GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA S. W. McCALLIE. State Geologist / BULLETIN No. 37 PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS OF GEORGIA BY L. P. TEAS Assistant State Geologist 1921 BYRD PRINTING COMPANY, ATLANTA, GA. . SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSI1'S OF GEORGIA FRO.NTISPIECE PLATE I PLANT AND PIT OF THE GEORGIA SAND & GRAVEL COMPANY, AUGUSTA, RICHMOND COUNTY -- THE ADVISORY BOARD OF THE _Geological Survey of Georgia IN THE YEAR 1921 (Ex-Officio) His Excellency, HUGH M. DORSEY__________ Governor of Georgia -President ofthe Board- ____ _ HON. S. G. McLENDON_____ ~---------------- ..Secretary of State HON. W. J. SPEER______________________________ State Treasurer HON. W. A. WRIGHT ____________ -; __________Comptroller-General HON. R. A. DENNY __.__________________________Attorney-General HON. J. J. BROWN __________________ Commissioner of Agriculture HON. M. L. BRITTAIN____________Commissioner of Public Schools LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL Geological Survey of Georgia, Atlanta, Jan. 15, 1921. To His Excellency, HUGH M. DORSEY, Governor, and President of the .lldvisory Board of the Geolo~ical Survey of Georgia. SIR: I ave the honor to transmit herewith the report of Mr. L.~ P,. Teas, Assistant State Geologist, on t].:le Sand and Gravel Deposits of Georgia to be published as Bulletin ~o. 37 of.this Survey~ Very respectfully, S. W. McCALLIE, S.tate Geologist. TABLE OF CONTENTS PA.GE .ADVISORY Bo.A.BD ---------------------------------------------------- iii LETTER OF T~SMITTA.L -------------------------------------------- iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ------------------------------------------------ v-ix ILLUSTRATIONS ----------------------------------------------~------ xi-xiii NATURE, CL.AJSSIFICATION, AND PROPERTIES OF SAND AND GRAVEL Definitions - _-- ----------------------------------..,----------------Origin ---------------------------------------------------------- ~echanical action---------------------------------------------Chemical action ----- -----~--------- ---------------------------Classification of sand ----------------------------- _____________:_- Olassification by origin ---------------------------------------Classification by chemical cont_ent -----------------------------Classification by mineral content ------------------------.,.-----Classification by grain size -----------------------------------Classification by uses -- _-------------------------------------- _ Color-------------------------------------------------~--------- Cleanness ------------------------------------------------------Clay ---------------------------------1 ---.--------------------Organic matter ------------------------------------------------ Mineral and rock composition -------------'-------------,---------Sand-producing minerals ---"------------ __ ------------------ __ _ Sand-producing rocks ------------- ___________ --------- __ ,_ _____ _ Sedilnentary rocks ------------------------------------------Crystalline rocks --------- __ --------------------------------~ineralogical examination of sand _________________________ ..: ___ _ Chemical composition ----------- ____ -------------- _______________ Physical character of sand grains -------------------------------- Size of grain -----------------------------------------------Grain size by screening -------------------------------------Grain size by other methods ---------------------------------Graphic representation of granulometric composition- ____:., ____ _ Numerical representation of gr~nulometric composition_________ _ Effective size _____ -------- __ -------------- __________ ------ _ Uniformity coefficient _______ --------------------------- __ _ Average finene,ss ------------------------------------------ Fineness modulus -----------------------------------------Shape of grain and pebble -------------------------------------Durability of grain and pebble ---------------------------------- 1 2-4 2-3 g 4-8 4 5 5 6-7 7-8 8 8-9 - ---------9-10 10-13 13-17 13-14 15-16 15 15-16 16-17 17-18 18-33 18-32 19-23 23-25 25-27 27 27-28. 28-'9 29-31 31-32 32 32-33 v TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Cementing value ----------------------------------------- __ ----- \Toids ---------------------------------------------------------Methods of determination -------------------------------------- Specific graviliy __ ::___ .:.__--~-..:__________ -------------------- _______ 33-34 34-39 35-39 39-41 Methods of determination ------------------------------------- 40-41 VVeight of sand and gravel -------------------------------------- 41-43 Methods of determination ___ -------------------------- -'--- __ _ 42-43 Mortar tests of sand ----------- _______ - ____ ------------ ___ ------ 43 THE USES OF S.AND .AND GR.A\TEL ------------------------------ 45-95 Building sand and gravel ---------------------------------------- 45 Concrete aggregate --------- ____ ---------------- ______________ _ 45-59. Sand ------------------------------------------------------Gravel. ------------ _---- _----------- -----~------------------Size of grain --------------------------------------~--------\Toids -----------------------------~-----: __________________ _ Impurities ___ ----------- _- _----.,..---.-------------------------Clay --~~-------------------------------------------------Organic matter --------------------- --------~-.,..-----~- ____ _ Mineral and .chemical impurities _____ -------------------- __ _ Brick mortar -------------- _-- __ --------------- _~ ______ ---- __ _ Stone masonry mortiu -----------------------------------------Plaster ---~--------------------------------------: ____________ _ Glass sand - ..,=,....--------- ----------------------------------- --'----- Ohemical composition ----------- ___...;L ------ ~---;-- ____________ _ 46-47 47 47-52 53 54-59 54-56 56-57 57-59 59 59 59-60 60-68 61-63 Silica ----"'...:_____ ---------------- -- ----,---------------------- 61 Iron ___ ------------ __.___ .!. __ - -------------------------------- 61-62 Alum.ina _____ ------ __ ------------.-------------- ____________ _ 62 Magnes~a ---------------------------------------~----------- 63 Mineral composition ------------------------------------------- 63-64 Mechanical co'inposition ------------------------- -----~-------- 64-65 ~ Shape of grain ------------------------------------------------ 65 Method:s of improvement -------------------------------- ____ --- 66-68 VVashing ---------------------------------------------------- 66-67 Magnetic treatment ------------------- _- ----~- ----:----------- 67 Screening --------------------------------------------------- 67-68 Preparation gJ glass sand -------------------------------------- 68 Fotrndry sana-------------------------------------------------- 68-72.' Permeability --- --~- ___ _.:__________ ------------------------ ----- 69-70 '11exture ------- -~ ------------ --~----- ------.,---- __ -----.---- ____ _ 70 Cohesiveness -- _______.:__ -- ------------------------------------- 70-71 Durability ----------------- ____ ------------------------ ______ _ 71 F'usibility ------- __ -------------- ______ ----------- ________ ----.- 71-72 Core sands --------------------------------------~--------------- 72-73 .Sand-lime brick _______ ------ ____________________ ---,..---------- __ _ 73-76 '''Methods of manufacture ---------------------------------------- 74-76 Boad gr~vcl ----------------------------------------------------- 76-81 vi TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE The binder ---------------------------------------------------Strength of the pebbles ---------------------------------------- Grading of the pebbles ---------------------------------------Sand-clay roads _--------------- ___ _: ________ --~ ____ -------- ______ _ 76-78 78-79 79-81 81-84 The sand and the clay _:_ __________ -------------- ____ ------------- 8.S'-84 Mechanical 'analysis ___ -------------- _________ ---------------- Asphalt pavements ---------------------------------------------Sand-oil roads ____ - ---------------------------------------------Paving sand ___ -- ---------------------------- ------------------- Pavement foundations ___ ------------------ __ ------ ____________ _ 84 84-8-6 87 87-88 87 Cus-hion sand -------------------------------- ------------------- _ 87-88 Filler sand ___ -- -------- ---------------- ------'--- ------ ----~- _- _ 88 Railroad ballast ______ -------' -- ________________________________ _ 88-90 Filter sand and gravel ------------------------------------------ Engine and trolley sand ------------------------------------------ Roofing gravel _------------------ __: __--:_ ------------------------- _ Abrasive uses ----------------------------------------~---------- Sand-blast ----- ____ -------- ______ ------ ____ ------------ ______ _ 90-92 92 92-93 93-94 93 Stone sawyers' sand-------------------------------------------- 93-94 Grinding and polishing _________________________________ __: _____ _ 94 Sand-cement -- ___ - ------ __ _:_ ______ - -------- __________ --------- ____ _ 94 Fire sand -------------------------------------------------------- 94 Minor uses ---------- _____:,__-____ -------------------------------- _ 94-95 METHODS OF TRANSPORTATION,_ J?RODUCT:i:ON, AND PREPARATION --------------- ---~ ----------------- -~ -- __ __: 95,128- Transportation _----:--------------- _______________ ------------------ 96-100 MV 0oatgoor n st r u-c-k- - ~------------_-:-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-__- _- _- _- _- _- _- _- _-_-_-_-_-_- -_ 96 96-97 Ra-ilroad ------------------------------------------------------ _ 97 Boat --------------------------------------------------------- 97-98 Mechanical conveyors _- --------------------------------------- 98-99 Belt conveyors -------------~-------------------------------- 98-99 _Elevators --------------------------------------------------- 99 Production methods ---------------------------------------------- 10-0 Ra~d labor _____ ---- ____ -------- -------------~ --------------- -.10'0-101 Trap loading ------------------------------------------------ _101-103 Car loaders _______________ _:_ __ ~-------~-------------------------103-104 Power shovels -------- _--------------- _- -------------------- ___104-106 Keystone excavatoJ;s ------------------- _- -------------- _____106-107 Power scrapers _------------------------------------,------- ___107-109 Albrecht excavators ----------------------------------------- 107 Drag-line cableways .------------------------------------------107-109 errick scrapers ----------------------------------------------109-110 Power-operated grab-buckets -----------------------------------110-112 Locomotive cranes ------------------------------------------ llO Travelling towers ------------------------------------------- 111 vii TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Stiff-leg derricks ----------------------- _---------- ____ ______ _ 111 Cableway dredges ------- __ -----'- __ -------- __________________111-112 Floating dredges -------------------- ______________ ------ ____ 112 Buckets ----------- __ ------------ __ ------ ______ ____ __ _____ 112 Centrifugal pumps ----------------------- ____ --~--- ------ ____ .112-117 Centrifugal dredges -------------------------------------- 117 L!'tdder dredges _------------------------ ______________________ .117-113 Hydraulieking - __ ---------------- ____ ------- ___ ----------- _______118-119 Preparation of sand for the market ------------------~--~--------119-128 Washing and sizing ------------------------------------------120-124 Screens _-----------------------------------------------------122-123 Separators -------------------------------------------------- 123 Screw washers ------------------- -----------:!"-- -----~-------123-124 Scrubbers ------------------------- __ ------------ ____ ------ _ 124 Crushing meth~ds ------------------------------~---------------124-126 Crushers ---------------------------------------------------- 125 Chaser mills - -----;;-- ---------------------------- __ ------ ___ 1J::'5-126 Dryers -------------------------------------------------------~126-127 Storage --- ~--------------------- _____ ..:~- ------------------- ---127-12'8 PROSPECTING F9'R SAND AND GRAVEL ----------------------128-139 Stream. deposits --------------------- ~--- ----------------------.128-130 Character of deposits ------------..------------------------------ 128 Testing --- -~-- --------- _-------------- ____ ------- ____ ____ _____ 129 Bank deposits --------- -"----- -- -'-"'-------------.: ------------ ------.130-135 Sand-hill deposits ------- ---- _____ :___ ----:--- -~------- -----------130-132 Fluvial sand hill:s --- ------~--- ---------- ---------- ---- ____:_130-132 Fall line sand hills ----------------------------------------'-- 132 Fall line gravel deposits ----------~---------~-----------------132-135 Testing -------------------------------------------------------133-134 SampHng ----- ____ _,_ __ ------------------------------------ _.134-135 Co~ditions affecting development ---------------------------------136-138 Workable thickness and extent -------------------------------- 136 1Cover _---------- _____.:.___: ___ -- ------------------------------ -136.137 Rejected material --------------------------------------------- 137 Variations ---------------------------------------------------- 137 Water -------------------------------------------------------- 138 Accessibility -------------------------------------------------- 138 Sandstone deposits - _______________ ::,____ ------------------------.138-139 Sampling ..,------------------------------------------- -------- 139 THE SAND AND GRAVEL INDUSTRY ----------------------------139-143 Price ------------------------------------------------------------141-142 Royalties -------------------------------------:-------------'----- 142 Labor costs ----------------------------------------------------- 142 Markets ----------------------.---------------------------------- 143 SAND AND GRAVEL PRODUCERS IN GEORGIA IN 1920---------- 143 viii TABLE OF CONTENTS P.A.GE DISTRIBUTION OF SAND AND GRAVEL IN GEORGIA BY GEO- LOGIC PROVINCES ------------------------------ _-------146-367 The Coastal Plain -----------------------------------------------146-281 Extent and size ----------------------------------------------- 146 Physiography _------ ___ _: ----------------------------------- ___146-148 Geology ------------------------------------------------------148-152 Detailed description of individual counties -----------------~----152-281 The Crystalline Area ---------------------------------- _________ -282-341 Extent and size ----------------------------------------------- 282 Physiography ______ - ----,------------------------------------ ___ 282'-283 Geology -------------------------------------------------------283-285 Detailed description of individual counties ----------------------285-341 'I'he Paleozoic Area --------------------------------- _____________ 342-367 Extent and size ---------------------------------------------- 342 Physiography ----------- ____ ----------------------------------- 342 Geo1ogy _____ - _----------- _-- _- --------------------------------342-344 Detailed description of individual counties _--- _____ ---- ____ ---344-367 Bibliography ------------------------------------------------------368-371 Appendix A, Sap Brown ------------------------------------------373-375 Appendix B, Black sand -----------------------------------------,_376-377 Appendix C, Singing sand __________ : _______________________________ 378-380 Appendix D, Molding sand ----------------------------------------380-383 Index --------------~---------------------------------------------384-391 - - -- - -~ - - - - - - ------ ---- ---------- - .. ILLUSTRATIONS PLATE FACING PAGE I. Plant and pit of the Georgia Sand & Gravel Company, Augusta., Richmond County ________ -------------------------Frontispiece II. A. Haist car-loader, J. R. Hime Sand Company, Junction City, Geo.rgia ------ _---------------------------- ________ ____ _ 32 B. Mining gravel by gasolene shovel, Muscogee County pit, 3lh miles east of Columbus ---------------------------------- 32 III. ~- Keystone excavator used in loading trucks, Richmond County gravel pit, August-a -------------------------------------- 48 B. Mining sand by drag-line scraper, J R. Rime Sand Com- pany, Junction City, Talbot County --~------------------- 48 IV. A. Mining gravel by crane drag-line system, Richmond County gravel pit, Augusta-------------------------------------- 64 B. Mining sand by travelling derrick and clam-shell bucket, Smiley Sand Company, near Gaillard, Crawford County____ 64 V. A. Intake and_ pipe-line, Georgia Sand & Gravel Company, Au- gusta, Richmond County -----------~-------------------- 80 -B. Mining sand hydraulicly, Atlanta Sand &-Supply- Company,------------------ - 1 mile south of Gaillard, Cra.wford County________________ 80 VI. A. Washing and screening plant, Georgia Sand & Gravel Com- pany, Augusta, Richmond County ---------------:---------- 96 B. Washing and screening plant, Acme' Sand & Supply Company, Peachtree Creek, near Peachtree Road, Atlanta, Fulton County __ - -------------- ----------- --------------------- 96 VII. A. Sand-washing plant, Kirkpatrick Sand & Cement Company, 2 miles west of Howard, Taylor County--------:------------ 112 B. Screw washers, Kirkpatrick Sand & Cement Company, 2 miles west of Howard, Taylor County -------------------------- 112' VIII. A. Bins . and delivery trucks, Acme Sand & Supply . Company, Pe13,chtree Road at Peachtree Creek, Atlant~, Fulton !County ------------------------------------------------- 128 B. Looking up Magruder Creek from bridge on Fort Gaines- . Georgetown road, 12 miles north of Fort Gaines, Clay County _______:_ ___ ---- __ -------------------------------- 128 IX. A. General view, C. C. McCarty sand pit, 2% miles south of Gail- lard, Crawford County ---------------------------------- 144 B. Mining sa.nd by locomotive crane and clam-shell bucket, Allou Sand Company, 2 miles south of Ga:lllard ------------------ 144 xi PLATE X. XL F.A.CING P.A.GE A. Water pipe and sand sluice used in hydraulicing system, At- lanta Sand & Supply Company, 1 mile south of Gaillard, Crawford County ------------------~------------------~-- 160 B. General view, Alt;;tmaha Supply Company, 32 miles east of Everet;t QH;r, ~cip.to.;s~ Opu~ty .---,---;---r+-------------- 160 A. Sand stream, 1 ' mile nor.th of Tazewell, , M a rr i ~ o n C o u n t y ______ 176 B. Drag-line incline and screening plant, Rutledge & Chestnut, Bull C:reell;, 3 miles southeast of Columbus, Muscogee County 176 XII. A. Exc-avation by drag-line on Bull Greek sand and gravel bar, Ru-tledge & Chestnut plant, 3 miles southeast 'of Columbus, Muscogee 'County -----~----------~.:.___:_:. __ _: ___ :.. __________ 192 B.Face .of Muscogee G'ounty :road. gravel pit; 32 miles east of Columbus _---------------------- __ ------""--'"----------- __ 192 XIII. A. Gravel pit; W. A. Fitzgerald's property, l:Jh miles. south of Omaha, Omaha-Florence road; Sti:rwart' County -------,----- 208 B'. P:lt of Kirkpahick Sand & Cement- Company, 2- miles 1west. of Howard, 'Thtylor~ County ___ _: _____.:_:_ ___________________ 208 Xtv. A.' Working face showing w~~y str:ata, J'. W. _Dillo_n pit, Wil- liams Station, 'Thomas County ___ -'~_-_____-_ ___ ------ _______ 224 . ' I '. I. . . . B. White sand bar on Ocklocknee River just 11bove the Thomas- ville-Albany road,_ TP,omas Oou~ty _.:__ ~;-----------;-.- _-~ ---- _ 224 ,_l. XV.. Gene;al vie; of sa:n,d_ and .gravel pit, Lumber.. Gity Sand & .Gra'!el Qol)lpany, ~ miles north, :of, Lum-ber City, Telfair County ------------------.----.-..,---- -.-.---;------ _-- --------- 240 B. GJ.as~ s.and pit, ~insoJ!. Band ,Mines, J mij~_.nor;theast of Lum- ber City, Telfair...County --.- ~-~-----,--.,..--,--------:------ -- _---- 240 XVI~ A. SmalL-sand and gra.vel deposit,.,Mounta;in Qreek, .neal' Alto, Banks County --..:--~----'----'=---- ..;_:_~--'"':.-"---'~'-:, __ .._~:.---------- 256 _B. Sana, an-d gra;vel deposit,. -Procter -C'reek, 3 miles south ~of Ac- worth on Ma-rietta- -road, Cobb County --~'----'----.: _________ 256 XVII. A. Sand bars in Broad River above steel bridge' on ElbertonBerkley road; 10 miles' southwest of Elbertbn; Elbert Bounty 272 B. Molding sand pit, Yellow River Mo1ding Sand Oompany, 1 mile east;,of Almon on the -co-vington road, Newton County 272 XVIII. A: Concrete sand deposit on bank of Yel1ow River, 1 mile east of Almon on :covington road; Newton CbuntY--------------288 B. Saiid bar in Appalachee River above steel b~idge, Athens- . Madison road, Oconee and Morgan count~es :.. _____________ 288 mile XIX. A.\ CJ:hert pit, H. K. vilie, Chattooga ,Bittings Colinty -p-r-o-p-e-_-rt-y-1~-1---- south o:l; -~-- -~--~~-- Summer-------- 320 B. G:r:avel ;pit, H. A,. Dean ;pJ;operty, Blac~ Bluff -road, l mile southwe~t of Rome, ':Floyd Co'ul{ty .---_:-_:._~------~---------- 320 PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND GEOLOGIC FEATURES OF GE0RGIA----144-145 .~!~;~~~r~~~~-============-~=,~=~ =~:= =-~~='=:~=~ ~===~= ~===:=== ~~==~== =144.-i!~ xii PLATE XX. F.A.CINGP..A.GE A. Gravel deposit near Rome-Livingston road, 7 miles west of Rome, Floyd County ------------------------------------- 352: B. White s,andstone deposit, Rockwood formation, Rocky Face, Whitfield County ----------- __ ------------ ______ --------- 352 FIGURE:S 1. Curve of uniformly graded concrete sand -------------------------- 26 2 & 3. Diagrams showing methods of graphically illustrating the mechan- ical analysis of a sand ------------------------------------------ 27 4. Relation between :fineness modulus of aggregate and strength of concrete ------------~-------------------------~----------------- 51 5. Relation between fineness modulus Of aggregate and strength of con- crete using different mixes -------------------------------------- 52 6. Six-inch centrifugal sand pump. (Morris Machine Company) ------ 113 7. Portable centrifugal sand pump. (Erie Pump & Engine Works) ---- 115 8. General arrangement of washing and screening plant using Gilbert screens. (Stephens-Adamson Company) -------------------------- 121 9. Generalized section of Fall Line and :fluvial sand-hill deposits -------- 131 10. Method of placing test pits on an acre of ground by quadrilateral system --------------------------------------------------------- 134 11. Method of placing test pits on an area of slightly more than an acre by staggered system -------------------------------------------- 134 12. Sand pits along Southern Railway betw.een Gaillard and Zenith ---- 182 13. Sand pits along Central of Georgia and Atlanta, Birmingham & At- lantic railways near Junction City, H_~>yard, a_~d_J:{orwich in -~aylor and Talbot counties --------------------------------------------- 244 M.A.PS I. Map of Georgia, showing sand and gravel deposits ------------------ 152 xiii . SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS OF GEORGIA NATURE, CLASSIFICATION AND PR-OPERTIES OF SAND AND GRAVEL SAND Sand consists of fine particles of crushed or worn rock. The term sand refers particularly to the condition and size of the grains making up the material rather than to their chemical or mineralogical composition. Thus we may have silica sand, calcite sand, or black sand, provided the size of the grains falls within certain arbitrary - -- limits. We may define sand as an incoherent material made up of rn grains ranging from 16 o of an inch to t inch in size. Unconsolidated material, whose grains lie between Th- and of an inch, is known as silt; and if the grains fall below -d-0 of an inch we have clay or mud. GRAVEL When the grains of any natural, unconsolidated substance be- come larger thao i inch in diameter, the term gravel is applied to them. Like sand, gravel may be made up of pebbles of quartz, chert, limonite and many other substances. As a rule gravels consist of harder rock types such as quartz, flint, granite, etc., since they better resist constant attrition. The pebbles are usually characteristically rounded, or at least sub-angular, from the rolling and tumbling they have been subjected to. Usually, considerable sand and clay are included with the pebbles so that the material may be known as a sand ~ravel or a clay ~ravel. When the pebbles attain 4 or 5 inches in diameter the term cobble is applied to them. Boulder ~ravel refers to material consisting of boulders ranging from 10 inches to 4 feet or more in diameter. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA ORIGIN The grains and pebbles of which sand and gravel are composed have beE:!n derived from the mechanical disintegration and chemical deco:rpposition of rocks. Later concentration of the particles by water or wind produces t4e deposits as we know them today. The .weathering processes which are constantly at work upon the_ rocks are of t:wo types, mechanicd.l and chemical. .Meahaniaal aatlon.-Water that has been introduced into rocks through pores or joints, _upon freezing exerts an expansive fJrce of 150 pounds to the square inch. Such pressure breaks off large Iriaf?ses ~ of rock which in time are broken up into smaller pieces and finally crumble into sand. In arid regions, wide daily extremes of temperature set up strains in minerals having unequal rates of expansion, causing- both the minerals themselves and the rocks which they form to disintegrate ioto sd.nd. Even in ordioary climates the unequal expansion of rock miberais is an important factor in sand production, though not so striking as .in desert regions. Pebbles and rock fragments, carried by -streams whose velocities in :flood periods are often capable of moving boulders exceeding a foot in diameter, exert a constant abrasive acti~n on the stream bed- and upon each other' producing_much sand as they roll down-stream. _The gouging action of rock fragments held by glacial ice as it passes over the surface is one of the most e:ff~ctive means of rock disintegration in high latitudes and in lofty mountain areas. The extensive gravel and sand deposits of our northern states are largely of glacial origin. -The materials were first produced by the grinding action of the ice and later heaped into deposits as it advanced, or concentrated by water flowing from the ice as it melted. The expansion of tree. roots and the action of burrowing animals also aids in breaking up. the rock into fragments. In all rock disintegration_ the softer and less resistant rocks or minerals composing the rocks, such as calcite, hornblende, and similar minerals, are more rapidly broken up and ground into silt or clay. The harder min{;lrals such as qvartz and feldspar, break up much more slowly, although the removal. of the softer minerals loosens up the harder ones and permits rain and small streams to carry them down the slope into larger streams where the finer particles are quickly swept -away, thus concentrating the sand jnto banks and bars. SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 3 One, therefore, may rightly expect to form some opmwn of the character of parent rocks from the sand that has been produced from them. Granite will form a sand composed of quartz, feldspar, mica, and hornblende. As the sand is carried further from the parent rock, the mica and hornblende and finally the feldspar will be broken up into clay, so that the resulting material will be largely composed of quartz. Sand containing large amounts of the feldspars, such as that making up much of the Altamaha formation in South Georgia, was probably rapidly transported by large, swift streams over .comparatively short distances, else the feldspars would have not occured in it. Sandstone and arkose upon disintegrating will leave quartzose and- feldspathic sand. Limestone and marble may rarely produce a calcareous sand, but their decay is more usually effected by solution without the production of sand. Shales and slates will, of course break up into silt and clay from which they were formed .. Chemical action.-Decomposition proceeds usually through the solvent action of dilute reagents carried in surface and underground waters, or in atmospheric moisture. Rain, in passing through the atmosphere, acquires sufficient amounts of carbonic acid to render it capable of dissolving practically every type of rock in minute quantities. Organic acids, sulphuric acid, and .other solvents produced in water as it passes over vegetation and certain more easily soluble minerals, have a strong solvent effect on the rocks, especially if the .water can deeply penetrate them through faces or joints. In this manner, decomposition of the softer and less resistant minerals in arock mass relieves the harder particles of their support, thus preparing them for-removal by water or wind action. Some rock minerals will take up water or become hydrated, so that their mass is increased, thus exerting a disintegrating force and at the same time making them more susceptible to further decomposition. Some minerals, containing iron and manganese, have a marked affinity for oxygen, so that they are readily oxidized. This weakens the rock structure, and even highly resistant fragments become loosened and the rock further disintegrates. As a sand and gravel producer the action of decomposition is indirect. It removes support frt>m the more resistant particles by dissolving or weakening the less resistant, consequently the rock tends to break up, and clay, silt, and the larger grains of sand, and even pebbles, are washed into streams. The sand and gravel, being coarser 4 GEOLOGIC'AL SURVEY OF GEORGIA are not carried away as rapidly as is ~he clay and silt, but become concentrated in the stream bed and in bars along its course. The feldspars and hornblende in a granite will be decomposed into clay and iron oxide leaving the quartz, which is only slightly affected by solvents, to accumLllate as saud. In .more basic rocks, orthose containi.1g less quartz or silica, the effect of solution is greater, and the resultant quartz,- or ultimate sand, much less. Schists, gneisses and slates, so common throughout the Piedmont area of Georgia, are decomposed much as are unaltered igneous rocks, except that the process is more rapid since the foliations permit a more thorough impregnation by the dissolving solutions. The pToportion of quartz, howe~er, in the resulting sand is usually considerably less than in sand from fresh igneous rocks. . CLASSIFICATION OF SAND Although commercial sands are frequently d~vided into bank and stream sands, a further and- more detailed classification is necessary and desirable. Sand may be classified, according to its origin, chemical and mineralogical content, grain size and use. CLASSIFICATION BY ORIGIN1 Sand prod~ced by v~rious weathering agencies and remamll,lg where it was produced is known as residual sand. Sand having an aqueous origin m?-y be found in streams, along sea or iake beaches, in lakes or at the sites of ancient lakes: Sand of glacial origin is common in _our northern states in poorly stratified, irregular deposits, but it is entirely absent, of course, in Georgia. Aeolian, or windblown sand, is common along sea coasts, where dunes as much as 100 feet in height have been piled up. These dunes may gradually advance and engulf buildings and whole villages. Volcanic sahd has been ejected from active volcanoes as lapilli or finer particles. Such sand occurs in parts of the West. Sands of organic origin and made up of oolites, rounded concretionary grains produced by microscopic algae, are found on the shores of Great Salt Lake, Utah. 2 Sand formed by concentration of solutions J on, evaporation has been called concentration sand. Examples of this tYP.e are found in the salt 3 sand. 1 Condit, D. D., Petrographic character of Ohio sands with relation to their origin: Jour. Geology, Vol. 20, pp. 152-163. 2 Rothpletz, Uebur die Bildung de~ oolithe Botanisches Centralblatt, Vol~ 51, p. 267 ,1892. Translation in American Geologist. Vol. 10, p. 279, 1892. 3 Darton, N. H., Zuni salt deposits, U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 260, p. 565 SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 5 and gypsum 1 sand deposits of New Mexico. W. H. Sherzer 2 has taken up in detail the classification of sand with respect to its ongm. CLASSIFICATION BY CHEMICAL CONTENT Chemically, sands differ widely. The most common type probably is silica sand whose purity depends on the amount of decomposition ~the minerals other than quartz have undergone. Most of the Georgia Coastal Plain sands are of this type. Generally a small quantity of iron, less than 2 per cent, will give a yellow or reddish color to a sand. Such sands are called ferruginous. Calcareous sands, or those containing SUl.ificient calcite to effervesce with acid, occur in the Bermuda Islands. and on some of lihe coral. islands off the coast of Florida. . Sands containing organic matter are common in swampy regions. In parts of southeast Georgia the organic matter is in sufficient quantities to afford a brown dye source. Such material is called sap brown ore. (See page 373.) Bituminous or asphaltic sands, 3 occur in Alberta, Canada; Kentucky, Missouri, and many other state~, and may contain suffi- cient bituminous matter to permit their use in street paving. Gold-bearing sands occur in the stream and flood plain deposits . of)he Appalachian Mountains of Georgia. CI.JASSIFICATION BY MINERAL CONTENT Although quartz, due to its durability, is the most common mineral composing sand, practically every type of mineral may be represented among the grains of a sand deposit. Sands composed entirely of calcite occur on the beaches of the Bermudas and other coral islands; and in parts of New Mexico extensive areas occur covered with white sand cor:nposed entirely of gypsum. 4 Feldspathic sands contain fragments of the feldspars and are com- 1 MacDougal, D. T., Carnegie Institution, Publication No. 90, p. 11, 1908. 2 Criteria for the recognition of the various types of sand grains: Bull. Geol. Soc. America, Vo 21, No. 4, pp. 625-662. 3 Ellis, S. E., Investigation of bituminous sands in northern Albetta: Canada Dept. of Mines, Mines Branch, Sum. Rept. for 1915, pp. 67-76, 1916. 4 Herrick H. N.; U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 223, p. 98. 6 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGI.A mon in the. sands of the Cretaceous and the so-called Altamaha formation of Georgia. Kaolinitic sands are those intermingled with blebs of fine, white kaolin, and are common in the Lower Cretaceous. .Micaceous sand contains scales of mica, either muscovite or biotite; and is common in the ~iedmont and some of the Coastal Plain streams. The mica frequently occurs in large flakes. Such sand may produce a crunching noise when rubbed or walked in and hence it hasbeen referred_ to as "whistling" or "singing" sand. 1 (See page 379.)' .Magnetite sands, suitable for iron making occur in _Quebec, 2 in New York, on the coast of Lake Champlaine, in Brazil, and in New Zealand. Glauconite 3 sands, or green sands, sometimes containing 75 per cent of glauconite, a silicate of iron and potash, are common along the. Atlantic Coast as far south as Florida. Black 4 sands may contain a vari~ty of dark-colored minerals, such as magnetite, ilmenite, zii-con, chro:rnite, monazite~ and cassit- erite, and are a source of the rarer elements such as cerium, thorium, and. zirconium. They are particularly abundant in the streams of the Pacific slope. Such sands are also found on the islands bordering the Atlantic Coast of Florida 5 and. Georgia. Chromite6 sands occur in Mazyland and are mined on a small scale for their chrome content. .Monazite sands contain thorium and cerium phosphate and result from the decomposition of monazite-bearing igneous rocks. They arj found in smaU quantities in many of the streams of the Piedmont Plateau and on the islands off the Atlantic Coast of Georgia: CLASSIFICATION BY GRAIN SIZE Just as the term sand. refers to grains havillg certain arbitrary upper and lower size limits, just so may sand itself be classified according to the size of its grain. Such a classification is especially desirable for sands. used for concrete, mortar and filter purposes. 1 King, W. J. H., Travels in the Li.byan desert: Geog. Journal, Vol. 39, pp. 133-137. 2 Mackenzie, G. C., Magnetic iron sands of Natashkwan County of Sagnenay, providence o Quebec: Canada Dept, of Mines, Mines Branch, 19.12. 3 Mansfield, G. R., General features of the New Jersey glauconite beds: Econ. Geol.,. Vol. 14 pp. 555-567, 1919. - 4 Day, David T. and Richards, R. H., Mineral Resources of the United States: pp. 175-1258, 1905. 5 Liddell, D. M., Eng. & Min. Journal, Vol. 104, p. 4, 1917. 6 Singewsld, J. T., Maryland sand chrome ore: Econ. Geol. Vol. '14, pp. 189-199, 19!9. SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 1 Condra 1 considers three sizes: Fine sand________0.5 mm. or 0.02 inch in diameter Medium sand____ 2 .0 mm. or 0.08 inch in diameter Coarse sand______5.0 mm. or 0.20 inch in diameter In this report when coarse, medium, or fine sands are mentioned, it is understood that the sizes will be those of the foregoing table. E. P. Rosa, of the U. S. Bureau of Standards, suggests 2 the following classification for building sands and gravels: Suggested classifications of building- sands Grade called Suggested limits No.1 No.2. No.3 No.6 No.8 No.lO Passing an 8- mesh sieve Passing a 4 mesh sieve t Retained on a 4-mesh sieve and passing a inch screen i inch to i inch i inch to It-inch It-inch to 3 inches According to Dake3 the following tenus-applied to gravel are widely used in Missouri: Sand__________ Through i inch Torpedo graveL Through i inch on t inch; .also called torpedo sand Roofing gravel_ Through i inch on i inch Binder gravel _ Through 1t inch on i inch Concrete gravel Through 2! inch on 1t in~h CLASSIFICATION BY USES Probably the most widely used method of sand classification is by _their uses. For building purposes we have concrete sand and gravel, brick sand, plaster sand, and paving sand. Glass sand is one of exceptional freedom from iron. Foundry sands consist of a variety of types such as molding sand, core sand, or brass sand, depending on the kind of metal to be cast and the size and quality of the casting. Other uses require the designation of filter sand, loco- 1 Condra, G. E., Sand and gravel resources and industries of Nebraska: Nebraska Geol. Survey. Vol. 3, pt. 1, p. 29, 1908. 2 Rock products and building materials: Oct. 10, 1917, p. 26. 3 Dake, C. L., The sand and gravel resources of Missouri: Missouri Bureau of Geol. and Mines Vol. XV, p. 7, 1918. 8 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA motive sand, abrasive sand, and fire sand. we also have gravels for ballast, roofint, road buildin~, and for use in tube mills. As this report is intended to emphasize the economic features of sand and gravel, the classification by uses will be followed. COLOR The color of sand serves as an index of its purity. Pure quartz sand is as white as snow, but only a few tenths of a per cent of iron oxide coating the grains will materially discolor it. Most of the Geor- gia Coastal Plain sands a,re a pale yellow, caused by an iron content of from one half to. two per cent. Many fine-grained sands of the Piedmont Plateau are speckled, due to black magnetite or ilmenite grains among the lighter quartz grains, and many are dark-colored, due to grains of schist; gneiss, and hornblende. The sands of the Upper Cretaceous occur in brightly colored beds, ranging from white to yellow, pink, red,- and even purple. The sands of the Barnwell formation of South Georgia are characteristically bright red, or red- dish-brown, as are many of those of the Lower Cretaceous along the Fall Line between ;M:acon,_ ap.d Augusta. . Sands high in organic matter, and which oc-cur in or near swampy regions. in Southeast Georgia, ar~ dark brown and even black. ' In general, a white or _light:.coloted sand is pure and composed principally of quartz, while dark gray, brown, and black ~ands are usually lower in quartz and more likely to be impure. A white or light-colored sand, however, does not mean a low clay content. More usually a darker sand c~:mtains less clay than a paler sand. In the case of many 'pure. white sands of Lower Cretaceous age associated with the kaolins near the Fall Line, a chemical analysis shows a sur- prising large iron content. This high percentage is due to ilmenite (FeTiO a) which upon close examination will be revealed in the form of tiny' black specks scattered through the pure white sand. CLEANNESS _. The elearines_s of a s~nd is measure.d by_ its impurities, What may b~ impurities fu. . sorrie sands may be necessary for the usefulness of in other :typ~s, _or irp.pur.ities .h~;~.rrole.ss in certain sands -wm entirely dis- qualify others. Iron quanti.tie::? as sinali as_ 0.'05 'per cent eliminates sand for use in high-grail~ optical glass, in fact most sands_ with SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 9 more than one per cent of iron are uri.fit for use in any kind of glass manufacture. For abrasive work, in which only the hardest sand grains are desirable, all grains softer than quartz are considered impurities. Clay or silt may be an impurity in mortar and concrete sands, but necessary in most molding sands. Impurities in molding sand consist rather of coarse particles, the most desirable feature, however, of concrete sands. CLAY Clay, by reason of its colloidal properties, will sometimes readily adhere to the quartz sand grains and materially hinder the action of the cement while the mix is hardening. Silt or clay also occurs as separate grains scattered through sand. The amount of clay consl.dered harmful to sand for concrete use depfnds sometimes on the type of concrete to be made and the personal equation involved. . Many concrete users believe that silt or clay up to 15 per cent iD lean mix- tures is beneficial rather than harmful to the resulting concrete. In rich mixtwes, however, 5 per cent is often believed to be too much. This question will be considered in detail under the uses of sand. (Pages 54-56). ... Bank sands usually contain the most silt and clay. In recovering stream sands, most of the clay and dirt is carried away by the water draining from the sand, although sometimes a persistent slimy film. sticks to the grains. Impurities in sand ca,n usually be reduced by washing, so that a sand otherwise useless may be made available for commerce. Simple tests will generally determine the cleanness of a sand. Sand that soils the hands when rubbed between them, or one that has not a marked gritty feel, is dirty. A clean sand is usually "sharp"; that is when the grains are rubbed together, and held near the ear, a crack- ling sound is emitted showing that little clay exists between the grains to deaden the sound of their impact. Another way of quickly finding whether a sand is clean is to drop a quantity of it into a bucket of clear water. If the sand is clean, the water will be clear enough withiD 2 minutes to enable one to see the sand in the bottom. For a closer determination of the clay io a sand, put a small amount in a tube or bottle with some water and shake well. After the water has cleared, the clay will form a layer at the top of the sand. The 10' GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA proportion of clay to sand can be readiiy approximated from the thickness of this layer. Dake, t i:ti determining accurately the percentage of dirt in a sand, stirred a given amount of the dried and weighed sana in a pan with water and then allowed it to settle a given length of time. The water was then poured off and clean water added, and the process repeated until the sand no -longer dirtied the water. The clean sand was then drie1 and weighed, and the percentage of "dirt" determined_ by the following -formula: W-W' w b = - - x 100, in which . D = percen!age of clirt W =weight of sample before washing W' =weight of sample after washing In this method, particles of wood and other organic matter as well as silt, clay, and iron stains are determined as dirt. The addition of a few drops of a Th normal solution of sodium hydroxide to a jar containing sand and water will cause the clay in the sand to remain in suspension after the jar is shaken, so that it can be easily decanted. In testing Georgia sands, the clay percentage was arrived at by shaking up 50 grams of the sand_ in a half-liter jar, and allowing the material to settle 15 seconds, and then decanting the water and suspended silt and clay. This was repeated until clean water was not clouded when shaken with the sand. The sand was then dried and weighed, and the clay percentage computed in accordance with the preceeding formula.. ORGANIC MATTER Organic or vegetable matter consists of pieces of coal or lignite, _ twigs, leaves, and finely divided parts of plants. It may occur as particles scattered through the sand, or as a thin, loamy film or coating on the sand grain which is frequently_ imperceptible. Organic matter, even in small amounts, is usually undesirable and even harmful in sand. used for most purposes, particularly in sand for use in con.struction work. (See page 56). In the field organic matter can be detected by taking double handsful of sand from the bank or pile and letting it run through the hands. 1 Op. cit., p. 9. SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 11 As this is done the hands should be held with the palms facing each oth,er and about an inch apart, with the thumbs up. To hasten the experiment the hands may be moved backward and forward at the same time. If a dark shining material collects between the fingers it indicates harmful organic matter 1 The mere fact that a sand is dark-colored is no gage of its organic content. The color may be due to dark mineral grains. Laboratory tests of organic matter can be made by the loss-onignition method in which the sand is first thoroughly washed. After drying and weighing the. silt and clay, which were washed out, they are ignited and weighed ag~in. The difference in weight represents not only the organic matter, but the water of crystallization and hydra.tion, and the c,atbon dioxide. In some limestone sands the loss on ingition, due to carbon dioxide, may exceed 10 per cent, although no organic matter occurs in the sand. Abrams and Harder2 have recently divised a colorimetric test for detecting organic impurities in sands which is believed to be reliable. For approximate tests, a 12-ounce graduated prescription bottle is filled to the 472-ounce mark with sand. To this is added a 3 per cent solution of sodium hydroxide until the volume of the sand and solution, after shaking, amounts to 7 ounces. This is then shaken . thoroughly and allowed to stand' over night. If the liquid in the bottle, after settling, is colorless, or has a sFght yellow color, the sand issatisfactory as far as organic impurities are concerned. If, however, a dark-colored solution is obtained, ranging from dark red to black, the sand should be rejected or used only after mortar-strength tests have been made. A chart 3 , showing in colored plates 5 different intensities of the reaction in this test, has been prepared and may be obtained at the Atlanta office of the Portland Cement Association. Comparision of the color obtained in the field tests with the plates will show whether the amount of organic matter is injurious. The proportion of clay or silt in a sand can be determined it the same time by noting the thickness of the silt layer above the sand. For laboratory work the method recommended is as follows: 1 Thompson, S. E., Am. Soc. Civil Eng. Trans., Vol. 51, p. 252, 1911, 2 Abrams, D. A. & Harder, 0. E., Colorimetric test for organic impurities in sand: Circular No. 1, Struc. Mat. Res. Lab., Lewis Inst., Chicago, 1917; also in Proc. Am. Soc. for Test. Materials Vol. 17, pt. 1, pp. 327-333, 1917. 3 Concrete Highway Magazine, February, 1918. 12 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA "To 1 a 200-gram sample of dry s~nd add 100 cc. of a 3 per cent solution of sodium hyCI.roxide (NaOH) and digest at ordinary temperature, with' occasional stirring, for 24 hours. Filter this solution thiough a good grade of filter paper; refilter if necessary; The filtrate must be clear. Place 10 cc. of the clear filtrate in a 50 cc. Nessler ~ylinder and dilute to 50 cc. with distilled water. Shake thoroughly and let stand until all foam and bubbles disappear. Determine the color value of this cylinder by comparing it with cylinders containing standard solu-tions of alkaline sodium tannate. Compare the colors by looking through the full depth of the solution'With the cylinders held toward a good natural light. Standard Tannic Acid Solution for Color Compari$on.-The preparation of the standard tannic acid solution for comparing the color of the filtrate should be begun at the same time as the treatment of the sand. Add10 cc. of a 2 per cent solution of'tannic acid in 10 per cent alcohol to 90 cc. of a 3 per cent solution of sodium hydroxide. The sodium hydroxide combines with the tannic acid to form sodium tannate. Let the solution stand 24 hours at room temperature. Place 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 cc. respectively, of this solution in 50 cc. Nessler cylinders and dilute to the tnark with distilled water. The amolints of tannic acid in the different cylinders will then be as shown in the folloWing table: - Alkaline Sodium - Tannate in each cylinder-co. ____ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Tannic acid in each cylinder- millgrams ______ 2 Color value in 4- 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 parts of tannic acid per million of sand by weight_________ 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 It is desir_able to have. good sm;tgght for comparing .the colors; if sunlight is not available, the amount of ta:rii:iicaciil in each of the cylinders containing the standard solutions may be decreased by one"half and the other values in the table modified accordingly.' . ., . - In case the solution obtained by digesting the sand with the sodium hydroxide is very dark, use less than 10 cc. for the comparison and make the necessary modifi- cations in the calculation of the color values. With very light-colored solutions use more than 10 cc. of the filtrate for the comparisons. The depth of color of the solution decreases on standing, arid for that reason the- solution should be made up fresh for each day's work. Method of Calculation-An example will make clear the method of calculating the color value of a sand. Suppose that 10 cc. of clear filtrate obtained by digesting the sand with 100 cc. of a 3 per cent solution of sodium hydroxide when diluted to 50 cc. corresponds in color to_ the Nessler cylinder containing 12 millgrams of tannic acid, or 6 cc.- of the alkaline tannate solution. The sand will then have a color value of 600, The 10 cc. of the filtrate placed in the Nessler cylinder is -l.tr of the 100 cc. of 3 per cent sodium hydroxide solution which was added to the sand, and the sample of sand (200 grams) is i- of a kilogram; therefore, t'he milligrams of tannic acid per kilogram of the sand, by weight, are 12x10x5=600; or the tannic acid equivalent when expressed .irl' parts per million of the sand, by weight, is 600. It 2 is impracticable to give exact values for the r.elation between the color value of a sand arid the strength of mortars made from the same sand. However, the t.ests made-~hus far show this relation to. be about as follows: 1 Op. cit., pp. 3-4 2 Op. cit., p. '5. SAND AND. GRAVEL DEPOSITS 13 Color values Plate of sand number 1- Reduction in compressive .strength of 1-3 mortar per C''2Dt 250 2 500 3 1,000 3-4 2,000 4 3,000 4-5 1D-20 15-30 20-40 25-50 30-60 1. Plates may be obtained from Atlanta office of Portland Cement As&ociation. In the testing of Georgia sands, the color value tests indicating the comparative amounts of organic matter in the sand, were made in the Survey laboratory by Dr. Edgar Everhart, and the res}llts have been tabulated with the other tests made on the sands. MINE.RAL AND ROCK COMPOSITION The mineralogical composition of _a sand depends entirely on the mineral character of the component grains. As previously stated (pages 5-6) we may have quartz, calcite, gypsum, feldspar, mica, magnetite, and many other types of sand. Since quartz is so predominate in most sands, the examination from a mineral standpoint is not always necessary. Mariy sands, however, particularly those in the streams of the Piedmont area in Georgia, contain a considerable proportion of feldspar, hornblende, and mica, which may seriously affect the value of mortar or concrete made from them. From a casual examination, harmful amounts of such minerals can generally be detected. A more detailed microscopic examination, however, is sometimes necessary before deciding which of several sands is best suited for a particular purpose. SAND-PRODUCING MINERALS Quartz. (Si02). Most sands are composed almost entirely of quartz. It generally occurs as irregular angular grains having the appearance of broken glass, although frequently the edges and corners are rounded, but the faces are generally rough and pitted. Quartz is hard and easily scratches glass. It is usually colorless or gray, but may be stained yellow to red with iron oxide or clay. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA Feld8par (KAlSiaOs) .-Feldspar is a group term applied to several minerals resembling each other. They form angular grains, but differ from quartz in having smooth, tabular faces, or sides. Feldspar may be white, pink, or yellow. It is softer than quartz, and lacks the glassy appearance of that mineral. Feldspar is common in . the Piedmont stream sands and in the mottled grits of the central Coastal Pla,in. Mica (H 2K Ab (SiO 4)3)-Mica is easily recognized by its fiat, shining, scaly flakes. In sand, these flakes may occur smaller than a pinhead or as much as an inch across. It occurs as the white variety, muscovite, (H2K Als(SiO 4)3 and as the black variety, biotite, (H,K) 2 (MgFe)2 Al2 (SiO 4)3, and is found in most Georgia sands,- but it is particularly common in some of the Piedmont streams. In amounts over 272 per cent it is considered harmful to concrete sand. Hornblende (CalVIga (Si04)3)-Hornblende is usually black or dark green, an<;l forms irregular, angular grains, generally prismatic in form. It is about as hard as feldspar and scratches glass with dif- ficulty: Due to its ready decomposition it is not found far from the igneous rocks in which lt was formed. It occurs in small quantities in most of the Piedmont sands. Calcite (CaCOa).--calcite is genera-lly white and usually forms grains with sharp, rhombic angles. It is easily scratched with a knife. Calcite is rarely found in Georgia sands. Lim,onite -(2 FeaOa. 3H20).-Limonite is a fairly soft, yellow to brown; lusterless oxide of iron, and is a principal impurity in glass sands, although very valuable as a binder in road gravel. - Jv.la~netite (Fe 304) .-Magnetite is a heavy, black mineral, capa- ble of bemg attracted by a magnet. Its grains are usually small and irregular. It may be seen arranged in layers. or streaks in sand, or standing out as black- specks. With it, ilmenite (FeTiQ a), which is similar in appearance, but not as magnetic, occurs in considerable amounts in the sand on the islands off the Atlantic coast. Numerous other miner_?,ls, sv.ch as brookite, rutile, chromite, and glauconite, are dark colored and c:in be detected in these sands with the aid of the microscope or heavy solutions. _ In addition to the foregoing minerals, garnet, a hard, red or brown mineral of ir~egular, angular grains, is sometimes found in sand. Mona- SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 15 zite, a yellowish to reddish, hard, sharp-cornered mineral is found in stream sand at The Glades in Hall County and on the coastal islands. SAND-PRODUCING ROOKS Since Georgia sands and gravels in many places contain fragments of rocks, which are merely large aggregates of one or more minerals, a brief description of the commoner types is given to serve in their identification. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS The sedimentary rocks are those formed under water by the accumulation of sediment carried and deposited by the water and later hardened by pressure and cementation. They are found in the Paleozoic area of northwest Georgia and at a few places in the Coastal Plain. Sandstone.-Sand that has become indurated through pressure, or the cementing action of percolating solutions, is known as sandstone. Quartzite.-Sandstone that has been subjected to pressure, heat, or solvent action, until the outlines of the original sand grains are almost obliterated, causing the rock to crack across the individual grains, rather than around them, is called quartzite. It forms a large percentage of the pebbles in Georgia gravels, particularly those of the Coastal Plain and Fall Line regions, and is very resistant. Conglomerate.-Gravel that has been cemented into a hard rock by water containing silica, carbonates, or other substances in solution, is called conglomerate. Limeston_e.-L:i.mestone, or its crystalline equivalent, marble, is usually gray or blue. It may be pink, green, or black. It is soft enough to be scratched easily with a knife, and effervesces with acid or strong vinegar. The stream gravels of the Paleozoic area have a considerable amount of limestone pebbles. > Shale.-Shale is hardened clay or mud. It is of various colors, although usually gray or brown, and generally forms thin, fiat, soft pebbles which occur in the stream gravels of the Appalachian Valley provmce. CRY,STALLINE ROCKS The crystalline rocks are those formed by the cooling, on or beneath the earth's surface, of lava that has been forced up from the earth's 16 GEOLOGIOAL SURVE-r- OF GEORGIA nterior; or by the metamorphosis, by heat or pressure, of sedimentary rocks. They are found in the Piedmont Plateau and .in the Appala~hian Mountains of North Georgia. Granite.-The most common igneous rock is granite. It is gray, or pink, and composed principally of quartz, feldspar, and mica, which form a closely interlocked crystalll.ne texture. ,. Diabase.-Diabase is a hard, dark, fine-grained, heavy rock, which in Georgia generally occprs in long, thin formations known as trap dikes. Pebbles of diabase occur rarely in Georgia gravels. Gneiss.-Gneiss is composed of thin, paralled bands of light and dark minerals and results from the metamorphosis of igneous and sedimentary rocks. Pebbles derived from it are not so hard or resistant as those from granite or. basalt. Sohist.-Schist is perhaps the most common crystalline rock in Georgia. It is a thinly laminated, flaky rock. Fragments of it are common in the Piedmont sands and gravels, but they readily tend to break up into smaller fragments and for that reason are an undesirable constituent. Slate.-Slate is metamorphosed shale. It occurs in the stream gravels in Polk and Ba;rtow counties as thi:11; flat, hard fragments. . c MINERALOGICAL EXAMINATION OF SAND To determine roughly the mineral and rock content of a sand, some of it can be spread out on a sheet of paper and the va~ious mineral types sorted with a small, blunt stick into separate piles. The percentage proportion of each mineral, or rock, is then roughly estimated. Another-portion of the 'sal).d is then examined under a microscope to discover any minerals not seen in the rough division and to note the shape of the sand grains and whether they are coated with day, iron oxide, or ot:1er materials. Sands containing a fairly large amount of the heavier J;D.inerals, suL-h as tnose found on the sea l'oast of Georgia, can be panned. A ose. Tbe sand is gently agitated under water with a sligh.t rotary motion and a jerking throw. The heavier minerals are conrentrated at the bott-om of the sand and the quartz can be easi1y removed. The process is repeated until very few light grains remain in the ;Jan. SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 17 Tomlinson, 1 in testing Wisconsin concrete sands, used a detailed method in which the exad proportion of each of a number of mineral groups was obtained. Tile sand to be examioed was firsc sized by screening through 10--, 20--, 40--, and 100-mesh sieves. The sand retained on the 20-mesh sieve was then immersed in Thoulet's solution of potassium mercuric iodide, the density of which can be changed by increasing or decreasing the water A funnel whose spout i; fitted with a stop-cock is best suited for this treatment. The heavy grains will collect in the lower part of the spout, above the stop-cock, and can be easily removed by opening the cock. The sand retained on the 20-, 40-, and 100-mesh sieve was treated in the same manner. The sand that remained on the 10-mesh sieve was sorted into the component minerals by hand. Since two or more minerals or rocks may have the same density, it is necessary to examine each of the divisions made by use of the heavy solution. This was done with a microscope or large hand lens. The grains to be examined were spread out evenly upon a glass plate overlying a ruled counting sheet. The number of grains of any particular mineral occurring in one or more squares, depending on the size of the sample, was counted and multiplied by the total number of squares occupied by the sample, The results of the examination were tabulated under the following groups: Igneous rocks, shale group, quartz group (includes quartz, chert and quartzite), dolomite group (calcareous sediments), feldspar, and heavy minerals. Bromoform, having, a density of 2.84, and methyl iodide, density of 3.3, have also been used in separating the heavy minerals. I CHEMICAL COMPOSITION Aside from a scientific interest, there is little practical value iri a chemical analysis of sands except for those used in glass making or for refractory purposes. The iron content as Fe20a, the alumina as AlzO a, and the silica as SiO 2 are the most important determinations in glass sands. Magnesia (MgO), titania (TiO 2), and organic matter are also usually determined. In refractory sands the silica, and fluxing materials such as iron, soda, potash, magnesia, and lime, are generally found. Sometimes a. chemical analysis of filter sands . I Tomlinson, C. W., Method of making mineralogical analysis of sand: Am. Inst. Min. Eng. Trans., Vol. 52, pp. 852-862, 1916. 18 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.OF GEORGIA is made to determine the silica, iron, lime, magnesia, alkalies, and organic matter. In concrete sands, it is necessary to know on!ly the organic content of the sand. In sands used for ores, such. as those containing magnetite; chrome, monazite, zircon, and other rarer material$, the constituepJ elements of these minerals are determined in addition to the commoner elements. In sap-brown the amount of material soluble in alkalie is usually determined as a guide to the dyemaking content of the substance. In sand the silica is largely in the form ofquartz with smaller amounts in silicate grains such as feldspar, hornblende, mica, and other minerals. The iron generally occurs as the oxide, limonite, or more rarely in magnetite and ilmenite, and in smaller quantities in hornblende and biotite. Clay, kaolinite, and feldspar generally account for the alurpina in the sand. Lime and magnesia come from grains of limestone, .from calcite or dolomite occurring as cementing material, or from. shell. particles. Grains of feldspar, hornblende, and olivine supply lime and magnesia in smaller amounts. The alkalies, soda and potash, are usually derived from the feldspars and micas. Tita- .,/ nium may come from ilmenite and rutile, Water (H20) and carbon dioxide (C02), found in a detailed analysis, or simply as volatile matter, usually come from the kaolinite, and from the ~e or magnesia occurring either in limestone or P!ecipitated in small quantities in the sand as carbonates. A ~umber of analyses of all types of Georgia sands have been made both to determine their value in glass-making .and for their scientific value. PHYSICAL CHARACTER OF SAND GRAINS The size, shape, and strength of the individual sand grains or gravel pebbles are important fact~rs in determining the desirability of sand and gravel for every use. SIZE. OF GRAIN The usual method of determining the grain size of sand is by screening or sieving. The size of the grain may also be determined by the aspirator method, in ~which the time required for air to pass through a mass of sand is used to determine the average size of the grain composing. the mass. Division of sand into its different grain sizes is SAND .Al{D GRAVEL DEPOSITS 19 also made by elutriation. The actual size of sand grains can be directly measured by the use of a micrometer scale in a microscope. GRAIN SIZE BY SCREENING The size of the particles composing sand is usually determined by passing the sand through a series of sieves having meshes of decreasing size. Since the grading of a sand, or the proportions of grains of each size, is known to greatly influence the value of a sand for either concrete, glass, or molding purposes, the necessity of a reliable granulometric or mechanical analysis is at once apparent. In making . the mechanical analysis several systems of screens are in use. That most generally employed is the so-called standard screen system, whose mesh increases by ten to the igch from one screen to the next smaller. A more logical system, how-ever, has been devised in which a constant ratio, v2 or 1.414, exists between the diame- ters of the apertures of the screens. The area of the mesh opening in each screen in then just t!V"ice that of the next smaller sized screen. It was found that the latter of these two systems gave the most satisfactory results since it divides the material in much better pro.:. portion. In the old system, too few a number of sieves are used where the most grains of equal size occur, and too many are used where the least grains of equal size are found. To illustrate this, in one hundred and five sands from Nebraska, Missouri, Pennsylvania, and New York, an average of 61 per cent of each sand remained on a 50-mesh screen, 23 per cent passed the 50-mesh, jlnd 16 per cent remained on the 10-mesh. In the old system of screens only- 5 sieves, (50-, 40-, 30-, 20-, and 10-mesh), are used to apportion this 61 per cent into its various grain sizes, and 7 sieves, (60-, 70-, 80-, ~0-, 100-, and 200-mesh), are used to divide up the 23 per cent. In the new system 6 screens (10-, 14-, 20-, 28-, 35-, and 48-mesh) would be used to divide up the 61 per cent, and 4 screens (65-, 100-, 150-, and 200-mesh) to divide the 23 per cent. The average of 16 per cent that remains on the 10-mesh sieve can be divided by four screens or by three (4-,6-, 8-mesh) as was done in .testing Georgia sands for this report. It is thus seen that for most sands a screen system, having the areas of the apertures of the same proportionate difference between each screen, is the most desirable. By excluding every other screen 20. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA in making mechanical analysis by this system, the material can be divided into parts whose average diameters arejust half that of the next coarser screen. This system is used in several 'leading concrete testing laboratories in -the United States, including that of the Bureau of Standards, the Bureau of Public Roads, Lewis Institute, and is also used in the work of the Canada Department of Mines. Objection to the us.e of this system :r:night be made on the ground that sand users in general are not familiar with the significance of several of the screen sizes when seen in an analysis. This is especially true of asphalt sands since specifications for such sands are universally made in terms of the standard system. Either system, however, can be readily interpreted in terms of the other, if the results are plotted to scale on coordinate or chart paper. Table of ~oreen mesh sixes used in testin~ Geor~ia sands Mesh IDiameter of wire in inches Diameter of opening inches mm. 4 .065 .185 4.699 6 .036 .131 3.327 8 .032 .093 2':'362 10 .035 .065 1.651 14 .025 -046 1.168 20 .0172 .0328 .833 28 .0125 .0232 .589 35 .0122 .()164 .417 48 .0092 .0116 .295 65 .0072 .0082 .208 100 .0041 .0058 .147 150 .0026 .0041 .104 200 .0021 .0029 .074 The following procedure was followed in testing Georgia sands: the entire field sample weighing from 5 to 12 pounds was halved with a sampling shovel until about 200 grams remained. This was thoroughly dried at l00C. to prevent cohesion of the grains by moisture. A 100-gram sample was then selected and placed in the upper of 6 sieves a!lranged in order of their size: 4-,6-,8-, 10-,14-, .and 20-mesh. This nest of sieves was shaken for about five minutes, and the amounts remaining on each sieve weighed separately, after first shaking each . sieve ove;r a paper to insure complete separation of fines. The sand passing the 20-mesh sieve, and caught in the pan, was placed in the SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 21 28-mesh sieve, or the upper of the 7 remaining sieves, and after 5 minutes shaking, the separates were weighed. Two samples of the same sand were subjected to this method and the following constant r.esults obtained: Table ~ivin~ percenta~e of sample retained on each sieve Sample T-60a _______ T-60b _______ Mesh Sizes 10 14 -- 20 28 -- -3-5 48 -- 65 -- 100 -- 150 -- 200 -- -20-0 -To-tal .5 1.9 5.8 13.1 22.8 23.5 17.9 9.9 2.9 1.2 .3 99.7 .4 1.8 5.6 12.9 22.6 23.1 18.5 9.5 2.7 1.4 .5 99.0 Since it is practically impossible to avoid loss in screening, the percentages listed in the tables iri this report were recomputed to a 100 per cent basis, thus the results from T-60b in the foregoing table with the 1 per cent loss proportionately distributed over the entire number of separates would be as follows: Table showin~ uncorrected and corrected percenta~e of sample . - retained on each sieve Sample T-60b _______ T-60b _______ Mesh Sizes 10 -1-4 20 -- 28 -- 35 -- 48 -- 65 -- 100 -- 150 -- 200 -- 200 -- Total -- .4 1.8 5.6 12.9 22.6 23.1 18.5 9.5 2.7 1.4 .5 99.0 .4 . 1.8 5.7 13.0 22.8 23.4 18.7 9.6 2.7 1.4 .5 100.0 This necessary error might also have been allowed for by adding it to the percentage of the sample under 100 mesh, or by starting with a gram more than the required 100 grams. F'or a closer determination of the fines, sifting under water is desirable, since clay particles that might adhere to larger grains are thus loosened. and go with the smaller sizes. In very exact work t~e sand samples are sent from the field in air-tight containers and weighed with the original pit moisture. They are then dried and the percentages of the various separates based on this weight. In testing sandstones it is necessary to crush the rock. Care should be taken so that the crushing does not break up individual grains and 22 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA that it does not leave two or more grains cemented together. No Georgia sandstones were 'submitted to mechanical analyses. In the case of a few sands dredged from river beds by centrifugal pumps most of the fines have been washed out with the water. Mechanical analyses of such sands are therefore not representative of the true character of the natural sand, but do indicate the grading of the commercial product. In place of hand sifting, the sieves may be agitated automatically by a small motor, or geared to a crank which is turned by hand. Many of the larger sand-testing laboratories have adopted mechanical shakers of some sort, not only to reduce the manual labor but to obtain more constant results with less loss of the original sample. Forrest! gives the following comparisons between results obtained from the same samples by hand and by mechanical sifting. The figures represent the smn of the percentages retained on each screen an:.d passing the finest. Comparative results of hand and mechanical sifting Total percep.tage from 50 gram sample of sand Total percentage of 1000 gram sample of concrete aggregate 1 1 Hand sifted 1---M_e_ch_a_n_ic_a_lly_sif_t_ed_~_. _._H_a_n_d_sif_t_ed_ __M_e_c~h-aru__ca_ll_y_s_ift_e_d_ I 99.4199.2 99.7 99.8 98.4 99.5 l I Gravel.-,For the complete mechanical analysis of gravel, screens of the following sizes may be used: ~' i, ;Y2, %:, 1, l;Y2, 2,~2;Y2, and 3 inches. The use of all these sizes is only recommended where the gravel is to be used in very large and important work, usually the ~-, Y2-, 1-, and 3-inch screens are sufficient. In this report screens of ~-, %:-, and 1~-inch mesh were used. In the gravels tested the sand was first screened out, and after its proportion of the whole sample was found, a granulometric analysis of botp. the sand and gravel was made. For finding the relative amounts of sand and gravel in small stream deposits, which may be utilized for local concrete construction and building, Clifford Older 2 has described a system requiring the use of 1 Forrest, C. N., New device for the analysis of concrete aggregates: Am. Soc. for Test. Mat. Proc., Vol. 6, pp. 458-461. 1906. 2 Eng. News, Vol. 72, pp. 1204-1205, 1914. SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 23' portable sieves and containers of simple construction. The apparatus consists of a testing can, 4 inc~es in diameter and 10 inches deep; three screens of 10 mesh, 74:-, and Y2-inch mesh, which fit into the can; a 200 cc. graduate, 1 inch in diameter; and a 10-inch scale divided into inches and tenths of inches. To test a creek deposit the can is filled level full with gravel and the sand separated out by the 7.4:-inch sieve. The sand is poured back into the can an.d its proportion to gravel measured by the scale, the zero rn.ark of the scale being down. The following formulae are used to determine the amount of cement to be added to the unscreened gravel to produce a concrete having a required sand-cement ratio 28.4x 0.95 a C= bx-y A B=---:--- a X in which, A= Bags cement required per cubic yard gravel B = Cubic feet of gravel to be used with each bag of cement C = Amount of stone to be added to a unit volume of gravel in order a minimum amount of cement be used x = Ratio of volume of separ2ted .sand to unscreened gravel. y= Ratio of volume of separated stone to unscreened gravel; (x-y) should equal about 1.10 to 1.25 in well-graded gravel. a= Required ratio of sand to cement b= Maximum ratio of stone to sand GRAIN SIZE BY OTHER METHODS Screen methods of mechanical analysis apply to most sand for concrete and glass uses, since such sands are relatively coarse. Molding sands, however, due to the large admixture of clay required to produce a sand capable of retaining shapes, require, in addition to a screen analysis, some other method .of separating the finer silt and clay grains into their different sizes. This large clay content also causes the sand to cake or "ball up" so that accurate separation by screening can only be effected by screening in water and by placing light washers or steel balls on the sieve with the sand. The washers or balls, rolling about on the agitated screen, break up the lumps into separate grains. In determining the amount of silt and clay in a molding sand Ries and Rosen 1 used a metho.d applicable to all kinds of sands. A 50gram sample of the sand was first thoroughly shaken with water in a mechanical shaker for a half hour. The sample was then screened 1 Ries, Heinrich, and Rosen, J. A., Report on foundry sands: Michigan Geol. Survey, 9th Ann. Rept., p. 46, 1908. 24 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA through a set of 2o-,4o-, 6o-, 80, and 100-mesh sieves, and all that ' passes the 100-mesh sieve was allowed to settle in a jar for 45 seconds. The suspended matter, called clay, (passing. 2h mesh) was decanted, dried and weighed, and the sediment, called silt (~t~ tio mesh), was also dried and weighed and the proportion of each in the original sample determined. In the elutriation method, a constant amount of water is passed through flasks of increasing size. The current is swiftest in the smallest flask, and the largest grains can settle out in this flask only; the rest will be forced over into the next larger flask with the water, where the current is decreased, permitting settling of a group of smaller grains. The process is continued until as complete a division of the material as is desired, is effected. The tirrle necessary for a known volume of air under a known pressure to pass through a tube of sand is ,:used to complete the average size of the grains in a sand or clay. This method is particularly applicable to molding sands and soils and is called the aspirator method. It was devised by Prof. King 1 and has been used by Rosen 2 in determining the- average grain size of Michigan moldiri.g s::rnds. In testing these sands the sample is first dried and pulverized and then passed through a 1-mm. sieve (20 mesh). The sand is then put into a soil tube, which is lightly tapped, and more sand is added imtil the tube is full. Air under known pressure is aspirated through the tube and the length of time necessary for the passage of one or more liters is found. This data is lised in a formula to determine the average size of the grain particles in the sand. Objection to this method is made on the ground that as the first part of the air passes through the sand, channels are set up in the sand which allow the more rapid progress of the rest of the air. The character of these channels is likely to differ in different sands, so.that the method is not entirely comparative. A similar method, involving the length of time elapsing between the entrance of an inflammable gas at the lower end of a sand-filled tube and its exit at the upper end, has been used by L. H. Cole3 in testing Canadian molding sands. A small tube about 6 inches long and 1 inch in diameter is fitted with 60- and 12-inch Wire gauzes at 1 King, F, H., Michigan Acad. Sci., .2d Ann. Rep., 1894. 2 Ries, Heinrich and Rosen, J. A. op. cit., pp. 53-56. 3 Canada Dept. of Mi;tes Branch, Bull. 21 or Sum. Rept. for'1916. SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 25 the bottom and attached to a gas pipe having a manometer so that the pressure of the gas can be kept constant. Sand is added to the tube one inch at a time and tamped as it is added until the tube is full. Gas :ls then passed through the sand and a device is arr-anged to ignite it, as soon as it begins to escape at the top. The time required for the gas to pass through the sand is determined with a stop watch. For No. 0 Albany molding sand about 22 seconds are needed and t4 seconds for No. 3. This. method is not open to the same objec- tion as the previous method, but the character of the gas and the pressure must be closely watched in order to be certain of comparative results. GRAPillC REPRESENTATIONS OF GRANULOMETRI0 COMPOSITION The significance of a granulometric analysis of a sand when pre- sented in the usual tabular form is difficult to comprehend unless one is experienced in examining such analyses. By graphically represent- ing these results either by curves, radiating lines, or by some other system, their meaning can be quickly and effectively grasped. Granul- ometric analyses, arrived at by using one set of screen sizes, can also be converted into terms of any other size or set -of sizes by plotting th~ original data graphically on chart or co-ordinate paper. . The usual method is that shown in Fig. 1 and consists in divid- ing the ordinate, or horizontal base line, into proportionate parts to represent the size of the sand grains in terms of millimeters, inches, and sieve sizes; and in dividing the abscissa, or vertical line, to repre- sent the percentages of grain sizes either passing, or retained on, the different screens. Within the space formed by these lines the percen- tage of each size to the whole sample is marked by a doi and these dots later connected by a smooth curve. By comparing curves of this kind with curves of ideal sands, or with curves representing certain features of excessive coarseness or fineness, a close idea of the granulo- metric character of the sand in question is obtained. For comparison and to save space, a number of sands can readily be plotted together. The graphical method used by Ries 1 in figuring Wisconsin and Michigan molding sands is excellent. On the four lines a, b, c, d (Fig. 2), equal distances are laid off to represent 100 per cent. On a the clay percentage is laid off, on b the percentage retained on 100- 1 Ries, Heinrich and Gallup, F. L., Wisconsin Geol. & Nat. Hist. Survey, Bull. 15, p. 207, 1906. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA ~ tl ...z t.trc '"6"S ~g " ~ .3o~ z. .l!.c ~ a ' / ... .,_ "~ ' ~ /0 ., b ~ 3 (ll ""3 ' ' 3 .c.. . 33 (A ?ercenl rel.;;;i'lecl 011 et7'cl7 ~/eve lu u. ~ ~ ~ .. . . ./ / . vI ' j_ I \':,\ 1/ I - I I I / 1/ ., Q il ~ : / -!:: "' ./ . ;; ~ + ;; i> ~ ~- ~ Ill ~ ' ~ ~ ~ ~ SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 27 mesh, on c the percentage obtained by settling, and on d the combined percentages of sand retained on the 20--, 40-, 60-, and 80-mesh sieves. The points on the forir lines are then connected by straight lines and the figure produced shows at a glance the texture of the sand (Fig 3). For coarser building and glass sands each line may be made to represent some other arbitrary size or sizes best suited to display the texture of the particular type of sand. a 6 G d. Figs. 2 & 3.-Diagrams showing methods of graphiGally illustrating the mechanical analysis of a sand. NUMERI04.L REPRESENTATIONS OF GRANULOMETRIG COMPOSITION To provide rapid means of comparing the granulometric composition of sand and gravel, and for comparing the value of sand and gravel for concrete and filter purposes, a number of methods have been devised ~o represent by a single number the coarseness and fineness of a sand, its uniformity, or the average size of all the component grains. Some have condemned such methods because of their inadequate expression of the true character of the sand, or on account of complexities which are not readily understood by those for whose help the methods were devised. Nevertheless, some of these means are undoubtedly of value and a few of them will be outlined. EFFECTIVE SIZE The term effective size was introduced by Hazen 1 and is defined 1 Hazen, Allen, Massachusetts State Board of Health Rept., 1892, pp. 549, 550. 28 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA by him as a size "such that ten per cent is of smaller grains, a~d 90 per cent is of larger grains than the size given." In other words, if 10 per cent of the sand iii a given sample passes a 1-mUlimeter screen, and 90 per cent is retained on the screen, then the effective size of the sample would be 1. The effective size of a sand can be readily found by plotting the mechanical analysis of the sand and noting the size in millimeters than which 10 per cent of the material is finer. To compute the effective size without the curve, the mechanical analysis should be arranged to show the percentages retained on each screen. The percentages between which 90 per cent lies should then be noted . as well as the mesh opening in millimeters on which these percentages are retained. _The proportionate differences between 90 per cent and the adjoining percentages are found and used to determine a mesh .size having a similar position between the two mesh sizes on which the percentages were retained. This mesh size represents _the effective size of the sand. The effective size is used in computing the uniformity coefficient of a sand, and it serves as an index of the coarseness of a sand. It has been used principally in describing filter sands and to a smaller extent for building sands. Both the effective size and'the uniformity coefficient are of more value when considered .tog~ther in determining the coarseness or uniformity of a sand. UNIFORMITY COEFFICIENT The uniformity coefficient was also introduced by Hazen 1 to give expression to the uniformity of the grains composing a sand or soil. This figure is determined by making a mechanical analysis of the sand and then finding the size of grain of which 60 per cent of the grains is smaller and 40 per cent larger, either by plotting the curve or by interpolation, as was described in finding the effective size. This size is then divided by the effective size of the sample, and the uniformity coeffieient is obtained. Thus, if 60 per cent of a sample is finer than 0.45 millimeter and 10 per cent finer than 0. 30 millimeter (effective size), the uniformity coefficient is %:8 ot 1. 5. In other words one half of the sand grains lie betw.~en 0. 30 millimeter and 0. 45 millimeter. In another sand, if 60 per cent ofits grains were finer than 0. 3 millimeter, and the effec- 1 Op. cit., p. 550. SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 29 tive size was 0. 2 millimeter, the same result 1.5 would be obtained, showing that the uniformity coefficient in itself is not a gage of a sand's coarseness, but merely a relative expression of uniformity. As this figure increases it indicates a greater range in size of 50 per cent of the sand grains, which is believed desirable for mortar and concrete sands. Taylor and Thompson 1 consider a sand, .whose coefficient exceeds 4.5, to be a good concrete sand and of two sands the one having the largest coefficient is likely to be the best. Should it drop nearly to 1, it would indicate that almost half of the sand grains was of the same size, a condition particularly desirable in filter sands where uniformity is a necessary quality. The use of the term is largely restricted to the description of filter sands. (Page 90). \ AVERAGE FINENESS It is sometimes desirable, especially in molding sands, to express by a single figure the average grain size, or average fineness, of a sand in terms that will be comparable when different methods of mechanical analyses are used. The system described in the Textbook of Molding Sand issued by the International Correspondence Schools at Scranton, Pa., is as follows: A 100-gram sample is sifted for one minute on 2o-, 40-, 6080-, and 100-mesh screens separately. Any loss is added to the 60mesh and all sand coarser than the 20-mesh is said to be of 1 mesh. The weight of sand passing each sieve and retained on the next is multiplied by the mesh of the retaining sieve and the total divided by 100. The following example illustrates the method: Mesh Weight in grams passing first screen a:p.d retained on next Product of mesh size by percentage on that mesh 1 2.0 2 10 8.0 80 20 12.0 240 40 20.0 800 60 30.0 1800 (60 = 1% loss) 80 25.0 2000 100 2.0 200 99 .0 (1% loss) 5182 1 Taylor, F. W. and Thompson, S. E., Concrete, plain and reinforced: 2nd. ed., p. 182, 1911. 30 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGI:A By dividing 5182 by 100 we get 51.82, which is the average fineness of the sand. This figure is not an index of the uniformity, sin{le the same percentage might express the fineness of a well-graded sand, or of one whose grains were practically all one size. C. W. Parmelee 1 took the sum of the percentages passing each screen and divided it by the number of screens used, which gavethe per 'cent of fineness. As he points out, this method is comparable only with sands that have been screen'8d by the same number of sieves and of th~ same size, since the per c~nt obtained varies with the number of screens used. Ries 2 , in testing 1\d:ichigan molding sands, uses a method which gives the average size of the grains in a sand, thus providing a much better index of the fineness of the sand than either of the other methods offered. The results obtained from this me.thod are comparable no matter how ;many screens or what size screens were used in testing the sands. In applying the method it is first necessary to compute .an average size of the grains retained on each screen. This figure is then multiplied by the weight of sand retained on the scre~n and the sum of these products divided by the weight of the sample. The foregoing analysis illustratep the method: Table showing method of derivation of the "average size" Mesh Average size in kches Weight of sand in of grain retained on grams retained on f!ach screen each screen Product of screen mesh size by weight on screen I 6 .158 2 .316 w8 .112 .019 3 6 .336 .474 14 .056 8 .448 20 .0394 9 .3546 28 .0280 10 .2800 35 .0196 12 .2376 48 .0140 20 .2800 65 .0099 20 .1980 100 .0070 5 .0350 150 .0050 3 .0150 200 .0035 2 .0070 1QO 2.9812 1 Kummell, H. B. and Hamilton, S. H., New Jersey Geol. Survey, Ann. Rept. for 1904, pp. 208-209, 1905. 2 Ries; Heinrich and Rosen, J. A., Michigan Geol. Survey, Ann. Rept. for 1907, pp. 50-51, 1908 SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 31 By dividing 2.9822 by 100 we get 0.029822, which represents the diameter, in millimeters, of the sand grains, if all the grains in this sand were reduced to a uniform size. With this diameter all the grains would just pass a 35-mesh sieve. F~ENESS MODULUS The fineness modulus is a term developed by Prof. D. A. Abrams 1 in an extended series of tests to determine the influence of size, grading, and water content of concrete mixtures on the resulting strength of the concrete. In calculating the fineness modulus, the following Tyler Standard sieves are used in determining the mechanical analyses of the sand or gravel: 100, 48, 28, 14, 8, 4, ~' -!, and 172. The results are expressed in percentages of material coarser than each sieve. The sum of these percentages divided by 100 is the fineness modulus. In case the sieve analysis is expressed in percentages of material finer than each sieve, the fineness modulus may be found by subtracting their sum from 900 and then dividing by 100. Sample calculations to determine fineness modulus Mesh Per cent coarser than each sieve 100 48 28 14 8 4 ! ]. 4 --------- -- - Per cent_ _________. 89 82 72 62 51 38 25 11 H - 0 The sum of the percentages equals 430. 4307100=4. 3, the fineness modulus of the sand Mesh Per cent____________ Per cent passing each sieve 100 48 28 14 8 4 ~ t It - -- -- -- -- -- - - -- - 11 18 28 38 49 62 75 89 100 The sum of the percentages equals 470. 900+470=430; 430+100=4.3, the finess modulus of the sand. When the sand is tested by the old system of sieves the fineness . 1 Abrams, D. A., Design and concrete mixtures: Struc. Mat. Res. Lab., Lewis Inst., Chicago, Bull. 1, 1919. 32 GEOLOGIOAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA moduluEl'is found by adding the percentages retained on the 4-, 10-, 30-, 50-, and tOO-mesh sieves, and divide the sum by 100. In a series of tests in which concrete composed of. aggregates of varying grading, but with the same fineness moduli, was compared with concrete made of aggregates of varying fineness moduli, the in- fluence of the coarseness of an aggregate was strikingly shown. From these tests it appears that the fineness modul:us is a factor to be con- Sidered in determining the relative values of different sands and gravels and for that reason it has been determined for the sands investigated in this report. SHAPE OF GRAIN AND PEBBLE Sand grains and gravel pebbles asstime a variety of forms due .to the rolling about they receive in stream beds, or to abrasion when carried by the wind, or by grinding action when carried by ice. In general, the more angular a grain or a pebble, the closer it is to its point of origin. Rounding is only acquired after being carried for long distances by the methods mentioned. In small mountain streams, near their' head waters, the pebbles and grains are angular; in glacial .deposits, or further down the course of the mountain streams, the pebbles become sub-angular; and finally, at great distances from their source, the pebbles are alrr;wst completely rounded. Grains of dune or desert sand, thathave been blown about by the wind for long periods, are usually well rounded. Beach sands are more likely to be angular since it has been pointed out 1 that sand grains under 0.75 millimeter (35 mesh) in diameter can not be rounded under water. Except in a few subordinate uses, the shape of the grain or pebble has little signifi_cant influence on the value of sand or gravel. DURABILITY OF GRAIN AND PEBBLE The durability or resistance of sand gr~ins and pebbles is largely a function of their mineral composition. Since quartz is the most resistant common mineral, sand grains composed principally of this mineral will be the soundest. Soft and easily soluble minerals such as gypsum and calcite, as ,well as minerals that readily tend to break up along cleavage lines, are not desirable components of commercial sands. Pebbles made- up of soft, readily disintegrated, or readily . decomposed rocks, produce gravels of little durability. 1 Zeigler, V., Jour. Geology, Vol. 19, pp. 645-654. SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS OF GEORGIA PLATE 11 A. HAIST CAR -LOADER, J. R. HIME SAND COMPANY, JUNCTION CITY, GEORGIA B. MINING GR AVEL BY GASOLINE SHOVEL M USCO GEE COUNTY PIT, 3 'h MILES EAST OF COLUMBUS SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS The durability of rock fragments and gravel may be found by testing in a Deval abrasion machine. This machine consists of a cylinder mounted at an angle of 30 degrees with its axis of revolution. Pieces of stone or gravel are put into the machine and shaken by its revolu- 'tions. The weight of the material that is worn off after 10,000 revo- lutions, and which passes -frr-inch mesh, expressed as the per- centage of the weight of the original charge, is the measure of abrasion of the stone, and is called the "per cent of wear." Wear is also ex- pressed by the "French coefficient of wear," arbitrarily derived by dividing 40 by the per cent of wear. ' In testing Canadian gravels for abrasion, L. Reinecke 1 describes two methods used in the laboratories of the Canada Department of Mines. In the first method 5000 grams of the run-of-bank gravel,, screened to pass a two-inch screen and retained on a }:.1- inch screen, was put into the machine and the per cent of wear determined. The other method consisted in separating the gravel into the following sizes: 7i - Y2 inch, Y2 - % inch, %:__ 1 inch, 1 - 1n inch, 1n - 172 inch. Five hundred grams of each size were taken and run separately in the abrasion machine with 20 steel balls, 1 inch in diameter, for 51000 revolutions and the per cent of wear calculated as previously described. In the :G.rst method the influence of the grading factor on the wear is considered, and in the second this is eliminated. Objection to the Deval machine, in its usual form, is raised on the ground that the dust, abraded from the stone fragments, acts as a cushion and prevents as great an amoupt of wear as would occur if the dust were gotten rid of as fast as it is formed. An alteration in the machine, consisting of narrow slots running lengthwise to the machine and permitting the dust to pass out as it is produced, has recently been devised, and is in use in many of the road material test- ing lab1-inch screen is ground with 90 centimeters of water for 5;000 revolutions in a small ball mill. The dough is then removed and made into briquettes, 25 milHmeters in diameter and 25 Iilil1imeuers ih height, in a spe-cial hydraulic briquetthig m:::L(]nine. The briquettes are dried for 20 hpurs in room temperature and for 4 hoi.ii's m an air bath at 1000. They ate then cooled iii a dessicator; and broken by the blows of a one .k\ilQgram hari:i.mer falling through a ver... tic3'1 distance of one centimeter, The nil.n1bei' of bltJws neecl:ed to destroy the resilience of the briquette is considered the cementing value of the gravel. Georgia gravels included iii this_ rep0rt were not subjected to this test. VOIDS . The term voids refers to the porosity, or the total space between the grains of a sand. A knowledge of this factor is thought to be .necessary when the sand is to be used for concrete purposes. The percentage of voids depends on the grading of the grains. According to Stichter, a ih sands where the grains are of tiniforrb. size the voieis will be greatest. Even though the grains b~ uniform spheres, the Voids' fje:teentage will differ with their arrangement from 47.65 per cent t6 25.95 pet cent. The porosity, however, is independent or the size of the grain, if the gtairi. size is uniform throughout the sand. A sand composed entirely of 20-mesh grains has the same porosity as a sand made up of 100-mesh grains, provided the grains are similarly arranged in both sands.. In the coarser sand there will be fewer, but larger pores, and in the finer sand there will be more, but smaller pores. In well-graded sands smaller grains will fill the spaces between . the largest..,,. and still smaller ones will.occupy the remailiing interstices, i Cushman, A. S., The effect of water on rock powders: U.S. Dept. Agr., Bilr. of Chem., Bull. 92, 1905. 2 3 SRleicin.hetcekr,e,CLha.,s.Esc.o,nT. hGeeomloogtiyo,nsVoolf. 13, p; 566, underground 1919. waters: U. S. Gecll . Survey Water Supply Paper 67, p. 20, 1902. SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 35 until in some sands the voids percentage may be as low as 10 or 15 per cent. Coarse sands are more likely to be better graded than fine sands, hence their voids are usually less. Such sands are considered desirable for concrete, since they leave fewer spaces to be filled with cement and thus produce a strong concrete with less cement than a poorly graded sand would require. The value of voids determination for concrete sands is questioned by many engineers due to frequent opportunities for errors arising from t1J_e conditions under which they were made and from incorrect application in practical work. The percentage of water or moisture in sand influences its volume, since the water forms a film around the grains, forcing them apart and increasing the volume and pore space of the sand, and causing a moist sand to weigh less than a dry sand. The voids increa:?e by 25 per cent of their original percentage, -as water up to 7 per cent of the weight of the sand is added. The voids percentage found in the laboratory in a dry sand sample is therefore of little value unless the actual amount of moisture is known in the sand which is to be used in construction work. It has also been frequently po~nted out that the voids percentage in a sand is not an accurate indication of the effective voids in the sand after mixing with cement and water. In practiec, the volume of gravel is not nearly so much affected by moisture as is sand, since gravel rarely takes up more than two per cent of moisture. Difficulties in the exact determination of voids in the laboratory will be brought out as the different methods are described. METHODS OF DETERMINATION A field approximation of the voids percentage of a sand or gravel may be made by filling a bucket, of known capacity, level full with the sand or gravel to be tested. The material should be allowed to fall from the same height and at the same rate, and the container should either be given a few taps, an equal number -with each sample, to settle the sand, or else none at all, in order that the sand will not be unequally compacted in different samples and incomparable results obtained. When the sand container is full, a known volume of water is added until the water is also even with the top of the bucket. The percentage of the volume of water to that of the bucket is the voids percentage by volume. This result, however, is inaccurate, .36 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA smce considerable air may still remain in the sand pores which has not been forced out by the water. If the bucket is marked at a certain content then only a certain amount of sand need be put in and the sand and water can be agitated to permit complete saturation by the water. In the laboratory more exact methods can be used. Dakel describes a method used at first in testing Missouri sands. A measured volume of water was P,oured into a graduated tube. Into a similar tube, a tneasured volume of sand dried at l10C., 'was slowly poured without shaking down. This sand was then poured slowly into the measured quantity of water in order that no air wot4d be included with the grains.. The mixture of sand and water was tapped until no further settling results and its total "rolume read onthe graduate. The height of the sand surface was also read, or the volume of the wet, compacted sand including pore space. With these data the porosity of the wet, packed sand, and the dry, unpacked sand can be found, The following formula 1s g1ven for finding the porosity of the wet. packed sand: . Vw ___;_ (Vt-'- Vs), Voids = in which Vs . Vw = volume of the water in the tube before adding sand . Vt = total volume of sand and water-in the tube Ys = volume of sand wet and compacted (including pore space) whence (Vt - Vs) = volume of water above compacted sand,. and Vw---'" (Vt- Vs) = water in the pores of the sand (the total water less the water ' above the sand), or . Vw- (Vt- Vs) = actual porosity in the wet .packed sand, whence Vw -(Vt- Vs) = proportion of porosity in wet packed sand Vs The following formula is used to get the porosity in the dry unpacked sand: Vw- (Vt-Vd) Voids percentage = X 100, in which Vd Vd = the volume of dry sand, all the other symbols being the same as in previous formula As pointed out by Dake there is a tendency, to stratification when the sand is poured into the water. Since stratification forms layers of equally sized grains, th~ voids in these layers would be greater than if the different grains were thoroughly mixed. Thoroughly mixing before adding to the water and a minimum fall to the water will help to minimize. this error. 1 Op. cit.; pp. 22-24. SAND AND GBAVEL DEPOSITS .37 The water might be poured into the sand but an error of greater magnitude in the opposite direction is produced, since air will remain in the pores, thus preventing complete saturation by the water. Dake found that in tests of this kind, after standing five hours, air bubbles that could not be shaken out still persisted. He also found in several tests of the same coarse-grained sand, differences of two per cent in the pore space, but with fine sand the results of the latter method are more unreliable. With moderately fine-grained sand, by pouring the sand into the water, tests on the same sand differed by less than two per cent in three tests, but when the water was poured into the sand, three trials differed from each other by over four per cent and ran from three to six per cent lower than when the sand was poured into the water. Dake also found that if small samples (under 100 cc.) were used in the voids determination the results showed differences of from 2 to 5 per cent, but in samples of 300 cc., or larger, repeated trials Yz checked to within to 2 per cent. The smaller samples showed less porosity. Another method frequently used in sand-testing .laboratories, which obviates the inaccuracies of the foregoing methods, is to intro- duce the water into the sand-containing vessel from below. In a variation of this system described by R. L. Humphrey 1 , a percolator about three inches in diameter is used, having a funnel-shaped orifice at the bottom, which is connected by a rubber hose to a graduated burette standing higher than the percolator. A small, perforated, porcelain dish or strainer fits over the opening in the bottom of the percolator. A given quantity of the sand for determination is placed in the apparatus, filling it to a mark which indicates a definite volume. Water is allowed to fill the tube and percolator until even with the strainer to avoid compution of the water in the tube. The level of water in the burette is then read, and water is allowed to enter the percolator from the bottom until it reaches the top of the sand. The difference in the burette readings equals the amount of water required to fill the voids in the sand. The percentage of voids can be com- puted from the following formula: C =---V:vwb x 100, in which Vw = volume of water introduced Vb = voiume of sand in percolator C = percentage of voids 1 Am. Soc. for Test. Mat. Proc., Vol. 6, pp. 405-411, 1906. 38 GEOLOGIC4.L SURVEJ[ OF GJ]JO~(fiA Although tb.is method reduce~ the error du~ tP in.~l~Q,e~ J::~,jr hll.bbles, it does not entirely exclu.de the ~ir, ancl. +t=!E3ultEl hqm it will, t.h@r~fo:re, be lower than actual. lf the w~ter is ip,tro9,-uGed f~st ~:p,Q.ug;P, to ?-g~t~te the sand, slightly better results are obt~i!led. !!;< For the determination of voids in gravels by these methods, large containers must be used. In the cone-specific-gravity method 1, a truncated steel cone, 10 inches in over-all height, 10 inches in over-all diarp,eter of the bottorp:, and 3 inche~ inside opening at the top, is filled wit}l gravel which is completely compacted and kept full until no more gravel can enter. The following formula- is used: 0-A e 1 - x 100 = percentage of voids, in which, . (B-A) D A = weight in gr~ms of empty cone J? = weight in grams of cone filled with clean water = C ::h wei'glit in grams of cone filled with compacted aggregate D s~ecifi.c gra:vity of the aggregate In testi;ng Georgia sands, none of the previously described methods were used, but the voids were computed from the specific gravity of the sand which had already been found after the method described on page 40. In the case of a sand whose specific gravity was 2.66, which is the ave~age specific gr11v!ty of sand, 100 cc. of the sand should we~gh; if it were soljd~ ~66. grams On account of the veids in the sand,:: however, it. will we1gh much less, le"ji us say 1'60 grams. The dl.ff~reh.c~; then, between the actual weight. of the sana ari.d Tts weight i( no voids existed, represents the weight of sand need~d to fill the voi~s in the sample. \' 266. gr?tms .,...-- 160 gra,ms = 106 grams .Qf t3anq. req;uireQ. ~o @ ~4e voids lQ~ 266 x 100 = 39 .8 per cent voids The percentage of this figure to the solid weight of the sand is the voids percentage, since the weights are in proportion to the volumes. The formula is as follows: (V X s. G.)- w v - - - - - - - - x- 100 = voids percentage, in which, X S.G. V = volume of sample in centimeters S. G. = specific gravity of sample W = weight of sample in g11ams 1 Blanchard, Arthur A., Elements of highway e:o,gi.neering, pp. 494, 495, 1915. BAND AND GRAVEL DEPO.SITS 39 In construction work it may be more convenient to weigh a cubic foot of sand, in which case the formula is as follows: (V X 62.5 X s. G.) - w - - - - - - - - - x 100 = voids in which, v X 62 .5 X s. G. V = volume in cubic feet S. G. = specific gravity W = weight in pounds 62 .5 = weight in pounds of one cubic foot of water In finding the weights of 100 centimeters of different sands considerable range in the compacting powers of the different sands was noticed; so that in order to insure as comparable results as possible, the container was tapped against the palm of the hand, as the sand was added, until the volume was 100 centimeters and the sample was then weighed. Compacting produced changes in the voids percentage ranging .from 5 to 25 per cent of the total percentage, depending on the grading of the sand. The use of the weight of 100 centimeters upon which to base the voids percentage of a sand, gives accurate results, since a difference of 0.1 gram in the weight of 100- centimeters of sand makes a difference of only 0.03 per cent in the voids percentage. SPECIFIC GRAVITY The specific gravity of sand depends entirely upon its constituent mineral or rock fragments. A pure quartz sand will have a specific gravity of about 2.65 to 2.66. Any appreciable variation from this shows impurities. A magnetite sand may have a specific gravity as high as 6.18. Very often the heavier minerals have a harmful influence on the strength of mortar, since they may split up and decompose. Some Missouri sands 1 show a low specific gravity which has been attributed to the porous and decayed condition of the chert grains which occur in large amounts in these sands. Table showint specific travity of sand train minerals Quartz ___________________________2.653- 2.66 Flint___________________________ } o 60 Chert___________________________ ""' Feldspars_________________________ 2.50 ICaolOinrittheo_c_l_a_s_e_______________-_-__-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-______22..6507 - 2.64 -- 2.9 -- 2.63 1 Dake, C. L., The sand and gravel resources of Missouri: Missouri Bureau of Geol. and Mines, Vol. 15, 2d ser., p. 18, 1918. 40 GEOtOGIOAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA LIIhonronrbdlteen-d-e-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-__-_-_-_-_-_~_-_-_-_-32..96 Olivine___________________________ 3.26 -4.0 -3.4 -3.4 Calcite____ ---- ________ -~-- _______2 .71 Lignite___________________________ 1 .15 - 1.3 ICthurtoilner_i_t_e_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_~_-_-44..158 Zkcon____________________________4.5. Magnetite___ ._ _________________ -'" _5 .17 -5.0 -4.25 -4.7 -6.18 Monazite__ _: ___ ------ ____________ A\19 -5.3 Although the specific gravity/ of a sand is not necessary in testing, ~t is of value in computing the very important factor of voids content, and for ~hat reason it has been included in the tests in this report. The average specific gravity of Georgia sand is 2.66. METHODS OF DETERMINATION In testing Missouri sands Dakel first _used an ordinary graduated tube. A measured quantity of water was put into the tube and into this 100 grams of sand were poured,. and. the mixture of sand and water . thoroughly shaken to remove included air bubbles. The new height of the water was then noted and the data used in the following formula: w S. G. = - - - - - - - , in which Vt- Y.w W = weight of. dry sand in gr.ams Vw = Volume of water in tube in cubic centimeters Vt = total volume of sand a\ nd watel' -in the tube in cubic centimeters . The graduate was read to the nearest cubic centimeter and interpolation to_te?-ths was tried, but it was impossible to read the volume closer than 0. 3 ec. These results gave variations of from 0. 01 to 0. 06- in the specific gravity of the sand which were considered too large, To increase the accuracy of the determination a Le Chatelier bottle was itsed; ALe Chatelier apparatus was also used in finding the specific gravity of Georgia sands. It has a large, globular base, into which 50 grams of sand were placed, and a long, narrow, graduated neck, thus permitting very sensitive readings of the liquid. Since many of the sands tested contained clay in amounts large enough to produce a slight foam at the top, which gave trouble in reading the meniscus, gasolene was used instead of water. A sharp reading could then always be. obtained'" and the bottle cleansed itself much more readily after 1 Op. .cit., p. 19. SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 41 each sand than when water was used. The formula given above can be used with this method. When doubt existed as to the results obtained by the Le Chatelier apparatus, p~rticularly in fine-grained sands, a picnometer bottle was used. The picnometer is a small, globular-shaped bottle, with a perforated stopper, which permits the water to overflow when it is inserted, so that the bottle is always filled to the same point. The weight of the picnometer empty, and full of water, is then found, and a known weight of sand is placed in the bottle which is filled with water and weighed, care being taken to exclude air bubbles. To get the best results a constant temperature should be maintained when using this apparatus. It will give results accurate to within five thousandths. The following formula is used to find the specific gravityi by this method: Ws + - - - - - - = specific gravity (Ws Wb)- Wt Ws = weight of sand (in grams) Wb = weight of bottle filled with water only (in grams) Wt = total weight of bottle with sand and water (in grams), whence + Ws Wb. = the total weight of the substance involved, and + (Ws Wb) - Wt = weight of the water displaced, and hence its volume. The specific gravities of Georgia sands are listed in the tables. The average for all the sands tested was 2. 66. To get the specific !::.1av-ity of gravels or coarse aggregates, the specific g-ravity of material Y2 72 over inch and under inch in size is separately determined, and the specific gravity of the whole can be calculated, if the proportion of the materials of these sizes is known 2 WEIGHT OF SAND AND GRAVEL The ;weight of, sand and gravel is valuable as a guide in certain transportation questions; in proportioning sand and gravel of one kind with other kinds, or with other materials; and in converting one unit of measurement into another. The weight is usually given in pounds per cubic foot or pounds per cubic yard. Sand and gravel are generally sold by the ton or by the yard. Dealers may wish to 1 Op. cit., p. 21. 2 Hubbard, Prevost, and Jackson, F. A., Jr. The specific gravity of non-homogenous aggregates. Proc. Am. Soc. Test. Mat. Vol. 16, Pt. 2, pp. 378-402, 1916. See aleo Am. Soc. Test. Mat. Pwc. Vol. 17, pt. 1, pp. 776-778, 1917. 42 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA convert t:ms into yards, cnr yards into tons, to fix an equal.priGe for their product when sold on either basis. To convert yards into short tq:g.~ it is n~c~esswy to know the weight pe.:r GUbic y~:rd of the s~;~.nd. This can be f;tGtU!1llY dete:vrpined for the :;ll:\>nd i:O. que~tion or a.n aver~ge figwe can be ta.keJ,i. The U:nited Stl:l!'tes GeolQgioa.lSu:rvey 1 has co~- . put.ed the average weight of 11 y?;rd of sand to be.2&6.5 pounds and the average weight of a yard of gravel to he ~820 poUJ.ld!S. The average weight per cubic yard of l50 sa:t;D.ples of Ge(,:wg~ !:ll:\>u.ds was ~660 poup_ds. TaJP..ng the average weight of a cubic yard of sa.nd from the Federal Survey's estimate, 2665 pounds, a,nd dividin..g it by ~Q,PO we get 1.33, or the number of short tons in a cubic yard of sand. To convert 300 yards -of sand, for ex:"8-mple, into short tons we multiply 2665 by 300 and get 799, 500 pounds, wJ;rich we divide by ~000 a,nd find 399.7 short tons. To convert short tons into yards we divide 2665 into the tott;tl number of pounds in the quantity in question. To find the value of a ton of sand selling at $1.30 a yard, we multiply $1.30 by 2000, getting 2600, wh' ch we divide by 2665 and get $0.9772 as the value . of a ton. M~THOPS OF DET:ERl\UNATIQN The simplest way to find the weight of sand is to fill a box of known volume. and weight, with the sand or gravel and th"Em weigh the box, the-difference in weight eqa3illing'ihe weight perUE.it of-sand. Care m. ust be taken,. however, to see t.hat the sand . is added to the container in the same way for each sample and that it receives just the same amount of packing, else the results will not be comparative. Dif- ferent persons in finding the weight ef the same sand will inva:viahly arrive at different results unless each takes great care in perlorl'Qing the operation in tp.e same manner. Differences in weight of the same volume of sand .of fr.om 3 to 25 per cent are possible, depending on whether or ~ot the sand iE? shaken down as it is added to the container': In this report .the volume weight of sand was found by weighing to the nearest tent}). of a gram1 100 cubic centimeters of thoroughly dried sand in a bottle after Qomplet~ly settijng the sand as it was added, by tapping the bottle ~gainst the palm of the hand, and then multiply- ing this weight by a factor depep.ding on whether the weight of a cubic fo9t pr a cubic yard was desired. ' Since there are approximately 28,317 centimeters in a cubic foot, then. the weight iP. g:r~m$ of a cubic foot of s11n,d may b~ fgp.p.d by m.u.lti- 1 Stone, R. W., U. S. Geol. Survey Mineral Resources, 1918, p. 314, 1919. / SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 43 plying the weight of 1 centimeter by 28,317, or the weight of 100 cen.. timeters by 283.17. This number of grams can then be converted into pounds by dividing by 453.3, the number of grams in a pound. The actual weight in pounds of a cubic foot of sand can be found di- rectly by multiplying the weight of 1 centimeter in grams by 62.5, which represents the two combined factors. To find the weight of a cubic yard, simply multiply the weight of a cubic foot by 27. An accurate determination of the weight of a cubi_c foot based on so small a sample as 100 cubic centimeters is possible, since a difference of one- tenth of a gram in the weight of 100 centimeters only affects the weight of a cubic foot by 5 ounces. ' MORTAR TESTS OF SAND 1 Actual tests, to determine the tensile, transverse, and compressive strengths of the concrete a given sand will make, are the most satisfactory, and they should be made in all important work, when there is sufficient time. However, only those who are experienced in the hand mixing of mortar should make the tests, as there is a knack in properly mixing the materials, and the amount and manner of puddling and ramming is so important that the results of tests by inexperienced persons will be practically valueless. The strength of the concrete made from the unknown sand is compared with the strength of concrete made from a standard sand, and this proportion reduced to percentage is known as the "strength ratio'' of the sand. In the United States, natural Ottawa (Illinois) saJ;l.d, screened to pass 20 mesh and retained on 30 mesh is used for this purpose. The tensile strength i~ generally found in mortar tests, since it requires simple apparatus and is easily made, although, consistent accurate results are sometimes hard to obtain and the test itself is not of much practical application, nevertheless it serves very well for comparative testing. It is made by subjecting a mortar briquette, which is of 1-square-inch cross section at the center, and bulged at the ends, to tension induced at the ends. Transverse strength, or modulus of rupture, is of less importan~e than the crushing strength, but due to the greater ease of making both, 1 For detailed description of mortar tests see Taylor and Thompson, op. cit., pp. 343348. GEOLOGIQAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA ! this test and the tension test, it is more frequently made. The timsion and transverse tests serve, when made comparatively with some standard sand, to show the proportionate values of different sands. Compression tests are usually made on cylinders of concrete, whose heights are twic~ their diameters. These cylinders are sub- jected to pressure in a hydraulic compression testing machine. The machine is quite expensive and although thee;e. tests are probably of more value in showing the a;ctual strength value of the concrete, they are not used gene~ally in testing sands. ' SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 45 THE USES OF.SAND AND GRAVEL BUILDING SAND AND GRAVEL Sand and gr~vel used in concrete; sand used for brick mortar and plaster; and roofing gravel, are included in this report under building sand and gravel. Approximately 73 per cent or 282,165 tons, of the sand and gravel commercially produced in Georgia during 1919 has been used for these purposes. Almost every one has had occasion to use sand for such work, and hence an enumeration of its requirements should aid in making a selection of materials when a choice is possible. CONCRETE AGGREGATE With the advent of concrete roads, and the ever-increasing use of concrete for practically all building purposes, a consideration of the fine aggregate, or sand, and the coarse aggregate, which may be gravel, broken stone, slag, cinders, or broken bricks, becomes necessary if economical and durable results are to be obtained. Until within the last ten years very little attention had been given to the matter of determining what constituted good concrete aggregate. Tests were restricted to a casual inspection and rarely, if ever, was the sand or gravel made in concrete briquettes and subjected to tension and com- pression tests. At present the Federal government and some of the State governments, as well as the Portland Cement Association, nuplerous universities and private laboratories, are making elaborate tests on sands and gravels not only to determine those tests of most practical value, but to actually determine which of a number of equally available aggregates will prove most economical and lasting. In Georgia, the Road Materials Testing Laboratory, at the Georgia School of Technology, in Atlanta, makes thorough tests of sand and gravel for which a nominal charge is made to cover the expense of the work. Tests for building and road sand and gravel are made free of charge at the Bureau of Public Roads, and tests of molding sands at the Bureau of Standards, both at Washington, D. C. Testing of the sand should not be confined merely to the selection of the best pit, but it should be continued on each shipment of the material to the construction work. With a knowledge of the size of the grains a great saving can frequently be affected by combining two cheaper sands and thus substitute sand or stone for more expensive cement without reducing the desired strength of the concrete. 46 G1UJLOIJ.10AL KrJRVEY OF GEORGIA Due to its bulk, tarely more than a day's supply of .aggregate can be stored near the work,; consequently there is not sufficient time to make mortar tests; ihvolving a::t l~ast 7 day~; nevertheless, the need for such tests exists. To take the place of such long tests, shorter tests, based on the relation between the grain sizes of the sand and the mortar strength, have been- devisea. By applying these methods the quality of each carload or shipment of sand can be quickly found. Such tests, however, should not replace mortar tests wlieri there is plenty of t:ime. In small jobs, requiring only a few wagon-loads of mateHai, elaborate testing would of course be unwise; nevertheless, fio job is too small to neglect the application of a ntih1ber of easily applied field tests. . Very often a few hours additional search or inquiry will disclose sand much more desirable, and such a search is certainly not wasted, when the effect of the aggregate upon the resulting concrete is so marked. SAND In general a good concrete sand should conform to the following requirements: ( 1. The grains should be coarse, i ,to } inch, with a smaller amount of fines (under i- inch), Tather than all fines. ' Sands whose grams are mostly under ~ of an inch will require twice the cement a coarse sand would require to make a concrete of equal strength 1 Uniform grading of the grains may be desirable but not necessary; coarseness is the most important quality. 2. Vegetable matter even iii minute quantities is particularly injurious in a mortar sand. 3. dlay and silt exceeding 8 to 12 per cent is also harmful in sand, although where the local supply is limited, a high-'clay sand, or dirty sand, may be used in very small and unimportant work rather than to incur the expense of shipping in more desirable sand. The U. S. Bureau of Public Roads reccommends the following specifications for sand for use 'in first class concrete: "All to pass a l-inch sieve, to hav~ at least 20 and not more than 50 per cent retained on a 20-:fuesh sieve, at least 80 per cent retained on a 50-mesh sieve, and at le:ast 97 per ceiit retained on a 200~mesh sieve. . "To have a ten.Sile strength ratio, when compared to standard Ottawa sand mortar o:i:'iquets,. of .at least 100 per cent." 1 Taylor, F. W. and Thompson, S. E. ,Concrete, piairi and reinforced, 2d. ed., p. 159 a, 1911 SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 47 For concrete of the second class the following are suggested: "All to pass at-inch sieve, to have not more than 80 per cent retained on a 20mesh sie:v;e, and to have at least 50 per cent retained on a 50-mesh sieve, and at least 95 per cent retained on a 200-mesh sieve. "To have a tensile strength ratio, when compared to standard Ottawa sand mortar briquets, of at least 75 per cent." GRAVEL 1. The pebbles should be composed of durable unrotted material, not likely to disintegrate when subjected to the pressure of the settling concrete. 2. The gravel should be entirely free from vegetable matter and contain as little clay or silt as possible. What clay or silt exists in the gravel should be uniformly distributed through it. 3. Coarse pebbles with a maximum of 2,72 inches in diameter are desired. The U. S. Bureau of Public Roads suggests the following specifications for gravel to be used iri concrete aggregate: "All to pass a H-inch screen and to be retained on a !-inch screen, and to have at least 25 and not more than 60 per cent retained on a -!-inch screen." For emphasis and convenience of discussion, the following characteristics of the concrete aggregate will be considered: Size of grain and impurities, which include the clay, organic matter, and mineral and chemical content. SIZE OF GRAIN Numerous tests of various sands have shown conclusively that the relative proportions of grains of different sizes have a great effect on the strength of the mortar produced from the sand and also upon the quantity of cement required to produce a mortar of given strength. Many of these investigations have indicated that the grading should be uniform - that is, the sand should contain as nearly as possible equivalent amounts of each size grain from~ inch down to 100 mesh. Fuller and Thompson 1 after making numerous tests of differently graded aggregates arrived at the following conclusions of which an abstract of those affecting sand and gravel is given: 1 Fuller, W. B., and Thompson, S. E., Laws of proportioning concrete: Am. Soc. Civil Eng. Trans., Vol. 59, pp. 67-143, 1907. 48 GEOLOGICAL SUP,VEY OF GEORGIA 1. Stone of largest size makes strongest concrete; a graded mix- ture, in which the maximum size of the stone is 272 inches in diameter, gives stronger concrete than a mixture where the maximlllN? stone is 1 inch in diameter. 2. Aggregates in which particles have .been specially graded in sizes, produce cements of high~r strength than mixtures of cement and natural material in similar proportions. The average improvement in strength by artificial grading under the conditions of the tests was about 14 per cent. Comparing the tests of strength of concretes having different percentages of cement, it was found that for similar strengths the best artifically graded aggregate would require about 12 per cent less cement than a like mixture of natural materials. 3. The strength and density of concrete is affected by the variation in the diameter of the particles of sand more than by variation in the diameter of the stone particles. 4. An excess of fine or of medium sand decreases the density and also the strength of concrete, htt a deficiency of fine ~rains of sand in a lean concrete decrease the strength of the concrete. 5.. T:he best mixture of cement 'and aggregate has a mechanical ~nalysis curve resembling a parabola, although the ideal mechanical analysis curve is slightly different for. different materials.! . The tabulated results of mechamcal analyses of an aggregate are _practically meaningless to many. Curves have been devised, which show at a glance the granulometric compositio;n and which afford means of comparing the grading of two or more sands. In Fig. 1 the curve represents approximately a granulometric analysis of so-called ideal uniformity 2 The character of other sand curves, so far as their uniform grading is concerned, shows up favorably or unfavorably as compared with the ideal curve. Chapman and.Johnson3 have shown how a considerable saving may be effected by using a cheaper and poorly graded sand, if the lacking grades are supplemented by the addition of sufficient stone screenings or other sand to produce an artificial mixture whose grading approximates that indicated by the ideal cp.rve. In the particular case m 1 Op. cit., pp. 192193. . 2 After Fuller, W. B., in Taylor, F. W. and Thompson, S. E., op. cit., p. 183. 3 Chapman, C. N., and Johnson, N. C., Economic side of sand testing: Eng. Record, Vol. 71, pp. 734-737 (correction p. 813) 1915. SA.ND A.ND GRA.Vl!."L DEPO l1'S OF Gl!-'OlWI Ll PLATE lll A. KEYSTOI\E EXCAVATC'R USED IN LOADING TRUCKS, RICHMO D COUNTY GRAVEL PIT, COLUMBUS B. MINING SAND BY DRAG-LINE SCRAPER, J. R. HIME SAND COMPANY, J UNCTION CITY, TALBOT COUNTY SAND AND GRAVEL DF..POSITS 49 question, sand A, a naturally well-graded sand, could be obtained for $2.24 a ton including freight, while the poorer sand,. B, cost only $1.92. Stone screenings cost $0.88 a ton, and the cost of mixing them with the sand was about 3 cents a yard. To determine the amount of each type of sand needed to form the artificial mixture, it is necessary to plot the mechanical analyses of the sands on the ideal curve (See fig. 1). From the diagram we see that the ideal grading curve cuts, let us say, the 40-mesh ordinate at 78 per cent; the analysis of the cheaper sand cuts this ordinate at 40 per cent and the analysis of the stone-screenings curve at 90 per cent. making the difference between the ideal curve intersection and that of the two aggregates respectively 38 per cent and 12 per cent. Each of these differences are then divided by their sum to determine the proportion of each necessary to make an ideal mixture, which in this case is 76 and 24 per cent respectively. The process is repeated for all mesh sizes and the average taken. This figure then shows the proportion of screenings and sand to be used to make a mixture conforming to the ideal grading. In this way a sand capable of producing a concrete conforming to the specifications can be obtained at a smaller cost than if the naturally well-graded sand was used. Feret 1 made a large number of experiments to determine the re~ lation between the grain sizes of sand and the compressive strength of mortars. He divided the sand into three sizes corresponding to the mesh sizes, which he called coarse, medium, and fine: Coarse ______Passing 5 mesh and retained on 15 mesh Medium____ passing 15 mesh and retained on 46 mesh Fine ________ passing 46 mesh and retained on By combining various amounts of each size and testing the strength of the mortar made from the combination he found that the densest mortars uare those in which there are no medium grains, and in which the coarse grains are found in a proportion double that of the fine grains, cement included." Taylor and Thompson 2 , in commenting on Feret's method, say that the method is undoubtedly valuable for sand-mortar mixtures but that for concrete mixtures having coarse aggregate to be con- 1 Feret, R., Annales des Ponts et Chaussees II, p. 182, 1892. See also Taylor, F. W., and Thompson, S. E., Concrete, plain and reinforced, pp. 155-162, 1916. 2 Op. cit., p. 192. (Footnote) 50 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA , sidered, more than two sizes of materials are theoretically necessary to obtain the densest mixture. . Recently, the relation between the surface area of the sand grains and the amount of cement required to produce a mortar of given strength has been 'emphasized. Of two sand grains the larger will have less 'surface area, in proportion to its volume, ~han the smaller. The total surface area of a given volume of coarse sand will be much less than the surface area of the same volume of fine sand. A large surface area requires more cement to produce a. given mortar strength than a small area, because a larger are!:!- must be coated with cement, and more points of contact exist between the grains which must be 'bridged over with cement. Edwardsl has made a number of tests which show that a given cement .mix will produce the strongest concrete with sand of the least surface area. This paper illustrates the method of proportioning the mix, in practice, by curves. Quite recently Professor Abrams 2 has produced evidence which appears to show that the usual methods of proportioning concrete by sieve analysis of aggregates are open to considerable error. His conclusions were reached after three years of experimenting during which many thousands of tests were made. Abrams emphasizes the necessity of using coarse sand or a coarse total aggregate, which is really another way of considering the surface-area principle, since the coarser the aggregate the less its surface area. A simple method of application to practical work, however, has been found. The conclusions reached, which affect the proportioning of the fine and coarse aggregate~ are as follows: 1. The sieve analysis furnishes the only correct basisfor proportioning aggre- gates in concrete mixtures. 2. A simple method of measuring the effective size and grading of an aggregate has been developed. This gives rise to a function known as the "fineness modulus" of the aggregate. (See page 31). 3. The fineness modulus of the aggregate furnishes a rational method for com- bining materials of different size for concrete mixtures. 4. The sieve analysis curve of the aggregate m:ay be widely different in form _without exerting any influence on the concrete strength. 5. Aggregates of equivalent concrete-making qualities may be produced by an infinite number of different gradings of a given matedal. 6. Aggregates of equivalent concrete-making qualities may be produced from materials of widely different size and grading. 7. In general, fine and coarse aggregates of widely different size or,grading can , be combined in such a manner as to produce similar results in concrete. l'lEdwarda, L. N., Am. Soo. for Test. Mat. Proc., Vol. 18, pt. 2,_p. 235, 1918. 2 Abra:ins, D. A., Design of oonorete mixtures: Struo. Mat. Res. Lab., Lewis Inst., Chicago, Bull. 1, 1919. SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 51 8. The aggregate grading which produces the strongest concrete is not that giving the maximum density (lowest voids). A grading coarser than that giving maximum density is necessary for highest concrete strength. 9. The richer the mix, the coarser the grading should be for an aggregate of given maximum size; hence, the greater the discrepancy between maximum density and best grading. 10. There is an intimate relation between the grading of the aggregate and the quantity of water required to produce a workable deposit. 11. The water content of a concrete mix is best considered in terms of the volume of the cement - the water-radio. 12. The shape of the particle and the quality of the aggregate have less infl.uence on the concrete strength than has been reported by other experimenters. These conclusions present an entirely new understanding of the .functions of the sand and gravel in a concrete mix. Although the importance of good grading in the coarse and fine aggregate is still apparent, it is of less force than the necessity of having a coarse sand as shown by the fineness modulus (See fig. 4),. together with the least amount of water necessary to produce a plastic and workable mix. Sand having a fineness modulus of less than 1.50 is undesirable as a fine aggregate in most concrete mixes, and sands whose fineness modulus exceeds 3.00 will generally give a concrete of normal strength ratio. 0 /.(70 V-5/Y/x ~~o-R,n. 0'4//~ 4/> / .r::4~~~~/h ~r~are l ?CJO ,300 4.CJO S'OCJ 6.00 7.00 .l'l~ne~ Mod4"/~ o/'A_9.9a"'P Fig. 4.-Relation between fineness modulus of aggregate and strength of concrete. 52 GEOLOGICAL SVRYEY OF GEORGIA In applying these principles to concrete mixtures, the coarsest grained sand and the coarsest aggregate should not be ,used rega,rdless of the richness of the mixture. The richer the miX the higher the fineness modulus of the sand may be that can be used with it; in lean mixtures the coarseness of the sand is limited. Fig. 5 shows the maximum values of the fineness moduli of aggregates used in various mixes. In general the aggrl;)gate having the highest fineness modulus for the mix to be used will produce the str.ong- ~st concret~. For details regarding the method of proportioning coarse and fine aggregates of different fineness moduli, the reader is referred to the pa-per of Professor Abrams already cited. 0 4.oo 4-SO soo ~o &Oo ~so' zoo .19/A:?nessMoobhs or~..9re9ok Fig. 5.-Relation between fineness modulus of aggregat~ and st,:ei!.gth of concrete. SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 53 VOIDS Since the percentage of voids of a sand depends or:. the grading, it is generally thought, when low, to indicate a good concrete sand. There is considerable doubt, however, whether the voids percentage of a dry sand is an accurate estimation of the voids in the sand when it is in concrete mix. Tests of 34 sands selected at random from a much larger number made by the New York State Highway Department! from 1908-1910, show the sand having the least voids to be the best. Jewett2 believes a low .percentage of voids does not give mnch indication of the value of a sand, unless accompanied by coarseness of grain. Withey 3 ; after testing 15 sands and fine aggregates, came to the conclusion that the laws of Feret could probably be applied to the tensile and transverse strengths of mortars as well as to the compressive strength. Although these experiments illustrated the value of well-graded sands, they showed no well-defined relation between mortar strength and either percentage of voids, uniformity coefficient, or percentage of silt. The work of Abrams 4 would indicate that the value of the percentage of voids is not of major importance, unless the fineness modulus of the aggregate is high. In this report a determination of the voids of the various sands has been included. Although a range of opinion regarding the grading of a concrete sand and gravel has been presented, the various ideas as to their effect on the strength of concrete only emphasize the importance of knowing the mechanical analysis of representative samples of the sand to be used in construction work. With a knowledge of the grading we can determine the value of the sand whether the theories of Fuller, Feret, or Abrams are favored. Present knowledge indicates that a uniform grading is not the most desirable property of a concrete aggregate, but rather a minimum of surface area of the grains in proportion to the cement used. Coarse 1 Greenman, R. S., Practical tests for sand and gravel proposed for use in concrete: Am. Soc. for Test. Mat. Proc., VoL II, p. 516, 1911. 2 Jewett, J. Y., Some sand experiments relating to per cent of voids and tensile strength: Am. Soc. for Test. Mat. Proc., Vol. 6, pp. 405-411, 1906. 3 Withey, M. 0., Tests of mortar made from Wisconsin aggregates: Am. Soc. for .Test. Mat. Proc., VoL 13, pp. 834-857, 1913. 4 Op. cit. 54 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA sands best answer this requirement. The accompanying tables in elude calculations of the fineness moduli of Georgia sands, so that in less important work a simple comparison of the fineness moduli of sands from different localities may serve as an indication of the value of a concrete sand. For work involving a large mori.ey outlay, more refined application of Abrams' principles is desirable from the economic standpoint. IMPURITIES The impurities affecting a concrete sand or gravel are clay, (under which, silt, soil, and loam are here included), organic matter, and mineral grains other than quartz. The subject. of impurities in sand, or its "cleanness," has called forth much discussion. Tests have been made which seem to show that clay, silt, and even vegetable. matter have little bad effect upon the concrete-making qualities of a sand. In fact some experiments have indicated the desirability of a high clay content in sand. Many of these results must be accepted with caution and some unconditionally rejected, however, and in all of them the conditions under. which they were made should be. considered. Thus, sand with a clay content of 20 per cent or even more, if used with.a lean cement mix~ ture, may. :i:nake strong concrete, while sand with a small (3-10 per cent) clay content produces best results, ~ a rich mixture is Uf?ed. Taylor and Thompson 1 say "as a matter of fact it is impossible to make a general statement. either to the effect that natural impurities in sand are beneficial or that they are detrimental. .In some cases fine material may be of actual benefit; while in others the con.trary is true." CLAY Clay has a more harmful effect in concrete made from natural cement than on that made from Portland cement. Sabin thinks amounts of clay up to 6 per cent are not harmful with either cement, 2 altho1,1gh with lean mixtures with Portland cement, clay, in amounts from 10 to 25 per cent of the sand adds to their strength, 3 and renders them more waterproof. Clay, however, is harmful in concrete which will be subject to immersion in salt water. 4 1 Op. cit. p. 168. 2 Sabin, L. C., Cement and Concrete: 2d ed., pp. 319-320, 1907. 3 Op. cit., p. 271. 4 Op. cit., p. 364. SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 55 In a senes of tests made by C. E. Sherman, 1 in which differing proportions of clay and loam were used with differing cements and sands, it was found that with other factors being equal, the resultant concrete strength increased with the proportion of clay in the sand. The 15 per cent clay mixture proved to be the strongest at the end of 6 to 12 months in 8 cases out of 12. Rain 2 made a number of tests of washed and unwashed sands in which the washed sands gave.poorer results than the natural material. He concludes that clay up to 12 per cent, if evenly distributed throughout the sand, is not harmful, but rather beneficial. Whether a sand need be washed should first be determined by actual mortar tests of both the natural and washed product, since the consideration of the saving on washing is important. Others tests showed that with a 1:2 mixture sand with an increasing clay content reduced the crushing strength of the mortar, but with a 1:3 proportion the strength of the mortar in general increased up to 15 per cent clay in the sand. A small amount of clay in sand gives the concrete a smooth surface. Finely powdered clay when free from vegetable matter acts as a void filler and is said 4 to produce a more water-tight mortar. About 5 per cent of the weight of the sand is generally effective. The harmful influence of reasonable amounts of clay, free from organic matter, in sand is likely to be over-estimated. To be on the safe side, tests of the mortar-making qualities of the sand should be made when time permits, since other factors may produce r~sults that the amount of clay has not warranted. In specifying the amount of clay permissible in sand, it is wise to set a conservative limit, since with a high limit, some contractors may believe that little regard is held for a clean sand, and the limits are likely to be exceeded and very harmful organic matter also included. The exhaustive tests of Abrams indicate that the less fine material, and consequently the less clay in a sand, the better. A large amount of clay, unless it is allowed to coat the sand grains, will require an excess of water in the mix. This water excess is probably harmful, 1 Effect of clay and loam on sand mortar: Eng. News, Vol. 50, p. 443, 1903. 2 Hain, J. C., Some tests of impure sand for concrete: Eng. News, Vol. 53, p. 127, 1905. 3 Griesenauer, G. J., Loam and clay in sand for concrete: Eng. News, Vol. 51, p. 413, 1902. 4 Taylor, F. W. and Thompson, 0. E., op. cit., p. 301. 66 ,P GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGI..A sinee it iiici'.eases the amount of cement necessary to secure a desired GOncrete. strength. On the other hand, clay coated grains; most certainly do not readily aid in the setting of the concrete; but hinder it. Numerous clay particles also increase the amount of cement needed, since there is a much greater number of contacts to be bridged by the cement. The quality of "sharpness" so long included in sand requirements may be considered an index of the clay content, rather than of the angularity of the' grain, Sand containing much clay, shale, or claycoated grains, will not produce the grating peculiar to a clean, "sharp" sand when rubbed between the fingers, since the clay acts as- a cushion between the grains. Although there is little reason why sand grains should be sharp 1 and the use of the term "sharpness" in specifi-cations is condemned by many, it nevertheless is an important guide m a casual estimate of the clay or soft mineral content of a sand. ORGANIC MATTER Sometimes a sand that apparently conforms to all the requirements of an ideal concrete aggregate, produces mortar that does not give nearly the amount of satisfaction expected of it. The clay content has .beensfuall to negligible-, the :grading,appare:htly perfect, yet something in it produces bad effects. This peculiarity has been attributed -to 01;ganic or vegetabie matter, generally in the form of a more or less visible brown coating of the grains, which prevents .or hinders the complete setting of the concrete. The term loam has sometimes been used to refer to the organic matter l.n sand. Loam usually contains organic matter, but it is largely composed of clay and silt; the term organic matter as used here indicates true organic matter only. Such sands generally show in a chemical analysis a large amount of organic matter, and upon washing show marked improvement. It has been noted that the addition of small amounts of fertilizer to a clean sand gives low concrete tests. 2 Many defective sands will give different results if another brand of cement is used. In one instance the variation was from 20 to 80 per cen.t _of normal strength, although analysis of the cements gave no clue. Frees states that sand in swampy regions becomes coated with 1 U. S. Bureau of Standards, Circular No. 45, p. 36, 1913. 2 Freeman, J. R., Proposed study of concrete sands: Eng. News, Vol. 67, p. 1022, 1912. 3 Free, E. E., Proposed study of concrete sand: Eng. News, Vol. 67, p. 1024, 1912. SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 5i tannic and gallic acids, which hinder and even prevent the normal chemical action of the cement. Such material usually is in the colloidal form and can be removed by washing or by the l:Lddition of inorganic salts to flocculate it. The use of salt water has been suggested. That the amount causing trouble in a sand is small is shown by the statement of Gaines 1 that 0.1 to 0.2 per cent organic matter is sufficient. Sands obtained from rivers running through regions in which coal or lignite occurs may contain injurious amounts of coal and lignite grains. Tan bark has been known to seriously affect the quality of river sands in which it occurs. Rivers flowing through densely populated regions generally have sands with large amounts of organic matter. The Bureau of Standards 2 considers organic matter, sulphides, and soluble alkalies in sands as highly objectionable. On pages 10-11 tests are given for the determination of organic matter in sand, and these tests have been made on most Georgia sands. In general, Georgia sand's are quite free from, harmful organic content. MINERAL AND CHEMICAL IMPURITIES Under mineral impurities mineral grains of less resistance than quartz might be included. Feldsp:;tr, which occurs in many Georgia sands particularly those in the Piedmont region, although it is subject to disintegration into kaolin, or clay, is usually sufficiently durable when it occurs in sands to cause ,no trouble in mortar. Hornblende is still less common in sand, due to its weaker resistance t-o abrasion. Quantities exceeding 5 to 10 per cent of either mineral in sand might produce weakness. due to disintegration under the pressure caused when the cement sets. The writer knows of no experiments that have been made to determine the effect of different amounts of feldspar or hornblende on concrete sand. In the case of mica, however, Willis 3 found that the addition of 272 per cent of finely ground mica to Ottawa sand reduced the strength of the mortar at 28 days about 33 per cent, and also increased the per cent of voids in the sand. This decrease in strength may have been due largely to the increased voids in the sand. 1 Gaines, R. H., Am. Soc. for Test. Mat. Proc. Vol. II, p. 522, 1911. 2 Circular No. 45, pp. 35-36, 1913. 3 Willis, W. N., Cement Age, p. 172, March, 1907. 58 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA Particles of schist, gneiss; slate, and shale are common in the small stream sands of North Georgia. Due to the fissility of the schist~ gneiss and slate, and the softness of the shale, these substances should be guarded. against, and sand containing over 20 to 25 per cent of such material should be rejected even for small operations. Pebbles of the coarse aggregate should be hard and resistant. The character and properties of weak pebbles in a gravel mass can readily be found by breaking some of the pebbles with a hammer. (See page 78). .Pebbles of sandstone and shale likely to, disintegrate to sand and clay during the mixing or settling of concrete, are undesirable in aggregate gravels. Schist pebbles are also weak, and gravel containing many of them should not be used. Some of the Georgia gravels contain pebbles of originally hard material that has rotted during long exposure and now has very little resistance. Aiken1 suggests tha~ a concrete sand should contain 95 per cent silica at least. He found that of two sands having the same granulometri~ content, that with the higher silica content produced much stronger cement than that whose silica content was less. Sands with over 90 per cent silica tested' appro:xiill.ately 25 per cent stronger than s~nds whose silica was under 80 per cent. Although the silica. factor is worthy of noting in a few sands which manifestly contain a large percentage of minerals other than quartz, it is hardiy worth while to include it in specifications; since ,the great majority of sands. rarely owe what di:fficiencies they possess to their lack of silica. Calcareous sands .-Calcite or limestone grains do not appear to injure a concrete sand. Coral sand has been: successfully used where 2 no other kind was available. Limestone screenings are ferquently used as the fine aggregate in concrete, and tests have shown as much as 50 to 100 per cent strength increase over silica sands of the same granulometric composition. 3 Sea-sand.-Due to the coating of salt which the grains of seasand usually possess, it is not advisable to use it for mortar. The salt is deliquescent and a wall or structure made fromr such sand will 1 .Aiken, W. A., A sand specification and its specific application: Am. Soc. for Test. Mat. Proc., Vol. 1, pp. 341-348, 1910. 2 Webb, D. C., Tests of coral sand and rock with reference to their use in concrete: Eng. News, Vol. 59, p. 524, 1907. 3 Taylor, F. W. and Thompson, S. E,, op. cit., p. 166. SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 59 always be damp, unless the sand is exposed to the weather, away from salt water, for several weeks before using. BRICK MORTAR According to Condra 1 sand for brick mortar should pass a 10-mesh screen and 80 per cent of it should be coarser than an 80-mesh sieve. Mortar in brick and masonry work is subjected to compressive strains, particularly if used in tall buildings, and the grains should preferably be all as coarse as the thickness of the joint will permit, since mortars made from the coarsest sands are the strongest. Sand whose grains are mostly between 6 .and 20 mesh in size are probably the best for brick mortar. Good grading is secondary, as far as strength goes, but it reduces the amount of cement required. Cleanness.-Small amounts of clay, if evenly distributed through the sand, are not harmful, but they are to be avoided if they occur coating the sand grains. Organic matter is to be guarded against, particularly if it coats the grains. Particles' of lignite and similar materials are undesirable, especially if they occur on the outer surface of the mortar in the wall, since they cause unsightly marks. Color.-Color is usually not an important quality, except in fine work when a sand is desired to match the color of the brick as nearly as ppssible. Round-grained sands are, in practise, as effective as sharp-grained sands. STONE MASONRY MORTAR The characteristics of sand for stone masonry work are practically similar to those for brick work, except that in rough stone work the joints are thicker and a coarser sand may be used. In fine work, such as that connected with dimensioned blocks in buildings and monuments where the joints are made as thin as possible, a very finegrained sand is generally used, corresponding in color to that of the stone. Organic matter in fine stone work is to be avoided, particularly particles of lignite. PLAST:ER Plaster is a mixture of sand and some other material depending on the finish required on the surface to which it is applied. The plas- / 1 Condra, G. E., The sand and gravel resources and industries of Nebraska: Nebraska Geol. Survey, Vol. 3, pt. 1, p. 150, 1908. 60 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA ter may be made from gypsum, (plaster of Paris), lime, or cement. The sand used in plaster should be clean, even-:-grained, and as coarse as the thickness of the plaster coat will permit. Cleanness .-Clay disseminated throughout the sand if in small quantities is not particularly harmiul, but it should not coat the grains. Plaster used in lining reservoirs or in places requiring water tightness may cantain as much as 10 pet_cent of clay; which is believed to make . it mote impervious to water. 1 Organic IJJ,attet in all am6unts is to be avoided. Lignite or peat in the sab.d is very injurious, since it expands on drying, and if on or near.the sutface, it will cause the plaster to pop and leave unsightly pits. Georgia sands have very little lignite. Grain size.-Sand for plaster may be as thick as the coatint?;, but usually it shoulg. pass a 10-iri.esh sieve. Much fine material is harmfUl, since it causes the plaster not to ''clinch" well behind the lathe, b~t to "fall through.'; 2 Factors such as grading and coarseness of grain, that are essential for strong mortar and concrete, are not so important in plaster sands1 since strength is not bf major importance. Color .-Except in finishing coats color is not importa:q.t. Out sid.e coats usually require a light-colored sand and where extreme whiteness is desired a pure white sand is used. The sand from the Crawford and Talbot county regions is excellently suited for plaster and mortar work, as are most of the South Georgia sands, unless the cl~y adnrixture becomes too great. The coarser rivet sands, particularly the creek sands of th~ Piedmont region, are sometimes too coarse for plaster and mortar work. GLASS SAND Sand composes from 52 to 70 per cent of the bulk of the mixture of raw, glass-making materials, and upon it depends the transparency, lustre, and hardness of the glass. A careful consideration of its qualities is, therefore, extremely impqrtant. Although purity and grading of the sand is essential, it is _only rarely that these qualities- are 1 Taylor, F. W., and Thompson, S. E., Concrete, plain and reiniorced, 2d ed., p. 343, 1911. 2 Dake; C. L., Sand and gravel resources of Missouri: Missouri Bur. Geol. and Mines; Vol. XV, 2d ser., p. 52, 1918. SAND :AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 61 ideally developed in the natural product. It is interesting to note that generally throughout the world, the purest sands, from the standpoint of silica content, are found in the later geological formations. This is due to the longer period during which the quartz grains have been reworked by water many times and their impurities carried off. Both unconsolidated sand and ceme:q.ted sand, or sandstone, are used in glass manufacture. When sandstone is used crushing is necessary, and consequently a fairly friable stone which breaks down easily between the grains, rather than across the grains, is desirable. Frequent attempts have been made to use ground quartz in the manufacture of glass, but they have invariably been failures1 due to the great cost of crushing the tough quartz to the requisite fineness. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION The chemical analysis of a glass sand should show the percentages of silica .(Si02), iron (Fe20s), alumina (Al20s), and the loss on ignition, (water and organic matter). Silica.-Boswell 2 says the silica percentage should be preferably over 98 per cent, although for common bottle glass the percentage may drop as low as 95 per cent and in the best optical glass at least 99.5 per cent silica should be in the sand. Some Illinois and Pennsylvania sands attain a content of 99.9 per cent silica. In 600 analyses of 210 different glass sands cited by R. L. Frink, 2 the highest silica content was 99.71 and the lowest 88.51:, but it is said that the latter made better glass than the former, due to alumina in the sand. Iron.-Iron, either in the form of the oxides, limonite or magnetite, or in other minerals, is particularly undesirable in glass sands, since it gives the glass a green or yellow color. Much more laxity has been allowed in the past few years in setting the iron content limits than formerly, since it has been found that for most purposes just as good glass can be made with a somewhat higher content. Although a glass sand, comparatively free from iron, is generally snow-white, the color of a sand alone is not an indication of its purity, since minute particles of magnetite or ilmentite may occur through the sand and be almost invisible, yet they will sometimes giVe the sand an uon content of as much as one per cent.. 1 Mining & Scientific Press, Oct. 16, 1915, pp. 599-600. 2 Some fallacies and facts pert3.ining to ghss-making :A.m. Cenmic So~. Trans., Vol. II, pp. 296-317, 1909. 62 GEOLOGJC.AL SURVEY OF GEORGIA For the best flint and optical glass Boswell1 believes the iron, as Fe203, should not exceed 0.05 per cent, but for window and plate glass, 0.1, 0.2, and even 0.3 per cent are permissible. Burchard 2 considers 0.2 per cent Fe20 a as the _limit for sand used in plate glass manufacture. Buttram3 gives 0.3 to 0.4 per cent as petmissible percentages in plate glass when decolorizing agents are used and calls attention to some grades of English plate and. window glass containing as much as 1.92 per cmt iron. French mechanically pressed plate glass averages 0.14 pe:r cent iron. The same authority speaks of lead glass containing up to 1.93 per cent'iron and 5 per cent iron in some lime glass, with the better grades of bottle glass averaging 0.65 per cent. The Pittsburgh Plate Glass Company4 considers the iron limit for plate gl~ss as 0.1 per cent, but prefers 0.05 per cent. For white bottles the iron content should not much exceed 0.5 per cent, but for other bottles the iron content may range frorri 0.5 per cent to 7 per cent. .fllumina.-Alumina in glass for use in refractory work is desirable, since it makes a glass that stands melting without change5 Alumina in the form of clay is generally thought to be. highly undesirable, since it clouds the glass. Buttram 6 gives 0.1 per cent A120 3 as the 1hlli.t in sands for the manufacture of high grade flint ware, while up to 0.6 to 0.7 per cent alumina occurs in many sands for window and plate glass manufacture. In bottle glass 2.2 per cent is about the average. Frink? believes that alumina is bad for optical glass, but that for most other glass, alumina is not harmful. He cites cases in which excellent glass was made from a sand containing 6 per cent and thinks even as much as 10 per cent not prohibitive. The alumina aids the annealing of the glass,. reduces the coefficient of expahsion, and prevents, to a large extent, the formati0n of cords or strings, making the .glass more homogeneous. On the other hand alumina decreases 1 Boswell, P. G. H., Memoir on British resources of sands suitable for glass-making with notes on certain crushed rocks and refractory materials, 1916. 2 Burchard, E. F., Glass sand, other sand, and gravel: U.. S. Geol. Survey Mineral Resources, 1911, pt. 2; p. 594, 1912. 3 Buttram, Frank, The glass sands of Oklahoma: Oklahoma Geol. Survey, Bull. 10, p. 11, 1913, 4 Dake, C. L., op. cit., p. 83. 5 Havestodt, Jena glass, translated by J.D. and A. Everett, Munn & Co. London, p. 21 6 Buttram; op. cit., p. 11. 7 Frink, R. L., Effects of alumina on glass: Am. Ceramic Soc. Trans., Vol. XV, p. 296, 1909. SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 63 the fusibility of glass, and increases the viscosity where it occurs in amounts over 3 per cent. On the whole, then, for most grades of glass, alumina in small amounts may be considered beneficial rath~r than harmful. .Magnesia.-Formerly 0.2 to 0.4 per cent magnesia was believed the limit in the batch, but Frink 1 mentions a plant producing good .glass and using 6 to 9 per cent of magnesia i~ the limestone alone. He believes, however, the total magnesia in sand and limestone should not exceed 6 per cent. Analyses of high-grade glass sand Constituents 1 2 3 4 5 6 Silica (Si02)--------------- 99.85 Alumina. (A120s) __________ .14 99.22 .32 99.89 99.34 99.88 .105 .297 .18 99.80 .13 Iron oxide (Fe20s)-------- .012 .14 .005 .043 .02 .006 Lime and magnesia________ trace (CaO & MgO) TotaL __________ 100.002 .18 99.86 trace 100.00 .15 -------- trace 99.830 100.08 99.936 1.-0riskany sandstone, Mapleton, Pa. 2.-Burgen sandstone, Talbequah, Okla. 3.-0riskany sandstone, Berkely, W. Va. 4.-Dakota sandstone, Perry County, Mo. 5.-Best Lippe sand, Saxony. 6.-Fontainbleau sand, near Paris, France. As a rule, sands whose chemical composition conforms to the silica, iron, and alumina limits, will not show more than a trace of lime, magnesia, titania, and the alkalies. A high alumina content frequently means a high titania content. The effect of titania, although injurious, is little known. Water, since it causes air bubbles. and organic matter due to its reducing qualities, are both objectionable where a high grade of glass is desired. MINERAL COMPOSITION In view of the fact that quartz is pure Si02, a sand that is almost entirely composed of quartz grains will most likely be free from 1 Frink, R.L., Some fallacies and facts pertaining to glass-making: Am. Ceramic Soc. Trans., Vol. XI, pp. 296-317, 1905. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA impurities. The heavier and da:rker minerals such as magnetite, hornblende, leucoxene, titanite, and ilmenite, are undesirable, since such +ninerals often ao~tribute largely to the iron content of a sand. Their elimination, therefore, will greatly improve a sand. Examina- tion of a sand mineralogically also serve~ as a ch<:)ck on its character and on the deposit from which the sand came, since usually glass sands are uniform in their mineral content, and any change noted will indicate a change in source, or the introduction of some impurity in transit. A mineral examination of sand is readily made with a pocket magnifying glass. If some of the sand is placed in a drop of clove oil under a microscope, the fine quartz, since its index of refraction is about the same as that of clove qil, will stand out in relief. Any coating, likely to account for a high iron content, can be observed in this way, since such coating cause otherwise pure quartz to be visible through the oil. MECHANICAL COMPOSITION Some glass makers who have studied their sand in great detail put the question of grain size on a par with that of chemical composi- tion. Grading is indeed a most important factor as numerous me- chanica,! analyses have shown, yet few glass makers give it much at- tention. . Boswell 1 thinks a batch should have at Jea,st 70 per cent of the sand of one grade, preferably from 7.4: to ~ mm; in diameter (30 to 55 mesh). Coarse grains are left unmelted as stones in the moltep. batch. Fine material such as silt and clay is particularly undesirable, sin.ce it clouds the glass and permits the inclusion 6f air which causes bubbles. Fine mate:Fial also melts first and sinking to the bottom causes layers of uneven density,. which later produces "wavy" or "cordy" glass when blown. Burchard 2 considers that the sand should be of medium fineness passing a 20 to 50-mesh screen, and that sand uniformly finer than one sixtieth of an inch is said to burn out. Boswell, however, says that sand of this latter size will not burn out. In general, finer sand is used by British glass-makers than by American glass-makers. Kii.mmel and Gage3 say "If the majority of the grains have a dia- 1 Op. cit. 2 Op. cit., p. 595. 3 Kummel, H. B. and Gage, R. B., The glass sand industry of New Jersey: New Jersey Geol. Sm:vey, Ann. Rept. for 1906, ptJ. 77-96, 1907. SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSI1'S OF GEORGI.t1 PLATE IV B. MINING SAND BY TRAVELLING DERRICK AND OL.AM-SHELL BUCKET, SMILEY SAND COMPANY, NEAR GAIDLARD, CRAWFORD COUNTY SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 65 meter less than 0.136 millimeter (passing a sieve having 120 meshes per linear inch) .the sand is said to 'burn out' in the batch and will not produce as much glass per unit as when composed of coarser grains. When the grains are uniformly larger than 0.64 millimeter (30 mesh) in diameter more time is required to fuse them than otherwise. This lowers the amount of sand each furnace can melt per day and increases the cost of the glass produced." Similar limits for the size of the grain are given by Buttram. 1 The following mechanical analyses of typical glass sands from various sources are given: 2 .Mechanical analyses of ~lass sands Operator Locality Color Percentages passing 20 40 60 100 mesh mesh mesh mesh Ottawa Silica Co.____ Ottawa, ill,_____ White_________ 99 85 18 3 E. J. Reynolds & Co._ Utica, ill,_______ Grayish yellow_ 99 45 11 3 Tav.ern Co. Rock Sand Klondike, Mo. __ Faint pinkish yellow ________ 100 82 17 2 Pacific Glass Sand Co. Pacific, Mo. ____ Faint yellow___ 100 96 46 2 Direct from quarry West Virginia Sand Berkeley Springs, Grayish White_ 100 98 25 1 Company W.Va. Finish product ~ SRA.PE OF GRAIN A sharp gram, since its edges fuse more readily, is generally believed more desirable. Many plants in the Mississippi Valley region and .in other parts of the United States are producing all grades of glass, including the best flint ware, from sand of rounded grains. 3 Whatever effect the shape of the sand grains may have upon the melting of the batch, or upon the glass, it is probably too insignificant to be. worthy of consideration. 1 Op. cit., pp. 16-17. 2 Burchard, E. F., op. cit., p. 626. 3 Burchard, E ..F., op. cit., p. 595. 66 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA METHODS OF IMPROVEMENT Very often, sand, apparently unsuited for the manufacture of glass, may be ridden of its impurities, by simple and comparatively inexpensive treatment. Sands used for making inferior grades of bottle glass can SOfl+etimes be improved in this way, so that they can be employed in the manufacture of better glass and so increase their value. Washint.-As a means of repwving the clay, with its iron and alumina content, washing has been most frequently resorted to, and it is surprising how many apparently worthless sands can be made suitaple for glass by washing. The following table shows the result of washing a sand (No. 1) from near Blackshear, Georgia (see page 228), the average an~lysis (No. 2) of a large number of sands made by the Pittsburgh Plate Glass Company, 1 and the analysis of a slime .from a washed Ottawa sand. Analyses of washed and unwq_shed tlass sands and slime Constituents .. Vnwashed 1 2 Wa. shed - 1 2 . Slii:ne Silica (Si02 )--------------- 95.20 99.405 99.49 .782 87.21 Ferric oxide (Fe20a) ______-_ 2.11 .075 .31 .031 7.50 Alu:milla (AhOa) ____ ------- 1.16 .210 .05 .049 .. 52 Alkalies___________________ ---------- ---------- ----------- ---------- .20 Loss on ignition____________ .76 .170 .04 .100 ---------- Sometimes the improvement of the iron content by washing is too small to warrant the expense, in 'view of the corresponding loss in alumina, which, as previously pointed out, is a desirable constituent of the sand. Washing not only removes a large part of the iron content, but it also removes, even from high-grade S?-nds, considerable finely divided 1 Dak:e, C. L., Sand and gravel resources of Missouri: Missouri Bur. Geol. and Mines, Vol. XV, p.42, 1918. SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 67 silica, which may be injurious, as well as organic matter and other impurities whose detrimental action it is desirable to reduce. If the iron occurs in the sand as magnetite, ilmenite, or similar minerals, which occur in small grains; or if the quartz grains are coated with a persistent film of limonite, washing will not materially improve the sand. Washing is extensively employed in Illinois, West Virginia, Penn- sylvania, and to a lesser extent, in Indiana, Ohio, and Missouri. The methods are briefly described under Preparation of Sand for the Market. (Page 120.) Maflnetic treatment.-~ince magnetite and ilmenite, which frequently are. a source of iron in glass sand, are magnetic, the possibility of removing these minerals by the use of electromagnets is suggested, as well as particles of iron abraded from the crushing machinery by the hard quartz grains. At least one 1 glass maker uses this method to improve his sand. Screening.-Ki.i.mmel and Gage 2 have made experiments showing that minerals such as magnetite, titanite, ilmenite, and leucoxene, which are highly ferruginous, generally occur in sand as grains which pass an 80-mesh screen. Their suggestion, of screening out the grains passing 80 mesh, before marketing, is an excellent one, and should be investigated by producers wishing to increase the value of their sand, although it is likely . that with the present methods of screening, considerable difficulty will be encountered in doi:~1g this economically. Not all sands, however, owe their iron content to these fine-. grained black minerals. Many Georgia sands, as they occur in the pit are barred from use in glass-making by their limonite content, rather than their magnetite content. 1 Fettke. C, R., Glass manufacture and the glass sand industry of Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania Top. and Geol. Survey Comm., Rept., XII, p. 64, 1919. 2 Op. cit., p. 92. 68 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA Table showinf! improuenu,nt effected by sareeninf! out sand passinf! 80 mesh - Sample 669 A Sample 672 A - . Constituents " Before screening After screening Before screening -- After screening Iron oxide (Fe20 3)- '-- -------- 0.0068 0.0022 0.0114 0.0029 Titania (Ti02)--------------Alumina (AhOg) _____________ 0.117 0.276 0.024 0.085 0.234 -~ 0.366 / PREPARATION OF. GLASS SAND 0.0434 0.106 -- In West Virginia, Pennsylvania, Missouri, ~ansas, and Oklahoma, most of the glass sand produced is from .sandstone. This must, of course, be quarried or mined, crushed, screened, washed, drained; dried, and finally. screened into the desired sizes. If the sandstone is friable, hydraulic quarrying is generally employed but usually the use of some dynamite is necessary to loosen the harder ledges. Fairly pure sandstone is found in Walker County on Rocky Face this state and an attempt was made in 1915 to work it. .Glass sand obtained from the Coastal Plain area of Georgia is unconsolidated and may be recovered by hand or power shovels, loaders, or centrifugal pumps~ In many places the overburden is so unsuited for-glass purposes that it is necessary to keep it and the glass sand apart, so that hand recovery has been found more satisfactory than mechanical means. The various methqds of mining, . washing, screening and other treatments are described elsewhere in the report. FOUNDRY SAND 1 The term foundry sand includes molding sand, which is generally fine-grained and contains a clay bond, and core sand, which is coarser- 1 For detail~ regarding molding sand see, Ries, Heinrich and Rosen, J. A., Michigan Geol. Survey, 9th Ann. Rept., pp. 33-85, 1908. Kummel, H. B. arid Hamilton, S. H., New Jersey Geol. Survey, Ann. Rept. for 1904, pp. 189243, 1905. SAND AND GRA"V'EL DEPOSITS 69 grained, and usually requires the addition of an artificial bond. Molding sand is used to construct the forms into which the molten metal is poured, and the core sand is used to fill up the hollow spaces in the cast. The demand for molding sand in Georgia is supplied almost entirely from within the state. Small amounts are also shipped to markets outside the state. Molding sand is mined near Almon in Monroe County along Yellow River; at Ri'nggold in Catoosa County along Chickamauga Creek; and just north of Dalton in Walker County. In 1919 the production of molding and core sand in Georgia was 64,491 tons, having a value of $33,883. The many different kinds of metals cast and the differences in the manner of casting require molding sand with exacting and sometimes indefinable characteristics. Foundrymen are frequently prone to reject a local sand in favor of one that must be transported long distances, sometimes across the continent, or from Europe, but which . is believed to have qualities that can not be found elsewhere. In selecting a molding sand, unbiased judgment of it from its results will often save a foundryman consider'able money in freight charges: The determination of the value of a molding sand is a much harder matter than of sand used for other purposes. The practical foundryman usually squeezes some of the sand in his hand to test its power of retaining a form, or he will blow through it to determine its ve:qting power or permeability. Numerous laboratory tests have been devised, but it is not likely that any of them will give an exact idea of the performance of the sand in practice. They serve rather for comparative purposes, and to eliminate sands from further consider- ation. Actual testing with the molten. metal in the foundry is the only reliable way to find out what a sand can do. The sand as it comes from the pit is rarely exclusively used in foundries, but is added little by little to an old sand already in use, to replace the burnt-out grains that have been previously removed by screening. At. best, then, laboratory tests are really only comparative. The essential qualities of molding sand are permeability, texture, cohesiveness, durability, and refractoriness. Permeability.-The ready escape of gases from the molten metal through the sand mold is essential to proper founding. If the gases cannot escape, "scabs" or blow holes will be formed on the .surface of the casting. The facility with which the gases escape depends on the shape and size of the pore passages in the sand, and the extent 70 'GEOLOGICAL SVRVEY OF GEORGIA to which these openings are maintained after the metal is poured. Porosity, therefore, is not -an indication of t:Q_e per'i:neability, or venting power, of a sand. A large porosity caused by numerous minute passages does not necessarily mean that the sand is permeable; on the other, hand, a small porosity, if induced by a small number Qf larger passages, will produce a highly permeable sand. Permeability is rather a function of the texture. Small castings do not require a sand -of as high a permeability as larger castings where more steam arid gases are produced. The amount of water added to temper the sand, or bring out its cohesiveness, is often too great, and the permeability of the sand is thereby decreased. Just enough water should be added to lubricate the grains. Methods of testing the permeability of a mnd are described on pages 24-25. . - Texture.-Maxi:tnum permeability in a sand of given fineness is usually attained when the- component sand grains are rounded and of equal size. Upon the texture of the sand depends the smoothness of the face of the casting. For heavy iron castings a coarse sand .c11n be used~ but for stove-pl11te work, brass, and ~lumirium, the sand should be fine-gmined, and have _a high degree of permeability as well. The size of the gmin, therefore, l11rgely determines the grade of the sand. Th_e texture c11n- be fom:id either by the use of sieves, -or by elutriation and a~piration methods described on page 24. . Cohesiveness.-Cohesive:q_ess, or bonding power of a moldingsand, refers to_ its property of ret11ining a sh11pe .when slightly moist. This quality is prohably the most important molding s11nd can possess. It is 'due, in p11rt, to clay in the sand, and also depends, somewhat, ou the fineness of the s11nd and the sh11rpness of the gr11ins. It is not - so much the. amount of clay in 11 s11nd th11t incre~ses its cohesiveness but rather the "fatness", or plastici~y, of the clay. The least possible amount of clay _in a molding sand is best. N eitP,er 11 chemical nor mechi:mic11l 11n11lysis serves as 11n index to the cohesiveness. Richard Moldenke' considers a s11nd h11ving 20 per cent of plastic chy to be the most desimble. He gives the results of the rational an11lyses _of 11 number of molding sands as follows: ,-1 The molding sand problem is important: Iron Age, Vol. 94, pt. 1, pp. 544-546, 1914. SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS .l.lvera~e r_ational analyses of moldin~ sands Constituents Average per Maximum per Minimum per cent cent cent Quartz------------~------------ClaY---------------------~------ Feldspar ________________________ 65.53 21.73 12.74 68.7 41.2 32.4 45.6 8.9 2.3 The general method of testing a sand for its cohesiveness used by the Bureau of Standards, is to mix 500 grams of the sand with a definite quantity of water and mold some of it in a snap flask on a piece of plate glass. The dimensions of the flask should be 1 x 12 inches and the sand should be tamped firmly in with the thumb and forefinger. The plate and bar of sand ar.e then weighed, and the bar is slowly pushed over the edge of the glass plate until the weight of the unsupported end is sufficient to cause the bar tG brea~. The fragment remaining on the plate is then measured, and the data used in the following formula: Wt. of bar (in grams) S = x - - , in which s =transverse 4 strength. 45.6- L = length of overhang in inches. Average tests of samples are made with increasing quantities of water until thE) bar is deformed when pushed. Durability.-After a molding sand has been used a number of times, depending on its quality, the continual action of great heat causes the clay to become de-hydrated and the grains to fuse slightly causing two or more to stick together and form lumps. The cohesiveness is reduced and the sand is said to be "dead", or burnt out. To improve it, the burnt out or coarse particles are screened out, and new, or "green". sand, is added. The only way to judge the dura--bility of a sand is to actually use it in commercial foundries until it is burnt out. Fusibility.-The fusibility or refractoriness of a sand is the measure of the amount of heat a sand will stand without fusing. If the 't2 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEOJWI.A. grains formiilg the inner surface of the mold fuse even slightly, escape of the gases will be difficult or impossible, and scabs will form on the casting. Sands used in iron and brass work are not so likely to fuse, since the heat is not so great and a silica percentage of 70 or 80 is sufficient except in very large castings. For steel castings sands should contain at least 96 per cent of silica, and a little clay. The fluxing materials in molding sands are lirrie, magnesia, iron oxide and the alkalies. The finer-grained portion of the .sand is likely to be richest in fluxes. To test for fusibility a cone 2Yz inches high by i inches -wide at the base is made of the moistened sand. The sand is subjected to great :\leat with standard seger cones and the melting temperature determined. Substitutes for moldinfi ~and.-Satisfactory molding sand has been prepared 1 by crushing a friable sandstone; decayed granite; or shattered sandstone, whose fractures are filled with a plastic clay. Earthy loams are also washed to re~ove part of the_ clay and used for _molding. Clay has also been added to pure quartz sand to produce molding .sands. The adoption of such methods. will assure an adequate supply of sand, even thougli the natural deposits should be exhausted, and also a uniform sand for each requirement. CORE SANDS To form molds for the cores or ~nterior spaces of castings, cqre sands are used. To such sand, artificial binders are added, which will be destroyed by the heat of the metal and cause the sand mold' to fall apart and be easily removed when the castjng has cooled. Core - sands are, therefore, generally a fine-to mediuin-gniined sand of un:iform size, thus insuring the maximum venting. Unless the surface of the mold is protected with a coating of silica wash, th,e sand should be :tine enough to prevent penetration of the molten metal. The following mechanical analysis is of a sand from near Howard, which IS used largely in core work. 1 Cole, L. H., Summary rept. for 1_916, Canada Dept. Mines, Mines Branch, 1917. SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 73 Mechanical analysis of a washed core sand, Howard, Geor~ia, (T-88) Percentages retained on following screen sizes ' 8 10 14 20 28 35 48 65 100 150 200 200 - -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- .1 .5 1.7 5.0 12.3 21.0 20.8 19.9 1S.O 4.2 1.3 .2 ' In large iron cores a coarse sand with a clay bond can be used; but in smaller castings an artificial bond such as molasses-water, flour, starch, or dextrine, is added. Core sands for steel castings should not contain more than 3 per cent of material other than silica (fluxes), so that the heat of the molten steel will not fuse the sand. Large quantities of core sand a::re shipped from the Talbot and Crawford County pits to Atlanta and Birming~am foundries. SAND LIME BRICK Although sand-lime brick as known to-day, has been developed within the last 25 years, they were made by the. ancient Egyptians and Babylonians. Examples of their product have often been found, and they appear to have well withstood the ravages of time. In brief the manufacture of sand-lime brick consists in mixing sand and lime moist; molding under pressure; and hardening by steam, forming a chemical bond of calcium silicate. .. The industry was first developed in Germany and a't present hun- dreds of plants exist in England and France. In the United States the growth has been more recent, dating from 1902, although today there are a great many plants manufacturing sand-lime products, particularly in Michigan, New York, California, and Indiana. The Tift Silica Brick Company, located about lYz miles from Albany, east of Flint River, is the only sand-lime brick plant operating in Georgia. Sand requirements.-A comparatively pure quartz sand or granular silicate (quartzite or sandstone), with a quartz sand most in favor, all of whose grains pass 20 mesh, is desirable. The sand should have at least 80 per cent of silica, consequently the ordinary silicate impurities in sand are not a detriment. More than 4 to 5 per cent of clay will cause the product to disintegrate easily under the influence of the weather; the sand should preferably have not 74 _GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA more than 2 per cent- of clay. 1 Peppel2 made a number of experiments to determine the effect of clay on the sand and concluded that clay up to 10 or 12 per cent was not injurious and that possibly as small an amount as 2Yz per cent might be desirable.. Feldspar which usually occurs in sand, will decrease the crushing strength and increase the tensile str~ngth, if more than 10 per cent is present. The grains of sand should be preferably of various siz_es. If the sand is all fine, the. amgunt of soluble silica is increased. A large amount of fines will prevent air and gases from escaping when the brick is put into the steam cylinder, and cracks will result; but some fines are necessary to fill- in the spaces abbut the coarse grains, and to aid in the formation of a strong bond. As a rule3 the more fine sa:tJ-d (80 to 150 mesh) in a brick the less the crushing strength, but the -greater the tensile strength. The best sand for sand-lime brick should have most of its grains between 60 and 1:00 mesh. Peppel4 believes with a sand whose grains are all retained on a 40-mesh sieve, one fourth should be pulverized so that one eighth -of the total sand will pass 150 rhesh. The grains should be sharp and f:ree from alkalies. 5 - The lime.-The lime tests 6 have shown -a high calcium lime to be more desirable than a magnesian ljme since calcium silicate is the .stronger bond.- UsuaUy from 5 to' TO per cent of lim~ is used, de-_ pending upon the quantity of silica in the.., sand. Peppel 7 found t~at aliliough the str~ngth of the brick increased with the addition of lime, the strength gained by its. addition above 10 per cent did not warrant the increased expense. Parr and Ernest8 found that too much lime weakens the bond and. increases the absorption. METHODS OF MANUFACTURE There have been developed a number of ways of treating the sand and lime and making it up into the resultant brick. The general principles are equally applicable to all of these methods and these will be considered here. 1 P.arr, S. W. and-Earnest, T. R., A study of sand-lime brick, Illinois Geol. Survw, Bull. 18, 1912, 2 Peppel, S. V., The manufacture of artificial sandstone or sand-lime brick: Ohio Giiol. Sur. Bull. 15, 4th ser., 1906. - 3. Parr, S. W. and Earnest, T. R., op. cit. 4 Peppel, S. V., Qp. cit. 5 Coons, A. T., U.S. Geol. Survey Mineral Resources, 1900, p. 1154, 1905: 6 Peppel, S. V., op. cit. . 7 Peppel, S. V., o_p. cit. p. 36. 8 Parr, S. W., and Earnest, T. R., op. cit. SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 75 The sand is first screened to remove twigs, leaves, and pebbles, and then it should be thoroughly dried. The value of drying is sometimes underestimated. It aids in grinding the sand and .permits of a more accurate proportioning of the water .added to .the mixture. Part of the sand, ranging from one-fourth to two-thirds, is put through a large tube mill, with silex lining, and using silex or chert pebbles, similar to those in use in a cement plant. Here the grains larger than 20 mesh are reduced; the dry granulated lime and the coloring matter, if any, is added. The rest of the sand is then added and the whole mixture passes dry to a pug mill, where the necessary water for slacking is added. This method is known as the quick-lime process and is the most general and desirable method in use. From here the wet mixture passes to one compartment of a large cylindrical silo where it remains for 24 hours, permitting each sand grain to become coated with lime. The two compartments of the silo permit use from it on alternate days. From the silo, the m?-terial which is now in a moist, warm condition, passes to circular press.es after the addition of a small amount of water where about 100 tons pressure is applied to each bric~. The molded bricks are then placed in long steel t"tl:bes, called hardening cylinders, ranging from 50 to 80 feet in length, where steam pressure of fmm 110 to 175 pounds is later turned on and maintained for 8 to 14 hours. The usual practice is to maintain the 120-pound pressure for 8 hours. Mter removal from the cylinder, the bricks are ready for use, but they gain in strength for 8 to 10 months after pressing. The natural color is pale ivory often tinted with pink or yellow. By the addition of mineral pigments or lamp black, almost any desired color may be produced. Several variations of the method of mixing the sand and lime are in use and are described by Peppel. 1 In the wet slacking process, the lime is slacked to a fat putty and then mix~d with the sand and water in a wet pan or pug mill. The dry slacking process differs little from the wet slacking method except that the lime is slacked with just enough water so that the heat generated will dry the finished hydrate. In the acid slacking method .5 to 10 per cent of a hydrochloric acid solution is added to the lime after slacking has begun. The acid is said to hasten slacking and shorten the time for hardening in the steam cylinder. 1 Peppel, S. V., op. cit., pp. 19-22. 76 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA Character of briak-.-The sand-lime brick .makes a beauti"ul, neat, and exceedingly durable building material, either for residences, large office buildings, or factories, and its strength compares very favorably with that ofJclay bricks. ROAD GRAVEL In 1914, 42 per cent of the surfaced roads of the United States were constructed of gravel. A gravel road is similar in many ways to a sand-clay road except that a coarser sand or gravel is used. The requirements of an effective binder; good grading; and contact of .the coarser particles,- thus insuring a minimum of the less resistant binder, apply, with equal-force to the gravel as to the sand in sand- clay roads. (Page 81). Although there are few gravel roads in Georgia as a whole, due to the frequent remoteness of the deposits, excellent examples may be seen in the vicinities of Savannah, Augusta, Macon, and Columbus.- On account of the freight costs gravel can rarely be hauled more than 100 miles by rail. Although some gravel is brought 'to Georgi!'! points from the Montgomery district in Alabama; and considerable South Carolina gravel is used .in Chatham and a few adjoining counties, most of the road gravel used in the state must be obtained locally. Very often such deposits present little choice. Nevertheless, it is quite necessary that those in charge of road construction be familiar with- the proper qua'ities of good Georgia road gravel- and that they -select the best possible gravel where a choice is afford'ed.- The three requisite~ of a good road gravel are: 1. . An effective binder 2. Resistant pebbles or rock fragrp.ents 3. Well graded pebbles The Binder.-The following extract from Bulletin 2 of the Micbigan State Highway_ Department is qf value in emphasizi~g the de- sirable features of the binder: ~ "Authorities have differed as to the requirements of suitable road gravels, most of them, in my opinion, placing too much stress on the immediate packing qualities. Indeed, the average township commissioner and farmers generally have become so imbued with the idea that it is necessary to use a gravel that will pack quickly that they have almost lost sight of the fact that the only thing which makes a gravel road better than an earth roa,d is the pebbles, real stones, that it contains and is dependent upon tu bear up traffic and resist wear. SANp AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 77 "The most common material sought after for the binder :in gravel roads is clay. But, considering all kinds of weather, it is probably the poorest cementing material we have. If present, much in excess of 10 per cent of the mass, it will make mud whenever there is a prolonged wet spell, and especially when frost is coming out of the ground in the spring. Ideal clay gravels contain only enough clay to coat the pebbles, with no free lumps. Such gravels are excellent for the first layer on sandy soils, but sand gravels are much better for the first layer on clay and loamy soils. "Gravels that come from the pit with the pebbles cemented together, even though they contain no clay, will recement in the road and become harder than they we;re in the pit. Tests of specimens of this kind always show that there is much lime present and usually some iron, both of which are excellent cementing materials. Briefly, the experience of the Rtate highway department warrants the statement that there are few, if any, bap.k gravels in Michigan that do not contain enough limestone and other soft pebbles, which grind up under traffic, to furnish sufficient binder to cause them to consolidate in a few months' time, if separated from the surplus sand and earth, and properly treated after applying to the road. "In accordance with these suggestions, gravels are considered valuable for road purposes in the following order: (1) Almost in direct proportion to the percentage of pebbles constituting the mass. (2) In direct proportion to the value as road metal of the rock fragments constituting the pebbles. (~) fn direct proportion to the value as a cementing material under all conditions of weather, of the finer particles of earthy matter constituting the filler or binder." Due to the low cementing value of so many gravels used in road building, the question of binder is considered by some of more importance even than that of the durability of the pebbles. Observation of the natural bank or face of a gravel depo~it is an excellent guide to the cementing qualities of the binder. Where the face stands vertical, requiring loosening by shovels, with large lumps of cemented pebbles at the base, the binder is probably very effective. Gravel from the vicinity of Augusta, Georgia, and across Savannah River in South Carolina, is noted for its high cementing qualities, which are due to a kaolinite binder making up 10 per cent of the material. Where iron oxide or clay does not occur with the gravel, and where limestone pebbles are also lacking, the most commonly added binding material is clay. Clay for such use should possess the same characteristics as the clay similarly used in sand-clay roads. (See page 81). As is the case with sand-clay roaas, gravel roads too often prove defective because of too much binder rather than too little. It is generally believed the best results can be obtained from a gravel having from 8 to 15 per cent clay. Heavy auto traffic is particularly hard on gravel roads containing an excess of clay, hence in some localities less than the required amount of clay is used and the attrition of the pebbles by traffic is depended upon to supply the additional fine material or binder. (See pages 33-34.) 78 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA '. J. R. Gregory 1 recommends the use of washed gravel SCJ:'eened to p~ss a 2-~nch ring, the pebbles larger than 2 inches to be crushed and ..;returned with the dust to the main body of gravel. Sar_1d, if needed, should be added so that it makes up at least 35 per cent of the total volume, but not DJ.Ore than 40 per cent. The relative proportions of pebbles and clay canbe easily deter- mined by shaking a known volume or weight of the gravel in a glass }ar and allowing it to settle. 'The clay and finer materials will form a layer above the pebbles, which c&n be measured. and its percentage of the whole readily determined. Sfren~th of the pebbles.-.Since a road gravel should be largely composed of pebbles with a minimum amount of binder, it is essential that these pebbles be sufficiently durable to _resist the wear of tra:(Eic. The pebbles composing Georgia gravels are mostly of vein quartz and, ill- a few instances, fragments of tough crystalline rock, and con- sequently capable of great wear: In sonie places, pebbles that .have been exposed to weathering or erosive influences for long periods, become decayed and show a tendency to easily break up into smaller fragments and even into dust. Such a constituted gravel would of course be of little value in road building, since an excessive amount to of qinding_ materi~l would soon be prodt.lCed. by th~ attrition of the pebbles 'under" or(}inary traffic, causing the road become muddy and, "rutty" after ~rains and dusty in dry weather Where a choice of gravel exists, a casual inspection of the pebbles yvill often aid in s~lecting the .most durable materiaL By breaking the. pebbles with a hammer,. an approximate idea of their toughness may be had. The relative proportion of durable and decayed pebbles can then be found by a simple measuring or weighing device. In examining two gravels, pebbles of the same size from each gravel should be compared, since the larger pebbles sometimes differ radi- cally in composition from the smaller ones. In the counties of the Georgia Paleozoic area, (northwest Geor- gia), limestone, chert, and shale frequently make up a large percen- tage of the stream gravels. Although limestone pebbles are less re- sistant than quartz, they possess a high cementing value since the limestone dust worn from them is an effective binder. Shale and sandstone pebbles, on the other- hand, readily break up into clay and sand respectively, and a preponderance of either will soon cause a 1 Excerpt supplied by Am. Assoc. of Sand & Oravel Producers, Chicago, Ill.- / SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 79 road to go to pieces. Chert is a brittle material, and its dust makes a fair binder. Small quantities of decayed chert are not generally harmful. The shape of the constituent pebbles has a less important bear ing on the value of a gravel. Sharp, angular, fragments bind much more readily than rounded pebbles and form a less mobile gravel. The movements of angular pebbles in the road bed are restricted due to their more frequent contact with each other and the stability of the road under pressure is greatly increased. Chemical reactions between the pebbles are facilitated when the number of points of contact and the pressure are increased. It is well known that solution is produced when moist particles are in contact under pressure. The dissolved material is later deposited where less pressure exists. Stream gravels usually contain rounded pebbles and bank gravels contain a larger percentage of angular, or sub-angular, fragments. Gradin~ of the pebbles.-For. the same reason that the sand to be used in sand-clay roads should be well-graded, the pebbles making up a road gravel should contain as nearly as possible equivalent amounts of pebbles of each size. The spaces in such a gravel will be :filled by smaller pebbles, and all the pebbles will be in contact at the maximum number of points, and a minimum of the less resistant binder will be required. But grading is not essential in road gravel, since the constant attrition of traffic will usually make up for the voids deficiency in a short time. In general, the pebbles of a gravel are naturally well-graded. Almost Universally, however, pebbles of too large a size occur, and these must be screened out. Such pebbles tend to work to the surface causing rough places, or become loosened, and cause holes around which the road surface may break up. In the field a ready. determination of the ratio of pebbles to finer material may be made by passing a sample of the gravel through a 7.4:-inch screen and then finding the proportions of clay to the entire sample and to the fine material by washing out the clay (.see page 9 for field test for clay percentage). Such an analysis will show what proportions of coarse or fine material must be added or removed in order that the grading will conform to the limits most desirable for road gravels. Where the traffic is not exceptionally heavy a large amount of sand in the gravel is not especially harmful provided there is sufficient binder present. Such gravels will produce a road tending to resemble the sand-clay type. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA Baker 1 made a meyhanical analysis of 12 good road-making gravels from various parts of theUnited States, and found that the sand (unsuspended material under }4: inch) ranged from 23 to 73 per gent of the total, and that in 9 of the 12 gravels the sand exceeded 57 per cent. Moorefield 2 gives the following limits of fine and coarse material inla roa::l gravel: "1. Material retained on a. ~-inch sieve, 55 to 75 per cent. 2. Material retained on a %-inch sieve, not less than 15 per cent. 3: Material (clay) passing a 200-mesh sieve fur the surface course, 8 to 15 per , cent. - . 4; Material (clay) passing a 200-mesh sieve for the foundation course, 10 to 15 per cent. , The sand content should be at least twice as great as the clay content, and the sand and clay, when thoroughly mixed, should be sufficient to -fill the vo!ds between the larger gravel particles. The percentages given above usually will conform to this requirement... The maximum limiting size for the pebbles ordinarily should be from 2~ to 3 inches, because where larger pebbles are permitted in the surface the rate of wear is made uilequaf, and it is more difficult to maintain a satisfactory bond between the different partides." ' The following .limits are recommended by tlie United States Office of Public Roads fen; gravel to be used in the construction of gravel roads: BASE COURSE "All to pass a 2~-inch screen and to have at least 55 and not more than 75 per cent retained on a ~- inch screen. . . - ... '"At least 25 and not more than 75 per cent of the total coarse aggregate (material over ~ inch in size) to be retained ori a 1 inch screen. "At least 65 and not more than 85 per cent of the total fine aggTegate (material under ~ inch in size) to be retained on a 200 mesh sieve." The cementing value of the materia,l under ~ inch to be at least 50. TOP COURSE "All to pass a 1~ inch screen and to have at least 55 and not more.than 75 per cent retliiried on a ~ inch screen. ' "At least 25 and not more than 75 per cent of the total coarse aggregate to be re- taied on a % inch screen. 1'At least 65 per cent and not more than 85 per cent of the total fine aggregate to oe retained on a 200-mesh sieve." The cementing value ()f/ the material under ~-inch to be at least 50.. In the construction of Michigan state roads at least 60 per cent of the pebbles must be larger than t inch, while the largest pebbles must pass a 2Yz-inch ring. Such pebbles can be used only in the bottom course. Clay must not exceed 10 per cent of the whole. In New .Jersey, gravel with over 5 per cent retained on a 1Yz-inch ring and over 35 per cent retained on a. Yz-inch ring is rejected. 'I Baker, I. 0., Roads and pavements, p. 156-157. . 2 Moorefield, C. H., Earth, sand-clay, and gravel roads: U.S. Dept. Agr;, Bull. 463, p. 52, 1917. :SAND AND GRAVEL DE POSITS OF GEORGIA PLATE V A. I 'TAKE AND PIPE-LINE. GEORGIA SAND & GRAVEL COMPAKY. AUGUSTA. RICHMOND COUNTY B. MINING SAND HYDRAULICLY, ATLANTA SAND & SUPPLY COMPANY, 1 MILE SOUTH C'-F GAILLARD, CRAWFORD COUNTY SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 81 On the other hand, Illinois permits gravel containing uniformly graded pebbles up to those just passing a 3J,1-inch ring. Not more tpan 5 per cent loam should be present but it must contain l.t'i to 20 per cent clay by dry measure. In roads made up of one course only the coarser pebbles should be placed at the bottom of the gravel. Even in two:..course construction work, unless the bottom course is to exceed four inches it is unwise to use stones larger than 3 inches. It is thus seen that the range of opinion regarding the best kind of road gravel is wide. The most essential quality of a good gravel is a binder of high cementing value. Clay in a gravel does not indicate that the gravel will make a hard road surface. Even though a gravel should be entirely lacking in clay or fine sand, the dust abraded by traffic from certain types of component pebbles, particularly limestone, will soon render the gravel surface hard and durable. SAND-CLAY ROADS Perhaps the most common use of sand throughout the Georgia Coastal Plain is in the construction of sand-clay, roads. The stability and life of such roads depend largely on the character and proportion of the sand used in the sand-clay mixture. In some counties these roads are hard and durable in all kinds of weather, comparing favorably with gravel roads, but elsewhere the so-called sand-clay roads are little better than dirt or clay roads. Since the materials for the construction of excellent, durable, sand-clay roads are almost universally found in the southern and. eastern parts of the state at least, there appears to be little excuse for poor roads in this section. In the Piedmont portion, careful examination on hill slopes will generally reveal sand clay mixtures which can be made into excellent roads, if from 10 to 40 per cent of stream sand is added. The construction materials generally occur in three conditions: (1) A natural mixture of sand and clay, often suitable without alteration for use on roads, or less easily rendered so by the addition of small amounts of clay or sand, (2) A naturally sandy soil with clay deposits beneath or in certain parts of the region, (3) A natural clayey soil with sand deposits composing the smal1er proportion of the materials. 82 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA THE SAND AND THE CLAY _ Sand comprises from 70 to 90 per cent of the mixture. Normally there should be just enough clay to fill the voids between the sand when the grains are aH in contact. If there is an excess of clay, then the sand grains are free to move about in the mass and no grain is able to resist pressure more than what might be expected from a mass composed entirely of clay. With too little clay, on the ot}fer hand, the mixture, lacking binding power, will quickly disintegrate. -- The proportion between the sand and clay is also ~ffected by the fineness of the sand, since fine sand usually contai:Q.s more voids, and hence requires more clay to fill them. . The most desirable sand, then, should be coarse-grained, and the grains should be angular. A plastic or "sticky" cl~y will require more sand than one not so plastic. Clay may be tested 1 by wetting the thumb. and placing it against the cl?>Y If it sticks to- the thumb, then the clay is good for sandclay roads. A plastic clay is usually much more desirable than a porous clay. However, some days have a high shrinkage, so that when they dry out they contract. When water is added the clay expands, if clay of this type is used_ in a sanp.-clay road, the grains of sand are forced apart and the s_urface of the road weakened. .In a dey climate the proportion of clay should be larger.than in wet climates. The bst way to determine the value of a mixture, either :natural or artificially blended, is to make a short strip of test road and watch the effec~ of weather. and traffic upon it. Since local conditions may require a proportioning peculiar to a particular region, an examination of the .material composing a road which is giving staisfacti.on in a . loca-lity will be valuable as a standard with which to compare. avail- able sand-clay mixtures in that locality. Material so taken from -the wearing surface of the road should be tested for the proportion of sand and clay after the manner described on page 9. The grad- ing of the sand should also be determined by screens. A simple field test of the available materials may be made as fol- lows:2 . "Take samples of each of the available sands and clays and make a set of small uniform-sized ~pheres. Use varying proportions of the sands and clays and take care that the material for each f3phere is well worked. Place these spheres in the sun and let them bake hard. Note which ones show the most and largest cracks. These represent the mixes which would probably go to pieces in dry WElather. Now place the ipheres in a shallow pan of water; note wliich ones disintegrate first. These represent 1 Pratt, J. H., Good Roads Inst., North Carolina Geol. and Econ. Survey, p. 27, 1917. 2 Coghlan, B. K., Sand-clay roads: Texas Eng. Exper. Sta., Bull. 19, p. 8. SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 83 the mixes which would not stand up under traffic during wet weather. Some samp:es will usually be found which neither check badly in drying nor disintegrate quickly when wet. These should be used as a guide for the mixing of the material in the construction of the road. Since the amount of clay required to mix with the sand depends on the voids percentage of the sand a determination of this will show the approximate amount needed. The voids percentages have been found for many Georgia sands and these are listed herein. A simple method of finding the amourtt of clay needed to fill the voids in a unit quantity of a given sand is described by W. L. Spoon: 1 "Two ordinary glass tumblers of the same size are filled to the brim, one with the dry sand, to be tested, and the other with water. The water is then poured carefully from one glass into the sand in the other until it reaches the point of overflowing. The volume of the water taken from the glass which was originally full of water can be taken as an approximate measure of the voids in the unit volume of sand contained in the tumbler. A simple calculation will reduce this to percen~age volume." The U. S, Bureau of Public Roads recommends the following specifications for a natural top-soil or sand-clay mixtu:re: "To have not more than 10 per cent retained on aU-inch screen, at least 10 and not more than 50 per cent on a 20-mesh siev~, at least 30 and not more than 80 per cent on a 50-mesh sieve, at least 45 and not more than 85 per cent on a 80-mesh sieve, and at least 60 and not more than 90 per cent on a 200-mesh sieve. "To have a cementing value of at least 35." In localities where a natural sand-clay mixture occurs, which more or less closely approaches the ideal composition for sand-clay roads, a simple treatment2 may be used to determine it qualities Take a known amount, about two pounds, of the natural soil, and after grinding up the coarse particles in a mortar, place it in a shallow pan and thoroughly wash out all of the clay. Then dry and weigh the sand remaining and compute the amount of clay contained in the natural sample. The next step is to determine the percentage of voids in the washed sand by the method described on page 83. From the percentage of voids we can easily find the amount of clay actually needed to fi1l the voids in the sand. This amount is then subtracted from the total amount of clay in the sample leaving usually an excess of clay. The amount of sand needed to utilize the excess clay can easily be determined, since the ideal proportion of sand to clay has already been found. From this we can easily find the percentage of sand to be added to the natural sand-clay mixture to obtain one of ideal proportions. 1 Sand-clay and burnt-clay roads: U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmer's Bull. 311, p. 10. 2 Smith J. E., Economic paper No. 39, North Carolina Geol. and Econ. Survey, p. 43, 1914. 84 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA - Such tests are by no means to. be ever considered final, but should serve as a basis upon which to apportion mixtures at first; later observations on the road as its construction proceeds will indicate what mixtures are best. .Meahaniaal analysis .-Coarse sand is generally considered most desirable for s'and-clay roads, since it packs when wet. With fine sands 'there is little packing,. the materi~l assuming_ the nature. of a quicksand. 1 A sand containing uniform amounts .of each sized grain is best, si~1ce it insures the complete filling of the spaces between the coarser grains by grains of smaller size and guarantees the maximum stability of the mixture. --Such grading requires the least clay or binder, which is desirable, since the clay is least able.. to resist wear:. Small pebbles in the sand are also desirable provided there is regular grading of the fine material. The U. S. Bureau of Public Roads suggests the following specifica- tions of sand for use in sand-clay roads: ~ . "All to pass a ~-inch sieve, to have at least 5 and not mote than 50 per centretained on a 20-mesh sieve, and at least 50 per cent retained on a 50-:r,nesh sieve." ' Moorefield 2 recommends the following simple test of the grading of a sand for sand-clay roads: "Place a sample of the sand in a vessel containing water and agitate the water \mtil the sand is thoroughly in suspension. Then after the sand has been allowed a few moments to settle, pour off the water slbwly. If of g()Od quality the sana will not be carried out with the water, but will remain in the vessel until practically all the water has been drained off. Sand containing a large percentage of mica or other light mineral matter will not meet this test and is not generally suitable for use." Medium- to coarse-grained, angular. sand, then, should con- stitute the great bulk of the material used in building sand-clay roads. The amount of clay to be added depends on the percentage of voids in the sand and on the plasticity of the clay. The best way to deter- mine the mixture suitable for any locality is to actually test it out in a road, after first making a. few preliminary tests. ASPHALT PAVEMENTS Sand makes up from 70 to 80 per .cent of the wearing surface of asphalt pavements. It is mixed with pulverized limestone and heated, and then thoroughly mixed with asphaltic cement which has been separately heated. This mixture is spread upon the binder course which in turn lies upon a concrete foundation. 1 Cogh'an. B. K., Sand-clay roads: Texas Eng. Exper. Sta., Bull. 19, 0. 6,1917. 2 Moorefield, C. H., Ear:th, sand-clay and gravel roads: U.S. Dept. Agr., Bull. 463, p. 40, 1917 SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 85 Baker 1 sums up the requirements of a good asphalt paving sand as follows: "The sand should be clean, sharp, and composed of grains not easily crushed, and have as small a proportion of voids as possible." If the sand grains are coated with clay or other material, the asphalt can not properly adhere, although clay in separate particles is not particularly harmful. Sharp grains probably allow a better adhesion of the asphalt and prevent less rolling of the pavement under traffic. The U. S. Bureau of Public Roads reccomends sand of the follow- ing specifications for use in sheet asphalt: "All to pass a 10-mesh sieve, to have at least 20 and not more than 30 per centretained on a 40-mesh sieve, at least 40 and not more than 50 per centpassing the40 and retained on the SO-mesh sieve, and to have at least 25 and not more than 35 per cent passing the 80 and retained on the 200-mesh sieve." Uniformily graded sands since they usually possess fewer voids are desirable. AR the asphaltic cement is something of a liquid with capillary action between the sand grains, the smaller the individual pore space the stronger the attraction between the asphalt and the sand. 2 This implies the use of a fine sand. Baker, 3 in speaking of the sand for asphalt paving, says: " . . . . Fine sand is usually less sharp than coarse and the finer the sand the greater the surface to be coated and hence the greater the ainount of asphalt required. The asphalt is not only more expensive than the sand, but it is less able to resist displacement by pressure; and consequently the greater the amount of asphalt present, the more expensive the pavement and the more liable it is to flow under traffic. On the other hand, the smaller the voids, the greater the binding action of the cement; and also the finer the sand, the smaller the voids (interstices), although the per cent of voids may be greater than with sand having grains. of graded sizes." As pulverized limestone is added to fill the voids between the coarse and fine sand grains and to make the individual interstices smaller, so that the capillary action may be increased, it would seem that a large amount of fines in sand for asphalt paving would, therefore, be a very desirable feature. Sand with a large voids percentage allows the asphalt to work down through it in hot weather, and the surface of the pavement is then likely to crack in cold weather. 4 1 Baker, I. 0., Roads and pavements, p. 410, 1913. 2 Op. Cit., p. 411. 3 Op. Cit., p. 411. 4 Op. cit., p. 414. 86 GEOLOGICAL SVRITEY OF GEORGIA Of two sands used in paving Washington streets, that containing 42 per cent of its weight under 60 mesh proved more satisfactory than a!J.other containing only 22 per cent passing 60 mesh. 1 Richard~on in speaking of the requirements of asphalt paving sand says, in part: 2 "A clean sand is in any case probably more desirable, although satisfactory re- sults have been obtained with many loamy ones . . . . . Organic matter in the shape of vegeta,ble debris is sometimes found in sand. It is usually removed in screening. .. . . . . If this is not possible and the amount remaining is excessive the sand should be rejected. ' "T-he shape of the grains 3 of a sand has a marked infl.uence,when combined with their size and grading, upon the character of the asphalt surface mixture made with them. . . . . Mixtures made with round-grained sands are of cours;l less stable than those made with sharp sand, since round particles move much more readily over one another- than sharp ones; but, on the other hand, with plenty of filler this tendency can be neutralized, while the round-grained san,ds can be packed much more readily and closely and with smaller v6ids and_the resulting surface can; in this way, be made denser. "Surface of Sand 4-The different kinds of surfaces behave quite differently toward asphalt cement. The porous limestone surfaces absorb it, and it, of course, adhere very firmly. To the quartz surfaces the bitumen adheres, in most cases, well. "The size of sand grains5 in an asphalt pavement, that is. to say, their average diameter, is of the greatest. importance. . . . In a standard sheet asphalt surface it has been found generally preferable to have no sand grains larger than 2 millimeters in diameter, passing a 10-mesh sieve m:ade of wire 0.027 inches in diameter, or smaller than 0.1'7 millimeter, which pass a sieve of 100 meshes to the inch, made of wire 0.0043 inches in diameter." Richardson probably believes -fine sands are rrmch more desirable .since he~ays6 in'speaking of a Kentucky asphalt sand: "The sand grains are extremely coarse, the maJority of them being of 40 and 50 mesh iri size in one instance, and larger than 30 mesh in another. Such a sand grading alone would make this material unsuitable for~use in an asphalt surface." Mr. H. L. Collier, 7 chief of the Constru9tion Department of the city of Atlanta, favors a fine-grained, dustless sand for use in asphalt paving, most of which will pass a 50-mesh sieve and be retained on an 100-mesh sieve. Just as coarsenes.s of grain is the most important characteristic of concrete sands, it would seem that fineness of grain is the most important characteristic of asphalt paving sands. Sands containing from 50 to 70 per cent of their weight between 48 and 100 mesh. are probably most desirable in the long run, for asphalt pavements. 1 Op. cit., p. 4ii3. 2 Richardson, Clifford, The modern asphalt pavement, pp. 53-56. 3 Op. cit., p. 57. 4 Op. cit., pp. 57-59. 5 Op. cit., pp. 57-59. 6 Op. cit., p. 224. 7 Oral communication. SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 87 SAND-OIL ROADS In parts of Florida and Massachusetts 1 hot asphaltic oil has been added to sand to make roads. In Massachusetts 172 gallons of the oil were used to each square yard of road, and the resulting surface was excellent for light teams and automobiles. The sand should be sharp, hard, and well-graded rather than uniform or fine-grained. PAVING SAND Sand and gravel are widely used as foundation or cushion layers where the streets are constructed of brick, wood, and stone blocks, or asphalt, and also as a filler between the blocks. In 1919 Georgia produced 21,2g4 tons of paving sand valued at $12,320. PAVEMENT FOUNDATIONS 2 Usually sand and gravel are the cheapest forms of foundation for brick, wood, or stone-block pavements, and in many cases, where the traffic is comparatively light, are the most desirable, since they permit of excellent drainage. For ordinary subsoil, 5 inches of gravel, overlain by 3 inches of clean sand, makes an excellent foundation. Where the sub-grade is clay or muck, 10 or 12 inches of sand is required. Sand foundations should always be rolled. Sand and gravel used as a foundation should not contain more than 15 to 20 per cent of clay. CUSHION SAND In the construction of brick or- wood- and stone-block roads, streets or pavements, the sand support, or cushion, upon which the bricks and blocks are laid, is a very important feature. Such a cushion is primarily intended to smooth out the irregularities existing in the top of the base and give elasticity to the pavement. The sand must be free from pebbles, clay, loam, and other materials likely to become sticky or greasy when wet. Tebbs 3 says that in Pennsylvania 15 per cent loam is permitted in the sand, which prevents the shifting about, characteristic of a clean, dry sand. Larger amounts will cause settling of the bricks when the loam is washed to the bottom. A reasonably dry sand should be used thus preventing the settling consequent to the drying of the sand and its resUltant shrinkage in volume. Since the function of 1 Good Roads Year Book, pp. 402-403, 1917. 2 Buckley, E. R., Public roads: Missouri Bur. Geology and Mines, p. 42, 1907. 3 Good Roads Year Book, Brick roads, p. 421, 1917. 88' GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA the sand cushion is largely to smooth out the inequalities in the base, the thinner it is the better, thus avoiding shrinkage. A cushion from 1 to 1Y2 inches thick is usiially q~te satisfactory. At the present time in brick road paving -the sand-cement mortar cushion,having a ratio of 1 to 3 or 1 to 4 is replacing the sand cushion, since the latter has not given satisfaction when the road is subjected to heavy jars. In the case of asphalt pavements, the binder course} composed of bituminous concrete, has taken the place of the cushion sand. FILLER SAND Sand (now usually replaced by cement grout or tar) forms a cheap filler without damaging the brick when the pavement is taken up. It is easily washed or swept out, however, and does not prevent the edges of the brick frnm chipping. It has proved very satisfactory in wood-block pavements. i - RAILROAD BALLAST Most of the gravel now used for railroad ballast in Georgia has been brought in from Alabama, although a~number of years ago gravel was extensively used from a pit on the Central of Georgia Railway near Georgetowp_. - Chert gravel has been used in ;northwest Georgia, and large quan- tities were formerly quarried near Summerville. The Southern Rail- way at present is ...using a partially disintegrated quartzite schist from extensive pits n~ar Alto., Cinders, crushed rock, and sand are also generally used throughout the state; and elsewhere, clay, burnt clay_ or burnt gumbo, and chert are extensively used. The function of ballast is to make a stable, resilient road bed, which will quickly drain off water preventing the decay of ties. There is considerable diversity of opinion as to the relative merits of gravel and crushed ~stone for railway ballast. Gravel is usually cheaper and permits greater ease in tie renewals, but has the disadvantage of dust, inability to hold the surface under extremely heavy' loads, and permits the growth of weeds. Many believe gravel makes an easier riding- road-bed. If the gravel is well-graded, a more solid founda- tion of much higher binding power is secured. A ballast gravel / should cont.ain sand to fill up. the voids between the pebbles. Clay hinders the drainage, makes a dusty road-bed in dry weather, and ~mcourag~s the growth of weeds. 1 Tillsen ,G. W. Am. Soc. Civil Eng. Trans. Vol. 75 ,pp. 530-532. SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 89 The Committee on Ballasting of the American Railway Engineering and Maintenance of Way Association has made the following statements and recommendations 1 regarding the use of gravel for railroad ballast: "1. Gravel with much over 3 per cent of dustdoes not drain freely; with less than that amount drainage is good. 2. Gravel with less than 2 per cent dust makes a fairly dustless road-bed. 3. Pebbles should not exceed 2 inches in size. Larger pebbles should be crushed and returned to the ballast. 4. Less than 20 per cent sand permits pebbles to shift, under load, and over 50 per cent prevents ballast from becoming firm. 5. The Committee recommends for Class 'A' roads, 10 parts gravel and 3 parts sand.. Bank gravel with over 2 per cent dust or 40 per cent sand should be washed and screened. Class 'B' roads, 10 parts of gravel and 6 parts sand. Bank gravel with over 3 per cent dust or 60 per cent sand should be screened or washed. Class 'C' roads, 10 parts gravel and 10 parts sand. Any gravel not over-6 per cent dust may be used." Classes A, B, C, refer to the amount of traffic handled and are described in the manual of the American Railway Engineers' Association. The following test 2 made on pit gravel used f9r ballasting show the effect of sand and clay (dust). Characteristics of ballast gravels Gravel, Sand, Dust, - Per cent Per cent Per cent Remarks 81.6 61.3 86.0 59.6 58.7 27.0 50.9 12.5 55.4 49.1 1.3 2.8. 6.5 3.6 12.9 Very good. Fait. Poor cementing nature. Good but dusty-sand excess increases labor. Very poor. Gravel near Omaha and Columbus and also near Warrenton was formerly used for ballast, but owing partly to exhaustion of the more acces~ible material and partly to opening of larger and more cheaply worked deposits in Alabama, its use has been discontinued. Large 1 Engineering News, Vol. 61, pp. 404-405, April 15, 1909. 2 Op. cit. 90 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA deposits, however, await development within a nrile or two of railroads, particularly along the Fall Line and along Chattahoochee River. Most of this material is better suited for road purposes than . for ballast because of comparatively large amounts of clay. FILTER SAND AND GRAVEL In a way, sand is the most important part of a water filtration plant: Specifications for filter. sand and grayel have been investigated in considerable detail, particularly by{Hazen.l Filter sands, contrary to the requirements ~or concrete sands, . shorud be as uniform in grain size as possible. Freedom from clay and organic matter is of course essential. The terms "uniformity coefficient" and "effective size" (see pp. 27-28) have been introduced largely for the purpose of describing filter sands. The specifications for the filtration plant at Washington, D. C., for which over 180,000 cubic yards of sand and gravel were required, were as follows: 2 "Filter gravel.-On the floor of the filters and surrotincling the underdrains shall be placed gravel or broken stone having a maximum depth of 1 fo'Ot. Instructions will be given by t:lle Engineer officer in charge as to the exact arrangement and positic:ms of the various layers when the stone commences to be received upon the ground, but the arr_angement will be. approximately as'follbws: Th~ lower 7 inches shall consist of broken stone or gravel which will remain upon a screen with a mesh of 1 inch, arid which has .but very few stones over 2 inches in diameter. Above this shall be placed 272 inches of broken stone or gravel which has passed a screen with a mesh of 1 inch, and which remains upon a screen with a clear mesh of t incihes. Above this shall be placed 272 inches of broken stone or gravel, which has passed a screen with a mesh of t inch, and which is coarser than the ordinary sand, and entirely free from fine material. 'iThe material for all of the layers may be broken trap rock or granite screened to the proper sizes, or gravel screened from sand and gravel banks of a sandy nature. Gravel screened from hardpan or clayey material can not be suffiCiently cleaned. The gravel shall not contain more than a very small ammiiit of shale or limestone. The gravel shall be washed entirely free from fine material, so that water passing through it or agitated in contact with it will remain substantially clean. "Filter sand.-The filter sand shall be clean river, beach or bank sand, with either sharp or rounded grains. It shall be entirely free from clay, dust, or organic impurities and shall, if necessary, be washed to remove such materials from it. The grains shall, all of them, be of hard material which will not disintegrate and shall be of th-e following diameters: Not more than one-half of 1 per cent by weight shall be less than 0.13 millimeter; not more than 8 per cent less than 0.26 millimeter. At least 7 per cent by weight shall be less than 0~34 millimeter, at least 70 per cent less than 0.83 and at least 90 per cent less than 2.1 millimeters. No pa_rticle shall be ~ore than 5 millimeters in 1 Hazen, Allen, Some physical properties of sands and gravels: Massachusetts State Board of Health Re)2t., p. 541, 1892. 2 Stone, R. W., Mineral resources of the United States for 1913;- pt. 2, pp. 336-337, 1914. SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 91 diameter, and the sand shall be passed through screens or sieves of such mesh as to stop all such particles, and-no screen or sieve shall be used containing at any point holes or passages allowing grains larger than the above to pass. The diameters of the sand grains will be computed as the diameters of spheres of equal volume. The sand shall not contain more than 2 per cent by weight of lime and magnesia taken together and calculated as carbonates. In all other respects the sand shall be of a quality satisfactory to .the Engineer officer in charge. "The filter sand shall be placed in the filters in three layers, each layer to be about 1 foot thick, and the sand shall not be dropped from a height into final position or otherwise unduly compacted. The first two layers may be :filled in to only approximate depths and the surfaces need not be smoothed. The :final layer shall be brought to a true and even grade, and the surface left smooth and uniform." The sand and gravel specifications at the Queen Lane filters, in Philadelphia, contained the following requirements: Least effective size of sand_____________________________ 0.30 Greatest " " " " __________ -- __ --------------- 0. 38 Least uniformity coefficient_____________________________ 1.70 Greatest " " ----------------------------- 2. 70 The sand and gravel sizes were placed in the following order in the filter beds of the Queen Lane plant: 1. 3- to 2- inch graveL ______________________ ,;._ 6 inches 2. 1~ " i " 3. ~ " t " " -------------------------- 4 " " -------------------------- 3' " 4. 74 " i " " -------------------------- 2 " 5. Through 8 mesh with less than 0.5 per cent passing 20 mesh__________________________________ 1 " 6. Sand----------------------------------~------ 26 " The sand used in the filters at the waterworks supplying Atlanta, Ga., must pass a 20-mesh screen and be retained on the 40-mesh. It must be clean, sharp, and free from clay and dirt. The sand in filters must be washed every year or so to free it of the accumulated sediment collected from th~ water. A certain proportion of the original sand, from 10 to 20 per cent, must be replaced each year, due to tl;e wearing out or breaking up of some of the grains. In the case of the Atlanta filtration plant from 2 to 3 carloads yearly must be supplied. Filter sand produced at Crystal City, MiEsouri, 1 conformed to the following specifications: "The sand shall be composed of hard and durable grains, either sharp or rounded, substantially free from clay, loam, dust, or organic matter and flat particles. "When the sand, crushed and powdered, is digested for twenty-four hours in strong, warm hydrochloric acid, without stirring, at least 95 per cent shall remain insoluble. The sand shall not contain more than two per cent of calcium and magnesium, taken together, and calculated as calcium carbonate (CaCO a). 1 Dake, C. L., Sand a~d gravel resources of Missouri, Missouri Bur. Geology and Mines, Vol. XV, 2d ser., p. 80, 1918. .92 G.EOLOGIG.AL SURVEY OF GEORGIA "The sand shall have an effective size of not less than 0.40 nor more than 0.50 of a. millimeter and a uniformity coefficient not greater than 1.65. Not more than onefourth. of one per cent shall he finer than 1.2 millimeters. The diameters of sand grains shall be c~;~mputed as the diameters of spheres of equal volumes, and all percentages shall be calculated by weight." Some of tl;le washed grades from the Taylor and Crawford counties pits have been used throughout the state in. filters and compare very favorably with sands brought from a distance. ENGINE AND TROLLEY SAND A large amorint of the sand produced in South Georgia from the fluvial sand hills is used by the railroads to sand rails to facilitate the action of the driving wheels of the locomotives. In the southern states, with the heavy rainfall and persistence of vegetation along the track throughout the year, the demand is probably uniform in all seasons. '-In northern states, however, spr~ng and summer produce the greatest demand. In 1919 Georgia produced 9,091 tons of engine sand valued at $4-,988. , Condra 1 says such sand should be _hard, sharp, clean, and of a medium degree of fineness. It .should }?e sufficiently coarse to remain on the rails in a moderately strong wind, and free from clay, twigs, and pebbles, -which will clog the feeding pipes; or prevent the free running of the sand in these pipes. For the same reason the sand must be quite dry. Most locomotive and trolley sands are artificially dried. As high a quartz content as possible is desirable to insure the 'grains from being crushed to an impalpable powder. Practically all of the South Georgia sand coiiforms to these specifications for engine sand. The Georgia Railway and Power Company,_ operating the street cars in Atlanta, obtains its sand from Terrill and Proctor creeks, .near Atlanta~ and from the west bank of Chattahoochee River, near Bolton. ROOFING GRAVEL Roofing gravel is used extensively in buildings having practically fiat roofs. It is usually a screened product retained on a .~-inch screen and passing a %-inch screen. 2 -The pebbles should preferably 1 Conda, G. E., Sand' and gravel resources and industries of Nebraska; Nebraska Geo!. Survey, Vol. 3, pt. 1, pp. 186-190, 1908. 2 Dake, C. L., Sand and gravel resources of Missouri: Missouri Bur. Geology and Mines, Vol XV, 2d ser., p. 63, 1918. SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 93 be rounded to prevent cutting of the tar-paper base, and sufficiently coarse to prevent removal from the roof when the tar is melted by the sun. Sometimes stone crushed to smal_l sizes is used for roofing purposes. So far as the writer could learn, no roofing gravel is now being produced in Georgia, although about 1900 some was shipped from the vicinity of Kingston, in Bartow County ABRASIVE USES SAND-BLAST Considerable sand is used in sand-blasts for cleaning and smoothing casting faces, for removing paint from steel structures preparatory to re-painting, and for cleaning stone surfaces of large buildings. Sand for this work should be hard, containing as much quartz as possible, sharp, moderately coarse, new, _and free from clay. It should preferably be uniform in size and sliould pass an 8-mesh screen. Much of the Taylor and Crawforc!- County sand of Georgia is suitable for such work. Cape May grit, from the southern coast of New Jersey, composed of rounded ovoids and containing over 98 per cent silica, has proved an excellent sand. 1 The granulometric analysis of this material is as follows: Mechanical analysis of Cape May grit 8 mesh 20% Passing 10 mesh 70% I 20 mesh I 3% I 30 mesh trace STONE SAWYER'S SAND In the marble district of Georgia considerable sand is used with . the steel saws cutting the large blocks of marble as they come from the quarries. Similar sand, free from coarse grains or pebbles, is used in the rubbing beds to give the initial smooth surfn.ce to the marble. Sand for this work should be usually hard and sharp, with as lar~e 1 Sand blast macJ,ine, Am. Soc. Mech. En_g. Trans,, VoL 33, pp. 835-840. \)4 GEOLOGICAL .STJRVEY OF GEORGIA a quartz content as possible, uniform in grain size and free from clay. The Taylor and Crawford counties sand proves very satisfactory in the Geergia marble finishing works, although some fine-grained sand from local stream bars is used. Sometimes a l~yer of very angular sand occurs in the sand pits and care in the selection of this bed in filling orders from the marble- works would be sJ.esirable. GRINDING AND POLISHING Some sand is used to polish wood, stone, glass, and similar surfaces. Such sand should be hard, preferably all quartz, particularly that for use in glass polishing, sharp, uniform in size, and free from romse grains likely to scratch the polished surface. SAND-CEMENT In large engineering projects in the West, such as the construction of dams, .aqueducts, and reservoirs, ground sand or siliceous rock has been blended with cement and 'a pro4uct obtained that has appar.ently given satisfaction and materially reduced the cement costs. In the case of the Arrow Rock dam in Idaho, 1 a plant was constructed at a cost of $40,000 for this purpose. To the cement, 40 per cent of ground siliceous rock was l:l>dded, and a saving of $250,000 was affected, .FIRE-SAND Fire, or furnace sand, is used with either a lime or fire:-clay binder, for lining and patching furnaces, converters, cupalos, and ladles for containing molten metal. 2 This sand should contain as high a silica content as possible, preferably 9'7 per cent or more, to prevent fusing when in contact with molten metals. Its reqllirements so far as can be learned,' are similar to those of steel molding sand. (See pp. 68-69.) MINOR USES In addition to the uses .already enumerated, many of less importance may be tabulated.~~ Such uses include sand used for bedding stock cars, whi.ch should be free ,frotn pebbles and clay, and permit proper drainage. In California, and in other regions subject to high winds carrying sand, clean, white sand is evenly applied to. freshly-painted surfaces, 1 Eng. Record, Vol. 65, p. 320, 1920. 2 Dake, C. L., op. cit., p. 85. SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 95 thus preventing abrasion of the wood and adding somewhat to its appearance. Clean, white sand is used to provide play places for children, and also in certain mechanical toys. Sand is also used on sand-:paper, in scouring soaps, and when ground to pass 120 mesh and containing Jess than one per. cent iron, as a constituent of pottery glazes. Sand, free from pebbles and lime,- is added to clay to reduce shrinkage. Finely ground silica or "silex", is used in the manufacture of paints for outdoor use, in the manufacture of various chemicals, metal polishes, silicon and its alloys, and in the production of silica apparatus for laboratory uses. Sand used in the manufacture of carborundum must contain over 99 per cent silica and be preferably of even grain. Sand makes up over 50 per cent of the raw material in this product. Round-grained, even-textured sand between 80 and 100 mesh in size is required for hour-glasses. White, dustless sand, approximately 65 mesh in size, is. used by roofing companies to dust the coatings of tar paper to prevent stickmg. Sand is also added to sweeping compounds. Sand, owing to its incoherency, makes an excellent filler for fertilizers, and large quantitie.s are used for this purpose. In engineer:.. ing work sand has been -successfully used in filling mines, particularly the anthracite mines of Pennsylvania. Sand in _huge sand-boxes is used to lower bridge spans or other heavy loads supported on the boxes. Crystalline quartz and sand have been used in the manufacture of silicon and its alloys with various metals. METHODS OF TRANSPORTATION, PRODUCTION~ AND PREPARATION In handling bank sand in most of the sand-producing regions -of Georgia, hand labor is still largely employed, although the use of steam shovels, car loaders, and other mechanical contrivances are being slowly extended. Stream sand is produced more frequently on a commercial scale by mechanical means, but at a few places in the state, production is obtained by hand loading. The following description of methods of producing sand has not been drawn entirely from obs~rvations in the state, but it is hoped that it may aid in the selection of suitable labor-saving devices where conditions warrant their substitution for less economical hand methods. 96 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA TRANSPORTATION In the case of commodities like sand and gravel, having so little intrinsic value, the item of transportation makes up at least half, and frequently as much as three-quarters of the cost to the consumer. The consumer is therefore interested in reducing the cost of transpor- tation to the lowest figure possible. This may frequently be accom- plished by utilizing nearby deposits, provided their quality is suffi- ciently high, and if modern convenient methods of handling and trans- portation are used. In some instances heavy transportatioJ1. charges are assumed in order to get a certain far-famed sand wp.ich may be no better and possibly not as good as a local product. ' , Wagons .-Two-horse wagons are most economical where the requirements. are small and the 'distance from pit to 'consumer is short. With two~horse wagons more than twice the load can be transported at little more than the expense of one-horse carts. Wagons are more economical than trucks_ where the haul is only a small .fraction of a. mile, provided the truck cannot be used continuously. Wagon trans- -portation is usually employed in the smaller towns where the local supply is obtained from a small pit nea;.by. In some places the pit is common property and. anyone ..can get._ sand to. supply his needs for the expense of hauling; at other places a no'minal charge of from 5. to 25 cents a yard is made and the consumer does the hauling, or the owner of the land may agree to keep the deposit free of overburden and even do the hauling, charging from 50 cents to $1.50 a yard for the delivered product. Jl!lotor truck.-The advantages of motor haulage of sand and gravel from local pits to the consumer and from railroad cars to the .construction job are daily becoming more realized. The length of the haul, of course, depends on the character ~f the sand and its sc~rcit)r. Sand is hauled 2 miles at Fitzgerald, 1Y2 miles at Quit- man, 4 miles at Thomasville, from 1 to ~ miles at Moultrie, and 1 mile at Tifton. In Atlanta, sand from the plant of the Acme Sand Company, on :peachtree Road at Peachtree_ Creek, is hauled to all .Parts of the city, the hauls ranging from a fraction of amile to 5 miles and the price of the sand increasing as the haul increases. In Youngstown, Ohio, 1 a 5-ton truck with a rear-end dump body, 1 Eng. Record, Vol. 66, p. 473, Hl12. SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS OF GEORGIL1 PLATE 11I A . WASHING AND SCREENING PLANT, GEORGIA SAND & GRAVEL COMPANY, AUGUSTA, RICHMOND COUNTY B . WASHING AND SCREENING PLANT, ACME SAND & SUPPLY COMPA Y, PEACHTREE CREEK ~~AR PEACHTREE ROAD, ATLANTA, FULTON COUNTY SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 97 and requiring only one minute from the time of arriving at the sand storage bins until it left loaded, regularly made 50 round trips of 1.3 miles each in 10 hours. Two men were required on the truck and it did the work of seven wagons, having the added advantage of being able to operate in all kinds of weather. Assuming the cost of the truck to be $30 a day, then the cost per ton-mile would .be 18.5 cents, or less than two-thirds the cost of hauling the sand in wagons. It must be remembered, however, that the value of motor haulage is greatest when it can be .employed continuously and where the roads are at least fairly good. Railroads .-Railroad haul is generally restricted to commercial sand consigned to distant points. In many places the combined expense of railroad freight and. drayage from the car to the job at the destination, is more than the expense of hauling sand by wagon or truck directly from a local source to the job. As the minimum freight rate on sand and gravel differs little on hauls from 10 to 100 miles, the development of nearby deposits is often hampered, since it is more convenient to obtain the sand from established pits. Pits on small railroads, Irom which sand must be shippe4 over at least two lines to get to the large markets, can rarely be financially successful, since the sum of two or more short-haul charges will usually equal or exceed the charge for a much larger haul between points on the same railroad. Although most of the sand and gravel used in Georgia is produced in the state, great quantities are shipped to Atlanta from points in Alabama conveniently situated with respect to through railroads. In this case it is questionable whether much of the Alabama sand is better than, or even as good as, Georgia sand, its use having been largely encouraged by cheaper freight charges. Short rail hauls of sand and gravel are few in Georgia. Cairo has been obtaining considerable sand from the vicinity of Gradyville, about 3 miles distant by rail, and sand used in Douglas is hauled only 6 miles by rail. In some places advantage is taken of the nominal charge for switching cars from one part of a town to another in transporting sand and gravel. Boat.-Very little sand is transported by boat in Georgia except where the sand is dredged from the river bed to a scow and ~hen towed. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA on tiC> .the pier for Unldading. This is the case Savannah River at Savannah t:' ~ .. ' . a. ntd. o' n. St: Mary's R.. i'ver ., . ~ . above St. M- a'ry.s. ~. . At Rome sand on it lo1ided Efcdws eitlier from islands or along the river banks and tli~n towea to' a pier fordisposal by land. Practically all of the navi- gaBle rivers of Georgi~ contain iJ:iexhaustible .supplies of excellent s~hd: This :sand could be loaded on barges or flats and dtifted to the tiearest railway poiri.t. Mbst of the smaller scows or barges having capacities of from 10 to ioo dub1c yards, are built of wood arid of the usual square type, having sides from 12 to 24 inches high.. The larger barges, used on Mississippi a:hci bhio rivers are of either the decked .type, used on the Missi:ssi.ppi, and the open-holtl type, preferred on the Ohio. The dedk~d barge l.s best where' loadiri.g is by centrifugal purnp in order to p'ehriit the water to drain off. For Htrg~ production, wliere un- loading is by heavy grab buckets, steel construction is by far the best, since it has three times the life of ~ood under similar conditions; Large, modern, steel-decked barges now in use on Mi'ssissippi River, have cap::tcities of roni 300 to 400 yards and are 130 x 30 x 7Y2 feet. When loaqed they draw from 5 to 7 feet of water. In the Pittsburg district where ladd~r-elevator dippers are used, op'e:ii hold barges transport the sand .since little water remains in it. Tnefr iltial capaicity is. frdm 150 to 200 yards and their dimensions about 100 x 24 x 8 feet. MECHANICAL C0NVEYORS .... " Unde! mechanical conveyors, belt conveyors and bucJret elevators (\I) may be considered. Conveyors of this kind are coming into more general use in transporting sand directly from the excavating machine orto the screemng plant, or in raising .it from track hoppers to the top the plant. . ' Belt conveyors.-The _belt usually has a canvas body with a rubber cover and run,s on troughing idlers. Belt conveyors are in use in sand and gravel pits to transport the material from the pit to the washer for distances up to 1,000 feet. It is questionable whether leri.gths of over ~ few hundred feet are eco~omical under most conditions. Where the distance from pit to plant exceeds 500 feet it is usually best to deliver the sand in hopper cars. SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS Table showin~ capacities and requirements of belt conveyors Sand and gravel hauled per hour in tons Distance in feet Horizontal Vertical Horsepower required Width of belt in inches 20 50 10 2 12 40 100 20 3 14 60 150 30 4 16 80 200 40 6 18 . 100 300 60 8 20 200 400 80 16 26 For elevating sand and gravel, belt conveyors can run at a maximum angle of 20. The same amount of power will convey on belts five otimes the distance it will elevate on belts. Elevators .-Elevators of four types may be used for raising sand and gravel to washing plants. (1) The continuous bucket elevator, whose buckets are carried on a chain, requires less space, but is likely to permit of some spillage; (2) The inclined or stone elevator, which is most gene-ally, used, has steel buckets closely spaced on a canvas or rubber belt .which operates on a wooden frame. It has a high capacity although running at low speed and is satisfactory, unles3 the height is too great; (3) The centrifu~al dischar~e type discharges the material from the buckets by centrifp.gal force and is operated at high speed. The cost of this elevator is less than the others, but the upkeep expense is greater, due to its greater speed and consequent wear; (4) The dred~in~ elevator obtains its load under water and for this reason is desirable in plants having the sand delivered to a dump or pit by a centrifugal pump. The dredging elevator is inclined farther from the vertical than the other types, thus allowing the empty buckets more slack to aid the digging. In small sand and gravel plants bucket elevators are said to be more economical than inclined belt conveyors in raising material to 100 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA the top of the plant. To insure their m~ximum efficiency, .bucket elevators should be installed as nearly vertical as possible. PRODUCTION METHODS HAND LABOR Loading by hand directly into a wagon, railway car, or scow, IS common, and in fact usual, throughout Georgia. Colored labor is usually employed for this purpose. The track must be kept. close to the working face for the best economy. It is said that one man can load from 10 to 22 yards in a 10-hour day, lifting it from 8 to 10 feet. This method is used entirely wbere sand is obtained from nearby local pits and hauled to town in wagons and trueks. Although it frequently permits of a better selection of material than is possible with mechanical methods, particularly where the different grades of sand lie in thin beds. In a few cases where the deposit is unifol.'m, and the product does not require preparation before shipment, the .use of .hand labor may be the r;heapest; but installation of mechanical loaders or a small steam shovel would soon pay for itself in de creased. costs and increased production in many :places. In some of the Crawford County pits several grades of sand ocpur from 2 to 4 feet in thickness. It would be. practically impossible to handle these separately with a steam shovel. This is true of unconsolidated glass sand, where a cover of irregular thickness occurs above the white sand, whos~ upper surface may also be undulating. At some piaces the sand is loaded from the ereek bar into ;wagons, and hauled to raihyay cars to which it is transferred by hand or by traps (see p. 288). At Mandeville, in Carroll County, sand is loaded into wagons from bars in Bear Creek and hauled to the top of a steep hill, where it is dumped and later loaded into motor trucks for transportation to railroad cars or for local use. In the spring of 1920 in Georgia the daily wage paid shovelers in . sand and gravel pits ranged from $2.50 to $4.00. In a number of places it has been found most desirable to pay a man. a certain amount for loading a 30-ton car. This usually insures completion of the work in the least time. The amount paid is usually about $4.00, and, many shovelers .can load a car and part .of another in a day. SAND AND GR.AVEL DEPOSITS J OJ Table showing average amount of work and cost of handling sand and gravell Method Cu. yards per man Cost per cu. yard per hour at $0.15 an hour Sand into cars from high face____________ Sand into carts_________________________ Gravel into wheelbarrows________________ Gravel into carts____________________ ~___ Gravel into wagons______________________ Average earth___________________________ 1. 8 2.0 1. 7-2.7 1. 0 1.3 1. 75 $0.0825 0.075 0. 07 0.150 0.113 0.086 Sand from river bars and islands is also loaded o~ fiats directly by hand. The fiats are then pushed or towed by a gasolene launrh or even poled to a pier, where the sand may be unloaded by hand into wagons or to stock piles. It is said than one man can load 4 to 7 yards in a 10-hour day, the amount depending on the distance the scow must be towed. At Rome, on Etowah River, local dealers load sand into small scows by means of a large dipper attached to the end of a long pole. When the sc.ow is loaded, it is poled to the bank and the sand loaded into wagons. Wheelbarrows are commonly used in loading cars and fiats. Where box cars are used for transporting Rand, direct hand loading is impracticable. The wheelbarrows are hand-loaded and then wheeled along planks or rough trestles to the car, generally less than 50 feet away. Wheelbarrows are also used in loading fiats and barges m streams. TRAP LOADING It may be convenient to construct a bridge over a railroad spur or road with gentle slopes at either side. A hole or trap is cut in the floor of the bridge, and wagons can be driven up the inclines, and their contents dumped directly into waiting railway cars. Drag and wheel scrapers are also used in this manner to load cars, trucks, or 1 Complied from McDaniel, A. B. Excavation machinery, methods, and costs: McGraw Hill Book Co., New York. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA "o/ag~rw. It ,is usually des~:rable and econprnic::tl; in. tb.~ cas.~ of irreg- ular wagon' loading, .to COllStruct a small bin for storage purposes beneath the trap. By raising a slide a wagon can be filled from the qin \.. at any . ~i.me. This method. is employed at the sand pit on the Fort J?.<:pnnin,g Reservation near Columbus. A still better method is to construct a pocket or l;>oot beneath the trap from which the material is carried by some type of conveyor to large~ bins above. In view of the limited economical haul of the smaller scrapers, i~ will be necessary to move the platform and trap as the sand is worked out, or else to lengthen the conveyor, so that other traps can be built over it. Sorapers.-Scrapers are of two main types, horse-drawn and power:.operated. Horse scrapers can be used to advantage in pits whose production is not large or those having no rail cormectio:ns and also in removing the overburden from sand or gravel deposits. Tlt:~~~. are, four t~y:pe~.: .. ~!8:~ ~cra:B~rs., t~9-!h~~led scra:pers<. Fresno scrapers, and !our-whe.eled scrapers. . ' ' ;: " ;. ~ ; \ ' ' .I ,. , I :O.r~jtg sc~ap(3f'S are p:ql;led by. '?r~r o,r t\Y9 horses, have a c~pacity of :rt?. fro!Il p cubiq feet, 1-yei~h fr~~ ~g. ~() 110 pounds, and cost fro!Il $10 to $13 (1920).. The cost P,Y.r C1Jbie, yard iJj average soils for a haul of 50 feet or less is 12 cents. For each additional 50-foot haul .' ~ , ,:; ;1 1,~ ' ' , .. t '_ ~: , "' ; ' ,~ , , , t~y. qi~t '~cr.eases. 3 ye:t;t~s I>'eJ. yard s~q};l scr.l:}p~r~ ~r~ :q;,tost econom- ic~~-~~ to 190-foot hauls, b~t for greater cli~tances whe~led scrapers should be used. Table showihg avera~e aniount of material handled in 10-hour day by scrapers Length of haul in feet Capacity in cubic yards per 10-hour day Drag scraper Wheeled scraper 25 70 50 60 100 50 50 150 40 200 35 50 300 40 400 30 SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 103 Wheeled scrapers are operated by 2, 3, or 4 horses and have capacities of from 7 to 16 cubic feet. Their weight ranges from 400 t~ 800 pounds, and the cost from $51.00 to $82.50 in 1920. Wh~eled. scrapers may be economically used up to 400 feet, and the . cost i~ about the same as for the drag scraper. The Fresno scraper has a narrow pan from 3~ to 5 feet long and may be economically used to 200 feet. It requires less time than the two-horse wheeled scraper, but 4 horses are necessary with the larger sizes. The cost ranges from 10 to 15 cents a yard where the haul is from 75 to 150 feet, and the capacity is 60 to 125 cubic yards in a ten-hour day. These machines weigh from 270 to 340 pounds and cost from $30 to $32. Four-wheeled scrapers are used to a small extent only in sand and. gravel wOTk. CAR LOADERS Car or wagon loaders, sometimes styled scooped conveyors or ele vators, are a comparatively recent development, and their wider us.e in small sand and gravel pits to load freight cars directly has been recommended as a labor saver and as a means of increasing the prOduction. Car loaders can be used to load either box cars or gondolas; or to load wagons or trucks from the car hopper. They may be also . used to load barges from river bars and to unload them, especially when the wharf is 8 to 10 feet above the barge, and the productio11 is not too large. These devices are of two general kinds, (1) the endless chain type and (2) the scoop-conveyor type. The endless chain loaders are of a number of different varieties. A desirable type consists of a four-wheeled truck supporting an endless chain excavator equipped with a gear-raising and -lowering mechanism. The weight is from 7,000 to 8,000 pounds, and the buckets are revolved, and the machine propelled by a 10-horsepower gasolene or electric motor. From 20 to 30 l;mckets, each having' a capacity of ~ cubic foot are required, and the loading capacity is said to be one yard per minute under ideal conditions. Two men are required to load with the machine, but it can be done in from one-fifth to onesixth of the time needed for hand loading. Smaller sizes are made suitable for loading trucks either directly from sand and gravel pits l04 GEOLOGiCAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA or from stock piles. Sand br gravel can be loaded into cars by this mearis for about 5 cents a yard, as compared with 15 cents a yard by hand labor. The cost of, these m~chines ranges from $900 to $1,400. A loader of this kind has been used at the J. R. Rime Sand Company's pit near Junction City (Plate IIA), and at the Allon Sand Company's pit near .Gaillard. ' A somewhat similar loader, mounted on a three-wheeled truck, and of heavY" construction suitable.for rough work and able to feed automatically into a bank or pile, is also .put on the market. The' motive power is either electricity or gasolene, and the machine is selfpropelled. The capacity of such machines under ideal conditions is_ said to be about one yard per minute. The weight ranges from 5,000 to 7,000 pounds and from 5 to 8 horsepower are required to, operate. Scoop conveyors are usually of lighter construction than the bucket loaders and consist of a revolving rubber or duck belt from 12 to 16 inches wide, divided into partitions spaced from 10 to 15 inches apart. The length of the conveyor ranges from 14 to 24 feet, and it may be mounted on two wheels. The weight with gasole~e motor ranges from 900 to 1,800 pounds, and the horsepower required to drive i~ ranges from 172 to 3. The price ranges from $300 to $800. The capacity is said to range from 72 to 1 ton per minute, and one man only is requi ed' to load with it~ Electric motive power would be much more satisfactory than gasolene if it were available. The principal difficulty to be considered in the use of mechanical loaders in sand pits is that unless the mac~e is exceptionally well cared for, it will depreciate rapidly and require frequent repairs, due to sand ge~ting into the machinery. This probably accounts for the many abandoned car-loaders, still in fairly good condition, seen in sand and gravel pits. POWER SHOVELS Although few power shovels are used in sand and gravel produGtion in Georgia, they have a wide range of usefulness in o.ther parts of the country, and their more general use in this state is to be hoped for. A small steam shovel operating against a face has proved economical even with common labor as low as 20 cents an hour, and the production under 100 yards a day. With wages at 40 or 50 cents an hour, 'such machines can operate economically where the production SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 105 is even lower. Power shovels may be used either to load cars below the face, or, if the face has only a reasonable height, a shovel with a high boom may be used to load wagons or trucks on top of the bank. Some shovels are now manufact11red that allow the dipper to be replaced by a grab bucket, or the boom to be replaced by a longer one from which a cable dragline may be operated. This arrangement is desirable in pits having sand and gravel below the ground water level, since after working the material above the water with the shovel dipper, the grab bucket can be used to excavate below water. Power shovels range in size from 10 tons up to 250 tons, and the buckets may be had from Y2 cubic yard up to 10 cubic yards capacity. Their production ranges from 200 to 5,000 cubic yards daily. Power shovels may either be steam-, electric-, .or gasolene-driven. The steam shovel is much more extensively used than either of the other types. The electric shovel, however, is more economical where electric current is available, since it requires less labor and uses rower only when the shovel is actually working. The gasolene shovel is desirable in regions where gasolene or kerosene is the most convenient form of fuel, and where water is scarce. From the standpoint of construction power shovels may be divided as follows: Types of power shovels 1. Mounted on fixed platform. 2. Mounted on rotating platform, with a. Standard gage trucks. b. Trucks other than standard gage. c. Small, broad-tired wheels. d. Caterpillar traction. Either of the two main types are in use in sand and gravel pits. The fixed-platform type is capable of rotating over arcs of less than 200, and is used in cemented gravel, and in sand and gravel plants where an exceptionally large daily production is necessary. They range from 60 to 150 tons in weight and can produce from 500 to 2,000 cubic yards daily, requiring 3 men for their operation. They generally require considerable time to be moved back to the starting point. The cost of a 107-ton shovel, equipped with a 5-cubic-yard bucket was about $37,000 in 1920. 10~ G E O L O. G ' I C AL . SV.RVEY OF GEORGIA ' ' The smalh:,r, revolving-p1~tform Sh9vels ;:tre be~ter suiteq fo~ smaJl or moderate-sized. and al).d gravel pits. Th~y ur:ru,.ally ra,ngEl from 79. 14: t9. tons ~ 'Yeig4t a~d can produce fr?m ?QQ to QOO ~-qpic ya,rds in a 10-hour day, the smaller types requiring only QJ?.e man for their be 9peratioJ;1. ~t has been found desiraqle to use a ~lightly smaller bucket .for !1. given sized shovel in order that there may plenty o.f power, thu~ avoiding delays due to rep~irs. Table showing avcrqge capacities and costs of sm~ll .re~olvin'g sh'avels ' , Weig];Lt in tons .. 14 20 2::1: &2 40 Dipper capacity in cu. yds. ' Average daily capacity per:. 10-l!QU'!' (!.ay Net cost (1920_)" Additional cost Additional for scraper c.ost for bu'okit' grairhucket equipment equipment V2 300 $8,200 $1,000 $1,000 %: 450 8,.800 1.4DP 1,300 1 600 w;ooo 2,000 1,900 17<1: 750 ------------- 2,200 2,100 ' 1V2 900 12,000 2,400 2,300 ' In Georgia sand and gravel plants revolving steam shovels are used at the pits of the Atlanta Sand & Supply Co~pany, at Gaillard, {;,;. at the Muscogee County gravel pit near Cohimbus .(Plate II-B), and at the Altamaha Supply Company's pit near Everett City. KEYSTONE EXOAVATORS The K~ystone excavator is sm;newhat akin to power shovels. It consists of fram.e wor~ or body similar to that of a well drilling machine with a s~t of j!1Gk arms for steadying it while working. The machine is light, ay,.to,-tractiy~, and therefore e~sily moved from one part of t4e pit ~9. another. T4~ p9om is of light steel and' to it is attached th. e dipper., ~ which m.ay: be pf three types. ( . The skimmer dipper is shaped like a drag scraper and in operation the boom is dr:opped close to the ground, and the dipper skims over the top. When loaded the boom is raised, revolved, and dumped. SAND AND GB.A.VEL DEPOSITS 107 This dipper permits of shallow and deep cutting and is especially desirable for stripping small thicknesses of overburden or digging thin beds of sand or gravel. (Plate III-A.) The draw ditcher scoop or dipper is suited for trench and ditch work. It is shaped like a steam shovel dipper and has a hinged motion at the end of the boom, but digs toward the machine and below the grade of the wheels. With this dipper clay pockets can be readily remoyed in a sand deposit, and sand and gravel below the water can be handled by it. The third type of dipper is similar in appearanci x 10 or equivalent 20 1 . 9 X 10 " " 24 172 10 X 12 " " 26 125 $8,000 225 10,000 400 13,000 A drag-swiper bucket of % to 1 cubic yard capacity costs about $750.00. In Georgia a simpler and less expensive. form of the drag-line system is in use at Rutledge and Chestnut's plant, on Bull Creek, near Columbus, and at the plant of the J. R. Rime Sand Company, near J'Qnction City. (Plate III-B). No cableway is used in this variation, the drag bucket being simply pulled backwards and forward over the sand. In order to elevate the bucket it is necessary to construct a SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 109 wooden incline up which the loaded bucket is pulled to a loading platform or screening plant which may be from 20 to 30 feet high. Where the sand pit has a high face that has already been opened the loading platform or screen can be built in the worked-out portion of the pit in front of the face, so that the top of this structure will be level with the natural top of the sand and the loaded drag-bucket dumped at this point. Besides having fewer parts to get out of order, this system only costs from $2,500 to $3,000 to install, depending on the equipment. Drag-line cableways can be used to advantage where a greater reach is necessary than that of a power shovel or a boom drag-line excavator. They per:mit digging over larger areas and to much greater depths. Production is not so great as with the other two methods, \ since the digging, conveying, and elevating is all done by one machine. The cost, however, is probably less than that of doing the same amount of work by other methods, and ranges from 3 to 15 cents a yard. Steam-, electric-, or gasolene-driven drag-lines are in use as well as many variations depending upon local conditions. The system has the disadvantage, however, of traveling empty one-half the time. This feature may, in a measure, be remedied by operating two scrapers at a slight additional cost: one scraper would then be digging while the other is dumping. Drag~line scrapers frequently leave the pit in bad condition, with steep grades, making a future change to steam shovel operation, when it is desired to increase the production, very exp~nsive. Scrapers can not dig to such great depths under water as can drag-line dredges. DERRICK SCRAPERS Quite generally scrapers are suspended and operated from the boom of a locomotive crane or steam shovel or from a derrick car. (Plate IV-A.) With such an arrangement the system is more flexible and portable than the cable drag-line system, but the span and range of operation, and the depth to which digging is possible, is not so great. Digging can be carried on with equal ease in water, but frequent moving is usually nec-essary, especially with short booms.. The boom may be from 30 to 140 feet in length, carrying a bucket of from Y2- to 5-cubic-yards capacity. The digging radius depends on the length of the boom and the angle at which it is working and rarely extends more than 10 or 15 feet beyond the end of the boom. The 110 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA depth to which such an excavator can dig dep~rids c>i the skill of the operator and the chiiracter 'of the material handled and usually ranges from a few feet to 4b feet. Thiw may be mounted oh standard gage trucks, caterpillar trucks, or skids :ind rollers. Their production ranges, on the average, ''from 200 to 1,000 yards per 10-hour day, de- pending entirely on local conditions and the size of the bucket used. Several companies build stea:tn shovels with interchangeable shovel and drag-line booms, the additional equipment costing from $1,000 to $2,500. In this case the same power plant used in shovel work must be used for drag-line work. Before ordering such equipment it is best to be silre that efficient results can be obtained from such an arrarigement. POWER-OPERATED GRAB BUCKETS Buckets of the clam-shell or orange-peel type are used in excavating ahd loading sand directly from the river or pit into cars, bins, or elevating devices, and in unloading barges and transferring the material to cars, hoppers; or stoek piles. Various types of machines have beeri developed to operate, E)UCh buckets. Among these are locomotive cranes, travelling towers, movable bridges, . telpher systems, lighters, dredges, and derricks of either the stiff-leg, travelling, or skid-excavator types. The use of buckets is rapidly becoming general throughout the country for reclaiming and storing material even when the quantity handled is as little as 2;500 tons a year. They. possess the additional adv~ntages of being able to operate with equal ease both above and below the water level and of taking the place of the elevating conveyor systems necessary if power shovels are used in pits where the material must be washed and screened. From one to two round trips per minute can be made with the bucket, but the production will largely depend oh the capacity of the bucket. Locomotive cranes .-Locomotive cranes are used in Georgia by the 4-llon Sand Company at Gaillard, and by the Kirkpatrick -Sand arid Cement b'ompany and the Central of Georgia Sand Company at Howard. Their type$ and specifications Closely .follow those of the ppwer 'shovei~ and in fact some of the steam shovel companies put OJ;l the market machhies with interchangeable booms. Locomotive cri:mes a have much wid'er range .of activity than power shovel~, especially in pits with high faces, and if the boom is high enough the sand can b~ delivered d1rectly to th~ top of the washing plant without the use of elevator conveyors. . SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 111 Travelin~ derricks .-The most frequent ~pplication of bucket excavators in sand and gravel pits is some form of travelling derrick (see Plate IV-B). These usually have an A-frame beneath which a mast is mounted on a platform and capable of swinging about on a track over an arc of almost 180. They are moved either on rails or on skids. Those moved on skids are called skid excavators. The range and depth of digging depends on the length of the boom, the power, and the skill of the operator. The bucket is operated by cabies passing over the top of the mast from the drums located behind the frame. The horse-power capacity required ranges from 15 to 50 and the production from 200 to 500 cubie yards per 10-hour day. The material can be loaded directly on cars or delivered to the w~shing plant. Travellin~ towers .-At a few of the largest plants travelling towers have been erected for unloading sand and gravel from barges. Their capacity is very high and their range large. Stiff-Je~ derricks .-A single mast or tower made of wood or steel may be erected at the unloading point of sand barges. A revolving boom similar to that in the travelling derrick excavator, and constructed of wood or steel, has the bucket suspended from it. The horsepower required is from 20 to 30, and the cost of erection and equipment around $2,500. Stiff-leg derricks of wood are fairly common in sand pits. At Rome an unloading arrangement of this kind is used by the Rome Sand and Gravel Company to unload sand from scows. The stiff-leg American derrick is of steel and consists of a tall ver- tical mast from which a revolving carrier projects horizontally a con- siderable distance. The bucket is suspended from this and may be moved and operated at any point along it. Cableway dred~es.-In some parts of the country, particularly in Nebraska, 1 sand is dredged from under water by means of a clamshell bucket or dredge which runs along a cableway. A double cable from 300 to 350 feet long is suspended between two towers, which are from 30 to 50 feet high and from 180 to 250 feet apart. A clam-shell bucket is attached to a clam-head, which in turn is attached to a carrier running along the cableway. The construction is very heavy 1 Condra, G. E., The sand and gravel resources and industries of Nebraska: Nebraska Geol. Survey, Vol. 4, pt. L pp. 65-69. 112 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA the bucket weighing about 3,000 pounds and the carrier 1,500 pounds. The c~pacity of the bucket averages from one to two tons of sand or gravel. In operation the open dredge descends by gravity along the cableway to the water and sand, and the clam shells are closed on a load as they are raised. The dredge is first raised to the carrier and is.then drawn to. the tower where it is dumped into a car or hopper. The dredge makes a trip usually in about 80 seconds and a car can be loaded easily in an hour. This method is economical and affords a means of producing sand from beneath water, either 'in natural lakes or where the ground water is soon reached. The method is superior to pumping, since the dredge can be operated to depths of 30 to 80 feet. A selection of sand is impossible with the dredge, and when a portion of the. deposit is worke_d out the cableway must be moved. Floatin~ dredtes.-The system is capable of producing large quantities of sand and is more suitable for use in deeper water where the centrifugal dredge can not be efficiently operated, or where the sand and gravel is too hard-packed to be handl;ld by th~ pump. ~t can dredge much deeper than most 1ladder 'drec!ges and in this respect is more suitable under certain conditions. The bucket is suspended from a revolving boom attached to tlie stern of the scow or barge. ~; The cob,struction is similar to that 1:1sed in derricks on land. The capacity would range from .15 to 800 cubic yards per hour with buckets of from _7i cubic yard to 13 cubic yards capacities. A dredge of this type is used by the General Building Supply Company, on Savannah River at Savannah. Buckets...-The clam-shell and the orange-pee~ ar~ the two gen.,. .eral types of buckets used. The clam-shell bucket ranges in capacity from U cubic yard to 13 cubic yards and from Yz ton to 13 tons in weight. The orange-peel bucket is not so widely used as the clam-shell bucket, nor is it so well adapted to digging hard-packed sand or gravel. Its size ranges from 2 Cll;bic feet to 10 cubic yards. The cost of either type of '!Juc_ket of one or two cubic yards capacity is from $700 to $850. SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS OF GEORGIA PLATE VII A. SAND-WASHING PLANT, KIRKPATRlCK SAND & CEMEN:.r COMPANY, 2 MILES WEST OF HOWARD, TAYLOR COUNTY B. SCREW WASHERS, KIR~PATRICK SAND & CEMENT COMPANY, 2 MILES WEST OF HOWARD, TAYLOR COUNTY SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSI TS 113 CENTRTh'UGAL PUMPS For the production of sand from the bed of streams, or from artificial ponds, centrifugal pumps are the ~post economical devices and have the largest capacity. In Georgia, centrifugal pumps are used on Ocmulgee River at Dames Ferry and Macon; on Peachtree Creek and Sotlth River, near Atlanta; on Savannah River at Augusta and Savannah; _in pumping gravel from an artificial pond at Augusta (Plate V-A); and for temporary use on one or two smaller streams. Centrifugal sand and gravel pumps usually range in diameter from 4 to 18 inches, although pumps up to 48 inches in diameter have been u ed on Mississippi River for channel-deepening purposes. The capacity of sand pumps is said to range from 12 to 600 cubic yards per hour, depending on their size and the percentage of solids in the liquid. (Fig. 6.) The horsepower required to operate them ranges from 6 to 300. Centrifugal pwnps or hydraulic uction dredges are superior to steam shovels and dipper or elevator dredges, in that they not only pick up the material, but deliver it to any desired point within a reasonable distance of the dredging location. Surh pumps w.iJl Fig. 6. Six-inch centrifugal sand pump. (Morris Machine Works .) handle most types of submerged sand and gravel, although where the material is hard-packed it is necessary to cut it up first with a re- volving cutter or by a water-jet system. Ordinarily, however, no such arrangement is needed. .114 GJ?OLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA Usually a pump can handle a liquid having from 10 to 15 per cent of solid material in ."suspension, although the character of the sand or gravel will considerably alter this figure. In some places as high as 40 per cent .solids has been handled. The most efficient proportion of sand to water usually depends on local conditions, and careful experimentation will generally determine this ratio. Due to the nature of the work done by pumps of this type, the efficiency is comparatively low, ranging from 40 to 50 per cent. The constant passage of sand and gravel through the plimp cuts oU:t the manganese linings requiring their Teplacement in the larger pumps every montli or two, but in the smaller. machines their life is much longer. The size of the gravel which can pass the pump openings ranges from a screen, to prevent the entrance of sizes larger than the coarsest grade for .commercial use. Centrifugal pumps may be operated in water ranging from 2 to 30 'feet in dep~h. The most desirable depth for the efficient operation of the pump ranges from 4 to 7 feet. The deeper the '.Vater the more power is reqlrired to suck the sand through the intake pipe, consequently for dredging in deep water grab buckets are more economical. There should be at least 4 feet of .sand in the stream bed where recovery by puniping is planned. Frequently grea~ inconvenience ~s caused by roots and fragments of wood clog-. ging the intake, f:>.artic~Iarly with 4-inch pumps, so that the suction must be reduced unt!i 'the debris frees itself, or the pump may have to be stopped entirely.,a,nd .th,~ intake raised and freed of rubbish by hand. On larger streams such as Ocmulgee and Savannah rivers this trouble is not so co.niJ:hon, but in the smaller creeks it is likely to cause considerable del~y and even prohibit the use of a pump. Centrifugal pumps may be located to delivei: their product directly into railroad cars, as is 'the case at Dames Ferry and Macon em Ocmulgee River, into bins, or into hoppers, from which it can pass to a grading plant or to a bucket elevator. If delivery is made direct to the shore by the pump. considerable energy will be required to overcome the friction of the delivery pipe, especially if it is very long. The 'maximum economic length of the delivery pipe in Georgia, for 6..,inch pumps, is about 300 feet. Each additional 20 feet reduces the production of the pump half a car daily. With larger pumps longer deliveries are possible. It is economy to deliver the sand direct to cars, provided the track is on a firm foundation to prevent the overflow undermining it. SAND AND GRAVEL_ DEPOSITS 115 Centrifugal pumps are desirable not only because they can produl)e immense q':lantities of sand but because they furnish a thoroughly washed product, and also because the.v afford a means of economical sand production in pits from below the water level. Their initial cost is low, and the expense of producing sand by this method is, in many cases, actually lower than in any other system. They are not so cumbersome as are other methods of recovering sand from water, ancl since they can be made for smaller capacities than other systems, they enable a mall producer to operate at little cost. Fig. 7. Portable centrifugal sand pump, (Erie Pump & Engine Works.) For small production, especially in road and bridge building work, 6-inch pumps, driven by gasolene or steam, have been used. In many cases their work has not been found to be as satisfactory as was expected, usually because the power requilements were underestimated and because twigs and debris so quickly clogged the intake, but it is believed that portable pumps and power outfits similar to that pictured (Fig. 7) hould prove crviceahle, e pecially in the 116 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA northern part of Georgia where sand and gravel deposits are generally confined to the beds of creeks and rivers. Practical sand and gravtl men say it is almost impossible. to use a 4-inch pump, due to debris preventing .the entrance of the sand. In the case of gasolene-operated pumps they should be -belt-driven rather than directly connected to the engine. In some p~ts, where the ground water is near the surfa;ceand where the sand i~ loosened hydraulically, an artificial pond or sump is created - in the center of the pit, and a eentrifugal pump installed to suck up the sand and raise it to the top of the screening plant or to the washers, scr:eens, or bins. This system is used in connection with hydraulic jetting in sandstone quarries in Pennsylvania and West Virginia,. where the rock, is easily loosened. In Georgia,. the Georgia Sand and Gravel Company, at Augusta, uses a 4-inch pump to raise the material from the pit, which is full "of water due to the high vv'ater table, to the top of the screening plant 24 feet above. Table giving description and average capacity of - centrifugal sand pumps Size of pump in inches 4 Cubic yards material Horse- Will pass Floor handled power. solids: space per hour required. Diam:-.: required with fo:r:.each-: eter:k ; f the thickn~~s b_e f_oun,d. T~e ext~Iit will also affect the installa- tion: of 'expensive, 'high-capacity machinery, and_ hat also should be ?~refully de~~n~hiecl.' _ . -. . . -- : In~fue case o{ glass sand Burchard1 recommends at least 20 acres where .the deposit i~ 20. feet. thick.. This ttiaterial was in the forrh of Sa~dstone a~rl r~qulred a crushiirg and screening plant, costing from to $10,000 $50,000; for the preparation of. the. sand. It is safe to say tP,at in SoutP, Georgia deposits of- glass sand one quarter the above amount, say. 10 .f~et. thick and covering 10 acres, could be worked profitably wiU~ proper ti~n~po;r~~tion facilities,. si_nce usually no plant is required. . . . . ' . . ~ . :" .. ,. Cover.-The thickness and character of the cover or overburden of a deposi~ is. o~ extr~me importance; Most sand and gravel deposits in Georgia have very li~tle or no cover (one to two feet) .. De- posits with as much as 6. or 8 feet have been worked where the de- mand is great: sometimes a loamy; sandy overburden is mined with tl;le sand itself A soft. cover is of course easier ~o 'remove th~n one 1 Burchard, E. F., U. S. Geol. Survey Mineral Resources, 1911, pt. 2, p. 636, 1912. SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 137 partially indurated. In hydraulic removal, clay requires more water and a greater slope. than loam or sand. Since the cover is likely to differ in thickness from one part of the pit to another, it is wise to determine its thickness and character beforehand by adequate holes or pits. In gravel deposits the cover usually increases as the top of the hill is approached, but in the Fall Line and fluvial sand deposits generally little difference is shown. Rejected material.-In examining a pit, it is of great importance to note the amount of clay lenses, or poor sand, that must be discarded. Sand lenses, unless ferruginous, are undesirable in clay gravel for. use in road construction. Clay lenses, and more than 10 or 15 per cent clay, even though well distributed in such gravel is also undesirable. Certain lenses may show indications of organic matter. Sand deposits lying in, or only a few feet above the bed of asluggish, swamp- bordered stream are likely to contain organic matter in amounts large enough to reduce the mortar strength by from 10 to 20 per cent. An. other source of Qrganic matter in bank deposits is the vegetation washed into the pit from the unbroken ground above, or the filtration of vegetable material from the surface into the sand to a. depth of even 4 to 6 feet. The practice in many localities, of mining with the sand the surface vegetation con;:;isting of leaves, grass, and small shrubs, rather than running a drag over the surface to clear it of this material, is certainly not to be recommended where a high-grade, ap.d consequently higher priced, product is the aim. Lime and alkali crusts as well as layers of limonite or iron oxide may occur, and they should be noted, as well as their amounts. Variations.-Changes in the character of the sand or gravel itself or in the overburden should be watched for. In localities where the preparation of sand and gravel on a large scale is the leading industry, it is becoming increasingly evident that the concern that can furnish a uniform, dependable product, month in and month out, is the most successful. The maintenance of a uniform product is possible only by keeping careful watch on the deposit to note changes in it, and to alter the mode of treatment so that these changes will cause least increase in cost and possibly even decrease the. cost; and, if the deposit and the market warrant, by installing washers and screens to insure constant uniformity. \ - 138. GEOLOGICAL SUEVEY OF GEORGIA Water.~Water may determine the depth to which a pit can be developed by a certain method, hence the importanc-e of getting in- formation regarding it. The depth at which water is encountered can generally be estimated from wells in the region. Very littletrouble has been experienced in Georgia sand pits from water. Many of the sand deposits are located. on hills or elevated areas where the water is considerably below, or from which it can easily be drained. In sand and gravel pits, or neaT sand and gravel deposits, stand- ing water m::j,y be due to a substratum of impervious clay a few inches, . or feet, below, which should be considered in judging the depth of the deposit. - Where steam power, or hydraulic stripping or loading is used, a regular, ,adequate, and convenient water supply is necessary. With this in view a sand deposit, -if possible should be opened from the side requiring least force to raise the water. A possible economy by recovering the sand with a centrifugal pump from an artificial lake cfeate,d in the sand deposit should be 9ons'dered; especially where plenty of water is at hand. . , . .!lccessibility.-Unless a sand and gravel deposit is within teaming or trucking distance of a good market (one to three miles) it is prac- tically useless to attempt to open it unless situated directly on a rail- road. The ,intrinsic value of sand and gravel is so low that freight rates ar~ responsible for over half of its cost to the consumer. Deposits o~_liries running directly- to markets a::re in far better position than t1ibse r~quiring one or more. transfers to other railroads before the principal market is reached! In Georgia much sand territory, and s6Irie. good gravel deposits are eliminated because of distance from markets ,or railroads. Persist~nt deposits of sand in the beds of Oconee; Ocmulgee, Ohoo- . pee, Altamaha and other South Georgia rivers, although inaccessible to ra,.il transportation, are ideally located for large bmit shipments. His likely that these d~po~its will be more fully utiliz~d in the future. SAND~TONE DEPOSITS1 Extensive deposits of sandstone, quartzite, and quartz occur in the Paleozoic and Piedmont areas of Georgia; Practicaliy none of these deposits are now being utilized, but they afford a possible future 1 For detailed quarrying methods see Bowles, Olivet. Sandstone quarrying in' the United States: U. S. Bureau of Mines Bull. 124, 1917. SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 139 supply of sand for glass and refractory brick purposes. Such de-posits are usually easily traced by their outcrop. Due to their resistance they generally form long, narrow ridges, such as the ridges of northwest Georgia; or Pine and Oak mountains, north of Columbus. The bedding planes or strata of these deposits are generally apparent, although inclined at a considerable angle to the horizontal. This inclination is called the dip. The strike of such a deposit is the direction the strata take across country, or the direction at right angles to the direction of dip. SAMPLING Since the contents of the same bed in a deposit of this nature are more a.pt to be uniform than those of several different beds, samples are always taken at right angles to the strike, or across the dip, so that they include portions of each bed. Pieces of uniform size are taken at uniform intervals, or a narrow groove is cut across the cleaned rock sur ace, and the cuttings used as samples. These may be crushed and quartered if too bulky. Samples should be taken at intervals of from 25 to 100 feet along the dip, or closer, if the material shows marked changes. Where changes occur from bed to bed, each bed, or each group of beds showing similar characteristics, should be separately sampled. In prospecting inclined or dipping beds of sandstone it must be remembered that the width of the outcrop in such cases does not represent the true thickness of the sandstone bed, but that the width of the outcrop increases proportionately as the dip of the rock increases, and may be two or three times the actual thickness of the bed. This factor also influences the thickness of the cover or overburden, since the more steeply a bed is inclined the greater the depth to the bed from a point at a given distance from the surface outcrop. THE SAND AND GRAVEL INDUSTRY The demand for sand and gravel in 1919 and 1920 has been very large in Georgia as elsewhere. The shortage of railway cars, together with an unfair distribution of the supply, has compelled a number of plants to cut down their production by half and even two-thir_ds, although the overhead expense of these plants is practically the same as when they maintained a maximum production, so that they are 14b GEOLOGICAL SURfEY OF GEORGIA unable to make as fair a return on their investment as they are entitled to. Whether the demand for sand and gra.vel is temporary and will cease after the housing shortage, occasioned by the war, has been over- ' come, is uncertain. Although the total cost of construction work in Georgia is .exceeding that of any previous year,_ it must be remem- bered that the actua~ volurrie of construction is considerably below the record, since the cost in 1920 is over double that of 1912. Owing to the abnormal conditions it would be well at this time to be cautious in installing too exp~nsive sand-handling machinery, but in view of the fact that the volume of construction itself may not be considered remarkably abnormal when compared with some other years, ~ moderate expenditure for more e_fficient handling methods is advised. / . Production and valuf!- of sand in Georgia ;!rdm 1912 to 1919 Building sand Gravel Molding sand Engine Other uses Year Ton- Value Ton- Value Ton- Value Ton- Value Ton- Value nage nage nage nage ---'---1----1---1---L..'- 1 - - - - 1 - - - - - - - - - - - -- ~912_~- 304,882$116,614 86,540$37,554 ------ ------ 10,245$2,640 7,225$2,325 l . 1913___ 355;289 132,381 18,792 15,970 6,500$4,919 2,700 65017,700 8,500 1914___ 2ob,3o9 51,782 12,244 7,87510,427 .6,247 5;032 86516,830 5.175 1915 ___ 527,258 163,932 22,848 15,071 3,898 2,883.1,865 390 ______ ------ 1916___ 319,467 77,081 39,889 20,148 3,545 1.75610,889 1,80110,091 3,127 1917___ 257;880 78,409 27,149 32,97531,793 8,95033,342 6,568 6,600 1,950 1918___ 187,171 75,253 18,500 19,900 35,00112,705 15,121 3,800 L6,862 6,864 19192 _"' 269,059 13L5n 13,106 13,76664,-49133,883 9,091 .4.98830,61420,345 1 Glass sand. 2. Figures are preliminary and subject to revision. . As the margin of profit on sand and gravel is so small, probably in no other business is there greater need for business acumen and foresight if ultimate success is desired. The failures of enterprises SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 141 formed to produce sand and gravel have been numerous both in Georgia and in the United States at large. Many of these failures were due to the expending of more capital in plants and machinery than the demand and market price of the product warranted, so that the interest on the capital could not be met after all other necessary expenses had been paid. Failure in less pretentious enterprises has been due to ill-advised location of the pit with respect to quantity of sand and gravel, and to distance from, and size of the principal markets. Rarely can a sand plant be. made to pay where it is necessary to ship the product over two or more independent railways. In some instances failure has been attributed to mismanagement and neglect to watch the .many small leaks through which any possible profit may vanish. These include machinery, methods of production, and track layout unsuited to a particular deposit; failure to constantly utilize labor or machinery which. is creating expense; variableness of product so that the consumer can:i:wt. depend upon its character from ~ne shipment to the next; loss of sand in transit through chinks in freight cars, such loss may amount to froin 15 to 20 per cent of the original shipment Prices .-In the smaller towns- throughout the state where the sand supply is obtained from local pits, no production or price record is kept, but it is likely that the amount of sand so obtained will equal one-third of that for which records are kept. Sand from such local sources may either be had for the expense of hauling, or on payment to the owner of the pit of a small amount ranging from 5 to 25 cents .a yard, although larger sums have been demanded. At other places, where the demand is greater, the owner or leaser of the pit uses his own delivery trucks or teams and may charge from $1.00 to $1.50 a yard for the delivered sand. At larger pits where shipment is made by rail, brick and plaster sand costs from 40 to 60 cents a yard, although 50 cents was the usual price in 1920; coarser sand, for concrete, costs from 75 cents to $1.0~ a yard. Gravel at the pit costs from $1.00 to $3.00 a yard, depending on the demand. 142 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA .!lvera~e prioe per yard of sand and ~ravei tn G'eor~ia and the United States Building sand G, lass sand Molding sand Gravel Year Georgia u.s.. Georgia u.s. Georgia u.s. Georgia u.s. 191-2______ $0.38 1913 ______ 0.37 1914______ 0.26 1915______ 0.3i 1916______. 0.24 1917______ 0.30 1918 ___ ~-~ 0.40 1919 ______ 0..45 $0.3:i -------- $0.97 -------- $o.61 $0.43 $0.27 0.32 -------- 1.06 $0.76 0.63 0.84 0.24 - 0.33 ... ....----- 0.97 - 0.60 0.64 0.66 0.~3 - 0.30 -------- 0.85 0.70 0.59 0.65 0~26 . 0.32' -------- 0.97 0.51 0.69 0.50 0.31 0-.40 -------- 1.38 0.29 0.92 1.22 0.48 0.50 . $1.00 1.94 0.37 1.04 1.08. 0.57 ---=----- 1.01 -------- 0.53 -------- .1.05 -----1:-- . RQyalties.-In many .. cases sand OF gravel property is leased and the owner pays a fixed sum per yard or car produced, and may or may 110t be required_ to pay for a minimum production. For brick a or mortar sand the royalty is $2.00 cat' and for gravel from 5 to 25 cents per yard, although in 1920 the average for gravel was 15 to 20 cents. In ~orne places an annual rent is paid the owner of a sand depbsit regardless of the amount produced. To recover' sand from navigable streams pe mission must be obtained fr0rn the United States War Department by a petition which. describes the details of the proposed business. On other streams the owner must be consulted. . Labor costs.-In 1920 unskilled labor in sand pits. cost usually about $3.00 per 10-hour day, although in some places such labor could be had for $2.50 to $2.75, elsewhere as much as $3.25 and $3.50 had to be paid. In many places the contract system is in use and the men paid a certain rate for each car loaded by hand, ranging from $4.00 to $6.00; depending on the amount of seiection required and the difficulty of loading. SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 143 Markets.--The principal markets open to Georgia sand producers are Atlanta and Birmingham, provided the pits are on direct lines to these points. Macon and Savannah, although producing s.and within their limits, use some sand that has been shipped in. Due to proximity to stone-crushing plants and to the cheapness of Birming- ham slag, Atlanta, and to a large extent Macon, are independent of the gravel supply. Augusta, Columbus, and Rome, owing to the large amounts of sand and gravel locally available, use practically no imported product. In most of the other Georgia towns of 2,500 population and upward there is a brisk demand for both the finer grades of plaster and mortar sand and for coarse concrete sand and gravel. The following is a list of the sand and gravel producers of the State: SAND AND GRAVEL PRODUCERS IN GEORGIA IN 1920 Acme Sand and Supply Company, Atlanta, Georgia. Alexander Sand Company, Junction City, Georgia. Allon Sand Company, Zenith, Georgia. Altamaha Supply Company, Brunswick, Georgia. Atlanta Sand and Supply Company, Atlanta, Georgia. Atlantic Coast Line R. R. Company, Wilmington, N. C. Pit at Darrow, Ga. Augusta Silica Mining Company, Augusta, Georgia. Baum, Leo P., Dublin, Georgia. Brockman, Edward, Ringgold, Georgia; molding sand. Brown, 0. 0., Sand Company, Howard, Georgia. Central of Georgia Sand Company, Howard Georgia; steel molding and building sand. Clark, J. H., Ringgold, Georgia; molding sand. Crutchfield, F. A., Flintstone, Georgia; molding sand. Dillon, J. W., Thomasville, Georgia. Downing, J. J., Nicholls, Georgia. Downs, L. J., Junction City, Georgia. Gailey, C. K., Conyers, Georgia; molding sand. General Building Supply Company, Savannah, Georgia. Georgia Sand and Gravel Company, Augusta, Georgia. Harkey, W. C., Sand Company, Mauk, Georgia. Heath, John M., Talbottom, Georg!a. Hime Sand Company, Junction City, Georgia. Hinson Sand Mines, Lumber City, Georgia; glass and building sand. Houser, J., Tivola, Georgia. Kirkpatrick Sand and Cement Company, Birmingham, Ala.; steel molding and building sand. Lumber City Sand and Concrete Company, Lumber City, Georgia. McElroy, J. E., Norcross, Georgia. Macon Fuel and Supply Company, Macon, Georgia. Morningstar, L. E., Junction City, Georgia. Morris, W. Mercer, Columbus, Georgia. Puckett, C. A., Emerson, Georgia. Rome Sand ana Gravel Company, Rome Georgia. Rutledge & Chestnut, Columbus, Georgia. Smiley Sand Company, Atlanta, Georgia. Thompson, J. T., Carrolton, Georgia. Watson, N. G., Rome, Georgia. Wiggins, T. 0., Waycross, Georgia. '144 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND GEOLOGIC FEATURES o-F GEORGIA 1. PHYSIOGRAPHY .The physiographic features of Georgia present great contrast. From a flat,. featureless plain near the coast, the relief gradually becomes more pronounced toward the northwest until. steep, rugged mountains, almost 5,000 feet in height, are encountered in the extreme northern part of the state. This diversity of topogra-phy includes five major divisions which occur in roughly parallel bands along the eastern border of the United States from New York to Alabama. These divisions beginning at the the Atlantic Ocean,, are the C. oastal Plain., which extends to- the Fall Line, or roughly to a line passing through Augusta, Macon, and Collunibus ;. the Piedmont Plateau, which extends 'from. the Fall Line to the high mountain region of Georgia and is roughly limited on the north by a line from Clarks~ille through Marietta to Rockmart in Polk County;- the Appalachian Mountains which extend from the Piedmont Plateau to the northern boundary of the- state and on the east to the Appalachian Valley area, roughly marked by .a line running .south from Tennessee through C~rtersville and Cedartown to Alabama; the Appalachian Valley, which extends west from the Ap palachian Mountains and includes the .rest ot northwest Georgia ex- cept a small area in Dade and Walker counties; the Cumberland Plateau, which includes parts of Dade; fValk:er; and Chatooga .coun- ties in the extreme northwest corner of the state. The physiographic divisions of the state will be described in more detail in the report preceeding the sections devoted to the description of the sand deposits of the geologic provinces of the state. GEOLOGY Owing to charaeteristic differences in ongm, texture, and structure, the rocks of Georgia are separated into three distinct divisions which are common to the entire eastern border of the United States, wliere they occupy long, irregular, but roughly parallel belts. These three provinces are the Coastal Plain, the Paleozoic area and the Crystalline area. The Coast:;tl Plain strata occupy most of the region known as. the Coastal Plain, which is a relatively fiat plain paralleling a great part SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS OF GEORGI A PLATE IX A. GENERAL VIEW, C. C. McCARTY SAND PIT. 2'h MILES SOUTH OF GAILLARI. CRAWFORD COUNTY MINING SAND BY LOCOMOTIVE RANE AND CLAM-SHELL BUCKET, ALLON SAND COMPANY, 2 MILES SOUTH OF GAILLARD, CRAWFORD COUNTY SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 145 of the entire Atlantic Coast of the United States. In Georgia it ex- tends westward from the sea to the vicinity of the Fall Line which passes through Macon, Augusta, and Columbus. The Coastal Plain sediments consist of alternating beds of sand, clay, marl, and lime- stone. The Crystalline area comes next, extending from the Fall Line from Alabama to Maine and forms the basement upon which the Coastal Plain sediments_ were deposited. It occupies all that part of Georgia northwestward from the Fall Line except all or part of eight counties in the extreme northwest corner. The Paleozoic area occupies the seven or eight counties and parts of counties in the extreme northwest corner of Georgia not included in the Crystalline area. Limestone, shales, slates, and sandstones, which have been somewhat altered along the eastern margin, com- prise this area. Inasmuch as the sand and gravel deposits of Georgia are found throughout th~ entire state in all of its three geologic provinces. pos- sessing characteristics distinctive of the division in which they occur, the deposits of each will be treated separately. 146 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA DISTRIBUTION OF SAND AND GRAVEL IN GEORGIA BY GEOLOGIC PROVINCES THE COASTAL PLAIN1 EXTENT AND SIZE The Coastal Plain. of Georgia includes; roughly, that part of the state from tP.e Atlantic Ocean to the Fall Line. The Fall Line extends nQrtheast and southwest across the state from Augusta through Milledgeville and Macon to Columbus and marks the location of rapids and falls in the streams as they pass from the hard crystalline rocks on the \northwest to the soft or unconsolldated materials on the southeast. The area of the, Coastal Plain is approximately 35;000 square n;1iles1 or seven-twelfths of the entire area of Georgia. Tt is part of the great Coastal Plain bordering the eastern United States :which merges into the Gulf- Coastal Plain bordering the sQutheastern states. PHYSIOGRAPHY In general appearance, the flat, or gently rolling topography of the Coastal Plain shows a marked contrast to the rugged, hilly, and even mountainous termin peculiar to that part of Georgia north of the Fall Line. Much of the plain. is practically the same as it was left when the sea retreated eastward. Its more rollihg and even rugged appearance as one goes nort4westward is due to its greater elevation and to the fa:ct that the time elapsed since the retreat of the sea has been longer, and consequently more opportunity has been afforded weathering agencies and streams to cut into the original even surface. Physiographically, the Coastal Plain is divided into a number of distinctive parts, which, beginning at the coast, are: the Satilla Lowland, the Okefenokee Plain, the Altamaha Upland, the Fall.Line Hills, the Dougherty Plain, and the Southern Lime-Sink region. 1 Abstracted from the following sources: Veatch, Otto, Geology of the Coastal Plain of Georgia: Ga. Geol. Survey, Bull. 26, pp. 25-50, 1911. . . . Stephens~n. L. W. and Veatch, Otto, Underground Waters of the Coastal Plain of Georgia; U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 341, pp. 28-115, 1915. Cooke, C. W. and Shearer, H. K., Deposits of Claiborne and Jackson age in Georgia, U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper !20-C, 1918. - SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 147 Satilla Lowland and Okefenokee Plain.-Commencing at the coast, a flat, sandy plain, from 40 to 60 miles wide, occurs broken only by gentle depressions produced by the larger streams. This plain, .which includes the Satilla Lowland and the Okefenokee Plain, rises gradually from sea level to a height of 125 feet. The area is marked by swamps, including the famous Okefenokee r and Buffalo swamps, as well as less extensive swampy areas confined to the streams and coastal flats . .llltamaha Upland.-The Coastal lowland on the northwest merges into the Altamaha Upland. The. approximate division runs from Springfield, in Effingham County, to Statenville, in Echols County. It is marked by gently rolling, park-like topography, rang:. ing from 125 feet in elevation, near its eastern boundary, to 470 feet, where it merges into the Fall Line Hills. Streams are more numerous than in the Coastal Lowlands, and "wire-grass" and long-leafed pine are the outstanding types of vegetation. Most of the streams are bordered on their east or north banks by hilly belts of yellow sand, rising from a few feet to 50 feet above the streams themselves. The Altamaha region is considered by many to be the most beautiful in Georgia. Fall Line Hills .-The relief of the Altamaha Upland becomes sharper until the Fall Line Hills are reached. The division runs roughly through Waynesboro, Tennille, Dublin, Cochran1 Vienna, and thence along Flint River to Decatur County. It occupies a strip 40 to 50 miles wide extending aeross the state and merging into the Piedm.ont Plateau on the north. Its greater altitude and longer exposure to denuding agencies have produced a somewhat rugged, gullied terrain, marked by deep washes. The relief vari_es from 100 to 350 feet. The "red" hills are most prominent, but an extensive belt of gray sand hills, ranging from 4 to 7 miles wide, extends with some interruptions from Augusta almost to Columbus. The remarkable gullies near Milledgeville, and in Stewart County, seven miles west of Lumpkin, are worthy of note in that they represent the extreme manifestation of modern erosion in this area. The Dougherty Plain.-The Dougherty Plain, which occupies a wedge-shaped area between Flint and Chattahoochee rivers, extends 1 V.eatch, Otto, Geology of the Coastal Plain of Georgia: Georgia Geol. Survey, Bull. 26, pp. 44-46, 1911. 148 GEOLOG1CAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA north between the Fall Line Hills and tlie Altamaha Upland.. It is a relatively level area, with few hills and creeks, but has numerous circular depressions or lime-sinks. It merges into the Fall Line Hills to the northwest; but rather sharply contrasts with the Altamaha Upland to the east. The Southern Lime-sink, retion.-The Southern Lime-sink region occupies a narrow strip, 15 to 20 miles wide, along the south- ern border of the state, extending from the vicinity _of Flln.t River to Allapaha River. The topography is rolling, the depressions being due largely to solution and caving of the underlying limestones. GEOLOGY As the Coastal Plain topography is so diff~rent from that of the ,., rest of Georgia, its geology is even more unique when compared with that of the state north. of the Fall Line. Layer after layer of sediments ranging in composition from sand to marl, .and in hardness from that of mud to flint have been deposited by terrestrial and marine agencies froff:l. the bower Cretaceous Period to the present. _The~e deposits, dipping gently to the southeast, form the youngest in the state and were deposited directly upon the upturned and truncated beds -of the oldest rocks (Pre-Cambrian) in the state. Their thickness ranges ftbm a few incli~s, near the Fall Line,. where th.e -~ncient basement is exposed, to_ alniost 4,000 feet along the eastern margin- of the state. This variation is accounted '-- for by the gradual recession of the sea, which exposed mdre and more of the- area to erosion, while still de:r:>ositing material at the eastern edge. For convenience and identification the deposits have been divided and subdivided into series and formations. CJR,ETACEOUS SYSTEM LOWER CRETACEOUS sERIES The Lower Cretaceous deposits extend irr a very irregular belt from 2 to 30 miles in width from Augusta to Columbus and lie directly upon the Pre-Cambrian crystalline roc~s. They consist chiefly of coarse, cross-bedded, arkosic, and clayey sands of fresh, shallow water. origin, and lenses of clay approaching kaolinite in composition. Beds. of pure white argillaceous" sand ap.d irregular, thin, deposits of' clayey gravel occur through the formation. The sand _if washed woUld be suitable for glass or construction purpbses and the gravels are thick enough in' many places to supply local road material. SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 149 UPPER CRETACEOUS SERIES Eutaw formation.-The Eutaw formation is of relatively small extent in Georgia. Although its basal beds resemble those of the 'Lower Cretaceous, it overlies the latter .unconformably. It consists of coarse, arkosic, micaceous sands interbedded with lenses of dark clay. The upper parts consist of compact, green, marine clays and lignitic beds, overlain by gray, limy, and clayey sand, and mergmg into sandy limestones in places. Ripley formation.-The Ripley formation is exposed in central and west-central Georgia and is conformable with the Eutaw when the latter is present. The materials composing the Ripley formation are almost entirely marine, consisting of gray, limy fine-grained sands and clays. The Cusseta sand member consists of irregularly bedded sands with smaller clay lenses. As a rule the sands are coarse-grained and resemble those of the Midway beneath. The Providence sand member consists mainly of coarse- and fine~ grained, irregularly bedded sands with lenses of clay. TERTIARY SYSTEM EOCENE SERIES Midway formation.-The Midway. is a shallow water, marine formation, consisting of colored sands and clays in the lower part, and of marls, clays, and thin, usually impure, fossiliferous limestones m the upper part. Wilcox formation.-The Wilcox formation usually consists of sandy, glauconitic shell marl; dark lignitic sand; and lignitic sandy clay. In Schley and Macon counties red sands with pure white clay occur and are probably referable to the Wilcox. CLAIBORNE GROUP McBean forrrwtion.-The 1v1cBean formation is made up of sandy, shell marls and clayey, calcareous sands. Its extent is limited to valleys in Richmond and Burke counties. No sand or gravel deposits of commercial value occur in it. In southwest Georgia along Chattahoochee River blue- to ash-colored calcareous and sandy fossiliferous marls occur which belong to the Claiborne Group, and have :not yet been differentiated. .1. 50 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA J AOKSON GROUP Deposits of Jackson age attain in Georgia tneir greatest thickness east or Mississippi. Ocala limestone.-The Ocala limestone is a thick deposit of flinty limestone and marl. Its largest extent is in southwest Georgia between Flint and Chattahoochee rivers, where it is usually marked by residuai boulders of flint, and by soft, gray limestones that are encountered in wells. Barnwell formation.-The Barnwell formation consists principally of argillaceous sand becoming red or mottled on weathering. Local clay and chert layers with occasional limestone beds occur. The lower part of the formation consists of clay lenses, most of which resembles fuller's earth. This material constitutes the Twiggs clay member. Although the Ba~nwell formation is exceptionally ~andy, the sand is of such impure character that it is of little value for construction purposes. OLIGOCENE SERIES . Chattahoochee formation.-The Chattahoochee. formation out- crops in a strip a few miles wide from the v.icinity .of Cordele south- westward. through Camilla and Bainbridge to the extreme southwest corner of the state. It consists of gray, compact, fossiliferous lime- stone, and a few thin sandstone layers and cherty replacements at its base. No commercial sand occurs in it. .!llum Bl1f:ff formation.-The Alum Bluff formation is of consid- erable extent in Georgia paralleling most of the streams of the Alta~ maha Upland and .Southern Lime-sink region, and presents a ni:unber of varying lithologic pha(3es. It is composed mainly of greenish, or gray, calcareous clays and marls inte:rbedded with argillaceous and feldspathic sand and sandstones. Beds of coarse conglomerate and hard vitreous quartzite are fairly common. Beds of fuller's earth, rounded siliceous and calcareous nodules, and beds of low-grade phos- phate are also characteristic of the formation. Although considerable sand occurs in the Alum Bluff, it is usually so argillaceous as to be practically useless commercially. The con- ,glomerate has broken/up in places and thin, sur~cial deposits of clean gravel, well suited for concrete, ha~e resulted. SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 151 PLIOCENE SERIES Char~ton formation.-The Charlton formation outcrops along the St. Marys' River, in Charlton and Camden counties. It is made up of soft, white, clayey limestone and fossiliferous clay and is not a source of sand or gravel. QUARTENARY SYSTEM PLEISTOCENE SERIES COLUMBIA. GROUP Okefenokee formation.-The Okefenokee formation and the Satilla formation occupy a strip along the entire coast of Georgia approximately 20 miles in width. The Okefenokee formation occurs . as a thin coastal terrace deposit of incoherent gray sand, and as terrace deposits bordering many of the larger streams of the Coastal Plain of Georgia. The fluviatile deposits consist chiefly of red, clayey sands, pebbly in places, and coarse gravels. Along some of the streams a gray incoherent sand appears to be the only deposit. The gravels and sands occurring near Montezuma, Lumber City, Fort Gaines, Omaha, and Columbus are probably referable to this formation as are the gravels found along the Fall Line. Satilla formation.-The Satilla formation occupies a terrace belt paralleling the Atlantic Ocean and extending westward from 20 to 30 miles. It consists of greenish and bluish marine clays, green sands, and thin gravel layers. The clays are generally massive, and the sands are fine-grained and white on the surface, but become gray to brown at depth. These sands are used locally for building purposes and as a source of brown dye. The fluviatile terrace deposits of this formation form low plains a few feet above the .Coastal Plain rivers and consist of clays, sands and gravels and afford sources of commercial gravel and sand in a few cases. Undifferentiated deposits.-Extensive areas in the Coastal Plain are underlain by vari-colored deposits of sand, grit, and clayey sand which may be quite indurated in places. This material has generally been considered the equivalent of the Lafayette formation, but its exact. age is uncertain, and in Georgia it is known as the- Altamaha formation. Hi2 GEOLOGICAl- S71RVEY OF GEORGIA Its ciay content is too large to afford a suitable source for sand, but its weathered products, accumulating in and along streams, afford nunierous_ sources of sand for local use. Surficial gray sands.-A great part of the Coastal Plain of Georgia is covered with a veneer of white to gray, fine-grained sands, ranging from a few inches to many feet in depth, their general average is from one to two feet. They attain a maximum thickness on the north and east sides (left hand) of many of the rivers and large creeks of the area, affording an almost inexhaustible supply of fine- and medium-grained sand. These sands are sometimes very pure, both in the stream bank deposits and in. the widespread surficial deposits, making them. suitable for use in the manufacture of glass. . Thick deposits of yellowish sand, rangirig from 2 to 5 miles in width, parallel the -Fall Line, with several interruptions, from 'Augusta almost to Columbus. A rough stratification prevails in the lower half of their thickness where the clay content usually inc~eases. In place' s these .sands are over 40 feet thick, although they usually range from 10 _to 25 feet. . Their exact age is uncertain, but it is probably comparatively recent. Numerous saud pits have been opened in these deposits along the railroads crossing them. . DE.TAILED DESCRIPTION OF INDIVIDUA. L COUNTIES . APPLING COUNTY The surface of Appling County consists principally of gray sands underlain by sandy .clays at depths ranging from one to ej.ght .feet. Sand is most ~bundi:mt on narrow terraces along Altamaha River, which bounds ~he cpunty on. the north, and in small hills which irregularly line the north side o'f Little Satilla River.. The surficial sand is fine-grained an;d dirty, but some local deposits appear to be pure enough for glass. ' The best building sand occurs a in the bed of Altamaha River and to much less degree in Little Sa- tilla River. Sand for local use is obtained from stream branches or from the surfi'cial deposits. -~ ATKINSON COUNTY Loose sand, ranging in. depth from a few inches _to 6 feet, and underlain. by yellow and reddish clays, covers most of the county. No sand is commercially worked, although large deposits of pale yel- MAP OF GEORGIA Showing distribution of SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS Base map by the U.S. Geological Survey 0 Scrue 1:1,500,000 1 inch = approximately 24 miles Sand and gravel deposits indicated by red dots . D 0 ( / m c( ...J c( 'i I. I I ... ~ ~ ~r----------t~~~~~--~~~~+r~~~~~~~~;Q~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~ 0 F L 0 R D A SAND AND GJtAVEL DEPOSITS 153 low, c~ean, medium~grained sand compose the upper- half of hills from 30 to 45 feet high which extend in an almost uninterrupted belt along the east side of Seventeenmile Creek, and which are found to a lesser extent al-ong Satilla River. Sand, suitable for brick mortar, plaster, or sand-lime br.ck, comprises from 1,000 to 2,500 feet of the width of the belts. Some sand occurs east of Allapaha and Withlacoochee rivers, bounding the county on the west, but there is very little sand at the Georgia & Florida Railway crossing of Allapaha River. Bars of fairly coarse white sand occur along both rivers, but such sands are practically inaccessible due to the swamp. Practically no sand of commercial value exists near a railroad, although the Atlantic Coast Line at Millwood apprOE\-yhes to within two miles of the deposits along Satilla Riv~r. BACON COUNTY Loose yellowish to white, fine- to medium-grained sand covers a considerable part of Bacon county to. a depth of from 2 to 6 feet. Sometimes local deposits are sufficiently pure for the manufacture of glass, but distance from transportation prohibits their use. Extensive sand hills border the east side of Big. Hurricane Creek from the viGinity of Alma southward to the county line... This sand is yellow, medium-grained, and dean. It is particularly prominent along the Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic Railway, east of Alma, where it forms a belt 1,500 feet wide and over 10 feet thick. Seven hundred feet of this width exceeds 20 feet in thickness. Its greatest apparent thickness is 25 feet' at a point 200 feet east of where the following section was taken: Section of sand deposit on Big Hurricane Creek, east of .!llma Feet Sandy soiL _____________________ "______________________ 1 Fine, yellow sand_______________ - _- _____________________ 4 Medium-grained yellow and gray sand____________________ 4-7 Irregular, poorly stratified sand. Reddish clayey sand forms strata lines i to i- inch wide occurring every 2 t.o 6 inches 4-7 The sand here is somewhat coarser and of better quality than the usual type of sand bordering the South Georgia streams. Sample T-21;.3, representative of the deposit, has a fineness modulus~ of 1.40 - 154 / GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA and 41 per cent is' retained ,on the 48-mesh screen. The organic matter shows a color value of 100. The sand is pale yellow and is composed almost entirely of sub-angular to angular stained quartz. On the public road just east of Big Hurri9ane Creek bridge, and about one mile east of Alma, the local sand supply for Alma is obtained from a small pit. Sand also occurs in small quantities along Little Hurricane Cr~~k in the western part of the county. BAKER COUNTY Thin, surficial sands, generally white, cover most of the area of Baker County. Bordering Flint River and Ichawaynochaway and Chickasawhatchee creeks, irregular te;race deposits of rather inferior sand occur. Good coarse sand occ{rrs generally in Flint River, and medium-grained sand is found in small bars along the two creeks mentioned above. A la:r;:ge sand bank occurs below the mouth of Ichawaynochaway Creek on Flint River at the Kelly place, and dunes of medium-grained, yellowish sand occur along Flint River 19 miles below N~wton. This sand is quite similar to- that occurring in Mitchell County opposite Newton~ (See sample T-220, in table.) ' The local sand supply of Newton is obtained from the banks of Cooleewahee Creek, half a mile north of-the town o~ tlie Albany road. This sand is fine-:-gramed, but is suitable for plaster or brick mortar. The whiteness of this sand suggested its use for glass-making and an analysis was made. .!lnalysis of sand from Cooleewahee Creek, }vewton Magnesia (MgO) ________ ---~ ______ ------ ____ __ __ __ __ _ 0.12 Alumina (AlzOs) _--~-- __ ___ _____ __ ____ ________ ______ _ 0.12 ISriolincao(xSidie02(LFe_2_0_s_)_-_-_-_-__-_-_~_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-__--.::-_-_-_-------_-_-_-_-_-_ 918..2217 ' Total------------------------------------------- 99.72 BALDWIN COUNTY No sand or gravel is pommercially worked in Baldwin County, although sand in large quantities occurs in Oconee River, and small\ gravel deposits are scattered over the county near the Fall Line. SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 155 Baldwin County pit.-Six miles southwe8t of Milledgeville on the Upper Macon road (Dixie Highway) a small pit has been opened in a deposit of coarse, red, clayey sand, with gravel layers from 6 to 18 inches. thick, in the upper and lower parts of the pit and underlain by mottled clay. The deposit extends along the road for 400 feet and for a little over half that distance to either side of the road, covering about 4 or 5 acres. The red, gravelly sand and clay is about 7 or 8 feet thick at the center of the pit and is used for local road material. Sandy, gravelly clay of this character is rather common in the county, particularly in the southern part. , Red, coarse, clayey sand 6 feet thick occurs in cuts along the road from the Lower Macon road to Darling, a quarter of a mile from the Macon road. On the Lower Macon road between 4 and 5 miles from: Milledgeville, cuts expose a maximum of 10 feet of red, coarse sand ' with a few pebbles and some white kaolin balls scattered through it. Similar sand 7 feet thick occurs in the village of Darling on the Milledgeville-Gordon road close to the railroad. Such sand is of little value except for local road purposes, unless freed of its clay content. Oconee River.-Oconee River has immense quantities of excellent medium- to coarse-grained sand in its bed which can be easily_ obtained at Milledgeville by pumping. This sand was used in the construction of the electric plant at Milledgeville and the concrete 1s of remarkably high quality. Fishing Creek.-Fishing Creek, which runs close to the Georgia Railroad from near Milledgeville to the Jones County line, has deposits of clean, coarse sand suitable for concrete work along most of its course. A small amount occurs in this creek near the crossing of the Dixie Highway, a mile southwest of Milledgeville. Eight miles west of Milledgeville, where the Georgia Railroad crosses it, 10 feet of medium- to coarse-grained, clean, concrete sand occurs along the creek banks for some distance along the stream. This deposit may be large enough to warrant development. Ca-mp Creek.-On the Gordon road, 4 miles from Milledgeville, brown sand similar to that found in Oconee River, occurs in Camp Creek from 5 to 10 feet thick and over an area 75 feet wide along the stream. The banks above are composed of red, pebbly, clayey sand for 200 feet badr from the stream. 156 GEDLOGIGAL SURVEY OJ! GEORGIA BEN HILL COUNTY In many par:_ts of Ben Hill County a fine-grained, gray sand oc- curs, from 2 to. 4 feet. thick, but it is of no value. commercially. - Fitz~erald.-Very little good sand occ~rs close to -Fitzgerald, although a fine-grained sand is found covering the surface to a shallow depth just north and northeast of the town near the Camp Brooklyn road. .Most of the local sand supply is obtained. f:rom the Sydney Clare pit, 3 miles northwest of Fitzgerald on the Seba (Rochelle) road. Sydney Glare property.- Fairly good coar; e sand occurs on the Clare farm just to the south of the Seba road. The following section is exposed: Section of Sydney Clare property, 3 miles northwest of -Fitz~erald Soil and coarse, gray sand____________ _--_______ ~---------- Feet 1 Coarse; yellowish sand, somewhat clayey but well graded___ _ 2 Pale red, coarse sand, wavy stratificatlon lines'X inch thick and }1 to 1 inch apart. Parts are indurated for 3 or 4 inches sliowing large clay cop.tent_-------------------- 3-4 - White to yellowish, medium- and coarse-grained sand with small amount of clliy__ ~----------------------------- 1-2 - Irregular layers, 2to 3 inches thick, of pebbles from Y2 to %inches in diameter occur through the sand. Sand has been removed from abouttwo acres, but apparently several tiines that area still remains untouched, the thickness of which ranges from 4 to 8 feet. In places the thickness is decreased by. the underlying clay coming almost to the surface._ On th~ whole, the sand' should make good concrete. It is hauled to Fitzgerald in trucks and teams and used locally. Sarn:ple T-236, representative of this sand, has a fineness modulus of 2.71J and 88 per cent is retained on the 48-mesh sieve. It has just a ~race of organic matter. The sand is pinkish-gray and the coarser quartz grains are rounded, but those less than 10 mesh are angular. _ This sand, occurring as it does at a comparatively high elevation, is a remnant of an ancient stream deposit, probably Pleistocene in age. Similar high-level deposits of saud in smaller quantities and less favorably situated commercially, occur at a few other points in the county, notably north of Ashton School on the Broxton road, and at Union School in the extreme .eastern part of the county. SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 157 A.llapaha River.-Alob.g the eastern side of Allapaha River, in the western part of the county, is a belt of sand ranging from 400 to 800 feet wide and from 8 to 15 feet thick. The sand is of medium coarseness, clean, and white to pale yellow. It is mined for local use south of the Fitzgerald-Rebecca road, just east of Rebecca. It forms low bluffs 15 to 20 feet above the river bed and 300 feet back from it and has a width of 400 feet. The sand averages about 10 feet in thickness, the upper 6 feet is loamy, but the lower 4 feet, as exposed in the pit, is composed of coarser, clean, white sand. This sand belt continues along the river .in bo~h directions beyond the county boundaries, but its occurrence at the Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic Railway crossing 2~ miles southeast of Rebecca is worthy of note. The belt at the railroad is about 700 feet wide, beginning 800 feet east of the trestle, and is 15 feet thick over most of the width; 10 feet of this, however, is below the railroad grade. No stratification lines occur in the sand, nor does it appear to have E)Ver been mined. It is similar in ~haracter to the sand along Seventeenmile Creek near Douglas (see T-231;. in table). Another extensive area of shallower sand of this type occurs in the northern part of the county on both sides of House Creek. Numerous bars of excellent coarse-grained sand occur in Ocmulgee River, which bounds the county on the northeast, but this is practically. inaccessible except for transportation by boat. BERRIEN COUNTY Loose, gray sand covers a large part of Berrien County to depths ranging from 1 to 10 feet. Clays and sands alternate to a depth of about 50 feet below the surface near which level Alum Bluff strata are encountered. Jv"ashville.-The local sand supply for Nashville is obtained 1.2 miles northwest of the town on the Tifton road, 200 feet west of Withlacoochee River. This sand is said to be the best close to Nashville and is rather fine-grained but suitable for plaster and brick work. The lower white sand is a little coarser and cleaner and is the best. 158 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA Section at small sand pit, northwest of Nashville Feet Loamy, yellow, fine-grained sand___ ------- ______________ :_ 4-5 YelloWish-white to white fine-grahied sand_________________ 3 Sample T-~37, representative of this deposit, has a fineness modulus of 1.42 and 44 per c~nt is retained on the 48-mesh sieve. The or, ganic matter in the sand shows a color value of 500. The grains are mostly of stained, angular quartz. The sand alori.g Withl~coochee River is not so prominent as along Allapaha River or other rivers, and at the crossing of the Georgia &. Florida Railway there is practically none of any account. At Sandy Bluff; however, west of the river, and a third mile south of the railroad trestle, north of the Adel road, the sand is 10 feet thick, usually yellowish to white, and fine.:.grained in texture. This Eand is not available, as a cemetery covers most of the area. .!lllapaha River.-The sandy. be~t east of Allapaha River continues through Berrien County, but is much thinner and narrower, and the sand is of poorer quality than in Irwin County to the north.. At the Ocilla Southern Railroad crossing, near the Allapaha-Ocilla road, 4~ miles north of Allapaha, otrly from 3 to, 4feet of silty, finegrained sand is exposed in the cuts, although it probably attains a greater thickness. The belt is half a mile wl.de here, but clay comes close to the surface at several points. A somewhat coarser sand OCCUrf? S~Uth .Qf the river in .a small deposit 4 or 5 feet thitk. At the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad crossing of the river, 3 miles east of Allapaha, . a poor grade of sand, very fine-grained and silty, shows in the railroad cut 500 feet east of the trestle. The belt is 2;000 feet wide, but 1,000 feet of this exposes yellowish red clay be- neath, and in the rest of the cut the thickness is from 8 to W feet, although in places it is thinner. To the north of the railroad the hill rises somewhat indiqating a thickening of the .sand.. In the river itself a small bar, typical of the bars occurring at intervals along the river, and made up of whity, coarse sand, occurs. The entire northern part of the county is very sandy. Dug wells have passed through from 5 to 10 feet of coarse, gray sand in many places, and in some instances a thickness ~f 15 feet and more has been noted. Two miles east of Milltown the Satilla terrace is prominent SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 159 and is about 15 feet above the river. Veatch 1 gives the following section: Section at ;wagon bridge two miles east of Milltown Pleistocene Feet Satilla formation 3. Brownish or chocolate-colored sand, gray or white over tbe surface of the plain____________________________ 5 2. Brown or yellow, coarse sand, quartz, and quartzite peb- bles, also contains small white pebbles of phosphate___ 2 Oligocene Alum Bluff formation 1. Greenish, laminated sandy clay_________________________ 8 Glass sand.-At many places thicknesses of from 3 to 5 feet of pure white sand occur associated with cypress swamps and other undrained depressions. The original yellow or gray sand has probably been leached of its iron oxide content by the organic acids produced in the swamp humus, and the sand is apparently pure eriough for glass manufacture. Deposits of this kind occur throughout the county; their thickness is uncertain and they depend upon the size of the swampy area for their extent. The sand is of little value now, due to lack of rail transportation, but it may be a future source of supply. Pure, white sand also underlies the yellowish sand to a thickness of from 3 to 6 feet along Withlacoochee River and represents ancient deposits made by the river. No analyses were made -of any of this sand, but the reader is referred to the analysis of T-238 (p. 180), a similar sand occurring west of Little River on the Adel-Moultrie road. BIBB COUNTY Sand is produced commercially in Bibb County from Ocmulgee River, at Macon, and was formerly mined at Hardy's Crossing. Numerous gravel deposits occur near the city of Macon, and some of these are used as a local source of road and building material. Ocmulgee River.-The Macon Sand and Supply Company operates two 6-inch Morris centrifugal pumps driven by 25- and 35. horsepower engines from the west bank of Ocmulgee River about 1,000 feet above the Spring Street bridge in the city of Macon, on the Southern Railway. The river at this point is normally from 2 to 5 feet deep, and the nearest shoals are one mile above, consequently the spot is 1 Veatch, Otto, and Stephenson, L. W., Geology of the coastal plain of Georgia: Georgia Geol. Survey, Bull. 26, p. 445, 1911. 160 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA well located to maintaill a constant sand supply. Each pump is capable of producing from 7 to 8 carloads a day, using up to 250 feet of pipe, and pumping can be carried on as deep as 20 feet, or until soij.d rock is reached. With every additional 20-foot joint of pipe after 250 feet, the sand capable of being pumped daily is reduced one~half carload. The sand from the river is run thrGmgh a halfinch mesh screen, which is laid across the car as it is loaded, to rid it of.twigs and other foreign matter, and it then passes into the car from which the water and- clay drain off leaving the clean sand behind. It is necessary to stop with wood all cracks and chinks in the car larger than a quarter inch or a large proportion of the sand will be lost' i!r transit. This work may take as much time as the actual load~ ing of the car~ No trouble has been experienced since the pumps were installed in obtaining an adequate supply of' sand. Sample T-_7' .It, representative of the sand as shipped, shows a fineness modulus of 2.83 a1ld 95 per ce:Q.t retained on tlie 48-mesh sieve; A concrete strength ratio test made by Prof. F. C. Snow at the Georgia Tech Laboratory gave 128 and f31 per cent of normal __at 7 and 28 daysJ respectively.. It contains only a trace of. organic matter. The sand is used lo~ally _or shipped tv Atlanta and vther points on the Southern Railway in Georgia. East or- the. river, opposite Macon, g~nerally a few hundred feet from _the"' stream1...patches of coarse, gray sand, well' suited for concrete work, are foun.d.- These deposits are usually small, rarely more than an acre in 'extent and from 1 to 6 feet deep, but they should afford a local supply of fairly gaod sand. Fprther back from the river .the sand becomes finer and on the - 'slopes of the second terrace it is dug from banks along the roads or s~reets and hauled across the river to Macon. Sample T-68, ob~ tain~d a few hundred feet north of the Central of Georgia Railway, about a third mile from the river, shows a fineness mo~ulus of 1.75 . arid 37 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. Practically no organic matter occurs in the sand. Such sand is suitable only for brick mortar and should only be used for. concrete where a coarser sand is not 1avail- able. -Walnut Oreek.-Three miles northwest of Macon,- where the Camp Wheeler road crosses Walnut Creek, near the county line, the creek is 25 feet wide and has a bottom 250 feet across. Fairly good SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS OF GEORGIA PLATE X .-.. A. WATER PIPE AND SAXD SLUICE USED IN HYDRAULICING SYSTEM, ATLANTA SAND & SUPPLY CO ~If'AXY. 1 MILE SOUTH OF GAILLARD, CRAWFORD COUNTY B. GENERAL VIEW, ALTAMAHA SUPPLY COMPANY, 3 ., MILES EAST C'F EVERE'];T CITY, MciNTOSH COUNTY SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 161 sand in large quantities occurs in the bed and along the banks of this stream and should be well suited for local construction and road-. building work. Hardy's Crossing.-For two or three miles southeast of Lizella on the Macon & Birmingham Railway, a very sandy belt, an extension of the one so prominent in Taylor and Crawford counties to the south, occurs. One mile west -of Hardy's Crossing there is an abandoned sand pit of an acre in extent, to which a spur t:r:ack has been laid. The cut shows from 10 to 12 feet of sand which -is underlain by yellow clay. The sand is gray, fine-grained, and below the upper foot or two it is very clean and free from organic matter. Tittlf? property.-Mrs. J. M. Tittle of Macon, owns 13 acres at Hardy's Crossing. Prior to 1908 sand was shipped from this property. The pit, just east of the crossing, covers over an acre. About 10 acres of this property appear to be underlain by sand from 6 to 15 feet deep. The sand is gray and coarser than that west of the crossing. Sample T-10, obtained from the pit face on this property, shows a fineness modulus of 1.93 and 69 per cent coarser than the 48mesh sieve. The sand contains only a trace of organic matter. It is grayisn-yellow and except for a few grains of feldspar and ilmenite the sand is composed of clean, angular quartz grains. This sand _is well suited for brick and plaster mortar and may also be used for concrete, although a coarser sand would be preferable. One mile east of Hardy's Crossing, ten acres appear to be covered with sand to .a depth suitable for commercial development. The sand is similar to that further west. Sand in small amounts, but of good quality and sufficient for local road uses, occurs along and in Rocky, Tobesofkee, and Echeconhee . ' creeks, throughout most of their courses in the county.. GRAVEL DEPOSITS Macon.-The Fall Line, or contact of the unconsolidated Cretaceous sediments and the ancient Crystalline basement, runs across Bibb County from northeast to southwest, passing through the city of Macon. The clays and sands just southeast of this contact are favorable places for the occurrence of gravel. A number of such deposits exist in. the county, but they are usually too thin or of too limited extent to warrant extensive commercial development. They Jf62 GEOLOGICAL SURVE'Y OF GEORGIA afford a. fair supply of road material and have also been used, after removal Of the clay by washing; for concrete aggrega-te. In the vicinity of Macon the gravel occupies the hill tops south and west of the city. Just west of the Central of Georgia Railway yards, 2 miles south of Macon, and a little north of the overhead bridge, clay gravel from 5 to 10. feet thick occurs, generally at or near the tops of hills. Th~ pebbles are of sub-angular quartz and range from ;!4 to- 4 inches in diameter, although th~ir average size is from 1 to 2 inches. In the road r>aralleling the railroad, and about 1,000 feet west of it, two road cuts show -the following section: Section 1,000 feet east of Central of Geor~ia Railway two miles south of .Macon . Feet PCelbayblgyr,avsae{n_d_y_s_o__i_L_-_-_-~--_-________________________:_.___~___-_-_--_-_-_-:-_-_-____________ .2-35 Red, clayey sand___ ---------- _________________._________ 1-2 Sandy, clay graveL _______________ :_____________________ 1-5 Th.e lower bed in the section is very irregular, ch-anging to white sand and thinning Dut entirely in short distances. It also contains limonite .concretions. The gravel exposed in thls se.ction does not ex:tend:,to. the top of the hills to the east which are underlain by another layer. Probably a total of 30 acres are underlain -with gravel in this locality. Sample T-60, taken from the upper layer in .the section given above, shows a fineness modulus of 6.46 and 76 per cent retained on the 4-mesh sieve, with 18 per cent of the pebbles larger. than 1;!4 inches. The clay -content of 12 per cent makes an excellent cementing material, adapting the . gravel for use in road construction. If w:ished of the chiy it would make concrete aggr,egate. The pebbles are rounded, granular quartz, but are rather soft and easily broken. A cut on the Central of Georgia Railway 5 miles south of Macon was also examined. Section on Central of Geor~ia Railway, l5 miles south of .Macon Feet Inches Sandy soiL ___ --------- __ -~ __ --------------------- 2 Red, clayey, well-cemented graveL __________________ 2 Reddish-brown clay-______________________________ 5 Red clayey graveL _______ --------------- ___:._----- .3 6 Red, clayey, slightly indurated sand _________________ 12 SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 163 This material is suitable .only for road purposes, as the propor- tion of gravel is too small to warrant washing. It is typical of the Cretaceous gravels in the vicinity of Macon. The sand at the base has variable lenses of white kaolinitic sand from 1 to 3 feet thick containing black specks of ilmenite. Sample T-8, representative of the white, kaolinitic sand so common along the Fall Line, shows a fineness modulus of 2.59 and 92 per cent coarser than the 48-mesh sieve. The clay content is 15 per cent. Such sand would make excellent concrete aggregate if washed of its clay and if found with a cover thin enough to warrant mining. A cut on the Central of Georgia Railway 4Yz miles south of Macon shows the following section: Section 4Yz miles south of .Macon on Central of Geor~ia . Railway Feet Inches Sandy loamy soiL ____ ------- _____________ ::______ _ 1 Medium grained, yellow, clayey sand_______________ _ 1 Red, clayey quartz graveL-------------~----------- 1 6 Coarse grained, clayey sand_____ -.- __ -~ ____________ _ 1 6 Clayey, quartz graveL _______________ ----- ____ ---- 2 White, kaolinitic sand containing pebbles of white kaolin----------------------------------------- 15 The upper sand in this section contains too niuch clay for use in building, but when mined with the gravel should make a good, wellcementing road material. The white sand at the base of the section was .analyzed to determine its value for glass purposes, but the iron content of 1.25 per cent is too high. This iron occurs mostly combined with titanium in the mineral ilmenite, which occurs through the otherwise pure white sand in small, almost invisible, black specks. Analysis of white sand on Central of Geor~ia Railway, five miles south of Macon Moisture at 100 C _________________________________ _ Loss on ignition____________________________________ _ Lime (CaO) ___ ----- ________________________________ _ Magnesia (MgO) ___________________________________ _ 0.06 1.93 trace 0.34 Alumina CAI20 3)-- ------------------------- -- ------- 3.95 Ferric oxide (Fe20 3)_ __ - _____ - _____________ --- ------- 1.25 Titanium dioxide (Ti02) ____________________________ _ 0.36' Silica (Si02) __ ----- ____ ----------------------------- 92.56 Total __________________________________________ 100.4fi 164 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA Six miles south of Macon on the Central ofGeorgia Railway, cut show lenses of gravel 1 to 2 feet thick. Th~se lenses may unite to form a. deposit of good road. gravel 5 or 6 feet thick. About 5 acres appear to be underlain with clay gravel a quarter mile north of Rutland Station. The overburden is variable and may be too thick to permit recovery of the gravel. The irregularity and thinness of the gravel must also be considered. Macon-Columbus road (Wire road).-Many outcrops of gravel .occur along the old ''Wire" road between Macon and Lizella: North of this road, 3~ miles froni Macon, Small pits have been opened in the gravel. It is a sand gravel-only a foot or two thick and most of it has been removed. The cut on the south side of the road shows . ,t: 5 feet of clay gravel. A mile south:of the road at this point a high hill, clearly visible from the road, is capped with a sandy, clayey quartz gravel. A pit w:;Ls in operation on the sEE COUNTY ROAD GRAVEL PIT , 3'h MILElS EAJST OF COLUMBUS SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSIT.B . 193 water is added to hydrate the (;austic lime. After thorough mixing it is raised by means of a bucket elevator to the top of a silo divided into two equal parts of 100,000 pounds capacity each. The mixture is emptied into one of the halves where it remains for 24 hours. Each day one half of the silo is being filled and the other half is being emptied. The sand-lime mixture is conveyed from the silo after moistening with sufficient water to give it good pressing qualities, to a Jackson & Church rotary brick machine, having 12 molds and a daily capacity of 28,000 bricks, where it is submitted to 10,000 pounds pressure per square inch. As the bricks are taken from the rotating molds they are piled on steel trucks and then wheeled into the steam cylinder which is 72 feet long and 6 feet wide. When the cylinder is full of bricks it is closed and live steam led in and brought to a pressure of 135 pounds per square inch and maintained for 10 hours after which the bricks are removed and ready for shipment. At the time of inspection in the summer of 1919, a 150-horsepower outfit of the Buckeye Engine Company was used. Th,e plant has since been electrified. About 110 horsepower is required to operate it. The capacity of the plant is about 22,000 bricks daily. The product is a smooth brick, white to pale cream in color, hayjng an absorption of 14 per cent and with a crushing strength of 3200-3700 pounds per square inch and a transverse strength, or modulus of rupture, of 450 pounds per squa.re mch. The bricks are soldprincipaJly throughout South Georgia. Muckafoonee Creek.-On the terrace west of Muckafoonee Creek, 800 feet northeast of the Georgia-Alabama Power Company's dam, excellent coarse sand has been deposjted to a depth of a foot or two and is used for local construction work. At this point the creek bank shows the following section which may be typical of the bank for a very short distance, although the lower sand is of such good quality that it would seem desirable to test the deposit to determine its extent and thickness of the cover. Section on Muckafoonee Creek near Flint River Flood-plain sand deposit, fine to coarse________________ Fine-grained yellow to red sand______________________ Coarse, gritty, sharp, pale yellow, excellent for concrete and overlying the Ocala limestone________________ Feet Yz-lYz 4 -7 5 -6 194 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA Other. deposits.-.Sand somewhat similar to that at Tift Hill oc- curs in a much smaller deposit on the Georgia Northern Railway, 800 feet east of Flint River; opposite Albany. The deposit extends for . I 400 feet along the track and ranges from 8 to 10 feet in thickness; _to the north, however, the tongue which crosses the railroad widens out into arr area of about 75 acres. Along the track to the southeast. the sand merges into a red, clayey sand. The deposit has not been worked. Vecy little sand occurs along Flint River at the upper terrace level, south of Albany to the Mitchell and Newton county lines. On the firs.t terrace, good coarse sand is found ih a few places, but usually a fine-g_rained loamy material, possibly suitable for molding purposes ocrupies the flood plain. EARLY COUNTY No sand is produced for shipment in Early County, al).d small pits generally supp~y the local demand. underwood property.-Gullies have exposed a medium-grained yellow to white sand on the John Underwood property along Mill Creek on the Bluffton -road, a little over a mile north of Bla,kely. A small _ pit]1asbeen;opened in. the gullies, and over 400 wagon.;.l<;>ads have. b.e;en ha~lea to Blakely for local use. The good sand is at least. 5 or 6 f~et thick and is stratified. The lower part is white, and the upper part is di?c6lored by clay carried from above by water. From 5 to li feet of red, sandy clay covers the desirable sand, so that extensive operation of the. deposit must be made in. a narrow strip close to the creek where the cover i:;; at its minimum thickness. At present the sand is obtained byremovmg it from UJ?-der the covering of sandy ~lay, and then removing the cover to worked-out parts of the pit after it has faJlen in. Sample T-211. shows a very uniform-grained sand having a fineness modulus of 2.15, with over 99 per cent retained on the 48-mesh screen. The color is orange, and the grains are of rounded arid sub-angular quartz, highly stained with clay and iron oxide. The organic content shows a color value of 700. . Buo.hanndn property.-Mr. W. A. Buchannon owns land on the opposite side of the creek from Mr. Underwood, and the conditions aff.ectfng the sand deposit there are practically the same. A sample from this property analyzed by Dr. Edgar Everhart gave the follow- ing results: SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS J95 .!lnalysis of sand from W . .!/.. Bnchannon property, Blakely, Ga. Loss on ignition_____________________________________ Lime (CaO)____ _____ ____ ______ ___ ____ ____ ______ __ __ _ ~agnesm (~gO)____________________________________ Alumina (AI20 s) ___________ - _____ - ___________ -.- __ ~ __ Ferric oxide (Fe 20 s) _________________________________ ~anganous oxide (MnO) __________________________ - _ Titanium dioxide (Tit>2)_____________________________ Silica (Si0 2) _______________ - ___ -- - ______ - ___________ 0. 38 0. 24 0.12 0. 39 0. 14 0. 00 0.09 98. 41 TotaL ______ ___________________________________ 99. 77 This sand is very pure and is suitable for glass. The extent of the deposit is apparently large, but the distance from a railroad (threequarters of a mile), and the inconvenience of working the deposit due to the thick overburden over most of it are disadvantages that must be considered. Further east along Mill creek on the property of Wm. J. Davis, a white sand of unknown extent and thickness and apparently suitable for the manufacture of the cheaper grades of glass occurs. Considerable sand is found at Everett's Mill pond northeast of Blakely, but the cover here is thick. It is possible that detailed pros- pecting may show deposits of good sand close to the railroad along this same creek where the overburden is less. ECHOLS COUNTY Echols County is practically flat, poorly drained, -and covered almost entirely with sand to a depth of from a few inches to several feet which becomes thicker on the terraces along Allapaha and Suwanee rivers. No commercial sand is produced in the county, although thick deposits occur near Statenville on the east side of Allapaha River. Statenville.-The town of Statenville is built on the sand hills of the Satilla formation bordering Allapaha River on the ea.st. This sand is from 10 to 15 feet thi~k on the Valdosta road just above the bridge, and the belt is from 200 to 300 feet wide and extends up and down the river from this point for several miles. The sand is finegrained and somewhat clayey except about 8 feet below the surface where a coarser cleaner sand from 2 to 3 feet thick usually occurs. The character of the deposit can be easily seen in the gullies just south of the road. T-21;.2, taken from the road cut, just east of the bridge, I 196 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OB' GEORGIA shows a fineness modulus of 1.54, and 50 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. The color value of the organJc content is 125. The grains are .of angular or sub-angular quartz and slightly coated with clay and iron oxide. Sand of similar character and thickness is encountered in the Stockton road in Statenville just south of Troublesome Creek. A strip of sand 200 feet wide and from 6 to 8 feet thick occurs on the south side of the same creek wliere the Statenville Railway crosses it. A chemical analysis of sand collect.ed by ptto Veatch from the terrace above Allapaha River just north of Statenville gave the following result~: .Jlnalysis of sand from Satilla terrace at Statenville Loss on ignition_____________ _______________________ _ Ferric oxide (F&20 a)- - -- - ___ - - _- _- - -- - -- - --- - - - - - ---Titanium dioxide (Ti02) ____________________________ _ USinlidceate(Srmi0i2n)e_d_________-_-_-__-_--_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_._--_ .44 .17 .18 97.89 1.32 Total__________________________________________ 100.00 . . The sandy belt continues aJong the river intermittently to the north:. e1;n part of the county, but it is practically absent at the Georgia & Florida 1 Railway cr, ossing at Mayd~y.t - ..,. EFFINGHAM COUNTY . White ancl yellow sand ranging from a few inches to several feet in depth and underlain by clayey sands and clays covers a large part of the northern three-quarters of the county, and in the southern part of the county gray Pleisto"cene sands appear on the surface. No sand pits are operated in the county_ on a commercial scale, although unlimited sand is afforded IIi the bars of Savannah River, and consid- erable quantities occur along the east side of Ogeechee River and in the river t' along storeams and ditches. . _ Fine-grained sand is particularly abundant east and north of the . larger st:r:eams in . the county, especially Hurricane and Whitehead creeks. Coarser sand, at least 3 feet thick,. is in. some places asso- ciated with .the second terrace of Ocmulgee River. The largest deposit of this type occurs about two. miles south of the Lumber City ferry. Coarse sand, with some quartz gravel .is found at different places' . in the county, generally along the divides. The thickness ranges from one -to four feet, and greater depths are quite likely. None of these. deposits appear to be of commercial value. Immense quantities of medium- to coarse-grained sand occur in Ocrnulgee River, which forms the northwest border of the county. Since this river is navigable, these deposits may be utilized later,Jor commercial purposes or for construction work close to the river. JEFFERSON COUNTY The surface of Jefferson County is usually covered with a veneer of residual; gray or red clayey sand: No deposits of sand or gravel are .commercially worked in the county; although small gravel de- SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 207 posits are Jmown near Spread in the northern part of the county. Elsewhere, either sand or gravel deposits of any value are rare. Loui.sville.-Small deposits, having a maximum thickness of 8 or 10 feet of faint yellow, rather fine-grained sand occur on the north side of Ogeechee River along the railroad and public road. This material is used locally. Sample T-52, representative of this sand, has a fineness modulus of 1.98 and 81 per cent retained on the 48- mesh sieve. The sand is composed mostly of sub-angular or angular quartz grains, and a few coarse grains of feldspar. Sample T-53 represents the red loamy residual sand so plentiful throughout the county and was obtained on the Wadley road, just east of the bridge over Ogeechee River: 1t contains about 10 per cent of clay, but otherwise its granulometric composition corresponds ~gm~~u. Along the Wadley road, at several points near Louisville, thin deposits, rarely exceedi:o.g two feet, of gravel in red sand and clay, are found. The pebbles are usually under one inch, and the material has been locally used in roads. Stapleton property.-On the Savannah & Atlanta Railway, a quarter of a mile north of Stapleton station or one mile from Spread postoffice on the Warrenton road, from one to three feet of sandy gravel, consisting of gran_ular quartz and limonite pebbles ranging from Yz to lYz inches in size, occurs. The pebbles make up about 30 per cent of the whole. A small pit has been opened in the deposit, and the gravel was formerly used for railroad ballast and for local concrete aggregate. A railroad cut just north of th~ pit shows at least 3 or 4 feet of clay gravel, the upper part of which is sandy. Sandy gravel covers the surface of 4 or 5 acres close to the pit, but it is not likely that more than half of this area contains gravel even 2 or 3 feet thick. Sample T-5.1;., taken from this deposit has a fineness mo- dulus of 5.24 and 57 per cent is coarser than 4 mesh. Rogers property.-On the Wrens-Spread road, half-way between the two places, about an acre of gravel occurs. The deposit does not exceed 3 feet in thickness, and the pebbles are of quartz and range up to 2Yz inches in diameter. The Augusta Southern Railroad has bought part of the deposit; but it has never been developed. Smaller shows of gravel occur along this road, but none of them are of sufficient importa:ncc to even warrant a description. 208 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA .Jlvera.-Just west of Avera on the Gibson road, near a church, and on the creek bank, from 4 to 5 feet of fine-grained sand occurs. The sand is of a very poor grade and suitable only for brick or plaster mortar. JENKINS COUNTY Surficial sands, light sandy elays, and clay cover Jenkins County and are underlain at depths of from 50 to 100 Jeet by ~trata of Alum Bluff age. No commercial sand pits are operated in the county, nor is there mu.Ch possibility of opening commercial deposits. The surficial sand is generally thin and of little value except for local purposes. Millen.-Oil.e mile south of Millen on the Garfield road, near the top of-the slope to Ogeechee River, a small,gravel pit has been opened for road purposes., The pit is mostly on the ,east side of the road and is about 50 by 100 feet. The gravel occurs in lenses from a few inches to a foot in thickness, in a red clay and sand mixture with a foot or two of sandy cover. Cross-bedding is very prominent, and the lenses vary laterally over short distances. The pebbles are of tough quartz, angular to sub-angular, and generally under an inc?- in, (liaiT.l.eter, .although a coarser layer one foot thick is exposed on the floor of the pit. The _pebbles coarser tpan 4 mesh make a fairly .. good road material. Situated as it is on a hil,l slope, further working will ,mean a great~r cover to be removed,. however, it seems that sev- eral acres can still be profitably worked. Tests .of sample T-!;.8, from the pit, show the fineness modulus to be 3.10, with 5 per cent of the dri.ed material passing 100 rn.esh and,22 per cent coarser than 4 mesh. ~ Deposits of this character are likely to be Ioun_d in the county along the Pleistocene terraces of Ogeechee River, which generally lie 25 to 30 feet above the stream. As a rule their extent and thickness will be small, and they will have a large. percentage of clay. . . / ' JOHNSON COUNTY Many deposits of thifi gravel and considerable fine.:. and coarsegrained sand are found in Johnson County, although none is produced commercially. Dr. W. R. Flanders of Wrightsville has devoted considerable time prospecting for gravel in this county for the State Highway Commission, and it is to him that the writer is indebted for much data on the sand and gravel deposits in Johnson County. SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS OF GJWRGIA PLATE X lll A. GRAVEL PIT, W. A. FITZGERALD'S PROPERTY, l'h MILES SOUTH OF OMAHA, OMAHA-FLORENCE ROAD, STEWART COUNTY B. PIT C'F KIRKPATRICK SAND & CEMENT COMPANY, 2 MILES WEST OF HOWARD, TAYLOR COUNTY SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 209 Wrif!htsville.-The local sand supply for Wrightsville is usually obtained from small deposits along Ohoopee River on the Dublin road. This sand is fine-grained, gray, and generally free from clay. On the W. C. Brinson property, one mile south of wrightsvi1le on the Dublin road, several acres are underlain with a medium-grained, loamy sand said to be about 4 feet thick. Kite.-A mile and a half north of Kite on the Wadley Southern Railroad, a cut 300 feet long exposes from 15 to 20 feet of fine- to ~edium-gniined, clean, yellow and gray sand. An additional 700 feet of the cut shows from 3 to 7 feet of sand underlain by loamy sand and yellow clay. This sand is part of the sand belt which borders the east side of Little Ohoopee River for most of its course through the western part of the county. Sample T-61, from this deposit, shows a fineness modulus of 1.96 and 74 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. The sand is used by the railroad in its locomotives. Cheaves property.-Five miles from Kite and one mile south of Gumlog Creek on the Wylie Cheaves property, is considerable sand and gravel. The largest deposit covers at least 3 acres about 800 feet west of the store and averages 4 or 5 feet in. depth. A smaller deposit averaging_ less than 2 feet, lies just south of the store. About 2,000 feet southeast of the store is a deposit of 2 acres of fine-grained gravel averaging 2. to 3 feet in thickness. All of the gravel on this property would make excellent roads and_ if screened would serve as concrete aggregate. Rowland property.-On the J. H. Rowland property, 5 miles from Wrightsville on the Kite road, and a quarter of a mile north of the road, is about 5 acres of thin gravel suitable for road surfacing from one to two feet thick underlain by clayey sand. South of the Kite road and about 5 miles from \Vrightsville, are two n,cres of gravel from 2 to 3 feet thick on the Burell Wombles property. Small, thi11 deposits of gravel occur on the G. C. Raines, R. Sammons, Green Harrison, and S. F. Harrison properties located on or near the Gumlog and Kite roads from 5 to 8 miles from Wrightsville. Donovan.-One mile east of Donovan and 3 miles northwest of \Vrightsville on the R. E. Smith property, 20 acres of gravel occur averaging 1Y2 feet in depth and underlain by a coarse concrete sand. On the Annison Poole property; half a mile from the station, are 210 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA from 10 to 15 acres of sand gravel averaging 2 feet in thickness and suitable for local road or concrete construction work. .MoCrar_y property.-On the M. G. McCrary property, 6 miles northeast of Wrightsville on the Bartow road, are 40 acres of excel- lent gravel ranging in depth from f to 6 feet. Thi~ deposit has been ~ested by Dr. Flanders of Wrightsvi).le, and the average thickness for the 40 acres is about 3 feet. - On the Bartow road 3 miles from Wrightsville, T. -J. Brantley has 4 acres of good sand gravel from 2 to 3 feet in depth. $m#h property.-On the. J. W. Smith property, on the Wrights- ville-Adrian road'two miles from Adrian, are several hills capped with gravel. One of these, along the road, contains at i~ast two acres of sand gravel from 1 to 2 feet deep and underlain by coarse sand; another hill 400 yards southeast of the first hill has a much larger acreage of excellent _gravel from 3 to 4 feet deep and overlain by a few inches of sand. A very good coarse concrete sand has been de- posited between the. two hills mentioned above. In a well on the Smith place, 5 feet of coarse san~ was struck overlain by 2 feet of gravel which was exposed at the surface. On the J. M. Flanders property, 1;Y2 miles from Adrian on the Wrightsville road, several small deposits of gravel averaging a foot in thlckn:ess occur. Half a mil~ from Adrian on this~" road~ small de- posits of gravel o_ccur from 1 to 3 feet thick. On the Adrian -rdad 11 miles from Wrightsville, 5 feet of clay gravei outcrop in the road cut just above Rose Branch. Considerable gravel 1s said to occur in the fields east of the road. . . - On the terrace's along Ohoopee- Ri~er sand ~nd' gravel from 1 to 2 feet occur for most of its course through the county. _Neels Creek.-Bordering both sides of Neels Creek on the KiteWrightsville road, a strip of clay gravel 300 yards wide and extending at least 200 yards to either side of the road up and down the stream, occurs.. The gravel has been taken from .a smaU pit at this point and has proved.an excellent material for road. surfacing. Will-iams property.-On the C. L. Williams property 4 miles from Kite and within two miles of the Wadley Southern Railway, are four .acres of white sand 6 feet ih thickness and sufficiently pure to be-used ill the manufacture of bottle glass and the cheaper grad~s of window glass. An analysis of a sample of the sand sent by Mr. Williams from this deposit gave 'the following results: SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 211 Analysis of glass sand from C. L. Williams property, 4- miles from Kite; Sample T-272 Loss on ignition___ __________________________________ Lime (CaO)____ ____ __ __ ____ __ __ ___ _________ ______ ___ Magnesia (MgO)_ ________ __ ____ ______ ____________ ___ Alumina (AbO s) __ --------- _____________ - _______ - ___ Ferric oxide (Fe 20 s) _________________________________ Manganous oxide (MnO) ____ -~ ____ ________ __ ____ _____ Titanium dioxide (Ti0 2) _____________________________ Silica (SiO 2) ________________________________________ .15 .00 . 04 1. 09 . 24 trace . 06 98. 45 TotaL _________________________________________ 100.03 LAURENS COUNTY Most of the ::;outhern part of Laurens County is covered with the mottled clays and sands of the Altamaha fonnation. Commercial sand is found in Oconee River at Dublin, and in banks opposite Dublin on the. same river. Small de:Q_osits of gravel occur throughout the county. Dublin.-East of Oconee River and about a mile from Dublin, an extensive area of sand occurs ranging in depth from 4 to 18 feet. The topography is rolling with ridges extending through the area. The Macon, Dublin & Savannah and the Wrightsville & Tennille railroads run through the deposit, and sand from about two acres along the former railroad has been removed and shipped to Macon and other points on the Macon, Dublin & Savannah Railroad, or used in the manufacture of artificial sandstone by the Georgia Cast Stone Company, whose plant is at the deposit, although not operating now. The sand is composed of medium-sized grains of clean quartz, generally pal~ yellow at the surface and becoming darker as one goes deeper into the sand. Toward the bottom of the cut the sand be- comes coarser with some 74"-inch pebbles, finally grading into a red-; dish-brown argillaceous sand, about 2 feet thick, beneath which red clay occurs. Sample T-11, from the lower half of the deposit, shows a fineness modulus of 2.54, and an effective size of 0.283 mm. Over 18 per cent of the sand is coarser than 48 mesh. The coarser grains are rounded and sub-angular, and the color is orange yellow. The organic matter color value is 1,000. The sand apparently occurs at a depth of from 5 to 15 feet over at least 100 acres in this vicinity. The deposit extends close to and " 212 GEOLOGiCAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA south of the Wrightsville & Tennille Railroad for about a mile, where it widens out and occupies a large area extending back from the railroad on either side for over 1,200 feet. The Macon, Dublin & Savannah Railroad after branching off from the Wrightsville & Tennille Railroad passes through the n{ain part of the sandy area for i,OOO feet and again about two miles southeast of Dublin it passes through the southeast extension of the .same deposit for over half a mile. The best and thickest deposit is near the pit already opened along the Macon, Dublin & Savannah Railroad. The sand is leased by Leo P. Baum from Mr. Crafts, the owner, and is used in Dublin and in the construction of the concrete bridge across Oconee- River at this point. Oconee River.-A fine-grained flood-plain sand suitable for brick ' and plaster mortar ,occurs east of Oconee. River, opposite Dublin, a few feet above -the level of the river: This sand is used locally and is obtained from a small pit on lanq owned by Mrs. Brady, 500 feet east of the river and about the same distance above the bridge. The sari.d is handled by Leo Baum. Excellent coarse-grained .sand occurs in the bed of Oconee River and along the banks in the vicinity of Dublin and for practically the entire course of the stream through the county. This sand has never been used cominercially to -any extent but should the demand war- rant it the location seems suitable for i.nstalling a centrifugal pump. Sample T-13 was obtained from the rive.r bank a few hundred feet north of the. wagon road, opposite Dublin, and has a fineness modulus , . I . of 2.51. and 97 per cent is coarser than 48 mesh. The sand contains about 5 per cent feldspar, the balance being iron-staip.ed quartz. Other deposits.-Another extensiye area of sand similar to that on the second .terrace opposite Dublin is found o;n the Dublin...:Wrightsville road near Brown's Chapel east of the river and 4 miles northeast Of Dublin. Smaller and more inac.eessible deposits occur west of the river, on the second terrace near Cody Spring Church, and from Turkey Creek to the Wheeler County line. A somewhat inore_loaniy sand occurs in a number o small areas on the north side of Ochwalkee and Alligator creeks in the southern part of the county. Much surficial s~nd occurs in southern Laurens County, usually less than 5 feet deep. Considerable gravel, generally of small thickness but suitable for local road construction, occurs throughout the county. S.AND AND GB.AVEL DEPOSITS 213 Carter property.-On the Dr. J. G. Carter and Warren Carter properties along the Central of Georgia Railway and Dixie-Overland Highway, one mile west of Scott, an average of 2Y2 feet of sand-gravel with coarse sand beneath, occurs. Over 100 test holes dug under the direction of Dr. W. R. Flanders of'Wrightsville encountered from 2 to 5 feet of gravel. In this vicinity it is believed that 3,000 acres are underlain by gravel. Elsewhere in the county, thin but extensive deposits of clayey ferruginous gravel have been noted along the Mt. Olive road and Strawberry Branch, 4 miles northwest of Dublin, near Excelsior School. Gravel also occurs along the Hawkinsville-Blackshear Ferry road, near the_ Industrial School, 7 miles northwest of Dublin. In the southern part of the c9unty small scattered areas of thin gravel occur due to the weathering of a conglomeratic phase in the Alum Bluff. formation. LEE COUNTY No sand of commercial value was noted in Lee County, and very little sand suitable even for unimportant local work was found except along Kinchafoonee and Muckalee creeks. Thin gravel deposits some-_ times are found near the tops of divides.. M ucka~ee Creek.-Four miles directly east of Leesburg, on the Philema road, a small flood-plain deposit of medium-grained, fairlygood, yellow sand, ranging from 6 inches to '2 feet in depth, occurs. In the road 500 feet west of the creek, 5 feet of a loamy sand suitable for brick mortar may be seen. The Georgia, Southwestern & Gulf Railroad runs through this locality, and it is possible that larger deposits ca':n be found a]ong it. Kinchafoonee Creek.-Kinchafoonee Creek is about 80 feet wide, rather swift, and with intermittent bars of coarse sand along its course. One and a half miles west of Leesburg, west of Kinchafoonee Creek at Jackson Bridge, a fine-grained, silty sand occurs that is hauled to Leesburg for local use. About 700 feet below the bridge on the inside of a sharp curve in the river a somewhat better and coarser sand has been deposited by the creek during high water. Sample T-222 is representative of this sand and has a fineness modulus of 1.40 and 41 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. It contains a trace of organic matter. The sand is pale buff and composed mostly of angular, iron-stained quartz and some fine ilmenite grains. '' 214 (]EOLOGICAL sURVEY OF GEORGIA At places along .the stream bank a coarse sand suitable for concrete and underlying the surficial sand from 4 to 7 feet, may be seen. This sand usually lies directly upon the Ocala limestone or up'on a blue clay into which it 'may blend. None of this sand, however, exceeds 10 feet in thickness at the maximum, and most of it is of very poor quality and the deposit spotty. On the Smithville-Dawson road, one mile east of Kinchafoonee Creek, loamy sand occurs_ in the road cuf, giving place at a depth of from 1 to 2 feet_ to medium- to coarse-grained, somewhat clayey, yellow sap.d. The thickness is probably less than four feet. The sand .. occurs mostly east of the creek where a small pit has been opened frqm which sand. was used in the construction of the bridge. The sand here is medium-grained and of fairly go.od quality and about 4 or 5 feet thicJ,r. A deposit of white, fine-grained sand occurs along the creek just above the level of the stream channel. Other deposits .-The county is sandy for a mile or two south of Smithville, but no deposits of value were seen, although loca1 accu- mulation, particularly near the higher elevations, may be valuable for road building. . In a cut on the Leesburg.:.Albany road, 1.9 miles south of Lees- burg, 150 to 200 feet of sandy, red, clay gravel, containing _50 per cent of sub-angul~r. quartz an.d ferrugin:ous sandstone pebbles was noted. 'Fhe gravel is a small lens showing an irregular thickness of from two to four feet- and is of poor .quality a,nd probably" of very limited ex- tent. The deposit is at f1 comparatively high elevation and seems to be a remnant of a more extensive deposit. LIBERTY COUNTY The usual gray or yellow surficial sands, peculiar to the eastern part of the state, and underlain by clays and sands at differing depths, cover- most of Ll.berty County. There is no cormnercial production of either sand or gravel in the county, although sand pits were formerly operated on the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad, east .of Altamaha River, opposite Doctortown, and gravel was mined on a small scale on the same railroad near Fleming. .!lltamaha River.-The sand-hill belt_ extending east of Altamaha River, intermittently thro~gh Liberty County, is commercially accessible along the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad about 5 iniles west SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 215 of Ludowici. An old pit was operated by this railroad for locomo.tive sand prior to 1914. The pit covers 8 or 10 acres north of the track, and the face is 900 feet long, extending north and south, and from 6 to 18 feet in height, averaging 10 feet. The sand is similar to that obtained east of Everett City, on the same side of the river, and is fine-grained, yellowish, and clean, without signs of stratifications. Sample T-32 is representative of the sand near this place. It has a fineness modulus of 1.72 and 66 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. The organic content is insignificant. The grains are almost entirely of faintly-stained quartz. Much sand remains along the railroad west and north of the pit \ and also south of the railroad and for a considerable distance up and down the river on either side of the railroad. Fleming.-Four miles southwest of Fleming on the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad a small deposit of clayey gravel made up of quartz pebbles occurs. The deposit is on the Phillips' place, 800 yards south of the railroad, and has .been prospected to some extent. A spur was put in from the railroad, a distance of a few hundred feet, and a few carloads were shipped prior to 1900. The test pits show gravel to a depth of 5 feE:Jt. An excavation 700 feet long, 30 feet wide and 5 feet deep shows the following section: Section at old gravel pit 4 miles southwest of Fleming , Fine, quartz gravel, pebbles 34' to%" inches_______________ _ Feet 1 SMaenddiyumc-lsaiYzed--s-a-n-d-y--g-r-a-v-e-l-, -p-e-b-b-l-e-s-3-4-'-t-o--1- ---------------inch_____ ------ 1~ 3 Sample T-36 is representative of the gravel and shows a fineness modulus of 5.00 and 57 per cent retained on the 4-mesh sieve. It would make an excellent roofing gravel. The area underlain by the deposit is probably less than 4 acres. The rather poor quality of the material for use in road building or in concrete work, together with its limited extent and thickness makes the deposit of little commercial value. Flemington.-Gravel similar to that in the old pit south of Fleming shows at the cross-roads at Flemington and also on the road haJf a mile north of Flemington, but its extent is small and the gravel is of little value. ' 216 GEOLQGIOA_L SURVEY OF. GEORGIA LOWNDES COUNTY Sand or sandy clay covers most of Lowndes Corinty and is underlain by blu~ and yellow clays and sands of Alum 'Bluff age and at greater depths by the massively bedded Chattahoochee limestone. No sand deposits are worked commercially in the county, and although p1uch of the surface is sandy, deposits of good sand for even "rocal use are scarce. Withlaooooh-ee River.-Sand from Withlacoochee River has been used in the construction of the concrete bridge on th.e Quitman-Val- Gtosta road near Blue Springs and is of fairly good quality. It is rather superficial, though, and- is restricted to bars in the river chan- nel or to patches along and near the channel. Sample T-~41 is from the deposit al~mg the river :;tt this point. It has a fineness modulus of l.67 and 53 per cent is retained on the 48-mesh sieve: The color value of the organic matter is 100.' The grains are mostly of quartz and a few. of sandstone. East of the river, along this road, an irregularly stratified deposit of yellow, clayey sand, occurs, probably under 10 feet in thickness. A similar sand has been deposited along the river on the upper Quit- " man road, in a strip 300 feet wide and f!'om 8 to 12 feet in d~pth. The sand is suitable for brick mortal' and plaster, but is not so desirable ,for concrete. On. this same road, between the two channels that make up the river at that point, a coarser, white-'sand occurs, of much better quality but more difficult to get than that east of the bridge. In places this sand is pure enough - for the ,- manufacture . ~ qf ' glass. MACON COUNTY . No sand is being produced for commercial shipment in Macon County, although Flint River has large deposits both in the bed of the stre,am and along the banks. .Montezuma.-A bar in Flint River -just above the mouth of Spring .Creek, east of the river, owned by Mack De Vaughn, produces sand for local consumption. Sample T-~50 s~ows the sand to be of good quality for use as part of the concrete aggreg;:tte. The fineness modulus is 2.50 .and 82 per cent Of the sand is coarser than the 48 mesh screen. It is yellowish-gray and composed mostly of quartz, although the coarser grains (on 4 mesh) contain about 20 per cent. of feldspar. The organic color value is 80. SAND AND GEAVEL DEPOSITS 211 On the upper road from Montezuma to Oglethorpe, one mile from Mo11tezuma, a small pit has been opened for local supply in a finegrained, buff-colored sand deposit occupying a small hill just above the river swamp. The sand is suitable for brick and plaster mortar, but it will not make the best concrete due to its fineness and silt content. Excavations for the new bridge across Flint River at Montezuma exposed excellent medium- to coarse-grained sand on the east side at the swamp level. This sand has been used in some of the concrete construction in connection with the bridge. Deposits so situated, however, are of small value, since with every rise in the river they are covered with water. Lewis .Mill.-One mile south of Montezuma; on the Cordele road, the following section was noted: Section at Lewis Mill, one mile south of Montezuma Sandy soil and sand_____________________________________ F2e-e4t Red and yellow, coarse, clayey, gravelly sand._____________ 4 Red, fine-grained, clay and sand graveL.__________________ 6 'White, fine-grained sand and clay_________________________ 3 MciNTOSH COUNTY Most of Mcintosh County is fiat and sandy with a ridge of. sand hillt; paralleling Altarriaha River on the east. Terrace sands and clays of Pleistocene age cover the surface of the county and are underlain by sands, clays, marls, and limestones of the older formations. Sand is being dug along the Seaboard Air Line Railway north of Altamaha River. A.ltamaha River.-A very prominent ridge of sand hills roughly parallels the northeast side of Altamaha River along the western half of its course along the southern border of Mcintosh County. These fand hills reach a height of 60 feet above the river bed in some places and have an enormous quantity of sand. The sand is usually finegrained, but clean, and suitable for brick mortar and plaster, and it has also been extensively used in concrete. A.ltamaha Supply Company.-A large area of the sandy ridge near the Seaboard Air Line Railway between Everett City and Barrington is owned by the Altamaha Supply Company, of which Mr. R. R. Hopkins, of Brunswick, is president. The pit on this property 218 GEOLOGI,CAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA is located three-quarters of a mile east of the Seaboard Air Line Rail- way trestle and 4V2 miles southeast of Everett City. (Plate X-B.) The face of the pit is 500 feet long and from 5 to 25 -feet high, averaging about 15 feet. The pit covers about 10 acres. The sand becomes yellow to pale yellow with depth, although the upper 3 or 4 inches has been leached pure white by the action of rain. and organic acids. The sand appears to be quite uniform throughout its thickness, al~ though a slight increase in the size of the grain and an increase in purity is noted toward he bottom of the pit. A Marion steam ~hovel having a 60-foot boom and a 1%-yard dipper is used in loading the sand .on the cars. The production ranges from 3 to 10 cars daily. Sample T-31, from this pit, has a fineness modulus of 1.76 and 69 per cent coarser than 48 mesh: The organic color vall!-e is 200. The pit has been in operation since 1911 and during that time a great deal of sand has been shipped for use in th~ construction of the acid plant near Brunswick and for the construction of a number of buildings in Jacksonville, Brunswick, River Junction, and other points. The surficial sand so prevalent throughout the county is in places pure enough for use in glass-making. The thickness :of this sand, however, is frequently liinited to the upper 2 to 5 feet, but it is likely that deposits close to railroads may be discovered of sufficient thickness . to warrant commercial exploitation. Orescent.-'On tl!.e bluffs,. overlo.okihg Sapelo R1ver, half a mile east of Qrescmt, white sand two feet thick occurs, overly-ing eight An to fifteen feet of brown, clayey sand. analysis of the white sand gaye the following resUlts: ' .!lnalysis of surficial sand near Crescent, T-33 . Moisture at 100 c__________________________________ 0.00 Loss on ignition~ __ ----------=--~ ________ ------------Soda (Na20)-~-- ------ _- __ - ___ ---- _------ _--- ____ --Potash(1C20)_______________________________________ Lime (CaO) __________________ -----------~--------- __ 0.13 0.23 0.61 0. 00 . Magnesia (MgO)----------'------- ---------------- ___ Alumina (A120 a)-----------_-_----_-------------_--- Ferric oxide (Fe20 a) _____________ - ___ ~,..- ___ -..:__ -~-___ Titanium dioxide (Ti02) ___________________ :._______ __ 0.07 1.36 0. 55 0.19 Silica (SiO 2) ______ - __ ---------------------- _- _---- _- 96.74 White sand of similar character occurs in extensive deposits of unknown depth along the old Georgia Coast & Piedmont Railroad between Ludowici and Darien Junction. SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 219 MARION COUNTY Large quantities_ of fine-grained sand are found in northern Marion County within a mile or so of the Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic Railway. Just over the line in Taylor County the sand is commercially exploited in large pits. This deposit which forms part of the Fall Line sand-hill belt, continues westward across the entire county, although at no other point are transportation facilities so close. In the southern part of the county the streams usually have sand. in sufficient amounts for local purposes. This is especially true of Richland, Buck, and Allonahatchee creeks. Along the smaller branches at most road intersections from 5 to 100 cubic yarcls of coarse sand occur, suitable for concrete work, which has been deposited during flood periods. Such deposits usually afford local supplies to the towns 1n the county. Almost everywhere throughout the county thin surficial deposits of fine-grajned, somewhat loamy ,sand can be found which are used in constructing the sand-clay roads. Gullies and ro_ad cuts in the central part of the county, particularly near Buena Yista, expose g-reat thicknesses of hard, white, rather fine-grained sand of the Providence rp.ember of the Ripley formation, or coarser, yellow sand of the Cusseta member. Dt!Iing heavy rains great quantities of sand are ws.shed from the gullies and collect as sand streams along branch bottoms or hollows. A particularly prom. inent sand stream occurs about a mile north of Tazewell. (Plate XI-A.) MILLER COUNTY The surface of Miller County, like that of the surrounding coun- ties, is practically fiat to slightly rolling. The Ocala limestone under- lies the entire county, but is represented at the surface by flint boul- ders and residual clays and sand, and has a thin veneer of gray sur- ficial sand on top. No commercial sand or gravel deposits are worked or known in the county. Small deposits of fine-grained, loamy sand occur in the bed of Spring Creek and in some of its tributaries and in small deposits in places along the banks, but the quality is very poor and the amount usually small. MITCHELL COUNTY Sand covers most of Mitchell County, although clay and sandy clay are common and frequently come close to the surface in sandy parts. Sand deposits occur along Flint River, particularly opposite 220 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA Newton, and as scattered local remnants of former fluviatile deposits. A few deposits of gravel suitable for road bUilding occur near the tops of the higher portions of the. county. - Camilla.-Sand for local use in Camilla is hauled from a pit on the Camilla-Newton road, opposite the cemetery, 1 mile west of Camilla. The worked-over parts cover about 2 acres and show fine- and medium-grained sand about 5 feet. thick and underlain by yellow clay. The distribution of the sand botll as to quality and quantity is very irregular, .although the- sandy area extends for several hundred yards along the road and back from it: Flint River.-A prominent and extensive deposit of fine and medium-grained, yellowish sand occlirs 1,000 feet east of Flint River at the ferry, just opposite' Newton. The sand occupies a long ridge and is 10 to 30 feet thick, the average thickness being at least 20 feet for a width of 500 feet. The ridge iE; said to extend north about two miles and to-the_ south about half a mile rom the Newton Ferry road. The deposit at this point is located mostly on the Lee Hill plantation. 1nterrui-ttent rid'ges of this type extend east. of the. river for most of its course through the county. The sand is similar to that at Ea~t Albany, to the north. Tests have been made on sampb.T-220, which show "it to ha,ve .a fineness modulus. of 1.63 and 59 per cent coarser than the 48~thesli screen. The organic content has a color .value of 175. The grains are of faintly iron-stained quartz. Although deposits of this kind along this part of Flint River are inaccessible to railroads at present, it is possible that the sand could be shippe~ down the river in baTges. The bed of Flint River itself shotrld afforli an unlimited supply of coarse sand for construction purposes on work located near it. - Cowart and Hand properties.-.Dark-~ed .gravel occurs in a narrow ridge extending east and west and is exposed where the PelhamC~n:iilia road cuts the ridge, 7.6 miles south of Camilla, for a distance of 150 feet, and to a maximumti?ckness of 4 feet on the A. B. Cowart and J. L. Hand properties. The matrix is clay and contains from 25 to 40 per cent quartz peb~ies from a half to two inches in diamter. The gravel is a lens sloping to the south' about 15 degrees and coming to the surface where it can be traced for 600 feet to the east of the road and about 400 feet to the west. Not more than 4 or 5 acres are covered with the gravel in this vicinity, although a larger area may SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 221 be underlain with it at a depth of from 1 to 3 feet, particularly to the east and west, along the ridge. Samples tested in the State Highway Laboratory of the Georgia School of Technology are recorded below: Tests of road gravel from Mitchell County Percentage retained on following mesh sizes: Sample Clay 2 4 l 10 20 30 40 50 80 100. 200 - I - - - - -- -- - ------------ Organic test 1______ 24.1 36.1 43.6 56.5 73.1 82.0 85.8 90.5 91.5 97.0 34 2______ 35.8 49.3 59.5 69.1 75.8 79.1 81.8 85.4 86.2 96.0 19 3______ 17.6 36.8 54.1 62.31 65.9 70.7 78.0 85.6 88.1 97.0 18 .. Clear straw color Clear straw color Black 1 and 2.-Taken 100 feet east of road cut on J. L. Hand property. 3.-Taken from Wilbur Tucker property. Wilbur Tucker property.-A small, thin deposit of sandy gravel, about an acre in extent, occurs 2 miles north of Pelham between the Dixie Highway and the Camilla-Cotton road. The actual thickness and extent of the gravel could not be determined, although it is questionable whe~her it is of sufficient size to be used even for local road purposes. MONTGOl\1ERY COUNTY Large quantities of good sand occur in Oconee River and this sand has been used in concrete bridge construction over the river west of Mt. Vernon. A sample tested by the State Highway Department showed its tensile strength to be 171 and 148 per cent of Ottawa sand at 7 and 28 days, respectively, and a mechanical analysis gave the following results: Mechanical analysis of sand from Oconee River, at Mt. Vernon bridge - Per cent retained on following mesh sizes: 11eshes ______________ 4 -- 10 -- 20 -- -30- 40 -- 50 -- 80 -- 100 -- 200 -- Percentages __________ 12.1 32.1 51.4 64.8 76.7 89.2 96.2 96.6 99.6 222 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF-GEORGIA Elsewhere in the co-qnty $mall, thin deposits of sand and gravel occur, the latter usually on the tops of the hills. Altamaha River below the crossing of the Georgia .& Florida Railway has large quantities of excellent sand, and should the demand warrant, a good site for the installation of a pump is offered here. MUSCOGEE COUNTY Commercial sand arid gravel is produced in Muscogee County from the deposits along Bull Creek. Numerous deposits of clay gravel near Columbus furnish excellent road material for the county: Flournoy et al. property.-The J. F. Flournoy property comprises about 14 acres along Bull Creek just below the Seaboard Air Line Railway bridge. J. M. Rutledge and G. W. Chestnut of Columbus have built a screening plant and drag-line system along the _creek on this property and pay a royalty for the sand and gravel removed. (Plate XI-B.) A ;!:1-yard drag bucket with "72-inch steel c_able is used, and the .sand dragged to the top of a 20-foot tower over a wooden incline and passed through a }1-inch revolving trorrimel. A 25-horsepower hoisting engine is used. An excellent coarse~grained concrete sand-is obtained willch is. delivered for use throughout Columbus and is also used in the county road paving operations. The excavation from which the sand is scooped shows up to 8 feet of a mixture of sand ahd gravel, the gravel composing 25 per cent. Tl:Pcknesses of from 15 to .20 feet of sand and gravel have been encountered on this property. The sand is recovered over a distance o:f 450 feet. (Plate' XII-A.) Formerly an e.Ia,boiate washing and screening plant was operated by the Cohimbus Sand and Concrete Company on the Flournoy property 200 yards below the Seaboard Railway crossing, but it has since been abandoned. .Morris property._-Mr. W. M. Morris owns land along BUll Creek, a 'half mile northeast from the Buena Vista road. In this distance sand and gravel have collected in large quantities in bars alo:rag the creek. The entire creek bed has an ~xcellent clean quartz gravel which forms deposits up to 14 or 15 feet thick and .300 to 400 feet wide. In places vegetation has grown up on these bars, and the gravel is not at once apparent. The pebbles range from. 74: inch to 3 inches in diameter and consist of tough, vari-colored quartz generally rounded or sub-a:J:igular. The .deposits have been left by the creek in flood times and naturally decrease in coarseness the further they are located from the main channel. SAND .AND GRA-VEL DEPOSITS 223 It is possible to obtain three grades of material from the creek (1) gravel, which has about 40 per cent sand; (2) concrete sand, ranging in size from fine grains to X inch; (3) fine-grained, clean, white sand used for brick and plaster mortar, which occurs on the stream bank or at the outer edge of a bar away from the stream. The .sand and gravel is loaded on wagons or trucks by hand labor and then passed through a quarter-inch screen into a bin whiC;h empties, when full, into a railroad car below. Sample T-92, taken from the Morris property, but typical of Bull Creek sand, has a fineness modulus of 2.85 and 90 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. The organic color value is 50. Analysis of sand from Morris property alon~ Bull Creek, T-92 Ferric oxide (Fe20s)--------------------------------- 3.21 Silica (Si02) __ ----- __ ------------------ _____ ___ _____ 95.84 The bank of the first stream terrace just above the bed of the stream and usually from 100 to 400 feet back from the stream shows a cover of clay and sand from 5 to 10 feet thick, beneath which from 2 to 5 feet of very high-grade gravel shows. Musco~ee County ~ravel pit.-North of the St. Marys road, 372 miles from Columbus, Muscogee County has operated a road- gravel pit on its 102-acre farm since 1915. The gravel is mined with a 50-horsepower Thew No. 0 gasolene shovel using a %-yard bucket and is loaded directly into auto trucks. (Plate II-B.) The face of the pit is about 14 feet high and 500 feet long. The gravel has a fairly large amount of clay and sand which causes it to cement so well as to be mined with difficulty even with the steam shovel. A general section at the pit is given: Section at Musco~ee Coun~l! ~ravel pit, St. Marys road, 372 miles from Columbus Red, sandy clay soil____________________ _________________ F1e-e2t Clay gravel, rounded and sub-angular pebbles, highly cemented 8 Coarse, clayey sand with a few pebbles____________________ 1 Reddish clayey sand, pebbles scant_______________________ 3-4 Clay gravel with fewer pebbles than upper layers__________ 2-3 Sample T-90, representing the face of the pit, shows a fineness mo-. dulus of 6.07, and 75 per cent coarser than 4 mesh. The clay content is 6 per cent. , I 224 GEOLOGICAL SlJRVEY OF GEORGIA At the southeast end of the pit the sand layer is from 5 to 7 feet thick. (Plat~ XII-B:) A well 25 feet back from the face, and above it, shows 22 feet or gravel, sand, and clay similar to that in the section. In the immediate vicinity at least 3-- acres are underlain- with graveL A few hundred yards west of the present pit, a small pit was opened some years ago, but the clay_ content of the gravel was found to be to'O large. The gravel north of the pit is believed to thin out and contain more clay than that now worked~ On the land of A. L. Barnes, adjoining the county land to the east, a maximum thickness of 4 feet' of similar, althmigh more sandy gravel, outcrops in the road cut. Fort''Bennin~ ~ravel pit.--About 5 miles from Columbus on the Cusseta roaq near the top of Torch Hill, on the Fort Benning Reservation, a pit has been opened to supply gravel for ro~d building in the reservation. A section of the deposit shown in the pit is g1ven ... Section at pit q_n- Torch Hill_ Feet Red, coarse, clayey sand-------------------------------- 2-8 Granular rounded quartz gravel with bright red clay matrix__ 6 Coarse, red, clayey sand_________________________________ 1-2 Quartz ~a-vel with red clay ___ --'- _____________ .... _________. 4 ; Cenbra.l of G_eor~ia Railway.'-A-hill of clay gravel. extends east- watd' along tne north' side of the Central of Ch_~-orgia Railway yards, fr0fri.a point 700 feet,east of the Muscogee Guano Co;rn.pany, for 1,000 'fee1<'_ range, clayey to silty sand__ '-,-- _____________ ~-_ 6-8 Coarse- to medium-grained,. yellowish-ora.nge sand having small, brown clay balls and irregular streaks of dark, sandyclaY--------~-------------------------------~8-10 Coarse, angular, white to yellow sand having only a small claycontent________________-____________________________ 4-5 The best sand occurs in the lower 4 feet of the pit and this.may be obtained if care is taken in loading. Sample T-232 is a general sample of the lower 14 feet. The fineness modulus of this sample was 1.78, and 64 per cent was coarser than the 48-mesh screen. The sand is reddish-brown and composed of sharp, highly stained quartz grains. The sand has only a faint trace of organic matter. Sand similar to .that found near Americus is widespread over the county beneath th~ surficial sandy clays. It can be. best observed in gullies, but the usual depth of overburden is- such as to prevent extensive production of the sand in most "Of the localities in which it is found~- Flint River.-Flint River, which forms the eastern boundary of the county, has great quantities of medium-grained brown sand of fairly good qu~lity. The most favorable place for commercial pro- .duction is at the Seaboard Aii Line Railway crossing in the southeast co'rner of the county. Large quantities of fine- to medium-grained, yellow to gray sand occur in the river swamp, _having a maximum thickness of 10 feet in the bottom of intermittent _lakes. along the river. Such deposits are of value only for construction purposes at points close to the river where other supplie sare not available. The results of tests of similar sand from the east side of Flint River in Dooly County are given on page 191. TALBOT COUNTY Along the Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic and the Central of Georgia railways, in the squthern part of Talbot County, a number . of sand pits are in operation, and a great quantity of sand is shipped SAND .AND GB.AVEL DEPOSITS annually to all parts of Georgia and also to Alabama and Tennessee. The surface of the sand area is undulating and even slightly hilly. Sand is generally thickest under the hills or ridges of the area, and in the valleys the underlying clay is likely to be exposed or come so close to the surface as to eliminate the sand for commercial purposes. Talbot County produces m0rt> sq,nd thq,n any other C)unty in the state. PITS ALONG THE CENTRAL OF GEORGIA RAILWAY J. R. Hime Sand Company .-The pit of the J. R. Rime Sand Company, in charge of 0. A. Nix, is located a mile and a half east of Junction City on the Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic Railway and has been in operation since 1909. The area worked over is about 5 acres, and the maximum height of the face is 22 feet, although the average height is 15 to 16 feet. The sand in the upper 6 to 8 feet is finegrained and gray or yellow but becomes darker and coarser with depth. The lower 8 or 10 feet has the peculiar wavy stratification made by layers of reddish, clayey sand, but these are riot so marked as in the Crawford County pits. The lower 2 to 5 feet of the sand exposed at the face and which extends for at least two feet in places beneath the floor of the pit, is fairly coarse-grained and white. It is used for molding and concrete work and has been shipped as far as Nashville, Tenn., for foundry purposes. Sample T-77, representing the lower 4 feet of the deposit, shows a fineness modulus of 1.72 and 60 per cerit coarser than 48 mesh. The sand is mined by a drag-line excavator with a one-yard Sauerman drag-bucket operated by a 30-horsepower Mondy hoisting en- gine. (Pla,te III-B.) The hoist is placed on a platform built in front of the pit face, t~e spur track passing between the platform and the face, and the drag-bucket is pulled toward the platform and the sand unloaded over a car, the cable passing around a pulley attached to an A-frame which can be easily moved when the sand is removed from one place. The range of the drag is now about 200 feet. The sand has also been loaded from the face by a Haist Wagon Loading .Machine, requiring 8 horsepower. The device is 15 feet high and has 20 buckets each having a capacity of 3 cubic feet. With this machine two men can easily fill a car in two hours, although with fast working it has been done in 45 minutes. One man is located at a foot of the machine to keep it supplied with sand and close to the face, and the other works in the car keeping the sand distributed as 1t enters. 244 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA a To recover the coarser sand near the base of the pit so that high- grade washed sand can be put on the market, a 12-hor.sepower cen- trifugal pump, with .a 6-inch intake; h,as been p.sed which sucks the sand from a pond in the center of tlie pit kept supplied with water. The sand from this pit is sold direct to the .consumer in Atlanta anq other markets along the Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic Railway. N t 0 I Fig. 13. Sand pits along Ce]ltra.l of Georgia and Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic railways near Junction City, Howarq, and Norwich in Taylor and .Talbot counties. . 1, Was~er, K~k,patrick .Sand & Cement. Co.; 2, Central of Ge~rgh pit; 3, 8, K1rkpatnck Sand & Cement Co. pit; 4, 5, J. M. Heath pits; 6, L. J. Downs. pit; 7, Alexander pit;' 9, 10, J. R Rime Sand Co. pit; 11, Morningstar pit. fo.bout 2}i miles southeast of Junctiqn .City, a:nd below the present Rime pit, a large pit is located which was formerly worked by the J. R. Hime Sand Compa!lY The sand facie is poorly exposed due to caving, but the material appears to. be similar to the usual run of .sand in this region. Although having a little higher clay content anQ. somewhat finer grains thap. those in the present pit, !rom 10 to 15 feet of sand show up in the pit, and .the faqe is several hundred yards long. Just east of the pit a branch valley c_uts through the SAND Al.~D GRAVEL DEPOS.ITS 245 sand, and it is possible that testing closer to the valley may disclose coarser stream sand. Morningstar pit.-Two miles east of Junction City, L. E. Morn. ingstar was preparing to ship sand when visited in June, 1920. At that time grading for the spur track was under way and plans made for the installation of a mining and treatment plant. Kirkpatrick Sand and Ce7n_ent Company .-The Kirkpatrick Sand and Cement Company, with offices at Birmingham, Ala., leases sand land from J. M. Heath, of Talbotton, and operates a pit by col- ored hi:md labor, half a mile southeast of Junction City on the Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic Railway. The pit has been worked since 1913, and about 5 acres of sand have been removed. The face ranges from 9 to 15 feet in height over a length of 800 feet, and holes dug at the bottom of the pit indicate a continuatio~ of the sand downward for 4 or 5 feet over part of the pit at least, particularly that within 75 to 100 feet of the face. The upper 6 feet of the face is fine-grained, gray, and a little silty, but it becomes coarser and cleaner in the lower half of the pit. The lower 5 feet, as exposed at the face, is made up of distinct wavy strata of reddish clayey sand an inch or two thick, separated by crusts and layers of white, coarser sand, from 2 to 5 feet thic_k. The best sand is at the east end of the pit;- The underlying mottled sandy clay comes to the surface along the railroad at the southeast end of the worked-out portion of the pit. South of the railroad the surface gradually rises indicating a considerable thick- . I ness of sand. Sample T-81, typical of the lower 6 feet of the pit and taken from the eastern end of the face, is yellowish white, clean, and has~a fine- ness modulus of 1.38 with 44 per cent retained on the 48-mesh screen. The organic matter shows a color value of 200. Surface indications appear favorable for a considerable extent and thickness of sand along the railroad just west of the Kirkpatrick pit. Ale:wnder pit.-The Alexander sand pit is located on the Altanta, Birmingham & Atlantic Railway just east of the depot at Junction City, on the property of C. W. Moore of Junction City, leased by Edgar Alexander of Atlanta and managed by J. E. Boswell. The face is from 10 to 12 feet high, the upper 6 feet being a fine-grained, gray sand, and the lower half is stratified, the strata consisting of alternating layers of white, medium-grained sand, 2 inches thick, and one-inch layers of a reddish, somewhat clayey sand. The lower foot 246 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA or two is still coarser, although not so white as that in some of the other pits. Sample T-78 'represents the entire face of the pit anli shows a fii:teness modulus of 1.82 with 63 per cent coarser than the 48-mesh sieve. The organic matter shows a color value of 200. The production averages about _two cars a day, and the cars ar~ loaded by hand labor. Downd pit.-The L. J. Downs' pit is located on the Atlanta, Birmingham. & .Atlantic Railway, a quarter. of a mile west of Junction City near the western margin of the-sand belt. The pit floor covers almost~two acres, and the face is from 10 to 12 feet high. The upper 6 feet. is a fin~-grained, wind..:blown sand, gray to yellow in color, and the lower half -is stratified with alternate layers of yello"w sand a~d reddish-yellow clayey sand. The lower 4 feet consists of a fairly coarse a stratified sand of good quality. Below this coarse, sandy clay of unknown thickness is met with that might be suitable for use as a . coar-se foundry sand. The pit has been in op~ratiori since 1907 and produces from one to two cars daily, which is shipped mostly to Atlanta. Morgan property.-W. K. Morgan owns about 100 acres north- east of the jun,ction of the .Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic Railway and tb:e Central of Gecirgia Railway at Junction City. Some of thi.13 has thick deposits of sand similar to that in the pits in this locality, although no sand is being dug from it. The greatest- thickness lies on a ridge extending approximately north and south about 1,200 feet westof the Central of Georgia Railway tracks. In a. well at the Morgan residence; 21 feet of san:d was passed through, and in a test hole, a quarter of ~ mile northwest of the house,- 25 feet: of sand was said to have been encountered. Sand from the upper 4 or5 feet of the property as shown in a hole -dug in the writer's presence was of a fairly good quality, but below this point the sand becomes somewhat finergrained. The deeper test hole and the well showed this type of sand to continue to within two or three feet of the 1:;ed underlying sandy clay, where it becomes much coarser. A small stream, affording a constant water supply, flows along the western edge of the deposit. .Tests close to the stream showed a coarser sand than that further up on the hill. PITS ALONG THE CENTRAL OF GEORGIA RAILWAY Kirkpatrick Sand and Cement C01npany.-A pit of the Kirk-_ patrick Sand and Cement Company is located on the Central of Georgia SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 247 Railway, two miles west of Howard on a 400-acre tract owned by that . company. The face is from 12 to 40 feet high and about 1,500 feet in length. (Plate XIII-B.) The area already worked covers over 20 acres. The upper part of the face shows 8 feet of fine-grained, grayish-yellow sand, somewhat loamy near the top, and which has been deposited in its present position by the wind. Below the upper 8 feet the sand becomes somewhat coarser and has a corrugated or wavy appearance, due to many strata of .reddjsh-brown clayey sand and has a few clay lumps scattered thkougb it. This stratification has probably been caused by settling of the sand in water either along the shore of an ancient estuary or on the flood-plains of large streams. The,thickness of the stratified sand ranges in different parts of the pit from 5 to 30 feet. It grades into a red, clayey sand at the bottom of the pit from 1 to 4 feet in thickness, which in.turn may merge into a fine, white sand saiGl to be from 1 to 3 feet thick. None of the white sand was exposed at the time of writer's visit in the spring of 1920. Veatch1 gives a section of this taken in 1910, in which_he notes the white sand: Section at Kirkpatrick Sand and Cement Company's pit west of Howard Surficial sand _ Feet ~: 3. t~~~e;to!c:~!i~~~~i~~~-~~~~~-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~==~ Almost white sand showing evidences of water stratifi- r ~ 25 cation___ ------- _________________ -- ____________ } 2. Fecrrluaygi_n_o_u_s__s_a_n_d__co__n_ta_i_n_in__g_a__v_e_r_y__sm__a_l_l _p_e_r_c_e_n_ta_g_e__o_f rr 5 1. White sand____ ----- _______ -- __ ------------------- r Microscopic examination of sample T-82, representative of the entire~ face of the deposit, and in fact of all the yellow sand throughout the Taylor and Crawford counties sand region, revealed sub-angular grains of slightly stained quartz, becoming angular as they de-. creased in size. A small amount of mica was noted in very fine flakes and also a few fragments of feldspar, generally considerably decomposed. Black sand, largely ilmenite, with a few grains of magnetite, occurs in the sand and usually passes the 65-mesh screen. 1 Veatch, Otto, and Stephenson, L. W., Geology of the Coastal Plain of Georgia: Georgia Geol. Survey, Bull 26, p. 453, 1911. 248 GEOLOGICAL SU-RVEY OF GEORGIA The thickness of the stratified sand ranges in different parts of the pit from 5 to 30'feet. It grades into a red clayey sand at the bottom of the pit from 1 to 4 feet in thickness, which in turn may merge into a fine, white sand said to be from 1 to 3 feet thick. The sand is loaded by means of a 50-ton Browning locomotive crane having a ,bucket of one yard capacity. The boom is 38 feet long, and a_ 40-horsepower engine and_ boiler supply the power. A 50-ton car can be loaded in .20 minutes with the crane. The face is sufficiently long and the sand so thick that a thousand- cars can be loaded at each shifting of' the track. Formerly a steam shovel was - used, but due to the height of the face it was found necessary to install the crane. Washer.-The washer, through which part of the sand is passed to increase its silica percentage for steel foundry purposes, is located a half mile east of the pit. It copsists of 5 worm screws 127'2 feet long, each fed with water from 1;!-i-inch pipes supplied by a 5inch main through which the water is raised at the rate of _150 gallons per minute from an impounded stream, 122 feet below vertically and 2,200 feet distant horizontally._ (Pla~e VII-B.) The sand is allowed to enter,-the washer from the car above. and after befug washed is elevated 28 feet by steel buckets attached to- an endl~ss belt to the car to be filled. Power is supplied by a 15-horsepower Foos kerosene engine, which consumes 10 .gaJlons of the fuel--- daily. About. four hours are required to load a 40-ton car. From 20 to 35 per cent of silt and other material are removed in the washing. The unwashed sand (see T-82) has 43 per cent coarser than the 48-mesh sieve, and the washed sand (see T-83) has 61 per cent coarser than 48 mesh; the tailings, or silt and clay washed }rom the sand (see T-8.1;.), has 25 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. These tailings appear to be well suited for asphalt paving sand which requires material ranging from 50 to 80 mesh in size. Most of the washed product is shipped to foundries in Alabama and Tennessee. - Central of Georgia Sand_ Company;-The Central of Georgia Sand Company, owns a sand pit on the Central of Georgia Railway, 17'2 rr.iiles west of Howard. The face shows a maximum height of 30 feet and is about 800 feet long. The sand is, in general, similar to that in the Kirkpatrick pit except that the lines of stratification are almost invisible, the whole face presenting an unbroken mass of grayish-yellow SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 249 sand, becoming somewhat darker and a little coarser beneath the upper 3 or 4 feet, until the bottom of tbe pit is reached. Here the commercial sand grades into a reddish-brown, clayey sand from 1 to 3 feet thick, beneath which a white sand is said to occur. Sample T-87, representative of the sand in the lower 12 feet of the pit, which is used for molding, has a fineness modulus of 1.70 and 59 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. Sample T-88, typical of the white sand at the east end of the pit, has a fineness modulus of 1.69 and 64 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. A general sample tested at the Georgia School of Technology laboratory gave a concrete strength ratio of 90 and 97 per cent at 7 and 28 days, respectively. The face is long enough to permit loading 150 cars at one movement a of the track. The cars are loaded by Williams' crane having a %- yard bucket. The bucket is equipped with an autQlnatic digging arrangement, and a 40-ton car can 'be easily loaded in 20 minutes. The sand from this pit is shipped pr,incipally to ,foundries in Atlanta and Birmingham, Ala., to marble works for sawing purposes, and to Birmingham for- mortar and concrete aggregate. CarlY,le property .-Along the Central of Georgia Railway between Paschal and Geneva, heavy beds of fine-grained, gray sand occur of unknown thickness, principally on land owned by T. J. Carlyle. Other deposits.'-On the Central of Georgia Railway, 2.3 miles west of Howard by road at the 227-mile post; 15 feet of yellow sand similar to that in pits further west are exposed for 800 feet in the cut. One third of a mile further west of this point the land again 'rises, and although so gn~at a thickness of sand is not exposed, yet the possibility of a considerable thickness is suggested. Thin deposits of gravel usually under 2 feet in thickness are. associated with the contact of the Cretaceous sediments and the Crystalline rocks. These deposits may be found scattered along the Fall Line, just north of the Central of Georgia Railway from a. point just west of Howard, in Taylor County, to the western boundary near Box Spring. .They have little commercial value but are suitable for road building and as concrete aggregate for local construction work. Outcrops and depot3its of this gravel are especially prominent along the Columbus-Talbotton road, but all that were investigated showed less than a foot of gravel. Greater thicknesses, however, may occur in more remote places. Most of the larger streams of upper Talbot County have deposits 2;:;o GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OJ/ GEORGIA of -.good sand for concrete aggregate, produced from t4e weathering of the quartzite, .schists.and diQI'ite. Those of the eastern part of the county, including Flint River, have probably larger and better d~posits than elsewhere. None of this type of sand is produced for shipment. TATTN.ALL COUNTY No sand pits are operated in Tattnall County. The beds of Alta- maha River, on the south, and Ohoopee River, on the east, as well as sand hills bordering Ohoopee River, west of Reidsville, afford almost unlimited sang deposits. Ohoopee Riv.er.-Large bars on the inside of the numerous meanders of Ohoopee River, ranging from a few hundred square feet to half an acre in extent, occur along the river from its confluence with Altamaha River through most of the county. The sand is- of pure white, medium- to cmirse:grained quartz, with coarser material, and even a few pebbles, at the sharper curves. The bed of the stream and flood deposits along the banks are composed of whiter, but finergrained -sand~ . The sand is suitable for building purpbses and some grades of bottle glass. Sa11!d-hill deposits.-Along the east side of Ohoopee River, from Battle Creek to the north line of the county,. a remarkable area of pale yeU0w and gray~sand."oceurs in. a belt f-rom one to four miles wide. Th.e surface of the belt is level to gently ro11ing with inclutl.ed "bays" and undrained .depressions and characteristic dunes of aeolian origin. The thickness of the sand ranges from 4 to 25 f~et. At the surface it has been leache.d white by rain and organic acids, but it becomes pale yellow or gray at depths of from a few inches to a foot. The sand is medium-grained in texture, and in places gravelly, with little sign of stratification in the upper 5 to 8 feet at least. The present condition of the sand is probably due to wind action, but the lower part of the dep0sit was probably an. ancient flood-plain deposit of Ohoo.pee River. Samples T-27, T-31, T-32, are very similar to the sand in this belt, and the results of their tests can be used in judging tliis sand. Most of it ir;? suitable for brick mortar and plaster work only. Although tremendous deposits of the sarid exist in the county, at only two points is there a possibility of present commercial exploitation. (1) West of the Georgia Coast & Piedmont Railroad at Reidsville, which place is on the edge of.the belt and the thickness of the sand)s SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 251 probably considerably less than that part closer to the river. (2) The cuts of the Seaboard Air Line Railway, 4 miles west of Collins, do not expose more than a foot o:r two of sand, so that a spur at least half a mile long would be necessary to reach the belt to the south. TAYLOR COUNTY Much of Taylor County lying in the Coastal Plain is covered with a thick layer of current- and wind-worked residual sand which is comm~rcially exploited in several large pits along the Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic_Railway and the Central of Georgia Railway. Some gravel also occurs in the county near the Fall Line; these deposits although extensive are generally thin and suitable only for local roadbuilding purposes. W. C. Harkey Sand Company.-The W. C. Harkey Sand Company (posto:ffj.ce, Mauk) owns 400 acres of sand land on the Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic Railway, a mile south of Norwich. The sand has been removed from over two acres, and the face of the pit ranges from 12 to 18 feet high and is about 800 feet long. The pit has been in operation since 1906. The sand is gr..ay at the top, becom-_ ing yellow a few feet below the surface, but toward the bottom of the pit it gets paler and finally grades into a red sandy clay. No signs of stratification of the sand were noted, as iS common in some other pits in the area. The sand is fine-grained, becoming medium- grained with a few particlesup to t inch in size in the lower third of the pit. like all of the sand in this and adjoining counties, it is free from organic matter and has practically no clay, except in the upper foot or so where it is influenced somewhat by the soil and vegetation. Sample T-76, which is an average sample from the entire face, shows a fineness modulus of 1.49 and 46 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. The freedom from signs of stratification noticed in this pit is somewhat peculiar to the sand on the eastern border of the sand-hill area extending across Middle Georgia. Marked stratification lines in the pits in the central and western parts of the belt point to the fact that those portions may represent the original water-deposited material, and the unstratified belt to the east may have originated later through the action of the wind. Sand from the Harkey pits is shipped to Atlanta, Manchester, and other pomts on the Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic Railway; some has been shipped to Tate, Ga., for use in sawing marble. 252 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA In the vicinity of Norwich the sand appears to be very thick and extensive, and most of the land adjoining the railroad is held for its sand. Most of the wells show sand from 6 to 30 feet in thicknes~, and some show even greater: amounts, although they generally encounter clay or kaolin strata of differing thicknesses. At a point a third of a mile east of the 227-mile post, 10 feet of sand shows in a cut through a sniall hill. A well 1,000 feet to the south showed 8 feet of sand. At the 227-mile post a maximum of 7 feet of gray sand is underlain by a coarse, reddish-yellow molding sand 2 to 3 feet thick and then byred clay. A small pit has been opened here in the sand, a few feet below the track, apparen~ly for gradiri.g purposes. Exposures of the red clay beneath the sand show its upper surface to be very undulating which adds some uncertainty in estimating the size of a sand deposit and also seems to emphasize the necessity _of ~areful detailed testing with augers before passing fi:q.al judgment on its extent, even though the surface hidications may be very favorable. Dry Rid~e.-A small pit is operated by 0. 0. Brown, of Howard, a few hundred yards east of Dry Ridge on the Central of Georgia Railway, ne~r the eastern edge of the sand belt. The face is from 12 to 15 feet high and about 700 feet1ong. The sand is stratified and presents a wavy, corrugated appearance from the bottom of the pit to within 5 feet of the top. The lower two feet of sand is fairly coarse, pale yellow, and of excellent quality. Below this a sandy clay occurs. Sample T-89 represents the general character of this sand, and its examination shows a fineness modulus of 2.22 and 79 per cent of the sand coarser than 48 me$h. Two miles west of Butler on the Central of Georgia Railway considerable s~nd occurs. Mr. Brown has bought 200 acres near here and contemplates opening a sand pit. Wall' property.-Near the eastern border of the sand area along the Atlanta, Birmingham. & Atlantic Railway, 13/z miles northwest of Mauk, H. S. Wall owns 16 acres of land underlain by gray to yel- low sand. Holes dug with a post-hole digger showed at least i feet of fine- to medium-grained sand. Mr. Wall claims to have found a depth of 20 feet of sand on this property by boringwith a soil auger. Sample T-75, from this deposit, has a fineness modulus of 1.64, and 58 per cent is coarser than 48 mesh. Along the railroad 2Yz miles southeast of Mauk, cuts show at least 5 feet of fine-grained sand for a distance of 1,000 feet. Since the land rises southward from the railroad it is possible that the sand SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 253 reaches a thickness close enough to the railroad to be exploited commercially. Eastward from this point along the railroad, although occassional thin deposits of sand occur, nothing of commercial value is found. GRAVEL DEPOSITS Peeble.-On the Central of Georgia Railway at Feeble, 3 miles east of Butler, a small pit has been opened in a somewhat variable deposit of red quartz gravel. Section in gravel pit at Peeble Feet Quartz gravel with dark red clay_________________________ 2 Red, clayey sand_ ______________________________________ 1 Gravel, composed of quartz and granular quartzitic pebbles from Yz to 1 inch in size usually and bound with a dark red clay___________________________________________ 6 Reddish yellow and red sand_____________________________ 6 The main gravel, as shown in the lower part of the cut, becomes thinner and breaks up into several streaks 150 feet .further east. On the south side of the cut a smaller percentage of pebbles occur i~ the gravel. .The pebbles exposed at the surface are easily broken, and some are even friable, but they are tougher a few feet below. The material appears to be well suited for road making and if washed can_ be used for concrete aggregate. This deposit continues westward in the general direction of the railroad, and a quarter mile nearer Howard a 400-foot cut exposes a maximum of 4 feet of fairly coarse gravel in a red clay matrix with coarse clayey sand and clay lenses adjoining and merging irregularly into gravel lenses. The cover ranges from 2 to 5 feet and is clay and sand. The gravel appearing along the road may be traced in the fields north of the road. The pebbles are of granular quartz and range from Y2 inch to 2V2 inches in diameter. In general, the gravel in the vicinity of Feeble appears to be exceedingly irregular in extent and thickness, often thinning out entirely from one side of a railroad cut to the other, and for this reason a large commercial deposit probably does not 9ccur. A cut of the Central of Georgia Railway, 2Y2 miles west of Reyn- olds, shows from 3 to 5 feet of Cretaceous gravel in a clayey sand with white clay beneath. The deposit would make a good road material, but its extent 1s very irregular and uncertain. 234 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA Beechwood Station.-In a small abandoned pit at the side of a spur from the Central of Georgia Railway leading to the sawmill near Beechwood Station the following section was noted: Section at Beechwood Station Feet Fine. clay. gra;yel and sand; pebbles generally under half an - mch m diameter~-__________________________________ 6 Coarse, clayey sand-~-- __________________ ---:- _______ -~___ 6 Fine to medium-clay gravel, pebbles up to 1 inch________ 6 Clay and sand gravel with irregular sand lenses through it__ 6 Sample T-73, representative of this deposit, showed a clay content of 12 per cent and a fineness modulus df 4.76 with 75 per cent of the material coarser than 4 mesh and- none ef the pebbles coarser than 1 inch in diameter. _Along the main line of the railroad west of the station, several cuts show from 2 to 6 feet of clayey; fin~-pebbled gravel. The outcrop extends for a quarter of a mile west of the station both above and below the railroad_ grade, and indicatiqns of gravel appear in the hill north of the- railroad. The pebbles, in places, become much coarse~, ranging up to 2 inches in diameter and generally suo:.angul.ar. A coarse, slightly clayey sand generally occurs with- the gravel. A company for:rp_erly making bricks near here is said to have pros-pected in the vicinity for g:ravel and also in the bluffs overlooking Flint River 2Yz miles below. Theselioles are filled up _now and no data could be obtained from them. Five Points .-The contact of the Lower Cretaceous and the Crystalline rocks occurs on the Carsonville road a half mile south of Five Points. Coarse gravel and clay are usually found just above the -schists; A mile and a half sou~h of Five Points, near the top of the hill, at least- 2 feet of coarse gravel sJ:lows in the road cut and also covers the fields 10 feet above the outcrop, althqugh no gravel appears in a well at the house at the t'op of the hill. Gaultney property.-Near. the junction of the Carsonville road _ and a branch road running east, considerable gravel appears in the road and fields. Cuts indicate. several 2-foot streaks, although the well at the house, on the E. M. Gaultney property did not show reliable indications of n1ore than a foot or two. Further east, George Greer's well- shows 6 feet of coarse gravel, and several acres_ are covered witli gravel nearby. This well is 7 feet higher than the SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 255 Gaultney well and about 25 feet higher than the first outcrop noted on the Carsonville road south of Five Points. Gaultney property.-Gravel covers the fields over a considerable .area on theM. T. Gaultney property and on the E. C. Perkins farm further east of the Carsonville road. Gravel, however, does not show up in large amounts in the wells in this vicinity. It is generally reported by well diggers that only from 1 to 2 feet are found close to the surface, and then about 10 to 15 feet below this another streak of the same thickness occurs. On the hill.:side leading down to Patsiliga Creek several streaks of coarse granular quartz gravel from 2 to 2Yz. feet thick outcrop, usually separated by 8 or 10 feet of clay. Flint River.-West of the river the second bottom is underlain by at least 3 feet of coarse, white, tough quartz sand and gravel. The a material outcrops on the Wire road (Roberta-Reynolds road) 250 feet west of the bridge and at the. road forks, quarter of a mile beyond - on the C. H. Neisler plantation, 13 feet of clay was penetrated before reaching 2Yz feet of quartz gravel, in which the well was stopped. The second series of gravel deposits begin 30 to 35 feet vertically above the first and outcrop on the "Wire" road where 5 feet of excellent, coarse, clay gravel can be seen in. the road cut on the face of the second river terrace. Below this, 5 feet of poorer clayey gravel occurs.. This deposit is much older than that on the second bottom below and is probably of Satilla age. A well at a negro tenant's house on the Neisler plantation, at the top of the hill, 300 feet west of the outcrop, is said to have penetrated 5 feet of clay and then 10 feet of gravel. The upper half is of very good quality, the pebbles constituting about 60 per cent of the entire mass. On the "Wire" road, 4 miles west of the river, a 4-foot bed of coarse-pebbled sandy gravel qutcrops along the road for a few hundred feet. Sample T-71, from this locality, shows 95 per cent of the ma terial to be coarser than 4 mesh and the balance clay. The pebbles are coarse and of quartz or fine-grained quartzite, and fairly tough. Neisler property.-About 3 feet of good sandy gravel shows at the cross roads on the J. H. Neisler property on the Reynolds-Fickling l\1ill road 674: miles northwest of Reynolds. The pebbles are of fairly durable quartz and quartzite from Yz to 2 inches in diameter mostly. The gravel appears to cover most of the small hills to the north and occurs on both sides of the branch. Only 2 feet showed in a well just west of the cross roads. 256 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA On the same road 3}1 miles northwest of Reynolds; ne~r a small branch from 2 to 3 feet of clay gravel with coarse sand lenses outcrop al-ong _the road. The material appears to extend 800 feet east of the road. into the fields arid is .-used for road purposes. S;:tmple T-72, from this locality, and typieal of the Fall Line,gravels in Taylor County, has a fineness modulus of 6.50 and 74 per cent coarser than 4 mesh. A mile and a quarter northwest of Reynolds on the Fickling Mill roa~ 2 to 3feet of gravel outcrops having sub-angular, tough, quartz anc! quartzite pebbles ranging from 1 to 2 inches in size. .West of the road,_"on th,e John Musselwhite P!'Operty, ~ feet of gravel appears in a gully on the hill-side. The well at the house shows 10 feet of yellow sand beneath 4 feet of good graveL A small pit for road_ gravel has been opened along the road. East of the road on the J. Hill property, gravel caps the hills from a third to a quarter. mile fro:in the road. A good concrete sand deposit covering from 10 to 15 acr:~s occlirs on the Hill property near the road apparently 8 to 10 feet thick. Reynolds-.Maaon Highway.-Three miles from Reynolds 3 to 4 feet of quarf.z gravel, whose pebbles range from 1 to 2 inches and having a sandy clay matrix may be seen in the road cut and in the fields on either side. Although gravel occurs il_l a well/ 17 feet below th~ ,surface_. 700 feet west of the road, the cover is 'too thiClc. East of the road along the branch the grayel may be utilized; however. A-81Il11ll sand pit has been opened along the road 472 miles north of. Reynolds showjng 5 feet of coarse (~ inch and smaller) sand used in road construction and for other purposes. The sand. is of .excellent quality, and the deposit appears to cover several acres on either siqeof the road. . ]Jo~r ~les north of Reynolds, at the F. M. Griffith place, 2 feet of vV-b:ite quartz gravel outcrops in the road, and a 4-foot bed appears ina well at the house 14 feet below the surface. At Lockett the same bed persists, and i~ w~lls along the road from 2 to 5 feet of white gravel are found. Regarding the numerous indications of gravel in Taylor County, with the possible exception of that near Beechwood, it may be said that none of those examined by the writer warranted e~tenstve commercial development on account of their distance from transporta- tion and their small thickness and irreglilarity. They should serve . as excellent local sources for road building material, and it is possible .SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS OF GEORGIA PLATE XVI A. SM:.ALL SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSIT, MOUNTAIN CREEK, NEAR ALTO, BANKS COUNTY B. SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSIT, PROCTER CREEK, 3 MILES SOUTH O'F ACWORTH ON MARIETTA ROAD, COBB COUNTY SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 257 that using them as a guide, more detailed prospecting may lead to the discovery of commercial deposits close to railroads. The most favorable place for tlie accumulation of sucli deposits should be ea~t of the intersection of Flint River and the F~n' Li~e, but eve'n in tP.at .vicinity no large, extensive deposits were noted. TELF.AlR COUNTY ~urficial sand from one to two feet thick covers a considerable part of Telfair County, particularly near the streams; and beneath it the mottled, feldspathic sands and clays of the Altarp.a;ha forma- tion are found. Commercial sand is produced along Little Ocmulgee River above Lumber City. Lumber City Sand and Concrete Company.-On the Southern Railway, about 2 miles northwest of Lumber City, a pit has been opened on the property of J. T. Wilbanks, lot 223, and a very good quality of concrete sand is shipped to. almost every part of the state. (Plate XV-A.) , . . Section at pit of Lumber City Sand and Concrete Company, Lumber City SoiL _____________________ _:____________________________ Fe2et Fine sand to clayey sand________________________________ 2-4 Coarse sand, with pebbles up to %inch. The coarser sand is in lenses which predominate and are separated by streaks of fine-grained, clayey sand. Cross-bedding of the coarser sand is prominent_ ____ ----.,.-- ___________ ~6-10 The pit covers a little less than an acre and is situated 15 feet above Little Ocmulgee River (Gum Swa:ri).p Creek), and the bed of the pit is about the same distance below the Southern Railway grade. A spur 300 feet long leads down into the pit which is quite' free from water. The sand from this pit is of high quality and excellently suited for concrete purposes. Sample T-15 .11, representative of the sand, has a fineness modulus of 2.64 and 78 per cent is retained on 48 mesh. The coarse grains are mostly of clean, well-rounded or su~angular quartz and probably 5. per cent feldspar; a little ilmenite -occurs in fine grains. The color is yellowish-white to pale yellow. Practically no organic matter occurs in the sand. Compressive strength tests a made of this sand for the Moultrie Construction Company at the Georgia School of Technology showed strength of 2,950 pounds per square inch at the end of 7 days, or 110 per cent of normal. 258 GEOLOGI,CAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA Within the bed of Little Ocmulgee River, near tJ:ps pit, are large deposits of excellent gravel capab1e of yielding probably hundreds of ?arloads and which could be obtained with little difficulty. Near the c'urves in this stream above and .below this point similar gravel is abundant. Walker property.-A gravel deposit occurs on the property of H. G. Walk:er, less than a quarter of a mile west of the house and the Lumbe~ City-Towns road, and about 27'2 miles west of Lumber City. An area of between 2 and 3 acres shows a sandy gravel composed of rounded and sub-angular tough quart~ pebbles, ranging from 34' to 1 inch in size. The fineness modulus~. ~s determined from sample T-208, is 5.72. The deposit lies about 25 feet above and a little to. the south of a small branch. A small pit shows. the deposit near it to, be from 2 to 272 feet thick and underlain. by yellowish-red clay. The gravel was formerly screened in a rotary scre~n through 34'-mch mesh and hauled to Lumber City and other points: The workable gravel is restricted to about an acre and a half. The deposit is a little less than a mile south of the Southern. Railway. Oamulgee River.-The bars and bed of Ocmulgee River, which forms the southern boundary of the county, have inexhaustible de- posits of excellent sand for concrete purposes. The barf? occur on the points of the'river curves and u.sually are h~lf an acre or less in extent. The remoteness of all of these deposits from rail transportation, except .at the Southern Hailway crossing east of Lumber City, will re- quire-the use of -boats or barges-in case any of the .river ~and is exploited cqmmer~ially. _ Sample 'i'-207, obtained from the bed of the river at Lampkiri's Old Field Ferry a short distance from China Hill, in the extreme south- ern part of the county, shows a fineness modulus of 3.15 and practic- ally none of it finer than 48 mesh. The color v:al11e _of the organic matter is 50. The sand is mostly angular, iron-stained quartz and some mica, feldspar, and ilmenite, and is typical of the river deposits. Other deposits .-Along Sugar Creek, particularly where the Lumber City-Towns road crosses it, a thick deposit of white, medium- grained sand is found, averaging 10 to 12 feet in thickness. The de- posit-is parti9ularly heavy on the sou.th~ast side of the creek and forms low sand .hills, with sharp scarps in places, overlooking the creek. - - TERRELL COUNTY ';['he surface of Terre11 County consists principally of red clay or SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 259 sandy clay, and deposits of any kind of sand are small, or of poor quality, and restricted to the sides and beds of the larger streams. Sasser.-Two and a half miles southeast of Sasser, surficial, finegrained sand occurs in somewhat extensive. beds, but only from two to three feet thick. The sand is suitable for local road use. Brantley Creek.-East of 'Brantley Creek, on the Sasser-Herod road, about seven miles from Dawson, ten feet of red sandy clay overlie at least six feet of fine-grained white sand, sufficiently pure for glass purposes, but at present of no value except for local uses, due to its inaccessibility and the thick overburden. It is possible that a search along this and other creeks in the county may disclose deposits of white sand with less overburden and nearer a railroad. Ichawaynochaway Creek.-Ye1low, medium-grained sand, of Eocene age, underlies red clay and red sandy clay east of Ichawaynochaway Creek. Due to a thick overburden of from 8 to 12 feet the sand at this point is of no commercial value, but is used for local purposes. It is probable, however, that at other places, where this or other streams have worn down to the level of the coarse sand, good deposits may be found. The most suitable places to search for such sand would be on the slopes of the larger stream valleys. In the northwest part of the county, along both sides of Ichawaynochaway and Turkey creeks, extending south from Macedonia Church for about 3 miles, surficial deposits of very pale yellow, fine-grained sand occurs. The largest deposit lies about half a mile southeast of Macedonia Church on the west side of Turkey Creek. These deposits are usually less than 5 feet thick, and their distl\nce from rail transportation prevents their utilization for any but lo , ; l .I I l ?D. the C~iro ;rqadJ, 4Y2 rpil~s :west of TJ:;l;oDf~YP!,- to medium-grained, clayey sand with streaks of brown clay or sandy clay, 1 to 3 inches thick every 4 to 6 inches. Pnuebmbelreosuusptotwoar-d{6 t inch occur thro he bottom_____ ugh it, becoming more -~--- _____________ ._ 5 Goarse, gritty quartz sand, pebbles up to %' inch, some i and '!.-2 inch, and a few 1 inch in diameter, mostly angu- lar. Red and brown clayey strata occur. Streaks of twhhisitest,remaked_i_u_m_-_g_r_a_in_e_d__s_a_n_d_.___W__a_te_r__l_e_v_el__a_t_b__o_tt_o_m___o_f 4 The sand is shoveled into wheelbarrows which are wheeled to the car. The men are paid so n::i.uch a ton, and one man is frequently able to loa? an entire car of 30 to 35 tons in a day. Sample T-217 represents the general character of the sand from 6 to 12 feet below the surface. This sample has a fineness modulus of ~.18, and 68 per cent is coarser than 48 mesh. It contains only a trace of organic matter. Tensile strength tests of mortar made from this sand by the Pittsburg Testing Laboratory, and furnished by Mr. Frank Mitchell, showed a. strength of 11-2 and 99 per cent at 7 and 28 days, respectively. ' North of the railroad 4 feet of sand similar to that on the south side is exposed in the cut for several hundred yards. This land is owned by W. B. Devley. The deposit in which this pit is located extends along the west si,de of Ochlocknee River in a belt 1,000 to 2,000 feet wide beginning about 1,000 feet back from the river, from the vicinity of Chastain, in the northern part of the county, to Pine Branch, about 2 miles below the Thomasville-Meigs road. 1 Personal communication. 262 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA North of the Thomasville-Meigs road, 400 yards west of Ocklocknee River, a small pit has been opened and -shows 6 fee~ of finegrained sand, similar to the sand in the upper part of the Williams pit, indicating the extension of the deposit southward along the river. The white sand in bars, and in the bed' of Ochlocknee River, is sufficiently pure for the manufaCture of glass, but it would berather diffi- cult to get it to a railroad except that near the Atlantic Coast Line -crossings, northwest and west of Thomasville. The most extensive deposit of white sand occurs beneath the upper railroad crossing (Albany branch). The stream bed is almost a _quarter of a mile wide here at low water and is covered with small dunes of fine-grained sand (T-216) of dazzling whiteness. In the present.. stream channel the sand is somewhat coarser (T-214) but almost as white as t-hat in the bars. An analysis of this sand gave the following results: .!lnalysis of sand from Ocklocknee River bed, southwest of Williams Station, Thomas County, T-214 Ferric oxide (Fe20 g) ___ .:: ________________.______ -~_____ 0. 60 Silica (SiO 2) _____ - ________ --- --- ___ ~--- ____ ---- _____ 99 .40 White sand 'Qars continue, with interruptions, down the river to Pine Park wagon bridge; two miles below the crossing of the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad running to Bainbridge. At _the lower bridge the river is 3.5 feet wide and from 1 to 3 feet in depth (low water) and has a moderately rapid rate of flow. 'The sand in.the river bed and in the bars ranges from 2 to 5 feet in depth occupying bars from an eighth of an acre to an acre in extent and is underlain by blue clay and san.dy clay. West of the river just north of Pine Park bridge, a fine-grained yellow and white stratified sand, 10 feet thick, occurs. , TIFT .COUNTY The surface of Tift County consists of a light, clayey sand with numerou's iron oxide pebbles. Clays and clayey sand, having some pebbly layers, underlie the surface to a qepth of 75 or 80 feet, and beneath these the AlUm. Bluff' formation occurs. . - . Tifton.-Little sand of value, eve!l for local purposes is found near Tifton. A small pit is worked on- the Unionville road, one mile south of Tifton, but the sand here is fine-grained and loamy. Little River.-The usual fluvial sand hills parallel the course of Little River through the county and range from 500 feet to a mile SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 263 in width. The belt is widest just north of the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad crossing, 3 miles west of Tifton, and to the north of Five Bridges. The topography of the belt at this point is gently -rolling with some undrained depressions in it. . Two cuts on . the railroad about 900 feet apart show about 10 feet of yellowish, fine-grained, clean sand, each having a length of 300 feet. The sand appears to thicken to the north, and the average depth over 300 or 400 acres would be about 8 to 10 feet. The most suitable place for a spur is 1 :rllile back from the railroad trestle, although the thickness of the sand would probably limit its operation to hand labor. The sand is somewhat poorer than that on Seventeenmile Creek near Douglas (see T-23/t, p. 179). At the Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic Railway crossing of Little River near Overstreet bridge, 5~ miles west of Tifton, a cut shows. 600 feet of fine-grained, loamy sand, 10 feet thick. The sides. of the cut support vegetation and the sand is of poor quality, although suitable for unimportant plaster or _brick mortar work or for sand-clay roads. The Bureau of Soils gives the following mechanical analyses of the general type of sand 1 occurring along the streams: Mechanical analyses of sand-hill Number Description . Medi- Very Fine Coarse um Fine fine Silt gravel. sand sand sand sand Clay 203f';' ____ Soil____________ 1.0 . 20.4 28.4 38.9 6.0 3.3 2.0 20368_ -- SubsoiL ________ 1.5 21.6 27.0 39.5 5.5 2.4 2.8 A few isolated areas of coarse, light gray to white quartz sand. with 12 to 15 per cent silt and clay occur in the county, capping rela- tively high ridges or hills to a depth of 3 or 4 feet. One area occurs: on the Georgia Southern & Florida Railway (Ashburn-Tifton road) 4 miles north of Tifton and a smaller area is found 131 miles south- east of this on the Zion Hill church road. 1 Soil Survey of Tift County, Ga., U.S. Dept. A.gr., p. 16, 1910. : r t. u r. _ ~ - .. :. )" . GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA -~.' "'-qrrn-.~ ,.<:;{ 1 ... 1 . : TOOl\iiJ:ts COUNTY Much ~and occlirs east', of Peridleton Creek in. Tdombs Coutity, but rlO sand or gravel has been COinJJ+ercially explofted. tfj6::i;.:::..!A s&all branch in the ~estern paft d tb.~- to~n has clfi_ saha1 ' :J . f."~" . ~ " . -: . .. ~ \ L~. cient of fairly good quality for local uses. East ' ' of . Lyons, wh.e- r" , ~ Railway Creek, a "~ , t --r"'"'""1!. ''\ t 't~.' , :~s~r1.., .. .... ..~ ~: -"~i-::: r--- ~ ;, : tlie Cenihtl Of Georgia. crosses Pendleton , .'" belt of s~~~. i~ f~v;?r~?Jl.-~J.tu~t~(;t f~r _t~~*spo~~~~i?~ j~s~,.~,~st.}f ~~e cr~~k; .-:!.,' ~ '\d r::'l'''-~-'>:"'.. ~'_"t''~"-t"\' "f\1 ...... , ...... ~-:' _ ,, . ,-.~I>: .~ The cut sho~s 6' f~et of fiffe- to. ili~aium'-gr~inea, gray to yellow sand .... ~--." , , , , .. l"l'"' .... "J~,.~ f "'/!' . ~--: ~- :~"'! .- . ;..;~~ .. for about 700 feet. Tliis sanCI belt contimies east of Pendleton Creek It for praeti6ailly its entire colirs~ thtou'gh tli~ c8tifliy. I~ espedaliy prominent where the Lyons-Cobbtown and Lyons-C~iiins road~ cross it. i.,""i~c,. ,. .~~,L-,,. 1 ~- 'ili .. ~ :! -.__ ,., ,::iS:.,.,~ -~ .~ ~ ~ f .. :~ ,TI'idalia.-S'and for use in Vidalia is ootained from the north side -~ \ 1-.. (:.~ "~t i .. ~~-~ ~~ {~;i:'~t[ \1 .J <'4:..tf ' :t\;it(. t'-:::'HJ $ .{"'U."? of SWift CreeK: on the Soperton road, 2 illiles from town. . ~,., 1' . ,., .: ...... '!1" -~.'['\ ' ... \~;~ . ,'": . . ., r ;, ~ ~-4- r :~ -l \.0\o; } '~~-t t !~.-, The sand .! ' ' is ftorii 4 to 8 feet' deep over a half acre here, and is fine-grained and y~llo~. Sample T-~66 ha~ a firie~ess modulcts Of 1.29 and 38 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. A nilillH~r of tn"i'n' gritvel 'depo~its, rarely more than a foot thick and usually of small exte~t, occm in the county, but their commercial utilization is not possible at the yresent time. & ' ~ TREUTLEN COUNTY ( No sand or gravel depo~its of commercial value occur in Treutlen County, ~ithtiugh plenty of ~~:&d f~~ local use is fou~d. Soperton.-Most of the local san~ supply of Soperton is obtained from a small deposit of fine-grained sand, 1 mile north of the town on the Norristown road. On this road, 2 miles north of Soperton, is a s~all deposit of much better sand, along and in a branch 300 feet south of the old tram-road crossing, between the public road and the tram;..road. East of Red Bluff Creek, 3;!/z miles from Soperton on the Dublin - road, is a narrow belt of fine-grai,ned "sand. . Ocm;iee River, forming the southwest boundary of th~ county, has ,haslarge qwi:tititi~s of excellent med_,illn- and coatse-grained sand that been successfully used at Dublip. and Mt. VernoR. Thin, deposits of gravel and coarse sand are scattered throughout the county generally at the top of small hills, but their thickness rarely exceeds a foot, and their exten_t is small. SAND AND GR.A~EL DEPOSITS 265 TURNER COUNTY The surface of Turner County is sandy, but is u:o.derl;:tin by clay at slight depths, and by limestone an,d'clays of the Al~ Bluff, Chat- tahoochee, and Ocala formations in turn, at greater depths. Very little sand of even slight commercial value occurs in the county. Most of the sand used in the towns is shipped in or obtained from small local accumulation along the roads, which is lisually of inferior quality. Northeast of Deep Creek, 5 miles east of Ashburn at Geog- hagan bridge on the Rebecca road, an area of medium-grained, gray sand about 5 feet thick was noted. It apparently is part of a more or less continuous belt paralleling the creek from the vicinity of Worth ,to its confluence with Allapaha River. Sand of this character occurs east of Little River and Daniel Creek in interrupted strips from 500 to 800 feet wide, and also in isolated areas of a few acres, especially in the western part of the county. Due to a higher loam content, this sand is usually somewhat inferior to that east of Allapaha River, which partly bounds the county on tlfe east. TWIGGS COUNTY No commercial sand or gravel is produced in Twiggs County. Big Sandy Creek.-Considerable coarse, gray sand, well suited for concrete purposes, occurs along Big Sandy Creek in the northern part of the county, both in the bed and on the banks a few hundred feet back from the stream. - " Throughout most of the county the hills are capped with a bright red, clayey sand ranging from 5 to 50 feet thick and forming part of the Claiborne group. In a gulley on the McCrary property, 2 miles northeast of Jeffersonville, 8 to 10 feet of the red sand overlies 10 feet of yellow, medium-grained quartz sand. Similar occurrences of sand are frequent in the county, but its value is small due to lack of trans- portation for most of it, and the heavy cover of clayey sand which generally overlies it. Along the streams, however, this sand may be or exposed at points convenient for extensive mining at least for use in road building or in concrete work. WARE CO-UNTY No sand is produced in Ware County for shipment, although large deposits occur in the bed of Satilla River and along Seventeenri:Ule Creek. Local supplies for Waycross generally come from the deposits in Pierce County, north of Satilla River. 266 GEOLOGIC4.L SURVEY OF GEORGIA SatilZa River.-In the_ bed of Satilla River along most of its course in Ware_ County, and particularly along that part of it northeast of WaycrO$S, which forms a boundary of the county, white, mediumto coarse-grained sand, suitable for either COIJ:Crete or the poorer grades of glass, occurs. The Atlantic Coast Line Railroad crosses the river 272 miles northeast of Waycnoss. The sand in the river bars, which are usually along the right bank, is somewhat finer-grained than the sand in the river- channel proper. The niain difficulty in recovering the sand would be in raising it from the river to the railroad, a distance of '25 feet. Unless the demand was large and steady, it is doubtful whether it would pay to install the necessary equipment to prop- erly recover the sand. -Analysis of sand _from bed o/ Satilla River at .!ltlanti__c Coast Line Railroad bridge, northeast of Waycross Moistur~ at. ~00 q_________________________________ _ 0.04 Loss on Igmtwn______________________ ----- __._______ _ 0.35 Lime (CaO) _______________________________ ~- _______ _ 0.00 Magnesia (MgO) ________ --:- -~- _____________ --- _____ _ 0.06 Alumina (AbO a) __ ---------------------------------- 0.51 Ferric oxide (FezO ;r),..,.. -~ ________ -----~- --------------- - 0.72 Titanium dioxide (Ti02) ______ ---------- __ -----~-- ___' trace Silica- (SiOz) ___ - -- _---------------"---- -------------- 97.91 Sand.:.hill deposits occur qn both sid~s of Satilla: River, westward froth Waltertown to the Coffee Cotmty li:i:te. The sand is medium- . grained, yellow and. has practically- no clay. It ranges in thickness frmn 10 to 20 feet, and continuous areas of ,several hu:ridred acres are conimon. The most -extensive deposit lies just northwest of Waltertown south .of the river and extends westward for 2~ miles. _ The railroad approaches to :within half a mile of the easttfr]l end of the deposit. North of the river, oppos!te the deposit just l'nentioned, a_ less extensive deposit occurs, but more favorably situated with respect to the railroad. This deposit was formerly worked just _over the line to the east, in.Pierce County. Southwest of the rivet along the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad and 172 miles nortJ:least of 'Way- cross, a small deposit of fine-grained, yellow sand occurs.- Other deposits.-.Large deposits of yellow sand of the fluVial , bi!l type also occur east of Seventeenmile Creek from the Coffee County line to its junction with Satilla River; and -~ast of Hog Creek, in the northwest part of the county, and Little Hurricane Creek in the northeast part of the county. Distance from transportation will prevent th.e utilization of these deposits for some- -time. SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 267 WASHINGTON COUNTY Surficial gray sands and variegated sandy clays and sands of the Altamaha formation cover most of Washington County. No commercial deposits of sand or gravel are exploited in the county, nor are there any deposits of either material of any size conveniently suited with respect to transportation. On the Augusta Southern Railroad, just south of Warthen, 4 feet of fine-grained loamy sand occurs; and four miles beyond, similar sand, of little value and not over 5 feet thick, occurs. Big Buffalo Creek in the westeJn part of the county, especially just south of the Linton-Sandersville road, has bars of more than 1,000 square feet of brown, coarse-grained sand. This sand contains from 1b to 15 . per cent of feldspar, limonite, schist fragments, and some gravel, but it is well suited for concrete aggregate. Gray to white, fine-grained sand occupies large areas along the Linton-Deepstep road near Harmony Church, Pleasant Grove school and a few miles to the south. The sand is apparently part of .the Fall Line belt so prominent in Crawford and Taylor counties and reaches a depth of from 3 to 10 feet in places. Sand of fair quality is found in the beds of Ogeechee, Ohoopee, and Oconee rivers, but its recovery is out of the question at this time. WAYNE COUNTY The southeast part of Wayne County is covered with sand and underlain at depths of from a few inches to several feet by clay and clayey sands, and the rest of the county consists of the usual surficial sands and variegated clays of the Altamaha formation. No commercial sand pits are operated in the county. Aside from the surficial deposits which are almost universal, Altamaha River, bordering tb.e county on the northeast, and Satilla River on the southeast, afford the bes~ po~ential sources of sand. Satilla River.-Bars of white, medium-grained sand, ranging from an eighth acre to an -acre in extent occur in Satilla River. The bars are prominent near the bridge on the Waycross-(Lulaton) Brunswick road, 2 miles east of Lulaton. On either bank, similar sand, but somewhat finer, from 8 to 15 feet thick, occurs. Sand hills of considerable extent, but of much less prominence than in Ware and Douglas counties, are also found on both sides of the river at this point, particularly 268 GEoioG:tbAi suiiviCi bF GEoRGIA ; on the east side. P~o:;&-!h'ity to the .AWln:tic Coast Line Railroad renders the cornmerc~al development of this sand possible. Altatnaha River.-Gray and yellow silificial and residual sand r:;tngilig frdm 2 to 10: feet in thickness borders Aitarria'ha River in Wityne County, particWarly ea~t of Jessup, where acc~M' to them from the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad may be naa. Depos1ts also occur near _Moi:ilit P1easa:dt, o'n tlie Southern Railway. In the s'outhern or p3:rt of the county, h~av}r b~Cls; gray, fifie-gtamea s'and-ate founa near Waynesville on the -Athibtic Coast Lirie Railroad. W-EBSTER COUNTY The topography of most of Webster County is hilly and broken except for a flw l~vel i:fe~s between the larger streams. The Provi: deuce sand member Of the Ripley forrriatio# iS expos~d in the extreme northwtist part df tn(( ccftin'ty arid sHould afforu supplies of fairly good sand were trans:PO'itation: closer. Resiaual sands and clays generally cover most of th:e sfuface, although no corrunercial sand is produced in the county. A ilUirlb&r of areas in the. county are tinderlain by coarse sa:na sand derived from the Iefises ~ the Midway arid Wilcox forma- tions, and these a-fe: soinetiines well exposed in gullies. Although the sall.d.. is generally o'f fair qJiality' the cover' consisting usually of red, clayey sand, ~s usually considerable, and will prevent extensive de- velopment of the deposits. ~ELER. COUNTY The surface of Whe~l~r County is usually cove;red with sand from a few inches to several feet in depth. The mottled sands and clays of the Altamaha formation are exposed frequently beneath the gray surficial sands, and along the larger -streams, exposures of sandstone of Alum Bluff age occur. The county is abundantly supplied with commercial glass and building sand alo~g Little Ocmulgee River op- posite Lumber City and at other points. Darcy property..-About 4 miles north~as-t of Alamo, and a mile and a_ half :o.ortl;l of the Seaboard Air Line Railway, a deposit .of good gravel, about 15 acres .in ~xtent, occur:s capping a sma11--hil.I. The de- posit was worked in i916..:HH7 by Mr. Kennedy, and. about 10 car- loads of gravel were shipped to Alamo over a tram-road constructed from the pit to the Seaboard Ai'r Line Raijway 'for use in buildillg the Wheeler County courthouse. The deposit has been well prospected SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 269 with many pits, and most of them show a good thickness of clayey sand gravel, composed of rounded and sub-angular quartz pebbles, from 31( to 4 inches in diameter, 16 per cent of which exceed.s 131( inches in size. The gravel contains about 20 per cent sand a;nd 5 per Gent clay. General section of gravel deposit northeast of Alamo Feet Sand and sandy claY------------~-~--------------------- 1-2 SandygraveL__________________________________________ 2 Sand and sandy graveL _________________________________ 1-2 Sandy clay graveL______________________________________ 3-6 The pebbles are tough and do not show any signs of decay. The gravel in the pits generally stands unsupported and is yellow to yellowish-brown. Water is encountered at about 12 feet beneath the surface. The western part of the deposit becomes very clayey, and the marginal pits show an increase of clay and a decrease in the thickness of the gravel. A small frame building stands near the deposit, and parts of screening equipment may be seen nearby. The tram grade is still in fairly good condition, but the steel has been taken up and most of the ties have rotted. Little Ocmulgee River (Gum Swamp Creek).-Exceptionally large deposits of sand occur north of Little Ocmulgee River, f~om 100 to 1,000 feet back from the stream, and extend almost without interruption across the county. The most prominent deposit is found along the Seaboard Air Line Railway, 2 miles east of Helena and a quarter mile east of the Alamo-McRae road. The sand here is pale yellow, of a medium-grained texture and ranges from 5 to 30 feet thick, over a distance of 1,200 feet along the track. The sand has been a used to make fill across the river swamp, and the face of the cut is about 300 feet northwest of the track. The deposit slopes southward to the river, so that southeast of the track the cut is only 6 feet deep and 100 feet long; on the opposite side, however, it probably maintains the thickness seen at the cut for at least 1,000 feet back from the railroad and parallel to Little Ocmulgee River. It was impossible to get a detailed section of the deposit as the material that had fallen from above concealed the natural face. Probably 2 feet of sandy soil caps the clean yellow sand. At the bottom of the deposit small pits reveal a white, medium-grained sand probably less than 4 feet in thickness. Springs issue from this level indicating the prox- 270 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA imity of the underlying yellow clay. -The deposit is one of the best examples of the aeolo-fluvial deposits so characteristic of the north and east sides of the larger streams of the coastal plain of Georgia. Along Little Ocmulgee River, from the Seaboard Air Line crossing, almost to its confluence with Ocmulgee River at the southeast corner of the county, the sand is of small thickness, probably ave!'aging .5 to 10 feet, but opposite Lumber Cityanq about a mile west of Ocmulgee River, the existence of a thicker and larger deposit of sand has been established by exte_p.sive pits. Hinson Sand .Mines.-The property of the Hinson Sand Mines lies along Little Ocmulgee River eastward from the Alamo-Lumber City road and' includes lots 370 and 371. (Plate XV-B.) The pit has been operated since before 1900, having been opened by L. F. Hinson, and at present is carried on by Mrs. A. H. Mobley, of Lumber City. The deposit is reached by a standard gage ,spur from the Southern Railway at Lumber City, about 2;500 feet in length The sand is shipped principally to Chattanooga, Tenn., and to Tallapoosa, Ga., for use in the manufacture of soft-drink bottles. The topography of the deposit is gently rolling, and the surface is covered with a growth of scrub oak. The .deposit occupies a ridge <:>r terrace paralleling the river and from 25 to 30 feet above it. It is believed to .represent the Satilla formation and is probably an ancient stream deposit. Section at IJinson Sand .Mines-, Lumber City Feet Sandy, gray soiL _____________________________ :_ ________ 1-2 Yellow, fine-grained sand______________________________ '-_ 2-4 Medium-gfained, yellow to yellowish-white sahd__ __________ 1-2 White, clean, glass sand _______ ----~---- ___ -----~-------_ 6-9 Yellow, sandy clay______________________________________ 7 The glass sand grades sharply into the yellow sand above and is firmer than the yellow material, as it stands unsupported in faces 8 feet high~ although the sand above quickly slumps down. The white sand is usually massive with little indication of stratification .and no cross bedding. Fulgutites, or lightning tubes, produced by fusion of the sand by lightning, have been found in the white sand at least 12 feet below the surface. Due to the occurrence of patches of inferior sand, the deposit is worked by hand, since a steam shovel would not permit a proper se~ SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSI-TS 271 lection to" be made. The upper cover is first removed by loading the sand in wheelbarrows and depositing it either in the previously workedout portion of the. pit, or loading it on cars and shipping it for building and locomotive purposes.. This leaves a bench of white sand from which cars are loaded for shipment to the glass factories. The present pit is about 200 feet wide at the face and extends southea::;tward over 1,500 feet almost to Little Ocmulgee River. The glass sand deposit on this property appears to be very extensive as prospect pits and auger borings have shown it at practically every place they have been made. Analyses of ~lass sand from Hinson Sand .Mines, _Lumber City Constituents T-14 Moisture at 100 c____ :_ ________ Loss on ignition____________ .:_ ____ Lime (CaO)_ ------- ____________ Magnesia (MgO) __________ ~ _____ Alumina (AhOa) ____ - ----------Ferric oxide (Fe20 a)_-_------ ___ Titanium dioxide (TiO:!) ________ Silica (SiO 2)-----------------.--- Total 0.07 0.14 0.22 0.11 0.31 0.61 0.14 98.26 99.96 T-16 T-17 T-18 1113 0.01 0.30 0.00 0.03 0.58 0.72 0.18 98.03 99.85 0.02 0.24 trace 0.30 0.96 0.48 0.18 97.36 . 99.54 0.02 0.29 ---0--.5-6--- 00..0080} 1.59 0.64 0.18 97.34 1.85 0.14 trace 97.45 100.14 100.00 T-14.-West side of pit face. T-16.-North bank of Little Ocrnulgee River near .cailway trestle. T-17.-East side of pit face. ' T-18.-Center of pit face. 1113.-Sarnple sent in by L. F. Hinson in 1909. Sample T-18, representing the glass sand, has a fineness modulus of 1.83 and 65 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. The organic color factor i~? 50. .McLeod property.-West of the Lumber City-Alamo road and the Hinson ~roperty, somewhat similar sand apparently an extension of that on the Hinson property is found on the property of J. D. McLeod and brother. This deposit was worked prior to 1905, and considerable sand removed, but when visited by the writer. in 1919 it was r+ot in operation. 272 '' G E O ~ l L >, O t J GI tIC A. \ L S.~ U: .:R;' VE, Y OF A GEORGIA " 1!7-,Cf.lY~~s .~.f !Jfq~s ~-rJ::nf!: frprn; .Af.oLepff prop_e.rty, near L1ry.-rr.~~be1r Cr ~i.t.y. . . C on . ~ stit .' (, u e n:t~s. T-21 Moisture at 100 C_ -------------------- _ Loss on ignition____ --------------~- ____ _ . ~_ztai'eg'l:le(_s(ra!~:?<)M_:..;,O~)-_-_-_-_-_-_--~-----_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-__-_-_-_-_--_ ~P.lfiJJ.!t :Cf\l~,Q3{o -------.---- ~ ---------- ~- e.rrlc o::nde (Fe20 s) _________ -----------Titanium dioxide (Ti02)- ______ ------ ---~ Silica (Si02) __________ --- ---- ~--- ------- 0.03 0o.:o1o2 0;16 0,44: o.56 0.14 98.38 0.01 0.12 0.03 o:oe.> 0.47 0.48 0.36 98.34 TotaL _____ ---------,.------________ 99 ..83 ' ' 9.9JH .' T-21.-General sample obtained f.rom the collapsed face at the north end. of the pit. T-25.-Sample fpom the upper part of the glass sand atthe south end of the old pjt. Ndt a representative sample. ~; . .... i ; 7 ! ~ Th_e ,depqsit i~ eo:ve:red with ye1low and pale yellow sand, from 3 to 10 f~et' thick, which apparently becomes thieker as the river is approached. Duet=! 1Q'"') z Locality 4 6 --- Percentage coarser than each sieve 8- 10 14 20 28 35 48 65 - - ----------- '8. t> ..... fi:J ~ 0 'll ~ .9< - - - - - - -]mg-a s --~- ~~ -c:e-sa -~~- -zs 100 150 200 ~ I'll Q) t>Q) ;:l -~ -g_J~ I'll r-.t:S =! 0 ~~-. ~ <:,) $ <:,) Q) wP. ~~ 51 P., p,c;j I'll~ '"d c;j r0-.or-o. ~<:,) ~<:,) Q) <:,) ~ '00 0 ------ ,.0~ >:~..., ~Q-) >-~> P-i fi:J ,.0 ;:I GJ t_:.j a 10 11 13 15 18 21 24 27 29 31 32 33 34 35 43 45 49 51 52 59 60 61 62 63 63a Hardy's Grossing, bk. __ ---Dublin, bk----------~ Dublin, Oconee R, _____ Lumber City, pit______ 3.2 Lumber City, glass sand Lumber City, glass sand Blackshear, bk. _______ Waycross, bk .. ________ 0.1 0.4 1.2 3.9 i2.2 28.5 49.8 68.7 82.3 0.1 0.9 4.5 19.2 51.5 88.7 98.6 99.6 0.1 0'.3 1.3 5.2 .7.9 48.8 83.2 96.9 99.8 6.9 10.8 16.8 24.7 36.0 49.7 65.2 77.8 92.4 0.1 0.9 7.1 20.1 41.0 {?5.4 85.8 0.1 1.6 8.9 24.6 47.7 70.7 .90.2 0.1 0.3 }.8 11.1 42.0 76.1 93.7 0.1 0.2 0.6 6.5 28.4 62.5 89.0 91.8 99.6 99.6 98.7 96.2 98.5 98.6 98.1 95.7 99.8 99.8 99.2 98.4 99.6 99.5 99.5 98.7 99.9 99.9 99.7 99.6 99.9 99.5 99.9 Waltertown, bk, _______ Everett City, piL _____ Ludowici, bk.~-------'Crescent, bk. __ ~ ______ Savannah,. cr. _________ Savannah,SavannahR. Augusta, bk. __________ Augusta, pit__________ Stillmore, bk. _________ Kite, bk, _____________ Louisville, bk. _________ ---- ------- 2.1 1.9 ---- ---- ---- ------4.1 2.9 ---0.1 ---- 0.1 ---0.2 6.8 4.2 ---- 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.3 0o:.11 0.7 0.7 11.0 7.9 0.1 0.2 0.5 2.9 0.5 0:4 0.2 2.8 1.9 16.3 13.0 0.3 1.7 1.2 6.3 0.9 1.9 0.4 7.9 6.p 26.1 21.9 1.3 8.5 4.9 12.7 7.4 8.5 0.6 18.8 24.1 44.9 38.7 4.6 24.9 16.9 30.2 29.6 32.8 1.5 41.3 64.3 70.8 66.0 16.5 52.0 50.3 60.1 69.4 65.8 . 5.3 66.5 93.0 89.5 88.3 42.2 74,3 81.0 81.5 91,2 88.9 14.2 86.8 99.6 96.7 97.2 76.0 87.7, 94.7 94.9 98.1 98:6 57.0 97.7 99.95 99.3 99.3 95.6 95.1 99.0 98.2 99.2 99.7 92.1 99.B 100.0 99.7 99.7 99.0 97.4 99.5 99.7 99.6 99.9 99.3 . 99.9 100.0 99.9 99.9 .99.9 99.3 99.8 Gordon, bk. __________ 0.3 0.6 Carrs Station, bk. ______ 0.7 Gaillard, washed sand.~ ---- ---Gaillard, natural sand__ ---- 0.5 Macon, bk. _____ --- ___ Gaillard, abrasive _____ 0.8 2.0 0.2 1..5 0.1 2.0 5.6 16.2 41.4 74.5 '92.5 97.8 5.2 15.5 34.5 59.5 79.8 89.8 94.4 0.7 2.6 8.4 21.5 44.3 67.9 85.7 4.4 8.3 15.7 26.8 46.4 66.0 83.6 0.3 0.6 2.0 9.9 40.9 69.9 87.8 0.1 0.3 1.2 5.2 16.5 37.5 63.4 99.5 97.0 95.6 93.1 94.7 84.2 99.8 98.7 98.5 96.6 97.0 93:2 99.9 99.5 99.7 99.0 98.6 97.8 .160 2.20 1.93 2_.67 38.3 102.3 2762 t.race 161 10 .402 1.68 2.54 2.66 40.7 98.4 2657 1000 211 11 .356 1.80 2.51 2.66 39.2 101.0 2727 .223 3.42 2.65 2.67 :42.5 95.6 2581 100 trace 212 257. 13 15 '.183 2.32 1.:83 2.66 37.4 104.0 2798 trace 271 18 .209 _227 2.27 1.88 1.95 1.86 2.66 2'.69 36.8 38.3 105.0 96.9 2853 2616 60 trace 272 228 21 24 .201 .170 .213 .199 .107 .190 .308 .289 .278 .~64 .189 .237 .312 .292 .'181 .167 .183 .119 1.87 2.22 1.81 1. 96 1.59 2.25 1.69 2.29 2.09 1.86 2.60 1.98 L93 2.67 2.48 2.83 2.31 2.41 1.67 1.71 2.00 1. 73 0.63 1.86 2.19 2.49 2.45 1.43 1.96 1.98 2.40 2.62 1.88 1. 98 1. 75 1.27 2.67 2.66 2.66 2.67 2.69 2.67 2.67 2.66 2.66 2.66 2.66 2,.66 2.64 2.66 2.67 2.66 2.66 2.66 40.1 38.0 37.2 38.3 42.5 34.2 37.6 39.4 36.0 41.0 37.5 39.0 40.6 36.2 38.0 38.5 42.3 42.1 97.0 103.1 102.9 100.8 96 . 6 110.0 104.0 100.6 106.0 96.5 103.8 100.5 98.0' 105.0 103.4 102.2 95.9 96.3 2619 2784 2778 2722 2608 2970 2798 2716 2862 2606 2804 2714 2646 2835 2792 2487 2589 2600 trace 1500 500 600 150 200 100 20 50 200 trace 60 10 200 ' 100 ' 40 trace trace 227 228 218 215 218 173 173 235 ------ -----209 207 274 203 184 185 160 183 27 29 . 31 32 33 . 34 35 43 45 49 51 52 59 60 61 62 63 63a 1a:'-i ~ ~~ 1:'-i t'r.l. "'::j l::;j f1 a ~ GJ l::;j a ~ GJ ;;:: - NOTE: R=river, cr'=creek, bk=bank. TESTS OF COASTAL PLAIN SANDS 1i1 'S - z::l M 67 70 75 76 77 78 79 81 82 83 84 87 88 89 92 93 95 207 210 .... Q) d ~.3 t> Percentage coarser than each sieve ..., ~ ..... ::13 0 ~ 0+> r-..& Q) .... tw s s Locality - - s zse Gaillard, concrete _____ e Robert.a, pit_ _________ Zenith, piL ___________ Maule. pit_ ___________ Norwi'ch ______________ 4 ------. --- 6 ---- ---.. - - - 0.1 8 -- 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.3 10 -- 0.4 0.7 0.6 0.4 0.8 l-Ie -- 1.7 1.5 2.9 1.2 2.2 20 -- 7.0 4.2 12.3 4.3 5.4 28 -- 17.9 11.7 33.9 14.3 12.1 35 -- 33.8 29.9 59.9 36.0 25.5 48 -- 52.0 51.3 79.1 56.1 46.2 65 -- 70.4 73.3 90.0 76.3 70.9 100 -- 86.8 88.0 96.1 90.2 88.0 150 --- 95.5 94.0 98.2 95.1 95.7 200 ~- 98.2 99.7 99.5 98.4 98.5 Q) -r~n 0 . ..b...!J::l' ~C) -- 2867 2700 2362 2433 2808 Q) Ec.> ~.-< ci0'>";'o.d..~. 0 -10 25 trace 25 trace ...Oc.> gj ::l'"O d..., Qo I>< b~D...Q,) p... --- 183 186 182 252 251 '"'Q) ...0 ::l -- 4 7 0 7 5 7 ,Junction City, pit_ ____ ---- ---- ---- Junction City, pit_ ____ 0.2 0.5 0.7 2.7 6.4 13.2 31.8 59.9 82.8 3.1 10.8 27.4 47.9 63.0 76.4 95.9 88.3 98.7 93.5 99.9 97.9 .174 2.19 1. 72 2.64 42.5 95.0 2751 .129 2.98 1.82 2.67 36.5 105.7 2854 12 200 243 246 7 7 8 Junction City, pit _____ 0.2 0.5 2.3 9.3 25.5 51.4 70.7 83.7 92.3 95.9 98.8 .163 3.03 1. 91 2.66 38.0 103.1 2784 trace 7 .Junction City, pit _____ 0.1 0.2 2.3 17.1 44.0 71.0 91.5 96.8 98.9 .151 2.08 1.38 2.67 39.9 100.3 2708 200 245 ~ Howard, pit, unwashed_ Howard, washed sand__ Howard, tailings ______ 0.2 0.6 3.2 16.6 42.8 72.1 91.3 97.7 99.6 .151 2.04 1.37 2.66 41.0 98.0 2646 trace 247 ~ 0.1 0.6 2.3 7.3 19.6 40.6 61.4 81.3 94.3 98.5 99.8 .167 1. 79 1. 78 2.66 38.7 102.0 2751 trac(~ 0.1 0.8 4.2 12.9 25.1 38.7 59.1 72.3 91.3 .076 2.70 0.88 2.66 42.3 94.6 2554 25 248 248 ~ ~ Howard, pit __________ I 0.1 1.7 6.6 18.1 37.7 58.6 77.5 91.7 96.7 99.0 .154 2.69 1.70 2.65 39.1 101.0 2727 trace 249 ~ Howard, white sand ___ ---- ---- ---- ---- Dry Ridge, pit ________ 0.2 2.5 0.3 1.4 8.9 35:9 64.0 86.1 8.4 16.0 39.4 64.3 78.7 88.9 95.7 95.5 98.1 97.7 99.6 99.5 Columbus, Bull Creek__ 6.1 8.3 10.6 15.5 23.0 31.5 54.6 76.0 90.5 97.6 99.7 99.9 100.0 Columbus, Upatoi Cr__ 8.9 12.5 14.7 20.2 31.6 39.5 62.9 78.2 93.4 98.2 99.9 100.0 100.0 Fort Benning_________ 11.4 15.4 20.3 29.3 38.1 54:.7 69.2 82.6 91.8 97.5 99.4 99.7 99.9 Lampkins, Ocmulgee R. 0.2 0.2 1.3 7.8 25.4 60.5 88.2 98.4 99.7 99.9 100.0 100:0 100.0 Albany, pit_ __________ ___ j 0.2 2.0 15.8 54.0 88.2 97.9 99.7 100.0 100.0 .183 2.18 1. 69 2.66 40.0 99.4 2681 trace 249 .198 2.90 2.22 2.69 37.4 105.4 2847 100 252 .300 2.46 2.85 2.63 37.7 102.6 2771 50 223 .322 2.57 3.11 2.66 37.4 104.2 2813 15 226 .319 3.54 1. 77 2.66 38.2 102.7 2773 25 -----.559 1.84 3.15 2.66 40.5 98.9 2670 50 258 .287 1. 73 2.04 2.69 42.7 96.0 2592 trace 192 8 8 g g g 2(] 21 t '<: t::1 P:.. ~ G'l pj P:.. ~ t-l t:::J l:tj 1-tj a ~ ~ QJ 211 Blakely, pit___________ 0.2 2.9 20.7 54.8 99.1 99.5 100.0 100.0 100.0 .308 1.59 2.15 2.64 35.8 105.0 2635 700 194 21 213 Gradyville, bk, ________ 1.2 2.4 3.7 7.0 10.6 16.5 25.9 39.9 53.1 65.0 80.0 88.3 95.9 .097 4.29 1. 75 2.69 33.9 110.3 2978 50 201 21 214 Thomasville, Ocklock nee R. _____________ 0.3 0.7 1.2 2.8 5.8 12.4 25.7 49.6 75.2 91.9 98.2 99.3 99.8 .218 2.22 2.06 2.67 34.2 109.8 2965 125 260 21 216 Thomasville, Ocklock- nee R.. _____________ ---- ---- ---- 0.3 0.7 2.2 8..2 26.5 54.8 80.2 96.3 99.1 99.8 .171 2.10 1.60 2.64 34.7 108.4 2916 40 260 21 1"_>":",> to TESTS OF COASTAL PLAIN SANDS -1 00 S:J -~z-1 I,ocality Percentage coarser than each sieve g ... 'Ewb"'": '81tssn ~~ 4 6 8 10 I 14 I 20 I 28 I 35 I 48 I 65 100 ! 150 ! 200 -1--1--1--1--1~!::_ rE 8 z J__,_._J__J__J__J__J_-1--1- ~ ~&~ Q) "" .-< UJ 1t:1 ;;., ~ +" Q) UJ as El :3 .-< ..c.:.:>. .UJ ;::! tEl ~'"' 863.-o 1=1 o .S El -~ b'".O' ,g 8 Q) I '"' Q) bQ.O) p.c:il -~ ~ ~ ~ I"< pQ). .,.:>+" ~ ::l c::> 1l.....-o p .'Q".)'. . . . . . . Q) .. <::> 0<3 :>, p. 0<3 ~ d -~ Q) c::> ..f...j. 0 ~&~ ,.C)c::> ;S::! i"BP 1=1 """. ~ 'Q")' ~ i3 10:i- - - - 1 - - 1 - - - 1 - - 1 - - - 1 - - - g ~ f2 217 219 220 Williams Station; pit____ :___ L 3 4. 3 11.9 19.4 29.0 39.9 55.2 67.6 78.0 87.2 93.3 97.6 .128 4. 59 2.18 2. 67 34.8 108.7 2935 trace 261 ~amilla, bk.__________ ____ ____ 0.1 0. 6 1. 4 3. 5.10.0 27.2 5f.4 59.5 83.7 92.6 97.6 _.117 3.01 1.47 2. 66 39.3 99.0 2673. 200 220 ewton,Flint R. _____ ~ ________________ 0.2 2.0 3.9 23.7 59.3 89.7 99.2 99.9100.0 .2061.751.63 2.66 40.2 99.5 2687 175 '220 217 ~ 219 I-.; 220 221 222 231 Newton, bk. __________________________ 0.05 0.1 0.2 L2 7.4 27.1 62.7 80.6 94.7 .084 2. 21 0. 70 2. 63 39.7 99.1 2676 200 Albany, pit-.---------- ________________ 0.05 0.2 0.5 4,44Q.683.5 _98.9 99.6 99.9 .1821.631.402 ..6639.7100.22705 100 Americus, pit__________________ 0.1 1.0 5.921.345.86_9.680.386.7 '92.8 96.1 98.6 ~1753.692.262.6639.7100.12703 trace 154 2i3 241 221 t'-i 222. 1Ll 231 232 Americus, pit_________________ -0.2 0.7 2.4 7.215.735.164.286.7 95.6 98.5 99.6 .1852.141.782.6941.9 97.82641 trace 242 232 -.:::j 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 Chatterton, pit____________________ 0.2 1.1 5.217.843.873.091.9 98.6 99.4 99.8 .2172.051.912.6739.4101.02727 trace Fitzgerald, pit________ 1.4 4. 6 8.0 14.7 22.. 7 35:9 55.3 '77. 3 87.7 93.3 95.8 96.9 97.9 . 259 3. 02 2. 71 2. 67 36 . 8 105.6 2851 trace Tifton, glass, pit______ ____ ____ 0.1 0. 2 0.4 0. 9 4.117.8 44.0 76.6 92.7 99.1 99 .3. .157 2.00 1. 41 2. 67 35.8.107 .1 2892 50 Nashville, plt_________________________ 0.1 0.4 2.415.3 44.4 79.4 94.7 97.7 99.2 .1741. 791.42 2.67 39.1101.5 2741 500 Adel, glass, pit________________________ 0.1 0.2 0.4 3.824.650.1 70.5 82.2 94.4 .0842\890.962.6435.8105.62851 trace Moultrie, pit______________ 0.2 0.5 1.3 3.0 6.. 713.5 25.2 41.0 57.5 76.0 86.8 95.3 .093 3.321.34 2.67 35.1108.12919 800 Quitman, pit__________ ____ 0.1 0.4 2.0 5. 712.5 21.7 34.4 45.6 58.4 75_6 8.8. 7 95_1 .098 3. 65. 1. 49 2. 66 4;3. 3 94.0 2538 100 179 156 263 158 181 180 166 234 l;l;j 235 1-1 236 a 237 b;j 238 ~ 239' ~ 240 ~ t 241 Quitman, Withla- . coocheeR. ______________ 1.3 1.7 2.6 4.7 9.619.335.853.071.5 r81.3 94.1 9~.0 .119 3.27 1.67 2. 66 36.4105.6 2851 100 216 241 ~ 242 Statenville, bk. ____________ 0.2 0.6 1.6 3.9 8.717.532.250.168.0 83.2 89.. 1 95.2 .099 3 .68 1. 54 2. 66 41. 6 97. 1 2622 125 195 242 243 Alma, bk_____________________________ 0.1 0.6 3.115.841.076.5 95.7 98.7 99.8 .1651.821.40 2.67 42.2 '96.3 2600 100 153 243 244 245 Helena, bk. _______________________ 0.3 1.0 4.615.136.261.180.5 91.6 95.5 97.8 .156 2.551.69'2.67 38.3102.8 2776 Cochran, cr--~------- ____ 0.4 1.2 3.5 7.818.532.854.674.888.6 96.3 98.1 99.3 .197 2. 70 2.13 2. 67 38.3102.8 2776 100 ------ 244 100 165 .245 246 247 Perry, pit____________ ____ ____ ____ 0. 2 0.4 0.7 1.2 2. 7 7.3 21.3 60.4 83.3 95.6 .088 2.04 0. 69 2. 66 41.7 96.9 2616 Tivola,pit________________________ 0.1 0.9 5.520.048.375.189.6 96.8 98.8 99.7 ;208 2. 25 1. 93 2. 66 37. 7 103. 6 2797 300 200 204 205 246 247 250 Montezuma, Flint R___ 5. 9 7.3 9.211.916.123.8 38.2 60.8 82.2 94.7 98.8 99.5 99.8 . 241 2.80 2.50 2. 67 39.7 100.5 27.14 251 Eden,OgeecheeR. ________________ 0.4 1.0 3.111.133.565.991.3 99.0 99.7 99.9 .2121.85 L 77 2.66 38.2102.7 2773 80 216 250 25 197 251 252 FortBenning,pit______ 1.6 2.8 5.010.118.741.059.275.588.495.4 93.6 98.6 99.5 .275 2.08 2. 70 2.67 36.4106.0 2862 50------ 252 TESTS OF COASTAL PLAIN SANDS liS "S z::! -- Locality .. g. 4 Percentage coarser than each sieve ~ ~~ t;.p - - "' ff :u.g "..>g :u z ~~~ 6 8 -- 10 -- 14 -- 20 -- 28 -- 35 -- 48 -- 65 -- 100 -- 150 -- 200 -- Q ., l=lo ..l biJ .,a..5. ~ - ~ i> b ..... l l::'! ~l ~<::!l)a i><>l .'9-''b"l'l 0 0 0 -- ~~ ..a<> a :~:!=~'1~j ~.... ~ ~b<>lll<..l.), :d~:=!~ --- .. p,. GJ !;1:1 252 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 StsaSnidm_o_n__I_s_la_n_d__, _b_l_a_c_k Keysville ____________ ------- ------- ---0.1 ---0.3 ---0.4 ---1.9 ---- -.--10.2 33.1 0.1 67.9 1.9 88.4 17.6 96.8 Waynesboro, pit_______ 0.1 0.4 1.2 2.6 5.0 9.3 16.7 29.0 54.4 73.7 90.4 Statesboro, pit________ 0.1 0.4 2.6 6.1 12.4 25.9 54.5 80.4 95.0 .9~.1 Canoe, bk. ____________ 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.8 9.5 31.9 64.9 86.4 96.5 Vidalia, bk. ___________ 0.3 1.7 6.2 16.3 37.7 65.6 84.7 Pendleton, bk_________ 1.0 8.7 25.6 62.9 83.0 97.3 Gaillard, pit_ _________ 0.1 0 ..6 1.7 4.9 12.2 26.1 47.6 71.3 86.5 94.6 Cussetta, bk. _________ 0.1 0.3 1.0 4.0 12.1 26.6 51.6 75.7 85.7 93.5 40 ..8 98.7 95.9 99.7 98.5 94.9 99.3 97.7 96.3 91.0 99.7 98.9 99.9 99.6 98.1 99.8 99.3 98.4 .'075 1. 40 0 . 18 - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 357 252 .197 2.421.752.62n.d. n.d.n.d. n.d. 169 262 .149 2.441.682.6736.3106.22869 200 169 263 .238 2.092.122.6436.7104.42719 150 168 264 .180 2.151.712.6637.6103.72800 175 171 265 .125 2.301.292.6736.3106.22867 200 264 266 .178 2.081.692.0738.2103.12784 500 264 267 .182 2.621.982.6639.1101.22752 100 _____ _ '268 .175 2.842.002.6737.9103.72800 600 175 269 Pt.. t::l t:-1 ~ 1a-t:f ~ 1--3 1):) I t-:l """1 1::. ~ [).:) TESTS OF COASTAL PLAIN GRAVELS 00 0 Total per cent coarser than each sieve Locality t 'S 1 1}4 I % .1 Y2 I 4 I 6 I 8 I 10 I 14 I 20 I 28 I 35 I 48 I 65 1100 I 150 I 200 l---~---~---~---1---1---~---1---1--1------------------- 19 Alamo, pit____ ------------------ 16.0 53.1.69.1 86.2 87.6 88.7 ~9.8 .90. () 91.7 93.1 94:6 95.9 97.0 97.9 98.5 99.3 36 41 Fleming, pit____________________ ____ ____ 5. 2 59.,2 67.3 73.0 78.2 81.0 83.9 88.J90.1 95.1 97.2 98.7 Augusta, pit____________________ 8.0 21.2 38.4 40.4 59.0 67.9 77.9 84.5 89.3 93.~5 97.1 98.8 99.2 99.4 99.3 99.6 99.7 99.8 42 Augusta, pit____ ---------------- ____ 11.3 27.5 55.0 60.8 63.9 67.9 70.9 74.8 79.9 86.6 91.8 94.2 96.2 97.2 98.0 46 Augusta, pit__----------,-_______ 8.0 19.0 30.0 42.0 46.4 48.6 /51.2 52.7 54.2 58.4 65.2 79.0 89.8 97.2 99.0 99.6 48 50 54 55 56 60 Augusta, pit__------------------ ___ _ ____ 6.6 22.4 28.0 31.6 34.4 36.4 39.2 46.0 58.3 71.4 86.1 95.6 Swainsboro, bk. _________________ 52.3 70.8 76.9 ~3 .8 84.5 ~5.0 86.5 88.8 91.4 93.9 95.7 96.6 97.3 98.0 Stapleton, pit_------------------ 20.0 28.4 40.0 56.9 59.1 69.4 62.8 65.6 69.2 73.8 7~.0 84.0 90.4 94.9 Warrenton______________________ 37.5 52.3 59.1 77.2 80.1 8~.6 85.0 86.2 87.. 5 88:8 90.5 92.9 95.4 97.0 Norwood, piL. ___ -------------- 17.7 48.1 64.6 75.0.77.180 .0 82.5 84.3 87.1 88~ 5 91.2 93.4 96~0 98.4 Macon, bk______________________ 18. 5 40.7 52,8 75. 9 78. 3 81.4 ___ .., 86. 3 ~ ___ 91.0 ____ 96.1 ____ 98 .1 98.4 98.5 96.7 98.0 98:9 98. 9 99.6 99.2 98.2 99.0 99.2 99. 5 66 Macon, pit___ ------------------ 15.6 42.9 55.5 73.4 77.5 81.8 86.0 88.0 90.0 9L8 93.8 95.8 97.5 98.9 99.4 99.8 71 Reynolds, bk___________________ 28.253.879.594.9 notsifted . . 72 73 74 Reynolds, bk.___________________ 27.5 43.5 56.5 73.9 ____ 79.7 ____ 84.7 ____ 90.2 _.:. __ 95.6 ____ 98.2 Beechw0od, pit__________________________ 25.545.4 ____ 54.5 ____ 69.2 ____ 87.2 ____ 95.5 ____ 99.0 C::trsonville, bk. ___ --'----- _______ 49.1 62.3 67.5 78.9 ____ 83.9 ---- 89.4 --~- 92.5 ____ 96.1 ---- 98.3 99.1 99.3 98.7 99.5 99.7 99.0 90 Columbus, pit_ ___________._______ 6. 6 19.8 52.2 75.0 78.1 80.4 82.3 84.2 86.7 90.5 95.3 98.3 99.4 99.8 ' 99.9 100.0 91 Torch Hill, pit------------------ 12.9 30.8 43.. 1 58.5 ____ 68.2 ____ 76.7 ____ 83.1 -..,-- 91. 5_ ___ 98.7 98.9 99.3 95 Upatoi Creek, bk._ -------------- 1.09 20.9 40.1 6Q. 9 65.6 69.0 72.4 75.0 78.5 82.9 89.4 95.8 98.1 99.0 99.4 99.8 208 Lumber City-, pit__ -------------- 3.18 20.9 44.3 47.5 63.0 74.7 84.4 89.7 93.8 96.0 96.8 97.3 97.9 98.5 98.9 99.4 212 Fort Gaines, pit_________________ 3.116. 9 36.2 60.8 65.6 68.5 71.7 74.8 79.2 84.9 92.2 96.3 97.9 98.7 99.1 99.5 223 Georgetown, pit_________________ 20.3 28.8 38.1 80.5 83.3 84:.9 86.7 88.3 90.1 92.3 94.6 96.7 98.5 99.5 99.8 99.9 :g0;::0s 0 a O'l 00 gQ), 1=1 ~ 6.91 5.00 5.52 4.97 4.35 3.10 7.46 5.24 6.74 6.50 6.46 6.44 6.50 4.76 7.18 6.07 5.63 5.44 5.72 5.40 6.29 "0 Q) ~ ~ !;:: i +" >. ..~ .... 0 ...... 0 ,.. 1=1 Q) 0 'S g+" a ~ t0~0 ..m0,.-<~ i:l g. Q) Q) ~"d ,... Q) ..0 P-i -P--i - - - t:-; a G::l a'-1 9.3 268 19 ~ 14.7 215 36 t%l 15.1 234. 14.6 234 13.7 236 41 c::j 42 ~ 46 "~'l 6.1 ------ 48 h:l 10.4. 198 50 a 6.1 207 54' 1-:,;j 8.3 334 9. 7 337 12.0 162 55 G::l 56 60' a~~ 14.3 164 66 G::l 255 71 ~ 11.2 256 72 12.0 254 73 8.4 254 74 4.8 223 90 7.3 224 91 6.1 174 95 10.2 258 208 6.3 176 212 5. 9 230 223 ., TESTS OF COASTAL PLAIN GRAVELS Locality Total per cent coarser than each sieve [j "S z p Hi I ~ I Y2 I 4 I 6 I 8 I 10 I 14 I 20 I 28 I 35 I 48 I 65 1100 I 150 I 200 --1--------~------- 1 - - 1 - - 1 - - 1 - - 1 - - 1 - '-l--l--l--l--l--1--l--1--l-~-l---l 224 Georget~>m. cr. _________________ 15.1 39.0 49.7 66.1 69.5171. ~ 74.8 76.8 80.5 85.1 90.3 93.5 95.9 98.4 99.3 99.8 22.5 Fort Games, Magruder cr. ________ 11.4 28.6 38.2 57.162.6 66.0 70.4 74.5 79.184.8 90.7 94.6 97.5 98.9 99.3 99.7 22() Omaha, pit_ ____________________ 13.5 29.8 45.2 69.2 ____ 75.6 ____ 79.2 ____ 82.6 ____ 87.2 ____ 92.4 ___________ _ 227 Omaha, bk._____________________ 26.3 37.3 50.0 67.7 70.4 72.9 76.3 79.3 83.3 87.9 93.7 97.8 99.4 99.9 100.0 100.0 228 Omaha, bk.___ __ ___ _____ _____ ___ 8.4 22.9 38.1 66.4 70.9 74.1 77.2 79.9 82.6 85.5 88.2 91.3 93.8 96.3 97.8 99.1 229 Omaha, bk.___ __________________ 13. 6 35.0 46.4 65.0 ____ 72.3 ____ 78.2 ____ 87.1 ____ 93.9 ____ 96.5 ___________ _ 2.'30 Omaha, Hannahatchee cr. ________ 20.830.034.647.749.3150.855.261.171.282.792.596.998.599.2 99.6 99.9 249 Montezuma, bk. _____________________ 5.810. 9 34.1 ____ 48.9 ____ 61.3 ____ 73.7 ____ 88.1 ____ 96.2 273 Bell'sFiwry,OconeeR___________ ---- 3.219.141.947.252.157.963.068.274.081.988.695.299.31 99.71 99.9 rn ::::s ~ 0 s rrnn ~ .sCl) ~ 5.96 5.51 5.75 6.19 5.63 5.88 5.24 4.19 4.41 "Tj Cl) ..d ron:s ~ ~ +> ~ .+_> 0 ~ ."_a 0 +> ~ [j ~ ,.0~ gSot. ~ ~ [j ~ Cl)+> <:) ::::s [j 0 P-i ~~ Cl) rn P-i ,.0 z ~ 1-- - - -- ~ ~ ;J t-:1 n. d. n. d. 231 176 224 l:;:j 225 t>:J 7.1 7.6 7.2 6.4 240 239 238 238 226 227 228 229 1a-c:J t..l.:..l. 1-3 tl:l n. d. 240 230 14.6 ------ 249 n. d. ------ 213 w 00 2'82 GEOLOGiCAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA THE CRYSTALLINE AREA1 EXTENT. AND SIZE The Crystalline area in Georgia extends northwestward from the Fall Line to the South Carolina, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Alabama boundaries, and includes all but the following counties: Dade, Walker, Whitfield, Catoosa, .Chaitooga, Floyd and parts of Polk, Bartow, Gordon, and Murray counties. Its extent is limited on the southeast by the Coastal Plain sediments which have overlapped it. PHYSIOGRAPHY Piedmont Plateau.-The two outstan:di:ng features of the Crystalline area are the Piedmont Plateau and the Appala.chian Mountains. The Piedmont Plateau which occupies about a third of the area of the state slopes gradually up from the rolling terrain near the Fall Line to its poorly defined junction with the Appalachian Mountains t9 the north. Between these limits it increases from about rn 500 to 1,200 feet elevation. In places, more resistant strata have :produced isolated knobs or ridges, such as Pine and Oak mountains, and Stone and Kennesaw mountains, which stand out above the rounded hill~ and the sbuthwestward:...trending ridges characteristic of of the Plateau. Contrasted with the streams of the Coastal Plain those of the Piedmont- Plateau are swifter, with narrower, deeper valleys and with falls and rapids fairly common. .llppalaohian .M_ountains.-The sou~hern end of the Appalachian Mountains, which extend along the eastern United States, southward frQm Pennsylvania, occupies a compara:tively- small triangular area in the extreme northern part of Georgia, noted- for its beautiful scenery, and irregularly dotted with steep mountain grOUP,S between which narrow, fertile valleys and areas of broken country, lie. 1 Abstracted from the following sources: Watson, T. L., Granites and gneisses of Georgia: Georgia Geol. Survey, Bull. 9-A, pp. 60-65, HJ02.. McCallie, S. W., Mineral resources of Georgia: Georgia Geol. Survey, Bull, 23, pp. 15-16 32-33, 1910. S.AND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 283 This division includes all of Rabun, Union, Fannin, Gilmer, and Pickens counties, and parts of Murray, Dawson, Lumpkin, White, and Habersham counties. Although its average elevation is about 2,000 feet, some of the mountain peaks exceed 4,500 feet. They have been produced by the elevation of a former peneplain and its subsequent dissection.. _ The irregular trend of the underlying rocks, together with the1r unequal hardness have contributed to the marked irregularity of these mountains as contrasted with those of the Appalachian Valley which adjoin them on the east. The streams are generally swift and narrow with gravelly bottoms and high water falls not uncommon. Upon leaving the higher mountain area, they quickly widen out producing sandy and gravelly flood plains. GEOLOGY Piedmont Plateau.-The rocks underlying th~ Piedmont Plateau consist principally of schists and gneisses and subordinate amounts of granite, quartzite, and basic intrusions. Their age probably ranges from Archean to Triassic. Although usually highly metamorphosed by heat and pressure some of the rocks still retain evidence of unquestionable sedimentary origin, and others appear to be of igneous origin. In some localities their deformation has been so complete as to entirely prevent such a distinction. Their trend is usually N. 2030 E., and their dip generally is about 50 to the southeast. Carolina gneiss .-The Carolina gneiss is believed to represent the oldest rock series in the Crystalline area. This formation occupies broad bands in which outcrops are scarce due to the deep weather- . ing characteristic of our southern states. Excessive metamorphism has practically removed all indications of its origin. Micaceous and garnetiferous schist and biotite and muscovite gneisses form the greater part of the series. Lenses and layers of medium-grained granite occur persistently through the gneiss. Much coarse sand and gravel occur in the streams flowing through the Carolina gneiss area, and the sand readily shows its origin in the numerous schist fragments occurring in it. 284 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA Roan gneiss .-The Roan gneiss consists of basic schists and gneisses, dark in color, and gener:1lly decidedly scf.istose in texture. Later intrusions of granite are common through the gneiss, in fact, they sometimes entirely replace it. The Roan gneiss weathers to a dark red clayey soil which makes the formation easily_ recognizable. It usually occupies long narrow bands conforming to the general northeast-southwest trend of the main structure. The gneiss is particularly extensive northward from the vicinity of Atlanta into the Appalachian Mountain area, and is also prominent fn a narrow band just northwest of the Fall Line and paralleling it across the state. This series produces less sand and poorer sand than that derived from the other crystalline rocks. INTRUDED ROOKS The Crystalline area has been intruded during several periods by igneous rocks of widely differing composition. Older i~neous rocks.-Granites of early age,_ usually gneissic in structure, cut the Carolina and Roan gneisses in many places. They generally contain cqnsider~ble -biotite :;tnd are high in plagioclase feldspar. Peridotites, gabbros and similar rocks also _occur intruding the _older gneisses. Youn~e-r ~ranites .--=-Exten~ive areas in the Piedmont Plateau are underlain by granites, almost entirely lacking in schistosity, gneissic structure, and other evidences of metamorphic action. Their out.: crop is marked by bare, table'-like surfaces, or large rounded boulder~. Mineralogically they are usually biotitic with lesser areas of muscovitic granite. Their weathering produces fairly large quantities of cleari, quartz sand. PINE MOUNTAIN QUARTZITE Principally in Harris and. Meriwether counties, ,quartzite, rangi:qg from an impure schistose material to massive, granular, clean quartzite, outcrops in long, narrow, curving strips forming Oak and Pinemountains and several lesser extensions to the _northeast. Sometimes the silica content is very high, suggesting its possible use m silica brick or even glass manufacture. SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 285 TRAP DIKES Dikes of diabase or similar basic rock, probably of Triassic age, cut the rock of the Crystalline area at many points. Their linear extension -is usually quite marked, and their occurrence particularly notable in a wide belt northward from Bibb County to the vicinity of Gainesville. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF INDIVIDUAL COUNTIES BANKS COUNTY No sand or gravel is produced in Banks Count:v. Most of the streams, particularly Webb Creek, have fairly good sand. Homer.-Webb Creek, where the Carnesville-Homer road crosses it, 2 miles east of Homer, has over 3,000 cubic yards of coarse-grained ~and. Some mica, schist and feldspar is in the sand, particularly in _coarse grains, but on the whole it is.very good and suited for concrete aggregate. Sample T-~05 A, obtained from this deposit, has a fineness modulus of 2.52 and 90 per cent is retained on the 48-mesh .s1eve. Sand also occupies the bed of Hudson River for part of its course in the county, but no large uncovered deposits were seen. _ Alto.-The Southern Railway operates a large ballast pit half a mile north of Alto, in a quartz schist, or friable quartzite having a little mica and. feldspar scattered through it. The old pit is situated west of the railroad1 covers 6 or 7 acres, and has faces from 35 to 40 feet high. The desirable rock has been worked out on this side, and another pit has been opened 1,200 feet east of the old pit, where the quartzite is first broken with small dynamite charges and then loaded into cars with a steam shovel. From 5 to 10 cars are shipped daily. In both quarries the bedding is plainly visible, but in tne newer quarry it is much thinner than in the old one. Two sets of joints traverse the rock. The beds dip uniformly to the east at an ang1e of 32 in the old pit and 29 in the recent opening. The strike ranges from N. 20 E. to N. 13 W. In the old quarry some crumpling is apparent, and the rock as a whole is much denser than that east of the 286 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA railroad. It pinche:s out at both ends to a sandy clay and gives place on either side to a less siliceous. schist. The rock in the new quarry is much softer and is replaced in many places py sand or clay. The overburden ranges from 3 to 1~ feet in thickness and consists mo_tly of clay. BARROW COUNTY No sand or gravel is produced commercially in Ba:rrow County. Winder .-Marburg Creek, 3 miles south of Winder, on the Monroe road, is ahout 8 feet wide and has small bars of coarse-grained, muddy sand, with at least 10 per cent of the grains composed of schist, feld- spar, and limonite. The sand should be suitable for most local. purposes. Five mil~s south of Winder, Shallow Creek, where crossed by the Monroe road, is 40 feet 1wide, and although shoaly, it has .sufficient coarse-grained sand to supply demands for local ~onstruction purposes. BUTTS COUNTY No sand is .produced for shipment in any part of Butts. County. Ocmulgee River and smaller stJ;"eams throughout the county have sufficient sand for local 'p~rposes if the transportation is adequate. Sandy Oreek.-A Indian Springs, Sandy Cr~ek probably has mQr,e sand than any. creek in the county. In laying the foundation for 'the bridge at this place 22 feet of coarse sane! was encountered. The sand extends along the creek in its course through the county .and is especially abundant just above the da:tn at the springs. The sand is coarse-grained and has a few particles of schist, feldspar, and limonite besides the quartz. Rooky Oreek.-Rocky Creek, in the southern part of the county, has sand in small bars which yield from 10 to 15 cubic yards each. The sand is coarse with some sub-angular and .angular gravel. Blue . clay forms the banks and uriderli.es the sand, which is usually 3 to 4 feet thick. Sample T-109 was taken from this cr.eek at the ForsythIndian Springs road and is fairly typical of Butts County creek sand. The fineness modulus is 2;62 and 85 per cent is coarser than 48 mesh. The organic color value is 100. The sand is yellowish-brown due to clay coating the particles. Feldspar composes about 10 per cent of the sand and makes up that part of it retained 011 the 4- and 6- mesh sieves. SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 287 Yellowwater Creek.-Yellowwat.er Creek has good sand from Hodge's Mill to Ocmulgee River, although in smaller amounts than in Rocky Creek. A thick deposit is located at McCandless Bridge, 17:1 miles north of Jackson. Deson Branch of Yellowwater Creek also has good sand for local use. Tussaha Creek.-Tussaha Creek, in the northwest part of the county, is backed up for 4 miles west of the river, but above this point there are several good sand bars, as well as sand in the backed creek which is not visible. Wolf Creek, a branch of Tussaha Creek, also has sand bars, in one place 18 feet having been encountered in excavating for a bridge foundation. Indian and Cabin creeks in the southwest part of the county have sand. Sand is particularly prominent at Henley's Mill. Sand for use in construction work at Jackson is generally obtained from Town ~reek, southeast of the city. Ocmulgee Eiver.-Ocmulgee River has large amounts of good sand. All the sand used in the construction of the great dam east of Jackson was obtained from this river. Shoals occur every fev;' miles along the stream, but in the quiet reaches between, the sand accumulates and affords an abundant supply for any construction work that may be undertaken near the river. Lack of transportation prevents its commercial development at present. CAMPBELL COUNTY The streams of Campbell County usually have small amounts of sand along their courses. A branch of Line Creek, half a mile southwest of Fairburn on the Riverside road, has deposited many carloads of excellent sand in the fields along its course just north of the road. Small amounts of good sand are also found along Deep, Camp, Whitewater, Utoy, Bear, and Pea creeks. Large quantities of excellent sand occur in Chattahoochee River which forms the western boundary of the county. Although no railroad runs near the river, the sand can be recovered by centrifugal pumps and used for local construction work. CARROLL COUNTY Creek sand and gravel have been shipped in small quantities from some of .the streams in the northern part of Carroll County. The sand in the streams of the county is generally a clean, coarse-grained material, well suited for concrete aggregate. 288 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GE(JRGI.A Carrollton.-_Sand for ~ocal use in Carrollton is hauled from Cur- tis Creek, 1~ miles northeast of the _town. It occurs along and in t"P.e cr-eek in bars containing _from 10 to 100 cubic yards and easily supplies the local demand.. Sample T-1~6~ from this creek, has a fineness modulus of 2.09 and 70 per cent is coarser than 48 mesh. Only a trace _of organic matter occurs in the sand. The sand is yel- lowish-brown. Schist and limonite particles mostly in coarse grains, compose 15 per cent of the sand. , The beds of both Little Tallapoosa and Chattahoochee 'rivers, are . rather muddy, but some- poor sand is found in a few places along their courses~ Tur~ey Creek, on the Burwell-Kansas ro.ad, has a large amount of very high-gra;de sand and gravel. Jumping-in Creek; a branch of Turkey Creek, has deposits from 300 to .500 feet wide, along its course. This sand is not very thick, but it is a clean, white, mediUm.-grained product desirable for concrete work. . In the vicinity of Lowell, in the southern pa;rt oft.he county, Whoop- ing Creek has small quantities of good concrete sand. A small branch of this creek near Bay Springs, has a red, somewhat clayey, sand. Bear Creek.-.In the nQrthern part of -the county_ near Mandeville, Bear Creek and Buck Creek have fa!r quantities of excelle.nt coarse sand and gravel II!~~d.. Where. the 1\d:ande:yille:-;Mount Zion roaa. crosses Bear Creek, Mr. J. T~ Thomp~on, of Carrolton, hauls to sand from the creek bed the top of tlie'hl:U, 2,000 feet east, where . it is transferred to truck$ and then -loaded .on cars on the Central of Geqrgia, Ra;ilway. Sample T-129 represent$ the sand from this bed.- It 'has a, fineness modulus of 3;28 and 96 per cent is retained on the 48:f:!1esh screen. The organic color value is _150. The sand is buff- colored a~d 2 per cent is coarser than a half inch-. 1t is composed mostly- of iron-stained quartz and about 4 per cent of feldspar in the coarse grains~ . Similar sand occupies the bed of Poplar Creek on George Ernest's land;' a half mile east of Bowden Junction. Excellent esand is also found on J. W. Raburn's land from a half to three-quarters of a mile from the Junction. Brawel~.-Op.e mile east of Burwell, on the Carrolton rqad, Boyle Creek is 8 feet wide and has fair quantities of good medium- to coarsegrained sand in its bed. Snake Creelc.-Snake Creek probably has the largest and- best SANJJ AND GRAVEL DEPOSI1'S OF GEORGIA PLATE XVIll A. CONCRETE SAND DEPOSIT 0 BANK OF YELLOW RIVER, 1 MILE EAST OF ALMOX ON COVINGTON ROAD, NEWTON COUNTY B. SAND BAR IN APPALACHEE RIVER ABOVE STEEL BRIDGE, ATHENI -:\IADISOX ROAD, OCONEE AND MORGAN COUNTIES S.AND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 289 sand deposit in Carroll County in a large bar just below Jones' Mill, east of Banning, in the southeast part of the county. This deposit is .about 1~ miles from the Central of Georgia Railway. Excellent sand occurs in bars and in the bed of the stream for most of its_ course. CHEROKEE COUNTY No sand or gravel, except for local purposes, has been produced in Cherokee County. Canton.-Town Creek, on the Marietta road, south of Canton, has bars of good concrete sand with from 300 to 500 cubic yards each. The coarser sand and gravel occupy the bed of the streams or bars close to the channel, and farther back, a finer-grained sand used in the local marble-finishing works, is found. ,Sample T-181 is typical of the coarse concrete sand and has a fineness modulus of 3.40 and 91 per cent of it is retained on a 48-mesh sieve. The organic color value /is 200. The sand is brown and has 8 per cent coarser than a half inch. About 15 per cent of the sand is feldspar; limonite, in rounded balls, and schist are also common. The finer-grained sand, used in the rubbing beds and under. the gang saws in the marble works, is represented by T-182, obtained along Town Creek. It has a :fineness modulus of 1.49 and 50 per cent is retained on the 48-mesh sieve. Further up this same creek even larger deposits of sand and gravel similar to that at Canton are found. A fine-grained, brown molding sand occurs on the banks of Town Creek from 3 to 6 feet thick. It is prominently exposed on the outside of the curves near the Marietta road, and although ~t contains some- mica flakes, it should be suitable for foundry purposes (T-188.) Sand is also obtained from the banks and bed of Etowah River just above the marble works and is used principally in cutting or polishing the marble and also for construction purposes. Mr. John Coggins handles sand for this purpose. Sharp Mountain Creek has fine- to medium-grained sand in the stream bed and small scattered deposits of fine sand on the banks. The sand is dark brown and contains much schist, slate, and biotite, consequently, although it may be coarse-grained, it cannot be rec ommended for concrete of high specifications. Gravel.-A belt of gravel passing through Canton, generally from east towest, is from 2 to 10 feet thick and has an excellent clay binder, making it desirable for road construction. Due to its occurrence in 290 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA the built-up section of the town, it is -difficult to use much of it. No other gravel has been found elsewhere in the county, although it would seem likely that deposits might be found if detailed search were made of on the slopes and near the tops the hills, or upper terrace, over- looking Etowah River and its larger tributaries near their junction with the river. ~ CLARKE COUNTY No commercial sand or gravel has been produced in Clarke County. D~posits of excellent sand, however, are usually associated with the streams. Middle Oconee River.-On the Watkinsville-Athens road, at Princeton bridge, a large deposit of excellent, coarse-grained' quartz sand well suited for. concrete purposes occurs in the streal!l bed. Probably several hundred cars of this sand could be obtained froin the river ju51t above the bridge and the. size and swiftness of the stream , w~uld insure a constant replenjshment of the sand. A finer-grained sand has also been deposited along the course of the river and further pack from the channel. Silt layers, deposited during floods, usually occur with this finer sand. The Seaboard Air Line Railway crossing, 4 miles .west of Athens, is the nearest rail point on the river, and it is likely that similar sand occlirs in the rjver at that pJace., Sand obtamed from theriver at the Mitcli~bridge was tested atthe Georgia Schoof of Technology and showed 13.7 and 114 per cent of normal at'~7 and 28 days, respectively. At the confluence of Barber and Magnus creeks on tlie Watkinsville road, :a few 'miles beyond Oconee River, fairly large .amounts of coarse-grained sand occur in the stream bed which is about 30- feet wide~ _ ".flthens .-Sa~d used locally in Athens is obtained principally from Trial Creek, just north of the city. This san~ occurs in _the creek bed in fairly large amounts and- is of an excellent quality. Sample T-115 is l.'epr~sentative of this sand, and it was found to have a fineness modulus of 2.Q6 and 85 per cent of the sand coarser tha:n 48 mesh. The organic color value is 50. 'J'he sand is a. pale reddish-brown and about 1 per cent each of feldspar and mica occur in the sand. Lester Oreelc.-Lester creek, on the Talassee road 4 miles from Athens, has fair quantitie,s of very. good sand, similar to that in Trial Creek and suitable for local purposes, although not -sufficient for continued pumping. SAND.AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 291 Magnus Creek.-Magnus Cree~, at the mill three-quarters of a mile south of the Athens-Winder road and 6 miles from Athens, has probably 200 carloads of sand just below the dam. This sand is medium to coarse-grained, and composed principally of quartz and feldspar and some mica flakes and schist fragments. The sand also occupies the stream banks 50 feet from the stream, which is about 25 feet wide at this point. CLAYTON COUNTY Sand was formerly produced at Rex along the Southern Railway in Clayton County, and considerable amounts suitable for local u~es occur in the stream beds. Rex.-On the Estes property at Rex, sand was formerly pumped by the Smiley Sand Company from a branch of Cotton Creek where it had collected in a mill-pond. In busy times about 4 carloads a week were shipped. The deposit was limited and was soon exhausted, as is- the usual case in such small stream deposits. Considerable mud is said to occur with the sand. Since cessation of operations here it is likely that the mill-ponds along this creek have again become filled with sand and might warrant pumping. It is to be remembered, however, that the exhaustion of this sand Will depend on the rate-of pumpmg. Jonesboro.-Some sand occurs in Mud Creek (Flint River), 1Y2 miles west of Jonesboro. It is medium-grained and of fairly good quality, and several thousand yards occupy the bed and banks of the stream. Four miles southwest of Jonesboro on the Fayetteville road, the same stream has a 709-foot bottom, and excellent coarse-grained sand from 2 to 8 feet thick occur in the bottom in fairly large quantities suitable for local use. COBB COUNTY Sand was formerly pumped from Nickajack Creek, near Nickajack station, and from Chattahoochee River, above Bolton. Considerable good sand occurs in Sweetwater, Proctor, and other creel_cs in Cobb County. .d.cworth.---Dne mile south of Acworth on the Dixie Highway, Proctor Creek has large quantities of excellent coarse and fine sand and gravel. (Plate XVI-B.) The material is of white quartz, the pebbles ranging up to- 4 inches in diameter, and the deposits are from 292 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA 2 to 5 feet thick. The bars extend ~long the creek for several miles, ' alternating from one side of the stream _to the other, and are capable of yieldip.g from 200 to 1,500 yards of concrete aggregate each. Sample T-180, obtained from .the creek just above the Dixie Highway and .; one mile south of Acworth, has a fineness modulus of 4.96 and 54 per cent fs coarser than the 48-mesh sieve. A smaller creek, 5 miles north of Marietta on the Dixie Highway, has excellent concrete sand: It forms a large deposit of several acres close to the road and apparently has _several thousand cubic yards of sand. Aoout a b:a:lf mile fmther south on the same road, another ,branch has smaller quantities of good concrete sand in the stream / bed and along the banks. . .Marietta.-The- streams and branches close to Marietta have good quantities of sand suitable for conc:r:ete. and other building purposes. Gravel is said to occur at and near the top of the ridge of hills extendmg around the south side of the_ city. The gravel is ex.,. posed in a cut on the Louisville & Nashville Railroad just south of the town. The city has a small pit at the top of the ridge east of the Dixie Highway and near the railroad. iN'ickajack Oreek.-The Smiley- Sand Company, of Atlan.ta, formerly pump~d a coarse..:grained sand from Nickaijack Creek half a mile from. Nickajack station. Four or five cars could be produced here daily, but some difficulty was. encountered with the rocks and trash in the stream, and it is doubtfUl whether a steady Sl!lpply exceeding 1 or 2 cars daily could be maintained year in and out. -. Chattahoochee River.-Cnattahobchee .River ltas large amounts of excellent medium- to coarse-grained sand in its bed through most of Cobb County. The sand was formerly pumped commercially above the water works at Bolton by the Smiley Sand Company. During the freshet of December, 1919, the river deposited between 3 and 4 acres of fine- to medium-grained sand from 3 to 6 feet deep on the Cobb County side just above the River (Marietta) Road bridge. The Georgia Railway and Power Company has bought this deposit and has put in a splir and uses the sand for- sanding rails and for construc- tion purposes. That part of the deposit nearest the road is very finegrained, but the .ea,stern end has excellent medium- to coarse-grained sand with a few pebbles and is well suited for concrete aggregate. COLUMBU COUNTY .. No sand or gravel is produced in Columbia County. On the S.AND .AND GR.AYEL DEPOSITS 293 Thomson-Appling road, 7 miles from Appling, at White Oak (colored) Church, a strip of yellow, fine-grained sand, one mile wide, occurs. The deposit is at least 6 feet thick and is apparently an extension of the Fall Line sand-hill belt. The upper 3 feet of this sand is very fine-grained and of little value, but it becomes coarser below. Sample T-110 .!1 showed a fineness modulus of 1.96 and 69 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. The organic color value is 200. .!lppling.-Good, coarse-grained sand in fairly large quantities and suitble for local demands, occupies the bed of Big Kiokee Creek, just east of Appling on the Augusta road. Greenbriar Creek, 3 miles west of Appling, is from 6 to 8 feet wide and has a very coarse sand, with fragments of schist and feldspar common. This sand is typical of the small streams in Appling County and is well suited for most conciete work. Sample T-111, taken from this creek on the Appling-Lincolnton road, has a fineness modulus of 3.21 and practically all of it was coarser than the 48-mesh screen. The sand is dark gray and contains about 7 per cent feldspar in coarse grains and numerous flakes of mica up to one-eighth inch. Kegg Creek, a few miles further north, and about the same size as Greenbriar Creek, has sand similar to that in the latter creek. Little River, which forms the northern boundary of the county, is usually very swift, but it was reported to have mostly a rocky bottom with little sand. Savannah River, which forms the northeast boundary of the county, should have large bars of good sand. It was reported, however, that there were only small quantities of sand either along or in the river. Harlem.-Three miles west of Harlem, a red limonite gravel occurs along the Augusta road for 1,000 feet. In a cut on the Georgia Railroad paralleling the public road, it attains a maximum thickness of 4 feet. This material is somewhat irregular in its extent and may have a considerable thickness of day above it. nmakes an excellent road matenal, however. I A mile east of Harlem, in a railroad cut, two layers of quartz and limonite gravel may be seen, with pebbles up to 2 inches in diameter, The layers are about a foot thick and a foot apart. One to two feet of quartz gravel shows up ~n a railroad cut, and also along the Au- gusta road, 3 miles east of Harlem. A small pit has been opened on the Augusta road, 3 miles east of Harlem, and a sandy clay gravel has been used for road material. 294 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA COWETA COUNTY The streams of Coweta County afford adequate supplies of sand for all local work, although none but Chattahoochee River is large enough to warrant commerc1al recovery. - ?fewnan.-Walton Creek, on the Roswell road northwest of Newnan, has small. bars. of.. medium- to. coarse-grained sand. Similar sand is found in this stream on the Carrolton road near the Central of Georgia Railway crossing. The creek here is 20 feet wide with' a rather rocky 'bed and the sand, although composed of- hard quartz grains, usually has a large amount of cinders. On the Newnan-Atlanta road, 2}2 miles from Newnan, there is a small amount of coarse, brown sand suitable for concrete and use9- in Newnan. Three- miles north of Gr?-ntville, on th~ Newnan road, a branch 10 feet wide has sp1all bars of medium-grained sand wp.ich should yield 10 to 50 cubic yards each. Similar sand in larger quantities occurs - along .Sandy Creek in the western part of the county. Lme Creek, forming the eastern boundary of Coweta County, has fairly good, coarse-grained sand as does White Oak- Creek, which is 20 feet wide on the Fayetteville--Newnan road. _ A branch of White Oak Creek only 6 feet wide on this road; 6 miles east of Newnan, b,as s;rnaller amounts of good sand. Sample T-,-122 A, obtained from the -last::riafued creek,' is very typical of the -character of th"'e creek sands in this' county; A mechanical analysis showed a fineness modulus of 2.62 ~trd 98 per cent colirser- than the 48-mesh sieve. . DAWSON COUNTY No sand or gravel has been produced in Dawson County. Excellent coarse-grained, yellow, quartz sand covers ab<;mt 10 acres of the property of E. C. Burdine, 11 half mile east of Yellow Creek _post<;>ffice, and along Amicalola- Cr:eek. The deposit _is from 2 to 4 feet thick and is underlain by blue clay. Similar but smaller deposits occur along the same creek on the Hill and Merian Voyles' properties. Yellow Creek, in the southwest part of--the county, has fine~grained, white sand along its banks and in the stream bed at n'!-1-lUerous places. - Dawsonville.-Near Dawsonville, Shoal, Pigeon, and Flat creeks, _and their branches have only _small quantities of coarse-. sand, su:ffi-_cient, however, for any local deman~s. Etowah River, which flows through the southern part of the county, ha~ the largest deposits of -sand in the county, usually in bars along its course. Coarse gravel occurs at Dougherty, but with very little sand. SAND .AND GR.A.VEL DEPOSITS 295 Just south of Dixon, on the Gainesville road, a branch of Thompson Creek, 10 feet wide, has a coarse-grained sand 2 feet in thickness. A red clay lies beneath the sand. Chestatee River.-Hundreds of carloads of coarse-grained sand have been deposited in Chestatee River above Glover's Mill. (See sample T-197, Hall County.) A large bar deposit occupies the bed of the -stream just below the mill. DEKALB COUNTY Considerable quantities of sand are found in Peachtree and North creeks, and in and along Yellow River, but no commercial shipments have been made. Decatur.-The sand used in Decatur is generally hauled from points along Peachtree Creek, 2 to 4 miles distant. Large amounts of good, medium- to coarse-grained sand occur on the W. J. Houston property, on Peachtree Creek below the Houston Mill road. From this .place to the Seaboard Air Line Railway bridge from 10 to 50 carloads of excellent soo.d occur at many points in the stream. Conley.-In the bed of North Creek, just north of Conley in Clayton County, and east of the Southern Railw&.v trestle, a large deposit of coarse-grained, concrete sand occurs, coutaining about 4,000 yards. The sand is of excellent quality, and about 1915 an average of one carload a day was shipped from t~s point: The stream, however, does not appear to be large enough to replenish sand taken from it atthat rate, and none has been shipped from there recently. Sample T-5, obtained from the creek bed, has a ~eness modulu- of 2.32 and 89 per cent is retained on the 48-mesh screen. DOUGLAS COUNTY No sand or gravel is mined in Douglas G::unty, although most of the streams have fairly good sand in sufficient quantities for local purposes. Sweetwater Creek and its branches in the eastern part of the county have fine-grained sand in the deeper parts, but where the stream is more s_hoaly good concrete sand occurs. - Beaver Creek, near Lithia Springs, has very good, coarse-grained, quartz sand that is used locally. Camp Creek and Cane Creek in the southern part of the county have good coarse sand in small quantities along most of their courses. .d.neewakee Creek.-On the Douglasville-Chapel Hill road, Anee- 296 GEOLOGICAL SURYEY O'F GEORGIA wakee Creek is 25 feet wide anEl"'has excellent, co-arse-grained concrete sand both in the .streani bed and along the banks. , 'l!he latter is from 4 to 6 feet thick above the bridge, and the deposit near here contains about 1,000 cubic yards~ Sample T-130 was obtained from this creek and has a fineness,modulus of 2.91 and 93 per cent of the sand is coarser than 48 mesh. - Bear Creek, in the western part of the county, has excellent sand, particularly on the R~ach place and near Adamson's. Mill. Dog River, in the southwest :part of the county, has plenty of coarse sand in its besf. Deposits of sand have also been made in the flats along ~he stream. One of the largest deposits occurs near New Hope Church. ELBERT COUNTY _The large amount of granite in Elbert County accounts for the high quartz content of the stream sands. Although npne is produced co:tnmercially, the deposits are of a very high grade of sand, partic- ularly those along Broad lli\\er. Broad River.-Just below the steel bridge o~ the Elberton-Berkley road, is a large bar of clean, coarse-grained, qu~rtz sand having a little feldspar and some limonjte fragments. The river is shoaly at this point, 'but its speed insures the constant replenishment of the bar, which proBably has over lO;OOOcubic yards of sand: Similar deposits occur along the .stream throughout most of its course in the county. (Plate XVII-A.) , Between the steel bridge and Elberton, Little Dove and Big Dove creeks, 10 and 20 feet wide, respectively, have good quantities of clean, coarse-grained, quartz sand. . Elb~rton.-'='Sand used in Elberton is obtained principally from Falling Creek, southwest of the town on the Jones' Ferry road. Most of the sand comes from the Dillard Brown property, although other deposits occur up and down the stream. The sand is yellow and me- dium-grained; but is suitable for concrete work. Sample T-203 .il, represents the sand, and it s~ows a fineness modulus of 2.38 and 85 per cent coarser than the 48-mesh sieve. The color value of the or- game content is 150. Beaverdam Creek,. on the Elberton-Hartwell roa4, is 30 feet wide, .and has, bars and deposits of medium- to coarse-grained sand from 2 to :5 feet thick. The stream bed is made up of finer-grained sand a foot or two thick with a large percentage of mica flakes and organic matter. SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 297 Morea Creek, in the northern part of the county, is 15 to 20 feet wide and a medium-grained quartz sand, suitable for concrete, occupies its course. The sand is yellowish and has some feldspar and limonite grains. F .A.NNIN COUNTY No sand or gravel has ever been produced commercially in the county. The deposits of good sand in the ccmnty are genera,lly very small, scattered, and in remote places. Toccoa Eiver.-The bed of Toccoa River is usually rocky, al. though some good deposits of sand and gravel are found in it. A very fine-grained sand has been deposited along its banks, suitable only for brick work. Sample T-186, obtained at the west side of the bridge on the Blue Ridge-Morganton road, has a fineness modulus of 1.30 and 36 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. Bars of fairly good sand and gravel occur in Fightingtown Creek and~in Hemptown Creek between Hemp and Blue Ridge. FAYETTE COUNTY The_ surface of Fayette County is rolling and underlain mostly with mica schist which is intruded by a porphoritic granite in the central part of the county. Lowry.-Bank sand was formerly shipped from the west side of Flint River by Venable Brothers, of Atlanta, near the water tank on the Southern Railway, one mile north of Lowry Station. The sand is practically all removed from this deposit, although several hundred carloads of a yellowish, fine-grained sand might still be obtained. A finer, more clayey, reddish material is associated with the sharp sand, generally overlying it, and it appears to be suitable for some types of foundry work. Further up Flint River, about 2 miles above the part described above, some fauJy good depositf' of medium-grained sand are said to occur on the left bank of the stream. Whitewater Greek.-There is considerable good sand in Whitewater Creek above Bennett's dam, about 3 miles from Fayetteville. Small deposits occur along this creek suitable for local purposes. Flat Creek, in the western part of the county, is 8 feet wide on the Fayetteville-Newnan road, and has small quantities of sand (from 298 GEOL.OGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA 10 to 50 cubic yards) in bars along its cofuse. The sand is somewhat . muddy. with a considerable percentage of schist particles. Similar sand, but in larger quantities, is found in Line Creek, which separates Fayette County from Coweta County. FORSYTH COUNTY No sand or gravel has ever been produced in Forsyth County, although the streams generally have good amounts of fair sand, which is available and well suited for _any local construction work that may be undertaken. Cummin!f.-Big Creek and a b_rancb. of Vickery Creek, one mile west of Cumming on the Canton road, is 6 to 8 feet wide and affords the local supply. Th~ sand is medium- to coarse-grained and has a large percentage of feldspar, limonite and_ mica. Concrete strength ratio tests. of this sand made at the Georgia School_ of Technology, showed 101 and 93 per cent of normal at 7 and 28 days, respectively. Further down the creek the deposits become larger arid the percentage of softer- particles less. Sitting Down Creek is very sandy throughout its course in the county, until within 3 miles- of the Chero4:ee County line, where it - becomes sluggish and deposits only silty sand and mud. Chi:tttahoochee- River, which forms th~ eastern boundary of the county, has many bars and much coarse- and fine-grained sand in its bed for :q1ost of its course along the- coun~y. FR.llUffiiN COUNTY _ The streams of Franklin County sb:ould afford' sUfficient sand for most local purposes, although none- is shipped. The North Fork of Broad River, where ~the Bowersville-Carnes- ville road crosses it, is 50 or 60 feet wide, very shoaly and has some muddy, fine-grained sand along the stream and very dirty, medium- grained sand in small quantities .in the stream hed. Sand having a large percentage of mica and limonite generally extends along the bank of the river. Stephens Creek, south and southeast of Carnesville, is 8 feet wide and has .mall deposits of fairly -co~rse sand suitable for concrete pur- poses which are used Ioeally. West of Carnesville, the Middle Fork of Broad River is more rapid than the North Fork, but the sand is poor and has a great deal of clay and mud wherever the stream bed is not full of rocks. SAND 11ND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 299 Hudson River, forming the southern boundary of the county, has a coarse-grained sand of very good quality in large amounts, although it is inaccessible for most purposes at present. FULTON COUNTY Like most other North Georgia counties, the streams of Fulton County have large amounts of good, concrete sand. .d.tlanta.--8and for local uses in Atlanta is obtained from Peach-. tree, Utoy, Proctor, Clear, and many other smaller creeks and branches, either by pumping or by hand. Considerable sand is also gotten from accumulations in small branches and gullies in the less built-up portions of the city. Acme Sand and Supply Company.-The Acme Sand and Supply Company owns land along Peachtree Creek near the intersection of the creek and Peachtree Road. The plant of the company is in.stalled just east of the road about 200 yards south of the bridge. (Plate VI-B.) The sand is pumped from the stream with a 6-inch Trenary pump, made by the Mutual Foundry and. Machinery Company, of c Atlanta, and raised to 26 feet, where it is discharged on a rotating, cylindrical trommel having r\-inch meshes which take out the twigs, cmders, and pebbles. The sand then passes down a wooden sluice to a wooden settling tank in which it collects. and from which the clay passes off in the water until the weight of the sand is sufficient to force down a circular iron valve which is held tightly against an opening in the bottom of the tank by a shaft to which a counterbalance is attached acting through a horizontal arm. The sand is then allowed to collect in a chute or boot from which, by raising a door, a one-yard. tram-car can be loaded. The loaded car is pulled up an inclined track, 100 feet long, by a cable system operated by a gasolerie engine, and dumped into bins facing on Peachtree Road, from which 3-ton auto trucks are loaded. (Plate VIII-A.) The sand is delivered to all parts of Atlanta, the price depending on the distance. Sample T-~, representing the washed sand, has a fineness mo-dulus of 2.45 and 89 per cent is coarser than 48 mesh. The color value of the organic matter is 200. Peachtree Creek, at the Acme Sand and Supply Company plant, is about 30 feet wide and normally from 1 to 2 feet deep. Sand can usually be pumped out to a depth of from 6 to 14 feet. The pumped sand passes through a maximum of 300 feet of 6-inch pipe, supported 300 GEOLOGI;CAL SURVEJ( OF G-EORGIA OJ!l barrel floats before re~clring the pump-house. Little difficulty has been experienced in maintaining a fair supply of sand,..although long spells of dry weather with no opportunities for the replenishment of the sand, may give trouble. Peachtree Creek at other points along its course has large quan- tities of good sand. This is particularly true near its intersection with Piedmont Road, on theN. H. Cheshire property, and at its inter- section with the Howell Mill Road. a Fulton County.-The Pepartment of Public Works of Fulton County operates 6-inch Morris centrifugal pump on the creeks in Fulton County to obtain sand. for construct!on purposes. .The pump . has been at w~rk on Btoy Creek, at Cascade Road during 1919, but in the spring of 1920 it was moved to South River on the Jonesboro Roo,d. A 14-horsepower boiler and a 20-horsepower steam engine are used to operate the pump. From 1 to' 5 cars of sand daily have been pumped from the creek, but such a production cannot be kept up constantly unless the season is rainy, and the streams are kept full of sand. The pump has also been operated on Utoy Creek on the Campbellton and ,Newnan roads, and on Proctor Creek .at the Mason- Turner Road. Proctor Creek.-Sand for local building.purposes' is obtained from_, Proctor Creek .above .Bellwood .Av~nue, and ~s also.iused by the Georgia RU:il~ay and Power Company to sand the 13treet par rails in Atlanta. The. sand is shoveled from the stream by hand: into wagons.from which cars are loaded. Sand is also obtained from this creek near the inter- section with the River Road, a mile east of Riverside. Sand has also been. gotton from Terrill Creek along the line of the Georgia Railway and Power Company. ()lear Creek.-Along Clear Creek, on the J. G. Johnson prop- erty,. 200 yards west of Piedmont 4:-venue, close to its intersection with the Southern Railway, excellent, medium- and coarse-grained sand has collected. The deposit in this vicinity has several hundred cubic yards of sand and the material is hauled to nearby points for construction purposes. ChaUahooohe.e River.-The Smiley Sand Company of Atlanta formerly operated a pump on Chattahoochee River just above the water-works at Holton. The sand obtained was of excellent quality and little- trouble was experienced in maintai11ing the desired supply. Irn.nlense quantities of fine-grained sand have collected behind Bull Sluice dam and as far up as the Roswell bridge; Sample T-4 from a SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 301 bar in the river above the dam, has a fineness modulus of 1.26 and 26 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. A still finer sand, sample T-3, having a fineness modulus 6f 1.04, has been deposited in large quantities on the banks of the river between the bridge and the dam. Sand of this type would be excellent for asphalt paving. Coarser sand has collected in the impounded stream at a considerable depth just above the dam. Rail transportation is within a half mile to the west where the Southern Railway crosses the river. Below the dam large quantities of coarse-grained sand are exposed in the stream bed. GILMER. COUNTY No sand or gravel has been produced for shipment in Gilmer County. Most of the river sand is fine-grained and that in the creeks is coarse and compqsed mostly of schist and limonite particles._ Ellijay.-Sand is obtained from the bed of Cartecay River near the railroad at East Ellijay, but the material is fine-grained and suitable for brick and plaster work only. Sand from the bank of this river at the Shippers' Lumber Company, 5 miles northeast of Ellijay, was tested at the Georgia School of Technology and found. to contain only 40 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. The strength of mortar made from the sand was only 40 per cent of normal. Some sand also occurs in Ellijay and Coosawattee rivers, but they are swift, and their beds are rocky. Mountain Town Creek probably has the best sand and gravel of any stream in the county. It occurs in small deposits in the stream for a distance of 5 or 6 miles above its junction with Ellijay River. Sand from Drunkar-d's Spring, 1% miles east of Ellijay, was also tested and found to have 70 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. The strength of mortar made from this sand was only 54 per cent of nor: maL The sand had a large amount of orga:illc matter also. Licklog, Clear, and Tickanetley creeks, in the southeast part of the county, have small sand deposits suitable for any local construction work that may be undertaken. GREENE COUNTY No sand or gravel is shipped from Greene County. Greensboro.-8and supplies near Greensboro are not in large quantities nor of the highest quality. A large amount has been ob- tained from theW. T. Speer property, 1Yz miles southeast ofthe town 302 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA on the. Siloam road. T4e sand her~ covers several. acres and is from 1 to~ feet in depth. It has been deposited pa:r_:tly by a smalL stream during heavy rains. The sand is gray, medium-grained,. and has a rather high percentage of loam. Beaverdam Creek, on the Veazey road 4 miles south of Greensboro, is 20 feet wide and from l to 2 feet deep. and has small amounts of excellent, coarse-grained sand in its bed and along its banks. This sand has been hauled to Greensboro for local use. Sample T-261 is typical of the sand and showed a fineness modulus of 4.05 and 99.2 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. Areas of gray Jand in Greene County generally indicate underlying granite whose weathering produces a somewhat loamy sand, but suitable for most local work. Small depos}ts of this kind are .particularly noticeable on the Union Point road,_ 2 miles northeast of Greensboro, on the Ward and Williams places. GWINNE'l,.T COUNTY The sand and gravel in Gwinnett County are restricted to the streams, and although none is produced commercially, they afford an adequate local supply for most purposes. - - Lawrenceville.-One and a half miles southeast of Lawrenceville, near Ewing Mill, on Shoal Creek, deposits. of coarse-grained sand, having from 25 to 50 cubic yards ha-ve been Jeft by the creek during_ high water. The sand is fairly good, althoug~ it has a large amount of schist and limonite fragments. Similar p~,tches occur at intervals alo:Jlg the creek, below this deposit. Similar sand is obtained for use in Lawrenceville from Wildcat Creek on the Buford road. . Duluth.-One mile north of Duluth, a small branch which has been dredged for drainage purposes, shows the following typical section in its banks: Section of bank of Branch Creek, one mile west of Duluth Feet Brown, fine-grl!-ined sand would apparently make a fair mold- blgsand--------------~---------------------------- 3 Yellow, silty sand better suited for molding_______ :.. ______ _ 2 Blue clay--------------------------~------------------- 3 Sections such as this .are usually found in the .bottom lands and along the bank~ of most of the streams in North Georgia. The coarse sand lies bel~w and is at present only exposed in t4e bed of the streai:n. SAND AND GR-:AVEL DEPOSITS 303 Suwannee.- Suwannee Creek, about a half mile east of Suwannee, on the Lawrenceville road, at the water-pumping station, has a large quantity of coarse-grained sand and some gravel. Particles of schist and limonite make up about 25 per cent of the deposit. This sand is hauled to Buford and Suwannee and used in local construction work. Sample T-199, from this deposit, has a fineness modulus of 3.30 and 90 per cent is coarser than 48 mesh. The organic color value is 100. About two miles below this point on the same creek there is a large deposit of similar sand. Smaller patches having from 30 to 50 cubic yards occur along the creek to Chattahoochee River. HABERSHAM COUNTY No sand or gravel has been shipped from Habersham County. Clarkesville.-Good sand is found in most of the creeks near Clarkesville. Sample T-19~ was obtained from Hazel Creek, one mile from Clarkesville on the Tallulah Falls road, and is fairly typical of the char-acter of the sand met with through the county. It has a fineness modulus of 2.61 and 84 per cent is retained on the 48-mesh sieve.. The organic color value is 200. The sand is reddish-yellow, and schist and feldspar make up 50 per cent of the particles over 14 mesh.. Mica is also common in coarse flakes. Soque River, along most of its course, is filled with a fine-grained sand of little value. Similar sand has been deposited on its banks, and very little coarse sand is found in the river exc~pt in the northern part of the county. Chattahoochee River, on the road between Clarkesville and Helen, I has a large deposit of sand and gravel. Sample T-191;, taken from the river at this point, has a fineness modulus of 4.42 and 37 per. cent is retained on the 4-mesh sieve. Similar sand and gravel occupy the bed of the river for most of its course along the western boundary of the county. Cornelia.-Little Hazel Creek and its branches furnish an excellent natural concrete aggregate. That from Little Hazel Creek near Mount Airy has been successfully used in the construction of bridges and other concrete structures in the vicjnity. HALL COUNTY No sand or gravel is produced commercially in Hall County. Gainesville.-8and used in Gainesville, and not shipped in from GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA commercial pits; is usually obtained from' small .surficial deposits pro-: duced by the weathering of granitic gneiss and from gullies in which it collects after heavy rainstorms; "The supply is limited to small amounts which are qUickly exhausted, until more.is carried down by the temporary streams. The sand is grayish:..white a1ad has a large _ percentage of silt. Most of the sand is obtained from the Dixon, Spain, and Finger properties, all located north of Gainesville from one to two miles on or near the Dahlonega road. Sand of this kind a;lso occuts on the farm of the North Georgia Power Company, 1~ nriJ.es nor.th of Gain:esville. Saro~le T-198, from the last-named locality, is typical of the sand, and has a fineness modulus of 1.99 and 70 per cent is coarser :than the 48-mesh sieve.- 'The organic color value is 700 and the grains are almost entirely of angular quartz-. ' Ohestatee River.-Ten r:p.iles west of Gainesville; on the Dawsonville road; for almost a mile above the dam at Glover's Mill, Ohestatee River is filled with thousands of yards of coarse-grained, quartz sand, - containing a few black particles of schist and limonite and some larger pebbles up to 1 or 2 inches in diameter. This material can easily be ..remeved by dredging,. but its distance from a railroad will prevent its utilization except for local projects. Below the dam is a bar or island containing about ~ne acre and composed of similar coarse sand f:vom-3-.to :6~feet:,thick Sample .T-19;7, tak~n from this ba:v, is typical of the sand in Ghestatee River from Glov_er's Mill to its confluence with Oh~ttahoochee River. The sand_ has a- fineness modulus of 3.46 and 94- per cent is coarser than 4'8 mesh. The organic color value is 250.. Two per cent of the sand exceeds a half inch in size and the coarser particles consist of equal amounts of quartz, feldspar, schist, limonite, and mica. Chattahoochee River, which flows through Hall County from the northwest corner to its junctio.n with Ches-tatee River at the center of the western edge of the county, has a great many sand bars along / its cou'rse. The sand is similar to that on Chestatee River. The bed of the river is usually composed of coarse gravel and sand similar to that above the steel bridge on the Gainesville-Dawsonville road. HARALSON COUNTY No sand or gravel is produced for commercial shipment in Haral- son County, although adequate supplies for local purposes occur in \ most of the streams. The best sand and gravel are found in the streams SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 305 in the southern part of the county, particularly in Walker Creek and its branches. _Big Tallapoosa River, in the northern part of the county, generally has a rocky or muddy bottom, although in places small bars of good sand have collected. At the Central of Georgia Railway crossmg there is only a very small amount of sand. HARRIS COUNTY Except on the ridges in the northern part of Harris County, the surface is usually covered _:with many feet of residual clay produced from the weathering of the gneisses. No commercial sand or. gravel is produced in the county, although extensive beds of quartzite, of differing degrees of purity and hardness, occur, and they may have commercial possibilities. Hamilton.-Coarse sand of good quality for concrete, although containing 10 per cent of schist particles, occurs on the flats adjoini;ng Mulberry Creek at Mobley's Mill, just west of the bridge on the Co- lumbus-Hamilton road. A. finer-grained sand, suitable for brick work, li~s fa:r:ther from the creek. Sand similar to that in Mulberry Creek is found in smaller quantities in Osahatchee Creek. Small quantities of fair sand occur in Mountain Creek northwest of Pine Mountain. Pine Mountain Quartzite.-Pine Mountain extends across the nort:hern part of the county from Hargett on Chattahoochee River to the Meriwether county line southwest of Warm Springs. White, gray, and yellowish quartzite, in various stages .of metamorphism, composes the mountain and dips uniformly to the northwest 30 to 50, with a strike of about N. 70 E. Oak Mountain, a much shorter and lower ridge, extending eastward from Hamilton to the county line, is composed of the same quartzite. On Oak Mountain the quartzite dips southward from 30 to 40, indicating a simple anticlinal structure between it and Pine Mountain in this county. Layers of gneiss and schist, .sometimes graphitic, are interbedded with the quartzite and may sometimes grade into it, particularly that exposed on Oak Mountain. Outcrops of the quartzite are almost continuous and very prominent on the south side of Pine Mountain, but the bed-rock is usually concealed on the north side by a mantle of fragmental quartzite, sand, and clay, except in the cuts along the new Columbus road. The quartzite has two well-defined joint systems: the one having a ., 306 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA general. northwest-southeast trend, and the other a northeast-southwest t~end. The bedding planes are usually prominent, and the strata range frbm a fraction of an inch to 4 or 5 inches in thickness. Metamorphic- action has crushed the quartzite in many places, giving it a schistose appearance as well as flattening the individual quartz grains and causing, secondary crystaJiization. In texture, it rang!s from a dense vitreous quartzite to a friable sandstone. Mica flakes, apparently of secondary origin, are common and are found in the bed- ding planes. Secondary quartz stringers and lenses due to recrystal- lization of the silica, are also found. Pyrite crystals occur through the quartzite, sometimes in considerable amounts. The 'quartzite ranges. in color from an almost pure white to a pinkish-, or even a reddish-brown. Mica flakes and quartz crystals may give a mottled appearance to the quartzite. At Tip Top, in a. cut of the Central of Georgia Railway, the grain structure of the quartzite is plainly visible. The rock here is brittle and easily crushed, and it has been quarried and used to supace roads, / as far off as. Columbus. The material, however, does not appear to be well suited for road 'building, due to its friability. The quartzite , at this point is similar to sample T-99, an analysis of which showed 1.10 per cent .of iron oxide ~Fe20a). . Qn the south side of Pine MoUiitain,.. the quartzite exposed on the Hamilton-Copeland road, near the top, is well-bedded and dense, but it has a poorly defuied' grain structure. Upon crushing, such material should be suitable for .the manufacture of silica brick, al- though it is not as dense or tough as the ganister rock used so widely in Pennsylvania for this purpose.. The dip of the quartzite 4ere is 33 to the northwest and the strike N. 42 E. At King's Gap, 2Yz miles northeast of Tip Top and on the Chipley-. Shiloh road, the quartzite is well exposed, dipping to the northwest at about 38. .The material here is more thinly bedded and schistose than to the southwest and consequently not so tough or pure. On the Shiloh-Warm Springs road, at the junction of Harris, Tal- bot, and Meriwether counties and on the south side of Pine Mo~tain, a thin-bedded, rathe_r rotten, iron-stained quartzite, highly meta- morphosed, and containing secondary quartz and mica, outcrops for.- several hUJ:l;dred feet. The rock dips 32 to the north and strikes N. 85. E. Toward the top of the ridge the dip becomes almost hori- zontal, and the grains become coarser and the beds thicker, although SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 307 the thicker beds can be easily divided due to their friability. Two well-defined jointed systems are prominent in the exposures along this road. Partings in the quartzite about half an inch thick and separated by mica flakes occur.- Quartz veins from 1 to 3 inches wide are seen in some places. Sample T-99, representative of the lower part of the exposure was analyzed. Analysis of quartzite from Pine .Mountain, ShilohWarm Springs road, T-99 Loss on ignition_ ____________________________________ 1. 28 Soda (Na20) ________________________ _..: ___ __ _________ 0. 08 Potash (K20)_______________________________________ 0.03 Lime (CaO)___ _______ ___ _____ ____ __ ___ ___ ___ __ _____ _ 0.00 Magnesia (MgO) _-- ____________________ -~ ____ __ _____ 0.00 Alumina (AhOa) __ ___ __ ______ _________ _____ ___ ____ __ 4. 99 Ferric oxide (Fe zO a)_________________________________ 1. 10 Manganous oxide (MnO) ______ ___ ___ _______ ____ ______ trace Titanium dioxide (Ti02)- _______ __ ____ _____ __ __ ______ 0. 28 .Silica (SiOz) _______________ ---- ______ ____ ____ __ _____ 92.11 TotaL_____________________________ ____ ____ __ __ 99 _87 Although the iron content seems too high for glass manufacture, the silica per cent appears suitable for silica brick purposes, especially as it can be easily crushed. The high alumina content would reduce its__ melting point somewhat. ~Oak .Mountain.-On the Shiloh-Columbus road, on the southern slope of Oak Mountain, the quartzite outcrops for a distance of 50 feet dipping southward 36 and striking S. 85 E. A small displacement of a few hundred yards appears to have acted approximately north and south at the site of the gap. The quartzite is thinly bedded, but more vitreous and finer than the Fine Mountain variety in this county. One thousand feet further north, and separated by thinlybedded, impure quartzite, a 20-foot exposure of the quartzite may be / seen. It is more granular, more thinly bedded, and not so hard as the first outcrop. Adjoining, and underlying .this exposure, badlyweathered schist may be seen. The soil of Oak Mountain has a more reddish tinge than that of Pine Mountain, so it is likely that the quartzite is more generally interbedded with schist. Sample T-98, taken from the south outcrop, has the following results on analysis: 308 GJ0LOG1C4.L SVBV EY OF GEORGIA 4n(J,lysis ~~ i(uart~ite from Oak .Mountain, Shiloh-:- .Columbus road, T-98 Loss on ignition _______________________ .. ____________ ~ 0.54 Lime (CaO)--~---- _____________ -- _-~- --- --~-- ------- 0.00 Magnesia (MgO) ._______________________________ . ~ - _ 0.00 Alumina. (AhO a)-_---- __ -- - ---- -- -------- - ---------- 1.21 Ferric oxide (Fe 203) ___ --- _-- __ --- _----- --- ------ ---- 0.55 Titanium dioxide (TiO z) __ ____________ .. _____ ___ ___ 0.19 Silica (SiO 2)----- _--- ------------------------------- 97.18 TotaL __ . - _____ ::. ______ ~ __________________ .: ____ 99 . 67 The iron content is low enough to warrant the use of this material for the cheaper grades of the glass~ and its physical characteristics are such as to indicate its value for r~fractory_ brick-making as well. HART COUNTY The contrast in the composition of the stream sands in the southern part of Hart County and those of Elbert County to the south, is notable. The granite so abundant in Elbert County is not common in southern Hart County, and the stream sands have a much larger amount of schist and limonite particles. Hartwell.-.Lightwood Log Creek, northwest 9f the town and on the Bowersville road near the Seaboard Air Line Railway crossing, has. excellefit, eoarse_-gra!ii:ed. quartz sand' with some mica flakes up to a half inch in size: The sand covers the bed of the stream. which is about 25' feet wide to a depth of 2 feet. Some sand has also been deposited on tlie banks above the. str~am. Sample f-:-20/;., taken of from this s-iieam, has a fineness modulus 2.62 and 84 .per. cent is cparser .than the 48-'mesh sieve. The sand is used locally in Hartwell for construction purposes.. T-he color value of the organic content is 200. Big Oedar Creek, 3 mjJes from Hartwell on the Elberton road, is 15 feet wide and lia~ frequent bars of medium-,- .to coarse-grained sand suitable for concrete 'work. The value of th~ sand is somewhat impaired by large flakes of mica which occur up to 1 inch across, and by numerous grains of schist and some limonite; Sand extends up the creek from the Hartwell-Newburg road, but it is rather scarce for 3 miles below this road until the Dooley Ferry-Montevideo road is reached, where there is a large deposit. Savannah River.-At Alford's bridge, Savannah River has a fine-grained sand with considerable mica.. Similar sand is found along SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 309 the banks of the streams, and thin strata of coarse-grained sand show in cuts along the bank. Little of this is of value for construction work. Plenty of coarse sand is said to occupy the river bed near Stephenson's and Green's islands. Gravel usually lies on the bed rock. This is natural, since the rock is often swept clean by freshets and the coarser pebbles would be the first to be deposited by the subsiding waters. HEARD COUNTY. No sand or gravel is produced in Heard County, although Chattahoochee River, near Franklin, and in fact, along most of its course in the county, has large amounts of good sand. New River, in the southeast part of the county, has large amounts of excellent sand, as has its tributary, Clear Creek. South of Franklin, Snake Creek and its tributaries have smaller amounts of sand and gravel. Whitewater Creek, in the l"outhwest part of the county, is also sandy, but Centralhatchee and most of the other creeks in the western and northern parts of the county are shoaly and the sand content small. HENRY COUNTY No sand or gravel has been commercially produced in Henry -county. s_onth River.-Bars of coarse-grained sand occupy ihe bed of South Ri1.rer in a few places. The bed of the stream is generally rocky, however, and large quantities of sand are rarely met with. Sample T-119 was obtained from a bar in South TI.iver on the Porterdale-McDonough road, and is characteristic of the sand found along this river and in the _larger creek::: in the eastern part of the county. It has a fineness modulus of 2.42 and 85 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. Factory Walnut Creek, although rocky and lacking in sand in the upper part of its course, is 20 feet wide on the McDonough-Conyers road and has small bars of coarse-grained sand. Further down, and close to South River, the sand deposits in the stream bed become larger. Bars of good concrete sand containing from 10 to 200 cubic yards occur in the lower course of Cotton Creek. In the southern part of the county, Tussaha Creek and Towaliga River have bars of good concrete sand with a larger percentage of 310 _GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA schist and feldspar fi-agments than that in the streams in the northern part of the county. JACKSON COUNTY . Sand is produced in Jackson County for local purposes, but none has be~n shipped. Oconee River.-The Mulberry Fork of Oconee River at Mulberry is abou~ 30 feet wide and not very swift. The stream bed has quartz sand with considerable schist and limoJ?.ite. The sand is col ored with red clay and has a large amount of twigs _and leaves in it. Sample T-201, obtained from this stream at- O'Shields bridge on the Winder-Jefferson road, has a fineness modu'us of 2.71 and 85 per cept is retained on the 48-mesh sieve. The sand has only a trace' of organic matt~r. Similar sand is fmmd in Middle Oconee River, 3 miles s0uthwest of Jefferson on the Winder road. This stream is 40 feet wide at this point and is swifter than the Mulberry Fork. The stream bottom, which is 29 feet wid_e, is composed of fine-grained sand with layers of coarse-grained sapd .and gravel. The bed of the river is mostly coarse sand and gravel with clay admixed. Jef!erson.-Both Indian and Buffalo creeks, to the south' of Jef.. ferson, although meandering, have .deposited fairly -large amounts of coarse-grained, white, qua,r.tz sand along their courses. Along the latter stream, near the Jefferson-Winder road, banks of it containing up to .100 cubic yards of good sand occur. A mile and a half east of Jefferson on the Pendergast property Curry Creek1 above the dam, has deposited coarse-grained, clean quartz sand which is used in lGcal construction work at Jefferson. Sa:r:q.ple T-203, from this property, has a fineness modulus of 2.63 and 84 per cent is coarser than 48 mesh. The color value of the organic matter in this sand is 100. In this s~me creek a good deposit of coarse-grained sand occurs a half mile below the Jefferson bridge. JASPER COUNTY No sand or gravel is shipped from any part of Jasper County. Ocmulgee River and the numerous streams in the county, however, should afford an adequ,at~ supplY. of sand for local purposes if it can be transported. " SAND AND GE.AVEL DEPOSITS 311 Ocmulgee Ri7jer.-At Pittman's Ferry, located in a quiet stretch of the river just above a shoal, are great quantities of sand. This sand was dragged out with scrapers, screened, and used in the construction of the hydro-electric plant a short distance above. The sand is similar to that further down the river at Dames Ferry, at which point a sample was taken (see p. 317). At Goggins Ferry, both in the river bed and on the banks, there are considerable quantities of good sand. Wise Creek, in the western part of the county, probably has more sand than any other creek in the county. Good sand in quantities sufficient for leing deposited in the deepened. channel is much coarser and cleaner than that removed in dredging. The increased velocity of the current in the dredged stream...:; prevents the _deposition of the finer sand grains and mud and insures a much higher grade of sand in the stream beds.- In Little Flat Creek the sand content is about 3 cubic yards for each running foot. A sample (T-116), taken from the stream on the Jersey road has a fineness modulus of .2.14, and 72 per cent is retained on the 48-mesh screen. A heavy black sand which collects in ridges at the bottom of the creek is especially noticeable, and an analysis of a concentrated portion of this sand showed the black mineral to be ilmenite (FeTlOs). Similarly appearing black sand is fairly common in the beds of most North Georgia streams, and it is likely that the black mineral in most cases is ilmenite. Analysis of concentrated black sand in Little Flat Creek, Walton Co1~nty Loss on ignition_____________________________________ 0.15 Soda (Na20)____ ________ ___ __ __ ____ __ ____ __ ____ ___ __ 0.10 Potash (K20)__ __ _________ ___________ ____ __ ______ ___ 1. 28 Lime (CaO)____ ______ ____ __________ ___ __ ___ __ __ __ ___ 0. 00 11agneffia (11g0)____________________________________ 0.16 Alumina (Al20 s) __ __________ _____________ __ ___ __ ____ 5.15 FFeerrrriocusoxoixdiede(F(Fee2O0)_s)_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_--_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_--_-_-_ 11anganous oxide (11n0) ___ _______ __ ________ ___ ______ Titanium dioxide (Ti02)- ____ ____ ___ ____ ____ ____ ___ __ Silica (Si02)- _______________________ ~------ __ ____ ___ Rarer earths______________________________________ -~ 191..2499 0. 80 15.36 55.46 0.00 Total__________________________________________ 99.60 334 GEOJj_OGIOAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA Appalachee River, forming part of the northeast margin of the eou:nty, usually has bars . of coarse-gr.ained sand suitable for concrete work. QUARTZITE Alcovy Mountain, 5 miles south-southwest of Monroe, rises ah:nost 350. feet above the general level. It is composed eJ?.tirely of a highly crystalline quartzite, which appears. to be largely a secondary material produced by solution and. subsequent crystallizn.tion . 6f the original sandstone or quartzite; No analysis of the quartzite was made, but it does not appear to be pure enough for any but the cheapest grades of glass. Its use in silica-brick manufacture, and as a flux, is also suggested, but its remoteness from transportation will prevent its utilization for a long time. W.A.RREN COUNTY No sand or gravel deposits are worked commercially at present in Warren County, altho"llgh at Norris Crossing a number of years ago, a gravel deposit was utilized for ballast purposes. A few miles south ofWarrenton extensive gr~vel deposits are found directly overlying the crystalline basement rocks. Carr property.-At.Norr.ls Crossing.on the Georgia.Railroad, four mi!es from Warrenton, considerable gravel .occurs on. the old Carr hY prqpeity.. A pit, opened the Georgia Railro~d a quarter mile south of the railroad on 43 acres purchased from Mr~. Carr an,d worked for about 10 years prior to 1912, shows a !ace 1,500 fe~t long and is from 100 to 200 feet broad. The gravel in the face ranges from 4 to 6 feet in depth aild is underlain by sandy clay. Sample T-5/5, from this pit, is a sandy clay gravel of which 77 per cent passes a 4-mesh screen and which has a finen,ess modulus of 6.74. The pebbles are usually badly weathered and rotten, particularly the granular quartz, and they can easily be broken with a ha:tnmer. A well at Norris Crossing, 20 feet above the railroad and 500 feet north of it, shows 8 feet of clay gravel, with 2 feet of cover. The railroad cut northwest of the station exposes from 2 to 6 feet of clay gravel or a distance of 2,000 feet, lying upon badly weathered crystalline schists and covered with from a few inches to 3 feet of clay and sandy soil. This gravel is not so good as that further south. On the ~Mayfield road, north of the railroad, at this point, a rrummum of 2 feet of gravel is shown in a cut. SAND AND Gl{AYEL DEPOSITS 335 Anderson property.-On the Louis Anderson property along the plantation road between the Mayfield (Sparta) road at Norris Cross.,. ing and the Powelton road, road gravel outcrops at several places. The surface gravel here is probably about. 3 or 4 feet thick. One mile north of the Sparta road, a well 22 feet deep shows clay for the first 10 feet, and then a coarse, clayey, granular quartz gravel for the rest of the depth. The surface showing on this property is not so good as that further south. Baker property.-A well on the Hal Baker property, 4;1 miles from Warrenton on the Warrenton-Powelton road 600 feet west of the intersection of this road and a north-south lane, shows 12 feet of coarse clay and sand gravel, having a one-foot sand cover,. similar to that generally found in this region and extending from the surface and lying upon decomposed, variegated, pre-Cambrian schists at the bottom of the well. An 18-foot well, on the Powelton ro!'l,d 1,500 feet east of the last well and 10 feet higher, shows 10 feet of coarse, day gravel, with peboles from 1 to 3 inches, resting on crystalline schists. The gravel in the upper part of the well is composed of much smaller pebbles than that near the bottom. South of the road,- a few hundred feet east of the last well and 10 feet higher, another well 18 feet deep exposes clay gravel for the entire depth. A third of a mile east of the last well, a road cut shows 8 feet of coarse gravel lying on the ancient crystalline schists. The sides and top of the hills south of the Powelton road at this point and for a mile west are' capped with gravel ranging from a few feet to probably 10 feet in thickness. Warrenton-Mitchell road.-Near the cross roads 5 miles from Warrenton, considerable surficial gravel was seen on the higher points. The gravel covers probably 30 acres on the Casian and adjoining properties. Gullies in the fields east of the Mitchell road show from 1 to 4 feet of quartz sand cover having quartz pebbles scattered through it. Below the sand 2 feet of good clay gravel occurs. The gravel does not appear to be more than 1 to 3 feet thick, according to evidence obtained from hand-dug wells on the Casian property. Beneath the gravel a mottled clay is found. North of the cross roads, and in the direction of Warrenton, sandy clay gravel composed of rounded granular quartz pebbles occurs in most of the road cuts for a distance of 3,500 feet, except for about 1,000 feet w~ere the land is low. Wells on either side of the road clearly show from 4 to 15 feet of gravel, the upper foot or two being 336 GEOLOGICAL SU:RVEY OF GEO:RGI..A.. an generally sandy and the rest clayey. In cases a mottled clay lies beneath. Henry Tucker (ooz/;red) property.-The Henry Tucker property lies on the Mitchell-Warrenton road abo~t 4Y2 miles from Wa~ renton. The gravel shows up well in the fields along the road and in some places is so thick as to prevent cultivation. A well west of the road, on this property, shows 5 feet of grayel, and on the opposite side _another well shows at least 8 feet of similar -gravel. There appears to be about 15 acres on this property having from 8 to 10 feet of gravel. Dotso-n property.-The Dotson property, on the Mitchell road, adjoins the Henry Tucker place on the north. The well at the house shows" 5 feet of Clayey gravel. Lynn Tucker (colored) prop_erty.-The Lynn Tucker property lies :further east of the Dotson Place, and a well on this property is said to penetrate 10 feet of gravel. . A barren stretch, about I ,000 feet wide, lies north of the Dotson and Lynn Tucker places. The land here is much lower than to the north or south and well illustrates the tendency of the gravel to lie on or near the top of the hills or di- vides in this ~egion. Spe-hRJe property.--The Spenc~ property lies north -of the Dotson place, and a well ne:;~.r the house shows 8 feet of clay g:ravel. Surface iri.di:cations of _gravel through here over a great many acres- are very good, but no other certain information as to its thickness could be obtained. Indications point to a large deposit of good gravel lying along the Mitchell road on the properties mentioned. The distance to the nearest station on the Georgia Railroad,- Norris Crossing, is about 3~ m:iles, so that unless th~ demand for gravel becomes very great it will not. pay to develop these deposits except for local road material. -Norwood~-.Three miles north of Norwood, a 700-foot cut of the Georgia Railroad exposes from 4 to 10 feet of medium- to coarse- pebbled gravel, which is fairly well stratified and composed of sub- angular and rounded granular quartz pebbles. .The matrix is a plastic, mottled clay. The deposit directly overlies the decomposed pre~Cam brian schists, and the- overburden of ciay ranges from a few inches to 4 feet. A pit ~n the Atlanta public road, within a few yards of the railroad, has 1;1een opened in the gravel deposit for road material. The gravel SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 337 in the pit is 7 feet thick, and the cover ranges from ~ few inches to 3 feet. Sample T-5'6, taken from the pit, shows a fineness modulus of 6.50 and 75 per cent retained on the 4-mesh screen. The deposit contains 10 per cent of clay and is. well suited for road material, or, when washed, for concrete aggregate. A well, 800 feet further northwest on the public road, shows 6 feet of gravel with 5 feet of sandy c1ay cover. The area covered with gravel in this locality is about 8 acres, and a larger area is probably underlain with gravel at some depth. This deposit is not particularly well-suited for working on a large scale, due to thinness of the gravel and the fact that it rests on a very irregular crystalline rock st~rface which may cause the gravel to suddenly pinch out. Rocky Comfort Creek.-An excellent coarse sand occurs in quantities suitable for local use in a branch of Rocky Comfort Creek, a half mile east of Warrenton, near the mill-pond. WIDTE COUNTY The streams of White County have sand and gravel sufficient for local uses, but none 1s shipped. Chattahoochee River.-Chattahoochee River, which forms the eastern boundary of the county, has plenty of coarse sand and gravel in bars along its course. -Fair amounts occur near the bridge on the Helen-Clarkesville road,- a sample of which was taken (T-19./) and described under Habersham County, p. 303. Near Helen and Robertstown this river can supply both sand'- and gravel for local uses. Considerable gravel occurs along most of Dukes Creek, particularly near the Helen-Cleveland road. Sand is also found along- Little Tesnatee Creek in the southwest part of the county. WILKES COUNTY Granite and granite gneiss occupy most of the southwest part of Wilkes County and upon weathering has produced sand. No sand or gravel is mined in the county for shipment. The sand used locally in Washington comes~~' from a sandy belt produced by the weathering of underlying granite and which is crossed by the Ficklin road, 3 miles south of WaRhington. It is particularly prominent near and along small branches on the Sam Ray (colored) and Henry Potter (colored) places. This sand is medium-grained and somewhat loamy, but of fair quality for use in concrete. It is only 338 GEOI.iOGIGAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA ... from 1 to 3 fe~t thick and most of it,' at the present pits, has been hauled away. Sand similarly produced from the weathering of granite, and of the same quality as that south of Washington, occurs near Rayle, in the western part of the county, and. also near the railroad depot at Tignall, in the north-~central part of the county. The sand at Tignall is used for local building purposes. Good sand occup1es the bed of Fishing Creek, which flows eastward from the center of the county, and also occurs i~ Little River, a tributary of Savanni:th River, forming the southern boundary of the county. Bars in Little River are. capable of supplying from 10 to 15 carloads, and they should be quickly replenished when exhausted, due to the swiftness and size of the stream. They would not, how- ever warrant a large and steady production. A branch of the Georgia Railroad .crosses the river near Ficklin and would proVide transportation in case the dema~d warranted the installation of. a centrifugal pump. TESTS OF PIEDMONT PLATEAU SANDS ------ 'S""h.., .~.., r:l ~ ~ 0 ._.._,.;, d 0 ..p'<".!,)'. ..ct -~ .. 0 ~ s,..0 -.--1 ,. Locahty Percentage coarser than each. siclve I .. .C~ll tS ' CD 0-. 8 .E[11 . s.0 , rn .~ ~ ~ Cll bD - ~ ~ ""! [;b C8l .~ -P .-d '<-< >, g ~. p., ~:0~:i .;!. "'"' .8. ~ 0. 0 .,..., ~'0~c;~Sj ~"Q')~~~- ~ .I I j ~ -~ ~ l ~ ' ~ ~ ~ .~ !.$ -~ , ------,...-------,.- ' . . 4 618 10 l14l2o.l28 .J. 35 14816511oo l15o l2oo . e: U1 R..P~ I~Zl. ~0 a Pi in 1+>b 1+>b P,..,O 1 1< 1=f CD ...a ~ ,_ _ _,_ _ _ ,_ _ _,_ _ _,_ _ _,_ _ _,_ _ _ ,_._ _,_._._, _ _ _ ,_ _. _ , _ _ _ _,_ _ _ ,_ _ _._, _ _ _ ,_ _ _ ,_ _._,_ _ _ ,_ _ _ ,_ _ _ ,_ _ _ ,_ _ __ a 121a 123 124 125 I 126 128 129 130 189 192 193 195 196 197 Almon,~k______________ ,.; __ , ___ .,. __ HogansVIlle, cr. _______ 0.3 0.6 1.3 ... . . 05..1$120..62290:;.41541..538~9..2;64944:,137998..95 95.4 99.7 LaGrange, cr._________ LaGrange,bk. ________ 1. 4 0,5 27..06134..66248..653154..965225,;497424... 889701~.689879 . ;:1 ..6 96.5 99.0 99.0 99.5 Carrollton,cr._________ 9.819.0 26.2 34.3 41.5 50:3 62:1) 7!);5 89,9 95.8 98.3 HCaorgroalnlstvoi~l,le,crb.k_,_______________ Chapel Hill, cr._______ 1. 7 3. 9 5.4 _6.1 0.1 J. 5 6. 513.3 6.8 7.7 4. 713,1 293..721421..552603..69483..(4$790(,8~8988.:16 24.4 46;4 70.5 S6.4 9?;~ 96.2 99.5 96.6 98.5 Clayton, cr. ___________ 8.4. 9.014.821.525.529.140,359.175,687.7 95.5 Clarkesville, cr. _______ 2.8 4.6 8.014.521.732,547.667.883/793.3 97.5 iT~0uacwrcino~, a,q;rBb, k_r_,o_-a_-d_-R_-_~__-__-__-__-__-_ 0.4 3.8 5. 5 04,.6~ 7 .... 06..92122..24214..791391..9~2682..294875.:096974...929870:.87 9.8 16.0 22.8 31.1 44.5 61.3 76.9 89.3 92.1 99:2 95.5 Gati.naetesev)~.lle-,~C--h-e-s------- 10 ~ 15.6' 21.6 31.8 44.0 60.4 76.4 88:2 . 94.2 96.9 98.8 98.599.6 99.8 99:9 .H)81.84. ~.4!~.6646..1 .3342.162.632.6744.9 8939..62224~1169 300_ 322 l21a 50 315 123 99.6 99.8 .287 2.27 2. 54 2. 66 43; 1 95.5 2568 150 330 124 99.Q,99,8 .4242.503.202.6639.0 96.425-'!9 '60 330 125 99.0 99,,6 .9Q. i. 99.9 .. 296 .359 4.32 2.40 3.28 ;- 90 2.67 2.,66 3419.:621_0951~.36 2785 2581 tra.ce 800 288 126 330 128 98.7 99.6 .99.3. 99.8 98.0.-.99.3 ...311599140322...2H682~2.2.....509919..2~2..,66,666463~&3...208 94:52552 102.Q 2754 96.42549 1q0 600 400 28& 129 296 130 326 189 98.8 99.6 96.8 98.9 99.5 99.8 97.7 99.2 ' 99.4 99.8 .2382.992.612.6740.4 .1583.051.932.6643.1 .3611.652.892.6746.5 9949..462~655854 89.:524~6 .201 3.33 2.55 2. 64 41.4 . ., . 9 6.~7 2558 .380 3.49 3.46 2. 69 41.. 9 97 ..5 2632 . 200 303 1.00-.328 150 350 __3.:.12~- 2~0 304 192 193 195 196 . 197 at'-i -G~::l J:,.. ot~'--~i '1 l:>;j f..1 a ~f:t;J a ~ ~ 198 199 201 203 203a 204 205a 261 Gamesv1lle, bk. _______ WSuiwndanern,eec,r.c~r.-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_- Jefferson, cr.__________ E l b e r t o n , c r . __________ Hartwell, cr.__________ Comer, cr.____________ Greensboro, cr.________ O..u 0.6 1.4 3.8 6.813.425.849.570-.385.1 94.2 97.3 99.0 .1752.781.992.6741.4 97.-52632 ..700 304 198 9.0 14.5 22.2 35.7 47.1 60.1 72.0 82.3 90.4 94.9. 97.5 98.6 99.5 ,3014. 82 3. 30 2. 66 39.9 100.0 2700 100 ; 303 199 2.1 3.8 6 .412. 5 22.4 37.4 55.2 72.. 3 85.4 94:2 99.0 99.6 99.8 .249 3.13 2. 712.59 37.4101.4 2738 trace 310 201 2. 7 4. 6 6. 911.219.2 34.2 54.0 72.8 84::3 92.3 96.1 98.2 99.5 .. 233 3.27 2. 63 2. 62 42.6 94.12541. 100 310 203 0.3 0.7 2.0 5.211.722.740.965.084 ..694.8 98.8 99.5 99.8 .2492.422.382.6842.0 96.52552 150 296 203a 2. 9 6. 210.0 15,9 23.3 32.144.2 67.184.1 93.1 98.0 98.9 99.5 . 244 2. 75 2. 62 2. 62 43.2 92.3 2492 200 308 204 0:9 1. 5.114. 4 9 2. 9 29.6 6. 52. 2 2 13.124.145.3 70.8 85. R 94.7 74.3 98.4 90.4 99.2 96.9 99.7 99.2 100.0 _9__9_.7___9_9_.9~ .298 .. 718 2.18 2.83 2. 52 4.05 2. 2. ($7 62 40.6 38.8 96.1 100.0 2540 2700 200 L ____ 205a 100 302 261 J:,.. TESTS OF PIEDMONT PLATEAU GRAVELS Locality w "S z::;j ' . ' . Percentage coarser than each sieve.... ~ 1ll ~"' ~ '+-1 0 "0 0 s <'"1')1':0:1 ,.0 ..... s~ ~ ~ !A. o:s"' lw ""'' t P''"' <1) 1'::1 17;1: % ~ 4 6 8 10 14 20 28 35 48 65 100 150 200 1'::1 <1) 1'::1 ~~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ -- P-1 - - - ~ G') !:':1 !A. 180 Acworth, cr. __________________ 13.6 21.6 26.9 54.5 55.7156.7 58.3 60.2 63.8 70.7 83.4 93.0 97.6 99.1 99.5 99.8 4.96 292 180 ;] t-< 187 Hiwassee, cr. __________________ 6.1 16.6 25.4 46.0 51:2 55.2 59.6 62.7 66.2 70.4 76.5 85.6 92.7 96.9 98.3 99.3 4.55 '331 187 tw:J 188 Hiwassee, cr. __________________ 10 ..9 23.6 35.9 57.7 63.4 66.0 68.5 70.4 72.5 74.7 78.1 82.8 88.8 94.3 96.5 98.2 5.16 328 188 a'"tl ~ 194 Cleveland, Chattahoochee R. ___ 1.7 8.fi 18.4 37.2 48.6 45.6 53.1 61.5 72.5 83.4 92.8 97.0 98.3 99.2 99.6 99.8 4.42 303 194 1--3 V:l 200 Duluth, cr. ___________________ 2.4 7.7 16.9 47.7(6.8 64.2 71.1 76:3 81.1 86.2 91.1 94.3 96.2 97.5 98.1 99.0 4 93 302 200 CJ,:) .fl.:.:>... .342 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA THE PALEOZOIC AREA1 , . EXTENT AND SIZE Within the Paleozoic area of Georgia iS included the extreme northwest corner of the state -comprising all or parts of Dade, Walker, Catoosa, Chattooga, .Floyd, Polk, Murray, Gordon, Bartow and Carroll counties. PHYSIOGRAPHY In contrast with the Appalachian Mountains on the east and the Piedmont ~lateau on the south, the Paleozoic area presents, for. the most part, long, narrow, regular ridges, with broad, rolling valleys between. That part of the area in Dade and the. western part of Walker , and Chattooga counties is a high, level plateau known as the Cumber- land Plateau havi:hg an_p.verage elevation of 1,800 feet. Between this pls,teau and the AppaJachian Mountains the regular succession of ridges 'and valleys comprise the Appalachian Valley Province which is part of a similar. zone extending southward from Pennsylvania. Its average elevation is 850 feet. Most of the streams traversing the area are not very swift and have sandy or muddy bottorp.s. . GEOLOGY The Paleozoic area is underlain. by deposits of sandstone, shale, slate, and limestone of Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous ages. Since deposits of sandstone suitable for glass making occur in the-sandstone formations, and cieposits of chert gravel as residual products in some of the limestone formations, the various formations will be considered. CAMBRIAN SYSTEM The Cambrian System is divided into Altered and Unaltered Cambrian. The Altered Cambrian, long considered Pre-Cambrian, occupies a belt from eight to twenty-five miles wide, lying between the Archean rocks and the unaltered Paleozoic rocks. H consists of al- - most 10,000 feet of slates, schists, quartzites, conglomerates, and mar- 1 Abstracted from the following sources: McCallie, S. W., Notes on the geology of Georgia: Jour. Geology, Vol. 27, pp. 168-175, 1919. Maynard, T. P., Limestones and cement materials of north Georgia: Georgia Geol. Survey. Bull, 27, pp. 82-108, 1912. - SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 343 bles, all of which are highly metamorphosed, but usually retain some evidence of sedimentary origin. Some of the quartzites may be pure enough for glass purposes. The Unaltered Cambrian occupies irregular strips throughout the Paleozoic area. The Weisner quartzite forms hard ridges and consists of heavy beds of fine to coarse quartzite ranging into conglomerate. In places this material attams considerable purity. The shales belong to the Cartersville, Apison, and Rome formations and are generally calcareous with local sandy lenses. The limestones which make up part of the Shady, Conasauga, and Knox dolomite formations may be intercalated between shales and are usually blue and quite siliceous, leaving beds of cherty gravel upon weathering. ORDO'VliOIAN SYSTEM The Chickamau~a limestone is the .only entirely representative member of the Ordovicia:'n system in Georgia. It is a succession of blue limestones and calcareous shales. It is 200 feet thick and largely forms the valleys in the area. From its decay large deposits of chert gravel have been formed. In the eastern part of the area the Rockmart slate is included in the Ordovician, making the total thickness qf this system 2,500 feet. - SILURIAN SYSTEM The Rockwood formation consists of sandstones and shales and varies from 600 to 1,000 feet in thickness. The sandstones are usually thickly bedded, forming ridges, as at Rocky Face and Cha.ttoogata Mountain, in Whitfield County, and may be of sufficient purity to be suitable for the manufacture of glass. Intercalated red, brown, and blue shale and shaly sandstone is common in the formation. DEVONIAN SYSTEM The representatives of the Devonian formation are few, and occur mostly in the vicinity of Rome. They consist principally of a black shale and some sandstone with interbedded shale. CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM The Carboniferous rocks are found at their greatest thickness on the Cumberland Plateau. They have been divided into the Upper Carboniferous, or Pennsylvanian, and the Lower Carboniferous, or Mississippian. 344 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF G:EORGIA PENNSYLVANIAN GROUP The Looko~t formation lies unconformably on the Bangor forination and consists of sandstone, conglomerates, shales, and some coal. Heavy, somewhat impure, sandstle even for local purposes. Barnett Creek, 8 miles south of Calhoun on the Dixie Highway, has fair amounts of sand and grav-el suitable for local purposes. What appears to be desirable molding sand occupies the bottoms of Coosawatte and Oostanauia rivers, particularly near the junction of creeks with these rivers. The sand is found most conveniently ne,ar the Resaca-Calhoun road close to the Western & Atlantic Railroad. MURRAY COUNTY No sand or gravel has been shipped from Murray County, although the streams afford adequate supplies for all loca::I purposes. Chatsworth.-A fine-grained sand which has collected in small deposits on the Ogletree and Childers farms along the road from Spring Place to ChatswQrth has been used for construction work in Chats- worth and other nearby places. ' In the southern part of the county, Holly Creek and its tributaries have fairly good sand in small deposits along, its course. A fine- grained sa:nd occupies the bed of Coosawatte River, and coarser ma- terial is associated with the mouths of creeks emptying into the river. Molding sand occurs in the. river bottoms covered b:1 from 6 to 30 inches of fine, loamy sand. Mill Creek.-Aiong most of Mill Creek are .small bars of coarse sand and gravel suita15le for local work. Natura1 BL6Tegate from this creek h~s been used in the construction of a, number of concrete bridges in the county and has been found ve; y satisfactory. In Conasauga River, sand bars occur at :ntervals. One of the best in the county is just north of Lower Kings_ Bridge. PICKENS COUNTY No sand or gravel has been commercially produced in Pickens County. The streams, however, usually have plenty for local needs, but it is frequently hard to get at it. Long Swamp Creek.-8mall bars of coarse brown sand occupy the- bed of Long Swamp Creek from the marble quarries to Etowah River. These bars usually contain from 50 to 500 cubic yards of sand. At Marble Bill where the east fork of the creek is 30 feet wide, the sand is about 2 feet thick in the stream bed and is underlain by 360 Gl!:OLOGI04.L SURVE]" OF GEORGIA. gravel a foot,in thickness which in turn lies upon blue clay. The sand contains about 15 per cent of schist, marble, and limonite fragments, and a sample (T-18.1;) was found to have a fineness modulus of 2.99 and _90 per cent coarser than 48 mesh. The organic matter: color value is 800. The sand is brown and has 1 per cent coarser than 7'2 inch. The coarse particles are mostly schist fragments. In tlie bottom lands of Long Swamp Creek, quartz gravel which lies on the bed rocks, is from 2 to 10 feet thick. Although this. gravel_ is very good, it is generally cqvered by from 5 to 10 feet of gr~y, finegrained, loamy sand. Gravel is also found on the hills along the stream, but it usually is 0nly a veneer a few inches thick. - Pq,y~e property.-A deposit of remarkably pure sandstone, known as. the "Rhodes Silica Deposit/' is located 5 miles southwest of Jasper- and a little over 4 miles from the Louisville & Nashville Railroad. According to Vcatch 1 the principal exposure of the sandstone bed shows 8 feet of- almost pure white sandstone. The deposit is massively bedded abd jointed, fine-grained, and sufficiently friable to permit of easy crushing. Iron occurs. in the rock as an oxide film in the joint and bedding . places and as scattered cubes of pyr.ite.s, which have m some' places a:lt~red to limonite, but. it i$ not in sufficient. quantities 'to harm the rock for use in high-grade glass manufacture. . No accu- rate estimate of_ the tonnage of the dep.osit could be obtained from the exposures, but it is likely from its origin that it is extensive. llnalyses of sandstone /1'om "Rhodes Siliqa Deposit," Pickens County Constituents 1 2 Volatile matter__________________ --'- _____ _ Iron oxide (Fe20 a)- _____________ -------ALilmume inccaa(oA) _h_O__a_)-_-_______-_-_-_-_-_--_-___._:______ -------__-_--_ Silica (Si02)- _______ ._________ ~- -'" ---'- -- w 0.10 0.008 0.11 0.07 99.75 0.08 0.03 0.07 99.82" l.~Analysis by W. Simonson, Cincinnati, Ohio. . 2.-Ana.lysis by Dr. Edgar Everhart, of purest rock collected by qtto Ve!!-tch. 1 Veatch, Otto, Unpublished report of Georgia Geoi. Survey, 1907 SAND .AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 361 POLK COUNTY The streams of that part of Polk County in the Crystalline area hav fair amounts of sand, but those ofthe northern part of the county, underlain by Paleozoic rocks, have much less sand and more gravel. No sand or gravel is produced commercially in the county. Cedartown.-Big Cedar Creek west of the town has good, coarsegrained concrete sand along its banks and in the stream bed, but most of that near Cedartown has been used, and as a result sand for local _use is now shipped in from Rome or South Georgia. Euharlee Creek.-Euharlee Creek, near Portland station, has some gravel and also a little sand and gravel near Rockmart. Sand is also found in this creek near Aragon, and both sand and gravel occur in Fish Creek. The best sand occurs in a branch of Euharlee Creek, one mile ~orth of the junction with Fish Creek. Chert gravel used on the roads in the vicinity, is found on the hills near Aragon and is derived from the weathering of the Chickamauga limestone. In the northwest part of the county, stream beds from 5 to 12 feet wide showed good sand and some chert gravel. Little Cedar C1eek has the most sand. Quartzite.-Weisner quartzite composes Indian Mountain in the extreme northwest part of the county. The quartzite is usually composed of coarse, rounded grains, but does not appear suffici~mtly pure for the manufacture of any but the cheaper grades of "glass. WALKER COUNTY Sandstone occurs in large amounts in the Walden, Lookout, and Rockwood formations in Walker County, but none of it is pure enough to warrant development for glass manufacture. Sand and gravel in the county are confined to the streams or else to the chert gravel which occupies large areas in the county. No sand or gravel is shipped. Lafayette.-Chattooga River, just west of Lafayette, is 15 feet wide and has angular chert gravel with a few rounded quartz pebbles from 7.4: to 2 inches in size. Coarse sand composes 40 per cent of the mixture. In Dry Branch from 5,000 to 8,000 cubic yards of chert gravel with about 35 per cent sand occur 27!2 miles southeast of Lafayette. 3.62 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GEORGIA. West Armuchee Creek, 3 miles west of Villanow, has considerable sand and gravel, but in East Armuchee Creek, just, west of Villanow, .the bed is. muddy. East- of. Villanow, in branches of this_ stream, particularly Dry Branch, one mile from Villanow, excellent gravel and sand occur. Sample T-155 has a :fuieness modulus of 6.01 and 69 per cent retained on. the 4-mesh sieve. CHERT .The cherty area of the county coinc!des with the distribution of the -Knox dolomite. The largest belt is 4 miles wide and extends through the county east of Lafayette and includes Peavi.ne Ridge. M1ssionary Ridge occupies another large belt in the western part of the county. . A number of pits have been opened in t~s material throughout the county for road purposes. The largest is on the Villanow road, 1~ miles east of Lafayette and. covers_ a half acre. The .face is 40 feet -high and the chert f;:~gments, which range from a fraction of an inch to 5 or 6 inches in diameter, are cemented With clay. The chert is red, gray, and yellow, but mostly white and requires breaking down with a pick- from above. This material is used on the streets of La- fayette ail.d on the county roads. . _ M1ddle'Olllckafuau.ga' Creek proba'fuly has more chert gravel than at any ,other stream in the county. A lai:ge deposit; containing over a huiiilied catloads, - occurs:. Catleite, ']i~itr Haywood's store. The chert -is angular and from V2 .to 6 inches in size. similar material o.ccurs. in_ small branches on the Catlette-Rock Springs road. Ross'ville.-In the northern tongue .of_ the county, the chert area forks at a point 3 miles east of Eagle Cliff, the narrow, western strip runrring . up the western spin: of Missionary Ridge an<;i the eastern strip continuing along Missionary Ridg.e to the Tennessee line, one mile east of Rossville. Good chert- may be found along the Central- of Georgia Railwayfrom Lytle to Missionary Ridge. On the J. R. McFarland property, at the public road just south of Missionary Ridge,. is a ~arge deposit -of good clay bonded chert covering several acres. The angular cb.ert fragments range from 7.4: inch to 3 inches. Layers of white and pink - clay occur between the chert. The material is used-- on the county roads and app~ars to give desirable results. SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS 363 MOLDING SAND Rossville.-Four and a quarter miles south of Rossville, on the .f. R. McFarland property close to the Central of Georgia Railway, ir a red, clayey sand containing some chert' and coarse rounded grains. A small pit has been opened in the deposit and the sand has been used for foundry purposes in Chattanooga. One mile south of Blowing Springs, west of the Chattanooga Val- ley road, is a deposit of red, clayey sand, used in Chatt~nooga for mold- ing purposes. The face of a small pit opened in the deposit is 15 feet high and a quarter acre has been uncovered. Some chert and coarse grains are found in the molding sand, and it has a tendency to cake hard when exposed. The iron content is high, indicating a low fusing point. Crutchfield property.-A large molding .sand pit is situated on the Crutchfield property, 1Yz miles north of Flintstone. It covers several acres, and the sand ranges from 3 to 6 feet in thickness and is a flood-plain deposit of a small creek :flowing through the property. The sand has been shipped in large quantities to Chattanooga and adjoining points for foundry work, but when visited in September, 1919? it was found that none had been shipped that year~ Morse Brothers.-On the Chattanooga Valley road, 3 miles south of Chattanooga, Morse Brothers formerly shipped molding sand to Chattanooga. The deposit is of flood-plain origin, resulting from the overflow of Chattanooga Creek. The sand is fine-grained and apparently well suited for molding purposes. WHITFIELD COUNTY Pure, white sandstone of the Rockwood formation is pro:q:rinently exposed on Chattoogata Mountain. Molding sand is shipped from small pits near Dalton at the present time, and crushed sandstone was formerly shipped from Rocky Face Mountain, above Tunnel Hill, but no building sand or gravel is being produced. .Mill Creek.-Along Mill Creek, on the properties of Frank McCutcheon and Edward White, especially near where the Dixie Highway crosses the stream, are deposits of excellent coarse concrete sand and brick sand. The sand occupies both the bed of the stream and the banks, and it is hauled to Dalton and other points for local construction uses. Sample T-167, typical of the concrete sand in this 364 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF~ .GEORGIA creek, has a fineness modulus of 4.43 and 34 per cent is coarser than the 4-mesh sieve. A finer-grained sand suitable for brick and plaster mortar occurs in small quantities along tb,e stre&m b~nks. Smith property.-_Good molding sand has been deposited_ .by Mill Creek in its bottom hi,nds .on the farm of Mrs. i. H. Smith, on the Cleveland road,. 1}1 miles north of Dalton. The sand is found all along the creek on both sides of the Southern 'Railway. When mining of the sand was begun about 1895, it was obtamed' a quarter of a mile west of the railroad; where it was mostly the No. 1 black sthve-plate grade. At present the pits are located just east of the Cleveland 'road, where three grades of molding sand can, with careful selection, be obtained.. There are two pits which cover about an acre between them. Section a_t lar~e moldin~ sand pit, .Jv.lrs. 'J. H. Smith property, Dalton Feet. Inches Gray, silty soiL________________________________ 6-8, Brown to red and yellow molding sand. T)le different grades Ill;ergi!lg irregularly into each other laterally and vertically_______ -----------________ 2-3 Fine-grained; brick sand_________ -------------___ 2 In some places a coarser sand suitable for concrete work underlies the molding sand. The molding sand consists of two grades of No. 1 stove"iplate,-the red ,and. the dark brown; and No. 2::molding- sand for cqarser castings. The sand is hauled a short distance to the railroad where it is piled in a small frame shed 0r else loaded on cars on a small switch. Sand similar to that on the Smith place is found on the Porter . Moore property further west on Mill Cree~, but farther from the railroad.- SANDSTONE A very pure sandstone bruonging to the upper part of the Rockwood formation outcrops along the top of the Chattoogata Mountain. The white sandstone makes up the upper 60 or 70 feet of that portion of the mountain known as Rocky Face, and it also outcrops for a short distance at the north end of the mountain, south of the gap. (Plate XX-B.) An attempt was made about 1915 to crush the sandstone and make glass of it. . For this. purpose a company was formed, and some of the ~ Oll 0) TESTS OF PALEOZOIC AREA SANDS Locality ~ 1 z . ' 4 6 -- .... a Percentage coarser than ea.ch sieve f. g '= - ,. Ia i -a 8' 10 14 20 28 35. 48 '65 100 150 200 :a 'Oa I - - - - - - -~- ~ - - - - . -i - - - - - - - - - - - - -~ 1:i I . .Q). 0 ~ tll ~ 0 C) '1:1 ..Qt"..l'.)l ,t>. ~r- d ~ Q) tt:l ~ p ~ -- Q) bD oS th -f Q) C) ~ $ u Q) .~.... ' ~ ~ C) :..:. ~ gb ~ ~ ~ 0 'E 0 ~ l=l' ~ ~ ~ bD ~ ~ ~ ,J:I bD ::s.Q). "~ta$'"" ~~ . ,.Q0) ..0... ~~ ~ u Q) [13 ~ -~'1:1' -- 0 A.. ~ 0 ~ [) ~ 1:-1 OQ 135 136 Rome, Rome, Oostanaula R. ____ Etowah R, _______ ---- ---- ---- 0.5 0.2 0.8 0.4 1.3 0.7 2.0 1.4 3.Z '8.3 36.5 67.5 86.8 95.5 .091 2.21 0.79 f64 49.0 9..5 39.7 78.4 96.5 98.9 99:7 .167 2.49 1.38 2.67 44.8 85.0 2295 92.1 2487 400 560 138 Rome, Etowah R, _______ 0.4 0.6 p.8 1.0 1.2 1.8 . 5.3 37.,5 76.2 90.p 97.6 99.4 99.8 .211 2.77 1.82 2.69 44:2 93.7 2530 400 357 353 135 136 ~ 1-o:j 353 138 149 Lyerly, bk. _____________ 158 Rising Fawn, bk.________ 0.1 0.3 3.8 10.1 15.0 22.1 44.6 75.8 92.3 97.1 .110 2.11 1.12 2.67 41.9 95.7 2585 200 0.5 0.8 1.3 1.8 2.6 4.3 1.,2.6 38.1 80.5 95.4 97.6 98.8 .169 1.72 1.40 2;.pq 42.8 93.7 2530 250 349 351 149 158 ~ 163 Ringgold, bk; ___________ 176 177 Emerson, hk. ______ .:_ ____ Emerson, bk. ___________ 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.. 5 1.9 .9A 31.4 56.6 70.4 78.6 88.3 .063 4.21 1.04 2.64 36.5 10.'$.0 2835 trace 347. 0.1 0.2 '0.3 0.5 1.6 i 7.9 4(.9 85.3 95.5 99.3 .128 1.76 0.94 2.67 45.6 88.7 2395 50 345 1.0 3.2 7.9 21.0 44.4 72.6 87.. 8 98.5 99.2 99.2 99.6 .271 2.34 2.40 2;67 39.7 100.2 2705 150 ' 345 163 176 177 ~ ~ 179 Cartersville, Etowah R. __ 0.1 0.2 0.5 . 2.3 12.3 54.1 78.4 90.8 97'.2 98.7 99.6 .214 2.23 1.89 2.69 45.5 90.6 2538 100 181 Canton, cr, _____________ 13.2 17.9 22.0 30.5 42.3 56:7 72~6 85.1 91.5 95.7 98.4 99.0 99.6 .323 3.91 3.40 2.66 38.8 101.5 2141 200 182 Canton, cr. ____ ~- ______ : 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.8 .1,6 5.0 20.0 50.0 76:1 92.1 97.4 99.4 .155 2.17 1.49 2.67 47.7 89.4 2413 125 346 289 179 181 $ lA. 2b9 182 184 Marble Hill, bk,_________ 5.9 9.8 14.1 22.2 31.4 43.9 58.. 8 77.~. ~0.1 96 ..5 98.5 99.0 99.5 .296 3.17 2.99 2.71 42.4 96.9 2616 800 360 184 ~-- --- - - -- NOTE: R=:river, cr=creek; bk=bank. ' ----- - - - '------- --- -- -- ) TESTS OF PALEOZOIC AREA GRAVELS I .... QJ 1 z I Locality "'d 9 pvrooidpse,rt.ipeesrcdenestairgaeblien i_n__-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_4.15)-34-574 Condit, D. D., cited ------------- 4 Conditions affecting development of sand and gravel deposits-136-138 Condra, G. E., cited ___:..59, 74, 92, 111 quoted ---------------------~---- 7 Conglomerate, definition oL______ 15 Conley ------------------------- 295 Cbok County ------------------180-181 Cooke, C. W., and Shearer, H. K., Co opceitre, d .r. - -P-.-, --p-i-:o--p-e-r-ty-- ----------- ---~------- 124065 CCoooossaa CRriveeekr _-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-:_-_-_-__-_-_- 335381 Core sand -----------------------72-73 Cornelia ------------------------ 303 Corsey, R. W., property --------- 138 Council pit ----------------------- 242 Cowart, A. B., property ---------- 220 Coweta County ------------------- 294 Crawford County ----------181-187 Crescent --------------------'------ 218 Cr>isp County -----------------187-188 Crooked Creek ------------------ 325 c~uslJ,ing, methods of --------12.4-1.26 Crutchfield property ----------- :J63 CrystaJli:he ATea ---------------282-341 D eutaali l ecdo u nd et isecsr i p__t i_o_n___o_f:_ __i n__d_i v28i d5--3411 Extent of ---------------------- 282 Geolo.gy . of ------------------283-285 IPnhtyr us idoegdr arpohcyk sof.o f___-_-_-_-_-.:-. _-_-_-_-_-2-8-2-228834 Cr-y;sta}line rocks, definition of ____ 5 Cummmg ---'---------------------- 298 Curtis Creek --------------------- 288 Cushlon sand for pavement foun dations ---------------------87-88 !Cuthbert ------------------------- 232 D DDaakdee, CCo. -Lun.,tyci-te-d--_-_-_-_-1-0-,-6-0-,--6-6,--9-2-, 35941 quoted ____________.:____________ 7, 91 Darcy property ----------------268-269 Dal"ton, N. Davis, W . .Hr.,.,pcroitpeedrt-y'---------------------- 4 195 Dawson County -------------294-295 Dawsonville ------------~------- 294 Day, D. T.: and Richards, R. H., cited --------------------'----- 6 Dean, H. A., property _____.:______ 354 D ecat ur --------------------------- 295 Decatur Concrete Works ______188-189 Decatur County ----~------------- 188 Definition of conglomeration ---'-------------- 15 gravel ----------------------.....--- 1 limestone --------------------- 15 quartzite --------...,--------------- 15 sand ----------------'------------ 1 sandstone ----------------------- 15 shale --~------------------------- 15 DeRJalb County _____,___________ 295 Derrick, scrapers, use of in sand production -----------------109-110 INDE:X. 387 Page Detailed description of individual counties of Coastal Plain -------------152-281 of Crystalline Area ----------285-341 of Paleozoic Area --------.----344-367 Determination of . sp~cific gravity -------.---------42-~~ DiVkOesldSCr-e-e-k---_:-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-__30-3~55 Dillon, J. W., pit ______________261-26~ Dill property --------------------- 34 Dodge County -----------------189-~100 Donovan ------------------------- 209 Dooly County --------------------- 190 DDootusgohnerptyropCeorutynt-y--_-_-_-_-_-_-_-: _-_-_-_-_-1-9--1-139364 Douglas County ---------------295-296 Downing, .J. J., pit ------------178-179 Downs, L ..J., pit ----------------- 246 Drag-line cablewaYs, use of in sand production -----------107-109 Drving sand and gravel, methods of -------------------------126-127 Dry Ridge ------------------------ 252 Dublin -------------------------211-212 Duluth 302 Durabmt:Y--of--i0U:i1'd!Y-san_c1_====== 11 E Early County ------------------194-195 Earnest, T. R., and Parr, S. W., cited ------------------------- 74 Eastman -------------------------- 189 Echols County -----------------195-196 E'ffective size, discussion Of ______27 -28 , Effingham County -------------196-197 EEllbbeerrttonCo_u_n_t.:y. ___--_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_--_-_-_-_-_-_2_9_6__-229976 Ellabell --------------------------- 167 Ellijay -----------'---..,------------- 301' EElmlias,nuSe.l EC.o, ucnittyed__-__-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-1-97--1995 Emerson __.:.______________________ 344 Engine and trolley sand ---------- 92 Etowah River ----------------312, 345 Euharlee Creek ------------------- 361 Evans County -------------------- 200 F Factory Walnut Creek ----------- 309 Fall-line gravel deposits ______132-135 Fannin County ------------------- 297 FFealydestptear Cinousnatnyds-:-._-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-__-_-_- 21947 Fettke, C. R., cited -------------- 67 Fifteenmile Creek ---------------- 171 Filler sand for pavement founda- tions -------------------------- 88 Filter sand and gravel, specifica- tions for ---------------------90-92 Fineness modulus, disc11l?Sion oL_31-32 Fippin, E. 0., cited --------------- 378 Fire sand ------------------------- 34 Fishing Creek -------------------- 155 Fitzgerald ------------------------ 156 Fitzgerald, W. A., property ------ 239 Five Points ----------------------- 254 FFllaant dCerrse,ekJ. _M__._, _p__ro__p_e_r_tY___-_-_-_-_-_-2-9-7-, 231105 Fleming -------------------------- 215 Flemington ----------------------- 21{i Flint River ----------------------- 187, 188, 220, 242, 255, 316, 327, 332 Page Flournoy, J. F., property --------- 222 Floyd County ------------------351-358 Flynt, Frank, prop.erty ----------- 327 Folkston -----------------------171-172 Forsyth County ------------------- 298 Fort Benning Military Reserva- tion ------------------------174-175 Fort Benning pit ----------------- 224 FFoourtndHriyll s-a-n-d---_-_-_-_-__-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_--682-7420 Cohesiveness of ---------------70-71 Durability of ------------------- 71 Fusibility of -------------------- 71 Permeability of ----------------69-70 Texture of ---------------------- 70 Franklin County ----------------- 298 Fulcher, Glenn,: property _________ 169 FFank, R. L., cited __________61, 62, fi3 Fulton County _________________299-301 Fulton County Department of FusiPbuilbiltiyc oWf foorukns d-r-y--s-a-n-d--_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_- 30701 G Gage, R. B., and Kummell, H. B., cited -------------------------- 67 quoted -------------------------- 61 Gailey, C. K., property ----------- 320 Gaines, R. H., cited -------------- 57 Gainesville ---------------------303-304 Gallup, F. L., and Ries, Henrich, cited -------------------------- 25 Gaultney, E. M .. , pprperty -------- 254 Gaultney, M. T., property -------- 255 Gay, .J. M., Jr., property --------- 177 Gay property --------------------- 230 General Building Supply Com- pany -----------------------172-173 Geology . . of Coastal Plain Area -------148-152 of Crystalline Area _________283-285 of Georgia -------------------144-145 of Paleozoic Area ---------.---342-344 Georgia Sand & Gravel Company_ 234 -Gibson --------------------------- 200 Gilmer County -------------------- 301 Gillette.. H. P., cited -------------- 118 Glascock County ----------------- 200 Glass sand chemical analyses of __ 211, 271, 272 chemcial compos-ition of ______61-63 magnetic treatment of ---------- 67 mechanical composition of ____64-65 mineral composition of ________63-64 occurrence of ------------------ 159 preparation of ------------------ 68 screening of -------------------67-68 shape of grain in --------------- 65 washing of --------------------66-67 Glaze, W. B., property ------------ 265 Glynn County -------------------- 201 Gordon --------------------------- 274 Gordon County ----------------358-359 Grab bucl>:et, loading sand bY--110-112 Grading of pebbles in road gravel -----------------------79-81 Grady County _________________201-202 Granulometric analyses, see me- chanical analyses. Graphic J.representations of granulometric composition ________25 -27 388 INDEX Page Grcaevmelenting va.lue Of ____:_______33-34 definition of durability' of -~--------------------'---~-------------32~313 methods ,.of crushing ~--------124-126 oocur~ence of ---------~---_:__161-163 tests of ------~-------'------------ 221 uses o.f -------------------------45-95 Gravel pebbles, shape of-_________ 32 Greenbriar C~eek ----------------- 293 Greene County ----'------------301~302 Greensboro -----'----------'-------- 301 Gregory, J. R., cited ------------- 78 Gresston --------'------------------ .190 Gwinnett Counoty ------------~--302-303 H HHaalblerCshoaumnty C_o..:.u..:_n..:t:.y..__-_-_-_-_-_-_--~-_-_-_-3-0-3-330034 Hamilton ,_:_________.:___________ 3o5 :s., Hamilton, S. H., and Kummell, H. HancockcitCedou-n-t-y--_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-2-0--2-20684 Hand, :;J. L., property ____,:_______ 220 Hand, loaning sand by --------100-101 Hannahatchee Creek ----------- 240 H&ralson County --------------304-305 Harder, Q.. E., and Abrams, D. A, cited --------------------- 11 HHaarrddy'LsabCorrosCsirnegek__-_-_-_-_-_-_'_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-:-.. 131691 Harkey, W. C., Band Company_25J-252 HHaa'Ir'lpeemr, !R. -M-.-,- -c-it-e-d- -------------------------~-- 2379.38 Ha:rris County --------'--------305-3.08 Harri$On, Ella, property ___:______ 186 Hart County ----------------'--318'309 H:;t,rtwell ------------------------- 308 Hazen, Allen, cited -----------~--~ . :JO He._aq:urdoteCd o-u-n--ty---_-_--_-_-_-_-_-_--_.-:_-:_-_._.:_:':_-_--_-::2:_:_73-2089 Henry County -'--'----'-------:._______ 3u9 HB:eeprrziicbka,hH.-~N--.-, ~c--it-e-d---_:-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-,..-.~ 23.65 , Hime, J. R., Sand Company___24lP.24'4 Hinson Sand Mines ____________27.0-271 HHiiwwaasssseeee R-i-v-e-r-'-;.-._-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-__-_-_- 3322.8S Hogansville ---------------------- 330 Homer ---------------------------- 285 Hornblende in sand --------------- 14 HB:oouussteor,n 1JC., oupnitty!---__-:-._-__-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_--20---1-220054 Hudson Greek __________:.__________ 325 Hudson RiV61I" --------------- ______ 299 o'f Hurri-cane Creek --------------228-229 Hydraulic stripping sand ---118-119 Ichawaynochaway Creek __.:_.:___.:____ 259 Impurities in concrete aggregate-54-59 Indian Mountain ------------------ 361 Intruadreead r_o__c_k_s__o__f __t_h_e_,:C__r_y:_s_t_a_l_li_n_e_ 284 Irwin County --------------------- 205 J Jac~son County ___::________________ 310 Jasper County -,---------------310-311 Jeff Davis County ---------~----- 206 JJeefffEee.rrssoonn C--o-u-n-t-y------------------------------2-0-6-230186 Page Jenkins County ------------------ 208 Johnson County ---------------208-211 Jonesboro ------------------------ 291 JJoonneess, CMorusn. t y L . - -A-.-, ---------~property -,-: -__-_-_-_- 331461 JJ-oorrddaann,, LG.., E.p, ropproeprteyrty--_-_-_-_-_-_-_-2--2-9-223250 Julien, A. A., and Bolton, H. C., cited ------------------------- 378 K KKeeygsgviClleree_k_:_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_- 129639 :Kinchafoonee Creek -----------213-214 King, Edward, propetrty ---------- 177 King, F. H., cited ----------------- 24 King, W. J. H., cited ------------- 6 KKiinrkgpstaotrnick--S--a-n-d--&---C--e-m--e-n-t--C--o-m--- 347 K i t ep a_n_y_ .:.. _- -_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_2__4_5_,___2_4_6-224o89 Kubo, Lee, p~opertY ------------- 240 IGummeU, H. B., and Gage, R. B., cited ----------~-------------- 67 quoted -------------------------- 64 Kummell, H. B., and Hamilton, S. H., cited ------------------ 68 L Labor costs in production of Ladsdaenrd d-re-'-d-g-e-,---u-s-e---o-f---i-n---s-a-n-d- 142 production -----------------117-118 Lafayette ------------------------- 361 LaGrange ---'---------------------- 330 Lampley, H., pro.perty ------------ 231 Laurens County ------------------ 211 Law~enceville -------------------- 302 Lee 'County ---------------------- 213 'JL:'..~eee;1.;.JJ.. B., M'., pit -----------------property -------------- 168 171 Lester Creek --------------------- 290 LLeibweirstyMCillou-n-t-y-'-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-2-1-4-221175 Lidaen, D. M., cited ____________6, 37 Lightwood Log. ~eek ----------- 308 Limestone, definit-ion of ~--------- 15 Limonite in sand ---------------- 14 Lincoln County ------------------ 312 Line Creek ----------------------- 294 LLiittttllee HO'aczmeullgCereeeRkiv-e-r--_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-2-6-9-237003 Little Potato Creek --------------- 332 Little River ------------------180, 328 Little Shoulderbone Creek ------- 203 Little Towaliga River ------------ 324 Loading sand . hy hand ---------------------100:-101 by Long Long tCSrarwpeaesmk -p--=-C----r--e--e--k----------------------~---------,--.1-:-0__-1_--_-133025339 Louisville -~----------------------- 207 LLoowwenydes__O_o_u_:_z_h_y_:-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-__-_-_-_-_-_-_- 221967 Low, Thomas,, property __:_ __:..__189-190 Lumber City Sand & Concrete Comp-any -------------------- 257 Lumpkin County -----------:..312-313 Lyons -------------------'------- 264 M >Macon -------------------------161-164 MMaadcoisnonCo-u--n-t-y----------------~----------------------- 216 320 INDEX 38V Page Madison County ------------------ 313 Magnetic treatment of glass sand_ 67 Magnetite in sand ---------------- 14 Magnus Creek -------------------- 291 Magruder Creek ---------------176-177 Mansfield, G. R., cited ------------ 6 Manufacture of sand-lime brick__ 74-76 Marburg Creek ------------------- 286 Markets for sand and gravel ------ 143 Marietta -------------------------- 292 Marion County ------------------- 219 Mechanical action of water ------ 2-3 Mechanical analyses Core sand ----------------------- 73 Sand -------------------------191-221 Sand Hill ----------------------- 263 Singing sand ------------------- 379 Me cshaanndica_l___c_o_m__p_o_s_i_t_io__n___o_f___g_l_a_ss64-65 Meriwethe,r County ____________314-316 Methods of transportation, production and preparation of sand_95-128 ~1etter ---------~------------------ 170 Mica in sand --------------------- 14 Mill Creek --------------------359, 363 MM1ilillleenr C-o-.-u-n-t-y--------------------------"-'--------------- 220189 Mills, Mike, pro.perty ------------- 186 Milton Count:JZ~ -------------------- 316 Mine!ral and rock composition of sand -----------------------~-13-17 Mineral compos.ition of glass sand -------------------------63-64 Mineralogical examination of sand -------------------------16-17 Mining of sap brown ore --------- 376 Minor uses of sand --------------94-95 Mitchell Mobley, MCrosu. nAty. ---------------219-220 H., pit ________270-271 Moldenke, Richa!rd, cited --------- 70 Molding sand, tests of ------------ 383 Monroe C0unty ------------------- 316 MMoonnttgeozmume!ary -C--o-u-n--t-y--_-_--_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_2_12621--221272 Moorefield, C. H., quoted ________80-84 M Moorrgeaan CCreoeuknt-y--_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-3-1-8--322906 Morgan, W. K., property ________ 246 Morningstax, L. E., pit ----------- 245 Morris, W. M.., property ______222-223 Morse Brothers ------------------ 363 Mortar tests of sand -------------- 43 Mossy Creek --------------------- 204 Moul,trie -----------------------179-180 M Muucckkaafloe.eonCeereCekree_k__.-:. _-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_- 129133 Mud Creek ----------------------- 330 Murray County ------------------ 359 M Muusrcraoyg'ese FCeorurynty---_-_-_-_-_-_-_--_-_-_-_-_1_92022-1-29217 Muscogee County gravel pit __ 223-224 Me McCallie, S. W., cited _________282, 378 McCarty Sand Pits ------------181-182 McCrary, M. G., property -------- 210 McCutcheon, Frank, property ____ 363 McDaniel, A. B., quoted ---------- 101 McDougal, D. T., cited ---------- 5 McDuffie County ----------------- 313 McFarland, J. R.:" property ____362, 363 Page Mcintosh County ----------------- 217 MacKenzie, G. C., cited ---------- 6 McLeod, J. D., pro.perty ______271-272 N Nashvi!le ------------------------- 157 Neels Creek ---------------------- 210 Neeves, J. C., property ----------- 177 Neisler, J. H., property ..,------255-256 Newnan -------------------------- 294 NNeewwtoRnivCerou-n-t-y---__--_::-_ -_-_-_-__-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-3-2--0-332029 NNiocrkriasjacCkroCsxs-ienegk -_-_-_-_-_-_-_-__-_-_-_--_:-_-__-_-_- 239324 North Broad River -------------- 327 Norwood -----------------------336-337 Nottely River --------------------- 331 Nume:rical representation of gran- ulo.metric composition ---------- 27 0 Oak Mountain -------------------- 307 OOacJhtewsalpkreoepeOrtryeek--_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-2-7-2--227335 Ocklocknee River -------------202, 260 Ocmulgee River ------------------ 159-160, 189, 258, 28~ 311, 316-318 Oconee 'County ------------------- 322 Ocon_e_e___R__iv__e1r55-,--2-1-2-,--2-7-3-,--2-9-0-, --3-1-0-, 325 Ogeechee River ---------------168, 197 OOhgoleotpheoerpRe ivCeor un__ty___-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-1-9-9-, 235203 Okapilco Creek ------------------- 166 Oostanaula River ----------------- 3.57 Organic 'Matter in concrete aggregate ______ 9, 56-57 Oriing' insanodf s-a-p---b-r-o--w--n--_-_-_-_--_-_-_-_-_-_-31705--31736 Origin of sand and gravel -------- 2-4 p Paleozoic Area ________________342-367 D eutaa1i l ecdo udnet ise csr i p__t i_o_n___o_f__i_n_d__i v_ 3i d4-4-367 EGxeotelongtyofo' f---_-_-__-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-3--4-2-334424. Physiography of ---------------- 342 Sand and gravel, tests of __ 366-367 Parrish, J. A., pit _____________201-202 Parrott --------------------------- 259 Parr, S. W., and Earnest, T. R., cited -------------------------- 74 Paulding County ------------------ 323 Pacvuesmhieonnt sFaonudndfaotrio_n_____________ 87 -88 filler sand for ------------------ 88 Paving Payne sand proper -ty - -----~-------------------------------- 87 360 Peachtree Creek ------------~----- 299 Peacock, J., property ------------- 189 Pee ble ---------------------------- 253 PPeepnpdelel,tonS. CVr.e,ekcit-e-d---_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-7-4-, 19795 Permeability of foundry sand ___ 69-70 PPheirlrlvips-, --E-.--L--,--p--r-o-p-e-r-t-y-------------------- 322064 Physical character of sand grains -----------------------18-33 Physiography . of Coastal Plam -------------146-148 of Crystalline Area ----------.282-283 390 INDEX Page of Georgia -----------------~--- 144 P iocfk e:nj?sa.lCeoozu'onict yA_r_e_::a___-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_- -3-5-9-336402 Piedmont Plateau sands and giavels, tests of -----------339-341 Pierce County ---------------~-227-229 Pike County --------~------------ 324 Pine Mountain quartzite --------- 284, 305-307, 314-315, 324, 332-333 Plaster sand, properties of ______59-60 Polk County --------------------- 361 Pollock, N. L., property --------- 349 Poole; Annison, p-roperty --------- 209 PPooprtee, rdWalaerre_n_,__p__ro__p_e_r_ty___-_-_~_-_-_--:._2_3_8_-233291 . Potato Creek _:___________________ 324 Powelton -----~'------------------- 204 Power shovels, use of in sand pro~ duction -~------------------104-106 Power scrapers, use of in sand production -----------------107-109 Pratt, .J. H., cited ---------------- 82 Preparation of glass sand -------- 68 Preparation of sand for the mar- ket -~---------------------119~128 Prices of sand and grav.el ___.:._141-142 Procter Creek -------------------- 300 Prospect!ing for sand and .gravel ____.:._~-l---------""'--128-139 Puckett, C. A., ,property --------~ 344 Pulaski County .:.:..:----------~---229.-230 Putnam County -----------~---324-325 Q Quartz chemical analysis o.f ----------- 329 Quinartszaitned ----'----'------------------ 13 Alc0vy Mountain --------------- 331 BeJ.l Mountain ----~'----------"'"-- 329. chemical analyses of ___307, 308, 314 definition of ----------------~--- 15 Pine Mountain ---------'-------. ------305-307, 314-:315, 324, 332-333 Quitman ----------:...___________165-166 Quitman County ______:______'-__230-232 Quitman County Farm ----"---~--- 231 R Rabun CountY' ------'---'---------325-326 RRaa:bilurrona,d .Jb. aWlla.,stpr_o_p__e_r_t_y__-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-8-82-9808 Ram-sey, W. W., property -------- 350 Randolph County ----------------- 232 Red O'ak Greek -'~---------~------ 315 RRehxod-e-s--S-i-l-i-c-a--D--e'p-o--s-it-------------------------- 239610 R!ichar(lson, Clifford, quoted ______ 86 Richardson, W. D., c-ited -------- 378 Richards, R. H., and Day, D. T., cited ----------'--------------- 6 RRiicchhlmanodnd. GCreoeuknt-y---_-_-_-_-_-_-._-_'_-_-_-_-_-2-3--3-233207 Richmond County pit ------------ 233 Ries, Heinrich, and Gallup, F. L., Riesc,itHedein--ri-c-h--, --a-n-d---R-o--s-e-n-,'-.-J.--A--.-, 25 Rin~~;1~ ::=::::=:::::::::::=::::::::::::!~ 3~~ Rising Fawn _________________:_____ 351 Rogardadginrgaveolf -p-e-b-b--l-e-s--i-n-_-_--_-_-_-_-_-_-_7_769--8811 Page retqnuir_;e_m__e__n:_t_s___o__f ___g_o_o_d____b_i_n_d__e7r6-78 strength of .pebbles in .:._______ 78-79 Rockdale County ----------------- 326 RRoocckkyy CCotmeefkort__C__r_e_e_k__-_-_-_-_-..-_-_-_-1-7-5-, 328367 Rocky Face _______ _.:____________364-365 Rogers property ------------------ 207 Rome ------------------------353, 358 Rome Sand &Gravel Company_351-352 Roofing gravel -------------------92-93 Rosa, E. P.; quoted ----------..---- 7 Rosen, J'. A., and Ries, Henrich, cited ------------------------24, 68 Rossville -----~----------------362, 363 Rowland, J'. H., property -------- 209 Royalties on sand and gravel ----- 142 RRuutmledCgreee_k__-__-_-:-..._-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-..-_-_-_-_-_-_-__-_- 3312,08 Rutledge and Chestnut pit -------- 222 RylandeT, Walter, pit ----------- 241 s St. George _________________:.___374, 378 St. Ma;rys ---'----------------------- 170 SStt.. SMimaroynss RIisvlaenr d--_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-2-0-1-, 137772 Salt Creek ----------"-----------173-174 Sand . abrasive uses of --'---~--------93-94 chemical analyses of ___154,a163, 169 170, 173, 174, 180, 185, !95, 196, 205, 206, 218, 223, 227, 229, 235, 236, 262, 266. . chemical compos-ition of _____17-18 classification of ---------------- 4-7 cleanness, determination of ____ 8-9 coastal Plain ----------------146-281 color of ----------------------- 8 definition hydraulic of -----stripping --of - ---~---------1-1-8--1191 mechanical analyses of ____191, 221 methods of- proauction of ___100-119 methods of transportation_____ 96-100 m ionf e r_a_l___a_n__d__ :r._ _o_c_k____c_o_m__p_o_s_i_t i_o_n1 3 - 1 7 moinfer_a_lo_-_g_ic_a_l__e_x_a_m..i:n_a..t:io~-n---------16-17 minor uses of _________-_________ 94-95 moTtar.tes.ts of _________:__________ 43 organic matter in --'------------10-13 preparation for market ------119-128 producers,, list .of --'------'--'------- 143 spec'ific g.:ra:vlity of -------- _____39-41 suited for brick mortar -------- 59 uses of ----------------~.:_______45-95 Sabnadnkanddepgorasvitesl of ____________130-135 bibHog,raphy of ______________368-371 conditions affecting 'development of deposits ----------------136-138 industry ---------------------139-143 markets for -------------------- 143 methods of drying '----------126-127 methods of sizing -----------120-124 methods of washing _:_______120-124 nature, clas'sification and prop- erties of ---------------------1-45 origin of ------------------------ 2-4 prices of ~--------------------141-142 royalties on -----=-------------- 142 storage of -------------------127-128 INDEX 391 Page stream deposits of ----------128-130 vveight of ----------------------41-43 S~d-cement Sand-clay ro ad-s------------------------- ----------8-1- - 8944 Sand grains durability of -------------------32-33 physical character of ----------18-33 ss ihzaep eo fo f___- _- _- _-_-_-_-_-_-_- .-:. -_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_- 1- 8-23:5l Sand-hill deposits _____________ 130-132 Sand hill, mechanical analysis oL 263 Sand Hill Station _____________ 226-227 Samnda-nluimfaectubrreicko.f --_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_--_-_-_7_374--7766 sand requirrements -------------73-74 Sand-oil roads -------------------- 87 Sand producing minerals ________13"15 Sand produc>ing rocks ----------15-16 Sandstone chemical analyses of _______360, 365 definition of -------------------- 15 SSaanpdbyroCvvreneokre--_-_-_-_-_--_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_2_83673. -337206 chem'ical analysis of ----------- 375 mining of ----------------------- 376 occurrence of ------------------ 374 origin of ---------------------375-376 uses of ------------------------- 376 Sapelo Island --------------------- 378 Sastislelar R--i-v-e-r--_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-2-6--6-26597 Saunders p.r9pertY,t ---------------- 164 Sava__n_n_a_h___R_1_v_e1,6r4,--1-7-2---1-7-3-,--1-9-6---1-9-7-, 308 Schley >County -------------------- 237 Screening Of glass sand ---------- ti7 Screven County ------------------ 237 Sedimentary rocks, definition oL-- 15 Seventeenmile Creek __________178-179 1Shale, definition of --------------- 15 Shape of grain in .glass sand _____ 65 Shearer, H. K., and Cooke, C. W., cited -------------------------- 146 Sherzer, W. H., cited ------------- 5 Shoal Creek ---------------------- 311 Singevvald, J. T., cited ----------- 6 Singing sand ------------------379-381 chemical analysis o.f ------------ 380 mechanical analysis of --------- 380 S'itting Dovvn Creek -----~-------- 298 Size of sand grain, discussed ____18-25 screen tests to determine _____19-23 Sizing sand and gravel, methods of ------------~------------120-124 Smiley Sand Company_186, 300, 317-318 Smith, J. E., cited ---------------- 83 Smith, J. W., property------------ 210 Smith, M:Ts. J. H., property ______ 364 Snake Creek ---------------------- 288 Soperton -------------------------- 264 Soque River ---------------------- 303 South Chicamauga Creek ------- 347 South River ---------------------- 309 Spalding County ---------------326-327 Specifications for filter sand and Specgirfaicveglrav--i-ty---o-f--s-a-n--d--_-_--_-_-_-_-_-_9_039--9421 determination of --------------40-41 Speer, W. T., property ----------- 301 Spence property ------------------ 336 Spoon, \V. L., quoted ------------ 83 Stapleton property --------------- 207 Statenville ---------------------195-196 SStteaptehsebnosroCo-u-n--ty--_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_--3-27- -312688 Stephens Creek ------------------- 298 Page Stephenson, L. W., and Veatch, Otto, cited ------------------- 146 Stegvravvaertl C-o-.-u-n-t-y--_-_-_-_-_-_--_-_-.:.-_-_-_-_-_-_1_22838-1-23401 Stone masonry mortar, sand suited Storfaogre -o-f--s-a-n-d---a-n-d--g-r-a-v--e-l-_-_-_-_-1-2-7--12589 Stream deposits of sand and gravel ---------------------128-130 testing of --------------------- 129 Strength of pebbles in road Sum1g:rearveClou-n-t-y---_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_--_-_-_-27481--27492 Sutton, J. C., property _________175-176 ' Suvvarmee ----------------------- 303 Svvainsboro --------'------------197-199 Svveetvvater Creek --------'-------- 295 T Tall::!ot County -------r--------242 -250 Talllaferro County ---------------- 328 TTaaltltunlaalhl CRoivuenrty-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-2-5-0--235215 Taylor County ---~-------------251-257 Taylor, F. W., and Thompson, iS. TelfEa.i,r Ccioteudnty---_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-2__9_,_25587, -25680 Terrell County ________________ 258-259 Testing fall-line gravel deposits -------------------------133-135 Testing stream sands and TTheoxmgturaraesveColsfoufno--tuy-n-d-_r-_y-_-_-_s-_a-_n-_d_-_-_--_--_--_--_--_--2--5--9---21627290 Thomasville ____________: _______259-260 Thompson, S. E., cited ------------ 11 Thompson, S. E., and Taylor, F. W., cited .-----------------58-60 TThifotmCsoonunt-y---_-_-_-_-_-_-_-__-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_--2-6-2-236133 TTiiffttonSili-c-a--B--r-i-c-k--C--o-m--p-a-n-y---__-_-_-1-9--2-129623 Tillsen, G. -w. , cited -------------- 88 Tittle property -------------------- 161 Tobannee Creek ----------------- 231 Toccoa River --------------------- 297 Tomlinson, C. W . , cited ----------- 17 Toombs County ------~------------ 264 TToovvvvnaliCgareRekiv_e_r__-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-2-0-3-,--2-8-9-. 331282 TT-roaviv1nsRiCdoguent:._y__-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_--_-_-_-_-_-_3_2_8__-332796 TTrraapps,dikloeasd-in--g--.-s-a-n-d---b-y---_-_-__-_-_-1-0--1-120835 Trenton -------------------------- 351 Treutlen County ----------------- 264 TT.rroi aul p CCr eoeukn t y- - -_-_-_-_-_-__- _- _- _-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_- 3- -2-9-323901 Tuckerr, Henry, property --------- 336 Tucker, Lynn, property ----------- 336 Tucker, Wilbur, property --------- 221 Tugaloo River -------------------- 327 TTTuuursrknseaeYhr aCcCoreureenektky--_-_--:--...-_--_--_-~_--_--_--_--_--_--_--_--_--_--_--_--_--_- 288 228675 Tvviggs County ------------------- 265 u Undervvood, John, property ______ 194 Uniformity coefficient, discussion o.f ---------------------------28-29 Union County -------------------- 331 Upatoi Creek ------------------174. 226 392 INDEX Page Upson County _________________331-333 Uses of sand arid gravel _________45-95 Uses of sap brown ore ---------- 376 v Veatch, Otto, cited -----~-146, 147, 360 Veatch, Otto, and Stephenson, L. W.~ cited ----------------- 146 quoted ~------------159, 171, 172, 247 Vidalia --------------------------- 264 Vodiedtsermination of ___.:. __________ 35-39 discussion of -------------------34-35 w Walker County --~-------------361-363 Wall, H. S., property ------------ 252 W Waallkneurt, HC.reGe.k pr_o_p_e__r_ty___-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-1-6--0-125681 Walton County _______________..:333-334 Ware County __________________265-266 Warren County ----------------334-337 Washing glass sands ------------66-67 Washing sand arid gravel, meth- ods, of ----------------------120-124 Washington County -------------- 267 Water' chemical action of ------------- 3 mechanical action of ------------ 2-3 Watson, N. G., Sand Corn- . pany --------------------~--352-353 Watson; T.-L., cited __..:~---------- 282 \i'iTayne County ________________267-268 Waynesboro ________________:______ 169 Webb Creek ___________________285-356 Page W Weebbbs,teDr . CCo.,unctiYted_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-.-.: 265l8l Weight of sand and gravel _____41-43 West Armuchee 'Creek ----------- 362 Wb,eeler County --------------268-273 \i'iTheless Stllition ---------------- 236 White County -------------------- 337 White, E'dward, p.ro,perty -------- 363 Whitewater Creek ---------------- 297 Whitfield County -------~-.1------- 363 Whitmo.re's Island ----------'----- 357 Wiggins, G. W., property -------- 198 Wilcox County -------------------- 273 Wilkes County ------------------ 337 Wilklirtson County ---------------- 274 W Wiilllliiaammss,, CH. oLm.,erp, roppiter_ty___-_-_-_-_-_-2--6-1-226102 Williams, John, property: --------- 356 Williams, property --------------- 235 Willis, \liT. N., cited -------~------- 57 Wilms, W. H., cited ---------119, 120 Winder_ --------------------------- 286 Wise Creek ---------------------- 311 Withlacoochee River ----------116, 216 Wood~ard Creek ----------,.------- 357 Worth County ---'----------------- 275 W Wryingnh,tsTvi.llJe., -p-r-o-p-e-.-r-ty---_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_--2-2-5-222096 y Yahoola Creek -------------------- 312 Yellow River Molding Sand Com- pany ----------------------320-321 YeHowwat61I' Creek --------------- 287 Young Cane Creek --------------- 331 . c.