

2.27 1.88

1.95 1.86

2.66 2'.69

36.8 38.3

105.0 96.9

2853 2616

60 trace

272 228

21 24

.201 .170 .213 .199 .107 .190 .308 .289 .278
.~64
.189 .237 .312 .292 .'181 .167 .183 .119

1.87 2.22
1.81 1. 96 1.59 2.25 1.69 2.29 2.09 1.86 2.60 1.98 L93 2.67 2.48 2.83 2.31 2.41

1.67 1.71 2.00 1. 73 0.63 1.86 2.19 2.49 2.45 1.43 1.96 1.98 2.40 2.62 1.88 1. 98 1. 75 1.27

2.67 2.66 2.66 2.67 2.69 2.67 2.67 2.66 2.66 2.66 2.66 2,.66 2.64 2.66 2.67 2.66 2.66 2.66

40.1 38.0 37.2 38.3 42.5
34.2 37.6 39.4 36.0 41.0 37.5 39.0 40.6 36.2 38.0 38.5 42.3 42.1

97.0 103.1 102.9 100.8 96 . 6 110.0 104.0 100.6 106.0 96.5 103.8 100.5 98.0'
105.0 103.4 102.2 95.9 96.3

2619 2784 2778 2722 2608 2970 2798 2716 2862 2606 2804 2714 2646 2835 2792 2487 2589 2600

trace 1500 500 600 150 200 100
20 50 200 trace 60 10 200 ' 100 ' 40
trace trace

227 228 218 215 218 173 173 235
------
-----209 207 274 203 184 185 160 183

27 29 . 31 32 33 . 34
35 43 45 49 51 52
59
60 61 62 63 63a

1a:'-i ~
~~
1:'-i
t'r.l.

"'::j l::;j
f1
a
~
GJ
l::;j
a
~
GJ
;;::

-
NOTE: R=river, cr'=creek, bk=bank.

TESTS OF COASTAL PLAIN SANDS

1i1
'S - z::l
M
67 70 75
76 77 78 79 81 82 83 84 87 88 89 92
93 95 207 210

....
Q)

d ~.3

t> Percentage coarser than each sieve

...,

~

..... ::13 0 ~

0+>
r-..&
Q) ....

tw s s Locality
- - s zse Gaillard, concrete _____
e Robert.a, pit_ _________
Zenith, piL ___________ Maule. pit_ ___________ Norwi'ch ______________

4
------. ---

6
----
---.. - - -
0.1

8
--
0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.3

10
--
0.4 0.7 0.6 0.4 0.8

l-Ie
--
1.7 1.5 2.9 1.2 2.2

20
--
7.0 4.2 12.3 4.3 5.4

28
--
17.9 11.7 33.9 14.3 12.1

35
--
33.8 29.9 59.9 36.0 25.5

48
--
52.0 51.3 79.1 56.1 46.2

65
--
70.4 73.3 90.0 76.3 70.9

100
--
86.8 88.0 96.1 90.2 88.0

150
---
95.5 94.0 98.2 95.1 95.7

200
~-
98.2 99.7 99.5 98.4 98.5

Q)
-r~n
0
<J.)
!!:I
I:L1 --
.131 .134 .208 .148 .136

"'0 '"'!fJ
g 0 Q)
:ptd:l --
2.8~
2.68 2.6'1 2.66 2.44

r..n..

r/l..=;

IdD

.. 0

..~...

fi;

--

1.59

1.53

2.12

1.64

1.49

f;h
C)
.q..:.:.i
C) .
<J.)
w0. --
2.66 2.68 2.66 2.66 2.66

~ I

Q)
bf

~~

o'"0 Q)
o

p..

--

36.1

40.0

47.3

45.7

37.4

~
.P .., ....,, .
,.q'<-< ..b..i.J ::l
<J.) C)
~
--
106.2 100.0 87.5 90.1 104.0

~
p. '"0
~>. ..b...!J::l'
~C)
--
2867 2700 2362 2433 2808

Q)
Ec.> ~.-<
ci0'>";'o.d..~.
0
-10 25
trace 25
trace

...Oc.>
gj
::l'"O d..., Qo I><
b~D...Q,)
p...
---
183 186 182 252 251

'"'Q)
...0
::l
--
4
7 0 7 5 7

,Junction City, pit_ ____ ---- ---- ----

Junction City, pit_ ____

0.2

0.5 0.7

2.7 6.4 13.2 31.8 59.9 82.8 3.1 10.8 27.4 47.9 63.0 76.4

95.9 88.3

98.7 93.5

99.9 97.9

.174 2.19 1. 72 2.64 42.5 95.0 2751 .129 2.98 1.82 2.67 36.5 105.7 2854

12 200

243 246

7 7 8

Junction City, pit _____

0.2 0.5 2.3 9.3 25.5 51.4 70.7 83.7 92.3 95.9 98.8 .163 3.03 1. 91 2.66 38.0 103.1 2784 trace

7

.Junction City, pit _____

0.1 0.2 2.3 17.1 44.0 71.0 91.5 96.8 98.9 .151 2.08 1.38 2.67 39.9 100.3 2708 200 245 ~

Howard, pit, unwashed_
Howard, washed sand__ Howard, tailings ______

0.2 0.6 3.2 16.6 42.8 72.1 91.3 97.7 99.6 .151 2.04 1.37 2.66 41.0 98.0 2646 trace 247 ~

0.1 0.6 2.3 7.3 19.6 40.6 61.4 81.3 94.3 98.5 99.8 .167 1. 79 1. 78 2.66 38.7 102.0 2751 trac(~ 0.1 0.8 4.2 12.9 25.1 38.7 59.1 72.3 91.3 .076 2.70 0.88 2.66 42.3 94.6 2554 25

248 248

~ ~

Howard, pit __________ I

0.1 1.7 6.6 18.1 37.7 58.6 77.5 91.7 96.7 99.0 .154 2.69 1.70 2.65 39.1 101.0 2727 trace 249 ~

Howard, white sand ___ ---- ---- ---- ----

Dry Ridge, pit ________

0.2 2.5

0.3 1.4 8.9 35:9 64.0 86.1 8.4 16.0 39.4 64.3 78.7 88.9

95.7 95.5

98.1 97.7

99.6 99.5

Columbus, Bull Creek__ 6.1 8.3 10.6 15.5 23.0 31.5 54.6 76.0 90.5 97.6 99.7 99.9 100.0

Columbus, Upatoi Cr__ 8.9 12.5 14.7 20.2 31.6 39.5 62.9 78.2 93.4 98.2 99.9 100.0 100.0

Fort Benning_________ 11.4 15.4 20.3 29.3 38.1 54:.7 69.2 82.6 91.8 97.5 99.4 99.7 99.9

Lampkins, Ocmulgee R. 0.2 0.2 1.3 7.8 25.4 60.5 88.2 98.4 99.7 99.9 100.0 100:0 100.0

Albany, pit_ __________

___ j

0.2 2.0 15.8 54.0 88.2 97.9 99.7 100.0 100.0

.183 2.18 1. 69 2.66 40.0 99.4 2681 trace 249 .198 2.90 2.22 2.69 37.4 105.4 2847 100 252 .300 2.46 2.85 2.63 37.7 102.6 2771 50 223 .322 2.57 3.11 2.66 37.4 104.2 2813 15 226 .319 3.54 1. 77 2.66 38.2 102.7 2773 25 -----.559 1.84 3.15 2.66 40.5 98.9 2670 50 258 .287 1. 73 2.04 2.69 42.7 96.0 2592 trace 192

8 8 g g
g
2(] 21

t
'<:
t::1
P:..
~
G'l
pj
P:..
~
t-l
t:::J
l:tj 1-tj
a
~
~ QJ

211 Blakely, pit___________

0.2 2.9 20.7 54.8 99.1 99.5 100.0 100.0 100.0 .308 1.59 2.15 2.64 35.8 105.0 2635 700 194 21

213 Gradyville, bk, ________ 1.2 2.4 3.7 7.0 10.6 16.5 25.9 39.9 53.1 65.0 80.0 88.3 95.9 .097 4.29 1. 75 2.69 33.9 110.3 2978 50 201 21

214

Thomasville, Ocklock nee R. _____________

0.3

0.7

1.2

2.8

5.8 12.4 25.7 49.6 75.2 91.9

98.2

99.3

99.8

.218 2.22 2.06 2.67 34.2 109.8 2965

125

260

21

216 Thomasville, Ocklock-
nee R.. _____________ ---- ---- ---- 0.3 0.7 2.2 8..2 26.5 54.8 80.2 96.3 99.1 99.8 .171 2.10 1.60 2.64 34.7 108.4 2916 40 260 21 1"_>":",>

to

TESTS OF COASTAL PLAIN SANDS

-1 00

S:J
-~z-1

I,ocality

Percentage coarser than each sieve
g ... 'Ewb"'": '81tssn ~~ 4 6 8 10 I 14 I 20 I 28 I 35 I 48 I 65 100 ! 150 ! 200
-1--1--1--1--1~!::_ rE 8 z J__,_._J__J__J__J__J_-1--1-



~

~&~

Q) "" .-< UJ
1t:1

;;., ~

+" Q)

UJ

as El :3 .-< ..c.:.:>. .UJ ;::!
tEl ~'"' 863.-o

1=1 o .S El

-~
b'".O'
,g 8
Q)

I

'"' Q)

bQ.O)

p.c:il

-~ ~

~ ~

I"<
pQ). .,.:>+"
~ ::l c::>

1l.....-o p .'Q".)'.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Q)
..

<::>

0<3

:>, p. 0<3

~ d -~
Q) c::>

..f...j. 0

~&~ ,.C)c::>
;S::! i"BP
1=1 """.
~

'Q")'
~
i3

10:i- - - - 1 - - 1 - - - 1 - - 1 - - - 1 - - -

g ~

f2 217
219 220

Williams Station; pit____ :___ L 3 4. 3 11.9 19.4 29.0 39.9 55.2 67.6 78.0 87.2 93.3 97.6 .128 4. 59 2.18 2. 67 34.8 108.7 2935 trace 261 ~amilla, bk.__________ ____ ____ 0.1 0. 6 1. 4 3. 5.10.0 27.2 5f.4 59.5 83.7 92.6 97.6 _.117 3.01 1.47 2. 66 39.3 99.0 2673. 200 220
ewton,Flint R. _____ ~ ________________ 0.2 2.0 3.9 23.7 59.3 89.7 99.2 99.9100.0 .2061.751.63 2.66 40.2 99.5 2687 175 '220

217 ~ 219 I-.; 220

221
222 231

Newton, bk. __________________________ 0.05 0.1 0.2 L2 7.4 27.1 62.7 80.6 94.7 .084 2. 21 0. 70 2. 63 39.7 99.1 2676 200 Albany, pit-.---------- ________________ 0.05 0.2 0.5 4,44Q.683.5 _98.9 99.6 99.9 .1821.631.402 ..6639.7100.22705 100 Americus, pit__________________ 0.1 1.0 5.921.345.86_9.680.386.7 '92.8 96.1 98.6 ~1753.692.262.6639.7100.12703 trace

154 2i3 241

221 t'-i 222. 1Ll
231

232 Americus, pit_________________ -0.2 0.7 2.4 7.215.735.164.286.7 95.6 98.5 99.6 .1852.141.782.6941.9 97.82641 trace 242 232 -.:::j

234 235 236 237 238 239 240

Chatterton, pit____________________ 0.2 1.1 5.217.843.873.091.9 98.6 99.4 99.8 .2172.051.912.6739.4101.02727 trace Fitzgerald, pit________ 1.4 4. 6 8.0 14.7 22.. 7 35:9 55.3 '77. 3 87.7 93.3 95.8 96.9 97.9 . 259 3. 02 2. 71 2. 67 36 . 8 105.6 2851 trace Tifton, glass, pit______ ____ ____ 0.1 0. 2 0.4 0. 9 4.117.8 44.0 76.6 92.7 99.1 99 .3. .157 2.00 1. 41 2. 67 35.8.107 .1 2892 50 Nashville, plt_________________________ 0.1 0.4 2.415.3 44.4 79.4 94.7 97.7 99.2 .1741. 791.42 2.67 39.1101.5 2741 500 Adel, glass, pit________________________ 0.1 0.2 0.4 3.824.650.1 70.5 82.2 94.4 .0842\890.962.6435.8105.62851 trace
Moultrie, pit______________ 0.2 0.5 1.3 3.0 6.. 713.5 25.2 41.0 57.5 76.0 86.8 95.3 .093 3.321.34 2.67 35.1108.12919 800 Quitman, pit__________ ____ 0.1 0.4 2.0 5. 712.5 21.7 34.4 45.6 58.4 75_6 8.8. 7 95_1 .098 3. 65. 1. 49 2. 66 4;3. 3 94.0 2538 100

179
156 263 158 181 180 166

234 l;l;j
235 1-1 236 a 237 b;j
238 ~ 239' ~ 240 ~

t 241

Quitman, Withla-

.

coocheeR. ______________ 1.3 1.7

2.6

4.7

9.619.335.853.071.5 r81.3

94.1

9~.0

.119 3.27 1.67 2. 66 36.4105.6 2851

100

216

241

~

242 Statenville, bk. ____________ 0.2 0.6 1.6 3.9 8.717.532.250.168.0 83.2 89.. 1 95.2 .099 3 .68 1. 54 2. 66 41. 6 97. 1 2622 125 195 242

243 Alma, bk_____________________________ 0.1 0.6 3.115.841.076.5 95.7 98.7 99.8 .1651.821.40 2.67 42.2 '96.3 2600 100 153 243

244 245

Helena, bk. _______________________ 0.3 1.0 4.615.136.261.180.5 91.6 95.5 97.8 .156 2.551.69'2.67 38.3102.8 2776 Cochran, cr--~------- ____ 0.4 1.2 3.5 7.818.532.854.674.888.6 96.3 98.1 99.3 .197 2. 70 2.13 2. 67 38.3102.8 2776

100 ------ 244 100 165 .245

246 247

Perry, pit____________ ____ ____ ____ 0. 2 0.4 0.7 1.2 2. 7 7.3 21.3 60.4 83.3 95.6 .088 2.04 0. 69 2. 66 41.7 96.9 2616 Tivola,pit________________________ 0.1 0.9 5.520.048.375.189.6 96.8 98.8 99.7 ;208 2. 25 1. 93 2. 66 37. 7 103. 6 2797

300 200

204 205

246 247

250 Montezuma, Flint R___ 5. 9 7.3 9.211.916.123.8 38.2 60.8 82.2 94.7 98.8 99.5 99.8 . 241 2.80 2.50 2. 67 39.7 100.5 27.14 251 Eden,OgeecheeR. ________________ 0.4 1.0 3.111.133.565.991.3 99.0 99.7 99.9 .2121.85 L 77 2.66 38.2102.7 2773

80 216 250 25 197 251

252 FortBenning,pit______ 1.6 2.8 5.010.118.741.059.275.588.495.4 93.6 98.6 99.5 .275 2.08 2. 70 2.67 36.4106.0 2862 50------ 252

TESTS OF COASTAL PLAIN SANDS

liS
"S z::!
--

Locality

.. g.

4

Percentage coarser than each sieve

~

~~ t;.p

- - "' ff :u.g "..>g :u z ~~~ 6

8 --

10 --

14 --

20 --

28 --

35 --

48 --

65 --

100 --

150 --

200 --

<l)
'iti 0<l) !:1:1
~
--

~

~P.,Q8<l)

:":!'
"'......

JCtEi

p ~ ~ O<ol>
Q .,

l=lo <Q l)s

---

<..>..l
biJ
.,a..5. ~
-

~ <l)

........

<l)

<l)

<pl),b~iJ ~p<,t: ~P;.o:-.c:,i

"'!=!
c;'lj<l<.)> i>

b .....

l

l::'!

~<lJ .,

bll' .,...:;j
~<l) .,

-----

0 <>l
~<::!l)a<a.>
i><>l
.'9-''b"l'l
0 0
0
--

~~

..a<>

a

:~:!=~'1~j ~....

<l>~
~b<>lll<..l.),

:d~:=!~

---

..

p,.
GJ !;1:1

252
262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269

StsaSnidm_o_n__I_s_la_n_d__, _b_l_a_c_k Keysville ____________

-------

-------

---0.1

---0.3

---0.4

---1.9

---- -.--10.2 33.1

0.1 67.9

1.9 88.4

17.6 96.8

Waynesboro, pit_______ 0.1 0.4 1.2 2.6 5.0 9.3 16.7 29.0 54.4 73.7 90.4

Statesboro, pit________

0.1 0.4 2.6 6.1 12.4 25.9 54.5 80.4 95.0 .9~.1

Canoe, bk. ____________

0.1 0.2 0.5 1.8 9.5 31.9 64.9 86.4 96.5

Vidalia, bk. ___________

0.3 1.7 6.2 16.3 37.7 65.6 84.7

Pendleton, bk_________

1.0 8.7 25.6 62.9 83.0 97.3

Gaillard, pit_ _________

0.1 0 ..6 1.7 4.9 12.2 26.1 47.6 71.3 86.5 94.6

Cussetta, bk. _________

0.1 0.3 1.0 4.0 12.1 26.6 51.6 75.7 85.7 93.5

40 ..8 98.7 95.9 99.7 98.5 94.9 99.3 97.7 96.3

91.0 99.7 98.9 99.9 99.6
98.1 99.8 99.3 98.4

.'075 1. 40 0 . 18 - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 357 252 .197 2.421.752.62n.d. n.d.n.d. n.d. 169 262 .149 2.441.682.6736.3106.22869 200 169 263 .238 2.092.122.6436.7104.42719 150 168 264 .180 2.151.712.6637.6103.72800 175 171 265 .125 2.301.292.6736.3106.22867 200 264 266 .178 2.081.692.0738.2103.12784 500 264 267 .182 2.621.982.6639.1101.22752 100 _____ _ '268 .175 2.842.002.6737.9103.72800 600 175 269

Pt..
t::l
t:-1
~
1a-t:f
~
1--3
1):)

I

t-:l """1 1::.
~

[).:)

TESTS OF COASTAL PLAIN GRAVELS

00 0

Total per cent coarser than each sieve

Locality

t
'S
1

1}4 I % .1 Y2 I 4 I 6 I 8 I 10 I 14 I 20 I 28 I 35 I 48 I 65 1100 I 150 I 200
l---~---~---~---1---1---~---1---1--1-------------------

19 Alamo, pit____ ------------------ 16.0 53.1.69.1 86.2 87.6 88.7 ~9.8 .90. () 91.7 93.1 94:6 95.9 97.0 97.9 98.5 99.3

36 41

Fleming, pit____________________ ____ ____ 5. 2 59.,2 67.3 73.0 78.2 81.0 83.9 88.J90.1 95.1 97.2 98.7 Augusta, pit____________________ 8.0 21.2 38.4 40.4 59.0 67.9 77.9 84.5 89.3 93.~5 97.1 98.8 99.2 99.4

99.3 99.6

99.7 99.8

42 Augusta, pit____ ---------------- ____ 11.3 27.5 55.0 60.8 63.9 67.9 70.9 74.8 79.9 86.6 91.8 94.2 96.2 97.2 98.0

46 Augusta, pit__----------,-_______ 8.0 19.0 30.0 42.0 46.4 48.6 /51.2 52.7 54.2 58.4 65.2 79.0 89.8 97.2 99.0 99.6

48
50 54 55 56 60

Augusta, pit__------------------ ___ _ ____ 6.6 22.4 28.0 31.6 34.4 36.4 39.2 46.0 58.3 71.4 86.1 95.6 Swainsboro, bk. _________________ 52.3 70.8 76.9 ~3 .8 84.5 ~5.0 86.5 88.8 91.4 93.9 95.7 96.6 97.3 98.0 Stapleton, pit_------------------ 20.0 28.4 40.0 56.9 59.1 69.4 62.8 65.6 69.2 73.8 7~.0 84.0 90.4 94.9 Warrenton______________________ 37.5 52.3 59.1 77.2 80.1 8~.6 85.0 86.2 87.. 5 88:8 90.5 92.9 95.4 97.0 Norwood, piL. ___ -------------- 17.7 48.1 64.6 75.0.77.180 .0 82.5 84.3 87.1 88~ 5 91.2 93.4 96~0 98.4 Macon, bk______________________ 18. 5 40.7 52,8 75. 9 78. 3 81.4 ___ .., 86. 3 ~ ___ 91.0 ____ 96.1 ____ 98 .1

98.4 98.5 96.7 98.0 98:9 98. 9

99.6 99.2 98.2 99.0 99.2 99. 5

66 Macon, pit___ ------------------ 15.6 42.9 55.5 73.4 77.5 81.8 86.0 88.0 90.0 9L8 93.8 95.8 97.5 98.9 99.4 99.8

71 Reynolds, bk___________________ 28.253.879.594.9

notsifted .

.

72
73 74

Reynolds, bk.___________________ 27.5 43.5 56.5 73.9 ____ 79.7 ____ 84.7 ____ 90.2 _.:. __ 95.6 ____ 98.2 Beechw0od, pit__________________________ 25.545.4 ____ 54.5 ____ 69.2 ____ 87.2 ____ 95.5 ____ 99.0
C::trsonville, bk. ___ --'----- _______ 49.1 62.3 67.5 78.9 ____ 83.9 ---- 89.4 --~- 92.5 ____ 96.1 ---- 98.3

99.1 99.3
98.7

99.5 99.7
99.0

90 Columbus, pit_ ___________._______ 6. 6 19.8 52.2 75.0 78.1 80.4 82.3 84.2 86.7 90.5 95.3 98.3 99.4 99.8 ' 99.9 100.0

91 Torch Hill, pit------------------ 12.9 30.8 43.. 1 58.5 ____ 68.2 ____ 76.7 ____ 83.1 -..,-- 91. 5_ ___ 98.7 98.9 99.3

95 Upatoi Creek, bk._ -------------- 1.09 20.9 40.1 6Q. 9 65.6 69.0 72.4 75.0 78.5 82.9 89.4 95.8 98.1 99.0 99.4 99.8

208 Lumber City-, pit__ -------------- 3.18 20.9 44.3 47.5 63.0 74.7 84.4 89.7 93.8 96.0 96.8 97.3 97.9 98.5 98.9 99.4

212 Fort Gaines, pit_________________ 3.116. 9 36.2 60.8 65.6 68.5 71.7 74.8 79.2 84.9 92.2 96.3 97.9 98.7 99.1 99.5

223 Georgetown, pit_________________ 20.3 28.8 38.1 80.5 83.3 84:.9 86.7 88.3 90.1 92.3 94.6 96.7 98.5 99.5 99.8 99.9

:g0;::0s 0 a
O'l 00
gQ),
1=1
~
6.91 5.00 5.52 4.97 4.35 3.10 7.46 5.24 6.74 6.50 6.46 6.44
6.50 4.76 7.18 6.07 5.63 5.44 5.72 5.40 6.29

"0

Q)

~ ~
!;::

i
+"

>. ..~ ....
0

......
0 ,.. 1=1 Q) 0

'S
g+"
a ~ t0~0

..m0,.-<~
i:l g.
Q) Q)
~"d

,...
Q)
..0

P-i -P--i - - -

t:-;
a
G::l
a'-1

9.3 268 19 ~

14.7 215 36 t%l

15.1 234. 14.6 234 13.7 236

41 c::j 42 ~ 46 "~'l

6.1 ------ 48 h:l 10.4. 198 50 a 6.1 207 54' 1-:,;j

8.3 334 9. 7 337 12.0 162

55 G::l

56 60'

a~~

14.3 164 66 G::l 255 71 ~

11.2 256 72

12.0 254 73

8.4 254 74

4.8 223 90

7.3 224 91

6.1 174 95

10.2 258 208

6.3 176 212

5. 9 230 223

.,

TESTS OF COASTAL PLAIN GRAVELS

Locality

Total per cent coarser than each sieve

[j

"S z p

Hi I ~ I Y2 I 4 I 6 I 8 I 10 I 14 I 20 I 28 I 35 I 48 I 65 1100 I 150 I 200

--1--------~------- 1 - - 1 - - 1 - - 1 - - 1 - - 1 - '-l--l--l--l--l--1--l--1--l-~-l---l

224 Georget~>m. cr. _________________ 15.1 39.0 49.7 66.1 69.5171. ~ 74.8 76.8 80.5 85.1 90.3 93.5 95.9 98.4 99.3 99.8 22.5 Fort Games, Magruder cr. ________ 11.4 28.6 38.2 57.162.6 66.0 70.4 74.5 79.184.8 90.7 94.6 97.5 98.9 99.3 99.7 22() Omaha, pit_ ____________________ 13.5 29.8 45.2 69.2 ____ 75.6 ____ 79.2 ____ 82.6 ____ 87.2 ____ 92.4 ___________ _ 227 Omaha, bk._____________________ 26.3 37.3 50.0 67.7 70.4 72.9 76.3 79.3 83.3 87.9 93.7 97.8 99.4 99.9 100.0 100.0 228 Omaha, bk.___ __ ___ _____ _____ ___ 8.4 22.9 38.1 66.4 70.9 74.1 77.2 79.9 82.6 85.5 88.2 91.3 93.8 96.3 97.8 99.1 229 Omaha, bk.___ __________________ 13. 6 35.0 46.4 65.0 ____ 72.3 ____ 78.2 ____ 87.1 ____ 93.9 ____ 96.5 ___________ _
2.'30 Omaha, Hannahatchee cr. ________ 20.830.034.647.749.3150.855.261.171.282.792.596.998.599.2 99.6 99.9 249 Montezuma, bk. _____________________ 5.810. 9 34.1 ____ 48.9 ____ 61.3 ____ 73.7 ____ 88.1 ____ 96.2
273 Bell'sFiwry,OconeeR___________ ---- 3.219.141.947.252.157.963.068.274.081.988.695.299.31 99.71 99.9

rn ::::s
~
0 s
rrnn
~
.sCl)
~
5.96 5.51 5.75 6.19 5.63 5.88 5.24 4.19 4.41

"Tj

Cl)

..d
ron:s
~
~

+>
~
.+_>
0

~


."_a
0
+> ~

[j ~ ,.0~
gSot.

~
~ [j ~

Cl)+>
<:) ::::s
[j 0
P-i

~~ Cl) rn
P-i

,.0
z ~

1-- - - --

~
~
;J

t-:1

n. d. n. d.

231 176

224 l:;:j 225 t>:J

7.1 7.6 7.2 6.4

240 239 238 238

226 227 228
229

1a-c:J
t..l.:..l. 1-3
tl:l

n. d. 240 230

14.6 ------ 249 n. d. ------ 213

w
00

2'82

GEOLOGiCAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

THE CRYSTALLINE AREA1
EXTENT. AND SIZE
The Crystalline area in Georgia extends northwestward from the Fall Line to the South Carolina, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Alabama boundaries, and includes all but the following counties: Dade, Walker, Whitfield, Catoosa, .Chaitooga, Floyd and parts of Polk, Bartow, Gordon, and Murray counties. Its extent is limited on the southeast by the Coastal Plain sediments which have overlapped it.
PHYSIOGRAPHY
Piedmont Plateau.-The two outstan:di:ng features of the Crystalline area are the Piedmont Plateau and the Appala.chian Mountains. The Piedmont Plateau which occupies about a third of the area of the state slopes gradually up from the rolling terrain near the Fall Line to its poorly defined junction with the Appalachian Mountains t9 the north. Between these limits it increases from about
rn 500 to 1,200 feet elevation. In places, more resistant strata have
:produced isolated knobs or ridges, such as Pine and Oak mountains,
and Stone and Kennesaw mountains, which stand out above the rounded hill~ and the sbuthwestward:...trending ridges characteristic of of the Plateau.
Contrasted with the streams of the Coastal Plain those of the Piedmont- Plateau are swifter, with narrower, deeper valleys and with falls and rapids fairly common.
.llppalaohian .M_ountains.-The sou~hern end of the Appalachian Mountains, which extend along the eastern United States, southward frQm Pennsylvania, occupies a compara:tively- small triangular area in the extreme northern part of Georgia, noted- for its beautiful scenery, and irregularly dotted with steep mountain grOUP,S between which narrow, fertile valleys and areas of broken country, lie.
1 Abstracted from the following sources: Watson, T. L., Granites and gneisses of Georgia: Georgia Geol. Survey, Bull. 9-A, pp. 60-65, HJ02.. McCallie, S. W., Mineral resources of Georgia: Georgia Geol. Survey, Bull, 23, pp. 15-16 32-33, 1910.

S.AND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

283

This division includes all of Rabun, Union, Fannin, Gilmer, and Pickens counties, and parts of Murray, Dawson, Lumpkin, White, and Habersham counties.
Although its average elevation is about 2,000 feet, some of the mountain peaks exceed 4,500 feet. They have been produced by the elevation of a former peneplain and its subsequent dissection.. _ The irregular trend of the underlying rocks, together with the1r unequal hardness have contributed to the marked irregularity of these mountains as contrasted with those of the Appalachian Valley which adjoin them on the east.
The streams are generally swift and narrow with gravelly bottoms and high water falls not uncommon. Upon leaving the higher mountain area, they quickly widen out producing sandy and gravelly flood plains.

GEOLOGY
Piedmont Plateau.-The rocks underlying th~ Piedmont Plateau consist principally of schists and gneisses and subordinate amounts of granite, quartzite, and basic intrusions. Their age probably ranges from Archean to Triassic. Although usually highly metamorphosed by heat and pressure some of the rocks still retain evidence of unquestionable sedimentary origin, and others appear to be of igneous origin. In some localities their deformation has been so complete as to entirely prevent such a distinction. Their trend is usually N. 2030 E., and their dip generally is about 50 to the southeast.
Carolina gneiss .-The Carolina gneiss is believed to represent the oldest rock series in the Crystalline area. This formation occupies broad bands in which outcrops are scarce due to the deep weather- . ing characteristic of our southern states. Excessive metamorphism has practically removed all indications of its origin. Micaceous and garnetiferous schist and biotite and muscovite gneisses form the greater part of the series.
Lenses and layers of medium-grained granite occur persistently through the gneiss. Much coarse sand and gravel occur in the streams flowing through the Carolina gneiss area, and the sand readily shows its origin in the numerous schist fragments occurring in it.

284

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

Roan gneiss .-The Roan gneiss consists of basic schists and gneisses, dark in color, and gener:1lly decidedly scf.istose in texture. Later intrusions of granite are common through the gneiss, in fact, they sometimes entirely replace it. The Roan gneiss weathers to a dark red clayey soil which makes the formation easily_ recognizable. It usually occupies long narrow bands conforming to the general northeast-southwest trend of the main structure. The gneiss is particularly extensive northward from the vicinity of Atlanta into the Appalachian Mountain area, and is also prominent fn a narrow band just northwest of the Fall Line and paralleling it across the state. This series produces less sand and poorer sand than that derived from the other crystalline rocks.

INTRUDED ROOKS
The Crystalline area has been intruded during several periods by igneous rocks of widely differing composition.
Older i~neous rocks.-Granites of early age,_ usually gneissic in structure, cut the Carolina and Roan gneisses in many places. They generally contain cqnsider~ble -biotite :;tnd are high in plagioclase feldspar. Peridotites, gabbros and similar rocks also _occur intruding the _older gneisses.
Youn~e-r ~ranites .--=-Exten~ive areas in the Piedmont Plateau are underlain by granites, almost entirely lacking in schistosity, gneissic structure, and other evidences of metamorphic action. Their out.: crop is marked by bare, table'-like surfaces, or large rounded boulder~. Mineralogically they are usually biotitic with lesser areas of muscovitic granite. Their weathering produces fairly large quantities of cleari, quartz sand.

PINE MOUNTAIN QUARTZITE
Principally in Harris and. Meriwether counties, ,quartzite, rangi:qg from an impure schistose material to massive, granular, clean quartzite, outcrops in long, narrow, curving strips forming Oak and Pinemountains and several lesser extensions to the _northeast. Sometimes the silica content is very high, suggesting its possible use m silica brick or even glass manufacture.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

285

TRAP DIKES
Dikes of diabase or similar basic rock, probably of Triassic age, cut the rock of the Crystalline area at many points. Their linear extension -is usually quite marked, and their occurrence particularly notable in a wide belt northward from Bibb County to the vicinity of Gainesville.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF INDIVIDUAL COUNTIES
BANKS COUNTY
No sand or gravel is produced in Banks Count:v. Most of the streams, particularly Webb Creek, have fairly good sand.
Homer.-Webb Creek, where the Carnesville-Homer road crosses it, 2 miles east of Homer, has over 3,000 cubic yards of coarse-grained ~and. Some mica, schist and feldspar is in the sand, particularly in _coarse grains, but on the whole it is.very good and suited for concrete aggregate. Sample T-~05 A, obtained from this deposit, has a fineness modulus of 2.52 and 90 per cent is retained on the 48-mesh .s1eve.
Sand also occupies the bed of Hudson River for part of its course in the county, but no large uncovered deposits were seen. _
Alto.-The Southern Railway operates a large ballast pit half a mile north of Alto, in a quartz schist, or friable quartzite having a little mica and. feldspar scattered through it. The old pit is situated west of the railroad1 covers 6 or 7 acres, and has faces from 35 to 40 feet high. The desirable rock has been worked out on this side, and another pit has been opened 1,200 feet east of the old pit, where the quartzite is first broken with small dynamite charges and then loaded into cars with a steam shovel. From 5 to 10 cars are shipped daily.
In both quarries the bedding is plainly visible, but in tne newer quarry it is much thinner than in the old one. Two sets of joints traverse the rock. The beds dip uniformly to the east at an ang1e of 32 in the old pit and 29 in the recent opening. The strike ranges from N. 20 E. to N. 13 W. In the old quarry some crumpling is apparent, and the rock as a whole is much denser than that east of the

286

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

railroad. It pinche:s out at both ends to a sandy clay and gives place on either side to a less siliceous. schist. The rock in the new quarry is much softer and is replaced in many places py sand or clay. The overburden ranges from 3 to 1~ feet in thickness and consists mo_tly of clay.
BARROW COUNTY
No sand or gravel is produced commercially in Ba:rrow County. Winder .-Marburg Creek, 3 miles south of Winder, on the Monroe road, is ahout 8 feet wide and has small bars of coarse-grained, muddy sand, with at least 10 per cent of the grains composed of schist, feld- spar, and limonite. The sand should be suitable for most local. purposes. Five mil~s south of Winder, Shallow Creek, where crossed by the Monroe road, is 40 feet 1wide, and although shoaly, it has .sufficient coarse-grained sand to supply demands for local ~onstruction purposes.
BUTTS COUNTY
No sand is .produced for shipment in any part of Butts. County. Ocmulgee River and smaller stJ;"eams throughout the county have sufficient sand for local 'p~rposes if the transportation is adequate.
Sandy Oreek.-A Indian Springs, Sandy Cr~ek probably has mQr,e sand than any. creek in the county. In laying the foundation for 'the bridge at this place 22 feet of coarse sane! was encountered. The sand extends along the creek in its course through the county .and is especially abundant just above the da:tn at the springs. The sand is coarse-grained and has a few particles of schist, feldspar, and limonite besides the quartz.
Rooky Oreek.-Rocky Creek, in the southern part of the county, has sand in small bars which yield from 10 to 15 cubic yards each. The sand is coarse with some sub-angular and .angular gravel. Blue . clay forms the banks and uriderli.es the sand, which is usually 3 to 4 feet thick. Sample T-109 was taken from this cr.eek at the ForsythIndian Springs road and is fairly typical of Butts County creek sand. The fineness modulus is 2;62 and 85 per cent is coarser than 48 mesh. The organic color value is 100. The sand is yellowish-brown due to clay coating the particles. Feldspar composes about 10 per cent of the sand and makes up that part of it retained 011 the 4- and 6- mesh sieves.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

287

Yellowwater Creek.-Yellowwat.er Creek has good sand from Hodge's Mill to Ocmulgee River, although in smaller amounts than in Rocky Creek. A thick deposit is located at McCandless Bridge, 17:1 miles north of Jackson. Deson Branch of Yellowwater Creek also has good sand for local use.
Tussaha Creek.-Tussaha Creek, in the northwest part of the county, is backed up for 4 miles west of the river, but above this point there are several good sand bars, as well as sand in the backed creek which is not visible. Wolf Creek, a branch of Tussaha Creek, also has sand bars, in one place 18 feet having been encountered in excavating for a bridge foundation.
Indian and Cabin creeks in the southwest part of the county have sand. Sand is particularly prominent at Henley's Mill. Sand for use in construction work at Jackson is generally obtained from Town ~reek, southeast of the city.
Ocmulgee Eiver.-Ocmulgee River has large amounts of good sand. All the sand used in the construction of the great dam east of Jackson was obtained from this river. Shoals occur every fev;' miles along the stream, but in the quiet reaches between, the sand accumulates and affords an abundant supply for any construction work that may be undertaken near the river. Lack of transportation prevents its commercial development at present.
CAMPBELL COUNTY
The streams of Campbell County usually have small amounts of sand along their courses. A branch of Line Creek, half a mile southwest of Fairburn on the Riverside road, has deposited many carloads of excellent sand in the fields along its course just north of the road.
Small amounts of good sand are also found along Deep, Camp, Whitewater, Utoy, Bear, and Pea creeks. Large quantities of excellent sand occur in Chattahoochee River which forms the western boundary of the county. Although no railroad runs near the river, the sand can be recovered by centrifugal pumps and used for local construction work.
CARROLL COUNTY
Creek sand and gravel have been shipped in small quantities from some of .the streams in the northern part of Carroll County. The sand in the streams of the county is generally a clean, coarse-grained material, well suited for concrete aggregate.

288

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GE(JRGI.A

Carrollton.-_Sand for ~ocal use in Carrollton is hauled from Cur-

tis Creek, 1~ miles northeast of the _town. It occurs along and in

t"P.e cr-eek in bars containing _from 10 to 100 cubic yards and easily supplies the local demand.. Sample T-1~6~ from this creek, has a

fineness modulus of 2.09 and 70 per cent is coarser than 48 mesh.

Only a trace _of organic matter occurs in the sand. The sand is yel-

lowish-brown. Schist and limonite particles mostly in coarse grains,

compose 15 per cent of the sand.

,

The beds of both Little Tallapoosa and Chattahoochee 'rivers, are .

rather muddy, but some- poor sand is found in a few places along their

courses~

Tur~ey Creek, on the Burwell-Kansas ro.ad, has a large amount of

very high-gra;de sand and gravel. Jumping-in Creek; a branch of

Turkey Creek, has deposits from 300 to .500 feet wide, along its course.

This sand is not very thick, but it is a clean, white, mediUm.-grained

product desirable for concrete work.

.

In the vicinity of Lowell, in the southern pa;rt oft.he county, Whoop-

ing Creek has small quantities of good concrete sand. A small branch

of this creek near Bay Springs, has a red, somewhat clayey, sand.

Bear Creek.-.In the nQrthern part of -the county_ near Mandeville, Bear Creek and Buck Creek have fa!r quantities of excelle.nt coarse sand and gravel II!~~d.. Where. the 1\d:ande:yille:-;Mount Zion
roaa. crosses Bear Creek, Mr. J. T~ Thomp~on, of Carrolton, hauls
to sand from the creek bed the top of tlie'hl:U, 2,000 feet east, where
. it is transferred to truck$ and then -loaded .on cars on the Central of Geqrgia, Ra;ilway. Sample T-129 represent$ the sand from this bed.-
It 'has a, fineness modulus of 3;28 and 96 per cent is retained on the
48:f:!1esh screen. The organic color value is _150. The sand is buff-
colored a~d 2 per cent is coarser than a half inch-. 1t is composed
mostly- of iron-stained quartz and about 4 per cent of feldspar in the coarse grains~
. Similar sand occupies the bed of Poplar Creek on George Ernest's land;' a half mile east of Bowden Junction. Excellent esand is also found on J. W. Raburn's land from a half to three-quarters of a mile from the Junction.
Brawel~.-Op.e mile east of Burwell, on the Carrolton rqad, Boyle Creek is 8 feet wide and has fair quantities of good medium- to coarsegrained sand in its bed.
Snake Creelc.-Snake Creek probably has the largest and- best

SANJJ AND GRAVEL DEPOSI1'S OF GEORGIA

PLATE XVIll

A. CONCRETE SAND DEPOSIT 0 BANK OF YELLOW RIVER, 1 MILE EAST OF ALMOX ON COVINGTON ROAD, NEWTON COUNTY

B. SAND BAR IN APPALACHEE RIVER ABOVE STEEL BRIDGE, ATHENI -:\IADISOX ROAD, OCONEE AND MORGAN COUNTIES

S.AND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

289

sand deposit in Carroll County in a large bar just below Jones' Mill, east of Banning, in the southeast part of the county. This deposit is .about 1~ miles from the Central of Georgia Railway. Excellent sand occurs in bars and in the bed of the stream for most of its_ course.

CHEROKEE COUNTY
No sand or gravel, except for local purposes, has been produced in Cherokee County.
Canton.-Town Creek, on the Marietta road, south of Canton, has bars of good concrete sand with from 300 to 500 cubic yards each. The coarser sand and gravel occupy the bed of the streams or bars close to the channel, and farther back, a finer-grained sand used in the local marble-finishing works, is found. ,Sample T-181 is typical of the coarse concrete sand and has a fineness modulus of 3.40 and 91 per cent of it is retained on a 48-mesh sieve. The organic color value /is 200. The sand is brown and has 8 per cent coarser than a half inch. About 15 per cent of the sand is feldspar; limonite, in rounded balls, and schist are also common.
The finer-grained sand, used in the rubbing beds and under. the gang saws in the marble works, is represented by T-182, obtained along Town Creek. It has a :fineness modulus of 1.49 and 50 per cent is retained on the 48-mesh sieve. Further up this same creek even larger deposits of sand and gravel similar to that at Canton are found.
A fine-grained, brown molding sand occurs on the banks of Town Creek from 3 to 6 feet thick. It is prominently exposed on the outside of the curves near the Marietta road, and although ~t contains some- mica flakes, it should be suitable for foundry purposes (T-188.)
Sand is also obtained from the banks and bed of Etowah River just above the marble works and is used principally in cutting or polishing the marble and also for construction purposes. Mr. John Coggins handles sand for this purpose.
Sharp Mountain Creek has fine- to medium-grained sand in the stream bed and small scattered deposits of fine sand on the banks. The sand is dark brown and contains much schist, slate, and biotite, consequently, although it may be coarse-grained, it cannot be rec ommended for concrete of high specifications.
Gravel.-A belt of gravel passing through Canton, generally from east towest, is from 2 to 10 feet thick and has an excellent clay binder, making it desirable for road construction. Due to its occurrence in

290

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

the built-up section of the town, it is -difficult to use much of it. No other gravel has been found elsewhere in the county, although it would seem likely that deposits might be found if detailed search were made
of on the slopes and near the tops the hills, or upper terrace, over-
looking Etowah River and its larger tributaries near their junction with the river.
~
CLARKE COUNTY
No commercial sand or gravel has been produced in Clarke County. D~posits of excellent sand, however, are usually associated with the streams.
Middle Oconee River.-On the Watkinsville-Athens road, at Princeton bridge, a large deposit of excellent, coarse-grained' quartz sand well suited for. concrete purposes occurs in the streal!l bed. Probably several hundred cars of this sand could be obtained froin the river ju51t above the bridge and the. size and swiftness of the stream , w~uld insure a constant replenjshment of the sand. A finer-grained sand has also been deposited along the course of the river and further pack from the channel. Silt layers, deposited during floods, usually occur with this finer sand. The Seaboard Air Line Railway crossing, 4 miles .west of Athens, is the nearest rail point on the river, and it is likely that similar sand occlirs in the rjver at that pJace., Sand obtamed from theriver at the Mitcli~bridge was tested atthe Georgia Schoof of Technology and showed 13.7 and 114 per cent of normal at'~7 and 28 days, respectively.
At the confluence of Barber and Magnus creeks on tlie Watkinsville road, :a few 'miles beyond Oconee River, fairly large .amounts of coarse-grained sand occur in the stream bed which is about 30- feet
wide~
_ ".flthens .-Sa~d used locally in Athens is obtained principally from Trial Creek, just north of the city. This san~ occurs in _the creek bed in fairly large amounts and- is of an excellent quality. Sample T-115 is l.'epr~sentative of this sand, and it was found to have a fineness modulus of 2.Q6 and 85 per cent of the sand coarser tha:n 48 mesh. The organic color value is 50. 'J'he sand is a. pale reddish-brown and about 1 per cent each of feldspar and mica occur in the sand.
Lester Oreelc.-Lester creek, on the Talassee road 4 miles from Athens, has fair quantitie,s of very. good sand, similar to that in Trial Creek and suitable for local purposes, although not -sufficient for continued pumping.

SAND.AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

291

Magnus Creek.-Magnus Cree~, at the mill three-quarters of a mile south of the Athens-Winder road and 6 miles from Athens, has probably 200 carloads of sand just below the dam. This sand is medium to coarse-grained, and composed principally of quartz and feldspar and some mica flakes and schist fragments. The sand also occupies the stream banks 50 feet from the stream, which is about 25 feet wide at this point.

CLAYTON COUNTY
Sand was formerly produced at Rex along the Southern Railway in Clayton County, and considerable amounts suitable for local u~es occur in the stream beds.
Rex.-On the Estes property at Rex, sand was formerly pumped by the Smiley Sand Company from a branch of Cotton Creek where it had collected in a mill-pond. In busy times about 4 carloads a week were shipped. The deposit was limited and was soon exhausted, as is- the usual case in such small stream deposits. Considerable mud is said to occur with the sand. Since cessation of operations here it is likely that the mill-ponds along this creek have again become filled with sand and might warrant pumping. It is to be remembered, however, that the exhaustion of this sand Will depend on the rate-of pumpmg.
Jonesboro.-Some sand occurs in Mud Creek (Flint River), 1Y2
miles west of Jonesboro. It is medium-grained and of fairly good quality, and several thousand yards occupy the bed and banks of the stream. Four miles southwest of Jonesboro on the Fayetteville road, the same stream has a 709-foot bottom, and excellent coarse-grained sand from 2 to 8 feet thick occur in the bottom in fairly large quantities suitable for local use.
COBB COUNTY
Sand was formerly pumped from Nickajack Creek, near Nickajack station, and from Chattahoochee River, above Bolton. Considerable good sand occurs in Sweetwater, Proctor, and other creel_cs in Cobb County.
.d.cworth.---Dne mile south of Acworth on the Dixie Highway, Proctor Creek has large quantities of excellent coarse and fine sand and gravel. (Plate XVI-B.) The material is of white quartz, the pebbles ranging up to- 4 inches in diameter, and the deposits are from

292

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

2 to 5 feet thick. The bars extend ~long the creek for several miles, ' alternating from one side of the stream _to the other, and are capable
of yieldip.g from 200 to 1,500 yards of concrete aggregate each. Sample T-180, obtained from .the creek just above the Dixie Highway and
.;
one mile south of Acworth, has a fineness modulus of 4.96 and 54 per cent fs coarser than the 48-mesh sieve.
A smaller creek, 5 miles north of Marietta on the Dixie Highway, has excellent concrete sand: It forms a large deposit of several acres close to the road and apparently has _several thousand cubic yards
of sand. Aoout a b:a:lf mile fmther south on the same road, another
,branch has smaller quantities of good concrete sand in the stream /
bed and along the banks.
. .Marietta.-The- streams and branches close to Marietta have good quantities of sand suitable for conc:r:ete. and other building purposes. Gravel is said to occur at and near the top of the ridge of hills extendmg around the south side of the_ city. The gravel is ex.,. posed in a cut on the Louisville & Nashville Railroad just south of the town. The city has a small pit at the top of the ridge east of the Dixie Highway and near the railroad.
iN'ickajack Oreek.-The Smiley- Sand Company, of Atlan.ta, formerly pump~d a coarse..:grained sand from Nickaijack Creek half a mile from. Nickajack station. Four or five cars could be produced here daily, but some difficulty was. encountered with the rocks and trash in the stream, and it is doubtfUl whether a steady Sl!lpply exceeding 1 or 2 cars daily could be maintained year in and out.
-.
Chattahoochee River.-Cnattahobchee .River ltas large amounts of excellent medium- to coarse-grained sand in its bed through most of Cobb County. The sand was formerly pumped commercially above the water works at Bolton by the Smiley Sand Company. During the freshet of December, 1919, the river deposited between 3 and 4 acres of fine- to medium-grained sand from 3 to 6 feet deep on the Cobb County side just above the River (Marietta) Road bridge. The Georgia Railway and Power Company has bought this deposit and
has put in a splir and uses the sand for- sanding rails and for construc-
tion purposes. That part of the deposit nearest the road is very finegrained, but the .ea,stern end has excellent medium- to coarse-grained sand with a few pebbles and is well suited for concrete aggregate.
COLUMBU COUNTY
..
No sand or gravel is produced in Columbia County. On the

S.AND .AND GR.AYEL DEPOSITS

293

Thomson-Appling road, 7 miles from Appling, at White Oak (colored) Church, a strip of yellow, fine-grained sand, one mile wide, occurs. The deposit is at least 6 feet thick and is apparently an extension of the Fall Line sand-hill belt. The upper 3 feet of this sand is very fine-grained and of little value, but it becomes coarser below. Sample T-110 .!1 showed a fineness modulus of 1.96 and 69 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. The organic color value is 200.

.!lppling.-Good, coarse-grained sand in fairly large quantities and suitble for local demands, occupies the bed of Big Kiokee Creek, just east of Appling on the Augusta road.
Greenbriar Creek, 3 miles west of Appling, is from 6 to 8 feet wide and has a very coarse sand, with fragments of schist and feldspar common. This sand is typical of the small streams in Appling County and is well suited for most conciete work. Sample T-111, taken from this creek on the Appling-Lincolnton road, has a fineness modulus of 3.21 and practically all of it was coarser than the 48-mesh screen. The sand is dark gray and contains about 7 per cent feldspar in coarse grains and numerous flakes of mica up to one-eighth inch.
Kegg Creek, a few miles further north, and about the same size as Greenbriar Creek, has sand similar to that in the latter creek.
Little River, which forms the northern boundary of the county, is usually very swift, but it was reported to have mostly a rocky bottom with little sand. Savannah River, which forms the northeast boundary of the county, should have large bars of good sand. It was reported, however, that there were only small quantities of sand either along or in the river.

Harlem.-Three miles west of Harlem, a red limonite gravel

occurs along the Augusta road for 1,000 feet. In a cut on the Georgia

Railroad paralleling the public road, it attains a maximum thickness

of 4 feet. This material is somewhat irregular in its extent and may

have a considerable thickness of day above it. nmakes an excellent

road matenal, however.

I

A mile east of Harlem, in a railroad cut, two layers of quartz and

limonite gravel may be seen, with pebbles up to 2 inches in diameter,

The layers are about a foot thick and a foot apart. One to two feet

of quartz gravel shows up ~n a railroad cut, and also along the Au-

gusta road, 3 miles east of Harlem. A small pit has been opened on

the Augusta road, 3 miles east of Harlem, and a sandy clay gravel

has been used for road material.

294

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

COWETA COUNTY
The streams of Coweta County afford adequate supplies of sand for all local work, although none but Chattahoochee River is large enough to warrant commerc1al recovery.
- ?fewnan.-Walton Creek, on the Roswell road northwest of Newnan, has small. bars. of.. medium- to. coarse-grained sand. Similar sand is found in this stream on the Carrolton road near the Central of Georgia Railway crossing. The creek here is 20 feet wide with' a rather rocky 'bed and the sand, although composed of- hard quartz grains, usually has a large amount of cinders. On the Newnan-Atlanta road, 2}2 miles from Newnan, there is a small amount of coarse, brown sand suitable for concrete and use9- in Newnan.
Three- miles north of Gr?-ntville, on th~ Newnan road, a branch 10 feet wide has sp1all bars of medium-grained sand wp.ich should yield
10 to 50 cubic yards each. Similar sand in larger quantities occurs
- along .Sandy Creek in the western part of the county. Lme Creek, forming the eastern boundary of Coweta County, has
fairly good, coarse-grained sand as does White Oak- Creek, which is 20 feet wide on the Fayetteville--Newnan road. _ A branch of White Oak Creek only 6 feet wide on this road; 6 miles east of Newnan, b,as s;rnaller amounts of good sand. Sample T-,-122 A, obtained from the
-last::riafued creek,' is very typical of the -character of th"'e creek sands in
this' county; A mechanical analysis showed a fineness modulus of 2.62 ~trd 98 per cent colirser- than the 48-mesh sieve.
. DAWSON COUNTY
No sand or gravel has been produced in Dawson County. Excellent coarse-grained, yellow, quartz sand covers ab<;mt 10 acres of the property of E. C. Burdine, 11 half mile east of Yellow Creek _post<;>ffice, and along Amicalola- Cr:eek. The deposit _is from 2 to 4 feet thick and is underlain by blue clay. Similar but smaller deposits occur along the same creek on the Hill and Merian Voyles' properties. Yellow Creek, in the southwest part of--the county, has fine~grained, white sand along its banks and in the stream bed at n'!-1-lUerous places. - Dawsonville.-Near Dawsonville, Shoal, Pigeon, and Flat creeks, _and their branches have only _small quantities of coarse-. sand, su:ffi-_cient, however, for any local deman~s. Etowah River, which flows through the southern part of the county, ha~ the largest deposits of -sand in the county, usually in bars along its course. Coarse gravel occurs at Dougherty, but with very little sand.

SAND .AND GR.A.VEL DEPOSITS

295

Just south of Dixon, on the Gainesville road, a branch of Thompson Creek, 10 feet wide, has a coarse-grained sand 2 feet in thickness. A red clay lies beneath the sand.
Chestatee River.-Hundreds of carloads of coarse-grained sand have been deposited in Chestatee River above Glover's Mill. (See sample T-197, Hall County.) A large bar deposit occupies the bed of the -stream just below the mill.
DEKALB COUNTY
Considerable quantities of sand are found in Peachtree and North creeks, and in and along Yellow River, but no commercial shipments have been made.
Decatur.-The sand used in Decatur is generally hauled from points along Peachtree Creek, 2 to 4 miles distant. Large amounts of good, medium- to coarse-grained sand occur on the W. J. Houston property, on Peachtree Creek below the Houston Mill road. From this .place to the Seaboard Air Line Railway bridge from 10 to 50 carloads of excellent soo.d occur at many points in the stream.
Conley.-In the bed of North Creek, just north of Conley in Clayton County, and east of the Southern Railw&.v trestle, a large deposit of coarse-grained, concrete sand occurs, coutaining about 4,000 yards. The sand is of excellent quality, and about 1915 an average of one carload a day was shipped from t~s point: The stream, however, does not appear to be large enough to replenish sand taken from it atthat rate, and none has been shipped from there recently. Sample T-5, obtained from the creek bed, has a ~eness modulu- of 2.32 and 89 per cent is retained on the 48-mesh screen.
DOUGLAS COUNTY
No sand or gravel is mined in Douglas G::unty, although most of the streams have fairly good sand in sufficient quantities for local purposes.
Sweetwater Creek and its branches in the eastern part of the county have fine-grained sand in the deeper parts, but where the stream is more s_hoaly good concrete sand occurs. - Beaver Creek, near Lithia Springs, has very good, coarse-grained, quartz sand that is used locally. Camp Creek and Cane Creek in the southern part of the county have good coarse sand in small quantities along most of their courses.
.d.neewakee Creek.-On the Douglasville-Chapel Hill road, Anee-

296

GEOLOGICAL SURYEY O'F GEORGIA

wakee Creek is 25 feet wide anEl"'has excellent, co-arse-grained concrete sand both in the .streani bed and along the banks. , 'l!he latter is from 4 to 6 feet thick above the bridge, and the deposit near here contains about 1,000 cubic yards~ Sample T-130 was obtained from this creek and has a fineness,modulus of 2.91 and 93 per cent of the sand is coarser than 48 mesh. -
Bear Creek, in the western part of the county, has excellent sand,
particularly on the R~ach place and near Adamson's. Mill. Dog River,
in the southwest :part of the county, has plenty of coarse sand in its besf. Deposits of sand have also been made in the flats along ~he stream. One of the largest deposits occurs near New Hope Church.

ELBERT COUNTY

_The large amount of granite in Elbert County accounts for the

high quartz content of the stream sands. Although npne is produced
co:tnmercially, the deposits are of a very high grade of sand, partic-

ularly those along Broad lli\\er.

Broad River.-Just below the steel bridge o~ the Elberton-Berkley road, is a large bar of clean, coarse-grained, qu~rtz sand having a little

feldspar and some limonjte fragments. The river is shoaly at this

point, 'but its speed insures the constant replenishment of the bar,

which proBably has over lO;OOOcubic yards of sand: Similar deposits

occur along the .stream throughout most of its course in the county.

(Plate XVII-A.)

,

Between the steel bridge and Elberton, Little Dove and Big Dove

creeks, 10 and 20 feet wide, respectively, have good quantities of

clean, coarse-grained, quartz sand. .

Elb~rton.-'='Sand used in Elberton is obtained principally from

Falling Creek, southwest of the town on the Jones' Ferry road. Most

of the sand comes from the Dillard Brown property, although other

deposits occur up and down the stream. The sand is yellow and me-

dium-grained; but is suitable for concrete work. Sample T-203 .il,

represents the sand, and it s~ows a fineness modulus of 2.38 and 85

per cent coarser than the 48-mesh sieve. The color value of the or-

game content is 150.





Beaverdam Creek,. on the Elberton-Hartwell roa4, is 30 feet wide,

.and has, bars and deposits of medium- to coarse-grained sand from 2

to :5 feet thick. The stream bed is made up of finer-grained sand a

foot or two thick with a large percentage of mica flakes and organic

matter.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

297

Morea Creek, in the northern part of the county, is 15 to 20 feet wide and a medium-grained quartz sand, suitable for concrete, occupies its course. The sand is yellowish and has some feldspar and limonite grains.

F .A.NNIN COUNTY
No sand or gravel has ever been produced commercially in the county. The deposits of good sand in the ccmnty are genera,lly very small, scattered, and in remote places.
Toccoa Eiver.-The bed of Toccoa River is usually rocky, al. though some good deposits of sand and gravel are found in it. A very fine-grained sand has been deposited along its banks, suitable only for brick work. Sample T-186, obtained at the west side of the bridge on the Blue Ridge-Morganton road, has a fineness modulus of 1.30 and 36 per cent coarser than 48 mesh.
Bars of fairly good sand and gravel occur in Fightingtown Creek and~in Hemptown Creek between Hemp and Blue Ridge.

FAYETTE COUNTY
The_ surface of Fayette County is rolling and underlain mostly with mica schist which is intruded by a porphoritic granite in the central part of the county.
Lowry.-Bank sand was formerly shipped from the west side of Flint River by Venable Brothers, of Atlanta, near the water tank on the Southern Railway, one mile north of Lowry Station. The sand is practically all removed from this deposit, although several hundred carloads of a yellowish, fine-grained sand might still be obtained. A finer, more clayey, reddish material is associated with the sharp sand, generally overlying it, and it appears to be suitable for some types of foundry work.
Further up Flint River, about 2 miles above the part described above, some fauJy good depositf' of medium-grained sand are said to occur on the left bank of the stream.
Whitewater Greek.-There is considerable good sand in Whitewater Creek above Bennett's dam, about 3 miles from Fayetteville. Small deposits occur along this creek suitable for local purposes.
Flat Creek, in the western part of the county, is 8 feet wide on the Fayetteville-Newnan road, and has small quantities of sand (from

298

GEOL.OGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

10 to 50 cubic yards) in bars along its cofuse. The sand is somewhat . muddy. with a considerable percentage of schist particles. Similar
sand, but in larger quantities, is found in Line Creek, which separates Fayette County from Coweta County.

FORSYTH COUNTY

No sand or gravel has ever been produced in Forsyth County, although the streams generally have good amounts of fair sand, which is available and well suited for _any local construction work that may be undertaken.
Cummin!f.-Big Creek and a b_rancb. of Vickery Creek, one mile west of Cumming on the Canton road, is 6 to 8 feet wide and affords the local supply. Th~ sand is medium- to coarse-grained and has a large percentage of feldspar, limonite and_ mica. Concrete strength ratio tests. of this sand made at the Georgia School_ of Technology, showed 101 and 93 per cent of normal at 7 and 28 days, respectively. Further down the creek the deposits become larger arid the percentage of softer- particles less.
Sitting Down Creek is very sandy throughout its course in the county, until within 3 miles- of the Chero4:ee County line, where it - becomes sluggish and deposits only silty sand and mud.
Chi:tttahoochee- River, which forms th~ eastern boundary of the county, has many bars and much coarse- and fine-grained sand in its bed for :q1ost of its course along the- coun~y.

FR.llUffiiN COUNTY

_ The streams of Franklin County sb:ould afford' sUfficient sand for

most local purposes, although none- is shipped.

The North Fork of Broad River, where ~the Bowersville-Carnes-

ville road crosses it, is 50 or 60 feet wide, very shoaly and has some

muddy, fine-grained sand along the stream and very dirty, medium-

grained sand in small quantities .in the stream hed. Sand having a

large percentage of mica and limonite generally extends along the bank

of the river.



Stephens Creek, south and southeast of Carnesville, is 8 feet wide

and has .mall deposits of fairly -co~rse sand suitable for concrete pur-

poses which are used Ioeally.

West of Carnesville, the Middle Fork of Broad River is more rapid

than the North Fork, but the sand is poor and has a great deal of

clay and mud wherever the stream bed is not full of rocks.

SAND 11ND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

299

Hudson River, forming the southern boundary of the county, has a coarse-grained sand of very good quality in large amounts, although it is inaccessible for most purposes at present.

FULTON COUNTY
Like most other North Georgia counties, the streams of Fulton County have large amounts of good, concrete sand.
.d.tlanta.--8and for local uses in Atlanta is obtained from Peach-. tree, Utoy, Proctor, Clear, and many other smaller creeks and branches, either by pumping or by hand. Considerable sand is also gotten from accumulations in small branches and gullies in the less built-up portions of the city.
Acme Sand and Supply Company.-The Acme Sand and Supply Company owns land along Peachtree Creek near the intersection of the creek and Peachtree Road. The plant of the company is in.stalled just east of the road about 200 yards south of the bridge. (Plate VI-B.) The sand is pumped from the stream with a 6-inch Trenary pump, made by the Mutual Foundry and. Machinery Company, of c Atlanta, and raised to 26 feet, where it is discharged on a rotating, cylindrical trommel having r\-inch meshes which take out the twigs, cmders, and pebbles. The sand then passes down a wooden sluice to a wooden settling tank in which it collects. and from which the clay passes off in the water until the weight of the sand is sufficient to force down a circular iron valve which is held tightly against an opening in the bottom of the tank by a shaft to which a counterbalance is attached acting through a horizontal arm. The sand is then allowed to collect in a chute or boot from which, by raising a door, a one-yard. tram-car can be loaded. The loaded car is pulled up an inclined track, 100 feet long, by a cable system operated by a gasolerie engine, and dumped into bins facing on Peachtree Road, from which 3-ton auto trucks are loaded. (Plate VIII-A.) The sand is delivered to all parts of Atlanta, the price depending on the distance. Sample T-~, representing the washed sand, has a fineness mo-dulus of 2.45 and 89 per cent is coarser than 48 mesh. The color value of the organic matter is 200.
Peachtree Creek, at the Acme Sand and Supply Company plant, is about 30 feet wide and normally from 1 to 2 feet deep. Sand can usually be pumped out to a depth of from 6 to 14 feet. The pumped sand passes through a maximum of 300 feet of 6-inch pipe, supported

300

GEOLOGI;CAL SURVEJ( OF G-EORGIA

OJ!l barrel floats before re~clring the pump-house. Little difficulty has

been experienced in maintaining a fair supply of sand,..although long

spells of dry weather with no opportunities for the replenishment of

the sand, may give trouble.

Peachtree Creek at other points along its course has large quan-

tities of good sand. This is particularly true near its intersection

with Piedmont Road, on theN. H. Cheshire property, and at its inter-

section with the Howell Mill Road.

a Fulton County.-The Pepartment of Public Works of Fulton
County operates 6-inch Morris centrifugal pump on the creeks in

Fulton County to obtain sand. for construct!on purposes. .The pump . has been at w~rk on Btoy Creek, at Cascade Road during 1919, but

in the spring of 1920 it was moved to South River on the Jonesboro

Roo,d. A 14-horsepower boiler and a 20-horsepower steam engine are

used to operate the pump. From 1 to' 5 cars of sand daily have been

pumped from the creek, but such a production cannot be kept up

constantly unless the season is rainy, and the streams are kept full

of sand. The pump has also been operated on Utoy Creek on the

Campbellton and ,Newnan roads, and on Proctor Creek .at the Mason-

Turner Road.



Proctor Creek.-Sand for local building.purposes' is obtained from_,

Proctor Creek .above .Bellwood .Av~nue, and ~s also.iused by the Georgia RU:il~ay and Power Company to sand the 13treet par rails in Atlanta.

The. sand is shoveled from the stream by hand: into wagons.from which

cars are loaded. Sand is also obtained from this creek near the inter-

section with the River Road, a mile east of Riverside. Sand has also

been. gotton from Terrill Creek along the line of the Georgia Railway

and Power Company.

()lear Creek.-Along Clear Creek, on the J. G. Johnson prop-

erty,. 200 yards west of Piedmont 4:-venue, close to its intersection

with the Southern Railway, excellent, medium- and coarse-grained

sand has collected. The deposit in this vicinity has several hundred

cubic yards of sand and the material is hauled to nearby points for

construction purposes.

ChaUahooohe.e River.-The Smiley Sand Company of Atlanta

formerly operated a pump on Chattahoochee River just above the

water-works at Holton. The sand obtained was of excellent quality

and little- trouble was experienced in maintai11ing the desired supply.

Irn.nlense quantities of fine-grained sand have collected behind Bull

Sluice dam and as far up as the Roswell bridge; Sample T-4 from a

SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

301

bar in the river above the dam, has a fineness modulus of 1.26 and 26 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. A still finer sand, sample T-3, having a fineness modulus 6f 1.04, has been deposited in large quantities on the banks of the river between the bridge and the dam. Sand of this type would be excellent for asphalt paving. Coarser sand has collected in the impounded stream at a considerable depth just above the dam. Rail transportation is within a half mile to the west where the Southern Railway crosses the river. Below the dam large quantities of coarse-grained sand are exposed in the stream bed.
GILMER. COUNTY
No sand or gravel has been produced for shipment in Gilmer County. Most of the river sand is fine-grained and that in the creeks is coarse and compqsed mostly of schist and limonite particles._
Ellijay.-Sand is obtained from the bed of Cartecay River near the railroad at East Ellijay, but the material is fine-grained and suitable for brick and plaster work only. Sand from the bank of this river at the Shippers' Lumber Company, 5 miles northeast of Ellijay, was tested at the Georgia School of Technology and found. to contain only 40 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. The strength of mortar made from the sand was only 40 per cent of normal. Some sand also occurs in Ellijay and Coosawattee rivers, but they are swift, and their beds are rocky. Mountain Town Creek probably has the best sand and gravel of any stream in the county. It occurs in small deposits in the stream for a distance of 5 or 6 miles above its junction with Ellijay River.
Sand from Drunkar-d's Spring, 1% miles east of Ellijay, was also tested and found to have 70 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. The strength of mortar made from this sand was only 54 per cent of nor: maL The sand had a large amount of orga:illc matter also.
Licklog, Clear, and Tickanetley creeks, in the southeast part of the county, have small sand deposits suitable for any local construction work that may be undertaken.
GREENE COUNTY
No sand or gravel is shipped from Greene County.
Greensboro.-8and supplies near Greensboro are not in large quantities nor of the highest quality. A large amount has been ob-
tained from theW. T. Speer property, 1Yz miles southeast ofthe town

302

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

on the. Siloam road. T4e sand her~ covers several. acres and is from 1 to~ feet in depth. It has been deposited pa:r_:tly by a smalL stream during heavy rains. The sand is gray, medium-grained,. and has a rather high percentage of loam.
Beaverdam Creek, on the Veazey road 4 miles south of Greensboro, is 20 feet wide and from l to 2 feet deep. and has small amounts of excellent, coarse-grained sand in its bed and along its banks. This sand has been hauled to Greensboro for local use. Sample T-261 is typical of the sand and showed a fineness modulus of 4.05 and 99.2 per cent coarser than 48 mesh.
Areas of gray Jand in Greene County generally indicate underlying granite whose weathering produces a somewhat loamy sand, but suitable for most local work. Small depos}ts of this kind are .particularly noticeable on the Union Point road,_ 2 miles northeast of Greensboro, on the Ward and Williams places.

GWINNE'l,.T COUNTY

The sand and gravel in Gwinnett County are restricted to the

streams, and although none is produced commercially, they afford an

adequate local supply for most purposes.

-

-

Lawrenceville.-One and a half miles southeast of Lawrenceville,

near Ewing Mill, on Shoal Creek, deposits. of coarse-grained sand,

having from 25 to 50 cubic yards ha-ve been Jeft by the creek during_

high water. The sand is fairly good, althoug~ it has a large amount

of schist and limonite fragments. Similar p~,tches occur at intervals

alo:Jlg the creek, below this deposit. Similar sand is obtained for use

in Lawrenceville from Wildcat Creek on the Buford road.

. Duluth.-One mile north of Duluth, a small branch which has been dredged for drainage purposes, shows the following typical section in its banks:

Section of bank of Branch Creek, one mile west of Duluth
Feet Brown, fine-grl!-ined sand would apparently make a fair mold-
blgsand--------------~---------------------------- 3 Yellow, silty sand better suited for molding_______ :.. ______ _ 2 Blue clay--------------------------~------------------- 3
Sections such as this .are usually found in the .bottom lands and along the bank~ of most of the streams in North Georgia. The coarse sand lies bel~w and is at present only exposed in t4e bed of the streai:n.

SAND AND GR-:AVEL DEPOSITS

303

Suwannee.- Suwannee Creek, about a half mile east of Suwannee, on the Lawrenceville road, at the water-pumping station, has a large quantity of coarse-grained sand and some gravel. Particles of schist and limonite make up about 25 per cent of the deposit. This sand is hauled to Buford and Suwannee and used in local construction work. Sample T-199, from this deposit, has a fineness modulus of 3.30 and 90 per cent is coarser than 48 mesh. The organic color value is 100. About two miles below this point on the same creek there is a large deposit of similar sand. Smaller patches having from 30 to 50 cubic yards occur along the creek to Chattahoochee River.
HABERSHAM COUNTY
No sand or gravel has been shipped from Habersham County. Clarkesville.-Good sand is found in most of the creeks near Clarkesville. Sample T-19~ was obtained from Hazel Creek, one mile from Clarkesville on the Tallulah Falls road, and is fairly typical of the char-acter of the sand met with through the county. It has a fineness modulus of 2.61 and 84 per cent is retained on the 48-mesh sieve.. The organic color value is 200. The sand is reddish-yellow, and schist and feldspar make up 50 per cent of the particles over 14 mesh.. Mica is also common in coarse flakes. Soque River, along most of its course, is filled with a fine-grained sand of little value. Similar sand has been deposited on its banks, and very little coarse sand is found in the river exc~pt in the northern part of the county. Chattahoochee River, on the road between Clarkesville and Helen,
I
has a large deposit of sand and gravel. Sample T-191;, taken from the river at this point, has a fineness modulus of 4.42 and 37 per. cent is retained on the 4-mesh sieve. Similar sand and gravel occupy the bed of the river for most of its course along the western boundary of the county.
Cornelia.-Little Hazel Creek and its branches furnish an excellent natural concrete aggregate. That from Little Hazel Creek near Mount Airy has been successfully used in the construction of bridges and other concrete structures in the vicjnity.
HALL COUNTY
No sand or gravel is produced commercially in Hall County. Gainesville.-8and used in Gainesville, and not shipped in from

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

commercial pits; is usually obtained from' small .surficial deposits pro-: duced by the weathering of granitic gneiss and from gullies in which it collects after heavy rainstorms; "The supply is limited to small

amounts which are qUickly exhausted, until more.is carried down by the temporary streams. The sand is grayish:..white a1ad has a large _ percentage of silt. Most of the sand is obtained from the Dixon, Spain, and Finger properties, all located north of Gainesville from one to two miles on or near the Dahlonega road. Sand of this kind a;lso occuts on the farm of the North Georgia Power Company, 1~ nriJ.es nor.th of Gain:esville. Saro~le T-198, from the last-named locality, is typical of the sand, and has a fineness modulus of 1.99 and 70 per cent is coarser :than the 48-mesh sieve.- 'The organic color value is 700 and the grains are almost entirely of angular quartz-.

'
Ohestatee River.-Ten r:p.iles west of Gainesville; on the Dawsonville road; for almost a mile above the dam at Glover's Mill, Ohestatee River is filled with thousands of yards of coarse-grained, quartz sand, -

containing a few black particles of schist and limonite and some larger pebbles up to 1 or 2 inches in diameter. This material can easily be ..remeved by dredging,. but its distance from a railroad will prevent

its utilization except for local projects. Below the dam is a bar or island containing about ~ne acre and composed of similar coarse sand f:vom-3-.to :6~feet:,thick Sample .T-19;7, tak~n from this ba:v, is typical

of the sand in Ghestatee River from Glov_er's Mill to its confluence

with Oh~ttahoochee River. The sand_ has a- fineness modulus of 3.46

and 94- per cent is coarser than 4'8 mesh. The organic color value

is 250.. Two per cent of the sand exceeds a half inch in size and the

coarser particles consist of equal amounts of quartz, feldspar, schist,

limonite, and mica.

Chattahoochee River, which flows through Hall County from the

northwest corner to its junctio.n with Ches-tatee River at the center of

the western edge of the county, has a great many sand bars along

/

its cou'rse. The sand is similar to that on Chestatee River. The

bed of the river is usually composed of coarse gravel and sand similar

to that above the steel bridge on the Gainesville-Dawsonville road.

HARALSON COUNTY

No sand or gravel is produced for commercial shipment in Haral-

son County, although adequate supplies for local purposes occur in

\

most of the streams. The best sand and gravel are found in the streams

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

305

in the southern part of the county, particularly in Walker Creek and its branches.
_Big Tallapoosa River, in the northern part of the county, generally has a rocky or muddy bottom, although in places small bars of good sand have collected. At the Central of Georgia Railway crossmg there is only a very small amount of sand.

HARRIS COUNTY
Except on the ridges in the northern part of Harris County, the surface is usually covered _:with many feet of residual clay produced
from the weathering of the gneisses. No commercial sand or. gravel
is produced in the county, although extensive beds of quartzite, of differing degrees of purity and hardness, occur, and they may have commercial possibilities.
Hamilton.-Coarse sand of good quality for concrete, although containing 10 per cent of schist particles, occurs on the flats adjoini;ng Mulberry Creek at Mobley's Mill, just west of the bridge on the Co-
lumbus-Hamilton road. A. finer-grained sand, suitable for brick work,
li~s fa:r:ther from the creek. Sand similar to that in Mulberry Creek is found in smaller quantities in Osahatchee Creek. Small quantities of fair sand occur in Mountain Creek northwest of Pine Mountain.
Pine Mountain Quartzite.-Pine Mountain extends across the nort:hern part of the county from Hargett on Chattahoochee River to the Meriwether county line southwest of Warm Springs. White, gray, and yellowish quartzite, in various stages .of metamorphism, composes the mountain and dips uniformly to the northwest 30 to 50, with a strike of about N. 70 E. Oak Mountain, a much shorter and lower ridge, extending eastward from Hamilton to the county line, is composed of the same quartzite. On Oak Mountain the quartzite dips southward from 30 to 40, indicating a simple anticlinal structure between it and Pine Mountain in this county. Layers of gneiss and schist, .sometimes graphitic, are interbedded with the quartzite and may sometimes grade into it, particularly that exposed on Oak Mountain. Outcrops of the quartzite are almost continuous and very prominent on the south side of Pine Mountain, but the bed-rock is usually concealed on the north side by a mantle of fragmental quartzite, sand, and clay, except in the cuts along the new Columbus road. The quartzite has two well-defined joint systems: the one having a
.,

306

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

general. northwest-southeast trend, and the other a northeast-southwest t~end. The bedding planes are usually prominent, and the

strata range frbm a fraction of an inch to 4 or 5 inches in thickness.

Metamorphic- action has crushed the quartzite in many places, giving

it a schistose appearance as well as flattening the individual quartz

grains and causing, secondary crystaJiization. In texture, it rang!s

from a dense vitreous quartzite to a friable sandstone. Mica flakes,

apparently of secondary origin, are common and are found in the bed-

ding planes. Secondary quartz stringers and lenses due to recrystal-

lization of the silica, are also found. Pyrite crystals occur through

the quartzite, sometimes in considerable amounts. The 'quartzite

ranges. in color from an almost pure white to a pinkish-, or even a

reddish-brown. Mica flakes and quartz crystals may give a mottled

appearance to the quartzite.

At Tip Top, in a. cut of the Central of Georgia Railway, the grain

structure of the quartzite is plainly visible. The rock here is brittle

and easily crushed, and it has been quarried and used to supace roads, / as far off as. Columbus. The material, however, does not appear to

be well suited for road 'building, due to its friability. The quartzite

, at this point is similar to sample T-99, an analysis of which showed

1.10 per cent .of iron oxide ~Fe20a).

.

Qn the south side of Pine MoUiitain,.. the quartzite exposed on

the Hamilton-Copeland road, near the top, is well-bedded and dense,

but it has a poorly defuied' grain structure. Upon crushing, such

material should be suitable for .the manufacture of silica brick, al-

though it is not as dense or tough as the ganister rock used so widely

in Pennsylvania for this purpose.. The dip of the quartzite 4ere is

33 to the northwest and the strike N. 42 E.
At King's Gap, 2Yz miles northeast of Tip Top and on the Chipley-.

Shiloh road, the quartzite is well exposed, dipping to the northwest

at about 38. .The material here is more thinly bedded and schistose

than to the southwest and consequently not so tough or pure.

On the Shiloh-Warm Springs road, at the junction of Harris, Tal-

bot, and Meriwether counties and on the south side of Pine Mo~tain,

a thin-bedded, rathe_r rotten, iron-stained quartzite, highly meta-

morphosed, and containing secondary quartz and mica, outcrops for.-

several hUJ:l;dred feet. The rock dips 32 to the north and strikes

N. 85. E. Toward the top of the ridge the dip becomes almost hori-

zontal, and the grains become coarser and the beds thicker, although

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

307

the thicker beds can be easily divided due to their friability. Two well-defined jointed systems are prominent in the exposures along this road. Partings in the quartzite about half an inch thick and separated by mica flakes occur.- Quartz veins from 1 to 3 inches wide are seen in some places. Sample T-99, representative of the lower part of the exposure was analyzed.

Analysis of quartzite from Pine .Mountain, ShilohWarm Springs road, T-99
Loss on ignition_ ____________________________________ 1. 28 Soda (Na20) ________________________ _..: ___ __ _________ 0. 08 Potash (K20)_______________________________________ 0.03 Lime (CaO)___ _______ ___ _____ ____ __ ___ ___ ___ __ _____ _ 0.00 Magnesia (MgO) _-- ____________________ -~ ____ __ _____ 0.00 Alumina (AhOa) __ ___ __ ______ _________ _____ ___ ____ __ 4. 99 Ferric oxide (Fe zO a)_________________________________ 1. 10 Manganous oxide (MnO) ______ ___ ___ _______ ____ ______ trace Titanium dioxide (Ti02)- _______ __ ____ _____ __ __ ______ 0. 28 .Silica (SiOz) _______________ ---- ______ ____ ____ __ _____ 92.11
TotaL_____________________________ ____ ____ __ __ 99 _87
Although the iron content seems too high for glass manufacture, the silica per cent appears suitable for silica brick purposes, especially as it can be easily crushed. The high alumina content would reduce its__ melting point somewhat.
~Oak .Mountain.-On the Shiloh-Columbus road, on the southern slope of Oak Mountain, the quartzite outcrops for a distance of 50 feet dipping southward 36 and striking S. 85 E. A small displacement of a few hundred yards appears to have acted approximately north and south at the site of the gap. The quartzite is thinly bedded, but more vitreous and finer than the Fine Mountain variety in this county. One thousand feet further north, and separated by thinlybedded, impure quartzite, a 20-foot exposure of the quartzite may be
/
seen. It is more granular, more thinly bedded, and not so hard as the first outcrop. Adjoining, and underlying .this exposure, badlyweathered schist may be seen. The soil of Oak Mountain has a more reddish tinge than that of Pine Mountain, so it is likely that the quartzite is more generally interbedded with schist. Sample T-98, taken from the south outcrop, has the following results on analysis:

308

GJ0LOG1C4.L SVBV EY OF GEORGIA

4n(J,lysis ~~ i(uart~ite from Oak .Mountain, Shiloh-:-
.Columbus road, T-98
Loss on ignition _______________________ .. ____________ ~ 0.54 Lime (CaO)--~---- _____________ -- _-~- --- --~-- ------- 0.00 Magnesia (MgO) ._______________________________ . ~ - _ 0.00 Alumina. (AhO a)-_---- __ -- - ---- -- -------- - ---------- 1.21 Ferric oxide (Fe 203) ___ --- _-- __ --- _----- --- ------ ---- 0.55 Titanium dioxide (TiO z) __ ____________ .. _____ ___ ___ 0.19 Silica (SiO 2)----- _--- ------------------------------- 97.18
TotaL __ . - _____ ::. ______ ~ __________________ .: ____ 99 . 67
The iron content is low enough to warrant the use of this material for the cheaper grades of the glass~ and its physical characteristics are such as to indicate its value for r~fractory_ brick-making as well.

HART COUNTY
The contrast in the composition of the stream sands in the southern part of Hart County and those of Elbert County to the south, is notable. The granite so abundant in Elbert County is not common in southern Hart County, and the stream sands have a much larger amount of schist and limonite particles.
Hartwell.-.Lightwood Log Creek, northwest 9f the town and on the Bowersville road near the Seaboard Air Line Railway crossing, has. excellefit, eoarse_-gra!ii:ed. quartz sand' with some mica flakes up to a half inch in size: The sand covers the bed of the stream. which is about 25' feet wide to a depth of 2 feet. Some sand has also been deposited on tlie banks above the. str~am. Sample f-:-20/;., taken
of from this s-iieam, has a fineness modulus 2.62 and 84 .per. cent is
cparser .than the 48-'mesh sieve. The sand is used locally in Hartwell for construction purposes.. T-he color value of the organic content is 200.
Big Oedar Creek, 3 mjJes from Hartwell on the Elberton road, is 15 feet wide and lia~ frequent bars of medium-,- .to coarse-grained sand suitable for concrete 'work. The value of th~ sand is somewhat impaired by large flakes of mica which occur up to 1 inch across, and by numerous grains of schist and some limonite; Sand extends up the creek from the Hartwell-Newburg road, but it is rather scarce for 3 miles below this road until the Dooley Ferry-Montevideo road is reached, where there is a large deposit.
Savannah River.-At Alford's bridge, Savannah River has a fine-grained sand with considerable mica.. Similar sand is found along

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

309

the banks of the streams, and thin strata of coarse-grained sand show in cuts along the bank. Little of this is of value for construction work.
Plenty of coarse sand is said to occupy the river bed near Stephenson's and Green's islands. Gravel usually lies on the bed rock. This is natural, since the rock is often swept clean by freshets and the coarser pebbles would be the first to be deposited by the subsiding waters.

HEARD COUNTY.
No sand or gravel is produced in Heard County, although Chattahoochee River, near Franklin, and in fact, along most of its course in the county, has large amounts of good sand.
New River, in the southeast part of the county, has large amounts of excellent sand, as has its tributary, Clear Creek. South of Franklin, Snake Creek and its tributaries have smaller amounts of sand and gravel. Whitewater Creek, in the l"outhwest part of the county, is also sandy, but Centralhatchee and most of the other creeks in the western and northern parts of the county are shoaly and the sand content small.

HENRY COUNTY
No sand or gravel has been commercially produced in Henry -county.
s_onth River.-Bars of coarse-grained sand occupy ihe bed of South Ri1.rer in a few places. The bed of the stream is generally rocky, however, and large quantities of sand are rarely met with. Sample T-119 was obtained from a bar in South TI.iver on the Porterdale-McDonough road, and is characteristic of the sand found along this river and in the _larger creek::: in the eastern part of the county. It has a fineness modulus of 2.42 and 85 per cent coarser than 48 mesh.
Factory Walnut Creek, although rocky and lacking in sand in the upper part of its course, is 20 feet wide on the McDonough-Conyers road and has small bars of coarse-grained sand. Further down, and close to South River, the sand deposits in the stream bed become larger. Bars of good concrete sand containing from 10 to 200 cubic yards occur in the lower course of Cotton Creek.
In the southern part of the county, Tussaha Creek and Towaliga River have bars of good concrete sand with a larger percentage of

310

_GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

schist and feldspar fi-agments than that in the streams in the northern part of the county.

JACKSON COUNTY
. Sand is produced in Jackson County for local purposes, but none has be~n shipped.
Oconee River.-The Mulberry Fork of Oconee River at Mulberry is abou~ 30 feet wide and not very swift. The stream bed has quartz sand with considerable schist and limoJ?.ite. The sand is col ored with red clay and has a large amount of twigs _and leaves in it. Sample T-201, obtained from this stream at- O'Shields bridge on the Winder-Jefferson road, has a fineness modu'us of 2.71 and 85 per cept is retained on the 48-mesh sieve. The sand has only a trace' of organic matt~r.
Similar sand is fmmd in Middle Oconee River, 3 miles s0uthwest of Jefferson on the Winder road. This stream is 40 feet wide at this point and is swifter than the Mulberry Fork. The stream bottom, which is 29 feet wid_e, is composed of fine-grained sand with layers of coarse-grained sapd .and gravel. The bed of the river is mostly coarse sand and gravel with clay admixed.
Jef!erson.-Both Indian and Buffalo creeks, to the south' of Jef.. ferson, although meandering, have .deposited fairly -large amounts of
coarse-grained, white, qua,r.tz sand along their courses. Along the latter stream, near the Jefferson-Winder road, banks of it containing up to .100 cubic yards of good sand occur.
A mile and a half east of Jefferson on the Pendergast property Curry Creek1 above the dam, has deposited coarse-grained, clean quartz sand which is used in lGcal construction work at Jefferson. Sa:r:q.ple T-203, from this property, has a fineness modulus of 2.63 and 84 per cent is coarser than 48 mesh. The color value of the organic matter in this sand is 100. In this s~me creek a good deposit of coarse-grained sand occurs a half mile below the Jefferson bridge.

JASPER COUNTY

No sand or gravel is shipped from any part of Jasper County.

Ocmulgee River and the numerous streams in the county, however,

should afford an adequ,at~ supplY. of sand for local purposes if it can

be transported.



"

SAND AND GE.AVEL DEPOSITS

311

Ocmulgee Ri7jer.-At Pittman's Ferry, located in a quiet stretch of the river just above a shoal, are great quantities of sand. This sand was dragged out with scrapers, screened, and used in the construction of the hydro-electric plant a short distance above. The sand is similar to that further down the river at Dames Ferry, at which point a sample was taken (see p. 317). At Goggins Ferry, both in the river bed and on the banks, there are considerable quantities of good sand.
Wise Creek, in the western part of the county, probably has more sand than any other creek in the county. Good sand in quantities sufficient for l<?cal uses is found in places in Cedar Creek in the southeast part of the county. In Mud and Hunt creeks, however, .there is very little sand.
Shoal Creek, 4 miles from Monticello on the Covington road, has considerable sand in places. Foundations for bridges have shown as much as 10 to 12 feet of good coarse sand in this stream.
Mr. Jacobs, county road superintendent, has tried to use a small gasolene centrifugal pump to recover the sand from some of the creeks for use in bridge construction. He found that it did not give satisfaction in raising the sand-water mixture a distance of 12 feet without considerable .loss of time. It is likely that this could have been accomplished with a more powerful or efficient engine. He was able to get 750 cubic yards of sand from a small stream over a distance of 250 yards by hand methods. The supply was about exhausted, however, when this quantity was removed.

JONES COU.NTY
No sa~d or gravel is produced at this time.in Jones County. Along the Central of Georgia Railway, 3 miles west of Griswoldville, there is a large deposit of fine-grained, gray to yellow sand, ranging in depth from 5 to 15 feet and underlain by a red, somewhat clayey sand of Eocene age.
Both forks of Commissioners' Creek, Walnut Creek, and Falling Creek have a fairly coarse sand along their courses, so that quantities from 1 to 20 carloads can be obtained near most of the road crossings of these creeks.
Ocmulgee River, forming the western boundary of the county, has an abundance of medium- to coarse-grained sand which is pumped on the opposite side of the river at Dames Ferry. Lack of transpor-

3~2

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

tation on the Jones County side will prohibit the use of this except
for local purposes.

LINCOLN COUNTY

No sand or gravel is exploited in Lincoln County. In the north-

ern part of the county near Goshen, and also around Pansy, consid-

erable sand has been produced from the weatherf:ug of the underlying

granite. This sand is fine- to medium-grained and is usually from

1 to 4 feet thick. Some sand occurs in the fork of Soap Creek, on the

Appling road, one mile south of Lincolnton. It is coarse and com- '

posed mostly of quartz grains and is used for local purposes. The main branch of Soap Creek, ~Fishing Creek, and Pistol Creek,

the latter in the northern part of the county, has excellen,t coarse, ' quartz san~ in quantities sufficient for. local construction work 'Or for

road building.

.

_

B~th Savannah River, on the eastern side of the county, and Little

River on the south, are said to have muddy bottoms, or else are shoaly,

with vgry little sand of a;ny value. Broad River, forming the north-

ern boundary of the county, has good, coarse-grained sand in bars

containing from 10 to 200 carloads: Distance from transportation

will. prevent the utilization of this material.



. -
LUMPKIN COUNTY

No sand or gravel is being produced in Lumpkin. County, although the streams generally have fair-sized deposits of gravel with some sand .
.Yahoola Creek, on the upper Gainesville road, has large bars of -coarse sand_ a:qd quartz gravel containing from 200 to 400 cubic yards each. Ali of the smaller branches and creeks around Dahlonega have small quantities of sand, suitable for use in local construction work. Most of the Lumpkin County streams have -been dredged for gold and it has been found that the depth to bed-rock ranges from 1 to 15 feet, the upper part consisting of alternating layers of sand - and muck, averaging about 3 feet in thickne s, and from 1 to 3 feet of clean, quartz gravel lying directly on the rock.
.!luraria.-Etowah River, near the Dawsonville road bridge, has
left a deposit of Clean, coarse-grained, quartz sand about 2 acres in
extent on the inside of a sharp turn in the river. The sand appears _ to be from 3 to 6 feet thick, and a sample of it (T;..J95) showed a fine-

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

313

ness modulus of 2.89 and 95 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. The organic color value of the sand is 150. Six per cent of the material is retained on a half-inch sieve, and the coarser particles are mostly rather friable quartz, schist and some feldspar. Similar deposits occur along this stream, particularly on the inside of the curves.

McDUFFIE COUNTY
No sand or gravel has been produced commercially in McDuffie County. - Sand hills are prominent in the southern part of the county and are an extension of those in Crawford and Taylor co1.inties to the southwest. The sand is yellow, fine-grained and from 3 feet to 12 feet thick. No railroad, however, runs directly through this sand, so that its utilization is impossible at this tini.e.
Boneville.-Half a mile northeast of Boneville on the ThomsonAugusta road, the northern edge of the sand belt may be seen. The yellowish-white surficial sand is from 4 to 6 feet thick and is underlain by 10 feet of coarse, red, somewhat. clayey sand containing irregular, clay gravel lenses from 1 to 2 feet thick.
Thomson.-In the vicinity of Thomson small quantities of limonite gravel occur. The limonite, or iron oxide pebbles composing this material are easily crushed, and it does not make as good a road gravel as one containing tough quartz pebbles. On the Mrs. Ira
Farmer place, 172 miles from Thomson, limonite gravel appears on
the surface of, or -irregularly underlies, about 20 acres. It ranges in thickness from 1 to 6 feet and has a large percentage of clay. A small pit on the property has supplied road material to the county, and it has proved very satisfactory in road construction. Similar material occurs on the Hobbs farm west of the Farmer plantation.

MADISON COUNTY
No sand or gravel has been produced ~n Madison County. The streams, however, adequately supply the local demand for construction purposes throughout the county. Broad River, forming the eastern boundary of the county, has the largest amounts of sand of any stream in the county. A large bar above the steel bridge on the Berkely-Elberton road has over 10,000 cubic yards of excellent sand.

314

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

MERLWETHER COUNTY
.No sand or gravel has been pr~duced commercially in Meriwether
County, although the streams afford abundant supplies for local purposes, at least; and the quartzite, composing Pine Mountain, when crushed might be used in the manufacture of glass or silica brick.
, Pine .Mountain quartzite.-A general description of the quartzite found on Pine Mountain is given under Harris County (p. 297) in this report. Except for local differences the quartzite in Meriwether County is substantially the same as that farther west. At Dunn and Stephenson gaps on Pine Mountam:, one mile south of Chaly~eate on the Talbotton road, quartzite outcrops mostly on the south side of the ridge~ Although this locality is in Talbot County, the occurrence is similar in Meriwether County into which the ridge passes to the east and forms the county line. The bedding at this exposure ranges from 1 to 6 inches thick, with mica partings common. Some Df the material is so completely recrystallized as to resemble quartz. This form is not common, and it is usually represented by boulders lying about on the hillside. The quartzite proper is usually friable and has coarse, sharp grains. The material at this point is more highly iron-stained than at any other place observed on the mountain. Sample T-100 on analysis gave the following results:

.!lnalysis of quartzite from Pine Jv.lount.ain, 1 mile' south of

Chalybeate, T-100 .
- Lo-ss on ignition______________________ -----~----_____ 1.19
Lime (CaO) _____________________________ _, ________ ~-- - 0.00

Magnesia (MgO).,. _--------------------- ____ ____ ____ _ Alumina (Al20 3) ________________ -"-- _--__ ___ __ __ _____ Ferric oxide (Fe20s)-------~----------------~-------Titanium dioxide (TiO 2) ______________________ ------ _

trace 3. 28 1.02 0.19

Silica (SiO 2) __ --------------- -~~ ----- ______ ----- __ __ 94.17

TotaL ________________________ ------- __ -------_ 99.95

West of Chalybeate, Pirie Mountain makes a greatS-shaped swing, and the dip and strike change frequently indic~ting a much more complexly faulted synclinal structure than was the case further west. Three miles south of Woodbury the ridge m~kes almost a complete circle and encloses a relatively low, level area known as The Cove. That portion of Pine Mountain enclo13ing The Cove is composed of highly indurated, fine-grained quartzite. The bedding is. usually thin, ranging from 1 to 2 inches, although some thicker beds occur. The

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

315

quartzite is generally pinkish to reddish with limonitic and manganiferous stains when freshly broken, and considerable mica also occurs , in it. The outlines of the grains are rarely distinct.
Sample T-101, typical of the quartzite in this part of the mountain, resembles T-100, and the iron content is probably: about the same. Quartzite of this character should be well suited for refractory brick purposes and although more difficult to crush than some en:countered further west of Pine or Oak mountains, its superior tough.ness would add to the quality of the product.

SAND DEPOSITS

The course of Sulphur Creek, in the southwest part of the county,

has been ehanged due to rafting some years ago, and as a result its

former bed is exposed for some distance. A very good medium- to

-coarse-grained sand, well suited for concrete, occurs in this old bed

from White Sulphur Springs almost to Pine Mountain. The sand

is at least 3 feet thick and the bed is from 8 to 20 feet wide.

At Dallas Mill, near the Troup County line and 2Yz miles north

of Chipley, good building sand occurs both in the mill-pond and along

the creek above the mill. On a small branch of Sulphur Creek, near

Williams Mills, and within a qua.rter mile of Cameo Station good,

medium-grained sand suited for building purposes is found.

Fla;t Creek, on the Greenville-Hogansville road has a good medium-

to coarse-grained sand in bars containing about a carload each. Fur-

ther up this creek the sand increases in quantity. Sample T-123, from

this creek, is representative of the. stream sand_ generally found in

Meriwether County and is of excellent quality. The fineness mod-

ulus is 2.63 and 94 per cent of the sand is coarser than 4 mesh. The

poregranciecntcofeloldr svpaarlu. e

is 50. The sand is dark brown Limonite grains in the material

and contains 75are coarser than

10 mesh.

Red Oak Creek also has good coarse sand in quantities similar to

that in Flat Creek. The sand in the branch of this creek crossing

the Greenville-Newnan road, 4 miles from Greenville, is a particu-

larly good concrete sand. Some sand also occurs in Shoal Creek in

the southwest part of the county in Kennal Creek, in the southern part

of the county, and in Beach Creek, east of Greenville. Very little

sand occurs in White Oak Creek in the northeastern part of the county.

316

GEOLOGICAL SURVE.Y OF GEORGIA

Flint Eiver.-Flint River has bars of .good sand at a number of places along its course. The most prominent bar and the one best suited for commercial purposes, lies near the Macon.-& Birmingham Railway bridge, east of Woodbury; The Southern Railway crossing a few miles above also affords transportation in case san,d should be pumped from the river for commercial purposes.

MIL'J;ON COUNTY
No sand or gravel has been produced on a commercial basis in Milton County. The many streams usually have a fairly good coarsegrained sand suitable for most local purposes.
.!llpharetta.-The best sand close to Alpharetta, -and perhaps the best in the county, oqcurs in bars along Sandy Cooper Creek and is particularly prominent on this creek on the Walter Thompson place. The sand has been used in concrete bridge construction in the county and has given good results. Sample T-185, obtained from Sandy Cooper Creek, is typical of this sand and of that in most of the creeks in the county. It has a fineness modulus -of 2.64 and 83 per cent is _coarser than the 48-mesh sieve. The sand is_ yellowish-brown and 3 per cent is coarser than a half inch.
Considerable cgarse-grained sand occupies the bed of Four-Killer
Creek, but it is composed larg~ly of .schist particles and fragments of
hornblende and limonite, so that it is pot so desirable for concretework as one containing a larger amount of quartz.
_ Large ,quantities of sand_are found iu the-bars aloug WilleD Creek,
but the softness of the schist and limonite particles which make up a
large percentage of it, detracts from its value somewhat although it is a fairly good concrete sand. Sand occurs at intervals along Big Creek, and, although the quantities are not so large as in the other creeks mentione,d, the sand is of better qual{ty than that in most of them except Sandy Cooper Creek.
MONROE COUNTY
In Mouroe County sand is pumped -for shipment from Ocmulgee River at _Dames F.erry. Smaller deposits of sand ar~ found in the creeks in practically all parts of the county.
Ocmu-l~ee Rive' r.-Ocmulgee River forms part of the eastern boundary of Monroe County and is a!!- inexhaustible source of good,

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

317

medium~ to coarse-grained sand. The Southern Railway runs along the west bank of the river through the county, so that transportation facilities are. ideal.
Smiley Sand Company.-The Smiley Sand Company, of Atlanta, operates a 6-inch Morris centrifugal pump, on the west bank of Ocmulgee River, 1,200 yards north of Dames Ferry railroad station. The sand is washed through a half-inch screen to remove twigs and foreign material directly into the freight car, and the water and silt drains off through the cracks in the car. By this method it is possible to fill a car in less than an hour, although such speed is rarely attained. The river at this point was about 2 or 3 feet deep be~ore pumping was commenced, and is from 4 to 25 feet deep when bed-rock is reached. A dam across the river a short distance below the purrip backs the water up and causes the deposition of considerable sand. This factor, together with the close railroad conne.ctions, makes the spot an ideal one for economical sand production. A little over a mile above the pump the river 'is shoaly. Low water does not materially influence the amount of sand that may be produced; high water, however, is likely to sweep the bottom clean of sand and it may be necessary 'to wait a day or two after severe storms for the river to replenish the supply. When visited in June, 1920, 160 feet of 6-inch pipe were required from the pump to the railroad car. The sand has been pumped by a 25-horsepower engine, which is in use at present, a maximum distance of 368 feet. Something over 4 carloads of sand can be pumped with, one ton of coal.
Sample 7;-7, taken from a loaded car, is fairly typical of the river
sand at this point, after the dirt has been drained off in the water. It shows a fineness modulus of 2.21 and 93 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. The organic color value is 20. The sand is light brown and. composed mostly of quartz and about 5 per cent of feldspar, mica, and limonite grains. Concrete strength ratio tests made by Prof. F. C. Sno.w at the Georgia School of Technology showed 104 and 100 per cent of normal at 7 and 28 days, respectively.
The first terrace above Ocmulgee River, from _200 to 300 feet wide, is underlain by considerable sand of _differing degrees of fineness. A well at the Smiley pump at Dames Ferry is 15 feet deep and encounters a fine to medium-grained sand for its entire depth.
At Pope's Ferry, a few miles below, bank sand was formerly mined and shipped. The deposit proved small and variable, so that it has not paid to continue its operation.

318

GEOLQGIGAL SURV$Y OF GEORGIA

The impounded river above the dam at Juliette should have considerable sand 'in its .bed, and t_he proximity of rail transportation might indicate that this would be a favorable place for sand pumping. It. is to be remembered, however, that even a river as large as Ocmulgee River above Macon is aeceptive in the quantity of sand it is capable of supplying, and, unless conditions are right for the rapid accumulation of sand after its exhaustion by pumping, or when removed by a freshet, a. consta.nt supply of more than two or three cars a day can not be depended on.
Rum Oreek.-Four and a half miles from Forsyth on the Juliette road, Rum Creek has small bars of coarse, brown sa;nd, from 3 to 5 feet deep and underlain by yellow clay. The stream is rapid, and sand is moving constantly in the bed, so that the stream should afford a sufficient supply for local construction work.
l3i!1 Tobesofkee Creek.-Fairly large quantities of coarse sand well suited for concrete work occur in Big Tobesofkee Creek. Similar sand occurs in Little Tobesofkee Creek and in Echeconnee Creek in tJ.:te southwest part of the county. The Macon & Birmingham Railway parallels the latter stream for some distance, affording transportation .facilities.
Towalif1a River.~ix miles nmth of Fm::~yth Qn the. Jacksqn road; li:itge quant!ties of sand occur in T~waliga River, which has a bed 40 or 50 feet wide at. this point. A _large dam, some distance above, causes sand to- collect in' the impounded river above it, and when the dam is opened twice weekly, the sand is brought down and deposited in bars, containing many carloads, to a distance of 10 or 15 miles below the dam. When the dam is closed these bars are exposed in tb.e 'stream bed.
Both Eightmile Creek, on the Upper Jackson road, 8 miles from Forsyth, which is 15 feet wide, and a smaller creek, two ~iles beyond, and 8 feet wide, have good, coarse, concrete sand, suitable for local uses.
MORGAN COUNTY
No sand or .gravel is produced in Morgan County, although the streams usually have sufficient for local purposes if the recovery and transportation cost are not too great..
.ilppalachee River.-Appalachee River, which separates Morgan and Oconee counties, is generally shoaly with only small quantities

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

319

of sand. What sand there is in it, however, is coarse-grained and well suited for concrete. A bar having probably 50 carloads occurs just above the bridge on the Watkinsville-Madison road. At Head 1s Mill a large amount of good sand exists in bars close to the mill.
Hard Labor Creek.-Hard Labor Creek, where it crosses the Watkinsville road, 4 miles north of Madison, is 25 feet wide and has bars of coarse sand .having a large percentage of schist and other particles of soft material. The bars on the inside of the curves near here have from 10 to 20 cubic yards of sand. Sample T-113, taken from the creek on the Watkinsville road, shows a fineness modulus of 3.09 and 98 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. The organic color value is 150. Tensile strength tests of the sand from the Chambers property at the Bostwick-Oil Mill road where a pump was ins~alled showed over 100 per cent of standard Ottawa sand. The sand is dark reddishbrown. Quartz makes up the finer-grairled portion of the sand, and about 10 per cent each of coarse limonite and feldspar grains occur in the sand.
/
To supply sand. for the Federal Aid road construction in Morgan County, the MacDougald Construction Company installed a 6-inch Morris centrifugal pump, run by a 20-horsepower steam. engine, in Hard Labor Creek at its intersection with the Bostwick-Oil Mill road on the Chambers property about 4Yz miles northwest of Madison. The creek at this point is about 25 feet wide, and the sand mnge1:i from 3 to 10 feet in depth. Red and blue clay underlie the sand, and sometimes a layer of coarse, white sand from 6 inches to 2 feet thick occurs beneath the clay and lies directly on bed-rock. When visited in June, 1920, the pump had been in operation 60 days, and the daily production averaged two carloads. About 200 feet of the stream bed had been cleaned of sand during this time, and the intake was located 4:0 feet from the discharge which was 15 feet above the intake. The sand was pumped directly into 3-ton trucks which transported the sand 4 miles to a stockpile near the construction work. The wa~er, draining from the pumped sand, together with the heavy trucks, kept the road in bad condition. At a steep hill just south of the creek and a quarter mile long, a tractor was used to pull the trucks up.
Further down the creek on the Judge Baldwin. place and near the Middle Appalachee road, there is a large bar which could supply over 1,000 cubic yards of good, coarse-grained, concrete sand. The stream here is about 35 feet wide, and the deposit is probably the best in the county.

320

GEOLOGICAL STJRVEY QF GEORGIA

/

-

.Madison.-The local sand supply for Madison is. ob.tained from

the old stream bed of a small branch, 3 miles east of the town. This

sand is of very good quality. A sample was tested at the Georgia

School of. Technology and found to have a fineness modulus of 2.80

and 98 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. It gave concrete having 99

per cent strength of normal.

Two small branches, just north of ~adison pn the 4-the?s road.,

o. and about 6 feet wide, have small quantities of good sand, which could be used for iocal roaQ. construction p~~poses.

Rutledge.-.Two miles from Rutledge on Rocky Creek, near the mill, there is a considerable amount of coarse-grained concrete sand suitable for local use.
Richland and Sandy creeks, in. the northern part of the county, are both about 30 feet wide and have bars of from 10 to 40 cubic yards of brown sand with numerous schist and mica particles and also angular rock fragments. There .is very little sand in .the southern part of the county.

NEWTON .COUNTY

~
Molding sand it? shipped from pits along Yellow River, near Almon

in Newton Cou_nty. Coarse, qu3trt~ sand; suitable for concrete, may be obtained f.or local us.~. in Covington in small amounts from the bed and alo:t?-g the banks of a .small tr~butary of Y ellpw River which

flows ~hrough the west part of the town. . The. stre.ams in the easterl,l

part of th~ county, includ~ng Alcovy River, usually have a finegrained. sand with considcr~ble mud .admixed and hence, !,lOt desirable

for concrete. A few local bars in these streams, however, have a

~

.





!

.

.

.

-

coarse- grained sand with schist fragments in it.

Yellow River Molding Sand C01npany.-Fine-grained molding sand is shipped from pits on the property.of C. K. Gailey of Conyers,
on located one mile southeast of Almon on the west bank of Yellow River.
The sand occupies a narrow belt the frrst terrace above the stream on both sides of the r,iver. The pits have been operated since 1900 and are about 300 feet west of the public road. (Plate XVII-B.)

General section. at Yellow River Moldini Sand
Company's pits; .!llmon
Feet
Gray, silty soiL---------------------------------------- 1-2 Dark gray, fine-grained, loamy sand ________ ~ ______ _...______ 1-3 Yellow to reddish, clayey, molding sand ___________________ 1-5
Gray, fine-grained, micaceous, quartz sand_________________ 10

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSI1'S OF GEORGIA

PLA1'E XIX

A. CHERT PIT, H. K. BITTINGS PROPERTY, 1 MILE SOUTH OF SUMMERVILLE. CHATTOOGA COUNTY
,
B. GRAVEL PIT. H. A. DEAN PROPERTY. BLACK BLUFF ROAD, 1 MILE SOUTHWEST OF ROME, FLOYD COUNTY

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS,

321

The soil and upper silty sand is removed by drag scrapers and the exposed molding sand is then ploughed up and later put into piles by the scraper. The sand is hauled to the railroad at Almon in wagons where it is transferred to cars. The sand usually becomes very hard on exposure to air, and it must therefore be broken up into small pieces before shipping. Sample T-1BO represents the upper silty cover, while sample T-1Bl is typical of the yellow sand which is shipped.
No stratification is apparent in the sana, although it probably represents old :flood deposits of_ Yellow River. Irregularities in the upper surface of the coarser sand below the molding s~nd' cause the latter to thin out and become more sandy in places. Usually, however, the molding sand is fairly uniform and pits of from an eighth of an acre to an acre in extent are possible. The sand is shipped principally to Atlanta and Columbus foundries, but small quantities are also sold in Augusta, Macon, Savannah, Brunswick, and Greenville,
s. c.
Sand somewhat similar to that OJ;). the Gailey property is found along the river in less well situated pla.ces with respect to transportation. The Dobbs property and the Mabert property adjoining the Gail,ey place; and lying ;1long the river, have deposits of good molding sand also.
Porterdale.-A remnant of yellow, fine-grained sand and reddishbrown clay, that appears to be of Satilla or Okefenokee age, occupiesa smaller are.a on the highest terrace overlooking Yellow River from the east. The sand attains a maximum of 10 feet in thickness on the Covington road at Porterdale and extends northwestward to the Central of Georgia Railway where it is thinner and underlain by a red clay sand.
Section on Central of Georgia Railway at Porterdale, south end qf cut, northeast of power_ house
Feet Yellow, finegrained, quartz sand, fairly clean______________ 2 Itedsand______________________________________________ 3 Coarse, red, clayey sand_________________________________ 5 -clay and molding sand__________________________________ 5
Further north, in this same cut, from 10 to 15 feet of yellow to red clayey sand, suitable for the molding of large castings, occur. To the southwest, 5 to 7 feet of fine-grained, silty sand occur suitable for the molding of small castings.

-
322 .

-
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

On the spur track leading to the power-house 10 to 12 feet of medium-grained, red, clayey sand, apparently suitable for molding, is foUiid. Sample T.:.118 was taken from the cut on the Covington road at Porterdale and is representative of the fine-grained brick sand found 'along the upper terrace of Yellow River. It has a fin~ess modulus of 1.75 and 7,0 per cent is retained on the 48-mesh screen. It is yellow and composed of iron-stained quartz grains. The organic color value is 100.
/ Iri the bottom lands along Yellow River in this. vicinity, a fine~ ,grained brown sand apparently suitable for m'olding occurs. It ranges from 2 to 6 feet thick ,and is usually underlain by a coarser. sand and overlain by a yellowish, Ailty rlay a foot or two thick.

BUILDING SAND
. Large quantities of medium-grained quartz sand suitable for concrete, brick and plaster work occur at the surface on the .Gailey property, between the molding sand pits and Yellow River and also between the pits and the Augusta road. (Plate XVIII-A.) This sand has been shipped in small amounts.
A finer-grained sand is found close to the river bank along most . of its course. It is most prominent ab~mt a mile north of Almon,
just south of the first wagon bridge across Yellow River above the railroad bridge.. Sample T-1.~1 .!l shows .a fineness modulus_ of 1.41 and 44, pe:r;, cent coarser tb,an 48 mesh. The organic matter color value is 300.. The sand is from 3 to 8 feet thick and occupie.s several acms along the river bank.
In the western part of the county, small, coarse-grained sand deposits occur in most of the creeks. Larger deposits occur in the quieter reaches of South River,. which separates Newton County fro_m Henry County ~n: the southwest. This stream is generaJly shoalyr however, and little opportunity is afforded for the accumulation of sand.

OCONEE COUNTY
No sand is produced in Oconee County, although the streams usually have su:fficiel}t for local purposes.
Town Creek.-Just north of Watkinsville, on the Athens road, Tow'# Creek is about 15 feet wide; and has a high-grade, coarse-grained conct~te sand in fair amounts, sufficient for local const;uction work. Sample T-112, taken from this creek on the Athens road, is typical of
,.
~-
-.;,

' SAND AND GRAYEL DEPOSITS

323

the stream sand in Oconee County and the southern part of Clarke County. It has a fineness modulus of 3.23 and 97 per cent is retained on the 48-mesh screen. It has only a trace of organic matter. The sand is dark brown and contains about 75 to 80 per cent quartz particles and the res.t feldspar and schist.
.!lppalachee Eiver.-Appalachee River, separating Oconee County from Morgan and Walton counties on the s'outhwest, has widelyseparated bars of sand in its bed. This sand is usually medium- to coarse-grained and composed mostly of quartz. (Plate XVIII-B.)

OGLETHORPE COUNTY
Like many other north Georgia counties, sand in quantities suitable for mo_st local work occurs in the streams of Oglethorpe County, but at no point is there a combination of sufficient sand and convenient transportation to warrant commercial development.
Oconee River, forming part of the western boundary of the county probably has more sand than any other stream in the county. The sand is medium- to coarse-grained and well suited for concrete work.
Long Creek.-Long Creek in the eastern part of the county, where the Lexington-Tignall road crosses it, is 30 feet wide and has a 60-foot bed in which is a large amount of fairly good sand. Sample T-111;., taken from this creek, is representative of .most of the creek sand in the county and has a fineness modulus of 2.76 and 82 per cent is coarser than 48 mesh. The organic color value is 100. The sand is reddish-brown and has 2 per cent coarser than a half inch. The grains coarser than 10 mesh contain about 15 per cent feldspar, but most of the sand is clay-stained quartz and a little mica.

PAULDING COUNTY
No sand or gravel is produced in Paul~ing County. That for local P"LI:rposes. is easily obtained from the numerous streams.
Pumpkinvine Creek and its branches, near Dallas, have fair quantities of coarse- and medium-grained sand which is used locally in the town;
. Sweetwater Creek, in the southeast part of the county, has large amounts of good, quartz, concrete sand, sufficient for any local construction or road work.

324

-- GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

PIKE COUNTY
Granite is particularly prominent in the northwest and eastern portion of Pike County where its weathering has produced thin deposits of sand. No commercial sand or gravel is mined in the county, although creeks could furnish adequate local supplies, and the quartzite of Pine Mountain is available for use in silica-brick manutacture.
Little Towali~a River.-North of Barnesville, Little Towaliga River has bars of good concrete sand along its course, containing from one to three carloads ea.ch. Where the valley of the stream widens out deposits of a finer-grained sand, better suited for brick or plaster work, occur. These deposits may have from a few wagon-loads to several carloads of sand.
In. th~ vicll)ity of Milner, weathering of the underlying granite has covered large areas with sand. The depth is usually small and the quality not ~gh-g:rade, but it should serve for local purposes not requiring a good quality of sand.
Potato Creek.-Potato Creek, in the sortthern part of the county, has small sand deposits, and Elkins Creek- in the southwest part also has good concrete sand in small quantities.
QUARTZITE

Pine Mountain, in Pike County, is composed of a number of hills an! :ridges. Its structure is more complex. than in Harris, County, although not so much so as in Meriwether and Upson counties. The quartzite is usually friable and fairly pnre. It dips generally to the northwest from 25 to 65, and the strike, where tlie Dei Rey-Zebulon
road crosses the ridge, is N. 25 E. A sample (T-106), taken near
the top of the ridge on the south side, showed a friable, gray to paleyellowish rock. No analysis was made, but the iron content is probably about the same as that found in samples taken further west and described -under !larris ~nd Meriwether counties. The friability of the rock will permit of easy grinding, and hence its use in the manufacture of silica -brick is sqggested. .. It is, of course, much too brittle for road .material.
PUTNAM COUNTY

A, belt of granite and 'intrusive granite gneisses occupies the cen-
tral and some of the eastern pa~t of ~-utnam county, and their weath- ering has produced thin deposits of sand. No sand or gravel is pro-

SAND .AND GR.AYEL DEPOSITS

325

duced for shipment in the county. In the western part of the county, the creeks are usually small and muddy and have very little sarui, which is usually of an inferior quality. Little River, however, has considerable coarse sand suitable for concrete purposes. Where the Monticello-Eatonton road crosses this stream the water has backed up, owing to a dam a short distance below, and plenty of sand is reported in the river bed near here Below the dam, sand bars, each containing many carloads of good sand, are exposed.
Hudson Creek, just west of Eatonton, has fairly large quantities of sand which is hauled to Eatonton and used locally. It has been fotind more desirable, however, in the larger buildings, to have sand shipped in from Macon or other points. -
Four miles from Eatonton, on the Sparta road, and on the adjoining plantation roads, up, to 4 feet of gray, medium-grained sand may be seen. Since most of this part of the county is underlain by granite, the sand probably represents a weathering product. Its quality is rather poor and the quantity usually small.
Crooked Creek, where it is crossed by the Sparta-Eatonton road,
5Yz miles from Eatonton, is about 6 feet wide and has bars along its
course containing about 15 cubic yards each.
Oconee River.-On the terraces paralleling Oconee River, the quantity of sand is small and it is usually fine-grained. Considerable sand occupies the bed of the river, however, where it is not too shoaly. No transportation facilities exist along the river, hence the utilization of the sand is impracticable except for construction purposes within a short distaRce.
R.ABUN COUNTY
No sand or gravel is produced commercially in Rabun County. Dicks Creek, on the road from Dicks Creek Gap to Benton, has small bars of excellent sand and gravel from the foot of t}le mountain to Tallulah River. The sand is of especially good q~ality for the first one or two miles above the river.
Tallulah River.-Fine- and coarse-grained sands are found in Tallulah River in the quiet reaches between the shoals. A large deposit of white, fine-grained sand occupies the banks of the stream from the bridge -below Wiley almost to the dam. The sarid, although too fine for concrete, is suitable for brick work and is from 3 to 6 feet thick, extending for a half mile with interruptions along the west bank. The belt is from 300 to 500 feet wide.

326

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

Probably the best ~and in the county is found along Timpson Creek, from Tallulah River to a point. 5 miles above. Deposits of several hundred, an-d even thousands, of cubic yards of clean, coarse-grained, gray; quartz sand occupy the bed of the stream or occur along the bank.
Clayton.-8:o.tnd from Stekoa Creek, just east of the dam, is used locally. Sample T-189, obtained from this creek, near the Tullalah Falls road, a mile south of Clayton, was fo-q.nd to have a fineness modulus of2.59 and 76 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. Tiger Creek -has large quantities of good, coarse-grained; white sand along most of its course. The organic matter color value is 400, and the s~nd is reddish-yellow. Ten per cent of the material' exceeds half an inch in size. The coarser particles are made up of 25 per cent quartz, and the rest is schist and feldspar. ,Considerable medium-grained, limonite also occurs i~ the sand. In 1912 it was dammed on the
Betterfield place and considerable sand collected in a pond. .This
ot sand. was used largely in the construction the dam and the hydro-
electric plant on Tallulah River at Tallulah Falls. -
ROOKDAJJE COUNTY.
$rp.all .quantities of .coars&"gr.ain,ed, concrete sand oo0u,py the beds of ill.ost of the creeks of: Rockdale county, particulariy Big Haynes Creek, although no deposits occur sufficiently large for commercial punipi;ng. San~ in much larger quantities, althou~h finer~grained occurs in bars in South River. The sand in Yellow: River is rather finer-grained, but along its banks immense quantities have been cle... posited in the latter part of 1919 by freshets. This sand is yellow, m~diUiil.:-gr~~i1ed, and Of good quality and occurs along the river almost for its' entire course l:J?. the COUJ?.ty.. The sand is .particularly prominent along the river 4 miles northeast of Conyers.
SPALDING COUNTY
No commercial sand or gravel is produced in Spalding County, although streams have many small deposits sufficient for local purposes. and for road building.
Phillips property.-A small stream running through the E. L. Phillips' property, 3 miles south of Griffin, has considerable coarsegrained sand, about 10 per cent of which is composed of schist, feldspar, and limonite grains, so that the sand is brown. Some gravel

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

327

is associated with the sand in bars in the creek channel, and gravel usually underlies the sand at a depth of one to two feet. In places the sand completely fills the stream channel to a depth of 5 feet, so that sev~ral carloads could be obtained in one spot. Sample T-107, from this stream, is typical of the stream sands found throughout the county, and it shows a fineness modulus of 3.55 and 95 per cent retained on the 48-mesh screen. The color value, due to organic matter, is 100.
Flynt property.-Three miles north of Griffin, on the Mpunt Zion road, a small stream has deposited a little coarse sand along its course. A niile east of the road, on the Frank Flynt property, the stream channel is from 5 to 7 feet wide, and sand well suited for concrete purposes occurs 'from 3 to 4 feet thick in the creek and stream bottom and is underlain by blue mud. The flow of the water is as strong as in the Phillips' branch, but the quantity of sand not so great, however, it should be sufficient for local concrete construction. Sample T-108 showed a fineness-modulus ()f 2.41 and 76 per cent coarser than the 48-mesh screen. The organic matter color value is 100.
Flint River.-Flint River, forming the western boundary of the county, has small bars of medium- to coarse-grained brown sand. The quantity and the stream flow appear to be sufficient to warrant the installation of pumps at either the Southern or the Central of Georgia railway crossings, should there be a demand. In the northern part of the county C~bin Creek and Towaliga River have good deposits of coarse sand and gravel.
Sand of good quality is general in the larger streams throughout the- county. None occurs in quantities sufficiently large for commercial purposes, but the deposits can supply most local demands.
STEPHENS COUNTY
No sand or gravel is shipped from Stephens County.
Tugaloo River.-Sand from Tugaloo River was used in the construction of the Southern Railway bridge and has proven to be of excellent quality. Bars containing from 100 to several thousand cubic yards of sand occupy the bed of the stream at a number of points. The sand near the Southern Railway bridge is most conveniently suited for shipment, although difficult to recover.
JV'orth Broad River.-North Broad River generally has large amounts of coarse-grained sand in its bed southward from Dick's

328

G:EOLOGIC.AL SURVE-Y OF GEORGIA

Hill road, and the' sand is from 2 to 4 feet thick. Sample T-193 from

this:point is typical of the Broad River sand and has a fineness ,!ll0-

0 dulus of 1.93 and 67 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. The organic color

value is 100.



0

..



'

-o

T.ALLIAFERRO. COUNTY

No sand or gravel is shipped from Talliaferro County, and their

-occurrence is limited principally to the streams. A mile and a half

northeast of _Crawfordsville on -the Washington road, a small branch

from 5 to 7 feet wide, has small quantities of coarse sand with about

fO per cent of schist particles. The sand is hatule_d to Crawfordsville

and used for local purposes.

-

On the Powelton road, Ogeechee River is from 10 to 15 feet wide, -

and has small bars of sand. The sand is brown -and medium- to

coarse-grained and could be used for local road construction. A

brap.ch of Ogeechee River, crossed on the Powelton road 2V2 miles

nGrth of P_owelton, has considerable sub-angular to angular gravel.

Little River.-Little River, which forms the northern boundary

of Talliaferro County, has bars of fairly good concrete sand along- its

course. At low water when they are exposed they should yield from

10 to 100 carloads each.

-

TOWNS COUNTY

-No sand or gravel has been produced in Towns County. Many of the streams have small deposits of coarse"'grained 0 sand Qf good quality. Deposits of quartz are also known in the county, ~the most prominent one of which. is that on Bell Mount:lin, near. Hiwassee.
Hiwassee.-Hog- Creek, two miles from Hiwassee on the Clayton road, has b~:trs with from 40 to 400 cubic ya~ds of coarse sand and gravel along its course. Sample T-188 showed a fineness modulus of 1.56 and 58 per cent coarser than 4 mesh. This material contains about 8 per cent clay, and the pebbles are mostly of quartz~
Hiwassee River.-From a point about 4 miles southeast of Hiwassee, Hiwassee River has a rocky bottom with little sand. From Mountain Scene southward, the stream has small bars Of very 0 good concrete aggregate.
Bell, Mill, Scattaway, and Cabin creeks have small bars. of f;om 5 to 25 cubic yards of good sa11d and gravel. Bell Creek, in the northern part of the county, has good sand, and Hightower Creek, in the northeast section, has small bars of fairly good sand and gravel.

SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

329

QUARTZITE

Two miles north of Hiwassee the highest peak of Bell Mountain is composed of heavy bedded white quartz which grades into a more impure granular quartzite. The east face of the mountain is made up of the glistening, steeply dipping rock which makes a prominent landmark visible for many miles.
The peak of the mountain consists of a quartz injection, which is heavily bedded and has the appearance of a sedimentary formation. The quartz dips 42 to the northwest and strikes N. 25 E. Beneath the quartz is a hornblende schist and above it a garnetiferous rock that may be intrusive. The upper part of the quartz is the purest, usually of snow white, only a few ferruginous stains running irregularly through the white material. Samples of this purer quartz (T190) and the stained quarts (T-191) were analyzed.

Analyses of quartz from hi~hest peak of Bell Mounta.in, Hiwassee

Constituents '

T-190 T-191

MLoosisstounreigantit1io0n0_C___-_-_-__-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_----_-_-__-_-

Ferric oxide Manganous

o(xFidee20(Ma) _n_O--) ___-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-

Silica (Si00----------------------------

TotaL _____________________________

0.00 0.00 0.12 0.00 99.85
99.97

0.03 0.19 0.38 0.56 98.78
99.94

This material js suitable for glass, or other uses to which high-grade silica is put, but its inaccessibility would eliminate it for this purpose. Its use in lining furnaces and for flux is also suggested.
Further down the mountain, on the north side, the material becomes granular and even friable, with a yellowish or brownish tint due to a rapid increase in the iron content.
TROUP COUNTY
No sand is produced commercially in Troup County. The creeks afford plenty for local purposes, and although such sand is usually coarse~grained most of it has considerable mud, which should be washed out.

330

,

GEOLOGIO.il.L SURVEY OF GEORGIA

La Grange.-On the La Grange-Hogansville road, Shoal Creek

is about 40 feet wide and rather sluggish. An acre or twq of coarse-

grained sand, from 1 to 4 feet thick and having pebbles and mud balls

in it, has been deposited in the fields on the left bank of the _stream.

Sample T-125, taken -from this deposit, has a fineness modulus of

3.20 and 97 per cent is coarser than the 48-mesh. sieve. The organic

mi:Ltter color value is 60. The sand is dark reddish-brown and con-

tains 3 per cent coars~r than a half inch. Seventy-five per cent of

1--,

the material coarser than 35 mesh is .composed of limonite and feld-

spar.

Beach Creek, on the same road, has small bars of .clark brown

sand. A smaller stream, 3~ miles south of Hogansville, has depos-

ited several acres of silty sand along its course near this road.

Hogansville.-Four miles south of Grantville, on the Hogansville

road, a small stream has deposited several acres of excellent coarse-

grained, conc;rete sand. The deposit a(!.joins the Atlanta '& West

Point Railroad and is probably only from 1 to 3 feet thick.

Yellowjacket Creek, one mile nortfi of HogansVille, is 15 feet wide

and has numerous sand bar~ with from 25 to 200 cubic yards of sand.

A small deposit of. good, medium-grained sand occlirs west of the

railroad, in Hogansville, along a small branch. About' a mile west 6{

- Hogansville, on the Levius Wood place, several acres -near a small

creek are covered with good sand to a depth of 1 to 3 feet.

Long Cane and Blue John creeks in the southwest part of the county

are sluggish. Their bottoms are composed mostly of mud and clay

with rarely a poor, muddy sand. Further to the northeast, how-

ever, these streams -become more rapid and fine=- to medium-grained

sand is deposited. Bars of medium-grained sand, having from 5 to

- 20 cubic yards each occur on Blue John Creek near the La Grange-

Chipley road, 2 'miles south of La Grange. Long Cane Creek, further

south on -this ;road, is larger, and the sand is not so prominent, al-

though it occurs in the stream bed.

Mud Creek, 6n the La Grange-Chipley FOad; -10 miles from La

Grange, ,is 10 feet wide and has many bars of good medium- to coarse-

grained sand of from 25. to 100 cubic yards, each. Some pebbles up

to 1Y2 inches in size occur in-the sand. Sample T-12.~, from this creek,

has a fineness modulus of 2.54, and 89 per cent is retained on the 48-

mesh screen. The organic color ':alae is 150. The sand is yellowish-

brown, and 75 per cent of t,he material coarser than 6 mesh is f~ldspar,

limonite, or schist.

-

SAND 'AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

331

Chattahoochee River at Glass' Bridge is shoaly, but a short distance above the bridge the bed becomes sandy, A small creek on the west side of the river has good, medium-grained, yellow quartz sand, which has been. used in construction work at this bridge..

Gravel.-Thin beds of clay gravel occur in places on the upper

terrace overloolcing Chattahoochee River. They are particularly prom-

inent opposite West Point on the Alabama side, but here they rarely

exceed 2 or 3 feet in thickness. In the first bottom of Chattahoochee

River at West Point, wells have encountered alterna~ing layers of

silt, sand, and gravel to a depth of 50 feet where the solid crystalline

rock is reached. lt is likely that most of the gravel in the river bot-:

toms has too much overburden to warrant mining, but a detailed

investigation of the wells drilled or tlug along the river may disclose

/

favorable gravel-bearing areas. -

UNION COUNTY
No sand or gravel has been produced in Union County. The streams have deposits of coarse-grained sand containing a considerable percentage of softer minerals, but most of it is suitable for con.struction purposes.
Young Cane Creek, in the southwest part of the county, has bars of fairly good, coars&-grained sand, suitable for local work, although it contains 20 per cent or more of mica and schist fragments.
N ottely River, south of Blairsville, has a rock bottom with large , boulders and considerable mud and silt. Some fine-grained sand, however, has been deposited at a few places in small quantities in this vicinity.
Fairly good sand and gravel are found in Coosa Creek, a tributary of N ottely River, 3 miles south of Blairsville, and in Butternut Creek, one mile northeast of Blairsville on the Hiwassee road. The latter ereek is 18 feet wide and has small bars of very good sand and gravel. Sample T-187 has a fineness modulus of 4.55, and 46 per cent is retained on the 4-mesh sieve. Sub-angular quartz makes up 80 per cent of this material, and schist and feidspar particles compose the rest.

UPSON COUNTY
No sand or gravel is produced commercially in Upson County, although large amounts occur in Flint River and its tributary streams,

332

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

antllarge deposits of quartzite, suitablein some places for the cheaper grades of glass and fur the manufacture of silica brick, are found in Pine Mountain in the southwest part of the county.

Flint River.-Bars of excellent mediuni- to coars~gra.ined sand,

suitable for concrete purposes, are found in Fli?t River at a number

of places along its course. The moElt prominent bar and the one best

loca. ted

from

the

transportaito..n

standpoint

is

f.ound

at
\

the

Macon

& Birmingham Railway crossing in the northwest partof the county.

At Barker's Springs, one mile east of Crest on the Macon & Bir-

mingham Raiiway, a small branch has good sand in quantities sufficient

for local uses.



Colquitt property.-Sand is hauled from the bed of Potato Creek and from its banks on the Colquitt property to Thomaston, 2 miles distant, for local use in concrete work. The best deposit is near the railroad bridge and about a mile north o~ the Woodbury-Thomaston road. The sand is .gray to brown, medium-grained, and contains 5 per cent of schist, feldspar and minerals other than quartz. The quantity is sufficient to easily supply all local demands.

Little Potato Creek.-No sand of any value was seen between

.Thomaston ?-nd Yatesville except~ on Litt~e Potato Creek, vyhich is a f~idy large, rocky stream that has been dammed at tlie ThomastonYatesville road. Some sand ha~ collected above the dam, and a

saJ:Uple .of it (T-10};.) showed a fineness modulus of 2.35 and 81 per

cent coarser. than the 48-mesh sieve. The sand has only a trace of

organic matter and is reddish-brown. The particles are clay-coated

quartz and feldspar. Further back from the stream, the sand is finer-

grained; the sample, however, is typical of the stream sand encoun-

tered in Upson< County.



_

.

On the Yatesville-Zebulon road some sand is found in Potato Creek ne~r Del Rey, similar to the sand in this same c:reek further south.

QUARTZITE

Pine Mountain extends into the southwest corner of tl;l.e county and runs along the western county line north to the Pike County line. It is made up of thin- to medium-bedded quartzite somewhat similar to, although denser than, the quartzite found in the mountain
in Meriwether and Harris counties to the west. No samples of this
rock were taken -in 1Jpson County, but the reader is referred to a
detailed account of its occurrence, together with chemical analyses of

SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

333

the material from the western part of the ridge, described under Harris and Meriwether counties. (See pages 297 and 306.)

WALTON COUNTY
No sand or gravel is produced commercially in Walton County, although the numerous streams have abundant material for all local uses.
Many of the streams of the county have been dredged for drainage purposes, and as a result large quantities of fairly good sand have been deposited on their banks. This is particularly true of Alcovy River, where the sand is finer-grained than is desirable for concrete, but apparently suitable for asphalt construction.
Big Flat Creek, which is about 25 feet wide on the Monroe-Jersey road, has been partly dredged, and the sand taken from the river is fine-grained. Little Flat Creek has also been dredged. The sand J:>eing deposited in the deepened. channel is much coarser and cleaner than that removed in dredging. The increased velocity of the current in the dredged stream...:; prevents the _deposition of the finer sand grains and mud and insures a much higher grade of sand in the stream beds.- In Little Flat Creek the sand content is about 3 cubic yards for each running foot. A sample (T-116), taken from the stream on the Jersey road has a fineness modulus of .2.14, and 72 per cent is retained on the 48-mesh screen.
A heavy black sand which collects in ridges at the bottom of the creek is especially noticeable, and an analysis of a concentrated portion of this sand showed the black mineral to be ilmenite (FeTlOs). Similarly appearing black sand is fairly common in the beds of most North Georgia streams, and it is likely that the black mineral in most cases is ilmenite.

Analysis of concentrated black sand in Little Flat Creek,

Walton Co1~nty
Loss on ignition_____________________________________ 0.15 Soda (Na20)____ ________ ___ __ __ ____ __ ____ __ ____ ___ __ 0.10 Potash (K20)__ __ _________ ___________ ____ __ ______ ___ 1. 28 Lime (CaO)____ ______ ____ __________ ___ __ ___ __ __ __ ___ 0. 00
11agneffia (11g0)____________________________________ 0.16 Alumina (Al20 s) __ __________ _____________ __ ___ __ ____ 5.15

FFeerrrriocusoxoixdiede(F(Fee2O0)_s)_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_--_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_--_-_-_
11anganous oxide (11n0) ___ _______ __ ________ ___ ______ Titanium dioxide (Ti02)- ____ ____ ___ ____ ____ ____ ___ __ Silica (Si02)- _______________________ ~------ __ ____ ___ Rarer earths______________________________________ -~

191..2499
0. 80 15.36 55.46 0.00

Total__________________________________________ 99.60

334

GEOJj_OGIOAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

Appalachee River, forming part of the northeast margin of the

eou:nty,

usually

has

bars .

of

coarse-gr.ained

sand

suitable

for

concrete

work.

QUARTZITE

Alcovy Mountain, 5 miles south-southwest of Monroe, rises ah:nost 350. feet above the general level. It is composed eJ?.tirely of a highly crystalline quartzite, which appears. to be largely a secondary material produced by solution and. subsequent crystallizn.tion . 6f the original sandstone or quartzite; No analysis of the quartzite was made, but it does not appear to be pure enough for any but the cheapest grades of glass. Its use in silica-brick manufacture, and as a flux, is also suggested, but its remoteness from transportation will prevent its utilization for a long time.

W.A.RREN COUNTY

No sand or gravel deposits are worked commercially at present in Warren County, altho"llgh at Norris Crossing a number of years ago, a gravel deposit was utilized for ballast purposes. A few miles south ofWarrenton extensive gr~vel deposits are found directly overlying the crystalline basement rocks.

Carr property.-At.Norr.ls Crossing.on the Georgia.Railroad, four mi!es from Warrenton, considerable gravel .occurs on. the old Carr
hY prqpeity.. A pit, opened the Georgia Railro~d a quarter mile south
of the railroad on 43 acres purchased from Mr~. Carr an,d worked for about 10 years prior to 1912, shows a !ace 1,500 fe~t long and is from 100 to 200 feet broad. The gravel in the face ranges from 4 to 6 feet in depth aild is underlain by sandy clay. Sample T-5/5, from this pit, is a sandy clay gravel of which 77 per cent passes a 4-mesh screen and which has a finen,ess modulus of 6.74. The pebbles are usually badly weathered and rotten, particularly the granular quartz, and they can easily be broken with a ha:tnmer.
A well at Norris Crossing, 20 feet above the railroad and 500 feet north of it, shows 8 feet of clay gravel, with 2 feet of cover. The railroad cut northwest of the station exposes from 2 to 6 feet of clay gravel or a distance of 2,000 feet, lying upon badly weathered crystalline schists and covered with from a few inches to 3 feet of clay and sandy soil. This gravel is not so good as that further south. On the ~Mayfield road, north of the railroad, at this point, a rrummum of 2 feet of gravel is shown in a cut.

SAND AND Gl{AYEL DEPOSITS

335

Anderson property.-On the Louis Anderson property along the plantation road between the Mayfield (Sparta) road at Norris Cross.,. ing and the Powelton road, road gravel outcrops at several places. The surface gravel here is probably about. 3 or 4 feet thick. One mile north of the Sparta road, a well 22 feet deep shows clay for the first 10 feet, and then a coarse, clayey, granular quartz gravel for the rest of the depth. The surface showing on this property is not so good as that further south.
Baker property.-A well on the Hal Baker property, 4;1 miles from Warrenton on the Warrenton-Powelton road 600 feet west of the intersection of this road and a north-south lane, shows 12 feet of coarse clay and sand gravel, having a one-foot sand cover,. similar to that generally found in this region and extending from the surface and lying upon decomposed, variegated, pre-Cambrian schists at the bottom of the well. An 18-foot well, on the Powelton ro!'l,d 1,500 feet east of the last well and 10 feet higher, shows 10 feet of coarse, day gravel, with peboles from 1 to 3 inches, resting on crystalline schists. The gravel in the upper part of the well is composed of much smaller pebbles than that near the bottom. South of the road,- a few hundred feet east of the last well and 10 feet higher, another well 18 feet deep exposes clay gravel for the entire depth. A third of a mile east of the last well, a road cut shows 8 feet of coarse gravel lying on the ancient crystalline schists. The sides and top of the hills south of the Powelton road at this point and for a mile west are' capped with gravel ranging from a few feet to probably 10 feet in thickness.
Warrenton-Mitchell road.-Near the cross roads 5 miles from Warrenton, considerable surficial gravel was seen on the higher points. The gravel covers probably 30 acres on the Casian and adjoining properties. Gullies in the fields east of the Mitchell road show from 1 to 4 feet of quartz sand cover having quartz pebbles scattered through it. Below the sand 2 feet of good clay gravel occurs. The gravel does not appear to be more than 1 to 3 feet thick, according to evidence obtained from hand-dug wells on the Casian property. Beneath the gravel a mottled clay is found.
North of the cross roads, and in the direction of Warrenton, sandy clay gravel composed of rounded granular quartz pebbles occurs in most of the road cuts for a distance of 3,500 feet, except for about 1,000 feet w~ere the land is low. Wells on either side of the road clearly show from 4 to 15 feet of gravel, the upper foot or two being

336

GEOLOGICAL SU:RVEY OF GEO:RGI..A..

an generally sandy and the rest clayey. In cases a mottled clay lies

beneath.



Henry Tucker (ooz/;red) property.-The Henry Tucker property lies on the Mitchell-Warrenton road abo~t 4Y2 miles from Wa~
renton. The gravel shows up well in the fields along the road and in
some places is so thick as to prevent cultivation. A well west of the road, on this property, shows 5 feet of grayel, and on the opposite side _another well shows at least 8 feet of similar -gravel. There appears to be about 15 acres on this property having from 8 to 10 feet of gravel.

Dotso-n property.-The Dotson property, on the Mitchell road, adjoins the Henry Tucker place on the north. The well at the house shows" 5 feet of Clayey gravel.

Lynn Tucker (colored) prop_erty.-The Lynn Tucker property

lies :further east of the Dotson Place, and a well on this property is

said to penetrate 10 feet of gravel. . A barren stretch, about I ,000

feet wide, lies north of the Dotson and Lynn Tucker places. The

land here is much lower than to the north or south and well illustrates

the tendency of the gravel to lie on or near the top of the hills or di-

vides in this ~egion.

Spe-hRJe property.--The Spenc~ property lies north -of the Dotson

place, and a well ne:;~.r the house shows 8 feet of clay g:ravel. Surface

iri.di:cations of _gravel through here over a great many acres- are very

good, but no other certain information as to its thickness could be

obtained.



Indications point to a large deposit of good gravel lying along the
Mitchell road on the properties mentioned. The distance to the
nearest station on the Georgia Railroad,- Norris Crossing, is about 3~ m:iles, so that unless th~ demand for gravel becomes very great
it will not. pay to develop these deposits except for local road material.

-Norwood~-.Three miles north of Norwood, a 700-foot cut of the

Georgia Railroad exposes from 4 to 10 feet of medium- to coarse-

pebbled gravel, which is fairly well stratified and composed of sub-

angular and rounded granular quartz pebbles. .The matrix is a plastic,

mottled clay. The deposit directly overlies the decomposed pre~Cam

brian schists, and the- overburden of ciay ranges from a few inches to

4 feet.



A pit ~n the Atlanta public road, within a few yards of the railroad,

has 1;1een opened in the gravel deposit for road material. The gravel

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

337

in the pit is 7 feet thick, and the cover ranges from ~ few inches to 3 feet. Sample T-5'6, taken from the pit, shows a fineness modulus of 6.50 and 75 per cent retained on the 4-mesh screen. The deposit contains 10 per cent of clay and is. well suited for road material, or, when washed, for concrete aggregate. A well, 800 feet further northwest on the public road, shows 6 feet of gravel with 5 feet of sandy c1ay cover. The area covered with gravel in this locality is about 8 acres, and a larger area is probably underlain with gravel at some depth. This deposit is not particularly well-suited for working on a large scale, due to thinness of the gravel and the fact that it rests on a very irregular crystalline rock st~rface which may cause the gravel to suddenly pinch out.
Rocky Comfort Creek.-An excellent coarse sand occurs in quantities suitable for local use in a branch of Rocky Comfort Creek, a half mile east of Warrenton, near the mill-pond.

WIDTE COUNTY

The streams of White County have sand and gravel sufficient for local uses, but none 1s shipped.
Chattahoochee River.-Chattahoochee River, which forms the eastern boundary of the county, has plenty of coarse sand and gravel in bars along its course. -Fair amounts occur near the bridge on the Helen-Clarkesville road,- a sample of which was taken (T-19./) and described under Habersham County, p. 303. Near Helen and Robertstown this river can supply both sand'- and gravel for local uses.
Considerable gravel occurs along most of Dukes Creek, particularly near the Helen-Cleveland road. Sand is also found along- Little Tesnatee Creek in the southwest part of the county.

WILKES COUNTY
Granite and granite gneiss occupy most of the southwest part of Wilkes County and upon weathering has produced sand. No sand or gravel is mined in the county for shipment.
The sand used locally in Washington comes~~' from a sandy belt produced by the weathering of underlying granite and which is crossed by the Ficklin road, 3 miles south of WaRhington. It is particularly prominent near and along small branches on the Sam Ray (colored) and Henry Potter (colored) places. This sand is medium-grained and somewhat loamy, but of fair quality for use in concrete. It is only

338

GEOI.iOGIGAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

...
from 1 to 3 fe~t thick and most of it,' at the present pits, has been

hauled away.

Sand similarly produced from the weathering of granite, and of

the same quality as that south of Washington, occurs near Rayle,

in the western part of the county, and. also near the railroad depot

at Tignall, in the north-~central part of the county. The sand at

Tignall is used for local building purposes.

Good sand occup1es the bed of Fishing Creek, which flows eastward from the center of the county, and also occurs i~ Little River, a

tributary of Savanni:th River, forming the southern boundary of the

county. Bars in Little River are. capable of supplying from 10 to

15 carloads, and they should be quickly replenished when exhausted,

due to the swiftness and size of the stream. They would not, how-

ever warrant a large and steady production. A branch of the Georgia

Railroad .crosses the river near Ficklin and would proVide transportation in case the dema~d warranted the installation of. a centrifugal

pump.

TESTS OF PIEDMONT PLATEAU SANDS
------

'S""<!)
~

Locality

4

6

Percentage coarser than each sieve 8 10 14 20 28 35 48 65 100 150 200

.!I1

U1

<!)
.0

.Eg

s .w.<"..!'..)

0
.h..,
'...,

0 U1
gJ

0
<!)
tl:l [i1

:0:'":'~-.<r-:!.l) r:l 0
p

r:l
.s<!)
~

<!)

.>h..,

.~..,
r:l

~
~

<!)
0
~

0

p.

<+=I. '8

U1
'U

<p!).
w.

.-<
> 0

._.._,.;,
d
0
..p'<".!,)'.
..ct -~
<!)
f$:

"" -d I

h

0

r:l
..., "0".'O -<

do
.'.<p".!,').
..ct
b.O
'iil
f$:

"o'"'2'"'

<!)...,
~s

p. 0

.-<

.'"'
0

r~:l

(5b.O

0

s,~.0~~ ~
::l'U r:l...,
<~D $K Poi

....
Q)
1 z

-

- --- - - - - - - --------- - - - ---------

~

1 Atlanta, Peachtree cr: _ ---- 0.6 2.1 5.3 11.4 19.9 44.4 72.0 89.0 95.1 98.3 99.3 99.7 .281 2.19 2.45 2.67 43.4 94.1 2541 200 299

3 Bolton, Ghatta-

hoochee R. _________

0.1 1.0 14.2 61.5 89.6 97.1 99.4 .146 1.70 1.04 2.67 45.9 90.1 2433 20 301

4 5

Bohlotoonc,heCehRat.t_a_-_______ Conley, cr. ___________

----
0.9

----
2.0

---2.7

----
4.7

---8.1

0.2 13.3

0.5 31.8

3.4 64.6

25.9 89.3

86.8 97.8

99.::!
99.4

99.8 99.7

99.9 99.9

.192 2.80 1.26 2.69 44.8 .288 1.89 2.32 2.67 45.9

93.7 2530 90.3 2438

20 300 80 295

7 Dames Ferry, Ocmulgee R. _____________

0.2 1.0 5.6 28.3 71.7 92.7 97.8 99.4 99.7 99.9 ,311 1. 75 2.21 2.66 42.6 95.5 2579 20 317

7a Macon, Ocmulgee R. ___ 0.7 1.5 3.8 10.4 21.2 40.0 62.5 87.5 95.3 98.6 99.4 99.7 99.9 .378 2.21 2.83 2.66 41.7 96.9 2616 125

1 ~

3
4

!A.
~

5

G':l pj

7

!A. "1

7a l?:J

103 Thunder Spring___ - ___

0.1 0.6 1.8 4.2 10.4 24.4 53.7 84.4 97.8 99.4 99.8 .183 1. 92 1.64 n. d. n. d. n. d.

103 1:-1

104 Yatesville ____________

1.8 3.7 7.8 13.7 23.2 38.9 62.8 81.2 92.6 97.5 98.5 99.3 .228 2.55 2.35 2.64 43.1 93.7 2530 100 332 104 l:j

107 108 109

Griffin, cr. ____________ 12.1 19.0 27.0 37.8 48.5 60.8 73.1 85.2 94.6 97.9 99.6 99.8 99.9 .353 4.38 3.55 2.66 43.4 93.9 2535 Griffin, cr____________ 1.4 3.4 5.5 10.5 17.3 28.8 43.6 61.5 76.3 88.2 96.5 98.5 99.3 .195 3.33 2.41 2.66 41.6 97.0 2619 Jackson, cr,___________ 3.9 6.1 8.5 12.2 16.7 24.9 40.6 65.2 84.8 95.2 98.4 99.2 99.6 .251 2.33 2.62 2.66 40.8 98.6 2663

100 100 200

327 107 327 108 286 109

l?:J
af.tJ
/J)

110 Eatonton, cr. _________ 0.1 0.2 0.9 3.5 27.4 56.9 84.7 94.7 96.8 98.3 99.1 99.1 99.8 .498 2.08 2.62 2.63 46.9 90.6 2446

110a Appling, bk. __________

0.1 0.5 2.5 6.5 14.8 29.5 51.6 69.1 81.6 90.6 94.5 99.7 .151 3.36 1. 96 2.66 45.2 91.0 2557

25 ------ 110 300 293 110a

I-;
~ /J)

111 Appling, cr. ___________ 0.4 2.9 8.2 19.5 35.0 55.6 79.5 94.0 98.4 99.2 99.6 99.8 99.9 .164 2.34 3.21 2.60 43.0 92.6 2550 200 293 111

112 113

Watkinsville, cr_______ 2.8 4.5 8.0 18.3 36.1 60.0 80.3 93.2 96.7 98.6 99.5 99.7 99.9 .459 2.43 3.23 2.66 43.8 94.2 2543

Madison, cr. __________

0.5 1.9 11.9 28.6 55.1 86.0 94.7 98.3 99.5 99.5 99.7 99.7 .511 2,19 3.09 2.66 42.3 96.1 2595

100 150

322 112 319 113

114 Lexington, cr. _________ 8.2 11.9 15.5 20.4 25.9 35.1 48.7 68.3 86.9 90.6 96.3 98.1 99.3 .222 3.31 2.76 2.64 40.3 98.2 2651 100 323 111

115 116

Athens, cr. ___________ 0.9 3.3 6.5 13.4 23.1 35.4 54.1 74.2 84.6 92.6 96.3 98.0 99.2 .236 3.27 2.66 2.64 47.5 86.6 2338 Monroe, cr. ___________ 0.1 0.4 1.3 4.5 10.0 19.6 36.0 52.2 72.3 83.2 94.0 '96.7 99.2 .170 3.22 2.14 2.67 42.3 96.2 2597

50 150

290 115 333 116

118 119

Porterdale, bk. ________ ---- ---Henry County,Sout.h R. 0.2 0.8

0.1 2.0

0.4 1.2 7.3 12.1 30.3 55.1 81.2 5.6 12.3 23.8 43.0 62.8 85.2 95.2

93.0 98.8

96.2 99.5

99.1 99.9

.163 2.26 1.61 ---- ---- ----- ---.253 2.48 2.42 2.66 42.8 95.0 2565

150 300

322 118 309 119

NOTE: R=river, cr=creek, bk=bank.

---- ---------- - - - - -

-----

---- ------

~
Ci:J .:0

:--

C!:l

TESTS OF PIEDMONT PLATEAU SANDS

f!:>..
0

~
s,..0
-.--1

,.
Locahty

Percentage coarser than each. siclve

I

..

.C~ll

tS '
CD
0-. 8

.E[11 .
s.0 ,
rn

.~ ~ ~

Cll bD

- ~

~

""!
[;b

C8l .~

-P .-d

'<-<

>,

g ~.
p.,

~:0~:i

.;!. "'"'

.8. ~ 0.

0 .,...,

~'0~c;~Sj ~"Q')~~~-

~

.I I j ~ -~ ~ l ~ ' ~ ~ ~ .~ !.$ -~ , ------,...-------,.- '

.

.

4 618 10 l14l2o.l28 .J. 35 14816511oo l15o l2oo

. e: U1

R..P~ I~Zl. ~0

a Pi
in

1+>b

1+>b P,..,O

1



1< 1=f

CD

...a

~

,_ _ _,_ _ _ ,_ _ _,_ _ _,_ _ _,_ _ _,_ _ _ ,_._ _,_._._, _ _ _ ,_ _. _ , _ _ _ _,_ _ _ ,_ _ _._, _ _ _ ,_ _ _ ,_ _._,_ _ _ ,_ _ _ ,_ _ _ ,_ _ _ ,_ _ __

a

121a 123 124 125 I
126 128
129
130 189
192
193 195 196
197

Almon,~k______________ ,.; __ , ___ .,. __ HogansVIlle, cr. _______ 0.3 0.6 1.3

... . . 05..1$120..62290:;.41541..538~9..2;64944:,137998..95

95.4 99.7

LaGrange, cr._________ LaGrange,bk. ________

1. 4 0,5

27..06134..66248..653154..965225,;497424... 889701~.689879

. ;:1 ..6

96.5 99.0

99.0 99.5

Carrollton,cr._________ 9.819.0 26.2 34.3 41.5 50:3 62:1) 7!);5 89,9 95.8 98.3

HCaorgroalnlstvoi~l,le,crb.k_,_______________ Chapel Hill, cr._______

1. 7 3. 9 5.4 _6.1
0.1 J. 5

6. 513.3 6.8 7.7 4. 713,1

293..721421..552603..69483..(4$790(,8~8988.:16 24.4 46;4 70.5 S6.4 9?;~ 96.2

99.5 96.6 98.5

Clayton, cr. ___________ 8.4. 9.014.821.525.529.140,359.175,687.7 95.5

Clarkesville, cr. _______ 2.8 4.6 8.014.521.732,547.667.883/793.3 97.5

iT~0uacwrcino~, a,q;rBb, k_r_,o_-a_-d_-R_-_~__-__-__-__-__-_

0.4 3.8 5. 5

04,.6~ 7 ....

06..92122..24214..791391..9~2682..294875.:096974...929870:.87 9.8 16.0 22.8 31.1 44.5 61.3 76.9 89.3

92.1 99:2 95.5

Gati.naetesev)~.lle-,~C--h-e-s-------

10

~

15.6'

21.6

31.8

44.0

60.4

76.4

88:2

. 94.2

96.9

98.8

98.599.6 99.8 99:9

.H)81.84. ~.4!~.6646..1 .3342.162.632.6744.9

8939..62224~1169

300_ 322 l21a 50 315 123

99.6 99.8 .287 2.27 2. 54 2. 66 43; 1 95.5 2568 150 330 124

99.Q,99,8 .4242.503.202.6639.0 96.425-'!9 '60 330 125

99.0 99,,6
.9Q. i. 99.9

.. 296 .359

4.32 2.40

3.28 ;- 90

2.67 2.,66

3419.:621_0951~.36

2785 2581

tra.ce 800

288 126 330 128

98.7 99.6
.99.3. 99.8 98.0.-.99.3

...311599140322...2H682~2.2.....509919..2~2..,66,666463~&3...208

94:52552
102.Q 2754 96.42549

1q0
600 400

28& 129
296 130 326 189

98.8 99.6 96.8 98.9 99.5 99.8 97.7 99.2
'
99.4 99.8

.2382.992.612.6740.4 .1583.051.932.6643.1 .3611.652.892.6746.5

9949..462~655854
89.:524~6

.201 3.33 2.55 2. 64 41.4

.

., .

9 6.~7 2558

.380 3.49 3.46 2. 69 41.. 9 97 ..5 2632

.

200 303

1.00-.328

150 350

__3.:.12~-

2~0

304

192 193 195 196
.
197

at'-i -G~::l
J:,..
ot~'--~i
'1
l:>;j
f..1
a ~f:t;J a ~ ~

198 199 201 203 203a 204 205a 261

Gamesv1lle, bk. _______
WSuiwndanern,eec,r.c~r.-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-
Jefferson, cr.__________ E l b e r t o n , c r . __________
Hartwell, cr.__________ Comer, cr.____________ Greensboro, cr.________

O..u 0.6 1.4 3.8 6.813.425.849.570-.385.1 94.2 97.3 99.0 .1752.781.992.6741.4 97.-52632 ..700 304 198

9.0 14.5 22.2 35.7 47.1 60.1 72.0 82.3 90.4 94.9. 97.5 98.6 99.5 ,3014. 82 3. 30 2. 66 39.9 100.0 2700 100 ; 303 199

2.1 3.8 6 .412. 5 22.4 37.4 55.2 72.. 3 85.4 94:2 99.0 99.6 99.8 .249 3.13 2. 712.59 37.4101.4 2738 trace 310 201

2. 7 4. 6 6. 911.219.2 34.2 54.0 72.8 84::3 92.3 96.1 98.2 99.5 .. 233 3.27 2. 63 2. 62 42.6 94.12541. 100 310 203

0.3 0.7 2.0 5.211.722.740.965.084 ..694.8 98.8 99.5 99.8 .2492.422.382.6842.0 96.52552 150 296 203a

2. 9 6. 210.0 15,9 23.3 32.144.2 67.184.1 93.1 98.0 98.9 99.5 . 244 2. 75 2. 62 2. 62 43.2 92.3 2492 200 308 204

0:9 1. 5.114.

4 9

2. 9 29.6

6. 52.

2 2

13.124.145.3 70.8 85. R 94.7

74.3 98.4

90.4 99.2

96.9 99.7

99.2 100.0

_9__9_.7___9_9_.9~

.298 .. 718

2.18 2.83

2. 52 4.05

2.
2.

($7 62

40.6 38.8

96.1 100.0

2540 2700

200 L ____ 205a 100 302 261

J:,..

TESTS OF PIEDMONT PLATEAU GRAVELS

Locality

w

"S

z::;j

'

.

'

.

Percentage coarser than each sieve....

~

1ll
~"' ~ '+-1 0

"0
0 s

<'"1')1':0:1 ,.0 .....
s~

~
~
!A.

o:s"' lw ""'' t P''"'
<1) 1'::1

17;1: % ~

4

6

8

10

14

20

28

35

48

65 100 150 200

1'::1
<1)
1'::1

~~

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

~ --

P-1 -

-

-

~
G')
!:':1 !A.

180 Acworth, cr. __________________ 13.6 21.6 26.9 54.5 55.7156.7 58.3 60.2 63.8 70.7 83.4 93.0 97.6 99.1 99.5 99.8 4.96 292 180

;]
t-<

187 Hiwassee, cr. __________________ 6.1 16.6 25.4 46.0 51:2 55.2 59.6 62.7 66.2 70.4 76.5 85.6 92.7 96.9 98.3 99.3 4.55 '331 187 tw:J

188 Hiwassee, cr. __________________ 10 ..9 23.6 35.9 57.7 63.4 66.0 68.5 70.4 72.5 74.7 78.1 82.8 88.8 94.3 96.5 98.2 5.16 328 188 a'"tl
~

194 Cleveland, Chattahoochee R. ___ 1.7 8.fi 18.4 37.2 48.6 45.6 53.1 61.5 72.5 83.4 92.8 97.0 98.3 99.2 99.6 99.8 4.42 303 194

1--3
V:l

200 Duluth, cr. ___________________ 2.4 7.7 16.9 47.7(6.8 64.2 71.1 76:3 81.1 86.2 91.1 94.3 96.2 97.5 98.1 99.0 4 93 302 200

CJ,:)
.fl.:.:>...

.342

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

THE PALEOZOIC AREA1
, .
EXTENT AND SIZE

Within the Paleozoic area of Georgia iS included the extreme northwest corner of the state -comprising all or parts of Dade, Walker, Catoosa, Chattooga, .Floyd, Polk, Murray, Gordon, Bartow and Carroll counties.
PHYSIOGRAPHY

In contrast with the Appalachian Mountains on the east and the Piedmont ~lateau on the south, the Paleozoic area presents, for. the most part, long, narrow, regular ridges, with broad, rolling valleys between.
That part of the area in Dade and the. western part of Walker , and Chattooga counties is a high, level plateau known as the Cumber-
land Plateau havi:hg an_p.verage elevation of 1,800 feet. Between this pls,teau and the AppaJachian Mountains the regular succession of ridges 'and valleys comprise the Appalachian Valley Province which is part of a similar. zone extending southward from Pennsylvania. Its average elevation is 850 feet. Most of the streams traversing the area are not very swift and have sandy or muddy bottorp.s.

. GEOLOGY



The Paleozoic area is underlain. by deposits of sandstone, shale, slate, and limestone of Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, and
Carboniferous ages. Since deposits of sandstone suitable for glass making occur in the-sandstone formations, and cieposits of chert gravel as residual products in some of the limestone formations, the various formations will be considered.

CAMBRIAN SYSTEM
The Cambrian System is divided into Altered and Unaltered Cambrian. The Altered Cambrian, long considered Pre-Cambrian, occupies a belt from eight to twenty-five miles wide, lying between the
Archean rocks and the unaltered Paleozoic rocks. H consists of al- -
most 10,000 feet of slates, schists, quartzites, conglomerates, and mar-

1 Abstracted from the following sources:

McCallie, S. W., Notes on the geology of Georgia: Jour. Geology, Vol. 27, pp. 168-175, 1919.

Maynard, T. P., Limestones and cement materials of north Georgia: Georgia Geol. Survey.

Bull, 27, pp. 82-108, 1912.



-

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

343

bles, all of which are highly metamorphosed, but usually retain some evidence of sedimentary origin. Some of the quartzites may be pure enough for glass purposes. The Unaltered Cambrian occupies irregular strips throughout the Paleozoic area.
The Weisner quartzite forms hard ridges and consists of heavy beds of fine to coarse quartzite ranging into conglomerate. In places this material attams considerable purity.
The shales belong to the Cartersville, Apison, and Rome formations and are generally calcareous with local sandy lenses. The limestones which make up part of the Shady, Conasauga, and Knox dolomite formations may be intercalated between shales and are usually blue and quite siliceous, leaving beds of cherty gravel upon weathering.
ORDO'VliOIAN SYSTEM
The Chickamau~a limestone is the .only entirely representative member of the Ordovicia:'n system in Georgia. It is a succession of blue limestones and calcareous shales. It is 200 feet thick and largely forms the valleys in the area. From its decay large deposits of chert gravel have been formed.
In the eastern part of the area the Rockmart slate is included in the Ordovician, making the total thickness qf this system 2,500 feet. -
SILURIAN SYSTEM
The Rockwood formation consists of sandstones and shales and varies from 600 to 1,000 feet in thickness. The sandstones are usually thickly bedded, forming ridges, as at Rocky Face and Cha.ttoogata Mountain, in Whitfield County, and may be of sufficient purity to be suitable for the manufacture of glass. Intercalated red, brown, and blue shale and shaly sandstone is common in the formation.
DEVONIAN SYSTEM
The representatives of the Devonian formation are few, and occur mostly in the vicinity of Rome. They consist principally of a black shale and some sandstone with interbedded shale.
CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM
The Carboniferous rocks are found at their greatest thickness on the Cumberland Plateau. They have been divided into the Upper Carboniferous, or Pennsylvanian, and the Lower Carboniferous, or Mississippian.

344

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF G:EORGIA

PENNSYLVANIAN GROUP
The Looko~t formation lies unconformably on the Bangor forination and consists of sandstone, conglomerates, shales, and some coal. Heavy, somewhat impure, sandst<?ne and conglomerate -beds make up the lower and Upper parts of the formation, and shale and sandstone is interbedded between. None of the material is believed fit for commercial glass making.
- 'rhe Walden sandstone is the youngest Paleozoic formation in Georgia and is composed of sandstones, conglomerates, shales, and several ,coal beds. It is similar to the Lookout formation, and, like it,, does not contain extensive beds suitable for glass making.

MISSISSIPPIAN GROUP

Fort Payne chert is a limeiiltone containing' a large amount of chert. Upon weathering the chert remains as residual depQsits somewhat resembling that of the -Knox dolomite, whlch is used for road material in many pla~es.
The Floyd shale consists of vari-colored, calcareous shales, sometimes sandy, and merging into thin beds of ~estone. Heavy bedded, blue i.irriestones also occur through the formation. '. The Oxmooi sandstone lies upon the Floyd shale and consists of coarse .white t~ brown sandstone and conglomterates. No extensive beds suitable for glass making occur in the formation.
Thi(Iiantor formation consists of heavy bedded, blue limestone
insome beds of chert in its lower part, and. shales of variable thickness the upper" part. No sandstone is found. ~n it.

.

.

DETAILED. DESCRIPTION OF INDIVIDUAL

COUNTlES

BARTOW COUNTY

Sand is shipped from Emerson, and small deposits of stream~ sand and bank gravel occur throughout Bartow County: About 1900 roofing gravel was shipped from the vicinity of Kingston.
Emerson.-Fine- and coarse-grained sand has been deposited by Pumpkinvine Creek, 172 miles south;..-southwe&t of Emerson, along both sides of the stream, near the trestle of the branch railroad that ran_ from Emerson to the brown iron mines, on the property of C. A.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

345

Pucke-tt, of Emerson, and J. L. McElroy, of Norcross. The stream is about 40 feet wide at this place. Close to it, on the west side, a fine-grained plaster or brick sand attains a thickness of from 2 to 5 f~?et. It is dark brown and has mica and some organic-matter scattered through it. The deposit, which covers about '10 acres, is worked by C. A. Puckett and the sand hauled a half mile by wagon to the railroad spur where it is loaded on cars and shipped to nearby towns. The surface of about one acre of the d-eposit is covered to a depth of 2 feetwith a fine-grained; sharp, clean, white sand that has been shipped to Philadelphia and points in Ohio for use in sanding clay products before burning. It is said to be well suited for this purpose. Sample T-176, typical of this fine-grained sand, has a fineness modulus of 0.94, and only 8 per cent is coarser than 48 mesh. Th~ supply of this type of sand is very limited.
On the same side of the cr~ek and further north, a pit which covers about an acre has been opened.

Section at sand pit, 172 miles sou,thwest. of Emerson

Feet

Gray, fine- to medium-grained sand with a few string-
ers of pebbles from i to i inch running through

ll---------------------~--------------------Reddish-brown clay_______________________________

5-6

Yellow, medium-grained sand______________________ 2

Inches 6

The upper sand has been shipped largely to adjoining towns and is suitable for brick and plaster work. On the same side of the creek and closer to it near the pit, is apparently from 4 to 6 feet of a rather coarse-grained sand which is suitable for concrete. No opening has been made in this part of the deposit. Sample T-177 shows it to have a fineness modulus of 2.40 and 88 per cent coarser_ than 48 mesh. The organic matter color value is 150. The sand is gray, and the grains are mostly of quartz and chert. The coarse sand . probably occupies less than an acre and is surrounded by the finer-grained material.
Sand extends along Pumpkinvine Creek for about a mile, reach ing 400 feet back on the east side, and to a lesser extent, and of somewhat inferior grade, on the west side.
Etowah River.-At the Wooden Bridge northwest of Etowah River, a few feet above the river level, and 50 feet back from it, a fine- to medium-grained sand has been deposited. The sand is hauled

/

346

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

to Qartersville, 2; mile13 distant, and used principally in brick and plaster work for which it is better suited than for concrete. The deposit extends for a half mile down the river, with some interruptions and is from 3 to 6 feet thick. Sampl~ T-179, obtained from a small pit just below the Wooden Bridge, has a fineness modulus of 1.89 and 78 per cent is coarser than 48 mesh. The organic color value is 10,0. The sand is d?-rk gray and fairly clean, although it contains some mica, barytes, and coal particles.
Should the demand warrant, it is likely that a centrifugal pump or bucket dredge would obtain plenty of coarse sand and even gravel on submerged bars or near the mouths of tributary creeks.
Allatoona Creek,. which has been dredged for part of its course in Bartow County, has bars of good, coarse-grained sand !'tnd gravel. .In the southeast part of the county where the Western &- Atlantic Railroad crosses the creek, sand was formerly obtained fot locomotive purposes and hauled to Atlanta where it was dried.

GRAVEL
Thin deposits of clay gravel composed of tough quartz pebbles occur on the sides and top of ti:ie second terrace which overlooks Etowah 'River arrd also in the second bottom of this ri'ver. A small deposit occurs on the DiXie' Righw~y; 1%; miles south of Cartersville where it is shown tilting at an angle of 45 in a road cut beneath a sman cerp.etery The cut shows 8 to 10 feet of gravel which underlies 2 or 3 acres of the hill above. Coarse-pebbled g:r;avel also occurs in. the fields along the second bottom of Etowah :River near this point at a
number of places, but their thickness is not likely to exceed a. foot
or two. Gravel also occurs on the slopes of the terrace above Pumpkinvine
Creek. It is exposed on plantation roads on the Puckett and adjoin-:- . ing properties.
A gravel pit was formerly worked on the Mrs. L. A. Jones property, lot 624, in the Etowah River bottoms, and a few hundred yards south of the Dixie Highway, and east of the wago_n road leading to the barytes grinding mill. The gravel usually occupies slight rises of a fe~ feet and appears 'to irregularly underlie several acres in this vicinity.
'
.!.l.dairsville.-.One mile south ot Adairsville on the Dixie Highway, a branch of Oothkalooga .Qr:eek has small quantitfes of rather

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

347

soft-grained sand, shale and limestone gravel of poor quil,lity. Sample T-175,- from this deposit, has a fineness modulus of 5.53 a:ud 51 per cent coarser than 4 mesh.
Kingston.-According to Mr. J. D. Rollins, of Kingston, over 500 carloads of roofing gravel were shipped from small pits near Kingston about 1900. Most of the gravei was worked out at that time but it is possible that other deposit::; may be found in the vicinity.
Molding sand.-Near the branch rai'.road r:unning southwest from Emerson, a deposit of very fine-grained, silty, molding sand has been lnined about three-quarters of a mile from Emerson on the public road. It occurs on the slope of the hill in small deposits containing a few cubic yards each and has l:l,pparently been derived from the weathering of the Weisner quartzite. Small amounts are used by foundries in Cartersville.

CATOOSA COUNTY
The only sandstone of consequence in Catoosa County is found in the Rockwood formation, although fairly pure sandsto~e layers may be encountered in the Knox dolomite. Most of the streams have good .concrete aggregate, and their bottoms in many cases have differip.g amounts of molding sand. Small quantities of .molding sand are produced in the county, but no building sand is shipped. .
Ringgold.-South Chickam~uga Creek, from Graysville to Ringgold, has some clean, chert gravel, but south of Ringgold very little is found in it, although sand was shipped from along its banks, two miles below Ringgold, some years ago.
Brockman property.-On the Edward Brockman place, 1;!/z miles west of Ringgold, west of South Chickamauga Creek, is a deposit of fine-grained sand suitable for brick mortar, but much too fine for plaster or concrete. The sand has been opened to a depth of 5 feet in places and hauled to Ringgold. It is composed of quartz and chert grains, gray and loamy with a few pebbles in it. Sample T-16$ shows it to have a fineness modulus of 1.04 and 31 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. The sand has only a trace of organic rnatter.
Clark property.-South of the Brockman property, J. H. Clark has a similar deposit of brick sand and molding sand, along South Chickamauga Creek. He ships both grades of sand to Chattanooga, Knoxville, and Birmingham.

348

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

Similar sand, less desirably located with ~regard to transportation,

occurs along this creek on a number of other properties in the vicimty

of Ringgold.

Hurricane Creek has small amounts of gravel, especially near its

junction with South Chickamauga Creek, e_ast of Graysville. At a

number of points along West Chicamauga Creek in the western part

of the county, angular chert gravel and sand, in quantities sufficient

for local purposes, occur.



Moldini sand.-The bottoms of the larger creeks in Catoosa County have large quantities of good moldi:qg sand, deposited by this stream .during flood periods Deposits of this kind are .almost- universally associated with the streams of northwest Georgia, but the proximity of this particular locality to Chattanooga, with its many foundries, has- led to its development both in Catoosa and Whitfield counties.

Brockman property:-An excellent. deposit of molding sand oc-

. curs on the Brockman place, west of South Chickamauga Creek, 1}2

mil~s west of Ringgold. The sand is found in. the first bottom of the

stream, almost from the bank -to a point about 60Q feet back. Pits

.opened along the creek show it to have a maximum thickness of 10

feet. The upper 18-inches of the deposit is'a gray; gritty soil which.

is usuiilly ploughed in with the. rest . of..- the _material when loosened._

The next 3 feet is a silty, red, ~d-ium-grained, smooth sand which is

said to be the best of the deposit. Beneath this the sand becomes

finer- and darker "for the rest of the section, and it may contain a few

chert fragments.-

_

The sand is hauled to. the railroad at Ringgold where it is loaded

on cars and shipped to Nashville, Chattanooga, and Birmingham.

. Sand similar to that on the Brockman property is shipped from

the J.. H. Clark place to- .the south and also occurs on other places

bordering-- the creek. .

On the Dixie Highway, 2 miles south of Ringgold; 10 feet of what

appears to be a good red and yellow molding sand occurs, underlain

by hard chert gravel, 5 feet thick. This is simply a local pocket con..:

tai:i:ring about 600, cubic yards.

CHATTO.OGA COUNTY .
Although no. sand or gravel has been produced co~merciaV.y, adequate deposits for local use occur' in most parts of Chattooga County.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

319

Sands~one, usually impure, is found in the Rockwood, Lookout, and Walden formations. Chert, derived from the weathering of the Knox dolomite and the Fort Payne formation, has been mined commercially near Summerville for road purposes.
Dill property.-A half mile west of Tidings' store on Whitehead Creek and close to the Rome & Northern Railroad, a small deposit of coarse, concrete sand occurs which was formerly shipped in small quantities.
Good sand is also found in \Vest Armuchee Creek, near the crossing: of the Rome road.. The sand is coarse-grained and of good quality and_is used in local construction.
Pollock property.---On the Chattooga road, 1n miles east of Lyerly, on the N. L. Pollock property, is a flood-plain deposit of 3 or 4 acres of very fine-grained sand, suitable for brick or plaster work. The sand is 2 o.r 3 feet thick and is underlain by a silty material probably suitable for foundry purposes. The sand is hauled to Lyerly and Berryton and used iri building. Sample T-1.1;.9 shows a fineness modulus of 95 arid -15 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. The color value of the organic matter is 200. Sand of this type occurs close to the river in smaller quantities at other places in the county, for example, east of Berryton, and near Chattoogaville.
On most of the branches at -almost any pointin the county, a few cubic yards of clean chert gravel can be found for local work. Larger deposits occur in bars at a few places along Chattooga River, but as a rule good concrete sand or gravel in any but small quantities is hard to find. Small amounts of good sand and gravel are found in the streams, branches, and sloughs around Summerville, and this material ser~es for most local construction purposes. Good concrete material in small quantities also occurs in the small creek just east of Gore.

CHERT
Bittings property.-::A large chert pit on theN. K. Bittings property, on the Central of Georgia Railway, 1 mile south of Summerville, has been operated for 30 years, and up until the spring of 1919 the chert was shipped to various points in GeorKia and Tennessee for road building. (Plate XIX-A.) When visited in August, 1919, the spur had been taken up, and the chert was used only for local road building. The face is 50 feet high in plares, and the pit covers 2 or 3 acres. The chert is greatly broken up anq readily crumbles to an-

350

GEOLOGICAL SU.RVEY OF GEORGIA

gular fr~gments 1 to 5 inches in size when broken down with picks or by small shots of dynamite. Decayed limestone and chert serves as a binder, so that the material is fairly well-suited for roads, although roads built from it are usually very dusty. It is not good for concrete construction unless washed.

.!lnalysis of oh~rt from Bittin~s pit, one mile. south of Summerville, T-148

FSeilrlrciac

(oSxiOidez)

_(_F_e_z~

0
~

_3_)_-_-_---_-_-_-_-_--_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_--_-_-_

907..6136

' Smaller chert pits have been opened at several pla~es in the county

~nd the. material used locally in. road building. Residual chert, pro-

duced from the weathering of the Knox dolomite, is very extensively

sc:;tttered through the county. A belt, 1 mUe wide, favorable for

the occurrence of this material, extends from near the Alaqama line,

1 mile west of Chattoogaville, to the county line north of Trion.

This belt is close to the railroad 3 or 4 miles south of Summerville and for seve;ar'rniles north of Trion. S~ilar areas occur near Menlo,

in Broomtown Valley, and near Talliaferro, and ;a.lso along the Central

of Georgia Railway from Trion to the .county line.

. .

..

.

Ramsey prop_erty:-On the W. W. Ramsey place, on the left bank

of Armuchee Creek, where the Rome-Sun:imervilie road crosses it,

and just s'outh of Armuchee village; a flood-plain deposit of fine-grained

sand occurs. The deposit covers, ab.out 5 .a,ctes; and the sand is from 4 to 8 ~feet deep pale yellow; and has considerable loam. It is suit-

able for brick and plaster work and is used lor.ally for construction.

Sand from thi~ property is hauled to the railroad a quarter mile dis-

tant ~nd shipped to nearby poini;s. Similar sand O'ccurs west of the

public road, 6 feet thick, but it is not known whether this thickness

is extensive.

Moldin~. sand.-A deposit .of what appears to be fairly good

mqlding sand occurs along the southern bank. of Chatt6oga River at

the Trion steel bridge. The material is 1.0 feet thick and is uniform

thr.oughout except that it i13 more clayey at the base.

,

Sand more f-a~orably suited with respeqt to transportation might

be found near the railroad bridge over the river a short distance west

of this point.

SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

' 3.51

DADE COUNTY
Sandstone is particularly prominent in the \f\7alden and Lookout formations in Dade County; but its value is small. No sand or gravel has been commercially produced in the county, and good deposits of even small extent are rare.
Trenton.-One mile east of the town, where the steel bridge crosses Lookout Creek, is a deposit of fine-grained, somewhat loamy sand used locally for building purposes. It occurs in the creek bottom ' on both sides of the creek and is not more than 2 or 3 feet thick.
Rising Fawn.-Two miles north of Rising Fawn on Lookout Creek, is a deposit of 5 or 6 acres of fine-grained sand from 2 to 3 feet thick and underlain by a clayey sand apparently suitable for some foundry purposes. Sample T-158, representing this deposit, has a fineness modulus of 1.40 and 38 per cent is coarser than 48 mesh. The. organic matter color value is 250. The sand is a dark grayish-brown, and the grains are mostly of chert and quartz.
.Coarse-grained sand and gravel in small quantities, suitable for concrete work, are found on Crawfish Creek, near the crossing of the Rising Fawn-Trenton road.
Sandstone.-The lower parts .of Lookout and Sand mountains in this county are composed of limestone, but from the 1,500-foot level upward, sandstone, belonging to the Lookout and Walden formations, occurs. This sandstone is mostly yellowish- to reddish-bro"\\'D. and has intercalated shale and coal layers, and only rarely is it white enough to suggest its use in the manufacture of glass.

FLOYD COUNTY
The Lookout and Rockwood formations in Floyd County contain considerable sandstone available for silica materials, but hardly pure enough for glass. Sand and gravel are dredged from Oostanaula and Etowah rivers at Rome, and large quantities are used both in Rome and other parts of the state. Gravel pits have been opened at several points in the county for road material.
Rome Sand and Gravel Company.-The Rome Sand and Gravel Company, managed by E. L. Norrels of Rome, dredges sand from Oostanaula River at the company's wharf at the foot of Second Avenue.
Sand is also obtained from Nixon's Island, 1V2 miles below the wharf

352

GEOLOGICAL SURVE.Y O.F GEORGIA

-where it is loaded by hand on a lighter and towed to the city by a small

motor boat. Both sand and gravel is obtained at Batty's shoals, 1

mile above -Rome near the pumping station. Most of t]le gravel in

the river bed at Rome has been removed; and what is left is said to

- have a crust, 6 or 8 inches thick, so hard as to be broken by the grab-

bucket only with difficulty. What gravel is recovered is made up of
50 per cent of pebbles_ from Y2 to 2 inches in size, and the remainder

is -sand.

Sand was formerly pllPlped from the river by means of a 6-inch

centrifugal pump, but the l_oss of the pump, when the barge to which

it was attached was sunk, htts not yet been replaced. -At present

the sanci is scooped from the sand barges and loaded in cars or put

in a stock pile with a 30-hqrsepower whirler or stiff-leg boom having a one-cubic-yard scoop-buck~t. When gravel was. recovered from tr1e

river, the material was first passed through 1Y2-, 1-, and Ji-inch re-

volving trammels, so. that two grades of gravel and one grade of sand

were obtained.

" ,

A ladder elevating device, consisting of 27 buckets, made of bridge

steel; has bee.u used in raising sarid and gravel from the river bed.
When in use, it ~as attached to the side of the barge, but i~ caused

the barge to list so much th~t it was impossible to get a full load of
material. It is inte~ded to prevent this difficultY by cutting a hole

in the center of_ the barge and installing the elevator over it.

. Sample T-134 wa-sobtain,ed from the shores_of -Nixon's Island and is. used as brick sa~d. It has a fineness modulus of 1.25' and 38 per

cent is retained on the 48-mesh sieve. The organic matter color

value is 2,000. This sand is shipped to Cedartown, Cartersville, At-

lanta, and other North Georgia points.

.X. G. W.atson Sand Company.-Mr. N._ G. Watson obtains his sand from Etowah River, on the east side of Rome. This river is swifter thau Oostanaula- River and it .is natural that the material in its bed should be somewhat coarser. Three grades of Iilateri~l are .produced: gravel, which is dredged from the river where 'thewater is shallower and has caused the deposition of coarse sand and pebbles; concret~ sand, composing two-:-thirds of, the grav-el, is screened from the natural sand and gravel :mixture obtain,ed from the stream bed; and brick sand, obtained .from the .banks of a small island, a short distance ,below -the dock..

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSI1'S OF GEORGIA

PLATE XX

A . GRAVEL DEPOSlT NEAR ROME-LIV!NGSTO ROAD. 7 MILES WEST OF RO)lE. FLOYD COU TY

B. WHITE SANDSTONE DEPOSIT, ROCKWOOD FORMATION, R0 CKY FACE, WHITFIELD COUNTY

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

353

The gravel is scooped from the river by a man with a long pole on the end of which a scoop is fastened. The pole is supported by a post on the barge. The barge holds about 7 cubic yards. The brick sand, from the shores of the island, is shoveled by hand into the barge which is then poled to the landing. This sand is probably 10 feet thick. The sand and gravel is used locally in Rome and is of exceptionally good quality. Sample T-136 is typical of the brick sand from the island and shows a fineness modulus of 1.38 and 40 per cent retained on the 48-mesh sieve. The organic color value is 560. The sand is dark gray, and the grains are of quartz, chert, and mica.
Sample T-137 represents the river gravel from the submerged island and has a fineness modulus of 5.49 and 54 per cent is coarser than 4 mesh. The pebbles are tough and .of white sandstone and quartz, with some flint, red sandstone, dolomite, and limonite.
The medium-grained sand obtained from this island (T-138) shows a fineness modulus of 1.82 and 76 per cent coarser than the 48-mesh screen. The organic color value is 400. The sarid is light brown and composed mostly of quartz and chert and some mica and limonite.
GRAVEL
Large amounts of clay gravel are found in the county on the upper terraces overlooking Coosa River and to a less degree on the terrace of Etowah River at Rome. Most of the gravel is rather remotely situated with respect to transportation, but it is desirable and available for road construction purposes in the county.
Rome.-On the hills overlooking Etowah River from the i:wrth in the northeast part of Rome, gravel occurs from 3 to 10 feet thick. On the hill occupied by the large schoolhouse above the Southern Railway bridge over the river, gullies show the following section on the northwest side of the hilL

Section at Schoolhouse Hill, Eome
Feet Sandcye,nct loafytghreavmeal,ssp_e_b_b_-l_e_s_~ ___t_o__2__in_c_h_e_s__c_o_m_p__o_$_in_g__6_0__p_e-r 5 l:ellowclay____________________________________________ 10
Clay gravel, pebbles ~1! to 3 inches, composing 70 per cent of the mass_______________________ -.-__________________ 10
Clay__________________________________________________ 4 Clayey gravel, not so coarse-pebbled as upper layers________ 5 Clay__________________________________________________ 5 Fairly good clay graveL _____________________________ -- _8-10

354

GEOLOGICAL SURYEY OF GEORGIA

This section shows a large amount of gravel, but the lenses thin

out and pinch out quickly so that the deposit can not be-judged from

one section. Although the area of the hill is 10 acres, probably not

more than 3 acres contain merchantable gravel. Sample T~1tJ9 has

a fineness modulus of 6~63 and 87 per cent coarser than 4 mesh. The

pebbles are mostly of tough, sub-angular quartz, a few of which are

decayed.

--

On the south side of tire hill, the lower 35 feet are composed of clay, but ne~r the top .a '"southward pitching seam of coarse-pebbled gr,avel, 6 feet thick, is found, indicating that the gravel e~posed on _the.- opposite side does not occur here. The .railroad cut, northeast of the schoolhouse, shows limestone for the lower three-fourths of the liill, With clay and gravel 10 feet thick, above.
Two miles east of Rome, the hills adjoining- the clay pits .of the Rome Brick Co_!Ilpany show considerable graveL Road cuts ea_st ofthe pit disclose 15 feet of irregUlar gravel; but it is. not-exposed in the pit which J.s only 500 feet west.
-Gravel out.crops are coinmon along the Kingston road to a distance of' 3 miles from Rome. Thicknesses up to 6 and 8 feet were seen, but it usually appeared to be very ir.regular and likely to thin or pinch out quickly, and the clay content was generally high.

D'ean property.--A small pit has b'ee:tl. opened near the Black
Bl~ff {Foster's Jfill) road; on the H. A. Dean property1 1 mile from the center of-~bm~' and-liear the City -Iiinits. (Plate XI:X~B.) The graveJ is used in road construction in the county. The face of the.. pit is 150 feet long andishows a inaXimum of 8 fe:et in the .cut and prob_ably a foot more below. The gravel is:roughly stratified and is over-
lain at- this point by from 2 to 4 feet of clay with a few pebbles in it.
The matrix of the gravel is a sandy clay with a high cementfug value so that the material is 'well suited tor gravel roads. The hill appears
to contain about 2 acres of gravel, but the cover will inqrease considerably as the hill is wor!red ll:ito. Sample T-143 showed a fineness
modulus of 6.36 and 74 per cent coarser than 4 mesh. The pebbles
are mostly of tough quartz, although a _few rotton ones are found. Similar deposits should be found along the river at about the same
elevation due to former deposition when it flowed at a higher level.

South Rome.-Sewer operations along _Second Avenue and north
of tliis street, east of Etowah River, disclosed io f~et of clay gravel-
ov~rlain by a thin gravelly clay. The gravel is composed of 1- to 2-

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

355

. inch pebbles making up 60 per cent of the mass. Most of this material is rather limited in extent and occurs in a built-up section of the city, hence it is not likely to be available.

OTHER DEPOSITS
Dikes Creek.-Where the Kingston road crosses Dikes Creek, 5 miles from Rome, an excellent, clean, rounded gravel with pebbl~s
from 72 to 2 inches in diameter and composed mostly of granular
quartz occupies the stream bed. The bed is 30 feet wide, and the gravel covers most of it to a depth of 1 to 3 feet. Sample T-146, taken from this deposit, has a fineness modulus of 7.20 and 85 per cent coarser than the 4-mesh sieve. This is an excellent concrete gravel and is trucked to Rome and sold through the Rome Sand and Supply Company.
Bright property.-A pit. has been opened in gravel occurring at the top of a hill on the T. J. Bright place a quarter of a mile south of the Southern Railway and 8%: miles west of Rome on the Alabama road. The gravel has been used by the county in road construction but has been found to have too large a clay percentage to make good roads. About a quarter acre has been removed, and the face of the pit is 15 feet high, showing the following section:

Section at Bright pit, 8%: miles west of Rome
Feet Red, clayey soiL_______________________________________ 2 Coarse-pebbled, red clayey gravel, with a number of rotten
pebbles decayed to sandy clay_______________________ 9 Clayey gravel with smaller pebbles, a large percentage of
which have decayed_________________________________ 5
Sample T-142 from this pit shows a fineness modulus of 6.06 and 66 per cent retained -on the 4-mesh sieve.
The deposit is roughly stratified and shows- several lenses of coarse sand especially in the lower part of the section. The northern part of the hill is likely to have a thicker cover over the gravel, possibly reaching 10 feet, but on the other sides there should be little or no overburden. Apparently 6 or 8 acres are underlain with easily accessible gravel. Although gravel appears to the bottom of the hill, it is probably float, and the upper 20 feet only can be depended upon. The hills adjoining to the south and to the east also contain some gravel.

356

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GE,ORGI.A

. Rome-Livi1i~ston road.-The Livingston road parallels the

south side of Coosa River at the upper terrace level and is favor-

ably situated for the exposure of old river gravels. The most prom-

inent exposure is at Bush Arbor Church, 772 miles from the river,

where 10 feet are shown in the road cut for a distance of 300 feet. The

gravel is clayey and coarser-"pebbled at the base, becoming finer and

thinner toward the top. Sample T-132 showed a fineness modulus

of 6.47 and 77 per cent retained op. the 4-mesh sieve. The pebbles

are tough, rounded, ..and' sub-angular flint and quar.t2;. No stratifi-

cation is apparent. The binder is good and the material well suited

for road building. In the fields to the south of the road for half a

mile from the road, excellent clay gravel, somewhat sandy near the

top, is exposed. (Plate XX-A.) The maximum thickness noted was

20 feet of solid gravel with 10 feet of poorer material above this, but

still suitable for many purposes. The neares.t railroad point is Agate

on

the

Souther.n

Railway,

3 mil-es .

southeast.

W~bb Greek.-.Just. above the Living~ton road crossing, Webb

Creek has several hundred cubic yards 'qf excellent, clean, concrete

gravel. Further west, and near this same road, smaller deposits of

bank grayel occur on, the Middleton, Wilkinson, and Tork properties.

Camp property.-One mile !forth_ of LiVlngst6n, on the A. H.

C.amp.

.

farm, .

from
' .

5

to

12

fe.et..

of .

clay '

gravel '

are ~

exp. osed, for

short

dis-

tances in gullies west of the Neals Ferry road and to a less degree east

of the road. On the . Hugo Shipley place, a half mile from 'the road,

a veneer of grall:el covers the top of some of the hills and has been

scraped up and used in road construction. similar. gravel is common

in this part of the county, but it is rarely more than a foot or two in

thickness.
-
Williams property.-On the Jo~n Williams place, 2~ miles east

of Livingston, .6 feet of coarse quartz gravel outcrop in cuts on the

same road and have differing amounts of clay above and below. A

short distance west, 3 feetof similar gravel occur near a small branch.

Gravel is exposed in the last cut on the Rome road just east of the Jrost~r;'s)\1ill-Livingston road and. also on th~ FoRter's Mill road, a

ql}artel[ of a mile south of_ Livingston~

.BetweE:m ]f_oster's Mill and Melson, on the R. B. Sims' plantation,

from 2 to 4 feet of silty gravel is foun.d at. several points,. and has been

used in road construction. Sample T-131 contains 70 per cent coarser

SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

357

than 4. mesh. Good concrete gravel occurs in the bed of Cedar Creek at Foster's Mill, and also a foot or two is found above the stream~

Woodward Creek.-In the northeast part of the county, Woodward Creek has_ a large amount of chert gravel, suitable for concrete aggregate. On the Rome-Plainvilly road, 2 miles south of Plainville, the stream is 20 feet wide, and a broad bottom has permitted the accumulation of sand, chert, and shale gravel. Sand probably exceeds 50 per cent of the total, and the deposit covers three-quarters of an acre at this point, with lesser areas above and below on the same stream. The gravel is trucked to various points in Floyd and Gordon counties. ior use in concrete construction work and for construction in Plainvi1le. Sample T-145, from th1.s deposit, has a fineness modulus of 4.91 and 47 per cent is coarser than 4 mesh. Similar material occurs along the creek at the Southern Railway bridge half a mile to the west.
Gravel is found in Jimmy Long Creek, but it is not as good as that in Dikes Creek. A branch of the creek near the Plainville road, 3 miles north of Rome, has gravel ~ars and deposits along part of its course.

Oostanaula River.-Sand and gravel occupy the bed of Oosta-

naula River for most of its course in Floyd County. Gravel and coarse

sand are usually found at the mouths of streams, or on submerged banks

or islands. A large deposit of good gravel occurs at the mouth of

Armuchee Creek for almost a mile below and for several hundred

yards above. Excellent sand and gravel also occupies. the bed of

Armuchee Creek for most of its course.

On Whitmore's Island, 9 miles above Rome, go()d brick sand is

found grading into coarse sand and gravel on the flanks and ends of,

and extending above and below, the island in small submerged bars.

Wide places along this river; since they cause a slowing-up of the

current, have been generally found to contain coarser sand and gravel.

Some bank gravel occurs east of the river, in the northern part

of the county, but it is simply a surface veneer rarely over one or two

feet thick.

~

CHERT

Deposits of good road-building chert have accumulated at the bases of Simms, Turnip, Lavender, and John mountains through the weathering of the Fort Payne chert. This chert is usually pockety

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

and quickly pinches out into clay or- rock. Small pits have been

opened in the material at several places. That showing the best

chert is located just behind Howell's store, at Crystal Springs, on the

-Rome-Summerville road. Similar chert has been mined on the Howell

property, a third_ of a mile south ofthe store. The chert here.is from 1
to 12 feet thick, the fragments ranging from 72 to 6 inches Ill size

and are. irregularly angular. Thi.s material has more clay _than that

behind the sto:ue at the springs. The pit is leased to tlie county for

road purposes._

The southeast part of the county, near Chulio and Wax, is covered

with residual chert, produced from the weathering of the_ Knox dolo-

mite... A number of pits have been opened in this material for road-

building purposes. but it has been found that it is usually pockety

and a deposit is' quickly worked out. . It is rarely a clean chert, but

usually contains a large amount of admixed clay.

.

. The streams in tbjs .section. of the- county generally have good

amounts ,of si:md and chert gravel, particularly Spring Creek, which

. is 25 fee.t at the Cartersv.ill. e road and has severa. l sand and gravel bars.

MOLDING SAND

Rome.-Molding sand is obtained by the Rome Band and Gravel Company from a deposit occ~pyirig .th~ right ba;nk of Coosa River
opposite Nixon's Island_ and 1%. nTIIes below tlie company's dock.
- The. depor~it. occurs on the. banks of a small stream that enters the , river at this pqint. The pit. covers. about. 1,000 square feet, but the
sand seems -to cover several aGTeS. :(t is 12 to -15 feet thick_ at the pit,
and the section exposed appears to -be of practically uillform quality. On exposure it becomes hard, but does not _cake badly. The sand
. is used locally and is shipped to adjoining towns.

Coosa River.-At Neals Ferry, on the bank of Coosa River, are good exposures of what seems to be good, fine-grained molding sand. The material ranges from 5 to 10 feet in thickness and is covered by from2 to 3 feet of silty material. The deposit seems to extend over .most of the bottom lands of the river which is 800 feet wide at this place.

GORDON COUNTY

-No sand_ or gravel is commercially exploited in the county. Sand used in construction work in Calhoun had to be shipped from Atlanta. Oostanaula and Coosawatte rivers have large amounts of fine-grained

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

359

sand in their beds, but little of this is avai1al;>le even for local purposes. Barnett Creek, 8 miles south of Calhoun on the Dixie Highway, has fair amounts of sand and grav-el suitable for local purposes.
What appears to be desirable molding sand occupies the bottoms of Coosawatte and Oostanauia rivers, particularly near the junction of creeks with these rivers. The sand is found most conveniently ne,ar the Resaca-Calhoun road close to the Western & Atlantic Railroad.
MURRAY COUNTY

No sand or gravel has been shipped from Murray County, although the streams afford adequate supplies for all loca::I purposes.

Chatsworth.-A fine-grained sand which has collected in small

deposits on the Ogletree and Childers farms along the road from Spring

Place to ChatswQrth has been used for construction work in Chats-

worth and other nearby places.

'

In the southern part of the county, Holly Creek and its tributaries

have fairly good sand in small deposits along, its course. A fine-

grained sa:nd occupies the bed of Coosawatte River, and coarser ma-

terial is associated with the mouths of creeks emptying into the river.

Molding sand occurs in the. river bottoms covered b:1 from 6 to 30

inches of fine, loamy sand.

Mill Creek.-Aiong most of Mill Creek are .small bars of coarse sand and gravel suita15le for local work. Natura1 BL6Tegate from this creek h~s been used in the construction of a, number of concrete bridges in the county and has been found ve; y satisfactory.
In Conasauga River, sand bars occur at :ntervals. One of the best in the county is just north of Lower Kings_ Bridge.

PICKENS COUNTY
No sand or gravel has been commercially produced in Pickens County. The streams, however, usually have plenty for local needs, but it is frequently hard to get at it.
Long Swamp Creek.-8mall bars of coarse brown sand occupy the- bed of Long Swamp Creek from the marble quarries to Etowah River. These bars usually contain from 50 to 500 cubic yards of sand. At Marble Bill where the east fork of the creek is 30 feet wide, the sand is about 2 feet thick in the stream bed and is underlain by

360

Gl!:OLOGI04.L SURVE]" OF GEORGIA.

gravel a foot,in thickness which in turn lies upon blue clay. The sand contains about 15 per cent of schist, marble, and limonite fragments, and a sample (T-18.1;) was found to have a fineness modulus of 2.99 and _90 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. The organic matter: color
value is 800. The sand is brown and has 1 per cent coarser than 7'2
inch. The coarse particles are mostly schist fragments. In tlie bottom lands of Long Swamp Creek, quartz gravel which
lies on the bed rocks, is from 2 to 10 feet thick. Although this. gravel_ is very good, it is generally cqvered by from 5 to 10 feet of gr~y, finegrained, loamy sand. Gravel is also found on the hills along the stream, but it usually is 0nly a veneer a few inches thick. -

Pq,y~e property.-A deposit of remarkably pure sandstone, known

as. the "Rhodes Silica Deposit/' is located 5 miles southwest of Jasper-

and a little over 4 miles from the Louisville & Nashville Railroad.

According to Vcatch 1 the principal exposure of the sandstone bed

shows 8 feet of- almost pure white sandstone. The deposit is massively

bedded abd jointed, fine-grained, and sufficiently friable to permit of

easy crushing. Iron occurs. in the rock as an oxide film in the joint

and

bedding .

places

and

as

scattered cubes

of

pyr.ite.s,

which

have

m

some' places a:lt~red to limonite, but. it i$ not in sufficient. quantities

'to harm the rock for use in high-grade glass manufacture. . No accu-

rate estimate of_ the tonnage of the dep.osit could be obtained from

the exposures, but it is likely from its origin that it is extensive.

llnalyses of sandstone /1'om "Rhodes Siliqa Deposit,"
Pickens County

Constituents

1

2

Volatile matter__________________ --'- _____ _ Iron oxide (Fe20 a)- _____________ -------ALilmume inccaa(oA) _h_O__a_)-_-_______-_-_-_-_-_--_-___._:______ -------__-_--_ Silica (Si02)- _______ ._________ ~- -'" ---'- -- w

0.10 0.008 0.11 0.07 99.75

0.08 0.03 0.07
99.82"

l.~Analysis by W. Simonson, Cincinnati, Ohio. . 2.-Ana.lysis by Dr. Edgar Everhart, of purest rock collected by qtto Ve!!-tch.
1 Veatch, Otto, Unpublished report of Georgia Geoi. Survey, 1907

SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

361

POLK COUNTY
The streams of that part of Polk County in the Crystalline area hav fair amounts of sand, but those ofthe northern part of the county, underlain by Paleozoic rocks, have much less sand and more gravel. No sand or gravel is produced commercially in the county.
Cedartown.-Big Cedar Creek west of the town has good, coarsegrained concrete sand along its banks and in the stream bed, but most of that near Cedartown has been used, and as a result sand for local _use is now shipped in from Rome or South Georgia.
Euharlee Creek.-Euharlee Creek, near Portland station, has some gravel and also a little sand and gravel near Rockmart. Sand is also found in this creek near Aragon, and both sand and gravel occur in Fish Creek. The best sand occurs in a branch of Euharlee Creek, one mile ~orth of the junction with Fish Creek. Chert gravel used on the roads in the vicinity, is found on the hills near Aragon and is derived from the weathering of the Chickamauga limestone.
In the northwest part of the county, stream beds from 5 to 12 feet wide showed good sand and some chert gravel. Little Cedar C1eek has the most sand.
Quartzite.-Weisner quartzite composes Indian Mountain in the extreme northwest part of the county. The quartzite is usually composed of coarse, rounded grains, but does not appear suffici~mtly pure for the manufacture of any but the cheaper grades of "glass.

WALKER COUNTY
Sandstone occurs in large amounts in the Walden, Lookout, and Rockwood formations in Walker County, but none of it is pure enough to warrant development for glass manufacture. Sand and gravel in the county are confined to the streams or else to the chert gravel which occupies large areas in the county. No sand or gravel is shipped.
Lafayette.-Chattooga River, just west of Lafayette, is 15 feet wide and has angular chert gravel with a few rounded quartz pebbles
from 7.4: to 2 inches in size. Coarse sand composes 40 per cent of the
mixture. In Dry Branch from 5,000 to 8,000 cubic yards of chert gravel with about 35 per cent sand occur 27!2 miles southeast of Lafayette.

3.62

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA.

West Armuchee Creek, 3 miles west of Villanow, has considerable sand and gravel, but in East Armuchee Creek, just, west of Villanow, .the bed is. muddy. East- of. Villanow, in branches of this_ stream, particularly Dry Branch, one mile from Villanow, excellent gravel and sand occur. Sample T-155 has a :fuieness modulus of 6.01 and 69 per cent retained on. the 4-mesh sieve.

CHERT

.The cherty area of the county coinc!des with the distribution of

the -Knox dolomite. The largest belt is 4 miles wide and extends

through the county east of Lafayette and includes Peavi.ne Ridge.

M1ssionary Ridge occupies another large belt in the western part of

the county.

.

A number of pits have been opened in t~s material throughout

the county for road purposes. The largest is on the Villanow road,
1~ miles east of Lafayette and. covers_ a half acre. The .face is 40

feet -high and the chert f;:~gments, which range from a fraction of an

inch to 5 or 6 inches in diameter, are cemented With clay. The chert

is red, gray, and yellow, but mostly white and requires breaking down

with a pick- from above. This material is used on the streets of La-

fayette ail.d on the county roads. .

_

M1ddle'Olllckafuau.ga' Creek proba'fuly has more chert gravel than

at any ,other stream in the county. A lai:ge deposit; containing over a
huiiilied catloads, - occurs:. Catleite, ']i~itr Haywood's store. The chert -is angular and from V2 .to 6 inches in size. similar material

o.ccurs. in_ small branches on the Catlette-Rock Springs road.

Ross'ville.-In the northern tongue .of_ the county, the chert area forks at a point 3 miles east of Eagle Cliff, the narrow, western strip runrring . up the western spin: of Missionary Ridge an<;i the eastern strip continuing along Missionary Ridg.e to the Tennessee line, one mile east of Rossville.
Good chert- may be found along the Central- of Georgia Railwayfrom Lytle to Missionary Ridge. On the J. R. McFarland property, at the public road just south of Missionary Ridge,. is a ~arge deposit -of good clay bonded chert covering several acres. The angular cb.ert fragments range from 7.4: inch to 3 inches. Layers of white and pink - clay occur between the chert. The material is used-- on the county roads and app~ars to give desirable results.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

363

MOLDING SAND

Rossville.-Four and a quarter miles south of Rossville, on the

.f. R. McFarland property close to the Central of Georgia Railway, ir

a red, clayey sand containing some chert' and coarse rounded grains.

A small pit has been opened in the deposit and the sand has been used

for foundry purposes in Chattanooga.

One mile south of Blowing Springs, west of the Chattanooga Val-

ley road, is a deposit of red, clayey sand, used in Chatt~nooga for mold-

ing purposes. The face of a small pit opened in the deposit is 15 feet

high and a quarter acre has been uncovered. Some chert and coarse

grains are found in the molding sand, and it has a tendency to cake

hard when exposed. The iron content is high, indicating a low fusing

point.



Crutchfield property.-A large molding .sand pit is situated on
the Crutchfield property, 1Yz miles north of Flintstone. It covers
several acres, and the sand ranges from 3 to 6 feet in thickness and
is a flood-plain deposit of a small creek :flowing through the property.
The sand has been shipped in large quantities to Chattanooga and
adjoining points for foundry work, but when visited in September, 1919? it was found that none had been shipped that year~

Morse Brothers.-On the Chattanooga Valley road, 3 miles south of Chattanooga, Morse Brothers formerly shipped molding sand to Chattanooga. The deposit is of flood-plain origin, resulting from the overflow of Chattanooga Creek. The sand is fine-grained and apparently well suited for molding purposes.

WHITFIELD COUNTY
Pure, white sandstone of the Rockwood formation is pro:q:rinently exposed on Chattoogata Mountain. Molding sand is shipped from small pits near Dalton at the present time, and crushed sandstone was formerly shipped from Rocky Face Mountain, above Tunnel Hill, but no building sand or gravel is being produced.
.Mill Creek.-Along Mill Creek, on the properties of Frank McCutcheon and Edward White, especially near where the Dixie Highway crosses the stream, are deposits of excellent coarse concrete sand and brick sand. The sand occupies both the bed of the stream and the banks, and it is hauled to Dalton and other points for local construction uses. Sample T-167, typical of the concrete sand in this

364

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF~ .GEORGIA

creek, has a fineness modulus of 4.43 and 34 per cent is coarser than
the 4-mesh sieve. A finer-grained sand suitable for brick and plaster mortar occurs in small quantities along tb,e stre&m b~nks.

Smith property.-_Good molding sand has been deposited_ .by
Mill Creek in its bottom hi,nds .on the farm of Mrs. i. H. Smith, on
the Cleveland road,. 1}1 miles north of Dalton. The sand is found all along the creek on both sides of the Southern 'Railway. When mining of the sand was begun about 1895, it was obtamed' a quarter of a mile west of the railroad; where it was mostly the No. 1 black sthve-plate grade. At present the pits are located just east of the Cleveland 'road, where three grades of molding sand can, with careful selection, be obtained.. There are two pits which cover about an acre between them.

Section a_t lar~e moldin~ sand pit, .Jv.lrs. 'J. H. Smith
property, Dalton

Feet. Inches

Gray, silty soiL________________________________

6-8,

Brown to red and yellow molding sand. T)le different

grades Ill;ergi!lg irregularly into each other laterally and vertically_______ -----------________ 2-3

Fine-grained; brick sand_________ -------------___ 2

In some places a coarser sand suitable for concrete work underlies the molding sand. The molding sand consists of two grades of No. 1 stove"iplate,-the red ,and. the dark brown; and No. 2::molding- sand for cqarser castings. The sand is hauled a short distance to the railroad where it is piled in a small frame shed 0r else loaded on cars on a small switch.
Sand similar to that on the Smith place is found on the Porter . Moore property further west on Mill Cree~, but farther from the
railroad.-

SANDSTONE

A very pure sandstone bruonging to the upper part of the Rockwood formation outcrops along the top of the Chattoogata Mountain. The white sandstone makes up the upper 60 or 70 feet of that portion of the mountain known as Rocky Face, and it also outcrops for a short distance at the north end of the mountain, south of the gap. (Plate XX-B.)
An attempt was made about 1915 to crush the sandstone and make glass of it. . For this. purpose a company was formed, and some of the

~
Oll
0)

TESTS OF PALEOZOIC AREA SANDS

Locality
~
1 z

.

'

4

6
--

.... a Percentage coarser than ea.ch sieve
f. g '= - ,.
Ia i -a 8' 10 14 20 28 35. 48 '65 100 150 200
:a 'Oa I
- - - - - - -~- ~ - - - - . -i - - - - - - - - - - - - -~

1:i I . .Q).

0
~

tll
~

0
C)

'1:1

..Qt"..l'.)l

,t>.
~r-

d ~

Q)

tt:l ~

p

~

--

Q)
bD

oS

th

-f Q)

C)

~

$
u
Q)

.~....

' ~

~

C)

:..:.

~

gb

~

~

~

0 'E

0
~ l=l'

~
~
~
bD

~
~
~
,J:I bD

::s.Q). "~ta$'"" ~~

. ,.Q0) ..0...
~~
~ u Q) [13

~

-~'1:1'

-- 0

A..

~
0
~
[)
~
1:-1
OQ


135 136

Rome, Rome,

Oostanaula R. ____ Etowah R, _______

----

----

----

0.5 0.2

0.8 0.4

1.3 0.7

2.0 1.4

3.Z '8.3 36.5 67.5 86.8 95.5 .091 2.21 0.79 f64 49.0
9..5 39.7 78.4 96.5 98.9 99:7 .167 2.49 1.38 2.67 44.8

85.0 2295 92.1 2487

400 560

138 Rome, Etowah R, _______ 0.4 0.6 p.8 1.0 1.2 1.8 . 5.3 37.,5 76.2 90.p 97.6 99.4 99.8 .211 2.77 1.82 2.69 44:2 93.7 2530 400

357 353

135 136

~
1-o:j

353 138

149 Lyerly, bk. _____________ 158 Rising Fawn, bk.________

0.1 0.3 3.8 10.1 15.0 22.1 44.6 75.8 92.3 97.1 .110 2.11 1.12 2.67 41.9 95.7 2585 200 0.5 0.8 1.3 1.8 2.6 4.3 1.,2.6 38.1 80.5 95.4 97.6 98.8 .169 1.72 1.40 2;.pq 42.8 93.7 2530 250

349 351

149 158

~

163 Ringgold, bk; ___________

176 177

Emerson, hk. ______ .:_ ____ Emerson, bk. ___________

0.3

0.1 0.3 0.. 5 1.9 .9A 31.4 56.6 70.4 78.6 88.3 .063 4.21 1.04 2.64 36.5 10.'$.0 2835 trace 347. 0.1 0.2 '0.3 0.5 1.6 i 7.9 4(.9 85.3 95.5 99.3 .128 1.76 0.94 2.67 45.6 88.7 2395 50 345
1.0 3.2 7.9 21.0 44.4 72.6 87.. 8 98.5 99.2 99.2 99.6 .271 2.34 2.40 2;67 39.7 100.2 2705 150 ' 345

163 176 177

~ ~

179 Cartersville, Etowah R. __

0.1 0.2 0.5 . 2.3 12.3 54.1 78.4 90.8 97'.2 98.7 99.6 .214 2.23 1.89 2.69 45.5 90.6 2538 100

181 Canton, cr, _____________ 13.2 17.9 22.0 30.5 42.3 56:7 72~6 85.1 91.5 95.7 98.4 99.0 99.6 .323 3.91 3.40 2.66 38.8 101.5 2141 200

182 Canton, cr. ____ ~- ______ : 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.8 .1,6 5.0 20.0 50.0 76:1 92.1 97.4 99.4 .155 2.17 1.49 2.67 47.7 89.4 2413 125

346 289

179 181

$
lA.

2b9 182

184 Marble Hill, bk,_________ 5.9 9.8 14.1 22.2 31.4 43.9 58.. 8 77.~. ~0.1 96 ..5 98.5 99.0 99.5 .296 3.17 2.99 2.71 42.4 96.9 2616 800 360 184

~--

---

-

-

--

NOTE: R=:river, cr=creek; bk=bank.

' -----

- - - '------- ---

--

--

)

TESTS OF PALEOZOIC AREA GRAVELS

I

....
QJ
1 z I

Locality

"'d <I)
..cl

...,

Percentage coarser than each sieve

rfl
oil
~ g~

.~..,
.....
0
,... 1:1

134 %:
-

72
-

4
-

6
-

8
-

10
-

a 0

..C..o.)

<I) 0 ,..Q:jj

00

~~ 83

1z 14 20 28 '35 48 65 100 150 200

~
~

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

.0.., ~~
fij 0
t:l-t

g},83
oi!"'d
t:l-t
--

~

~
~
~
~
~

137 139

-R--o-m-e-,--b-k-,-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-__-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-

30.9 13.3

37.5 38.3

45.2 52.3

54.2 86.7

57.4 88.7

59.0 89.6

60.7 90.4

62.2 91.2

64.6 92.5

69.2 94.3

80.5 96.4

90.1 97.8

97.2 98.8

99.4 99.5

99.9 99.8

99.9 99.9

142 143 144 145 146 155

.

Coosa, bk, __________ ----- _______ Rome, pit_ _____________________ Pinson, cr. ______________________
Plainsville, cr. ___________________ Rome, cr. ______________________ Villanow, cr. ___________________

27.9 17.5 24.1
11.7 32.9 19.3

43.3 32.9 41.4
15.6 59.8 33.5

52.9 47.4 51.6 23.4 72.3 45.7

66.3 74.2 67.2 47.2
84.9 68.6

68.1 79.8 72.0 55.0 87.2 73.5

70.5 83.3 76.4 59.3 88.5 75.7

71.6 86.0 80.8 63.3 89.8 78.2

73.5 88.1 84.1 66.5 90.8 80.0

77.2 90.5 86.9 69.9 92.0 82.2

81.0 93.9 89.8 75.2 93.7 85.2

88.1 97.3 93.5 84.1 96.0 90.0

93.7 98.9 95.7 92.5 98.0 94.6

96.3 99.5 97.4 97.5 99.1 97.2

98.3 99.8 98.1 99.1 99.6 98.5

99.1 99.9 98.7 99.5 99.7 99.1

99.5 100.0 99.3 99.8 99.9 99.4

167 Dalton, cr. _____ -~- ______ -~ _____ 6.1 9.8 14.8 33.9 42.6 49.6 56.3 61.3 66.3 74.7 88.8 94.8 97.3 98.4 99.1 99.5

175 Adairsville, cr. __________________ 4.4 14.5 22.7 51.0 64.1 74.1 83.4 89.7 94.3 97.3 99.0 99.4 99.6 99.7 99.8 99.9

;j

5:49 ------ 353 13 6.63 3.3 354 13

t:--1

6.06 9.6 355 14 2 t:::J

6.36 7.4 354

6.28 4.91

-----------

-----357

14 3 14 4 14 5

t~<J
~

5.49 -----6.01 ------

355 362

14 15

6
5

1-3
?f.l

4.43 ------ 363 1e7

5.53 ------ 347 175

~ Q)
-=t

368

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SAND AND GRAVEL

OCCURRENCE

Beadnell, H. J. L, ~~nd dun'es of the Lybian desert: Geographical Magazine, Vol. 35,

pp. 379~92, 1910.

'

.

Condra, G. E., Sand and gravel resources and industries Of Nebraska: Nebraska Geol.

Survey, V:ol. 3, pt. 1, pp. 1-206, 1911.

-

Cornish, Vaughan, On the formation of sand-dunes: Geographical Jour., Vol. 9, pp.

278~02.

Dake, C. L., The sand and gravel resources of Missouri: Missouri Bur. Geol. and Mines,

Vol. XV, 2d ser., 1918.

Gilbert, G. K., Transportation of debris by running water: U. S. Geol. Survey. Prof.

Paper 86, 263 .:P~, 1914.

Hitchcock, A. S., Controlling sand dunes in the United States and Europe: Natl. geo-

graphic magazine, Vol. 15, pp. 43-47, 1904.

Logan, W. N., Structural materials of Mississippi: Mississippi Geol. Survey, Bull. 9,

1911..

.

Nelson, W. A., Some building sands of Tennessee: Tennessee Geol. Survey, Resources,

Vol. 2, pp. 389-397.

.

'

.



Sand, i~s occurrence, properties and uses: A bibliography, Carnegie Library of Pitts-

. burg, 1918.

.

Shaler, ,N. S., Phenomena of beach and d,une-sands: Bull. Geol. Society of America,

Vol. 5, pp. 207-212,.1894.

.



_

Simonds, F. W., Floating sarid; an unusual mode of river transportation: American

. Geologist, Vol. 17, pp. 29-37, 1896.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Chapman, C. M., Importallce of testing sands: Eng. Record, Vol. 66, pp. 401-402, 1912.

Results of experiments upon effect of sea water on the tensile strength of va-

rious mixtures of cement and sand: Natl. Assoc. Cement Users Proc., Vol. 6, pp.

172-174, 1910.

Testin.g ofsandAo:!!'Use in cpn<)retes: .I, field and lab\):r-atory 'practice; II, com-

puting and using reiiults: Eng. :N"ews, Vol. 71, pp. 306-310, 554-558, 1914.

Testing s~nd for use in concrete and cement mortar: Eng. Record, Vol. 65, pp.

. 465-466, 1912.

. . . .. ..

.

.

Chapman, C. M., and Johnson, N. C., Economic side of sand testing: Eng. Record, Vol.

71, pp. 734-737, 1915.

. .

Condit, D. 0., Petrographic character of Ohio sands with relation to-their origin: Jour.

Geology, Vol. 20, pp. 152-163, 1912.

<

Feret, R., Essais de divers sables pour mortiers: Eng. Record, Vol. 34, p. 311, 1896.

Free, E. E., Proposed study of concrete sands; possible explanation of the defective

sands: Eng. News, Vol. 67, pp. 1024-1025, 1912.

Freeman, J. R.,Proposed study of concrete sands; defective concrete sands: Eng. News,

Vol. 67, pp. 1022-1024, 1912.

Grabau, A. W., O:n the classification of sand grains: .Science, Vol. 56, n. s. Vol. 33, pp.

. 1005-1007, 1911.

Greenman, R. S., Practical'tests of sand and gravel proposed for use in concrete: Amer.

Soc. Test. Mat. Proc., Vol. II, pp. 515-520, 1911.

Te~ts of natural concrete aggregates: Amer. Soc. Test. Mat. Proc., Vol. 13,

pp. 828-~33, 1913. Griesenauer, G. J., Loam and clay in sand for concrete:

Eng. News, VoL 51, p~ 413,

1904.

.

Hain, J. C., Mortar sand: Natl. Assoc. Cement Usel'S Proc., Vol. 1, pp. 42-50, 1905.

Hatt, W. K., and Scofield, H. H., Laboratory manual of testing materials: 135 p., 1913,

McGraw.



Jewett, J, Y., Some sand experim~nts relating to per cent of voids and tensile strength:

Amer. Soc. Test. Mat. Proc., Vol. 6, pp. 405-411, 1906.

King, F. H., Principles and conditions of the movements of ground water: U. S. Geol.

Survey Ann. Rept. for 1897-98, pt. 2, pp. 59-294, 1899.

SAND AND GBAVE"L DEPOSITS

369

Laclotre, Influence de L a<gile contenue dans les sables sur la resistance des mortiers:

Annales des pouts et chaussees, memoires, ser. 9, Vol. 36, pp. 257-270, 1916.

Montgomery, C. M., Testing of sand for concrete: Eng. News, Vol. 71, pp. 804-805,

1914.

Phillips, C. E. S., Electrical and other properties of sand: Nature, Vol. 84, pp. 255-

261, 1910.

Reinecke, L., Non-bituminous road materials: Economic Geology, Vol. 13, pp. 557-

597, 1918.

.

Sherzer, W. H., Criteria for the recognition of the various types of sand grains: Bull.

of Geol. Soc. America, Vol. 21, pp. 625-662, 1910. .

Smith, F. P., Essential physical properlies of sand, gravel, slag and broken stone for

use in bituminous pavements: Better roads and streets, Vol. 6, pp. 18-21, 1916.
Standard terminology for filter and concrete sands: Eng. Record, Vol. 71, n. 671.

Thompson, S. E., Impurities in sand for concrete: Amer. Inst. Civil Eng. Trans:, Vol.

65, pp. 250-273, 1909.

Field examination of concrete sand: Concrete-cement age, Vol. 6, pp. 303-

305; Vol. 7, pp. 73-75, 156-.57, 1915.

Tomlin~:~on, C. W., Method of making mineralogical analysis of sand: Amer. Inst. Mining

Eng., Bull. 101, May, 1915, pp. 947-956.

Whinery, S., Table giving voids in sand, based on weight method: Eng. News, Vol. 71,

p. 572, 1914.

SAND FOR CONCRETE, MORTAR AND OTHER STRUCTURAL PURPOSES

Abrams, D. A., The design of concrete mixtures: Struct. Mat. Res. Lab., Lewis Inst.,

Chicago, TIL, Bull. 8, 1919. .

Baker, I. 0., Sand for mortar: Brickbuilder, Vol. 8, pp. 116-117, 1899.

Fuller, W. B., and Thompson, S. E., Laws of proportioning concrete: Amer. Soc. Civil

Eng. Trans., Vol. 59, pp. 67-143, 1907.

McNeilly, R. H., Sand for concrete and cement mortar should have "Jump" in grading:

Eng. Record, Vol. 72, pp. 659-662, 1915.

Okey, F. M., Good concrete and bow to get it: Municipal Eng., Vol. 36, pp. 293-296,

1909.

Owens, J. S., Concrete aggregates: Concrete and constructional Eng., Vol. 4, pp. 40-

. 46, 1909.

Sabin, L. C., Cement and concrete: 507 p., 1905. McGraw.

Specifications for sand and stone for concrete: Eng. Record, Vol. 59, p. 587, 1909.

Taylor, F. W., and Thompson, S. E., Treatise on concrete, plain and reinforced: Ed. 3,

885 p., 1916. Wiley.

.

What percentage of clay is it safe to permit in sand for cement mortar? Eng. News.

Vol. 57, p. 620, 1907.

GLASS SAND

Boswell, P. G._ H., Memoir on British resources of sand suitable for glass-making, with

notes on certain crushed rocks and refractory materials: 92. p., 1916.

Sands for glass making, with special reference to optical glass: Sci. Am. Suppl.

Vol. 84, pp. 310-311, 1917.



Burchard, E. F., Glass sand of the middle Mississippi basin: Contributions to economic

Geol. Survey, BulL 285, pp. 459-472, 1905. Requirements of sand and limestone for glass making: Contributions to eco-

nomic geology, U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 285, pp. 452-458, 1905.

Buttram, Frank, Glass sands of Oklahoma: Oklahoma Geol. Survey, Bull. 10, 91, p.,

1913.

Fettke, C. R., Glass manufacture and the glass-sand industry of Pennsylvania: Penn-

sylvania Top. and Geol. Survey, Rept. XII, 1919.

Frink, R. L., Effects of alumina on glass: Am. Ceramic Soc. Trans., Vol. II, pp. 99-

102, 1909.

370

GEOLOGIC'4L SURVEY OF GEORGIA

Some fallacies and facts pertaining-to1glass making: Am. Ceramic Soc. Trans.,

VoL II, .PP 296-317, 1909.

.

Kummel, H. B., and Gage R. B., Glass-sand industry of New Jersey: New Jersey Geol.

Survey, Ann. Rept. for 1906, pp. 77-96, 1907.

Peddle, C. J., British glass-making sands, pt. 1: The substitution of some British sands

for foreign sands in the manufacture of high-grade glass: Jour. Soc. of Glass Tech-

nology, Vol. 1, pp. 27-59, 1917.

Rosenhain, Walter, Glass manufacture, 264 p., 1908. Van Nostrand.

,;,

MOLDING SAND

Eckel, E. C., Molding sand; its uses, properties and occurrence: New York Museum

Ann. Rept. for 1901, p. r 91-r 96, 1901.

Field, H. E., Molding sands: Sci. Amer. Suppl., Vol. 61, pp. 25346..:25347.

French sand: Brass World and Platers' guide, Vol. 13, p. 307, 1917.

International Correspondence Schools, Scranton, Pa., Foundry appliances: Interna-

tional Library of Technology, Vol. 142, section 76-77, 1916.

Kummel, H. B., and Hamilton, S. H., Report pn some molding sands of New ,Jersey:

New Jersey Geol. Survey Ann. Rept. for 1904, pp. 187-246, 1905,

Moldenke, Richard, Some latter-day problems of the foundry: Sci. Amer. Suppl., Vol.

. 84, pp. 246-247, 1917. .

.

Muntz, G., and Roubieu, E., Steel foundry sand: Foundry, Vol. 45, pp. 312-315.

Newland, D, H., Albany molding sand: Amer. Inst. Metals, Trans., Vol. 9, pp. 404-408,

1~~

-

Rh3s, fleinrich, and Rosen, J. A., Foundry sands: Michigan Geol. Survey Ann. Rept.,

. pp. 33-85; 1908.

.

Ries, Heinricn, Laboratory examination of molding sand: Foundry, Vol. 28, pp. 327-

343, 1906.

Relative values of the physical and chemical examinations of molding sands:

Foundry, Vol. 32, pp. 224-226, 1908. .

. .

Robeson, J. S., Core sands: American Foundrymen Assoc. Trans., Vol. 14, pp. 100-

107, 1906..

Searle, A. B., Testing of molding sands: Eng. magazine, Vol. 44, pp. 103-106, 1912.

PRODUCTION

A sand blast and steel molding sand plant: Foundry, Vol. 43, pp. 36-37-41, 1915. Automatic sand dryer: Electric Railway Jour., Vol. 46, p. 455, 1915. Bowles, Oliver, Sandstone quarrying in the United States: U.S. Bureau of Mines, Bull.

124, 135 p., 1917.

'

.

Centrifugal dredging pu:inp applied to production of sand and gravel: Concrete-cement

ag~ Vol. 7, pp. 191-192, 1915.

Crain, l:i. D., Jr., Design and construction features of a sand and gravel storage plant:

Concrete, Vol. 8, pp. 219-221, 1916.



Dennis, F. J., Modern methods of gravel excavation: Mining and' Sci. Press, Aug. 3,

1912.

Digging gravel from river bed by a cableway excavator: Contracto.r, Aug. 15, 1916.

Digging _gravel with a big revolving shovel: Excavator Eng., Sept., 1914.

Dragline cableway is an effective trap for sand and gravel plants: Eng. Record, June 5,

1915.

.

Dull, R. W., Preparation of rock products: Jour. Western Soc~ Eng., Vol. 22, pp. 479-

485, 1917.

. Sand and gravel washing plants: Concrete-cement age, Vol. 2, pp. 129-131,

1913.

Efficient truck loader: Rock products and building materials, Vol. 19, April 7, 1917,

p.28.

Electricity in sand and gravel plants: Elect ical review and western.~electrician, Vol. 67

pp, 599-602, 1915.

C;

Gillette, H. P., Handbook of cost data: McGraw-Hill Book Qo., N.-Y., 1854 p~, $5.00.

Haight, C. M., Steam shovel operation: Eng. and M-ining Jour., Feb. 14, 1914.

Handbook of steam shovel work: Bucyrus Co. of Milwaukee,. Wis., 1911, 374 pp.

Hauling sand and gravel with a motor truck: Eng. Record, VoL 66, ~ 47.3, 1912.



SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

371

Hawkins, C. L., New sand-drying plant of the United Railway Company of St. Louis: Jour. of the Assoc. of Eng. Societies, Vol. 48, pp. 61-67, 1912.

Hydraulic hopper dredge with unloading machinery: Eng. News Vol. 76, p. 1211, 1916.

Modern gravel excavation: Excavation Eng., Dec., 1916.

Moving sand by pumping: Eng. News, Vol. 72, pp. 384-385, 1914.

Plant of the Atwood Davis Sand Co., Beloit, Wis.: Excavating Eng., Vol. II, pp. 409

412, 1915.

Portable gravel digging and screening plant: Eng~ and Contracting, Vol. 37, p. 6001

W12



Portable sand and gravel washer for contractor's use: Eng. and Contracting, Vol. 41, p. 700, 1914.

Prelini, Charles, Dredges and dredging: 279 pp., 1911. Van Nostrand.

Simple sand and gravel washing device: Brick and Clay Record, Vol. 51, pp. 137-138, 1917.

Smith, A. E., Pumping and loading sand: Electrical world, Vol. 66, pt. 1, pp. 467-468, 1915.

Speir, H. F., Methods employed in connection with the reduction, milling, and shipment

of quartz, flint rock or silica sand: Amer. Cemmic Soc. Trans., Vol. 13, 00. 326-

331, 1911.

.

Stripping _a gravel pit with an electric revolving shovel: Excavating Eng., June, 1914.

The drag-line excavator for gravel pit service as used by the Badger Cement Block and Paving Co.: Excavating Eng., Nov., 1912.

Welch, F. M., Importance of location to the success of sand and gravel washing plants: Rock Products and Building Materials, Vol. 18, Sept., 22 1916, p. 40.

Problems .and progress in sand and gravel washing: Rock products and building materials, Vol. 17, Jan. 7, 1916, pp. 33-35.

Wilms, W. H., Operations of sand and gravel plants: Eng. News, Vol. 72, pp. 962-966, 1008-1012, 1914.

Skipping of gravel pits by hydraulic methods: Railway Age Gazette, June 18,

1915.

.

MISCELLANEOUS

BohiT!, C. R., Monazite sand: Eng. and Mining Jour., Vol. 81, p. 842.
Boswell, P. G. H., Sands used in metallurgical practice, with comparative notes on those used in glass manufacture: Jour, Society of Chemical Industry, Vol. 36, pp. 753758, 1917.
Brady, F. W., White sands of New Mexico: Sci. Amer. Suppl., Vol. 59, p. 24649, 1905.
Burgess, Philip, Mechanical analysis of sands: Jour. Amer. Water Works Assoc., Vol. 2, pp. 493-500, 1915.
Carr, W. F., Railway sand experience: Electric Railway Jour., Vol. 45, p.143, 1915.
Day, D. T., and Richards, R. H., Investigation of black sands from placer mines: Contributions to economic geology, U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 285, pp. 150-164.
Ells, S. C., Preliminary report on the bituminous sands of northern Alberta: Mines Branch, Canada Dept. of Mines, 92 p., 1914.
MacKenzie, G. C., Magnetic iron sands of Natashkwan, County of Saguenay, Province of Quebec: Mines Branch, Canada Dept. of Mines, 57 pp., 1912.
Parr, S. W., and Ernest, T. R., A study of sand-lime brick: Illinois Geol. Survey, 1911
Patton, F. E., U13e of sand on locomotives: Railway age gazette, mechanical edition, Vol. 87, p. 594, 1913.
Peppel,. Samuel Vernon, Manufacture of artificial sandstone or sand-lime brick: Ohio Geol. Survey, Bull. 5, 1905.
Rankin, K., Sanding rails: Coal Age, Vol. II, p. 946, 1917.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

373

APPENDIX A.

S.AP BROWN It has be~n thought well to include in this report a description of the sap-brown deposits of the state, since the material is essentially a sand cemented by precipitated azo-humic and other organic acids. The writer is indebted to Dr. J. D. Haseman, of .Atlanta, who has been active in prospecting and developing sap brown in Florida and Georgia, for the information regarding the material and the deposits. Sap brown ore is a silica sand with smaller amounts of a great variety of rarer, dark-colored minerals, and cemented into a fairly hard, black, or dark-brown material, by from 8 to 19 per cent of azohumic acids and other organic matter soluble in alkalies. The cementing material is used to make Van Dyke brown and sap brown dyes and has been derived from the precipitation of azo-humic acid dissolved in swamp waters by iron salts or sea-water. Prior to 1914, Germany supplied all the sap brown used in the United States, but during the war it was necessary to find a source in this country. A small plant has been in op~ration at Haseman, Florida, where a small deposit of .about 100,000 tons of the ore occurs. A very large deposit, estimated by Dr. Haseman at more than 2,000,000 tons, has recently been discovered by him in Charlton County along the Georgia Southern & Florida Railway, 3 miles west of St. George, and on a sand hill on the east flank of Trail Ridge. The deposit is located in lot 273, first land district, and is owned by the American Sap Brown Company. The ore outcrops in a ditch in the railroad cut for a distance of over 3,000 feet from 3 to 6 feet below the railroad grade. Ore averaging 2 or more feet in thickness is said to und'erlie from 250 to 260 acres, with an overburden of loose, or partially indurated .sand, averaging 10 feet in thickness. In places, as little as 5 feet, and as, much as 12 feet of cover, occurs. The overburden is less on the flanks of the deposit than at its center.

Typical section of sap-brown deposit, three miles west

of St. Geor~e1

Feet Inches White to gray, loose, quartz sand__________________ 1-2

Yellow to reddish-brown, indurated, clayey sand or

"hard pan," with iron oxide and humic acid ce-

ment__________________ --------_____________

8-18

Gray to brown quartz sand, stained with humic acid._ 6
Sap brown ore_____ ------------------____________ 5 White quartz sand___________________ -----------_ 10 ------.,.--
1. Section furnished by Dr. J.D. Haseman.

374

GEOLOGICAL SUEVEY OF GEORGIA

In general, the ore follows the contour of the hill, indicating a relation between the ore and _the ground water. It thins out on all sides into brown sand containing humic acid and organic fragments too low in soluble material for treatment. The cont~ct of the ore andthe white sand below is sharp in places, but usually they grade into each other in a distance of 2 to 5 inches. The upper contact is more gradual. Hard, parallel bands, or layers, from 2 to 4 incb:es thick and rich in sap brown, extend through the deposit dipping in a general northwe~tward direction. In places these bands extend above or below the main deposit for several feet into t)le barren sand. The sand composing these rich bands is particularly rich in the dark, rarer mineral. grains, of which .14 varieties have been identified.
The. dye material, or sap brown, which cements the sand, is the amount of organic matter soluble in alkali. Several analyses of the material made in the Georgia Geological Survey Laboratory and elsewh,ere, showed ,contents of soluble organic matter ranging from 9.2 to 17.98 per cent. Some of these analyses are submitted below.

'

'

.!lnaly~es of sap brown from property of .!lmeri.can

Sap Brown Company

Constituents

No. !"Hard No.3 Hard

LMoosisstounreigantit1io0n0___0_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_~_-__--_ Silica and insoluble matter_________ _ Dyestuff .soluble in alkali and insol~
uble in acid____________________ _
Mineral matter insoluble in acid' and
alkali---~----------------~-----

7.82 9.62 82.52
8.21
80.49

7-.01 7.67 85.32 .. 6.2i I 81.16.

The high-grade ore is generally distinguished from the sand stained with humic acid and organic fragments by its hardness and black or dark-brown color. The low-grade material is a dull, rusty, reddishbrown when dry, while the true sap brown is clear, black or brown, sometimes with shining crystal faces. The ore usually goes to pieces when dry or exposed to the weather and becomes darker and loses some of its sap brown content. When wet the best ore is usually very hard. The upper part of the ore is usually of lower gra9-e than the bottom.

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

375

ORIGIN
The sap brown is believed to be formed by the precipitation of azo-humic acid and other organic acids dissolved in stream or ground water by i:ron salts; sea-water, or through electrolytic action induced by the rare mineral grains which are generally so much more abundant in the richer portions of the deposit. The precipitated sap brown cements the sand grains together and forms an impervious hard-pan. The position of the water table appears to have influenced the deposition of the sap brown. After one impervious bed was lain down, the height of the water would be increased and another band might be deposited abov~ the first. The position of the indurated iron oxide bank 6 feet above the ore is probably due to the position of the new water level after the deposition of the sap brown. It is the odnion of Dr. Haseman that the deposition of the material has been quite recent, within the last few hundred years, particularly since a spar from a modern ship was discovered beneath the Florida deposit.
Sap _brown can b,est be mined with a steam shovel. The ore is then conveyed to a pebble mill, from which it is_passed to classifiers, thickeners, and dryers, and the product sold as Vfin Dyke brown. For the manufacture of sap brown the thickened product is dissolved with soda ash, and the material shipped as an organic sodium salt. The price of the finished product in 1914 was 2 to ..~ cents a pound, but in 1920 it was bringing 6 cents a pound.

OTHER DEPOSITS

A deposit of sap brown ore, ,averaging 8 inch_es or more in thickness

ness, and with a cover of from 15 to 30 feet, most of which is usually

below water, occurs in Trail Ridge at the eastern border of the Oke-

fenokee Swamp, along the old Suwannee Canal, just east of Camp

Cornelia. This deposit is too far from transportation to warrant con-

sideration at present.



Dep)sits of indurated, brownish sand, resembling sap brown, have

been reported by S. W. McCallie, State Geologist, as occurring on

Sapelo, Cumberland, and St. Simon islands, off the eastern coast of

Georgia, but the material is not a true sap brown, but rather humic

acid. USES

Sap brown and Van Dyke brown are used principally as brown

paper dyes, but considerable amounts are also used in the manufac-

ture of paint, wood-stains, and inks, or to mix with aniline dyes. It

has recently been shown that due to its nitrogen content of 3 per

cent it can be used instead of bone meal or cyanides to case-harden steel.

376

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

.APPENDIXB

BLACK SANDS OF THE COASTAL ISLANDS
On a number of the islands bordering the Atlantic Coast of Georgia and Florida, black sands have been noted whose content of the rarer minerals is believed sufficiently large to warrant their consideration as commercial deposits.
In 1916l a plant was in operation for the mining and separation .of the black sands from the beach sands on an island off the northern coast of Florida between St. Johns and North rivers. On the Georgia islands no commercial development has yet been undertaken. The writer is indebted to S. W. McCallie, State Geologist, who has made several trips to the deposits, for the data given herein.

ST. SIMON IEiLAND
St. Simon Island is situated just .northeast of Brunswick and is reached by boat from that city. The most cons:Qicu~us deposit of black sand occurs at the southern end of the island, near the wharf and immediately in front of the lighthouse. These rich strata extend for probably a half mile along the southern point of the island.

Section in front C?f li~hthouse, St. Simon Island

Feet
Black sand, will run, in places, as high as 50 per cent
t:lf the rarer minerals::. _______ ~--------~----___ Black sand, average dark mineral content from 2 to
10 per cent.:. __ ~ _____________ .: _______________ . 3

Inches 12

Q;uartz sand wi~h a few grains of black minerals

1

The dark -minerals appear to occupy the upper part of the beach

sands between the. high and low tide .marks and are. probably a con-

centration by waves arid currents. Further from the sea the black

sand is covered by wind-shifted sands to a depth of from 1 to 10 feet .

.!lnalysis of black sand from St. Simon Island

Lime (CaO) _______________________________ -~--------

Magnesia (MgO) _____________ ~ ___ ------------------Alumina CAI20 a) ______ ---------------~-----~---~---~

Ferric oxide (Fe20 a) ___ -----------------------------Ferrous oxide (FeO) _________ ----------- _~-------~- -Manganous oxide (MnO) ___________________ ----------

Titanium dioxide (Ti02) _______ ----------------------

.Phosphorus. pentoxide (P 20 5 ) ____ -'---- --- ..:-'-- ---------

Silica (Si02)- _- __ -----------------------------------

Zirconium oxkl.e (ZrO) _____ ~--~-- --- ~----------- --- _.:.

Thorium oxide (Th Cerium oxide (CeO

0 2

)2

) ________
----- -----'

-- -------- ~-
____________

-_:~

----
____

-
_:

---
___

-
_

0.00 0.00 0.00 7.84 11.29 1.89
34.40 0.18 43.12 0.12 0.28 0.53

Total
I
1. Liddell, D. M., Eng. and Mining Journal, Vol, 104. pp. 154, 1917 ~

99.65

SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

377

SAPELO ISLAND
Sapelo Island is situated midway between the South Carolina and Florida boundaries and is reached by boat from Darien. The black sand is most prominent a short distance north of the lighthouse at the south end of the island. The sand here is black due to the large content of magnetite and ilmenite. The thickness was not ascertained but the sand appears to be general throughout most of the island, particularly along the beach. 'The dunes do not appear to have much of the darker sand.

.!lnalyses of black sand from Sapelo Island

Constituents
------ M~ oi~ stu~re-a- t ~ 10= 0 C ________________________ _ Loss on ignition___________________________ _
Potash (K20) __ ----- ____ ------------------Soda (Na20) ________________ ------ --------Lime (CaO) _______________________________ _ Magnesia (MgO) __________________________ _
Alumina (Al20 3) ___ -----------------------FFeerrrriocusoxoixdiede(F(eF2e0O3))_________-___-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_--_ Manganous oxide (MnO) ___________________ _ Titanium dioxide (Ti02) ___________________ _ Phosphorus pentqxide (P 205) _~ ____________ -TSiilnic_a__(S__i0_2_)________-_-_-_______~_-_-_-_______-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_--_
Thorium oxide (Th02L ____________________ _ Cerium oxide (Ce20 3) ________ ------- _______ Zirconium oxide (Zr20 3) _____ --- _- __ - _____ -Chlorine__________________________________ _ Sulphur__________________________________ _

No.1
0.18
l.Q3
1.06
1.19
1.08
.12 0.91 0.43 0.86 0.32 5.55 0.49 85.78 0.00 0.24
0.40 0.10 0.15 0.11

No.2
.37
.17 5.16 8.36
trace
5.23
0.28
80.15
'0.18 0.08

Total

99.75 100.90

The natural sample (No. 1) whose analysis is given was taken from the richest part of the deposit, n. orth of the lighthouse, wh.ich probably contained from 5 to 6 per cent of the dark minerals. The analysis indicates quartz, ilmenite, magnetite, monazite, and zircon, whose relative abundance is probably in the order given.

ST. GEORGE
Sand similar in mineral content to that on the coastal islands is reported by Dr. J. D. Haseman to be associated with deposits of sap brown on the Georgia & Florida Railway, 3 miles west of St. George in Charlton County. In the sap brown deposits where the dark mineral content is large the sap brown content is also large.

GEO'LOGICAL SURVE. Y. OF GEORGIA

APPENDIX 0

:Dill-ing

the

course

SEN"GING SANDS of the field work in~ident

to

the

-
prl:lparation

of this report, the attention of the writer was called to a number of occurrences of "singing" or "whistling'; sand.. Th~ most prominent

example, perhaps,. is that at Thunder Spring near Thunder station on

the Macon&' Brnningham Railroad, 8 miles east -of Woodbury: This has been previously: mentioned by Mr~ S. W. McCallie 1 , who has

observed a similar phenomenon in the terrace sands along Allapaha

River north of Statenv:ill~. . Dr. R. M. Harper-2 has also noted sing-

ing sands inthe bars along Cannoochee River, west of Groveland. The

writer has also noted singing sands along Ochlocknee River just above

the Thomasville-Albany road. : In all these cases when the sand was

walked over, or when the heels were shuffled in it, or when som.e of

~he sand was rubbed gently,betwee:il the fingers, a sound was emitted

similar to that caused by wagon wheels in snow on a cold day, or sim-

ilar to that produced when a moistened finger is drawn over glass.

The cause of this rather peculiar phenomenon has been variously explained. W. D. Rich~rdson 3 attributed the singing. sanqs of Lake

Michigan to a thin ~lm of calciu~ and magnesium salts precipitated

on the, sand gtains:.froiTl. the waters of the .lake. .E. 0. Fippin4 be-

,

'"~

-

\ t\'!t~~

~.

. ;'

lieves the circumstance due to the rubbing tdge~her of well-rounded

and stnomtbrgrains .which c~mtain a small perce:Iltage of moisture fotm-

ng a thin film around the grains. H. Q. Bolton and A. A. Julien"

in a numbe;r of papers have described singing sands from fresh-water

and sea beaches and fr-om desert regions in Egypt, Nevada, and else~

where. Their investigations appear to indicate that the phenomena

are due to thih films of air condensed upon the surfaces of the sand

grains dur~g gradual evaporation after wetting by sea, lake, river, or

rain water.

The diversity of t:P.e conditions under which singing sands have been noted leaves the impression th~t the phenomenon may be 'in-

. duced by any one of several different causes. In most of the cases

of singing sands noted along and ab~"'ve Georgia rivers the grains were

~

1 Georgia Geol. Survey, Bull. 20, p. 157 1913

2. O:t:al communication
3 The singing sands of Lake Michigan: Science n. s., Vol. 50, p, 493, 11!19 .

. 4-Moreonsinging sands: Science,.n. s. VoL 51, p. 64,1920.

.

5 Am. Assoc. for the Adv. of Science Proc., Vol. 32, p. 251, 1883; Vol. 33, p. 408, 1884

N. Y~ Acad. of Sciences Trans.,_ Vol. 3, pp. 72-76, 97-99, 1884.

SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

379

quite dry. On the other hand, at Thunder Spring the peculiar crunching sound was easily audible when the sand was rubbed together beneath the water of the spring.

Granulometric analysis of Thunder "Sprin(! singing sand, T-103

Per cent retained on each mesh size

Mesh

size_,..

_______

8
--

-10-

14
--

20
--

28
--

35
--

48
--

65
--

100
--

150
--

200
--

Per cent___________ 0.1 0.6 1.8 4.2 10.4 24.4 53.7 84.4 97.8 99.4 99.8

The usual method of determining the amount of clay in a sand

was tried on the Thunder Spring sand and no clay or fine particles

were found. In the case of the Georgia river sands in which the prop-

erty of singing was noted, very little clay or silt occurred in the sand.

This is rather a peculiar circumstance. The sand from the Spring

is

composed

mostl.y .of

irregular,

angular,

quartz
.

grai.ns,

a

very

few

grains of feldspar, and considerable mica in small flakes amounting

to perhaps one per cent of the total. After most of the mica was

removed the singing or crunching of the sand was less pronounced.

Chemica.l analysis of Thunder Spring sand, Dpson County, T-103

Loss on ignition ____________________ ~________________ Soda (Na 20) ____________________ ~ __ ___ ___ __ ___ __ ____ Potash (K20)__ __ ____ __ ____ __ ___ ______ _____ ___ __ ___ _ Lime (CaO _________________________________________
Magnesia (MgO) ____ ____ ___ __ ______ ______ __ ___ __ ____ Alumina CAl20 s) _______ ____ ____________ __ __ ___ ______
Ferric oxide (Fe20 3)___ _____ __________ __ __ _______ ____
Manganous oxide (MnO) ____________________ ~- _______ Titanium dioxide (TiOz) ____________ ___ ___ ___ __ __ ___ _ Silica (SiO 2) _________ ____________ __ ___ ___ __ ___ ______ Rare earths______ .___________________________________

0.18 0.10 0.14 trace
0 .12 1. 52
0. 86
t ace 0.18 96.75 0. 00

Total __________________________________________ 99.75

A sample of the sand after having remained in the laboratory for several months was found to still retain much of its original sonorousness. Quantities of water ranging from 1 to 10 per cent were added

380

GEOJ.-O.GI.C.4L S[[RVEY OF GEORGIA

to the dril?d. ~and- to see .what ~flu~nce moisture may have had, but

little -d.iff~re.nce

in

t
'

h.

e

..character

of

the '

sound

,w. as

noted

'

.

with

the

dif-

ferent amounts of water.

, .

It is possible that in some cases this peculiar' prope;ty of sand ~ay

be due to singularly cl~11n and sharp grains rubbing together. Mica

may add somewhat to the sori'orousness of the sand.

APPE. NDI.-X

D
'

MOLDING SAND TESTS

The results of detailed testing of ten Georgia molding sands made

\

by the Bureau of Standards but received too late to be included in the

body of tb.'e :report are recorded here.

A summary of the test~, virtually the same as that submitted by the Bureau, is given, but only the leaqing features of the actual results are includedfor simpli~ity .and econOIJ?-Y .of space.

Sieve tests.-The sieve tests showed the amount of sand retained on sieves Nos.
6, s, 10, 14, 201 3o, 40, 50, 70, 100, 140, 200 and the amount passing No. 200, marked
No. 200+, together with the average ffue:ness o'f .each sand.

, Perm,.eability tests.-Tnese tests sh6wed the permeability per cent of each sand by
the use of. an apparatus devised for the pu.J}pose,,in .use.at the Bmea;il. Th.e principle involved is that of ascertaining the amount of time it ta~es for an unlimited supply of
air to pass through a given weight of sand rammed into if cylinder of metal, the ram
falling through a height of two inches a:t each ram; The sand in every case is tempered
and intimately mixed with 10 per cent of .water. The time it takes for the air to pass
through. tJJ.e given volume of sand is compared to the time it takes for the air to pass t~.O'tigh,;the. !liPParatus when the -~and cylinde:~; is empty... :Th~ 'result is expressed in: 'terms of percerltage of the time involved. The permeability of each s~tnd is compared
to the average permeability of the entire group of sands.

The shearing .stress, bending moment, and ultimate fiber stress of the extr.eme fiber of the sand bar which is submitted by the weight of each bar or section of the same is calculated. from the data derived from the test and the values obtained for each bar are compared to the average values obtained for the group. Tests were made on a bar of sand 12" x 1" x 1'~ as a cantilever beam:

The melting point of each sand has been determined; determinations were made' in an electric furnace and compared to the average melting.~point of the group. As all of the ab.ov~ sands are unknown 'in foundry practice there has also been. added, for the
sake of comparison, similar tests of the Standard Albany sand No. 2..

The following numbered sands, with their indicated locality, were tested:
No. 133, from bank of Coosa River opposite Nixon's Island near Rome, has 'an average fineness of 85.68 per cent with 61 per cent passing. the 100-mesh sieve. It is the finest sand of the group as to grain size. Its permeability is below the average of the group. Its shearing stress and weight of bar is above, but its bending moment and ultimate fiber stress are below the average. Its meltip_g point is below the average. As its permeability is about equal to that oi Albany No. 2 it may be used as a brass molding sand.
No. 11,.1, from bank of Coosa River, Neal's Ferry, hfLS an average fineness of 82.91 per cent, which is above the average. Over 67 per cent of it passes the 100-mesh sieve. It ranks second- in the fineness of its grains. Its permeability is far below the average, probably on account of its large per cent of clay supstance. In fl).ct, as to permeability it has the lowest value of the group. In weight of its bar, shearing stress. and bending moment, it fell below, but exceeded the average in its ultimate fiber stress. This circumstance would indicate that the quality of its bond is unusually high. Its melting

SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS

381

point is the lowest of the group, indicating that its clay substanc'e is not very refractory, and even with this drawback it would make a good brass molding sand for small castings and fine-surfaced work.
l:lo. 159, three miles southeast of Rossville, on the Central of Georgia -Railway, fall below the average fineness, but still over 54 per cent of it passed the IOO.:.mesh sieve, so that it cannot be regarded as a coarse sand. Its permeability is above the average, showing that its clay substance content is low. Its porousness is high because of the irregular size of its grains and their distribution. It possesses a peculiar pungent, agreeable odor which is not destroyed even at heating for several hours to 100 C. Its melting point is high, above the average, and would make a good molding sand for heavy iron work. In weight of the bar, and shearing stress it exceeded the average, but dropped below it in its bending moment and ultimate fiber stress. For large castings its molds would have to be well gaggered and chapleted.
No. 1'20, from the C. K. Gailey property, Almon, Georgia, has an average fineness of 80.75 per cent, far above the average. Over 54 per cent passed the 100-mesh sieve. Its permeability, however, is below the average on account of the fineness of its clay substance. Its porosity would be low. The weight of the bar and its shearing stress is above, but its bending moment and ultimate fiber ~tress are below the average, showing that its cohesive power is low. Its melting point is below the average, which would indicate that it& clay substance is not refractory, but still it is good enough for brass
molding sand.
No. 1'21, from the C. K. Gailey 'property, Almon, Georgia, is a mate to No. 120. In its sieve test it is below the average.. Not quite 41 per cent passes the 100-mesh sieve. In permeability it is above the average and its porosity would be good. In shearing stress, weight of bar and bending moment, it is above the average, but in ultimate fiber stress it falls below. Its value i'S commensurate with that of No. 120. In its melting point it is the same as No. 120 and the same conclusions are to be drawn from this fact.
No. 165, from the property of Mrs. J. H. Smith, Ringgold, Georgia, in the sieve tests shows an average fineness of 82 per cent, considerably above the average. Over 65 per cent passes the 109-mesh sieve. In permeability it is below the average, which would indicate a high percentage of clay matter. rts optima water content would show that its porosity is also low. In shearing stress, weight of bar, and bending moment it is below the average, but by the ultimate fiber stress it is above the average, which would indicate that the quality of the bond is fairly good. In its melting point it is high, showing that the clay substance is highly satisfactory. It would make a good iron molding sand.
No. 16'2, from the Brockman property,. Ringgold, Georgia, in the sieve tests shows an average fineness of 80.6 per cent, far above the average, with over 68 per cent passing the 100-mesh sieve. Its permeability is below the average, which would point to a large percentage of clay substance. In shearing stress, weight of bar, bending moment and ultimate fiber stress it is above the average. In melting point it is above the average but inferior to No. 165. It is a good all-round molding sand, and the indications are that it would be suitable as a body sand for every grad-e of iron molding requiring a strong sand, and would be suitable as a facing sand for light work.
No. 41, from the S. A. McBean property, one mile from McBean depot, in the sieve tests shows an average fineness much below the average, with not over 27 per cent passing the 100-mesh sieve. Its permeability as an off-set is far above the average, showing that it is devoid of the finer clay substance or silt that would clog its pores. Its optima water content would indicate a porous sand. Its shearing stress, weight of bar and ultimate fiber stress is below the average, but its bending moment is very high, which would indicate that its bond is above the normal value. Its melting point is high above the average, showing that its clay substance is highly refractory and also that its plasticity is high in quality because in quantity of the same it is low. From all indications it is the best brass or bronze or high melting point non-ferrous alloy molding sand in the group. It would also answer for all iron molding sand for small castings not requiring a fine surface.

382

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA

N;o. 1q1, from Chattooga River, in _the sieve tests shows an average fineness above

the ~;tverage of .the g~oup, as over 54 per cent of it passes the 100-m,esh sieve. Its per-

meability is above the average, which would indicate that its. clay substance is well dis-

tributed ~J,nd that its pmousness is good. Its shearing stress, weight .of bar, bending

rnoment and ultimate fiber st:re~s are all abov.e the average. Its melting point is high,

which ])O:\ii.ts to the fact ~hat its clay substance is sufficiently refractory to permit of

its being used as an iron IIj.plding sand of good quality for finely-surfaced iron castings.

It is one of the bes~ molding sands of the group.

No. 401, from Morse Brothers~ pit, 'three miles south of Chattanooga, in the sieve

tests s~?-ows an average fineness far below the general average, not over 31 per cent pass-

ing the 100-mesh sieve. Its permeability is considerably above the average, showing

that it is an qpen sand. Its shearing stress, weight of bar, bending moment and ulti-

mate fiber stress are above the average,- arid indicate a good bonding capacity. Its

melting point ~s hjgh, far above. the ::tverage and is suitable for iron and mild steel cast-

ing work. .Xt has the highest melting point of any sand in the group.

_

No.2 Alb,a,qyy_swnd;'-A standard brass molding sand is used as a basis of compari-
son with each number of the group. The sieve tests show it to be of greater average fineness than any S!lond in the group, as over 91 per cent of it passes the 100-mesh sieve. In its permeability it is somewhat above the average of the group, indicating that its clay
substance is not excessive; and what is present is uniformly distributed. Its porosity
is 3'3_;8 per; cent. In its shearing stress, weight ofhar, bending moment and ultimate fiber s.tre~El it is below the average of the group; i;n fact, there are :only. three sands of the group that are inferior to it in this :respect. In melting point, it.is lower than -that of any Georgia sand so far considered, an,d yet it is regarded as one of the best brass molding sands that have been used to any great extent in this country. An effort was

made at the beginning to temper the vai-ious sands with water according to the optima content; but so many of them exceeded the limit of the wa~er percentage they should take up for molding purposes that it was impossible to get their permeability records because of the excessive amount of clay contained in them, and therefore each of them was tempered and mixed with 10 per' cent by weight of water or its equivalent.

TEST OF GEORGIA MOLDING SANDS

I Sieve tests

Permeability per cent

Shearing stress Bending moments. Ultimate fiber

\

M~Iting

at point of

Maximum at stress in extreme

Number of

Average From Passing fineness 40 to 100 100-mesh

Pooicn.t,

1st ram 2nd ram 3rd ram

support. Grams per sq.

point of support. Grams per sq.

fibers of bar. Grams per sq.

sand

mesh in- sieve

c. m.

c. m.

c.m.

elusive

-- ~

133 85.68 36.34 61.47 1443 47.97 31.36 22.68

4.53

36.22

54.33

~

141 82.91 24.18 67.84 1392

159 67.83 56.44 34.18 1535

120 80.75 41.55 54.53 1395

121 73.00 50.84 40.98 1395

.165
- 162

82.06 80.62

29.65 22.15

65 .45 1580 68.13 1555

47 .58.91 63.41 24.46 1575

26.55 75.36 65.74 65.99 36.45 31.37 75.56

18.88 51.66 43.33 42.70 23.63 21.36 53.20

15.00 44.75 35.89 31.06 18.60 16.07 42.70

3.88 4.64 4.82 4.48 - 4.02 4.42 3.76

43.78 37.48 22.42 50.59 45.15 50.43 68.39

65.63

tl:...

55.65

~

57.80

~
tl:...

54.92

~
1:-t

67.67

~

67.76

0

~-

34.02

1--3

b:)

151 79.53 39.94 54.48 1564 60.98 37.47 27.62

4.65

52.89

79.25

401 58.05 54.17 30.95 1600 79.54 52.55 35.81

4.58

Average 74.93 41.867 50.247 1371 43.16 35.64 32.81

4.38

58.61

46.60

84.83 62.19

Albany 96.90 No.2

9.51 91.34 1503

56.55 37.61 29.02
--

4.31

19.41

------------

-

38.83

Ci-'
~


-!

INDEX

A
Page Abrams, D. A., and Harder, 0. E., Abracsiitveed u--s-e-s--o-f---s-a-n-d---_-_-_-_-_-__-_-_-_--93-9141 Acme Sand & Supply Company___ 299 AAcdwaiorrstvhille---_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_--3-4-6-324971 Adrian -------~-------------------- 198 Aiken, W. A., cited --------------- 58 Albany -------------------------- 191 AlbaCnoympSaannyd, ___L_i_m_e____&___C__e_m_e19n1t -192 Alexande.r, Edgar, pit ------------ 245 Allapaha River _______157, 158, 178, 205 AAlllloignatSoar ndCrCeeokmp-a-n-y---__-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-1--8-2-128723 Alpharetta ___________________.:.____ 316 Altamaha River ______214-215, 215, 218 Altamaha Supply Company ____217 -218 Alto ------------------------------ 285 Anderson, Louis, property ------- 335 AAnpepeawlaackheeee CRrieveekr -_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_--_-_-_-_2_93518--233263 AAppppeennddiixx AB -_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_--_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_3_7337-63-37757 Appendix C -------------------378-380 Appendix D ---------------~---380-383 Appling --------------------------- 293 AApspphlianlgt Cpaovuenmtyen-t-s---_'_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_--841-8526 AAttkhiennsson --C-o--.u-n--ty----------------------------~1--5-2--125930 AAttllaannttaa -S--a-n-d----&----S-u-p-p--ly----C--o-m--- 299
pany ----------------------183-185 Atlantic Coast Line Railroad
pit --~----------------------227-228 Augusta 1Silica Mining Company__ 235 Auraria -------------------------- 312 Avera ----------------------------- 208 Average fineness, discussion o___29-31
B

Page
Big Buffalo Creek --------------- 267 Big Cedar Creek ------------------ 308 Big Creek ------------------------ 298 BBiigg FSlaantdyCrCeerkeek---_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-2-6-5-, 233734 Big Shoulderbone Creek _______202-203
Big Slough ----------------------'- 202 Big Tallapoosa River ------------- 305 Big Tobesofkee Creek ------------ 318 Bittings, N. K., property _________ 349 Black Sands, discussion oL____376-377 Bleckley Countyo ------------------ 165 BBlouenhri-n-g-e-r-,--R--. --A-.-, --c-it-e-d---_-_-_-_-_-__-_-_-_- 119188 Bolton, H. C., and Julien, A. A.,
cited ------------------------- 378 BBoonoethv,illIesm-a-e-l-, --p-r-o-p-e--rt-y---_-_-__-_-_-_-_-_-_- 321338 Boswell, P. G. H., cited ---------'-- 136 Bowles, Oliver, cited ------------- 138 Boyle Creek ---------------------- 288 Brantley Creek ------------------- 259 Brick mortar
Cleanness of ------------------- 59
CSoalnodr osfui-t-e-d--f-o-r---------------------------------- 5599 Bright, T. J., property------------ 355 Brinson, W. C., property -------- 209 Broad River --------------------- 296 Brockman, Edward, property:.,_347, 348 Brooks County ----------------165-166 Brown, 0. 0., pit ---------------- 252 Bryan County -----------------167-168 Buchannon, W. A., property____194-195
Buck Creek ---------------------- 288 Buckley, E. R., cited -------------- 87 Building sand and gravel --------- 45 Bulloch County ------------------- 168 Buqrcuhoacter:dd, _E__. __F_._, __c_i_te__d_______6_2_, _6:_4_,__6_5_, 13665
Bureau of Standards, cited ______ 57 Burke County -------------------- 169 BBuurtwraemll, F--r-a-n-k-,--c-i-t-e-d--_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-6-2, 28685 Butts County _.:.______________286-287

Bacon County -----------------153-154 Baker County -------------------- 154 Baker, Hal, property ------------- 335 Baker, I. 0., cited ---------------- 80
quoted -------------------------- 85 Baldwin County ---------------154-155 Baldwin County Pit -------------- 155 Bank deposits a.f sand and
gravel ---------------------130-135 Banks County -------------------- 285 Barnett Creek -------------------- 202 Barrow County ------------------- 286 Bartow County ----------------344-347 Battle Property ------------------- 239 Baum,. Leo P., pit ---------------- 211 Beach Creek --------------------- 330 Bear Creek -------------------288, 296 Beavecr-dam Creek -------------296, 302 Beechwood Station --------------- 254 Benevolence ---------------------- 232 Ben Hill County --------------156-157 BBiebrbrienCouCnotuynty___-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_--_-_-_-_-_1_51759--115695
Bibliography of sand and
gravel ---------------------368-371

c
C a bpl er o ddur acgt i-ol inn e ,___u_s_e_s___o_f__i_n___s_a1n0d7 -109 Cairo ___________________________:__ 202 Calcite in sand ------------------- J 4. Calhoun County ------------------ 170 Camden County ------------------ 170 Camilla --------------------------- 220 Camp, A. H., property ----------- 356 Campbell County ----------------- 287 Camp Creek ---------------------- 155 Candler County ----------------170-171 Canoochee River__167, 171, 198-199, 200 CCaanr tolonad-e-r-s-,--u--s-e--o-f---in---s-a-n-d---p-r-o--- 289
duction -------------------103-104 CCaarrlryollel, CTo. uJn.t,y p_r_o_p_e_r_t_y___-_-_-_-_-_-_-2-8-7--228499 Carrollton ------------------------- 288 Carr property --------------------- 334 Carr's Station -------------------- 203 Cartercay River ------------------ 301 Carter, Dr. J. G., property ------- 213

386

INDEX

Page

Carter, Warren, property --------- 213 CCaatsotolesbaerCroyupnrtoype__r_ty___-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-3-4-7--314685

CCeedmaerntotiwnng v--a-lu--e--o-f--g-r-a-v-e--l -_-_-_-_-_-_-3-33-3641

Central of Georgia Railway. pit __ 230 Central of Georgia Sand
Corapany ------------------248-249 Centrifugal pump, use of in sand

:Production -----------------112-117 Charlton County ---------------171-172 Chatham County -------------~172-174 Chatsworth ----------------------- 3.59 Chattahoochee !County _______.:._174-175 Chattahoochee River ----~~~-----
_________174, 175, 292, 300, 303, 337

CChhaattttoooo.ggaa RCiovuenrty--------=----'------'----'--'----3-4-8--335601

Cheaves,. Wylie, property -------- 209

Chemical action of water --------- 3

Chemical analyses of

. .

'Black Sand _____________ 333, 376, 377

Chert ---------------~----------- 350 Glass Sand ________169, 211, 271, 272

Quartz ----------------------...,-- 329 Quartzite _______________307, 308, 314

Sand ___ 154, 163, 170; 173, 174,

180, 185, 195, 196, 205, 206, 218,

223, 227, 229, 235, 236, 262, 266

Sandstone -------------------360, 36p

Sap Brown Ore ---------------- 374

ChSeimngicinagl cSoamnpdos-i-ti-o-n---o-f----------- 379

"Glass Sand --------------------61-63 Sand ---------------------------17-18 CChheerrot ,k eceh eCmoi cuanlt ya n-a- -l y- -s-i-s- -b--f - -_-_2_8__9_- 239500

Chestatee River -------------"--295, 304

Clare, Sydney, property -~-------- 156 Clarke County ___________:______290-2!:!1

Clarke; C,la:r'ke,

J.r:..

H., P.,

property property

-----'---------------

347 169

Clar1resvil1e ------~..:_______________ 303

Clf!,8Sification of sand -----~----'--- 4-8.

by chemical content ---------"'- 5 by grain size --~-------~------ 6-7

bbyy moriingeirnal__c_o_n_t_e_n_t__-_-_-_-:-..-,_-_-_-_-_-__-_- 45

by uses ------------------------ 7-8

Clay County -------------------175-.:1,77

Clay

.

in concrete aggregate ___..:_,__9, 54-56

in sand, ~termination of -----~9-10

Clayton ----------------'----------- 326 Clayton County ------------------ 291 Cleanness of sand, discussed __:._ 8-9 clear Creek -----------'------------ 300 CCloi na sctha l CPolua ni nt ys a-n--d--a-n-d---g~r-a-v-e-L---~1-4'6-- 218718

Tests of ----------"-----------276-281

Cobb' County ----------'------'--2.91-292 Coffee County ______________.:._178-1.79

Coghlan, B. K., cited ------------ 84 quoted --------------------~----- 82
Cohesiveness of foundrY sand____70-71 Cole, L. H., .cited ---~-----"------24-72
Coleman -----------------------""- 232 Color of sand --------------~---~-- 8 Colquitt Cqunty ------~--------179-1.80 Colquitt. property _____________:.,___ 332

Columbia County ------'--------292-293 Commissioners Creelt ------------- 274

Page

Concrete aggregate ~rain .s~ze i!J. -------------------47-~2 1mpur1tles m ------------------54-<>9

pvrooidpse,rt.ipeesrcdenestairgaeblien i_n__-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_4.15)-34-574

Condit, D. D., cited ------------- 4 Conditions affecting development
of sand and gravel deposits-136-138 Condra, G. E., cited ___:..59, 74, 92, 111
quoted ---------------------~---- 7 Conglomerate, definition oL______ 15

Conley ------------------------- 295 Cbok County ------------------180-181 Cooke, C. W., and Shearer, H. K.,

Co

opceitre,

d .r. -

-P-.-,

--p-i-:o--p-e-r-ty--

-----------
---~-------

124065

CCoooossaa CRriveeekr _-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-:_-_-_-__-_-_- 335381

Core sand -----------------------72-73 Cornelia ------------------------ 303 Corsey, R. W., property --------- 138 Council pit ----------------------- 242

Cowart, A. B., property ---------- 220 Coweta County ------------------- 294

Crawford County ----------181-187 Crescent --------------------'------ 218 Cr>isp County -----------------187-188 Crooked Creek ------------------ 325 c~uslJ,ing, methods of --------12.4-1.26 Crutchfield property ----------- :J63 CrystaJli:he ATea ---------------282-341
D eutaali l ecdo u nd et isecsr i p__t i_o_n___o_f:_ __i n__d_i v28i d5--3411

Extent of ---------------------- 282 Geolo.gy . of ------------------283-285 IPnhtyr us idoegdr arpohcyk sof.o f___-_-_-_-_-.:-. _-_-_-_-_-2-8-2-228834

Cr-y;sta}line rocks, definition of ____ 5

Cummmg ---'---------------------- 298 Curtis Creek --------------------- 288

Cushlon sand for pavement foun dations ---------------------87-88
!Cuthbert ------------------------- 232

D

DDaakdee, CCo. -Lun.,tyci-te-d--_-_-_-_-1-0-,-6-0-,--6-6,--9-2-, 35941

quoted ____________.:____________ 7, 91

Darcy property ----------------268-269

Dal"ton, N. Davis, W .

.Hr.,.,pcroitpeedrt-y'----------------------

4 195

Dawson County -------------294-295 Dawsonville ------------~------- 294 Day, D. T.: and Richards, R. H.,

cited --------------------'----- 6

Dean, H. A., property _____.:______ 354

D ecat ur --------------------------- 295

Decatur Concrete Works ______188-189

Decatur County ----~------------- 188

Definition of

conglomeration ---'-------------- 15
gravel ----------------------.....--- 1 limestone --------------------- 15
quartzite --------...,--------------- 15
sand ----------------'------------ 1 sandstone ----------------------- 15 shale --~------------------------- 15 DeRJalb County _____,___________ 295

Derrick, scrapers, use of in sand production -----------------109-110

INDE:X.

387

Page

Detailed description of individual

counties

of Coastal Plain -------------152-281

of Crystalline Area ----------285-341

of Paleozoic Area --------.----344-367

Determination of

.

sp~cific gravity -------.---------42-~~ DiVkOesldSCr-e-e-k---_:-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-__30-3~55

Dillon, J. W., pit ______________261-26~

Dill property --------------------- 34 Dodge County -----------------189-~100 Donovan ------------------------- 209 Dooly County --------------------- 190 DDootusgohnerptyropCeorutynt-y--_-_-_-_-_-_-_-: _-_-_-_-_-1-9--1-139364

Douglas County ---------------295-296 Downing, .J. J., pit ------------178-179 Downs, L ..J., pit ----------------- 246 Drag-line cablewaYs, use of in
sand production -----------107-109 Drving sand and gravel, methods

of -------------------------126-127

Dry Ridge ------------------------ 252

Dublin -------------------------211-212

Duluth

302

Durabmt:Y--of--i0U:i1'd!Y-san_c1_====== 11

E
Early County ------------------194-195 Earnest, T. R., and Parr, S. W.,
cited ------------------------- 74 Eastman -------------------------- 189 Echols County -----------------195-196 E'ffective size, discussion Of ______27 -28 , Effingham County -------------196-197 EEllbbeerrttonCo_u_n_t.:y. ___--_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_--_-_-_-_-_-_2_9_6__-229976 Ellabell --------------------------- 167 Ellijay -----------'---..,------------- 301' EElmlias,nuSe.l EC.o, ucnittyed__-__-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-1-97--1995 Emerson __.:.______________________ 344 Engine and trolley sand ---------- 92 Etowah River ----------------312, 345 Euharlee Creek ------------------- 361 Evans County -------------------- 200

F
Factory Walnut Creek ----------- 309 Fall-line gravel deposits ______132-135 Fannin County ------------------- 297 FFealydestptear Cinousnatnyds-:-._-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-__-_-_- 21947 Fettke, C. R., cited -------------- 67 Fifteenmile Creek ---------------- 171 Filler sand for pavement founda-
tions -------------------------- 88 Filter sand and gravel, specifica-
tions for ---------------------90-92 Fineness modulus, disc11l?Sion oL_31-32 Fippin, E. 0., cited --------------- 378 Fire sand ------------------------- 34 Fishing Creek -------------------- 155 Fitzgerald ------------------------ 156 Fitzgerald, W. A., property ------ 239 Five Points ----------------------- 254 FFllaant dCerrse,ekJ. _M__._, _p__ro__p_e_r_tY___-_-_-_-_-_-2-9-7-, 231105
Fleming -------------------------- 215 Flemington ----------------------- 21{i Flint River -----------------------
187, 188, 220, 242, 255, 316, 327, 332

Page Flournoy, J. F., property --------- 222 Floyd County ------------------351-358 Flynt, Frank, prop.erty ----------- 327 Folkston -----------------------171-172 Forsyth County ------------------- 298 Fort Benning Military Reserva-
tion ------------------------174-175 Fort Benning pit ----------------- 224 FFoourtndHriyll s-a-n-d---_-_-_-_-__-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_--682-7420
Cohesiveness of ---------------70-71 Durability of ------------------- 71 Fusibility of -------------------- 71 Permeability of ----------------69-70 Texture of ---------------------- 70 Franklin County ----------------- 298 Fulcher, Glenn,: property _________ 169 FFank, R. L., cited __________61, 62, fi3 Fulton County _________________299-301
Fulton County Department of FusiPbuilbiltiyc oWf foorukns d-r-y--s-a-n-d--_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_- 30701

G

Gage, R. B., and Kummell, H. B.,

cited -------------------------- 67 quoted -------------------------- 61 Gailey, C. K., property ----------- 320 Gaines, R. H., cited -------------- 57 Gainesville ---------------------303-304 Gallup, F. L., and Ries, Henrich,

cited -------------------------- 25 Gaultney, E. M .. , pprperty -------- 254 Gaultney, M. T., property -------- 255 Gay, .J. M., Jr., property --------- 177

Gay property --------------------- 230 General Building Supply Com-

pany -----------------------172-173

Geology .

.

of Coastal Plain Area -------148-152 of Crystalline Area _________283-285

of Georgia -------------------144-145 of Paleozoic Area ---------.---342-344 Georgia Sand & Gravel Company_ 234

-Gibson --------------------------- 200 Gilmer County -------------------- 301 Gillette.. H. P., cited -------------- 118 Glascock County ----------------- 200 Glass sand
chemical analyses of __ 211, 271, 272 chemcial compos-ition of ______61-63

magnetic treatment of ---------- 67 mechanical composition of ____64-65 mineral composition of ________63-64

occurrence of ------------------ 159 preparation of ------------------ 68 screening of -------------------67-68 shape of grain in --------------- 65 washing of --------------------66-67 Glaze, W. B., property ------------ 265

Glynn County -------------------- 201

Gordon --------------------------- 274 Gordon County ----------------358-359 Grab bucl>:et, loading sand bY--110-112

Grading of pebbles in road

gravel -----------------------79-81 Grady County _________________201-202

Granulometric analyses, see me-

chanical analyses.

Graphic J.representations of granulometric composition ________25 -27

388

INDEX

Page

Grcaevmelenting va.lue Of ____:_______33-34

definition of durability' of

-~--------------------'---~-------------32~313

methods ,.of crushing ~--------124-126 oocur~ence of ---------~---_:__161-163 tests of ------~-------'------------ 221 uses o.f -------------------------45-95 Gravel pebbles, shape of-_________ 32

Greenbriar C~eek ----------------- 293 Greene County ----'------------301~302

Greensboro -----'----------'-------- 301

Gregory, J. R., cited ------------- 78

Gresston --------'------------------ .190 Gwinnett Counoty ------------~--302-303

H

HHaalblerCshoaumnty C_o..:.u..:_n..:t:.y..__-_-_-_-_-_-_--~-_-_-_-3-0-3-330034 Hamilton ,_:_________.:___________ 3o5

:s., Hamilton, S. H., and Kummell, H.
HancockcitCedou-n-t-y--_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-2-0--2-20684 Hand, :;J. L., property ____,:_______ 220
Hand, loaning sand by --------100-101 Hannahatchee Creek ----------- 240 H&ralson County --------------304-305 Harder, Q.. E., and Abrams, D.
A, cited --------------------- 11 HHaarrddy'LsabCorrosCsirnegek__-_-_-_-_-_-_'_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-:-.. 131691

Harkey, W. C., Band Company_25J-252

HHaa'Ir'lpeemr,

!R.

-M-.-,-

-c-it-e-d-

-------------------------~--

2379.38

Ha:rris County --------'--------305-3.08 Harri$On, Ella, property ___:______ 186

Hart County ----------------'--318'309 H:;t,rtwell ------------------------- 308 Hazen, Allen, cited -----------~--~ . :JO He._aq:urdoteCd o-u-n--ty---_-_--_-_-_-_-_-_--_.-:_-:_-_._.:_:':_-_--_-::2:_:_73-2089
Henry County -'--'----'-------:._______ 3u9 HB:eeprrziicbka,hH.-~N--.-, ~c--it-e-d---_:-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-,..-.~ 23.65 , Hime, J. R., Sand Company___24lP.24'4 Hinson Sand Mines ____________27.0-271

HHiiwwaasssseeee R-i-v-e-r-'-;.-._-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-__-_-_- 3322.8S

Hogansville ---------------------- 330 Homer ---------------------------- 285 Hornblende in sand --------------- 14 HB:oouussteor,n 1JC., oupnitty!---__-:-._-__-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_--20---1-220054 Hudson Greek __________:.__________ 325

Hudson RiV61I" --------------- ______ 299
o'f Hurri-cane Creek --------------228-229
Hydraulic stripping sand ---118-119

Ichawaynochaway Creek __.:_.:___.:____ 259 Impurities in concrete aggregate-54-59 Indian Mountain ------------------ 361 Intruadreead r_o__c_k_s__o__f __t_h_e_,:C__r_y:_s_t_a_l_li_n_e_ 284
Irwin County --------------------- 205
J
Jac~son County ___::________________ 310 Jasper County -,---------------310-311 Jeff Davis County ---------~----- 206 JJeefffEee.rrssoonn C--o-u-n-t-y------------------------------2-0-6-230186

Page

Jenkins County ------------------ 208 Johnson County ---------------208-211

Jonesboro ------------------------ 291

JJoonneess,

CMorusn.

t

y L

.

-

-A-.-,

---------~property

-,-:

-__-_-_-_-

331461

JJ-oorrddaann,, LG.., E.p, ropproeprteyrty--_-_-_-_-_-_-_-2--2-9-223250

Julien, A. A., and Bolton, H. C.,

cited ------------------------- 378

K

KKeeygsgviClleree_k_:_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_- 129639
:Kinchafoonee Creek -----------213-214 King, Edward, propetrty ---------- 177 King, F. H., cited ----------------- 24 King, W. J. H., cited ------------- 6 KKiinrkgpstaotrnick--S--a-n-d--&---C--e-m--e-n-t--C--o-m--- 347 K i t ep a_n_y_ .:.. _- -_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_2__4_5_,___2_4_6-224o89
Kubo, Lee, p~opertY ------------- 240 IGummeU, H. B., and Gage, R. B.,
cited ----------~-------------- 67 quoted -------------------------- 64 Kummell, H. B., and Hamilton,
S. H., cited ------------------ 68

L

Labor costs in production of

Ladsdaenrd d-re-'-d-g-e-,---u-s-e---o-f---i-n---s-a-n-d- 142

production -----------------117-118

Lafayette ------------------------- 361

LaGrange ---'---------------------- 330

Lampley, H., pro.perty ------------ 231

Laurens County ------------------ 211 Law~enceville -------------------- 302

Lee 'County ---------------------- 213

'JL:'..~eee;1.;.JJ..

B., M'.,

pit -----------------property --------------

168 171

Lester Creek --------------------- 290

LLeibweirstyMCillou-n-t-y-'-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-2-1-4-221175

Lidaen, D. M., cited ____________6, 37

Lightwood Log. ~eek ----------- 308 Limestone, definit-ion of ~--------- 15 Limonite in sand ---------------- 14 Lincoln County ------------------ 312 Line Creek ----------------------- 294 LLiittttllee HO'aczmeullgCereeeRkiv-e-r--_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-2-6-9-237003

Little Potato Creek --------------- 332

Little River ------------------180, 328

Little Shoulderbone Creek ------- 203

Little Towaliga River ------------ 324

Loading sand

.

hy hand ---------------------100:-101

by Long Long

tCSrarwpeaesmk -p--=-C----r--e--e--k----------------------~---------,--.1-:-0__-1_--_-133025339

Louisville -~----------------------- 207

LLoowwenydes__O_o_u_:_z_h_y_:-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-__-_-_-_-_-_-_- 221967

Low, Thomas,, property __:_ __:..__189-190 Lumber City Sand & Concrete

Comp-any -------------------- 257 Lumpkin County -----------:..312-313 Lyons -------------------'------- 264

M

>Macon -------------------------161-164

MMaadcoisnonCo-u--n-t-y----------------~-----------------------

216 320

INDEX

38V

Page

Madison County ------------------ 313 Magnetic treatment of glass sand_ 67

Magnetite in sand ---------------- 14 Magnus Creek -------------------- 291 Magruder Creek ---------------176-177 Mansfield, G. R., cited ------------ 6 Manufacture of sand-lime brick__ 74-76

Marburg Creek ------------------- 286 Markets for sand and gravel ------ 143

Marietta -------------------------- 292 Marion County ------------------- 219 Mechanical action of water ------ 2-3 Mechanical analyses

Core sand ----------------------- 73 Sand -------------------------191-221 Sand Hill ----------------------- 263 Singing sand ------------------- 379 Me cshaanndica_l___c_o_m__p_o_s_i_t_io__n___o_f___g_l_a_ss64-65

Meriwethe,r County ____________314-316

Methods of transportation, production and preparation of sand_95-128
~1etter ---------~------------------ 170 Mica in sand --------------------- 14 Mill Creek --------------------359, 363

MM1ilillleenr C-o-.-u-n-t-y--------------------------"-'--------------- 220189 Mills, Mike, pro.perty ------------- 186 Milton Count:JZ~ -------------------- 316 Mine!ral and rock composition of
sand -----------------------~-13-17 Mineral compos.ition of glass

sand -------------------------63-64 Mineralogical examination of

sand -------------------------16-17

Mining of sap brown ore --------- 376

Minor uses of sand --------------94-95

Mitchell Mobley,

MCrosu. nAty.

---------------219-220 H., pit ________270-271

Moldenke, Richa!rd, cited --------- 70 Molding sand, tests of ------------ 383 Monroe C0unty ------------------- 316 MMoonnttgeozmume!ary -C--o-u-n--t-y--_-_--_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_2_12621--221272

Moorefield, C. H., quoted ________80-84

M Moorrgeaan CCreoeuknt-y--_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-3-1-8--322906 Morgan, W. K., property ________ 246

Morningstax, L. E., pit ----------- 245 Morris, W. M.., property ______222-223

Morse Brothers ------------------ 363 Mortar tests of sand -------------- 43 Mossy Creek --------------------- 204 Moul,trie -----------------------179-180 M Muucckkaafloe.eonCeereCekree_k__.-:. _-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_- 129133

Mud Creek ----------------------- 330 Murray County ------------------ 359 M Muusrcraoyg'ese FCeorurynty---_-_-_-_-_-_-_--_-_-_-_-_1_92022-1-29217 Muscogee County gravel pit __ 223-224

Me
McCallie, S. W., cited _________282, 378 McCarty Sand Pits ------------181-182 McCrary, M. G., property -------- 210 McCutcheon, Frank, property ____ 363 McDaniel, A. B., quoted ---------- 101 McDougal, D. T., cited ---------- 5 McDuffie County ----------------- 313
McFarland, J. R.:" property ____362, 363

Page Mcintosh County ----------------- 217 MacKenzie, G. C., cited ---------- 6 McLeod, J. D., pro.perty ______271-272

N
Nashvi!le ------------------------- 157 Neels Creek ---------------------- 210 Neeves, J. C., property ----------- 177 Neisler, J. H., property ..,------255-256 Newnan -------------------------- 294 NNeewwtoRnivCerou-n-t-y---__--_::-_ -_-_-_-__-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-3-2--0-332029 NNiocrkriasjacCkroCsxs-ienegk -_-_-_-_-_-_-_-__-_-_-_--_:-_-__-_-_- 239324 North Broad River -------------- 327 Norwood -----------------------336-337 Nottely River --------------------- 331 Nume:rical representation of gran-
ulo.metric composition ---------- 27

0
Oak Mountain -------------------- 307 OOacJhtewsalpkreoepeOrtryeek--_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-2-7-2--227335 Ocklocknee River -------------202, 260 Ocmulgee River ------------------
159-160, 189, 258, 28~ 311, 316-318 Oconee 'County ------------------- 322 Ocon_e_e___R__iv__e1r55-,--2-1-2-,--2-7-3-,--2-9-0-, --3-1-0-, 325 Ogeechee River ---------------168, 197 OOhgoleotpheoerpRe ivCeor un__ty___-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-1-9-9-, 235203
Okapilco Creek ------------------- 166 Oostanaula River ----------------- 3.57 Organic 'Matter
in concrete aggregate ______ 9, 56-57 Oriing' insanodf s-a-p---b-r-o--w--n--_-_-_-_--_-_-_-_-_-_-31705--31736 Origin of sand and gravel -------- 2-4

p

Paleozoic Area ________________342-367 D eutaa1i l ecdo udnet ise csr i p__t i_o_n___o_f__i_n_d__i v_ 3i d4-4-367

EGxeotelongtyofo' f---_-_-__-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-3--4-2-334424.

Physiography of ---------------- 342 Sand and gravel, tests of __ 366-367 Parrish, J. A., pit _____________201-202

Parrott --------------------------- 259 Parr, S. W., and Earnest, T. R.,
cited -------------------------- 74 Paulding County ------------------ 323 Pacvuesmhieonnt sFaonudndfaotrio_n_____________ 87 -88

filler sand for ------------------ 88

Paving Payne

sand proper

-ty

-

-----~--------------------------------

87 360

Peachtree Creek ------------~----- 299

Peacock, J., property ------------- 189

Pee ble ---------------------------- 253

PPeepnpdelel,tonS. CVr.e,ekcit-e-d---_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-7-4-, 19795

Permeability of foundry sand ___ 69-70

PPheirlrlvips-, --E-.--L--,--p--r-o-p-e-r-t-y-------------------- 322064

Physical character of sand



grains -----------------------18-33

Physiography .

of Coastal Plam -------------146-148

of Crystalline Area ----------.282-283

390

INDEX

Page

of Georgia -----------------~--- 144 P iocfk e:nj?sa.lCeoozu'onict yA_r_e_::a___-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_- -3-5-9-336402

Piedmont Plateau sands and

giavels, tests of -----------339-341 Pierce County ---------------~-227-229 Pike County --------~------------ 324 Pine Mountain quartzite ---------
284, 305-307, 314-315, 324, 332-333 Plaster sand, properties of ______59-60

Polk County --------------------- 361 Pollock, N. L., property --------- 349 Poole; Annison, p-roperty --------- 209 PPooprtee, rdWalaerre_n_,__p__ro__p_e_r_ty___-_-_~_-_-_--:._2_3_8_-233291 . Potato Creek _:___________________ 324

Powelton -----~'------------------- 204 Power shovels, use of in sand pro~
duction -~------------------104-106 Power scrapers, use of in sand

production -----------------107-109 Pratt, .J. H., cited ---------------- 82 Preparation of glass sand -------- 68 Preparation of sand for the mar-
ket -~---------------------119~128 Prices of sand and grav.el ___.:._141-142

Procter Creek -------------------- 300

Prospect!ing for sand and



.gravel ____.:._~-l---------""'--128-139

Puckett, C. A., ,property --------~ 344

Pulaski County .:.:..:----------~---229.-230

Putnam County -----------~---324-325

Q
Quartz chemical analysis o.f ----------- 329
Quinartszaitned ----'----'------------------ 13 Alc0vy Mountain --------------- 331 BeJ.l Mountain ----~'----------"'"-- 329. chemical analyses of ___307, 308, 314 definition of ----------------~--- 15 Pine Mountain ---------'-------. ------305-307, 314-:315, 324, 332-333
Quitman ----------:...___________165-166 Quitman County ______:______'-__230-232 Quitman County Farm ----"---~--- 231

R
Rabun CountY' ------'---'---------325-326 RRaa:bilurrona,d .Jb. aWlla.,stpr_o_p__e_r_t_y__-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-8-82-9808 Ram-sey, W. W., property -------- 350 Randolph County ----------------- 232 Red O'ak Greek -'~---------~------ 315 RRehxod-e-s--S-i-l-i-c-a--D--e'p-o--s-it-------------------------- 239610 R!ichar(lson, Clifford, quoted ______ 86 Richardson, W. D., c-ited -------- 378 Richards, R. H., and Day, D. T.,
cited ----------'--------------- 6 RRiicchhlmanodnd. GCreoeuknt-y---_-_-_-_-_-_-._-_'_-_-_-_-_-2-3--3-233207 Richmond County pit ------------ 233 Ries, Heinrich, and Gallup, F. L., Riesc,itHedein--ri-c-h--, --a-n-d---R-o--s-e-n-,'-.-J.--A--.-, 25
Rin~~;1~ ::=::::=:::::::::::=::::::::::::!~ 3~~
Rising Fawn _________________:_____ 351
Rogardadginrgaveolf -p-e-b-b--l-e-s--i-n-_-_--_-_-_-_-_-_-_7_769--8811

Page
retqnuir_;e_m__e__n:_t_s___o__f ___g_o_o_d____b_i_n_d__e7r6-78
strength of .pebbles in .:._______ 78-79 Rockdale County ----------------- 326 RRoocckkyy CCotmeefkort__C__r_e_e_k__-_-_-_-_-..-_-_-_-1-7-5-, 328367 Rocky Face _______ _.:____________364-365
Rogers property ------------------ 207 Rome ------------------------353, 358 Rome Sand &Gravel Company_351-352 Roofing gravel -------------------92-93 Rosa, E. P.; quoted ----------..---- 7 Rosen, J'. A., and Ries, Henrich,
cited ------------------------24, 68 Rossville -----~----------------362, 363 Rowland, J'. H., property -------- 209 Royalties on sand and gravel ----- 142 RRuutmledCgreee_k__-__-_-:-..._-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-..-_-_-_-_-_-_-__-_- 3312,08
Rutledge and Chestnut pit -------- 222 RylandeT, Walter, pit ----------- 241

s

St. George _________________:.___374, 378

St. Ma;rys ---'----------------------- 170 SStt.. SMimaroynss RIisvlaenr d--_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-2-0-1-, 137772

Salt Creek ----------"-----------173-174

Sand

.

abrasive uses of --'---~--------93-94

chemical analyses of ___154,a163, 169

170, 173, 174, 180, 185, !95, 196,

205, 206, 218, 223, 227, 229, 235,

236, 262, 266.

.

chemical compos-ition of _____17-18

classification of ---------------- 4-7 cleanness, determination of ____ 8-9

coastal Plain ----------------146-281

color of ----------------------- 8

definition hydraulic

of -----stripping

--of

-

---~---------1-1-8--1191

mechanical analyses of ____191, 221

methods of- proauction of ___100-119

methods of transportation_____ 96-100

m ionf e r_a_l___a_n__d__ :r._ _o_c_k____c_o_m__p_o_s_i_t i_o_n1 3 - 1 7

moinfer_a_lo_-_g_ic_a_l__e_x_a_m..i:n_a..t:io~-n---------16-17 minor uses of _________-_________ 94-95 moTtar.tes.ts of _________:__________ 43
organic matter in --'------------10-13 preparation for market ------119-128 producers,, list .of --'------'--'------- 143 spec'ific g.:ra:vlity of -------- _____39-41 suited for brick mortar -------- 59 uses of ----------------~.:_______45-95 Sabnadnkanddepgorasvitesl of ____________130-135 bibHog,raphy of ______________368-371 conditions affecting 'development
of deposits ----------------136-138 industry ---------------------139-143 markets for -------------------- 143 methods of drying '----------126-127
methods of sizing -----------120-124 methods of washing _:_______120-124
nature, clas'sification and prop-
erties of ---------------------1-45
origin of ------------------------ 2-4 prices of ~--------------------141-142
royalties on -----=-------------- 142
storage of -------------------127-128

INDEX

391

Page

stream deposits of ----------128-130

vveight of ----------------------41-43

S~d-cement Sand-clay ro

ad-s-------------------------

----------8-1- -

8944

Sand grains

durability of -------------------32-33

physical character of ----------18-33

ss ihzaep eo fo f___- _- _- _-_-_-_-_-_-_- .-:. -_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_- 1- 8-23:5l

Sand-hill deposits _____________ 130-132

Sand hill, mechanical analysis oL 263 Sand Hill Station _____________ 226-227

Samnda-nluimfaectubrreicko.f --_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_--_-_-_7_374--7766

sand requirrements -------------73-74 Sand-oil roads -------------------- 87 Sand producing minerals ________13"15 Sand produc>ing rocks ----------15-16 Sandstone
chemical analyses of _______360, 365 definition of -------------------- 15 SSaanpdbyroCvvreneokre--_-_-_-_-_--_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_2_83673. -337206

chem'ical analysis of ----------- 375 mining of ----------------------- 376 occurrence of ------------------ 374 origin of ---------------------375-376 uses of ------------------------- 376 Sapelo Island --------------------- 378

Sastislelar R--i-v-e-r--_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-2-6--6-26597

Saunders p.r9pertY,t ---------------- 164 Sava__n_n_a_h___R_1_v_e1,6r4,--1-7-2---1-7-3-,--1-9-6---1-9-7-, 308

Schley >County -------------------- 237 Screening Of glass sand ---------- ti7 Screven County ------------------ 237 Sedimentary rocks, definition oL-- 15 Seventeenmile Creek __________178-179

1Shale, definition of --------------- 15 Shape of grain in .glass sand _____ 65 Shearer, H. K., and Cooke, C. W.,
cited -------------------------- 146 Sherzer, W. H., cited ------------- 5 Shoal Creek ---------------------- 311 Singevvald, J. T., cited ----------- 6 Singing sand ------------------379-381
chemical analysis o.f ------------ 380 mechanical analysis of --------- 380 S'itting Dovvn Creek -----~-------- 298 Size of sand grain, discussed ____18-25 screen tests to determine _____19-23 Sizing sand and gravel, methods
of ------------~------------120-124 Smiley Sand Company_186, 300, 317-318
Smith, J. E., cited ---------------- 83 Smith, J. W., property------------ 210 Smith, M:Ts. J. H., property ______ 364

Snake Creek ---------------------- 288 Soperton -------------------------- 264 Soque River ---------------------- 303 South Chicamauga Creek ------- 347 South River ---------------------- 309 Spalding County ---------------326-327 Specifications for filter sand and Specgirfaicveglrav--i-ty---o-f--s-a-n--d--_-_--_-_-_-_-_-_9_039--9421
determination of --------------40-41 Speer, W. T., property ----------- 301 Spence property ------------------ 336 Spoon, \V. L., quoted ------------ 83 Stapleton property --------------- 207 Statenville ---------------------195-196
SStteaptehsebnosroCo-u-n--ty--_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_--3-27- -312688

Stephens Creek ------------------- 298

Page
Stephenson, L. W., and Veatch, Otto, cited ------------------- 146
Stegvravvaertl C-o-.-u-n-t-y--_-_-_-_-_-_--_-_-.:.-_-_-_-_-_-_1_22838-1-23401
Stone masonry mortar, sand suited
Storfaogre -o-f--s-a-n-d---a-n-d--g-r-a-v--e-l-_-_-_-_-1-2-7--12589 Stream deposits of sand and
gravel ---------------------128-130 testing of --------------------- 129 Strength of pebbles in road Sum1g:rearveClou-n-t-y---_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_--_-_-_-27481--27492 Sutton, J. C., property _________175-176
' Suvvarmee ----------------------- 303 Svvainsboro --------'------------197-199 Svveetvvater Creek --------'-------- 295

T

Tall::!ot County -------r--------242 -250 Talllaferro County ---------------- 328 TTaaltltunlaalhl CRoivuenrty-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-2-5-0--235215
Taylor County ---~-------------251-257 Taylor, F. W., and Thompson, iS. TelfEa.i,r Ccioteudnty---_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-2__9_,_25587, -25680 Terrell County ________________ 258-259
Testing fall-line gravel deposits -------------------------133-135
Testing stream sands and

TTheoxmgturaraesveColsfoufno--tuy-n-d-_r-_y-_-_-_s-_a-_n-_d_-_-_--_--_--_--_--_--2--5--9---21627290 Thomasville ____________: _______259-260

Thompson, S. E., cited ------------ 11 Thompson, S. E., and Taylor,
F. W., cited .-----------------58-60 TThifotmCsoonunt-y---_-_-_-_-_-_-_-__-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_--2-6-2-236133

TTiiffttonSili-c-a--B--r-i-c-k--C--o-m--p-a-n-y---__-_-_-1-9--2-129623
Tillsen, G. -w. , cited -------------- 88
Tittle property -------------------- 161 Tobannee Creek ----------------- 231 Toccoa River --------------------- 297 Tomlinson, C. W . , cited ----------- 17 Toombs County ------~------------ 264 TToovvvvnaliCgareRekiv_e_r__-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-2-0-3-,--2-8-9-. 331282 TT-roaviv1nsRiCdoguent:._y__-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_--_-_-_-_-_-_3_2_8__-332796

TTrraapps,dikloeasd-in--g--.-s-a-n-d---b-y---_-_-__-_-_-1-0--1-120835

Trenton -------------------------- 351 Treutlen County ----------------- 264 TT.rroi aul p CCr eoeukn t y- - -_-_-_-_-_-__- _- _- _-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_- 3- -2-9-323901

Tuckerr, Henry, property --------- 336

Tucker, Lynn, property ----------- 336

Tucker, Wilbur, property --------- 221

Tugaloo River -------------------- 327

TTTuuursrknseaeYhr aCcCoreureenektky--_-_--:--...-_--_--_-~_--_--_--_--_--_--_--_--_--_--_--_--_--_-

288 228675

Tvviggs County ------------------- 265

u
Undervvood, John, property ______ 194 Uniformity coefficient, discussion
o.f ---------------------------28-29 Union County -------------------- 331 Upatoi Creek ------------------174. 226

392

INDEX

Page Upson County _________________331-333 Uses of sand arid gravel _________45-95 Uses of sap brown ore ---------- 376
v
Veatch, Otto, cited -----~-146, 147, 360 Veatch, Otto, and Stephenson, L. W.~ cited ----------------- 146
quoted ~------------159, 171, 172, 247 Vidalia --------------------------- 264 Vodiedtsermination of ___.:. __________ 35-39
discussion of -------------------34-35
w
Walker County --~-------------361-363 Wall, H. S., property ------------ 252 W Waallkneurt, HC.reGe.k pr_o_p_e__r_ty___-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-1-6--0-125681 Walton County _______________..:333-334 Ware County __________________265-266 Warren County ----------------334-337 Washing glass sands ------------66-67 Washing sand arid gravel, meth-
ods, of ----------------------120-124 Washington County -------------- 267 Water'
chemical action of ------------- 3 mechanical action of ------------ 2-3 Watson, N. G., Sand Corn- .
pany --------------------~--352-353 Watson; T.-L., cited __..:~---------- 282 \i'iTayne County ________________267-268 Waynesboro ________________:______ 169 Webb Creek ___________________285-356

Page W Weebbbs,teDr . CCo.,unctiYted_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-.-.: 265l8l Weight of sand and gravel _____41-43 West Armuchee 'Creek ----------- 362 Wb,eeler County --------------268-273 \i'iTheless Stllition ---------------- 236 White County -------------------- 337 White, E'dward, p.ro,perty -------- 363 Whitewater Creek ---------------- 297 Whitfield County -------~-.1------- 363 Whitmo.re's Island ----------'----- 357 Wiggins, G. W., property -------- 198 Wilcox County -------------------- 273 Wilkes County ------------------ 337 Wilklirtson County ---------------- 274 W Wiilllliiaammss,, CH. oLm.,erp, roppiter_ty___-_-_-_-_-_-2--6-1-226102 Williams, John, property: --------- 356 Williams, property --------------- 235 Willis, \liT. N., cited -------~------- 57 Wilms, W. H., cited ---------119, 120 Winder_ --------------------------- 286 Wise Creek ---------------------- 311 Withlacoochee River ----------116, 216 Wood~ard Creek ----------,.------- 357 Worth County ---'----------------- 275 W Wryingnh,tsTvi.llJe., -p-r-o-p-e-.-r-ty---_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_--2-2-5-222096
y
Yahoola Creek -------------------- 312 Yellow River Molding Sand Com-
pany ----------------------320-321 YeHowwat61I' Creek --------------- 287 Young Cane Creek --------------- 331

. c.