Forest practices [July 1955]

Compliments
TRUST COMPANY ATLANTA OF GEORGIA and Affiliated Banks ATLANTA- DeKalb National Bank of Brookhaven AUGUSTA -The First National Bank & Trust Company CoLUMBUS -The Fourth National Bank MACON-The First National Bank & Trust Company ROME -The First National Bank SAVANNAH -The Liberty National Bank & Trust Company
''

Preface
Thi publication i prepared for hi gh chool pupils and adult farmer enrolled in vocational agriculture of th e public chool ' ho have a need for information on managing woodland ar a . It i an effort to a emble in one publication information whi h will he h lpful in arriving at ba ic deci ion , and for doing ati factorily ba ic pra ti e in farm woodland managem nl. No great effort i made for going d ply into all the ha i cience that govern tree culture.
W. R. Hine, Chief Divi ion of Information and Education, outhern Region and many oth r memb r of the . . Fore t ervice have contributed thi information, and have work d with repr ntative of the ocational Agricultural Education staff in organizing it for u e in the in tructional program of teacher of vocational auriculture. The t~die of many fore ter , and the ob ervation and exp ri n e of many men workin g over the year have gone into the information that i a embled .
ince o many fore ter have contributed to thi bulletin, it i diffi ult to give special mention to them all, or to th agencie th ey repre nt. Among thee, the Southern Foret Exp riment tation lew Orlean , Loui iana ; the Southeastern Fore t Experiment Station, Ashville North Carolina the U. S. Forest Service, Southern Region, Atlanta, Georgia; the Georgia Forestry Commission, Atlanta, Georgia; and other State Fore try Agencie have made valuable contribution .
When problems arise, for which thi publication does not give a complete answer, state, federal or indu trial fore ter hould be con ulted.

State Department of Education Vocational Education Service AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION
Atlanta, Georgia In Cooperation with U.S. FOREST SERVICE
Atlanta, Georgia
July 1955

FOREST PRACTICES - GEORGIA Vocational Agriculture

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ITEMS
The Need For Good Practices In Growing And Utilizing Farm Forest Product

PAGE
1

A. lm portance of the Farm Woodland ----------------------------------------------------------- 2 B. Importance of Forest Program Being Well Planned ---------- ------------------------------ 9
c. E ential Jobs in Producing and Utilizing Farm Fore try Products ------------- ______ 10

Job 1 . Planning The Fore t Program For the Farm __ --------------------------------------- 11
A. Importance of a Good Forest Program for the Farm . ------- ----- ------------ --- ---- 11 B. What Kind of Land to Use for Farm Woodlands ____________--------------------------------- 11
c. What Kind of Trees to Grow in the Forest ----------------------------- _---------- -------------- 12
D. What Method to Use in Establishing a Forest ---------------------------------- -----------____ . 15

Job II - Establishing A Forest By Artificial Reforestation ---------------- .---------- .. .----- --- 19
A. How to Obtain Tree Seedlings for Artifical Reforestation -------------------- ------------ 19 B. When to Transplant Seedlings .---------- ------------------------------------------ ---- ----------------- 20
c. What Spacing to Use in Planting Tree Seedlings ----------------------- ---------- ---------- 20
D. Procedure for Making Direct Seedings --------------------------- ----___ .. ------------- ---- __ 22 E. Procedure for Producing Ones Own Seedling --- ------------------------------ --------- 23 F. Procedure for Tran planting Wild Seedlings --------------------------- 24 G. Procedure for Transplanting Stock Received from Nursery -- ---- ---- ....... 24 H. Procedure for Managing the Young Forest ------------------------------ 28

Job III - Establishing A Forest By The Natural Regeneration Method ------------------------------- 29
A. What Method of Natural Regenerationto Follow --------- ------- .-- --------------- 29 B. Procedure to Follow in Natural Regeneration by Uneven-Aged Management ------... 30
c. Procedure to Follow in Natural Regeneration by Even-Aged Management --------- 31

Job IV - Protecting The Forest Stand From Fires ------------- ----------. ---- .... --------------- ___ 33

A.
II)
!> B.
~0\. C.
D.
E.

Importanceof Protecting Forest Trees from Fires ------------- ------ .------------------ __ 33
What Method to U. e in Protecting Forests from Fires ------------------- ------------------- 35
Procedure for Protecting Woodlands Through Fire Prevention --------- ..-------- 37 Procedure for Preparedness in Fire Control -------------- .. ______ .. ____________ _________ -------. __ 41
Procedure for Controlling Fire by Suppression ------------- ---- ------ ------- ---------- 44

Job V - Combatting Insects And Diseases Of Forest Trees ------ ------------- .----------------- 49
A. Importance of Controlling Them .------------------------------------------------------ --------------- 49
c.B. What Insects and Diseases to Combat -- --------------------------------------------------- _____________ 49 Procedure for Combatting Insects _____ ---------------------------------------------------____ __________ 52 D. Procedure for Combatting Diseases ____ ------------------------------------ ---------------------------- 52

-

ITEM

PAGE

Job VI - Preventing Damage To Forest From Livestock -------------------------------------- ------------------- 54
A. Importance of Preventing Livestock Damage ------------_____________ _______ ___ ________--- ---------- __ 54 B. How to Protect from Overgrazing ----------------------------------------------------- ----------------------- 55
Job VII - Removing Undesirable Hardwoods To Relea e The Ground For Natural Or Artificially Planted Young Stand ------------------------ ------- ------- _________ --------------------- 56
A. Importance of Removing Hardwood ---------------------- ----------------------- --------- -- --- -- __________ 56 B. What Methods to Use for Releasing Young Stand from Undesirable Hardwoods ______ 57 C. Procedure for Killing Back Unde irable Hardwood __________ ----------- ----------- ----- _______ 59

Job VIII - Harve. ting Forest Products From The Forest ___________________ ----- ---- ---- __ -------------------- 62
A. Importance of Proper Harvesting Method --------------------------------- _________ _______---- ------- - 62 B. Who Should Harvest the Fore t Products _ _ _____ _ _______ ------------- ----------------------- 63 C. What Method of Cutting to Use __ _______ ---------------------------------------- ____ ___ -------... --------- -- 64 D. Procedure for Harve ting by the Diameter Limit Cutting Method ------------------------------ 70 E. Procedure for Making Improvement Cutting ---------------------- _________----------- ---------------- 73 F. Procedure for Making Regeneration Cuttings ___ ______ ___ ----------------- -------- --------------- 79 G. Procedure for Removing Trees from the Forest ________------------------ ____ ___________ ___________ 79 H. Procedure for Protecting Young Trees During Cutting Operation _-------------- ---------- 83 I. Procedure for Working Ones Own Trees for Gum ____ ---------------------- _______ ______ __________ 84

Job IX Utilizing Fore t Product For Home And Farm Need __________________ __________-- ------------ 87

A. Value of Forest Products for Home U e ------------ _____ - ------------------ --- --------- -------------- 87

B. What Home Uses to Make of Farm Fore t Product

88

c. Procedure for Drying and Storing Forest Product ________________________ ________ -- ------------- 91

D. Rea on for Preservative Treatment o1 Fore t Product for Home U e __ ___________________ 93

Job X - Marketing Forest Product ---------------------------~-------- ______ ---------------- . ____ __________ _______ 94

A. Importance of Good Marketing Practices _______ ___

_______________ ------------------- _ 94

B. What Prod u.cts to Sell from the Forest --------- ---------- ____ _____ .----- __ ------------------- _____ 94
c. How to Market Forest Products _________ ---------------------------------------------------- _____ ______________ 96

D. What Price to Place on the Products -- --------------------- -------------- ------------ ------ ------------ 97

E. Marking Trees for Cutting ------------------ -------------- __ ___ ____________------------ --------- ---------- 97

F. Mea uring Fore t Product ______ __------- ------- -------- _____ --------------- ______ ........ _______ _____ __ 97

G. Offering the Timber for Sale in Bids __ ____ __________ --------------- ----------- _____ _________________ 105
H. Contracting with the Buyer ___ ____________ ---___________________ ________________ -------------- ___________106 I. Supervising the Job ___________________ _____________________ ____________________________ .. __ ____________ ___l 08

Glos ary of Forestry Terms __________ ____ ___ --- ---------------------- ___________ __-------- ------ ______ __________________________109

Selected References on Forest Practices ----------- ----------------------- _____ __ __ _______________________________ ___________ ____ ll5

A Well Managed Stand of Pines

The Need for Good Practices in Growing and Utilizing Farm Forest Products
Th tree i a complex plant. Each part of it ha a defini te function. Figure 1 hows the tree with it different part and f unctions.
FIGURE 1

Courtesy U.S. Department of Agriculture 1

ENRICHED SOIL LAYER, SOURCE Of MUCH OF
THE TliEE'S 1'000. THE HOME Of [ARTHIIIOIIMS.
WHICH LEAVE MANY CHANfiELS fOR WATER AND AIR TO ENTER THE SOIL.
NATURAL MULCH Of LEAVES (FOREST LITTER) PROTECTS THE SURFACE FROM DRYING AND ERODING .
DECOMPOSING LAYER (FOREST HUMUS) INHABITED BY BENEFICI AL INSECTS .
SUBSOIL, COMPOSED Of SOIL ~RTlCLES AND ~RENT MATERIA L THE DEEP ROOTS FINO THEIR HOME HERE, WHERE THEY ABSORB WATtR - ANCIIOR THE TREE fiiiMLY IN PlACE.

The buds, leave , root tip , and cambium layer are the growing parts of the tree. Water contain ing a quantity of mineral in solution i ab orbed by the root carried up through the sapwood to the leave , and there combined with carbon from the air to make food. Thi food i carried by the inner bark to all growing part of the tree, even down to the root tip .
Natural fore t oil i loo e and mellow. It i permeated by rodent burrow , and angleworm and insect pa age . The e allow air and moisture ready acces to the feeding rot .

A cut of fore t product qui alent to on ar' urowth on 40 acre of

managed farm woodland. Cr ett Exp rim ntal For t,

. F.

The need for gopd practi e in Fore t Production an be-t he hown by investigating three areas: (1) Importance of the farm woodland, (2) importan e f planning it well, and (3) the job, that when properly done, make for ucce in the enterpri e.

A. IMPORTA CE OF THE FARM WOODLAND
l. Trees are Adapted to Georgia Farms. The average farm in Georgia ha 67 acres in woodland. The woodland exceed the area of cropland and makes up 52 per cent of the total area of the farm. Most farm in Georgia have some woodland. There are ar a on the farm that have steep slopes, eroded field , low yielding oils and too little or too much moi ture, that may be better uited to tree crop than other use . The type of soil and the climatic condition of Georgia are favorable to one or more of the many kinds of profitable tree .
2

2. Forest Products are Needed for Every Farm. Lumber for farm buildings, fence posts, stack poles, fuel wood, pry poles and a hundred other items from the farm woods are continually in demand. When grown in the farm woodland, these products require a little labor to harvest them, but seldom any large cash outlay; however when purchased in town or from another's woods, they cost both time and money.
3. Woodland5 Bring in Returns from Surplus Farm Labor. Woodlands offer an outlet for sea-
sonal surpluses in farm labor. Timber is unlike any other crop on the farm in that it may be stored on the stump for a reasonable period without loss or deterioration. Thus it is adaptable to the use of seasonal labor during periods of low requirements by other crops. The rate of pay earned for woods work compares very favorably with the pay for other farm crops. A well-stocked 40 acre test demonstration by the Southern Forest Experiment Station at Crossett, Arkansas, made an average annual return of $434, over a five year period-1946 to 1951, for labor and equipment used in harvesting wood products. The returns for labor and equipment was $1.11 an hour. The owner who cuts his own trees can earn good wages and at the same time, safeguard the value of the woodland for continuous production of forest crops.
FIGURE 2

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....... ... . ...- ..... .. to _. ... _,,, - ~-h ,,, ... -

lot

Ill- lt l o "

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- ....._~ho.o,.o,.-.'"""''- U'''1-.-to
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o!l ol oh .....OI) 1-o o..-o l j lot ... I., - l ktooon tol.,.. loo o - 1 . ,
...-.......-................. _--...... _, ,, , to U - tooo..u o -llo..

_ WHAT WE GET FROM TREES
-[:-:-- =-- FUEL
1 T ~
~la~o.L ---{~ CHARCOAL

=- -
- =--=- -- *""" o-EMKAl -:=::,:-_.... PI!ODUCTS :..=:

::: }-BARK-
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EXCILSIOR
I- i== DtSTUATlON

..~........
WOOD.t.i.CO<l

""""""'- ou

- {-_- flKII.oai!D

...
--

POLES PILES POSTS

iLUMIIER

'"'" " "' r l--::-:..,- tooei".I.IIIOf'~l

"--
__ "'::.
.._
'

.... --n:::..

lr~

VENEER _ ~ [~;::::-

TIES

MILL WASTE ---....1

What We Get From Trees 3

4. Forest Products are in Detnand. Wood is in universal demand. It serves man in many ways and he i o accu tomed to using it that its uses continue to increase with man's requirements. The Scientist has found ways to change wood, with its cellulose cell and lignin binding, into such products as paper, pla tics, clothing, feed, and strong, enduring implement and building materials for man and bea t. Wood i a versatile resource o ever expanding possibilitie .

Georgia produce oftwood tree such as pine and cypre . Softwood constitute four-fifths of the wood for commerce in the tate. Softwoods grow over a large area of the state at a rate that compares favorably with the growth for an equal area anywhere in the United State . Georgia' hardwoods grown on good oils are likewi e valuable, and the demand for them i increa ing.

The demand for paper and paper board production in the United States has shown a sharply increasing trend for fifty years. Fore t product utilization and pulpwood has increased.

TABLE 1

LUMBER AND PULPWOOD UTILIZATIO IN GEORGIA

Year

Lumber Million Board Feet)

Pulpwood (Thou and
Cord )

Year

Lumber (Million Board Feet)

Pulpwood (Thou and
Cord )

1930 1940 1945 1950

753 1,612 1,410 2,017

701 1,245 2,221

1951 1952 1953

2,177 2,081 2,240

2,370 2 ,5 1 3 2,879

Due to increa ed demand , pine pulpwood in the southeastern tates has gradually increased m price as evidenced by thi table published by the Southea tern Fore t Experiment Station.

Year
1938 1939 1940 1941 1942

TABLE 2

PRICE TRENDS IN PINE PULPWOOD

Price per cord at railroad

Year

Price per cord at railroad

Year

$3.55 $3.75 $4.00 $4.50 $5.90

1943 1944 1945 1946 1947

$ 7.15 $ 8.15 $ 8.35 $ 9.90 $1 0 .80

1948 1949 1950 1951 1952

Price per co~:d at railroad
$11.65 $10.85 $11.85 $13.65 $13.70

FIGURE 3
,ANI AND PMEUOARD PRODUCTION IN THE UNrTIQstAliS Jf04.. 1941

FIGURE 4
PIICES OF YEUOW PINE LUMIU, 1Ht. tt4J (Per tMwMH krd ft, f.e.b. mlR)
~~~----------------~-~

ltat

,...

"'tO

111''"'

tll40

IUO

IUO ,.,..

Paper & Paperboard Production in the U. S. 4

.

.

Prices of Yellow Pine Lumber

The use of forest products exceeds the growth of these products. Georgia is currently overcutting its timber stands. A survey by the U. S. Forest Service shows that the standing sawtimber (trees 9" d. b. h., 41/2 feet above ground and larger) in Georgia declined 13 percent between 1935 and 1953. Pine sawtimber declined 15 percent. This decline is even more serious when we consider the fact that much of the cut over land is becoming restocked with low quality hardwoods. However, there is a vast volume of young pine and good hardwood trees coming along as a result of protection, planting, and improvement in cutting practices. The extent to which this young timber overcomes the deficit in sawtimber depend on the extent to which we continue to practice good forest management.
TABLE 3
SITUATION AS TO SAWTIMBER STANDS

Size of Stand
Total volume of standing sawtimber (all sizes) Total volume of standing pine sawtimber. Volume all timber (5" and larger) Volume all Pine timber (5" and larger)

Billion Board Feet

1935

1953

42.6

36.9

25.2

21.4

12.8

12.7

7.4

7.3

The demands for forest products, particularly the more in demand pine products. exceed the growth. A growing population and expanding uses for wood in natural or converted states suggest that there will be a market for whatever useful trees the farmer may grow.

There are numerous forest industries in Georgia which provide a market for forest products from farms everywhere in the state. Some 2,800 sawmills, 9 pulpmills and various other wood-using plants, such as creo oting plants, veneer plants, furniture factories, and naval stores di tillation plants buy almost any forest product the farmer has to sell. The number of wood-u ing plants in Georgia is increasing. The e markets located in every section of the tate mean much to the farmer when his products are ready for harve t. The people employed in handling these forest products provide the farmer with a large part of his market for other farm products as well.

5. Forests Conserves the Soil. Trees on a lope protect and hold the soil in place. Trees afford the arne protection to more moderate lope but on the steeper slopes tree may be the only crop that can be maintained in continuous profitable production.

Also trees help to prevent the soil from wa hing down to fill stream beds and ponds or perhaps to bury more fertile lands below.

Silt from mismanaged land

5

1 I

TABLE 4 EFFECT OF LAND USE ON RU -OFF AND

Land U e
Fallow Land Cotton, Continuous Cotton, Corn, Wheat, Le pedeza,
4 yr. rotation Grass Sod Wood -Burned Virgin Woods-Unburned

Rainfall Run-off (Per Cent)
29.6 10.2

Annual oil Lo s (Tons Per Acre)
64.60 22.60

Years to Remove 7 Inch Topsoil
18 44

9.0

10.60

109

.3

.01

96,000

3.6

0.60

1,830

.1

.00

548,000

orth Carolina

6. Forests Prevent Floods. The woodland on the farm, when properly protected and managed, help con erve the water which falls as rain. Bare oils eal over quickly and ha ten the water along, cau ing floods. A properly managed, protected woodland with several years' accumulation of needles and leaves, will oak up everal inches of rain. For example, well managed National Forest land at Coweeta Hydrological Laboratory oaked up 4 inche of rainfall in an hour. Bare eroded oil by comparison may oak up only a fraction of an inch of rainfall in an hour. The rain thu absorbed is not available to join the flood. It oak into the ground and moves through underground channels to pring and tream . A part of it is pumped back out of the oii by the tree and is passed off into the air by tran piration. The delay in movement of fore t waters lessens the crest of potential flood .

A Well Managed Woodland Insures Clear Water

7. Forest Drain Soils. Forests perform still another function with regard to water. They tend to lower the water table on soils with exces ive moi ture. At the Big Woods Experimental Forest in North Carolina, the water table was as much as four to seven feet lower beneath a stand of pine than beneath a stand of grass for the same types of soils. A heavy rainfall raised the water table three feet beneath the grass, but very little beneath the trees.

6

8. Forest Build Soils. For generations farmer in Georgia have retired wornout cropland to tree . Tree have covered the soil with hade and leaves, tlm loo ening and enriching the soil. Trees send their roots deep into the oil and pump up mineral which help form leaves and branches. When these leave and branches fall and decay they add to the fertility of the top soil layers.

9. Fore ts Protect Crops, Livestock and th Hom from Extremes of Cold and Heat.
I w row of tree on a farm wood lot pro peri lo ated will protect the building and liv tock from cold winter winds. Two or thr e row will protect crops from drying and the andbla ting effects of pring and . ummer wind . Tree afford hade and the cooling Jfe t of evaporating moisture around the home and in the pa ture.

Forest builds fertile porous soils

FIGURE 5

EFFECT OF WINDBREAKS
---- ON WIND VELOCITY

WINO BREAK HEIGHT 35 FEET

f"ROT(.CT~O ZONE

PROT!:CT!:O ZON!:

~ 10 MILES

I!SMIL.E~

PER HOUR

PER HOUR

I

I

--------~---------~-

100 FEET

200 FEET

5 PROTECT Eo z o NE { ~EX~T;ENEDwSFT2R0TEIEMSEOSR

U .S . FOREST SERVICE
10. Woodlands Provide a Habitate for Wild Life. Animal , bird and fi h find hiding places and hom in the farm wood and treams. The combination of wood crops and pa ture provides an id al habitat for maller animals and birds. Some are pest to be sure and may have to be eliminat d but th r help to hold insect los es in check. Game and fish can provide added income nd ar a our e of plea ure.
7

11. Forests Add to the Farm Way of Life. Protected, well managed farm woodlands add to the beauty and enjoyment of the farm a a place to live. A grove of tree offers anctuary for a man and his thought at the end of the day.
12. Forests Products Provide Farm Income. The average farm owner recognize the farm woodland situation pretty much a tated above. He de ire , naturally to use his farm area to make a living. He want to know if proper woodland management will pay. Variou example of practice which have paid will be given throughout the text.

The U. . Fore t ervice at Cro ett, Arkan as conducted an experiment in farm fore try. Here are orne of the finding :

One 40-acre tract of woodland on Norfolk

Farm ponds add to the pleasure of farm life

andy loam, of little value for crop or pas-

ture, had 5,074 board feet of pine (Doyle

Scale) per acre (237,920 bd. ft. on 40 acres) in 1937. Each year for 15 years mot of the volume

of wood grown on the 40 acre has been cut. The product , including awlog - 209,527 board feet;

pulpwood- 355 cord ; fuel wood-228 cord ; and fence post -418 po t have been old to the

Cro sett Lumber Company at current price . The product for the 15-year period have brought $4,938

for tumpage. Payment of labor and equipment for cutting and hauling to market returned an addi-

tional $6,813. The total return for the 40 acres over the 15-year period was $11,796, which i an

average of $19.66 per acre per year. The tract has more timber today than in 1937. The average acre

now ha 8,295 board feet of pine and the 40 acre ha 331 ,800 board feet, al o the timber i of

better quality.

Thi good farm forty required an average of 557 man hour per year to harvest and haul product to the mill or market. Currently the return for lahor and u e of the nece ary equipment amount to $1.11 per man hour.

Deduction that might be made from the above are taxe , intere t on inve tment, cost of protection, equipment expen e, and labor. For the average farm woodland, taxe and interest must be met anyway, and fire protection will co t little extra. Fertilization and frequent treatment of insect and disea e needed in many other crops are not required for the tree crop. The tree crop once establi hed can be managed to maintain it elf. It grows in good and bad weather; in good times and poor times, building volume and value for the day when market price are right. Equipment expense and labor co ts require careful con ideration. Wood work could be a profitable way of employing idle labor and equipment, or, the owner might find it profitable to ell tumpage.

The tree crop i a sound bank account right on the farm. It add to its capital year after year until harvested, requiring but little cash outlay as for taxes, etc. The tree crop in itself carries little in the way of accumulated cost, hence the sale value is mo tly net gain. Thinning and partial cut-

8

Well ordered ]and u e.

tmgs give intermediate returns adding to the net total return. The woodland stand can and often is built up through growth as a reserve asset to meet some large obligation such as a mortgage on the farm, additional equipment, or to send a boy or girl to college. The Federal Land Bank of Columbia, South Carolina, reports that over the period 1946 at least 10 per cent of the mortgages were liquidated with payments from timber sales.
13. Farmers Own Most of the Forest Lands. Farmers have both an opportunity and a responsibility in the forest industries of Georgia because they own 15.9 million acres of forest land, or over half of the total forest area of the state.
The several forest industries of Georgia do not own sufficient forest land to grow the forest products they require. These industries, which bring in over 600 million dollars a year to Georgia, are dependent in large measure on the farm woodlands. Failure of farm ownership to produce the needed timber will mean failure of a portion of industry for lack of raw materials. Loss of raw forest products means loss of employment, loss of industry and in logical sequence loss of markets for other farm products.

B. IMPORTANCE OF FOREST PROGRAM BEING WELL PLANNED

The owner will benefit from his woodland in proportion to the consideration he gives to the tree crop, and the skill with which he operates it. Maximum production will come from keeping the area well stocked at all times, adequately protected, and properly harvested. Bare forest areas, areas wasted in poor trees or species, growth lost through fire and other enemies, and most important of all inadequate stocking will reduce the owners return.

The tree stand on the average Georgia farm woodland is about one-fourth stocked with 1540 board feet per acre. The average annual rate of growth is 132 board feet per acre. If well-stocked at say 6,000 board feet per acre, the growth would range from 300 to 600 board feet per acre per year, depending on the quality of the soil for tree growing. Many woodlands could grow 500 board feet per year indefinitely. The loss in growth through poor stocking, mismanagement, fire and other cau es which could be corrected under proper management amounts to from 200 to 400 board feet per acre per year, or 13,400 to 26,800 board feet for the average farm of 67 acres in woodland.

The thoughtful owner will want a plan for his woodland along with the other crops on his farm. The plan must be carefully thought out so that it will be adequate to stand the tests of the years ahead. An area retired to trees by planting must wait 10 to 15 years before there are benefits even in small products or ero ion control. An area over-grazed by cattle will likewise take years to restock. And of course many years must pass before a stand can recover from a severe cutting or a fire.

The owner should plan for hi home needs first since his own farm use gives the most value for hi products. Fuelwood cut from less desirable trees helps improve the stand and provides heat for home and farm operations. Fence posts, lumber, and stack poles are in continuing demand and the owner hould plan to cut these from his less marketable trees.

The owner hould prescribe for all cutting by tenants if they have the privilege of obtaining

wood products from the farm woodlot. The products they will use should be determined in advance.

The trees they are to cut should be selected and marked by the owner or marking rules laid down

by him should be followed.

'

9

Surplus products should be sold. Careful consideration of available markets will enable the owner to obtain a better price. There are seasons in the year and periods over the years when the fore t industry has more difficulty getting pulpwood or logs than at other times. There are times when the industry has trouble getting labor. Accessible timber on high, dry ground may bring higher prices in wet weather, at which time an owner can obtain his best returns for both forest products and labor.
The owner is unfortunate who is obliged to sell his timber on a low market. When prices are low it i the time to store it on the stump for a spell. However, a point to bear in mind is that large quality trees will sell at practically any time and bring premium prices.
The owner' plan may be written or just carried in hi head, - anyway he hould have one and should strive to carry it out.
C. ESSENTIAL JOBS IN PRODUCING AND UTILIZING FARM FORESTRY PRODUCTS
In dealing with forestry jobs there are important decisions to be made by the farmer if success is to be attained. Just as in any other farm problem a farmer may have several possible choices. One may prove to be much more profitable than the others and when selected may mean the difference between success and failure. It is desirable to get the facts and use them in making the important decisions in the various jobs in forest management. Also in getting the decisions into operation on the farm, there are important practices for which understanding and skills are needed. Sound decisions and proven skills go hand in hand in doing forestry jobs successfully.
Some of the important jobs in producing forest products are: Planning the Forest Program for the Farm. Establishing a Forest by Artificial Reforestation. Establishing a Forest by the Natural Regeneration Method. Protecting the Forest Stand from Fires. Combatting Insects and Diseases of Forest Trees. Preventing Damage to Forest from Livestock. Removing Undesirable Hardwoods to Release the Ground for Natural or Artifically Planted Young Stand. Harvesting Forest Products from the Forest. Utilizing Forest Products for Home and Farm Needs. Marketing Forest Products.
10

Planted Yellow Poplar

Job 1- Planning the Forest Program for the Farm
A. IMPORTANCE OF A GOOD FOREST PROGRAM FOR THE FARM
A good stand of forest trees has sufficient trees to insure the maximum production of forest pro ducts. A good stand is made up of the kinds of trees that are best suited to the land and to the pur pose for which the farmer is growing them.
Idle forest lands do not contribute their full share to the economy of the farm. Expenses, such as taxes, required for idle forest lands must be paid from other sources. Soil protection which could be had from a good stand is inadequate or lacking in idle forest lands. Idle forest lands invite carelessne with fire which may damage trees and improvements on other land.
Re tocking idle or partially idle lands puts them in the productive class. The acres planted, or reseeded naturally, add but little extra cost or burden to the job of protecting and managing the whole woodland. Elimination of undesirable trees removes an undesirable seed source. Restocking with good trees improves the seed source for surrounding areas.
Time lost in reseeding an area means delay in harvest. For example, a given area planted to loblolly pine may be capable of growing 20 cords of pulpwood in 15 years. A delay of one year in restocking means the loss of one year's growth which in this example is Il/ 3 cords. The loss of one or two years will be equivalent to the cost of planting. Failure to restock an idle forest area promptly may result in the area restocking with undesirable or even worthless species. Once established these undesirable trees may require removal and consequent extra expense before desired trees can be established.
And so, it is important to plan the kind of land to devote to forest; the kind of trees to grow; and the method of establishing them.
B. WHAT KIND OF LAND TO USE FOR FARM WOODLANDS
On most farms the decision as to which lands will be used for woodlands is indicated by the current use which in tum is the result of long years of trial. Each farm should have a careful study made. classifying the soil areas according to crops for which they are best adapted. Out of such a classification the better laying, more productive soils may be designated by the good farm manager for cultivated crops and pastures. Most of the rest of the farm area should be considered for pro duction of forest trees.
Experiments on a forest area at the Coweeta Experimental Forest, in North Carolina, just north of Clayton, Georgia, showed that the forest soil structure and soil fertility built up through generations of trees lasted 3 to 5 years when cropped in com. At the end of 3 years the fertile top soil with its accumulated humus began to break down in structure and wash down the mountain side. The same occurs on less steep slopes in the Piedmont and upper Coastal Plain regions.
ll

Some areas on the farm have soils too thin or too andy to grow a profitable agricultural crop. While the tree crop will likewise be below average, it may still be the mo t profitable crop for such areas. Many farms have swamps, stream banks or other areas with drainage too poor for farm crops. A part or all of such areas will grow some useful timber trees.
Some woodland areas may already have a stocking of small trees seeded naturally or the owner may have made a planting which was only partly successful. Large opening , for example 50 ft. in diameter, may be replanted. Small openings, for example 15 ft. in diameter, may as well be left unplanted. A start of one year offers serious competion to the trees inter-planted.
The farm may have area in trees which will grow good cultivated crops or pastures. If the stand is heavily cut-over or run down the farmer may decide to clear out the trees and stumps and turn it to other crop . If the stand is a good one, young and thrifty, it may bring more income to grow the tree crop rather than turn the land to other use . It takes 15 or 20 years to grow trees to a size where they will have any commercial value at all. Once they reach that ize the returns under good management are generally ~uch too favorable to lose by clearing for other crop .
Occasionally an owner will decide to retire a portion of hi u able crop or pasture land to trees because he wants the area in woodland. Many farmers have old fields or patches which by reason of topography or roads or distance from the home place are not really serviceable for farm crops. Such patches which will not be u ed for other purpo es for a number of years may as well grow a timber crop in the meantime.
Some owner may wi h to put trees on better lands. Trees respond to good growing conditions much the same as other crops. With the price for wood products high and with the increase in wood using plants, some land should prove to be every bit as profitable in a tree crop as many another crop with a lot less day to day work and worry.
C. WHAT KIND OF TREES TO GROW IN THE FOREST
Trees vary greatly a to their usefulness and alability. Good trees will grow a useful and merchantable stand of timber, while poor trees such a scrub oaks are generally of little or no value. Some species are valuable on good soils but may be of relatively low value on poor sites. The sweetgum on well watered bottom-land soils make a large valuable tree. On some eroded fields it makes only rough low grade products. The pines, each kind in its own range, will produce good products in well spaced stands on most soils. However, the pines also vary in their adaptability to soil and moi ture conditions.
Pines are generally favored over hardwoods for e tabli hment on idle fore t land. Pines are easier to establish on most available sites than are the better hardwoods. Pines as a rule produce more income than hardwoods for a given unit of area and period. Pines will grow a valuable product even on the poorer, drier soils found on many farms.
Hardwoods may be used on deep fertile soils, that are well watered and well drained. On such sites, with species suited to the soils, good hardwoods such as yellow poplar, white oak, and sweetgum are frequently more valuable than pines. On such good hardwood sites it may be difficult, expensive and unwise to try to plant or favor pines. On the other hand, even good species of hardwoods may fail completely or produce only inferior products on dry thin soils where pines will do reasonably well. Some owners may want to grow special hardwood products, such as black locust for fence posts or white oak for furniture. On an area which formerly grew the desired species success should be assured. Hardwood plantings on new areas should be made only on fertile soils.
12

TABLE 5 HARDWOOD TREES MOST VALUABLE FOR VARIOUS PURPOSES

Hardwood Tree

Lumber

Ash

X

Basswood

X

Beech

X

Birch

X

Catalpa, hardy

Cherry, black

X

Cottonwood

X

Cucumber

X

Elm, white

X

Elm, red
Gum, red (sweet) X

Gum, black

Hickory

X

Locust, black

Locust, honey

Maple, sugar

X

Mulberry

Oak, red

X

Oak, white

X

0 age, orange

Poplar, yellow

X

ycamore

X

Walnut, black

X

Willow, white

Handle Stocks
X
X X

Uses Most Suitable For:

Pulping Hardwoods

Railroad ties Veneer and rounded mine Logs
timbers

X X X

X X

Poles and Posts
X

X

X X X
X

X

X

X

X

X X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

The climatic and soil adapations of different kinds of trees, and the character and uses of different pecies are important factors in determining the spP.cies of trees to favor in establishing or developing a tand.
Generally speaking, it is well to favor the kinds of trees, which are known to grow well in the locality and under similar conditions as to soil and moisture. There is always some risk in introducing new species into a locality. One example of such failure is found in slash pine planted in
orth Georgia. Slash pine breaks easily under the weight of sleet and snow. Loblolly pines may grow slowly or become diseased on very deep, dry sandy sites. Longleaf pine may be quickly over topped when planted with other fast growing species on fertile soils.
An example of the better growth for a species adapted to the site is shown in the following
cc:_co~d for slash pine and loblolly pine near Woodworth, Louisiana. Slash pine did not grow naturally
wathm two hundred miles of Woodworth, Louisiana. Slash pine in this area suffers from ice damage and ru t cankers. Loblolly pine suffers relatively less from each of these damaging causes.
13

TABLE G

GROWTH ON AN AVERAGE ACRE OF SLASH PINE AND OF LOBLOLLY PINE IN TWENTYTHREE-YEAR-OLD MIXED PLANTATION (6 ft. x 8 ft. Spacing)

pecie

Diameter Average dominant
inches

Volume Per Acre

Cord wood

Saw timber

Sla h Loblolly

8.5

14.4

1328

9.1

18.2

2531

Te ts have shown that loblolly pine from Georgia when planted 550 mile away in Louisiana grew less than half as much wood as the native Louisiana loblolly pine. However, Georgia loblolly pine planted in Georgia compares favorably with loblolly anywhere else. However, Georgia loblolly pine eedling suffered heavy lo s from cold in a two year old plantation in the Ozark Mountain , while Maryland loblolly pine seedlings escaped unharmed.

Replanting worn out lands with a good pine stand
14

Different species are adapted to different situations as follows :
Slash Pine - Suitable for all but very dry or very wet sites ; unable to uccessfully withstand breakage from snow and ice; grows best in the Coastal Plain Region, and i valuable for lumber, timbers, poles, naval stores and a wide variety of u es.
Longleaf Pine - Suitable for all but wet site and will grow on the driest site , such as deep andy ridges: This pine is especially recommended for the Coastal Plain area of Georgia and is capable of resi ting damage from moderate fires, but must be protected from range hogs, sheep, and goats. Longleaf pine seedlings are sometimes heavily infected with a di ease on the leaves called brown spot. Use for longleaf pine is much the same as for sla h pine. It i a very valuable pine.
Loblolly Pine - Grows on all but the driest or wettest sites and i recommended anywhere in the tate except the mountainous slopes of North Georgia and the poorer drained land of the lower Coastal Plain. Sla h pine and longleaf pine hould be used in preference on all sites adapted to them in the Coa tal Plain. Loblolly pine is relatively re i tant to attack by in ects and diseases. It is valuable for lumber, interior fini h, and pulpwood.
Shortleaf Pine - Best suited to the lower slopes of the mountain of North Georgia. Shortleaf pine is susceptible to little leaf di ease which kills the tree. Accordingly, it is not recommended except in localitie where shortleaf grows vigorou ly and free of little leaf disea e. Seedlings will sprout after being killed by fire. It is valuable for the same uses as loblolly.
Yellow Poplar - Requires fertile, well-watered, well-drained soil. It will grow anywhere in the tate on suitable soil. It is especially recommended for cool sheltered valleys and lower slopes with north or ea t expo ure in North Georgia. It i valuable for furniture, veneer, lumber, and pulpwood.
White Oak - Thrives on well-watered, fertile bottom lands in the mountain and Piedmont areas. It i valuable for furniture, baskets, staves and many other products.
Black Walnut - Requires a fertile, well-watered and well-drained soil. It grows best as single tree in hardwood stands. It i recommended as single trees along fence row , around the house, and in unused spots about the farm or in openings in hardwood stands, in North Georgia and in the Piedmont area . It i valuable for furniture, gun stocks, and nuts.
Black Locust - Requires fertile, well-watered, well-drained oil . It will fail on dry unfertile ites. It is recommended for limited patches in well-watered bottoms for production of posts in North Georgia and the Piedmont area.
. f!ther Trees - Careful observation will enable the farmers to fit most any native Georgia tre: m With the recommendations given for the above trees.
D. WHAT METHOD TO USE IN ESTABLISHING A FOREST
There are two methods normally u ed in establishing a stand of trees. (1) Natural reseeding from _parent trees on or near the area, and (2) artificial restocking through the P.lanting of seed or seedling Al o, there are several important factors that should be considered in deciding on which method to u e. These factors include ( 1) availability of seed trees for natural regeneration, (2)
15

FIGURE 6

RECOMME OED PECTE 10 BE PLANTED I GEQRGIA
Form o. FP-41.

Loblolly Pine, hortleaf Pine.

White Pine, hortl eaf Pine, Loblolly Pine.

IC:B':l
~
0 .

Loblolly Pine, lash Pine, Longleaf Pine. Slash Pine, Longleaf Pine.

On! y On Reconrnendation Of Technical Forester To Be Planted On ortheast Slopes.
16

length of time required to e tabli h the new stand under natural regeneration, (3) chances of obtainina a stand with desirable specie under natural regeneration and (4) cost of e tabli hing the new t:nd under natural regeneration, in comparison with replanting with eedling .
1. Effect of Availability of Seed Trees on Method to Use. If the area in que tion i lacking m eed trees in or near it, the owner has no choice but to restock it artificially. Perhaps as much as 5 of the woodlands in Georgia lack adequate seed trees and will have to be restocked artificially. About 95% of the forest land in Georgia would restock naturally if adequate eed tree were left at harve t time and if cull hardwoods did not prevent the seedling from growing up. Usually the deci ion as to re tocking is delayed until the pre ent tand is considered about ready for harvest.
Experiments prove that a heavy stand of well-developed, eed-bearing pine will e tabli h a satisfactory stand (500 or more eedlings per acre) for a distance of 350 feet out into a cleared area. A partially stocked pine stand will, however, reseed sati factorily at only about two-thirds that di tance, or 200 feet. Beyond these distances, the area will have to be replanted. Area beyond the di tance indicated for sati factory restocking, may grow up only partially stocked and with trees that are excessively limby. Excessively limby tree do not make good lumber and do not bring a good price.
Where the reseeding is to be accompli hed by seed trees, at lea t ten seed trees per acre are required. A seed tree i described as a healthy, uninjured tree of the desired specie , 11 inches or more D.B.H. with well developed crown and a history of good cone production as evidenced by an abundance of old cones.
While pine generally di tribute their seeds over an area orne distance from the parent tree, hardwoods vary greatly from the heavy seeded oaks to the light seeded sweetgum and poplar. Hardwood u ually re tock only the area in which they grew originally. Only the light seeded species pread their seed to any great distance from the parent trees. Sweetgum seed and yellow poplar seed travel about a far a pine.
2. Effect of Time required to Establish a Stand on The Method of Seeding to Use: Natural regeneration may occur within one or two years after cutting or a tand may not be e tablished for t n year or more. Most tree species do not have an abundant seed crop every year. Crowded pine tr e produce relatively less eed per tree than open grown tree or trees released three year or more through the cutting of near-by trees.
Longleaf pine may wait 5 to 7 years between abundant seed crop . Other specie may wait 2 to 4 Y ar between abundant seed crops. Then, birds or mice may eat the greater part of the seeds, or, x e ively dry weather may kill the young seedling . Areas without desirable reproduction for extend d period frequently may become covered with brush and undesirable trees. Because of these ituation natural re eeding may result in costly delay in the establishment of the new stand.
Where there i a ready market for posts or pulpwood, or other products, early planting in lieu
of del~y~d natu~al regeneration should be a profitable investment. For example, the market for pulpwood 1 mer~ mg rapidly, and initial cuttings 15 to 20 years after regeneration may pay all initial
0 ts of e tabla hment. A delay of 5 years in restocking mean the loss of 5 to 10 cord of wood.
R 3 ~Dect of the Possibility of Obtaining Desirable Species of Trees on the Method to Use in
e&eed&ng. The available eed tree must be of the right pecies. Hardwod seed trees, or hardwood
17

prouts, on an area where the owner wants pine, are merely ob tacles in the way. Likewise, an owner who wishes to grow lash pine for naval stores may find that loblolly trees reseed the area first, reducing the value of the area for naval stores production.
4. Effect of Cost on the Method to Use in Establishing a Stand. Natural regeneration has the advantage of low ca h outlay and requires little or no labor. Natural regeneration co ts vary from a few cent per acre for ideal conditions to several dollars per acre where there is a dense stand of uncle irable trees or where the investment in seed tree i large. Of cour e the investment in seed trees may usually be recovered with good interest after the young tand is e tablished. Artificial planting would cost from $5.00 to $12.00 per acre, varying with the labor rate and the number of trees planted per day and per acre. When the landowner does mo t of the work the ca h outlay may be approximately $3.50 per acre for eedlings.
Natural reseeding has the disadvantage of leaving to nature the kind of trees, the time, the number, and the di tribution. Conver ely, artificial methods have the advantage of controlling these factors. However, one method may be used to supplement the other on the same area, thereby reducing the time of establishment and obtaining an adequate number of trees on all parts and getting a head start on competing brush and undesirable trees.
18

Job II- Establishing A Forest By Artificial Reforestation

When using artificial reforestation there are certain basic decisions to be made such as (1) how to obtain the eedling , (2) when to transplant the seedlings, and (3) what pacing to use in planting.

A. HOW TO OBTAIN TREE SEEDLINGS FOR ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION
There are three methods to be considered in artificial reforestation: ( 1) direct seeding (sowing the area to be reforested with seeds), (2) use of wild stock (small natural seedlings), and (3) use of nur ery-grown seedlings. The choice of the method to use will depend on several important factor such as expense, time required, availability of seedlings, and chances of uccess. The effect of the e are given for the three pos ible methods.
1. Direct Seeding. The chances of success by direct eeding are not good. Some of the reasons for failure in using the direct eeding method are (1) seed may be collected before they are ripe, pine one , for example, must be mature and partially dried before the seed inside are ripe; (2) Seed deteriorate rapidly if stored in a warm, moist place; (3) birds and rodents may eat the sown seed or, the tender young seedling; (4) seed bed may not assure seed a fair chance to germinate and grow; 5) weather conditions may be unfavorable to germination and survival; and (6) this method does not lend itself to proper control of the number of seedlings, therefore, the right number of seedlings per acre is eldom obtained.
If the farmer elects to use this method, tree seeds should be gathered in the late summer or fall when the cones are ripe, but the seed i still in the cone. The seed are extracted from the cones and then dried and stored in a cool dry place until spring, when they are planted. If the owner observes ach tep and has favorable weather conditions, he might obtain a good catch and start a well-stocked tand.
2. Obtaining Jr1ild Stock Seedlings. It is possible to gather wild or naturally grown seedlings from field and replant them on areas to be reforested. Seedlings from 6 inches to 12 inches in h ight may be dug up in the late fall or early winter and transplanted immediately in the area where th Y are needed. Thi method may require no cash outlay. It assure the use of trees adapted to the locality. They mu t be lifted and transplanted correctly ( ee procedure for planting) or else they will die.

. 3. Obtaining Nursery Grown Stock. For the average owner, nur ery-grown stock is best. Seed-

hog an be grown to the proper size and with proper root development in nursery beds. The whole pr~ of ~athering seed, preparing soil, seeding, protecting from insects and diseases, and lifting

a~nbl1

p~aocstk.agmugrscearyn-gbreowefnficsieenedtllyinogrsgahnaivzeedbseoenasustoedprfoodr umceorseeetdhlainngs25in

abundance and at year in Georgia

a reasonwith very

~tt e f any failure due to the fact that they were grown in the nursery. The owner can decide on

t e number of seedlings he wants to grow per acre and plant accordingly. This measure of control
d~ay save money in the long run since he might have a cost of thinning young natural stands or 1rect-seeded tand , or 1o e growth due to overcrowdm. g.

19

Owners may grow their own seedlings in home nurseries or purchase seedlings from the state nurseries. The business of growing seedlings in a nursery is a highly technical job requiring the supervision of an experienced nursery man. It also requires careful attention and a great deal of work to bring a crop of seedlings through successfully. Some of the problems involved have already been noted in the handling of seed for direct seeding. Further problems arise at every operation in the nursery. There are many chances for failure in growing one's own seedlings.
The owner may properly elect to purchase seedlings from the State Forest Tree Nursery. By purchasing from the State Nursery the farmer is relieved of many problems involved in obtaining seed and growing his own seedlings. The state nursery produces high quality stock, relatively free of injury and disease, of the proper size and development for planting. Consideration is given to selection of tree seed from quality parent trees adapted to Georgia. The State produces many million seedlings at low cost. The seedlings come properly wrapped and in excellent condition for planting. Planting with seedlings from the State nursery is simpler and surer, on the average, than with homegrown seedlings.
B. WHEN TO TRANSPLANT SEEDLINGS
When tran planting wild seedlings, they mu t be lifted during the dormant season, generally November to February inclusive.
When ordering and transplanting State nursery seedlings, they should be lifted and distributed from the State nursery during the dormant period for tree growth. Trees should be ordered weeks or months or even a full year ahea~ of the date desired. Ordering a year ahead of time will assist the state to better plan production at the nursery, especially where a large volume, 100,000 or more seedlings, are required.
Ordering a month or more ahead of time will not help the state to plan for a large volume, but it will help to assure the planter of getting his stock. Late orders on short notice can be filled only if unclaimed stock happens to be available.
The seedlings should be planted promptly after they are received from the Nursery. If planting cannot be done within a day or two, the seedlings should be heeled-in temporarily and lifted again as needed. Early planting, November through Janua1:y is more desirable because the seedling can stand the cold and will become established, ready for growth when warm weather starts. Late plantings may suffer loss of advance root growth.
C. WHAT SPACING TO USE IN PLANTING TREE SEEDLINGS
The spacing to be followed in planting tree seedlings depends on the cost of planting, rate of growth of the trees, and the nature of the products for which the trees are to be used.
1. Effect of Cost of Seedlings on the Spacing to Use. Close spacing requires more seedlings and more .labor than wider spacing. The greater number of trees planted per acre, the higher will be the cost of planting. The number of seedlings times current costs for seedlings and planting operations will give a basis of comparison.
2. Effects of Uses to Be Made of the Trees on Spacing Required. Close spacing gives a quicker cover of the soil and, therefore, spacings such as 4' x 4', 4' x 5', and 5' x 5,' are used for erosion control
20

plantings. Close spacing up to 6' x 6' re ults in early killing of the side branches and hence permits the development of trees with a greater percentage of clear wood free of knots. Close spacing has orne value in controlling rust canker in pines. Close spacing results in narrower ring of annual growth. This makes for stronger lumber and timber and, hence, higher quality product .
Wide spacing allows each tree more room in which to grow and, hence, the tree does not shed it lower branches as early nor a thoroughly. As a result, the trunk has more and larger limbs, and the forest products, such as lumber, have more knots. Knots tend to reduce trength and to disfigure lumber. Thus products from limby trees are of lower quality and value, or much wa te occurs in trimming out the knotty portions.
Wide spacing, say 15' x 15', permit larger crown development which i important in the pro du tion of naval stores. However, too thin a stand reduces the number of producing trees more than nough to off et high yield per tree. Spacings of 8' x 8' or 8' x 10' give a long large crown and ufficient trees for a good yield of gum per acre.
3. Effect of Growth and Production Rates on Spacing To Use. Clo e spacing say 6' x 6', utilizes th oil, water, air and unlight available more fully and, hence, produce a greater volume of wood in a horter period. If the closer spaced stand is kept properly thinned, it will produce a greater v lume of usable wood products. If the clo e spaced tand i not thinned, it will become crowded arly, and will require more year to make merchantable size in either pulpwood or sawlogs than a more open or thinned tand.

TABLE 7
EFFECT OF SPACING WITH THINNING ON YIELD OF A 20 YEAR OLD PLANTATION OF SLASH PINE

Spacing Feet
5 X 5 6 X6 8 X 8

Volume tanding plus volume from 1 thinning at 15 years. (Cords per acre)
30 27 26

Mo t owners plan their spacing so that the fir t thinning will be required when the trees to be r moved can be u ed or sold. Close spacing uch as 4' x 4' and 5' x 5' will usually benefit from non commercial thinning before the trees harvested can be sold for pulpwood. If an owner has a u or market for small stakes, or for Chri tmas trees he may plant clo e and obtain a profitable crop
f~om earlJ thi~nings. 6' x 6' will grow to pulpwood size before a thinning is required. Trees P ~nted 8. X 8 may be large enough for pulpwood or small sawlogs by the time thinnings are re quared. WJder _spa~ings, say 12' x 12', will shorten the time required to grow awlog sized trees, but
at some reduction m quality and total yield.
F~r the average owner who wishes to grow various forest products over a long rotation, using the
gr~wmg power of the fore t oil to its fullest, a medium spacing of 6' x 6' or 8' x 8' will prove h factory. The number of seedlings for different spacings are given in the table.

21

NUMBER OF SEEDLINGS FOR DIFFERENT SPACINGS

Spacing

No. Seedlings

4 feet x 4 feet --------------------------------------------------------------------------- _ 2722 per acre 4 feet x 5 feet ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2178 per acre 5 feet x 5 feet _-------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1742 per acre 5 feet x 10 feet --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 871 per acre 5 feet x 12 feet ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 726 per acre 6 feet x 6 feet --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1210 per acre 6 feet x 8 feet --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 908 per acre 6 feet x 10 feet ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 726 per acre 6 feet x 12 feet ------------------------------------------- -------------------------------- 605 per acre 8 feet x 8 feet --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 680 per acre 8 feet x 10 feet ------------------------------------------- -------------------------------- 545 per acre 10 feet x lO feet ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 435 per acre 10 feet x 12 feet ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 363 per acre

In addition to making sound decisions, when using artificial reforestation, it is important to use the best practices in planting seedlings such as (1) properly making direct seedings when such method is used, (2) producing well developed seedlings when they are home grown, (3) carefully lifting and transplanting wild eedlings when they are used, (4) carefully transplanting nursery seedlings when used, and (5) properly managing young seedling . Procedure for doing each are discussed below.

D. PROCEDURE FOR MAKING DIRECT SEEDINGS

Although a previously noted in this unit, the practice of making direct seeding is not recommended, there may be special cases where it will serve. If the direct seeding method is chosen, th following procedure hould be followed carefully.

l. Gathering and Storing Seeds.

a. Collect eed when ripe - Pine cones must be sufficiently dried on the tree to float in SAE #
lubricating oil.

TABLE 8
USUAL DATES OF MATURITY, COLLECTION, AND NATURAL OPENING OF SOUTHER PINE CONES FROM GEORGIA AND FLORIDA TO TEXAS

Species

Maturity

Collection

Opening on trees

Longleaf ------------------------ Oct. 1-20 ---------------------- Oct. 1-20 ______________________ Oct. 20-Nov. 10 Slash ------------------------------ Sept. 1-10 -------------------- Sept. 1-20 -------------------- Sept. 20-30. Loblolly -------------------------- Sept. 20-0ct. 10 ____________ Oct. 1-20 --------------------- Oct. 10-30. Shortleaf --------------------- Oct. 1-20 ---------------------- Oct. ll-30 -------------------- Nov. l.

b. Dry the cones in the sun and wind to an air-dry condition. c. Shake seed from cones. d. Store cleaned seed over win~er in a cool, dry place.

22

2. Preparing for Planting.
a. At time for planting, prepare seed spots at intervals of about ix feet each way, rake away all duff, grass and litter from a spot 12 to 18 inches in diameter, or loosen the mineral soil to a depth of about 2 inches.
b. Burn and disc area before seeding.
3. Planting the Seeds.
a. Sow immediately after fall rains and before frost. b. Scatter 3 to 6 seed over each seed spot. c. Cover lightly with soil (not over lj g inch) and firm soil over seed. d. Scatter a light cover of litter over seed spot (not over ~4 inch thick.) e. Where field mice are numerous, place a cone-shaped wire screen (3 inch, 21 guage) over each seed pot. f. Where birds may eat germinating seed, patrol to drive birds away. g. When broadcasting, sow at the rate of 15,000 good quality seed per acre.
E. PROCEDURE FOR PRODUCING ONES OWN SEEDLINGS
For the farmer who decides to grow his own seedlings, the following steps should be observed.
I. Preparing the Bed.
a. Work the soil into a fine seedbed condition during March or April. b. Prepare bed 4 feet wide. The bed may be any length. The top of the beds must be fined and leveled, and be free of lump or clod .
2. Sowing the Seed.
a. Make thirty day germination te t of seed in and flats three months prior to planting date. b. Stratify loblolly, slash, shortleaf seed in cool (38 ) moist sand or peat moss or both for a period of 60 to 90 days prior to planting. Stir weekly to avoid over-heating. c. Place pine seed in drills le than ljg inch deep (sow longleaf seed on urface) and 6 inches apart, or broadcast. d. Plant sufficient seed to give 10 seedlings per running foot (or if broadcast, 20 per square foot). . Finn seed into the ground under light pressure.
f. Place a light covering of burlap or pine straw, 1_4 inch thick, over the seedbed.
3. Growing Seedlings in the Bed.
a. Water hould be available for watering the bed throughout the growing season. h..Weed seedlings at frequent intervals so as to keep them free of competition from weeds. Mineral 01l pr~y, when properly applied, reduce weeding costs (18-20 gallons of mineral spirits per acre 1/ 5 pmt per 500 square feet of bed.) c. If the seedlings are too thick, thin to approximately 10 good seedlings per linear foot or 20 per uare foot. d. Patrol during germination period to guard against birds. e. Ru t ;Anker infects young seedling from April to June, therefore, spray beds weekly with Bordeaux m1xture or other fungicide. f U care 1 0 the lI'fling to safeguard the fine rootlets from damage and from drying.
23

F. PROCEDURE FOR TRANSPLANTING WILD SEEDLINGS

Wild seedlin gs may be lifted from the g round with a variety of tools, including shovel, mattock, post hold di gge r or a special tool call ed a seedling lifter. Seedlings must not be pulled up. It is esse ntial to reta in intact the small rootlets. Survival for planted seedlings depends more on fin e la te ral roo ts th a n on central tap root. Seedlings must be ca refully hand led an d the roots must be kept moi st and sheltered from sun and wind. For more details, see G below on transplanting stock fr om nursery.

G. PROCED URE FOR TRANSPLANTIN G STOCK RECEIVED FROM NURSERY
l. Prefiaring La11.d.
It is recognized th at seedlin gs grow faster in old fi eld s than in land not previously cultivated. Wi th this in mind , some owners plow the area six months to one year in adva nce of th e actual planting. One practi ce is to make a bed at six-foot interva ls by throwing four furrow s toge th er with a turnin g plow. The effect is to assure better survi va l a nd more rapid growth in ea rly years, smce co mpetiti on from grass and weeds result in lower survival and less rapid grow th during th e seed. lings earl ier years.
A heavy accumulation of dead g ra ss and leav e,; co nstitutes a fire hazard . Acco rding ly, so me owners burn over the site prior to planting. Areas with a heavy stand of undesirable species such as scrub oak, swee tgum etc. , may have to be partially or wholly cleared p rior to planting. Many owners clear such area s progress ively, a few acres each year, using the cut material for fuel wood. Large trees, wh en th e owner does not have need for the wood, may be girdled or fell ed, leav ing th em to rot. Sma ll er weed trees ca n be kill ed by treatment with a herbicide.

TABLE 9
COMPARISO OF GROWTH OF LOBLOLLY PINE SEEDLI NG PLANTED UN DER BLACKJACK AND POST OAK WITH SEEDLINGS PLANTED IN OLD FIELD (Seedlings planted 1941)

Location
Under Oaks In Old Field

A live 1948
52 % 70 %

Average dbh
l.l inches 3.0 inches

Ave ra ge Height
10 feet 20 feet

2. H eelin g in.

Seedlin gs from the state nursery come properly packaged with the roots moi stened and protected against drying. Th e tree ro ots must be kept cool and moist. The purchase of seedlings represents an expenditure which should Le safeguarded from loss or damage . Thi s ca n best be done by the proper ca re of planting stock as follow s :

a. Be on th e looko ut for seedlings and accept them promptly. b. Seedlin gs are shipped at the purchaser's ri sk, so check shipment and if damaged, file clairn with the ca rri er and advise th e State Office of the Forestry Commission of th e extent of the damage and action take n. c. Carry seedlings to plant site without delay and "heel in" in a cool, moist place protected frorn the sun and wind. d. Do not let seedlings freeze while in bales. e. If planting is dela yed, water and otherwi se care for " hee led in" seed lings . f. Use th e following practi ces when " heeling in".

24

(l) Dig V.shaped trench m moist shady
place.
~~~~

(2) Break bundl es and spread o ut evenly.

3 Cover roots with loose soil and dampen
with water.

(4) Compl ete filling in soil and firm with
feet.

llam:Lling eed'lings.
a. Wh n ready to plant be s ure to have sufficient tools and bu cke ts for handling and planting. b. K p roots of seedlings moist at all times until planted.
Do not unnecessarily delay or prolong planting. d. R ad planting instructions ca refully and follow close ly.
FIGURE 7
WANDLING SEEDLINGS IN FIELD

Correct

In bucket with

d

suffic.1ent moist

n

sawdust or rnoss

Incorrect
Do not carry seedlirgs
with roots exposed
to sun and wind .

IMPORTANT. Do not let roots dry out 1.

n

Transplanting the eedlings.

e Tr dlin a may be planted with the use of hand tools as a dibble shovel, mattock, or post-

n

h I cli a a r. AI o they may be planted with the u se of a tra ctor and pl;nting ma chine. For small
ur a~. and wh re labor i available, hand planting will serve. For large areas, machine planting

rna pr t.' I expen ive and eq ually as s uccessful. For all the me thod s, use precautions in getting

<'I rrect d pth f plantin g.

.

25

FIGURE 8

CORRECT AND INCORRECT PlANTtNC. DEPTHS -~ {

Correct
Put seedling well below ground level-shake roots tospread-then raise root collar to rt;round
level .

Incorrect ~t collartoo low.
Cr<!mped roots will develop .nto poor root sv~tem

~I ~ Incorrect
Root collar too hi1,h -
survival chance poor roots may dry out

U,;mg Dibble - one man method.

a. The planter hold s th e pail in one hand and th e dibble in th e other and steps off the proper di stance for a tree.
b. The tray is placed to the left and slightly ahead of the spot, within easy reach . c. Grass and trash are removed from the planting spot with a swipe of the dibble and the seedling is planted as follows:

(1) Inse rt dibble straight down as shown and pull backward to open hole.

" v ,
',\ ....-

.1

.

~,,

::::::::::::::::.'::'\ \
~~~~~~ ~~:::~.~:~:~:~~~:~:~~\

:-::::::::::::::::..:::::.........

(2) Remove dibble and place seedling at

correct depth. Hole must be deep

enough to permit root to hang strai ght

down. Root mu st not be curled back

on itself.

r,l '

(3) To hold seedling in place insert dibble part way and push forward closing top
of planting slit. +!"\
t'l
I I I I
(5) Push forward and backward packing soil firmly against root.

(4) Insert dibble straight down behind last hole.
.................................. ......
(6) Fill in last hole by firming with heel.

26

d. On actively eroding areas, gully sides must be sloped to the approximate angle of repose for the oil type. Gully bottoms must have check dams established to stop the movement of soil. Exposed hard oil must be trenched 2 feet wide and 2 feet deep and 5 feet long. Trees may then be planted
in the trenches.

Using Mattock or other methods where holes are dug.

Follow procedure of a, b, and c above, and plant seedlings as follows:

1) Insert mattock, lift handle, and pull
back.
c::::-

(2) Place seedling at correct depth.

3) Pu h soil forward over roots.

(4) Firm soil around seedling with feet.

Using machine planting method.
ral planting machines are now on the market. In some areas, machines are available for hire. lo alitie banks or other progressive interests will furnish a farmer a planting machine at a harg . An excellent job of planting can be done with the planting machine. Use of the mahin i r ommended for large areas where there are not too many obstacles such as standing trees, ull , lump , or rocks. Seedlings may be planted by machinery at the rate of about 1000 per h ur Th o t are relatively . lower than for hand planting. The principles given for hand planting -' uld b followed when using machine planting.
FIGURE 9

27

FIGURE 10
"~'I'NSERT SEEDLING WELL IN OPEN TRENC.H

1
FIG URE 11
SET SEEDLING AT CORRKT DEPTHRELEASE WKI LE STRAI6HT UP

FIGURE J2

FIGURE 13

seed-
v_,a~ linq; strd.14ht
up until soil s~i\ se!dltn$

SlitmadP by trencher too
shallow

Incorrectly planted-seed Iin~ dra<&~ed alon4, ,ntrencl1 -hrld too lon1, by ptanter - c.au~ poor roOt <felll!lopmenl and lo~s

Th e re ma y IJe failure in a planting and the qu es tion of wh eth e r o r not to fdl in the fail spots will

ari se. It ha s bee n found by test th a t it does not pay Lo inle rplant sm a ll area s, for example, 15 ft. by

15 ft. or less. La rge fail a reas a s 11-1 a cre or more ma y ],e re planted.

H. PROCEDURE FOR MANAG ING THE YO UNG FOREST
Young trees, wheth e r th ey are planted or grown naturally, require s pec ial care such as :
l. Young seedlings are ea sily killed by fire and mu st be protec:ted. A fire brea k, 4- to 6 feet wide around th e plantation ass ures a vantage point from whi ch to backfire. FireiJreaks through the planted a rea se rve to break it up and redu ce the chances of co mpl ete loss.
2 . It may be des irabl e to burn , und e r a presc ription th a t wi ll avo id dama ge to th e planted trees, as insurance afte r th e young trees are la rge e nough to stand it. Lon g leaf seedlin gs may require th e use of fire to free th em fro m co mpetition with g rass and to redu ce infection from brown spot di seases.
3. Th e yo un g trees should ],e protected from dama ge hy g razing. Li ght grazin g by ca ttle may do littl e harm. Grazing by sheep , goa ts, and hogs ma y se ri o usly injure the seedlings. Where the damage from g razin g may be se riou s, liv es tock should be exclud ed by fenc ing. Trampling in clay so il s will red uce ca pacity of th e so il to absorb a nd store water a nd adversely affect tree g rowth.
4 . As th e trees grow a nd become crowd ed , th e forest should he thinn ed and weed ed of th e poorly form ed, di seased and oth e rwi se und es irabl e trees.
5 . In so me instances it m ay be necessa ry to re lease yo ung seedlings fr om ove rtopping by unde s ira hl e trees .
28

Job III - Establishing a Forest by the Natural Regeneration Method

Th po ibility and place of this method of establishing a forest, in comparison with other me-
th d are given in Job I. In thi s method the area is restocked by nature when adequate seeds fall
in a d irable environment or when sprouts grow out from the stumps or roots of cut trees.

A. WHAT METHOD OF NATURAL REGENEHATION TO FOLLOW

farmer may follow one of several practi ces in natural regene ration such as : ( l) Uneven Aged
ma na ment wherein small openings are created throu gh th e cutting of sin gle trees or small g roups f tr s. a nd the new stand sta rts in the small openings. Success ive cuttings, are th en made p eriod
a ft e r p ri d, r moving th e old stand a nd creating or maintaining an uneven a ged stand; or ( 2) Even \ g d ma na a ment wherein all trees are removed from a portion of th e area within a brief period . The 11 w . la nd i all one age. S uccessive cuttings remov e th e trees from additional area s and create a fore st with a numb r of areas each with trees of a given a ge.

Th e r ar advantages and di sadvanta ges in each. Th ere are set:; of conditions wherein one or the oth (' r i th mor a ti sfa ctor y method.

I . Tlw n-even Aged Method is better for the wood land owne r who wi shes to maintain a well ., ft W ~ ('d Land for hi own use a nd for repea ted sal es of a few hi gh quality products from tim e to tinw. Thi m thod i better for areas where th e owner wi shes to mai nta in a nearl y complete stand
fo r prot tin a il or for e th eti c r easons. The Un-even Aged method ass ures that th e woodland will ,ti\Hl :-. ha v a fairl y good stocking. Un-even Aged mana ge ment work s well wh ere the owner se lects
tnd ha rv I hi own products, esp ecially if he ha s a vari ed market that p ermits him to do so. Since ha nh\(H>d: r produ c from sprouts and generally have a heav y seed whi ch is not readily di spersed, tlwy a n uit d to Un-eve n Aged ma na ge ment.

2. The Even Aged Method' of management fit s into th e a cce pted cuttin g methods of tim ber opera~1,' "' ~'or : mall ar a it may be the only method th a t will provid e enou gh cut to interest a n operator.

llu b n-a gcd m thod m ay be better for loblolly and shortl eaf pine a rea s wh e re th ere is a problem
of tompetition from inferior ha rdwood s. Clear c ~1tting enabl es th e owner to riel hi s land of uncles ir-

tlt lt hardwood by cuttin g or by fire. Lon gleaf pine requires full sunli ght for r egeneration and sati s-
f.ll'tory ~ rowth a nd hen e requires even-a ged mana ge ment. Ma inte nance of a well stocked pine stand
.' t' H'n-a p;ed lr enabl the timber to hold down th e growth of und esirable hardwood s during the

uu matu I"<' yea r and Lim r educe costs of hardwood control. Clear c utting p ermits the owner to ex-

p. o..tth. minra l II\ ~> rowm r I nvl

a.01f11PJ1.n

efHi f

e th us cr eatm g or elI' mm. ati.on

a good seedbed. Clea r cuttm. g al so p enmts th e of needl e spot di.sease and o-rass compet1.t1. on.

use of fire The Even-

tl"t'd H' p Ia

. I l l ( ' I nttn

h <r

d d un
a part

1. om of th

1. r urn stances ma y a rea.

result

in

.loss

of

tim e

0
for reseedin g,

and

ev e n

cost

for

29

There are several methods of regeneration that may be followed in the Even-aged method of management. Each of these methods of clear cutting has special advantages and situations where it will prove satisfactory.
a. Clear Cutting in Strips, wherein all the trees over a strip of woodland are cut and seed is blown in from the seed trees of the stand left. As an area is reseeded another stnp will be cut and reseeded, and so on, until the entire area is cut over. The clear cutting in strips method assures maximum convenience in logging and freedom to burn or stir up the soil as an aid to regeneration. Care must be taken to hold the width of the strip to the range of seed distribution or suffer delay and cost because of partial replanting. At best there may be a delay in restocking while the seed producing capacity builds up in the remaining stand. Also there may be a delay in waiting for a seed year. Clear cutting in strips may be suitable where an owner has a large area, sufficient to assure fairly frequent income in spite of delays in restocking. Clear cutting over large areas is not adapted to heavy seeded hardwoods such as oak, poplar, and gum. By cutting undesirable species from a strip adjacent to the clear-cut strip the owner can increase the chances of the desired "leave" trees doing the seeding.
b. Seed Tree Cutting, wherein all trees are cut, except 10 or 12 healthy vigorous pine trees of the desired kind. After the area is restocked, the seed trees are cut. The seed tree method assures somewhat less convenience in logging than the clear-cut method but somewhat more than the regeneration cutting method. Also it affords an intermediate volume in the cut and requires an intermediate amount of timber left to grow or to risk to danger from insects and fire. The seed tree method is intermediate in its assurance of early and complete reseeding of the area. The investment in seed trees may prove a paying one.
c. Regenerating Cutting Method, wherein the mature trees are harvested in two or three cuts. Some 3 to 10 years before the final main harvest the stand is opened by a heavy cutting. The trees left build up their crowns and their capacity to produce seed. As the seed falls and the area restocks to seedlings, the remaining trees are cut. The regeneration cutting method assures a good stand of seedlings and whatever delay there may be is at least partially made up by growth on the trees left. The regeneration cutting method permits burning or stirring of the soil to improve the seedbed. This method does the best job among the even-aged methods of keeping the soil well stocked with growing trees.
B. PROCEDURE TO FOLLOW IN NATURAL REGENERATION BY UNEVEN-AGED MANAGEMENT
l. Individual trees or clumps of trees are selected for cutting as they mature or as they meet the requirements of a market.
2. Each spot cut is opened sufficiently to assure successful establishment and growth of young trees. Openings should range from 50 to 100 feet in diameter.
3. Undesirable trees that might claim the available space are killed.
4. Since the individual trees or groups selected, may not give sufficient volume for sale or use some cutting to thin the stand may be done. Such cutting does not necessarily affect the regenera tion and is mentioned merely to suggest that this uneven-aged method of management does not re strict cutting to regeneration solely.
30

1
II
lS
d
I
e st .g r. y y
l
Je
.e
~
l
:e
r
!S
'
:s ,f t. .s g
e
Example of an Un-even Age Managed Stand

C. PROCEDURE TO FOLLOW IN NATURAL REGENERATION BY EVEN-AGED MANAGEMENT

l. Making Clear Cutting in Strips.
a. Cut all the trees on a strip on the lee side of th e area at right angles to the prevailing wind dir tion.
b. trips may be 150 feet wid e for loblolly pine and slash pine and 100 feet wide for longleaf
pll1 .. Kill back inferior hardwoods by prescribed fire, girdling, or herbi cides. d. The mineral soil may be exposed by prescribed fire or by di scing or harrowing. . Protect the young seedlings from fire and grazing.
f. A the seedlings become establi shed on the first strip a second strip is cut and reseeded, and so
n until the area is cut over. g. Old fi eld adjacent to well stocked stands may be reseeded in thi s same manner.

2. m g eed Tree Method'.

a.

t 10 or more good seed trees per acre well di stributed over the area.

Regeneration Cutting With Seed Trees
31

TABLE 10

RELATION OF SIZE OF TREES TO SEED PRODUCTION FOR LOBLOLLY PINE

D.B.H. in ch es

Average Number of seed per tree annually

D.B.H. in ches

Average Number of seed per tree annually

6

0

7

100

8

220

9

490

10

880

ll

21 40

12

3800

13

5700

14

7900

15

10500

16

13300

Successful natural seeding requires an abundance of seed because of the normal losses to birds, rodents, insects, and seed failure.
b. Cut all trees except seed trees. Be especiall y ca reful to remove any trees of seed bearing size of species not desired.
c. Kill back undesi rable hardwoods by fire or use of herbicides. d. Mineral soi l may be exposed by prescribed fire or by harrowing or di scing. e. Protect the seedlings. f. Remove seed trees after young stand is establi shed and before seed trees interfere with young trees.

3. Making Regeneration Cutting.

a. Select and cut lj~ to ~/3 of the stand 3 to 10 yea rs before th e stand is slated for final harvest!
This will open the stand permitting the trees left to develop good crowns and produce abund ant seed. It will open the stand to enable seedlings to take hold and grow.

FIGURE 14

--------~~--------~ ----------~--------~

TO BE CUT

CUT RECENTLY

CUT 5 YEARS AGO

b. The area may be prescribed burned if necessa ry to kill und esired hardwood growth or to i prove seed bed conditions. The burn is made shortly after cutting and before seed fall.
c. Wh en seedlings are well established cut the remaining trees, except for seed trees. Seed tr may be left for insurance aga inst the necessity of replanting.
d. Protect seedlings from fire, cattle, etc. e. Cut seed trees before they seriously interfere wi th young trees.
32

Job IV - Protecting The Forest Stand From Fires

A. IMPORTANCE OF PROTECTING FOREST TREES FROM FIRES

ncontrolled fire is the number one enemy of profita ble timber production. The most important r a 0 11 for controllin g it are:

;,

1. ncontrolled fVoods Fires Destory or Danwge Mature or Merchantable Forest Trees.

Th a era ge woods fire in th e south does not usually burn up or kill mature timber. However, kille in r or e riou dama ge to large trees does occur wh en there is intense heat from fires in a heavy

a umulati on of fuel s, espec ia lly during periods of extend ed drought.

Ev 11 mod erately hot fires often kill the growing cambium layer und er th e bark, at least on one !- id of the tree, near the ground. Dama ge at the ba se of the tree a llows insects to attack and decay t t in. D ath of the tree sometimes follows. Rotten spots almost always develop in the fir st log. In th turp ntine country, fires attack the working and work-out fa ces, destroying the turpentine face for futur gum production. Charred wood is generally not accepted by pulpwood , cross ti e or telephon<' pol buyers.

FIGURE 15
d.
HOW FIRE RUINS TIMBER

LOSS : Y4 OF LOG

ENTER THROUGH FIRE SCARS

Fl RE OCCURRED IN 14TH YEAR

The Results of One Fire 33

2. Fires Kill or Reduce the Growth of Young Forest Trees. More serious than the loss in mature timber is the damage of smaller trees not yet large enough for sale. The bark on the smaller trees is not thick enough to protect the live wood underneath. Usually the heat from woods fires, even slow running fires, is enough to kill the leaves on many limbs. The leaves are the food factories for the tree and the inner bark contains the tree's sap which functions in some ways comparable to the blood in the human body. All but the lightest fires slow the growth of a tree for at least one year. Frequently the loss amounts to three or more year's growth.
FIGURE 16
FIRE SLOWS DOWN TREE GROWTH
For 10 years two similar tracts of young longleaf pine have been studied-one protected from fire and the other burned yearly. The trees on the protected tract average 19 feet in height; on the adjacent burned-over land there are fewer trees and they average 7 feet in height. Burning killed many little trees and reduced the height growth of the others to about one-third that of the protected trees.
3. Fires Destory the Small Seedlings of Most Forest Trees. The future of any woodland depends upon the small seedlings. Most pine seedlings are killed by even slow creeping fires in the woodlands. Even longleaf pine seedlings may be killed by fire during the first year because they can be burned up. Older longleaf seedlings may also be killed by fire after an earlier fire has burned away the protection skirt of needles.
4 . Woods Fires Make the Soil Poorer. Good farmers plan to keep some humus in the soil when growing farm crops. In rotating crops, they plow under cover crops of peas, clover, etc. This keeps the soil rich and loose so that water enters readily and keeps the soil fertile so that plants grow well. Decaying leaves and needles, when worked into the soil by insects and worms, do the same job as the plowed under cover crops. The leaves and needles decay and become mixed with the soil. Fires destroy this rich vegetative matter, exposing the soil to wind, sun and rain. Burned over soils become dry and hard. Chemicals made available by burning are washed away or are other wise soon dissipated.
34

5. Woods Fires Reduce the Water -Holding Capacity of the Soil. The same cover and mulch oi 1 a es th at helps hold the woods soils also helps to keep it loose so th at rain and snow water sink into the ground. Rainwater working down through openings made by roots and animals becomes
round water. It seeps into springs and feeds the branches and creeks during dry spells. Ground water upplies the farm well. Farm wells go dry more qui ckly when woods fires on the hill s a bove have detr ed the leaf mulch.

6. Woods Fires Increase Erosion and Flood's. Experiments by the U. S. Forest Service show that a w 11-managed forest will take up four inches of rainfall per hour, as compared to only 1/ 10 inch of ra infa 11 for a burned over forest.

TABLE ll

1PARISON OF BURNED A D UN BURNED FORESTS IN SOIL LOSS FROM A BIG RAIN

Treatm ent

Rainfall Run off (Inches)

Annual Soil Loss (Tons per Acre)

Managed Woods-un burned

0.1

Wood s-burn ed

3.6

0.00 0.60

A \ oodland burned ba re by repea ted fires is like a tin roof, there is little to break up the force of th ra indrop and nothing to hold the water in check. The rainwater quickly runs away down the . I p . It era th r into strea ms. It erodes the soil and cuts deep gulli es. The accumulated load of ... iIt and d bri i washed down and deposited on th e bottomland s frequently making them less pr du tiv . Th run-off from th e forest adds to the water from road s and fi eld s, rai sing the height of flo d wal n~ and increasing their dama ge.

- . l ncontrolled Woods Fires Make Hunting and Fishing Poorer. Deer, turkeys, squirrels and r tbbit ... annat at a hes. Quail eggs baked by a grassfire will never hatch to make sport for the hunter. Fi ..h tunnot liv on a dried up strea m bed. They will starve in a strea m choked with mud and poisoned n I) leach d from wood ashes. Silt filled holes in the stream bed rob fish of protection and spawning t b d-.. \\ l1il it i r ognized that controlled fires can help crea te a favorabl e habitat and increase food }' for wildlif , uncontrolled fires generally reduce the opportunities for ga me and fi sh.
).
h. l 'ncontrolled Woods Fires Make Everyone Poorer. Uncontrolled wood fires take dollars out s nf tlw farmer' p ket. They reduce the cash value of trees, both the big ones which he ca n sell now I 111d tJ.c ~ mall ron growin g for the future. They des troy jobs for the farmer himself, hi s hands, the .e trud, dnvc r, th mill ma n, and the ra ilroad employees. The destroyed and unea rned dollars will not }' JM \' the ~ro r, th hardware store, the bank, the teache r or the preacher. Poor churches, poor schools,
I our I* pi ar found in burned out woodland co mmunities and co unti es. Protected, productive woodl.md mtan mor JOb , mo1.e money, a better town an d a better ]1'fe for everyone.
0

B. WHAT METHOD TO USE IN PROTECTING FORESTS FROM FIRE

{

Th ~ ar thr ralh r broad plans or systems which the farmer can consider in undertaking to

lf

pr tIhI

.11
I

hlt Xl

f.1l1:O-. OwUo

d a

l~ nd
tJ on

from unco ntrolled an d (3) action by

woods fir es. These are ( 1 ) individual action, ( 2) group or the county or state fire control organizations. Naturally,

:r f ir bYit.1 m are ft n ov ria ppm g and comb'matw ns of any two or all of them are feas1'ble and

35

The technical methods of accomplishing needed protection are the same under all systems and will be considered later. We want to consider now the conditions under which the three systems are applicable and the relative advantages and disadvantages of each system .
l. Use of Individual Action. Here, we assume that the individual landowner seeks to provide fire protection for his woodlands through his own efforts exclusively. This condition might occur where there is no organized effort and where the woodlands in question are more or less isolated, or, the owners of adjoining wodlands are not interested in fire control and make no effort to protect their own properties. Perhaps adjoining owners are actually in favor of woods burning.
The individual land owner may have considerable difficulty in protecting his woodland entirely
by himself. Woods can burn at any time - day or night - when the fuel is dry. It requires only a
spark from an abandoned brush fire, a careless match, a stroke of lightning, and long years of care soon go up in smoke. Of course any owner can make certain of a constant watch over his holdings and ample help to protect them in case of fire, but it is expensive for the average individual owner.
2. Use of Neighborhood Group Action. Fire does not respect property lines or fences. A fire starting on one property may spread in minutes to adjoining neighbor's woodlands. Frequently, such a fir~ will assume serious proportions so rapidly that it is beyond the capacity of the individual owner to suppress it and immediate assistance by adjoining owners is necessary to prevent damage to their holdings. Because of these difficulties the more desirable approach to protection, is group cooperation with the individual owner doing everything in his power to be careful and to be cooperative in handling fires in his locality. When holdings of several owners are adjacent, forming a continuous block of woodlands, cooperative efforts of the several owners offer a much better chance of success than individual efforts.
Desirable action is for the several owners to get together and lay definite plans for notifying each other in case of trouble and for assembling men and equipment needed in the shortest possible time.
Neighbors working together this way can do much to prevent the starting of fires. Together they can better control the activities of hunters, campers and fishermen. They can help each other with their brush and clean-up fires. And they can supply tools and equipment needed for fire fighting purposes that the single individual cannot afford.
When a sizable majority of the adjoining owners work out a cooperative plan in this way, suf ficient influence can be exerted to induce disinterested or hostile neighbors to use greater care with their fires, even if they do not join actively in the group efforts.
The Individual Action approach or the Neighborhood Group Action are absolutely essential where an organized state or county protection system is not available. While Georgia has made excellent progress in providing assistance through state organized forest fire protection, there remains a few counties where owners do not have such help and must rely wholly on their own or group efforts.
3. The Use of County and State Cooperati11e Forest Fire Control Organization. This third proach is an organized fire control system directed by trained representatives of the state and county. Under this approach, the entire county is placed under organized fire control. A county forestry bo made up of local citizens advises with the fire control organization of the state. A county ranger as the manager handling the fire control work. Fire towers are erected at strategic elevations to a view over the forest areas of the cou~ty. Towermen are on watch at hazardous times to detect
36

r port fires. Airplanes ma y be used in place of, or to supplement fire tower lookouts. A central di satcher at the ran ger headquarters receives word of fires by telephone or r adio and transmits it to the
;.a naer and fire fighting crews located over the county. Fire crews have fire fi ghtin g equipm ent inIuding fire rakes, flap s, water tanks, tractors and plows. Trucks carry men and equipm ent to the fires.
Th ranger, hi s assistant and fire cr ew foreman direct th e work of the fire fighters.

ome type of publicly financed assistance in forest fire control for woodland owners is desirable
I r practically all woodlands. Individual owners or cooperating groups of owners find it exceedingly
d iffi ult to control fire as long as they are surround ed by unprotected areas where fires may start and r a h dangerous size before effective control meas ures are suppli ed. Then too, the efforts of adjoinin a landowners or adjoining groups of owners are difficult to coordina te. The desires of one owner or
r up may not fit in with the desires of a djoining landowners'. The fa iling of one gr oup may offset the rt cr d efforts of another. For these rea sons it is important th a t a public agency be invited in and em;s p w r d to plan the action of a ll groups so that all will work for th e common good rather than for r. individual benefit. It is true that the public, i.e., persons other than the owner, is r esponsible for start-
in " many of the fires, and it follows that public fund s should be provided to ass ume a proportionate
1 pa rt f the co t.

a)

Jn G orgia, the county authorities and the state commission of forestry cooperate to provide fire

ontrol a i tance to private owners in the county. As in all states, the Federal government, cooperatto in with th tate forester , supplements the state or county fund s with feder a l fund s appropriated

()o

unde r th Clarke-McNary Law. Owners inter ested in obta ining orga nized county -wide cooperative

V!
w fir prot ction should, individually or by groups, request the county commissioner s to provide them with fir control as ista nce. An a ct of the Georgia leg islature empower s the county commi ssioner s to

provid fund from general revenue or by special levy, whi ch together with the state and federal

m n would provide assistance to all owners in th e county. Gener al supervi sion, sta te-wid e fire law

nf r ment and educational work are suppli ed by the State Forester and hi s assi stants. Every county

rgia wa offered cooperation in fire prevention and control in 1954. As landowner interest
It
ine r a a nd they make their inter est known to county a nd sta te a uthorities, it is reasonable to as-

. urn that a i tance will be extended to all counties.

It i not r a onable to assume tha t a public organiza tion can provid e a dequate fire control wi thou t th a ti ve ooperation of the individual landowner s. Even when organized fir e control units have b t n provid d all woodland owners must realize that their individual efforts toward prevention and uppr ion on their own prop erti es must be continued .

I 11 ' unti which have organized fire control, owners should keep in touch with the county forest r ng r to know what fa cilities are available and to insure that their plans and activities are known to th r ng rand fit in with the general plan for the county.

~

et

Th r ar

ral method which may be used in p rotectin ba forests from fires. A p articular proce-

clur i u d f r ac11 of these method s. Therefore, th e p rocedure is given for each method sepa rately.

ap

PRO EDURE FOR PROTECTING WOODLANDS THROUGH FIRE PREVENTION

1

t

B k


far tthhe Pood

mo fir

t eff
~rom

ct"Ive and tarting.

1east expensi.ve way A fire prevented is

of no

p rotectm. g fire a t all.

woodlands Prevention

fmr~omy

woods be had

fire damages by following

m

pra t1 e .

37

l. Studying the Cause of Forest Fires.

The record of woods fires on protected State and private lands in Georgia for the calendar year 1953 hows that a total of 6,901 fires were handled by the state and county fire control forces. The causes are given in the table.

TABLE 12 SOME CAUSES OF FOREST FIRES

Cause
Lightning Railroads Campers Smokers

No. of Fires Percent of Total

84

1.2

163

2.4

77

1.1

987

14.3

Cause

No. of Fires Percent of Total

Debris Burning Timbering Incendiary Total

2249 381
2960 6901

32.6 5.5
42.9 100.0

As will be seen, about 1 percent of the fires were caused by lighting, and over 99 percent were caused by man. Lighting is the only source of fires which we can do nothing to prevent. All others, being man caused, can be prevented.
The importance of determining the cause of each and every wild fire cannot be over emphasized. It is important for the owner to look carefully for evidence, as soon as possible after the fire starts, if possible, before either the fire or fire fighters destroy the signs. If the fire started from brush burning, from an unextinguished camp or warming fire, or from a sawmill or a railroad, the cause probably will be easy to determine. Fires started from smokers or by intentional wood burners, will be harder to determine. Tracks of men, horses or automobile tires may be found. Discarded gun shells, cigarette packages, matches or similar small items may be valuable clues. When the woodland owner knows how a given fire starts he is in a position to seek cooperation to prevent a recurrence.
If individual cooperative methods are not effective, then public opinion developed from the considered judgment of the local leaders will decide if woods burners, whether through carelessness or for personal reason , shall be compelled to quit the practice.
2. R educing Hazard From Fires From Several Recognized Causes.
a. Debris Burning.
(1) Be careful not burn in such a way or under such conditions as to threaten woods or other property.
(2) Request cooperation of neighbors in protecting woodland. (3) Plow or rake a fire line around the area to be burned. (4) Have ample tools and equipment to put out fire. (5) Notify neighbors, and the state forest fire organization. (6) Have plenty of help to put fire out. (7) Burn when the season, the weather conditions and fuel is such as to insure a light fire with minimum danger to valuable property. Burn in the late fall or early winter. Burn late in the evening, when there is little or no wind. Burn only when the ground is damp. Be careful always, burn a little at a time. (8) Start fires so they will burn against the wind.

38

(9) ever burn when the ground and fu el are too dry, in dry windy weath r or at any time
hen fire may get out of control. w (10) Be sure fire is dead out before leaving it.

b. f ncendiary Fire .

(1) Reque t the cooperation of neighbors. (2) Build fire breaks a neces ary. (3) Use prescribed fire where indicated to remove accumulated fuel and reduce the risk of a

lt

damaging fire. (4) Cooperate with neighbors and the state fire

ontrol organization m keeping down m-

tendiary fires through edu cation or law enforcement.

c. Sawmill Fires.
( 1) Clean mill area of all inflamma ble needle , leave and trash to a di stance of 150 feet or mor around the boiler and lab pile.
(2) Maintain con tant watch at a burning lab pile during dry windy weather. (3) Stop the mill and extinguish all fire during period of high fire hazard.

d. Forest Operations.
( l) Wood worker hould be encouraged to be careful with fire at all times. (2) Make warming fire only in safe place on mineral oil, guard while burning and extinguish completely before leaving. (3) Care hould be taken that gas and other fu el burning eq uipment doe not ca use a fire. (4) Enlist wood workers to aid in fire fi ghting.
Warming Fires.
( 1) Persons u ing the property, a for example hunt r , fi herman, chool children and farm mploy , hould be cautioned to be careful with fire.
f. Railroad fire .

bu'

(1) Plow a break along boundary adjoining railroad property. A fire break hould be 4 to ide made by plowina or raking to remove inflammable fuel and leave bear mineraJ soil. (2) Reque t cooperation of ection crews in protecting your property. 3) Cooperate with county and state official to obtain uitable laws to govern right of way
nd to reduce danger of fire from railroad equipment and practice .

Fire break .

ire break may be u ed to guard a3ainst many recognized ourc s of fire. Pre ribed Fire.<;.

longleaf- Ia h pine fore t of the coa tal plain, carefully planned and prescribed fires may advantage under certain conditions of ize, density and growth of tree .
ribed ~re may be u ed as an insurance again t a di a trou , uncontrolled wild fire. An owner
growmg tand of long-leaf and slash pine trees, larger in size than is ordinarily damaged

39

by a light fire, may choose to burn once in three or four years. Properly handled, a light fire may remove the accumulated dead leave and needle . Any accidental fire which follows will have less fuel on which to feed and create heat. Such use of pre cribed fire does not alter the fact that there will be some loss to oil, to water holding capacity and to growth, but on the other hand, there will be in urance again t a more evere lo s at an unfavorable time.
Prescribed fire may be u ed to reduce infection from needle di ea e of longleaf pine. The brown pot needle disea e frequently kills longleaf pine in the eedling tage. It is most serious on seedlings under two feet in height. The di ea e i le evere after fire ha burned the diseased needle . Care mu t be taken to keep the inten ity of the flame and heat below the point where evere damage to the young pines may re ult.
Pre cribed fire may be u ed to improve food and habitat for game. A light fire burns the .....,..,u.~:a: and dead grass and frees the oil for the growth of gra and legumes needed by game and wildli Small burned area scattered over the fore t provide food, but leave unburned areas for the to hide and build their nests. Conversely, large uncontrolled fire weep away all hiding places, expo e the game to natural enemie .
Prescribed fire may be used to improve grazing condition . Light fires may be used to burn grass and needle and bring in early grass for cattle. The man who burns his wood for cattle carefully weigh the lo e in tree growth against the probable gain in cattle weights. Of course, one should burn land that i not his own.
Prescribed fire may be used to kill back uncle irable vegetation or uncle irable tree specie open the way for natural reseeding or planting to better pecies. In u ing pre cribed fire, the tra forester plow fire breaks during the winter month , thus cutting the fore t area into small uH,.....,,. Fires are et when weather report indicate favorable condition with respect to humidity, ture, wind velocity and direction. Each block to be burned i fired along the leeward fire break right angle to the direction of the wind. Ample help and equipment hould be available to ......,,.,...,.
Longleaf Seedlings Freed of Brown Spot By Prescribed Fire. 40

loss through escaping fire. Any u e of fire is hazardous. Use of any fire without proper analy is of hazard to tree growth may re ult in severe loss, even as bad as uncontrolled fires. The landowner will do well to obtain assistance and advice from an experienced fore ter before undertaking to prescribe burn his property.
D. PROCEDURE FOR PREPAREDNESS IN FIRE CO TROL
Changing the habits and cu toms of the people who cau e 99 o of the woods fires is a low proces . There will alway be accidental fires in the woods as there are in the citie . Even with the 1 t efforts at fire prevention, there will be many wood fire to fight. The problem is " What is needed, t be prepared for effective action, when a fire start "
There are certain preparation which the individal farm owner and his neighbor can make to be 1 tter prepared for the time when forest fires breaks out. The e step will be under the headings of: (1) Detection, (2) Communication, (3) Manpower, (4) Tool and equipment, (5) Transportation, nd (6) Fire Plan.
a. Detection
( 1) Everyone on the farm hould be alert to the po ibility of a fore t fire, but some one n should be charged with re ponsibility for keeping a constant lookout.
(2) Cooperation in detection should he reque ted from neighbor , bu driver , school children nd workers.
(3) When a state fire lookout tower is maintained, the woodland owner hould arrange for change of fire information.
b. Communication.
( 1) The owner should send some one to notify neighbors or the state fire control organization f exi lance of a fire.
(2) Use of a prearranged signal on the local telephone line may peed such notification.
anpower.
( 1) The owner should arrange for training 111 fire fighting for him elf and his own farm
Arrange for help from neighbors. Other ources of potential help might include woods worker , school boys, and other
ntial to have adequate tools to equip the necessary crew of fire fighters. Tools should be arp and in repair. They should be stored in an orderly manner where they will be ready
~a~~ee u The purpose of the several tools most u eful in fire fighting are given. ). Swauer or flap The swatter is used to beat out or smother the flames. Swatters should be ially .built rack . If watters are not available pine tops may be used.
Cuttuag Tooth fire rake - This tool is used to rake and cut out smoldering grass and small or to pull fresh dirt over smoldering material . Sharpen as nece sary and keep handles
r replaced.
41

(3) .Garden Rake U ed to rake fuel from fire break or to pick up dry gras or pine straw to

catter backfire along the fireline.

(4) . Axe - ed to cut logs and snags along the edge of the fire.

(5). Crosscut Saw - Used to cut nags in the mop-up when the main fire is under control.

(6) .Brush Hook and Brush Axe - U ed to cut mall bru h.

(7). Shovel- U ed to dig trenches in muck fires and to cover stump with dirt when the f ire i,

under control. May al o be u ed to scatter soil on the fire with a weeping motion when water is not

available.

FIGURE 17

FIRE TOOLS

ffOouble Bit

-

Axe

Cro5scut 5a.w
Fvvvvvwvv~

Bo..ck-pa.ck
Pump.

Hoe

Go.rd en Ra.ke

42

(8) .Backpack pump Five gallon capacity. Its purpo e is to cool the flame 0 that the swatter men can put out the flame . The stream of water hould be directed at the ba e not at the top, of the flame . If the pump man can get close to the flame, he can put his forefinger over the nozzle of the pump and m~ke a ~ray of the stream thus covering a.large area of burn~ng material. U e only clean water to avOid cloggmg the nozzle. All pump connectiOns must be kept tight. If pump are not avail-
able wet sacks may be u ed.
l
(9) . Tractor and Plow The tractor
and plow under certain circumstances i a mo t effective fire fighting tool. They are u ed
to plow a fire line around and ahead of the
fire. A backfire may then be set along the
plowed line to r~b the on-~omi~g fire of fuel and make it easier to extmgm h the flame . Th tractor operator mu t u e judgment to
a oid damage or lo of equipment

tate and Federal fore t fire fighting organization. now rely heavily on equipment uch : tractor , plow , large truck for tran portalion and radio for communication. They save I hor, peed up fir control and often hold a fir to a mall acreau , when without uch
1uipm nt there might b a di a trou fire. In th table below are given data on number f fir and ar a burned on outhern ational F r t, amounting to 91/ ::l million acre , comparing the effectivene of man power and h nd tool with man power and power equipm nt.

Tractor ave Labor In Fighting Fire

TABLE 12A COMPARI ON OF MAN POWERED WITH MACHINED POWERED TOOLS

Fire Fighting Method

Year

Number of fire

Area Burned acres

anpower and hand tool
anpower and Tractor and Plow

1941 1942 1943
1945 1948 1952

2,542 2,455 3,234
2,193 2,158 1,993

86,349 118,935 154,828
47,740 25,467 20,544

f rmer will find that hi tractor and uch plows as will serve in the woods, and when used with JUGDM!Dit, ill ave labor.
43

e. Transportation. Rapid tran portation cuts down time for spread of fire, con erve energy of fire fighters, and
increases the peed of fire fighters in controlling fires, therefore: (1). Arrangement should be made in advance for car and trucks to transport men and
equipment to fires. (2). Trucks, to be used for fire fighting, should be in repair, greased and gassed, ready for
immediate use at all time of day and night during fire weather. (3). Acce roads into all part of the fore t hould be considered and kept brushed out to
in ure peed of travel by equipment to save travel time. f. Fire Plan. Consideration of the st eps to be taken should be given well in advance of a fire. Plan
be well thought out. Such a plan should con ider: (1). Source of probable fires. Adjoining property, railroad , chool children, etc. (2). Steps to minimize risk of fire. Seek coooperation, explain intere tin protection from fir (3). Line-up of manpower. Decide on leadership, organize crews, and train crew . (4). Line-up of equipment. Decide on kind., and number and, decide on storage. (5). Line-up of tran portation. (6) . Plan road sy tern. (7). Plan warning sy tern. E. PROCEDURE FOR CONTROLING FIRE BY SUPPRESSION
1. Understanding the Parts of a Fire. The following diagram will a sist in under tanding fire control. FIGURE 18 Parts of a. Fire
44

As shown above, the essential parts of the fire are:
a. Head: Portion of the fire toward which the air is moving. This portion is moving fastest. The fingers are small leads from the head. The spots are starts of new fires set by sparks blown ahead by the wind.
b. Rear: Portion of the fire from which air is moving. This portion of the fire is moving slowest. c. Flank: A side of the fire parallel to the direction of its movement.
2. Diagnosing the Situalion at the Fire.
0
Upon arriving at the fire, the owner or his foreman or the chosen leader hould take immediate teps to learn the existing conditions of the fire. On small fires, the entire area may be visible from an easily accessible point and conditions can be judged at a glance. On a large fire, where smoke, den ity of the wods, and similar conditions make it impo sible to survey the fire area from a single point, the leader would immediately dispatch one or more scouts around the fire to check conditions and report back to him as soon as possible. Items of information which the scouts would secure are:
a. Location of fire head or heads. b. Types of fuel burning and types of fuel immediately in advance of the flames. c. Rate of spread of fire. d. Approximate size and length of burning edges which must be controlled. e. Topographical features such as roads, streams, swamps, etc., which may affect the behavior of the fire in its development. f. Number of men, tools and equipment needed at critical points to assure speedy results. g. Best routes to get men and tools to points where they are needed. h. Sources of water supply for backpack or power pumps.
3. Organizing The Attack.
Fires are fought by a variety of methods. These may be roughly divided into two-The Direct
ttack and the Indirect Attack.
a. The Direct Attack: The Direct Attack con ists of fighting the fire right at the head of the Fighting may be done with a three man crew: (l) a swatter man for gra s type fuels (rake
for leaves or needles) to smother part of the burning material or remove fuel, (2) another swatter following and working as a teammate to catch the remaining fuel and (3) a mop-up man, with a to ~tch any fuel that flames up after the swatter-men pass, also to rake or throw burning wood anto the area already burned over. More men or more crews may be required for more difor hazardous situations.
the head of the fire i brought under control, the flank and rear are extinguished.
I :rect Attack m~y be used only where the heat and rate of spread will permit successful
e leader must s1ze up his fire situation correctly and act promptly and wisely.
: The lndi~ect Attack: The indirect attack is used where heat and rate of spread will not safely
t. of duect attack. On indirect attack, the crew still fights at the head of the fire. However, the
~de with a fire break and a backfire to remove fuel ahead of oncoming flames of the main
re break i made at sufficient distance ahead of the oncoming flames, to assure ample time
45

FIGURE 19
The above diagyam shows the minirnmn crew in action on Direct Attack. to make the line, set a back fire, and burn out the fu el over a sufficient area to assure that the main fire will burn out and be unable to throw sparks across the burned out area and the break. The leader must, of course, space his break as close as is safely possible so as not to sacrifice woodland unnecessarily. A road or stream may serve as a satisfactory break from which to backfire.
In the absence of a satisfactory existing break, the leader selects a line and sets the crew to making a break. The break is made with two or more men with rakes or hoes. They rake the grass, leaves or other fuel away from the oncoming fire. The fuel is cleared to mineral soil. A tractor and plow, if available, will do the job many times faster and better. The break ranges in width from 12" to 18", if by hand, and, 3 to 4 feet if by tractor and plow. Handmade lines should be no wider than necessary to hold the backfire. As the break progresses in length, a third man sets a backfire on the side of the break toward the fire. A fourth man serves as a mop-up man behind the backfire man. Using a rake he prevents a break-over to the side away from the oncoming main fire. The backfire may be started by two men at the center, ahead of the oncoming fire, working outward .
As with direct attack, when the head of the fire is controlled, th e flank and rear are brought under control.
The following points should be kept in mind in building fire breaks on a going fire : ( 1 ). Be sure the line or break is located far enough in advance of fire to allow time to build line through or across danger points and get the intervening areas burned out well back toward main fire. On the other hand, backfiring adds to the acreage lost so do not locate the line any farther from the flames than safety dictates. (2). Make as much use as possible of natural barriers such as roads, streams and bare soil. (3). In constructing a fireline, the obj ect is to remove all fuel from the line. This usually means raking or hoeing down to mineral s.oil. The fuel should be raked away from the fire, except in case of
46

a fir line along a lope up hill from the fire, in whi h ca e the fu el hould be raked down hill toward

th fire. (4) . Avoiding ca rrying th e fire line through patche of d n e undergrowth, where a line i slow

to build and hard to hold.

(5). Make no h~rp a.ngle in .the line.

.

(6). Avoid rumung hne tra1ght up or down h1ll.

(7). Pass around tump , log , brush heaps, snags, etc. (8). The width of fireline to build will dep end on everal thing . Wider lin s will b needed

in hru h than in open tand of timber. The nece ary width will increa e with wind v locity and

accumulated fuel.

FIGURE 20

Th above diagram how a cr w in action on indirect attack.
I The Mop _up: Th final tep in both the direct and th indire t attack i to mop up the fire com ry bu of fire that may po ibly break out mu t I made ' dead out" .
ntir lin hould b k pt under ob rvation , and men hould patrol and work over it Dnwll'!llt a br akout.
47

(2) . Snags, stumps, log , or chunk of wood with any fire or live coals hould be put out with water or moved well inside the burned area.
(3). Unburned areas within the fire line if mall, or protected with firebreak , hould be burned out.
(4). Mop-up is hard unintere ting work but it pay off in preventing .urther pread of the fire and in aving additional
work.

FIGURE 21

4. Looking after the Welfare and Safety of Fire Fighters.

The fire crew chief

and members of his crew

should keep their welfare

and safety in mind at all

times. Fire fighting is

hard, difficult, and dan-

gerous work. Safeguard-

Some points in "moping up."

ing each other from in-

jury and from getting too tired due to exertion or over heating is the responsibility of every m

on the crew, and the first duty of the one in charge.

48

Job V- Combatting Insects and Diseases of Forest Trees
A. IMPORTANCE OF CONTROLLING THEM
It i not expected that every owner of woodlands can be an expert in preventing or treating all of the various inseclc; and fungus diseases, which attack forest trees. While fire is recognized as the
o. 1 enemy of our woodlands, it is true that insects and di eases cause nearly as much loss in tree growth as do wild fires. In Georgia, disease killed out the chestnut tree of the mountain areas.
alued for its nuts, wood and bark, the chestnut was perhaps the mo t valuable single tree in the f t. It is, for all practical purposes wiped out. Shortleaf pine suffers from little leaf disease, which
d troyed a valuable part of the stands over a wide area in the Piedmont. Numerous other disand insects take a continuing and tremendous toll of the forest.
Woodland owners should keep watch of their timber in so doing they can note evidence of failings nd can obtain help from a trained forester in determining the cause and control method.
B. WHAT INSECTS AND DISEASES TO COMBAT
The insects and diseases to combat can be determined by the damage done, the prevalence of them, the pos ibility of their control. Some of the more important ones are:
INSECTS
1. Baric Beetles. There are several bark beetles which attack southern pines. The principal ones eagraver beetle or ips; the southern pine beetle, and the turpentine beetle, (Several species.)
"d of the presence of bark beetles is found when pitch tubes occur on the bark and when
in the crown changes unnaturally. Dying trees change from normal green to yellowish green,
uavwu. and finally reddish brown. Pitch tubes in the base of the trunk are usually made by the hii'IM!IItl"ine bettie. Pitch tubes in the middle and upper portion of the trunk are mostly made by the lllllln pine bettie and the engraver or ips b~ttle. During an epidemic the southern pine beetle may
. the base of a pine tree. The southern pine beetle and the turpentine beetle may become
epidelaic t any time. The ips beetle while it does not usually become epidemic nevertheless takes a 1 of pine trees injured or weakened by fire, drought, or logging.
~I bark beetles live in the forest and repeatedly attack pine trees. Healthy uninjured trees
ve these attacks. When a tree's bark is broken, or when a tree is weakened by extended
1NIIIblw,heathe attacks may be succe sful. As the insects feed and multiply they may s~ccessfully
lthy trees.
Jlalrlic:W.Lr~: ip .M_ot~s. The larvae of the pine tip moth bore into the tips of young pine trees. They
Y IDJUrtous to trees under seven feet in height. Pine plantations and naturally seeded
49

h,,.t,..

FIGURE 22

... " I/, }- 1 'l

. /1;'/'

~~.!

1' /lt~'~~~ "~f~ 10.They emerge from the tree and ore ready to repeat life cycle .

~~

I ~~~t~~ g:r:;::~:;::.~.)l~ -=.:,

~ ~;:.~ .. .. ""' '"'"" <Oo"""

~"'

.

~-

I

weot;:,~~ until cold.

l\~; ~ t

"-"" . -~'". "''"' ,'"''"M ,,..,,:

?!! {

covo te tunnels into inner Ioyer of bork.

8. Wh en fully grown th ey bore into out er bark , ucovate cell$, a nd go into pupOI or rest ing stage.

It lakes 30 Ia 40 days for the beetle to complete one life cyc le as pictured on th is page. Usually these beetles will go th rough 3 Ia 5 cycles like th is in a year's time.

Eggs dee/op in 30-40 day s o nd larvae bor e away
f rom parent tunnel. Fe ed s on i nne r bark until fully grown .

FIGURE 23 How Beetles Work In Pine Trees

Pine Beetle Pitch Tubes

Pine Beetle Tunnels

FIGURE 24

REPRESENTATIVE LIFE CYCLE OF PINE BEETLES

IPS ENGRAVER BEETLES BLACK TURPENTINE BEETLE SOUTHERN PINE BEt. TLE
Common Bark Bettles found in th e Southern States.

stands are uscepti~le to attack in some lo alities. Da~age can be r cognized by death of the tip of th tree, and t~e d1 torted bu hy appearance of the 1de branche . The tree is seldom killed, but 0 growth may be retarded for four or five years.
3. Bag Worms. The e and other minor in ect are present but eldom do enou permanent damage.
The woodland owner who i alert to any indication of insect attack can call upon the tate Fortry Commission to a si t in diagno ing the trouble and in advi ing a to po ible method of treat-
any pecie of birds are insectivorous, especially the creepers, meadow lark , fly catchers, night h wk , vireo , nut hatcher and warblers. Protection of the bird population from fire , cat , or mi hievou boys will help to reduce in ect damage to woodland crop .
DISEASES
1. Fusiform Rust Canker. Thi disease how up as a swelling on the trunk or limb. Orange lored fruiting bodies appear on the e swelling in the spring. It is found on all southern pines, but i mo t common on loblolly and sla h. The di ea e kills young seedlings. It results in loss of ood on the larger trees. Trees frequently break off at the point of infection or die. The disease d not pread from pine to pine, but must develop for a period on oak leave . It enter the pine through young, tender growing needle tissue.
2. Brown Needle Spot. This disea e attacks at least 10 species of native outhern pines but is rtant only on longleaf pine. The first symptom i a small, light grey-green circular spot on le which changes quickly to brown and later encircles the needle in a narrow band. The i frequently serious on the needles of longleaf pine seedling less than 24 inches tall, renthem useless in the manufacture of food. It sometimes retards the growth of pine trees, three tall. Repeated annual killing of the needles finally kills the seedlings. When above 8 feet, the
f li lion i seldom seriou .
Little Leaf Disease. Thi disea e attack shortleaf and loblolly pines mo tly, and occasionally Yili'Killlia pine. eedles on infested trees are but lj3 to l/2 the length of those on healthy tree and
llowi h green rather than dark green color. Tree usually die within five to seven years "rd ion.
Het111 Rot. There are a large number of fungi which cause damage to tree of all species and
bringing about decay in the trunk. Under orne climatic condition they are most common ground, but also frequently throughout the heart of the tree. When near the ground, it is butt rot. When higher in the trunk it is known as heart rot.
every ca e the fungi gain entrance to the tree through some injury that ha broken the
.,. ... 8 ~ey die open the way for fungi to enter the trunk. Wood fire are a frequent cause. ::ti,,~~y hght fires produce heat that kills patches of bark, allowing decay organisms to enter. ang practice which injure the bark and break off branches also open the way for fungi
~~rea tmb or deca~ed area near the butt of the tree is an indication of butt rot. Decayed stubs
d protrudmg from the trunk, unnatural swelling along the trunk, and the presence ool or pore-bearing growths on the trunk are indication of heart rot.
51

C. PROCEDURE FOR COMBATTING INSECTS
l. Procedure for Bark Beetles.
Control consists of felling the remaining live trees, on which the insects are working, and removing or burning the trunks and limbs. Attacks by bark beetles may be prevented, in part at least, by protecting the trees from injury. While it is safe to log pine timber in warm weather, it is desirable to continue a logging operation right on through the stand and the season. This will permit the broods of beetles to continue to feed on succeeding slashings rather than be forced to attack the living trees. Extended periods of dry weather or a severe fire lowers the trees' resistance to beetle attack. Logging operations must be done with exceeding care in extended dry period, or better still from the standpoint of the remaining stand, stopped altogether until rainfall becomes normal.
In the event of an epidemic attack, many individual trees being killed or rapid killing of all trees in small spots, all infected trees should be felled. The merchantable products should be removed immediately, and the remaining stumps and tops sprayed with proven .insecticides. This involves the use of benzine-hexachloride, ethylene dibromide, and oil, formulated and applied under precisely controlled conditions and techniques.
2. Procedure for Bagworms and' Pine Tip Moths.
Ornamental or fruit trees can be protected by various sprays or pruning affected parts, but there is little that can be recommended as a practical measure in wooded areas.

D. PROCEDURE FOR COMBATTING DISEASES

l. Procedure for Rust Canker.

Control is difficult. Diseased trees should be removed from a growing stand as they become of useful or merchantable size. Care should be taken to plant or favor trees which occur naturally on a given site. Experience has proved that trees on an unfavorable site, for example, loblolly pine on deep, dry sand, are especially susceptible. The disease progresses relatively slow and hence trees promising to produce a pulpstick or a sawlog may be allowed to grow so long as they do not interfere with well formed healthy trees.

2. Procedure for Brown Spot Needle Blight.

TABLE 13 RATE OF RE.INFECTION OF LONGLEAF PINE NEEDLES ON SEEDLINGS
AFTER ONE PRESCRIBED FIRE

Date Examined

No. of Months after fire of
Feb. 16, 1934

% of seedlings with diseased
foliage. Distance from area of infected seedlings.

Dec. 1934 Dec. 1935 Feb. 1937 Jan. 1938

(0 ft.) (100ft.) (250 ft).

8

43

6

5

20

43

37

34

32

46

45

56

44

45

48

52

Control of brown pot by repeated spraying with fungicide i practicable in nur rie but not in field operations. Fire is ~e principal me~n of controllin? ~e di eas~ in the field. Control may re-
qU.ire one or more burmngs, over. a penod of year . Thts 1s a. techmcal proces and landown rs are urged 10 eek assi tance of quabfied foresters before attemptmg uch treatment.

The table above shows the rate of spread of brown spot needle blight after a ingle fire, related

~~udmiintagnice

from again

nearest our de irable.

e

of

infection.

When

infection

reache

35

or mor , pr ribed

FIGURE 25

LIFE CYCLE OF THE FUSIFORM RUST FUNGUS (Cronartium fusiforme)

SROOMED SEEDLING4 YEARS LATER

l'rDCI!Ifhll'e /or Little Leaf Disease.

far no practical treatment ha been found to save large numbers of living trees in the
IDIIedled with little leaf disease. When its pre ence is known or su pected the owner should
na. petent technical forestry advise looking to immediate cutting and ale of affected trees. of ort leaf pine on area howing little leaf di ease symptom is not recommended.

ure /or Heart Rot.

~ cure for heart rot disease under fore t condition . The practical mea ure is to cut and

,.....Gelec:f.:ttyive~etreees ~arsotseocotnionasfrpoomsifbirlee

before their and care in

usefulne s is destroyed and make room cutting and logging operations are the

for best

r-.lll.P:entmg th1s type of damage. Elimination of disea ed trees is logically done at the time

18eased tree should be the first onP.s removed in any cutting that can make use of them.

53

Job VI Preventing Damage to Forest From Livestock
A. IMPORTANCE OF PREVENTING LIVESTOCK DAMAGE Good woodlands are usually poor pastures. With some exceptions, for example sawlog sized longleaf pine areas in the coastal plain sandy soils, land cannot produce heavy timber and good forage at the same time. Grass on the ground, where heavy timber is growing, is a pretty sure sign that trees are too open or that the woodland is being mistreated. The problem is to determine to what extent livestock grazing can be permited in southern woodlands without serious damage to growing timber crops. The problem varies in the different timber types and with different kinds of animals. Hardwood forests in the mountains and piedmont can be badly damaged by horses, cattle, sheep or goats. These animals destroy the young hardwood seedlings by browsing and trampling, and pack the soil so that air and moisture are kept out. They destroy the ground cover of leaves. Rain runs off quickly instead of soaking in and trees do not get enough moisture. When surface roots are trampled, the tops of trees begin to die. Moderate grazing of hogs in hardwood forests does relatively little damage. During the period of seed fall , hogs rot up the ground and help prepare the soil for seed. Damage is greatest in spring, when the seeds are sprouting and new seedlings are appearing. Moderate cattle grazing among the pines, particularly in the coastal plain where forage is palatable, will reduce fire hazard and make possible added profits. Very young planted pines, or those coming up from seeds, should be protected. Livestock will trample the little trees. Sheep and goats bite off the growing tips, thus killing the seedlings or reuuding height growth.
Eroded Area Resulting from Trampling by Cattle. 54

Longleaf Pine Growing Behind Hog Proof Fence.
p damage longleaf pine eedlings under four feet in height. Te t by the U..F.S. in South -~1111'ppi how 1,245 acres of longleaf seedlings on a te t acre damaged by sheep during 2 years
ng. Eighty-six percent of all longleaf seedlings on the area were debudded at lea t once durperiod. Only 4.6 , 0 of seedling died but 15 % appeared to be permanently damaged and make uitable crop trees. The main browsing occurs in winter and early pring when the ' candle" bud are about 4" long. Damage occurs throughout the year and protection for young ' needed year round where sheep grazing is common.
hog eat the fleshy part of the root of the longleaf pine. This portion of the root contains -IIMirbalt more larch food value than corn. One hog can destory a many as 400 young longleaf
'ngs in a day.
B. HOW TO PROTECT FROM OVERGRAZING
ould be kept out of hardwood forest. Moderate graz;ng by cattle in pine forest does little pt where the stand consi t of eedlings. Grazing help to reduce fire hazards.
. . . . . sheep and goats hould be kept out of timber growing lands at all times.
ul~ 1M: kept out of all young pine forests, particularly young longleaf pine stands. Mod-
II'Umg m hardwod forests may be permitted.
55

Job VII - Removing Undesirable Hardwoods to Release the Ground for Natural or Artificially Planted Young Stand
A. IMPORTANCE OF REMOVING HARDWOODS
Regardless of the method of harvesting or resto cking, there are some areas and conditions, wherein undesirable hardwoods may prevent re-establishm ent or hinder growth of desi rable species by over topping and shading out or by robbing the young trees of moi ture and plant nutrients. The interference may result in the loss of a single good pine or hardwood tree or it may result in the loss of growth of good trees over many acres. The problem is vastly important in Georgia since about one acre in three is covered with cull trees. For the state as a whole the growth for the equivalent of 7.5 million acres is lost under cull trees.
Hardwoods growing underneath a canopy of thrifty pine trees also has an effect on the growth of the pines. Fores t research men are seeking exact an wers. Indications at pre ent are that some hardwood und ergrowth is desirable to help build soil structure and chemical composition; too many hardwods compete severely with the pine for moi sture. Current thinking suggests th at the hardwood understory be held in check.

- ~ -:c ~ ::;:-_-_::-.._":".

" _,_ c:. ~

- - ~ - ~....-=--

. . ~-

large, unmerchantable hardwoods

56

TABLE 14
RESULTS FROM ONE SET OF TEST TREATMENTS OF COMPETI G HARDWOOD (3.12 FT. HIGH) FOR RELEASING LOBLOLLY PINE MADE AT THE SO THERN RESEARCH CENTER
NEAR CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA

Weeding Treatments
No treatment Cut competing terns no chemical Cut competing stems and
spray 2, 4, 5-T on stumps

Relative Cot
(Index)
0
100
194

Seedling free to grow
(Percent) 22
7l
97

Av rage total h ight
{Feet)
4.9
6.7
8.8

The owner mu t decide whether he wi hes to accept the lo of growth and perhaps further pread by eed or sprouting or to pend the time and labor necessary to grow better

The owner mu t keep in mind that best result from thi practice will be obtained where pine or other desirable pecie are already e tabli hed under the over-story of uncle irable hardwood. If the d ired tree are not already present, they must be planted, either before treating the hardwoods or immediately following, in order to give the planted trees the maximum chance to beat the prou atural seeding following removal of hardwood may result in a stand of desirable trees
ut prouting may prevent it.
ormally, good management practice such a prompt reforestation, maintenance of a good stand, of prescribed fire, and proper harve ting methods will reduce the cull hardwood . However, past f ilu have re ulted in a va t cull hardwood population which mu t be removed by special practice
girdling, felling, and u e of chemicals.
B. WHAT METHODS TO USE FOR RELEASING YOUNG STAND FROM UNDESIRABLE HARDWOODS
Pollibility of girdling or felling cull hardwood trees. A tree is girdled by cutting and removp of bark and cambium entirely around the trunk of the tree. The girdle is made with an axe
sirdling machine. Ordinarily the cut is made as much a an inch or more into the sapwood of
~ractice will kill many tree . It i more effective on larger trees but is used on trees where lmiiJiJaa more convenient than cutting the tree down or where girdling in itself is known to be eatlYe in k!lling the size and species of tree. The method i le s effective on the smaller sized trees
rtam pecies that have high prouting vigor such as the weet gum.
_i used for mall trees that can be more easily cut down than girdled and where sprout qu1ckly re tablish the competing growth.
be large. and small will be set back by girdling or by felling of the smaller trees. The set Jllllll-. uflicent to permit more desirable tree to get a good start and grow into valuable

57

TABLE 15 EXAMPLE OF LABOR REQUIREMENTS FOR AXE GIRDLING WITHOUT CHEMICALS

Class of tree girdled
Cull hardwood over 91;2" d.b.h.
Cull hardwood over 51;2" d.b.h
Cull hardwood over 31;2" d.b.h.

Number girdled per acre

Average d.b.h.

2.5

15.6

12.3

8.7

111.9

6 .4

Time required to girdle

Per acre (man hours)

Per tree (man hours)

.21

.08

.51

.04

3.19

.03

2. Possibility for using chemicals to aid in killing cull hardwood trees. Girdling or felling will kill many treess and will in any event reduce the shade and competition for food and moisture created by the foliage of the living cull trees. However, many girdled or felled trees will sprout and come again into competition with the released or planted trees. Toxic chemicals may be used to speed up or insure the killing of the girdled or felled cull trees.
There are numerous toxic substances that have been tested and found effective. Among the more effective are ammonium sulfamate and 2, 4, 5-T. The toxic substances are used in various ways, as are noted below.
Either of the above chemicals, properly applied in correct strength, will effectively set back or kill cull hardwoods large and small. 2, 4. 5-T in water is rated, on the average, more effective than ammonium sulfamate and is slightly less costly in application. 2, 4, 5-T in oil, which is sometimes used, is more expensive than the other methods.

TABLE 16 EXAMPLE OF COST TO FRILL AND TREAT WITH 2, 4, 5-T SOLUTION

Number of trees treated ________ -------------------------------------------------------------------------70 per acre Average d.b.h. __________________ -------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------7.6 inches

Labor and cost: Frilling Pouring solution Total

1.74 man hours @ .75 $1.30 per acre .58 man hours @ .75 .44 per acre
2.32 man hours @ .75 1.74 per acre

Chemical and cost:

1.60( gallons of 1 % solution @ 25.3

=

Grand total per Acre

.40 per acre 2.14 per acre

' 58

C. PROCED RE FOR KILLI G BACK UNDESIRABLE RARDWO D

... A uming that the owner decide to kill back the uncle irable hardwood , th followi ng tep

..hould be taken.

.... l. Obtaining Equipment for Operation Decided Upon.

r
......

FIGURE 26

EQUIPMENT NEEDED
-

ONE G~LLC>tt CONTNNERS
Attach short ho$e

SIN6LE BIT
A~E

I I CHEMICALS MAV BE. PUQCHASED AT LOCAL HAAP~ARE OR$ED DSALER

* ~:i._~Not lesst.han~

Z lbs Ammonium Su/famate Crystal

to I Gal. water.

~

~p

I

,If'

STAIN

U~E D'ESEL FUEL 0\L OR &UR~T 0\L

Q

..

USE f>.. REO STAIN IN CHEMICAL SOWTION SO THAT
TREATED TREES CAN BE IDENTIFIED

2;4,.5-T

IN WATER.

lqai.2,4,5,-Tto so gal Ions water {Mu<;.t be kept aqitated)

2;4,5-T SOLUT,ON IN 0\L
I gallon 2,4,5,=1" t o UJ gallons o"d (Must be kept a9itated)

AMMON/liM SULFAMA TE ANO Z ,4;5;- T S OLUTION AR NON - TOXIC TO ANIMALS

59

2. Girdling Trees 5" D.B.H. and Larger With an Axe or Girdling Machine and felling small trees. FIGURE 27
Application: USE OF A'XE

~Complete girdle-cut throuqh oark into wood 1'1" inch.(Qenerally effective for
all trees 12'' and larqer in diameter e~eptfor qumsJ

Cut off completely with Vnotdi (May not kill because small hardwood trees sprout vigorously.)
./

Figure I.
~'-# -""
The above practice will kill many trees. A more c.ertainjob will be done and Kill will be quic.keriftree killing chemicals are usedasshownlnfiguresZ,3,"t.

3. Applying Chemicals.
a. Applying dry ammonium sulfamate crystals
(1) The larger hardwood trees, 5" and up, may be notched to from a cup, at 6" intervals around the stem at the base. One heaping tablespoonful, about 1 to 1lj2 ounces, of dry ammonium sulfamate crystals is placed in each notch ~nd on each V cut small stump.
FIGURE 28 AMMONIUM SULFAMAT IN ORY CRYSTAL FORM
Corrosive to metal-Use protected coated equipment

cut nokh~ ld' apart around trunK at root collar. Use one heapinq tablespoonful of crystals per
notc:n .

Cut off completelyuse one heapinq tablespoonful of c:rysta Is per tree in Vno+ch /~
I ~~~~'
~~~

~~ 4i/..
~

__ _ .F_i_gu. _rez .

,,._~

~..

~ \ ~ . ,., .,.

(Note: Save an oc.c.as1onal food and den tree for wild life)

60

b. Applying Liquid Chemical.
(1) Chip a continuou frill completely around each of the unwanted hard, od tr 5" and larger.
(2) Mix ammonium ulfamate cry tals inwater at the rate of two pound f th ry tal to 011 gallon of water (mix in a wooden vat with a pla tic poon), or, mix on aallon of 2 4, 5-T in
~0 gallon of water.
(3) Add a red stain to either solution. (4) Apply either chemical solution to the gridle cut, to the frill cut, or, to the V-notch cut (Figure 29) use orne container, such as an oil can with a pout to facilitate putting th olution on the wood expo ed by its cutting.
c. Applying 2, 4, 5-T to Base of Cull Trees.
(l) Mix 2, 4, 5-T in diesel fuel oil or burnt motor oil at the rate of on galhn of 2, 4, 5-T to 20 gallon of oil.
(2) pray on ba e of cull trees.
FIGURE 29
A-onlic.ation : CHEMICALS IN SOLUTION or ~ 4- 5"-T in oil.

Frill qird le-cutthrouqh
bark into wood . Solution poured in girdle-fill cut!> with
solution .

Cu+ V notc.h-Wer no tch and top
of -=-tump thor-
oug;.;Q, h. ly

7 ., f .<
-J..ii:'~~

Use a red s~ain or dye in chem ical solution so that treated trees can be read ily ,dent'lf1ed

NO CUT
Spray base thoroughly

61

Job VIII -Harvesting Forest Products from the Forest

A. IMPORTANCE OF PROPER HARVESTING METHODS
The farm woods is managed through cutting operations. Planting and protection help to establish and safeguard the trees, but the quality and quantity of the forest products grown are determined largely by the cutting methods used . Low grade products, such as fuel wood, may be obtained from trees of any form or species. High grade products, such as clear lumber, long straight poles relatively free of large limbs, and large clear veneer logs, are developed in con iderable measure through the care given cutting methods.
Georgia's forest industries keep running on a continuing supply of raw material. A pulp mill costing 30 to 50 million dollars must run almost continuously, year after year for many years to earn a fair return on the investment. Trees must be kept growing in order that the mills may go on turning out pulp and paper. Then too, many people depend on the e plants for employment. Our standing timber will feed it today, saplings will feed it 10 years hence, and the eedlings of today will feed it 20 years hence.
Georgia's forests are second growth stands. Under current cutting practices we are growing enough small trees to meet current needs but the reservoir of large trees is being reduced. The quality of our trees is likewise being reduced so that the income received is less than it should be. Unless the trend is changed, a number of mills using larger products, will be forced to liquidate. As they quit, the benefits they have brought in wages and indirect benefits will stop. Over cutting has helped reduce Georgia's average forest stand to 1,540 board feet per acre. Georgia's stands could support 6,000 or 8,000 board feet per acre. It is not feasible nor desirable to withhold all cutting in order to build the stands to full stocking. It is both feasible and practical to build up the stands by increasing the rate of growth through good harvesting methods.
One practice that will conserve growing trees for future larger trees is to leave enough of smaller trees to keep the woodland well stocked. Much wood is wasted when small trees are cut for sawtimber if some of them might more properly be left to grow. The following table shows that relatively more wood is wasted in cutting small trees than for larger trees.

PROPORTION OF WOOD NOT UTILIZED FOR LUMBER

Average Diameter of logs at small end

Proportion of wood not utilized for lumber

Inches 8
12 16
20

Percent 54 44 40 38

62

Forest afford products and an opportunity for employment at good wages.

The individual owner may likewise benefit through proper cutting practices. As a d fi .

4th0e

following test by the Southern Forest acres of well-stocked woodland can do.

Experiment

Station,

at

Crossett,

Arkansa

e. ndl~e example
' In 1cate what

At the start of the test 1937, the area was growing 244 board fee. t (Doyle cale) per acre per

ear tion

On the

a 5 v ear average 1937-1941. The stand was cut poorer, less valuable trees were cut. The thrifty

over
t~ll

conservatively straight trees

each were

year In each operaleft well paced to

utilize the soil. After 14 years, the rate of growth ~ad mcrea~ed to 596 b_oard fe t per acre per

year on a 5 year average 1947-1951. The wood growmg and bemg cut today IS of higher quality than

that grown and cut 15 years ago. The smaller poorer quality trees have been cut out. Ba ed on quality

lone the trees cut 15 years ago would be worth $5 to $1 0 less per thousand board feet than the trees

being cut today. However using an average value of $25 per thousand board feet gives an indication

of the change in producing power in this 40 acre woodland through good management. Expres ed in

financial returns, this stand grew $6.10 per acre per year during the first five years of the experi-

ment and after improvement cuttings grew at the rate of $14.40 per acre per year over a 5 year

period 1947-1951. The rate of growth expressed in per cent of standing volume increased over the

me period from 4.8 % to 9.2 % .

In another test, two 40 acre tracts, one unmanaged and one managed through selective cutting, re carried for 9 years. The results are shown in the following table.

TABLE 17
PARISON OF RETURNS FROM MANAGED & UNMANAGED STAND AT CROSSETT EXPERIMENTAL FOREST, SOUTHERN FOREST EXPERIMENTAL STATION

Type of Management

Stand Per Acre in 1937

Annual Growth Per acre over 9 yr. period

Annual Interest Earned

T o 40 acre tracks
natural stands UIUDanaged

(Board feet) 5640

(Board feet) 294

(Per Cent) 5.2

maangement

4180

418

10.0

B. WHO SHOULD HARVEST THE FOREST PRODUCTS
er there are merchantable products to be removed from the forest the woodland owner is to decide whether the trees will be cut by himself or whether they will be harvested by a operator representing the forest industry.
~er doing his own cutting can make sure that the trees he wants cut are cut, and the trees e t are left. Moreover he can take care to protect young seedlings and selected "leave f can ~se the timber operation as employment for available farm labor and equipment. orest mdustry is short of labor, the owners may help in logging operations.
63

Unmanaged stand
The unmanaged stand was notcut sinr.e 1915. The stand in 1942 amounted to 6,896 board feet per acre. The yearly growth over 10 years amounted to 390 board feet of pine and 53 feet of poor grade hardwood. The volume increase amounted to 5 % annually.

Managed stand
naged tand has been cut each year for 15 year . The tand in 1912 am unted to 6,010 per acre. The yearly growth over ten year period amounted to 700 b ard f t. Th volume ounts to 9% annually.

TABLE 18
EXAMPLE OF AVERAGE LABOR REQUIREMENTS PER PRODUCT UNIT

Product

To roadside

To mill or market

Logs per MBM Pulpwood per cord Fire wood

(Man hours)
4.8 6.0 9.3

(Man hours)
6 .0 10.1 15.4

On the other hand the forest industry may be better trained and equipped to do the harvesting. Industry, under the owner's supervision may do an equally good job of protecting the trees left to grow.

C. WHAT METHOD OF CUTTING TO USE
There are many methods of cutting. One method sometimes grades off into another depending on the degree of cut. The discussion of four representative cutting methods follows:
l. Clear Cut - Which is intended to mean clear cutting at an early age or size, as for example, clear cutting for pulpwood when stand is 8" to 12" d.b.h., or for sawlogs when the stand is 10" to 15" d.b.h. regardless of whether many of the trees may be capable of growing rapidly into larger products.
2. Diameter Limit Cutting - Which is intended to mean the generally accepted practice of cutting all trees larger than an agreed upon minimum diameter. The diameter limit usually includes the cutting of all trees the buyer considers merchantable.
3. Improvement Cutting- Which is intended to mean any cutting made some years prior to harvest cutting which removes the less desirable trees such as those injured, diseased, insect infested, poor form, mature, and those that should be removed to thin out the stand to desired density and quality.
Actually on a properly maanged stand there will be many improvement cuttings during the life of the trees of a given age group. Among these cuttings will be release cuttings to free young trees of overhead competition, thinnings, sanitation cuttings, weedings, and salvage cuttings.
4. Regeneration Cutting - Which is intended to mean the clear cutting of the final crop of mature t1ees in a series of two or more cuttings.
There are several important factors that should affect one's decision on the method of cutting to use. They include:
Effect on Volume of Wood and Consequently the Income Obtained From Each Method of Cutting. Tht- clear cut, diameter limit, and the regeneration cutting methods.. result in a high volume yield from the area. If the farmer needs a large cash return immediately these methods will give the greatest immediate returns. Improvement cuttings bring in a relatively low return per cutting, but provide for more frequent cuttings and higher total volume and cash returns from better quality trees over the years.
64

Effect on Later Stand of the Forest. Clear cutting at an early age remov

require only low sale v~lue pr~ducts,. ~uch as fuel woo_d, p~lpwood, and fence

removes many trees which are m position to grow rapidly mto high sale valu

uality lumber, veneer and piling. Moreover many trees are removed at a t" P

eqarning a h.Igh rate of m terest.

m

Clear cutting may be justified as a step to bring land into cultivation, which

from forest management. Clear cutting, with prompt regeneration by natural or rt"!fi is a sound silvicultural method where large volume of wood fibre rather than .. 1
treeS is desired. For example, clear cutting may be ju tified by a company or owna tir

products. The farmer who grows and sells his products will receive le for th m 0 : ;

ft

if he sells provement

cc~lettairngcutf~inr

a short rotation. The intermediate returns

af~adrmcearrrywiinllg

raec~eoirvteiomn oorfe

by the

elling thi .
growing nm

f

r U~WltD

into larger higher pnced products. The followmg example will serve to demon tr t th t it

pay the small owner to clear cut a young stand as soon as it i large enough to m ulnrood

A 127 acre abandoned farmland in southwest Georgia wa planted in 1935 t trees were measured by research foresters of the U. S. Forest Service in 1948 and a follows:

TABLE 19
INCOME RECORDS ON A SLASH PINE FARM {Spacing at time of planting 15 ft. by 15 ft.)

nge diameter of tree Diameter of largest tree
lume of all tree per acre

1948 8.5 m. 13.1 m. 22.7 cord

19 9.8 in. I . in. 31.2

1.7 cords plus 147 bd. ft. or 147 board feet or 2 cord per

l.7 cord plu 949 bd. ft. per r

of trees in sawtimber (all trees to 8" top)

1,912 bd. ft.

lue of growth per acre over 18 years pwood @ $5 per cord, sawat 25 per M. Bd. Ft.

$161.30

rate of return per acre per year would be $10.00 if the tree trees were left to grow into sawlogs and the area ha earn d
&ve years from 13 years of age to 18 years of age.

r year

above example presents factual support for retaining a portion of young . nd to grow to
r products. The same argument holds for leaving a well to k d tand 10 0 g cia
reach maturity.

65

The following example from the Hitchiti Research Center, Southeastern Forest Experiment Sta. tion near Macon, Georgia, indicates the value of leaving a well stocked stand of loblolly pine.

Volume of Saw Timber left to grow.
(Board ft. per acre) 2,157 4,650 5,767

TABLE 20 INCOME FROM LOBLOLLY PINES

Volume of saw Timber grown
each year.

Yearly increase in volume

(Bd. Ft. per acre) 303 574 774

(per cent) 14 12 13

Annual Value of increase with sawtimber@ $30 per 1000 board feet
$ 9.09 17.22 23.22

This example from a practical test indicates that with more good tree left to grow per acre, land will grow more volume. Naturally the owner sacrifices the use of the cash he could have by heavier cutting. However, the cash left, invested in growing trees, earns a good rate of interest, cause the trees increa e not only in volume, but also in quality and value of product grown.

In diameter limit cutting, the fact that

stands are crowded in some portions and

adequately stocked in other portions, is

taken into account. A diameter limit

may clear cut all the trees from a given

tion of the stand, thus leaving the ground

or at least setting the stand back to

seedling stage. In the diameter limit

method, the more open grown trees are

because they are the larger trees. In

ways the stand may lose in productivity

cause of too large openings. On the

hand, the diameter limit cutting method

fail to take any trees from a crowded nnnm

of the stand because they are all below

set diameter limit, and the stand

crowded with no benefit from the

operation. Diameter limit cutting

Unmanaged stands grow trees fast or slow without a mechanical measurement for judgment

regard to value of product.

tree condition, quality and rate of

Thus it will leave wholly undesirable

because they are below the agreed diameter limit. It will take from the stand many trees of

promise because they are a little larger than the set diameter.

The diameter limit may not always be a bad choice. It sometimes happens that the trees in a are of such a grouping in size classes that a diameter limit cutting does a fair job of

66

a.

tting. For example, a stand may be made up primarily of two size group (1)

cI)u~mrgite

trees

1
atlU

(

"'
L.

, J

a

in this case may

sa i.i v.~r actory young stand growm g up underneath be set that will remove the old stand and leave the

the old young

taatn~mndatuArh

. nd dl8m

of .' r

taY be beneficia1 even though It may not accomp1ISh any thm" mng m the young tand Auc .a c.uttl-n~a

hnappen in a 11 or nearly

secon d all the

growth pm. e larger limby

stan d trees

th at and

a dI"ameter leave most

l1"m1.t f of the

or cuttm. g be et whi .h clean intermediate one

WgIa.1Hm1

tl m remo

-

auch thoughtful consideration falls more logically under improvement cutting .

ow r,

the

Improvement cuttings provide crooked, limby, diseased and

for growth damaged

troefesthwehib~ehttewrilql unaoltitgyrotwreeisn.toInhigimh pqruoavleimtyenptrocduutctitsng

lean, straight, healthy trees are removed . Improvement cutting permit the better tree to utili:e

the ite and the wood added to them is naturally of higher quality.

Sawlogs bring more money than pulpwood or fuelwood. Pole and veneer log u ually bring more money than sawlogs. Leaving tall, traight trees makes it po sible to grow high-priced pole . traight, clean trees properly paced will grow larger and more valuable poles, veneer and awlog .

Many land owners, large and small, follow good cutting practices, grow better quality tree ,
nd as a result obtain better prices for the better trees. The following table of prices received by the Southern Region U. S. Forest Service for timber from the National Forest bears this out.

PRICES RECEIVED FOR PINE TIMBER FROM NATIONAL FORESTS IN THE SOUTHERN REGION U. S. FOREST SERVICE 1953

State
Alabama Arkan a Florida Georgia Louisiana Mi issippi North Carolina South Carolina Tennessee Texas Total & Average

Volume Sold
(M. Bd. Ft.)
13,614 53,034
4,413 6,238 16,969 26,670 2,433 12,961 1,403 72,751
210,486

Range in Stumpage Prices

Low

to

High

$12 .00 8.47
20.05 12.00 22.00 21.10 13.00 16.00 10.50 23.60
8.47

$36.60 57.12 32.40 41.15 48.00 46.25 40.81 44.50 48.00 46.10
57.12

67

The prices in the lower range reflect the fact that some trees were of poor quality or were grown in areas difficult of access. The higher range of price reflect in considerable measure higher quality products resulting from previous improvement cuttings that permitted the good trees to grow large.

The owner may be tempted to cut his finest trees for high priced piling, or sawlogs, leaving the poorer trees. Such high grading of the stand will reduce total returns, and may materially reduce the sale price of remaining trees as they become ready for harvest. The more advisable pTactice is to maintain in the growing stand as many quality trees as the owner's financial ituation and the capability of the area will permit. Premium quality products generally find a market and usually at good prices. Moreover a stand of quality trees is a prime asset to the farm for sale or for collateral purposes. There is one more important consideration. Healthy, well-formed, fast growing trees tend to reproduce similar good treees. Diseased, forked, limby, slow growing trees tend to reproduce similar poor trees. Wise management will consider heredity in the selection of trees to leave for parent stock.
A profitable size to which to grow pines is 18 to 24 inches in diameter at breast height. Logs from trees of that size will produce most of the products commonly required in present-day markets. Nearly all species of southern pine trees, grown under average conditions, decline in their rate of growth after they reach a size of 20 to 26 inches in d.b.h., or at about 60 years in age. Logs cut from
trees around 20 inches in diameter can be handled with ordinary manpower and equipment in the woods, on the road and in the average sawmill. Larger trees often require spcial equipment or may be partly wasted.

Hardwoods vary in their capacity to earn a return after they reach 18 inches in diameter. Red oak and yellow poplar are examples of hardwoods that will yield good returns growing from 18 to 30 inches.

Cross Section of a Tree Grown at a Rate of 3" in 10 years

Trees grow at varying rates. They grow faster in deep, fertile well watered, well drained soils. They grow slower on thin, unfertile, poorly watered or poorly drained soils. For a given soil an owner would have to determine the rate of growth. At Crossett, Arkansas, where growth rate is good, it is possible to maintain a growth rate of 3 inches in diameter in ten years for trees ranging from 8 to 20 inches.

Based on this growth rate the following table shows how trees, on good growmg site and with good management increase in size and value.

68

n

TABLE 21

AMETER

IN STUMPAGE CALCULATED

VALUE FOR LOBLOLLY AT THREE INCHES IN 10

PINE WITH YEARS AND

SRAAWTTEIMOBFE~RO

AT $20 PER THOUSAND BOARD FEET

I
GE

Volumes and values of trees now and 10 years hence where diameter growth rate i

at 3 inches in 10 years

maintai

Now

10 Years hence

Merchantable length (feet)

Volume (Bd. Ft.)

Value at $20 per (M . Bd. Ft.)

D.B.H. ( In ches)

Merchantable length (feet)

Volume (Bd. Ft.)

Value at 20 per
(M. Bd. Ft.)

8

16

18

10

16

32

12

32

82

14

48

146

16

56

219

18

56

298

20

56

392

$ .36 .64
1.64 2.92 4.38 5.96 7.84

ll

24

56

$ 1.12

13

40

113

2.26

15

48

182

3.64

17

56

257

5.14

19

56

342

6.84

21

56

449

8.98

23

56

585

11.70

There may be situations where the owner feels compelled to sacrifice his asset in a well stocked When faced with this decision he should carefully analyze the potential return from a well stand against the return from some other use of the money to be obtained from liquidating
restlimber bank account. He may be in a position to obtain a bank loan on the timber at less cost than the growing timber will earn.
eration cutting has a proper place in the management of the stand. When trees are rnashould be cut or they will fall off in growth rate and finally die. The regeneration cutting ect the final cutting after a series of improvement cuttings in the life of a tand, and prop~ -IUU.leQ it is a first step in the establishment of the new stand.
~-- of Ease in Making Sale on Method of Harvest. The clear cut, diameter limit, and the ati(,D cutting methods have the advantage of being readily understood by both owner and pur-
Each sets a definite measurable basis against which a check can be made. They represent
long established. These methods come down from the days when there was plenty of mature the forest was treated as a mine rather than a crop.
Cutting is not understood by the many woodland owners. Relatively few owners cut ~trd:ina: to good cutting practices. Many timber buyers likewise do not understand how to
volume of timber in a stand marked for cutting on an improvement basis. Tree selection for stand improvement requires some knowledge of trees which the woodland owner must
factors, plus the usual resistance to change, keep many woodland owners from cutting
by the improvement cutting method.
69

D. PROCEDURE FOR HARVESTING BY THE DIAMETER LIMIT CUTTING METHOD
l. Setting the Diameter Limit.
In ordinary practice the diameter is chosen by the purchaser of the timber. He makes the choice, based on his experience, as to the smallest sized tree that he can cut profitably, and sets the size of such tree as the minimum diameter to be cut. Under such procedure there may be differences in the diameters set by different operators within a given branch of the industry based on their equip ment, experience and judgment, and on current market demands.
The decision on the minimum diameter should he made by the owner and with the best interest of his next crop of trees in mind. While compromise may have to be made to meet the owner's needs for cash, the long time effect on the forest should be seriously considered.
Shall trees require more time for each operation. The operator, who buys a given stand of timber at a fixer price per thousand or for the whole allowed cut or the farmer cutting his own trees, makes relatively less on small trees than on large trees. The following table gives comparative data for trees of several sizes.

TABLE 22 TIME, PER 1,000 FEET OF LUMBER, REQUIRED TO LOG AND SAW
LUMBER TREES OF DIFFERENT DIAMETERS

Diameter of trees (outside of bark) 4.5 feet
above ground.
inches

Felling & sawing into
logs
minutes

Time Required per 1000 Bd. Ft. of Lumber

Skidding and
bunching

Loading & hauling to mill

Handling & sawing into
lumber

minutes

minutes

minutes

All activities
minutes

8

345

143

411

312

1,211

10

290

94

380

248

1,012

15

202

54

315

143

714

20

151

48

280

112

591

25

109

43

255

102

509

The owner should set a diameter high enough so that there will be a reasonably satisfactory number and distribution of trees left after cutting. This he can do by the following procedure:
a. Measure all trees for diameter at breast height. b. Classify the trees by diameter classes. c. Compute the basal area for each diameter clas . This is done by ( 1) reading the area of circles equal to the diameter, (2) multiplying by the number of trees in each diameter class, and (3) adding the basal area for each diameter class. Example: A 10" tree has a basal area of .55 square feet. Ten trees would have 10 x .55 square feet or 5.5 square feet. d. Divide the total basal area in square feet by the total number of acres in the woodland sale area. This will give the basal area per acre.
70

e. Include among the diameters to be left enough of the smaller diameters so that after cutting there will remain about 80 square feet basal area per acre below the minimum diameter.

For example, let's assume a farmer has 10 acres well stocked with trees of varying sizes up to 24 inches in diameter. He determines by measuring the trees that he has the following numbers by size classes on the average acre.

TABLE 23 EXAMPLE OF TIMBER STAND ON AVERAGE ACRE

DBH Number trees

(inches )

2

200

4

100

6

50

8

25

10

20

12

15

Basal Area Per tree (Sq. ft.) .02 .09 .20 .35 .55 .79

Total Basal Area
(Sq. ft.) 4.0 9.0 10.0 8.7
11.0 11.8

DBH Number trees Basal Area

Per tree

(inches)

(Sq. ft.)

14

12

1.07

16

10

1.40

18

8

1.77

20

6

2.18

22

2

2.64

24

4

3.14

Total Basal Area

Total Basal Area
(Sq. ft.) 12.8 14.0 14.2 13.1 5.3 12.6 126.5

In this example there are a total of 126.5 square feet on the representative acre. By cutting all trees above 16 inches there will be left 81.3 square feet of basal area. The minimum d.b.h. then becomes 16 inches.

2. Meauring the Diameters.

The diameter is measured outside the bark at stump height which is usually assumed to be 12 inches from the ground. The lower portion of the trunks of many trees flare wider between breast height and the ground. The diameters mentioned in our example were at d.b.h. The minimum d.b.h. will therefore have to be adjusted to a minimum stump diameter. The table shows approximately the relation diameter at breast height to diameter at a one foot stump height.

TABLE 24 COMPARISON OF STUMP DIAMETER WITH D.B.H.

Stump diameter Outside bark 1' High

Pine D.B.H. 41/2' High

Hardwood D.B.H.
41/2' High

Inches

Inches

Inches

6

5.0

5.4

10

8 .2

8.5

15

12.2

12.3

20

16.2

16.6

24

19.4

Each owner will have to make this adjustment to suit his trees. It is sound business to state specifically that (1) the minimum diameter will be so many inches, (2) that it will be measured at a definite height from the average ground level around the tree, and (3) that it will be the average o:f two measurements across the stump, one at its widest and one at its narrowest width.

71

E. PROCEDURE FOR MAKING IMPROVEMENT CUTTINGS
woodland that is properly man.a?ed ~ill be ful~y stocked wi~ healthy _vig01:ous trees u.niformly d' tributed over the area. This conditiOn I S accomphsh~d by a sen es of cuttmgs m the growmg stand .:..ich removes the undesirable trees and favors the desirable trees.
1. ~ c _- ,_e .;e _, Tree.s to Leave and those to Cut.
lect to leave commercially ;alua~le spec~es. Pine on. sites ~here pine normally grows, and hanhrocMII either alone or mixed w1th pme on nch, well-dramed sites.
lect to leave straight trees with a single central stem, moderate sized live limbs covering about ODIHIIIIIU of the length of the stem, healthy trees uninjured, and trees free of disease and insects.

following table is a guide to the number of trees to leave so that the stand will continue to much a the soil is capable of growing.
TABLE 25 BER OF TREES TO STOCK IN THE STAND FOR DIFFERENT USES

Number of Trees Required Per Acre

For Seedlings and Saplings

2

1,000

2

800

590

For Poles
400 240

Size of Trees d.b .h.

Number of Trees Required Per Acre

For Sawtimber

10

155

12

115

14

90

16

72

18

60

20

51

22

42

24

36

26

31

28

27

30

24

~dkates. for example, that if all trees are 10 inches in diameter, 155 will be required ince tands do not grow with trees all of one size, the average acre would
raapng in diameter around 10 inches.
mature trees and overly large limby trees.
dieeaaed or insect infested trees such as pine trees showing th~ abnormal growth on
Rust Canker, or the brown needles and pitch tubes of southern pine beetles; and Niilu! fruiting bodies of fungi, open decayed places, or abnormal swellings on the

rly formed trees - trees that have crooked or forked trunks.

GaDrImILaedbIt.rfedespescukch;

as, trees with broken tops trees with and leaning trees which m' ay fall.

larue
b

scars

caused

by

fire
'

grade or noncommercial species- low value oaks and ]ow quality hardwoods

fairly good trees where necessary to provide growing space.
trees have some defect and since it is desirable to keep the area stocked,
rather than create a large opening.

73

2. Check Tree Marking by Use of the Basal Area Gu.age. A good procedure for checking on the stand to leave is found in the basal area method. Generally
speaking, over a 5 to 10 year growing period, we may assume that average sites will support trees with about 80 square feet basal area per acre. Basal area can be determined with the use of a basal area angle gauge. The cruiser stands in the center of any given area where he wishes to determine the basal area. He sights through the gauge and determines the number of the leave trees to count and which not to count. Each leave tree that spans the interval in the scope at dbh should be counted. Trees too narrow to span the interval should not be counted. For borderline trees, which barely span the interval, tally every other one. The cruiser revolves in a complete circle counting or rejecting each tree. The number of leave trees counted and multiplied by 10 gives the basal area per acre of trees at the sampling point. If this basal area is below 80, no further marking is necessary for thinning. If the basal area materially exceeds 80 then additional marking is in order. Mark enough of the less promising trees to bring the basal area down to 80. The cruiser moves through the woodland using the gauge from time to time to check as necessary. Instructions covering thinning according to silvicultural rules are discussed elsewhere. The gauge is used as a check or rough guide.
FUGURE 30
R I ~~ I
~===:;:;;:.r==:::::lr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -r---.r.J.,~li.l
'I
74

3. Making Thinnings to Improve the Stand.

Well-stocked stands of young or inte_rme~iate ~ged trees, wheth~r plant~d or grown naturally, will

cinautsiemsembaencyom?reanccr~oewsdteodd. iSeolmeaevicnrgowa drmelg~tiIvSeldyecslueaabrl

e. It results m keepmg stem. Severe crowd!ng

the branches small d slows down the gro:..

of each tree, mcludmg the better trees whiCh should grow on for larger, h1gher quality products. The

crowding may become intensified to a stage wherein wood growth, which should be added to the better

quality trees, is wasted on less valuable trees. Also, if the smaller trees are not salvaged, they will die

and rot. ThiiUlings free the better trees and allow them to continue to grow.

Thinnings may be made at any time when the stand needs it. Normally, the owner waits until he bas a use or sale for the the products thinned.

Proper thinning requires cutting when competition reduces the length of the green crown to approximately one-third the total length of the stem. Enough trees are removed in the thinning to allow the side branches room so that they will not severely interfere with each other until the next cut. One way to grasp the idea of allowing proper spacing in a thinning is to cut out sufficient trees so
that the space left between any two healthy well formed trees is sufficient to allow each to double its Jive top width on at least two sides toward the neighboring trees.

4. Making Sanitation Cuttings.
Trees are sometimes attacked by insect or diseases. Loblolly and slash pine are sometimes infected with Fusiform Rust. The disease may kill infected trees and may spread to uninfected trees. Trees with a heavy infestation of southern pine beetle will die and the insects harbored by them
will attack other trees. Sanitation cuttings remove the source of trouble from the stand. They leave lhe healthy trees to grow. Sanitation cuttings to control diseases are usually carried out as part of the Rplar improvement cutting program. If diseased trees are not removed in the regular commercial
aperations, they may be removed as soon as possible thereafter, in order to free the ground for eeedlings. It is not essential to remove every diseased tree. Many pines with fusiform rust many poplars with decay, may continue to grow, earning a good return until their commerci
worth and the needs of the stand justify removal.

'tation cuttings to control infestations of southern pine beetles are emergency measures to be . . .rtallten as needed. Infested trees are felled and removed from the stand. In case of severe out-
it may be necessary to spray unremoved tops and stumps with benzine hexachloride to prevent spread of insects.

Salvage Cuttings.

stands are sometimes so severely injured by fire, insect attack, and windstorm or sleet, necessary to salvage the damaged timber. Occasionally a single tree of large value and
is killed by lighting.

operations remove the dead and damaged trees, leaving the uninjured trees to grow. In fire-injured trees, salvage cuttings romove the weakened trees which will not recover and
be an invitation to attack by insects or disease.

be kept in mind that any one of the above cuttings may include all types.

75

6. Pruning The Trees In a Stand. Under conditions of proper spacing, natural pruning will remove mo t of the lower br h d
hence reduce orelI.mm. ate ~he need f~r arti"fical prunm. g. However,_ natural pruning may be adneclaeysedan 80
that the trees are of considerable size before the dead ends of hmbs are covered and clear valuable
ood is formed over them. Open stands may never prune properly. Even with the most thoro h ;runing by nature occasional live limbs, and many dead limbs, persi t. These should be pruned ~~-
It i wasteful to prune unles the pruned trees are left 20 or more year for the growth of knot free
ood-
In about four years after pruning trees growing at the rate of 3 inches in diameter every 10
ears, will start forming clear wood over the end of small branches cut or broken off. For large
branches, 6 years after pruning is usually required. FIGURE 31
"RESULTS OF PRUNING"
bu.tt log, 12 inches in diameter (top end), came from a tree that was pruned when about 6
diameter (breast high, outside bark). The knotty wood center, or core, is about 4 inches in
The log has been sawed into l -inch boards, mostly clear lumber. 77

Pruning is expensive in labor. It is difficult, painstaking work. The job requires care in the removal of the branches to insure quick and proper healing. Pruning may not pay off unless the owner is in a position to obtain the better price for the pruned product.

Pruning is usually done when the trees are about 12 to 50 feet in height, 3 to 8 inches in diameter and still making height growth of two or more feet per year. Pruning is a refinement in cultural operations. However, with so much that needs to be done for most woodland areas, pruning is not a high priority practice. The steps in pruning are as follows:

Pruning Pine Tree While Young To insure Maximum Growth of Clear Lumber.

a. Select about 100 straight, healthy, uninjured trees on each acre. The trees should range from 3" to 8" d.b.h. and be spaced about 20 feet apart. The large, limby trees should be avoided.

FIGURE 32 PROPER PRUNING METHOD

A

.B

How to cut off different-sized branches in forest pruning so as to avoid possible stripping of the bark and injury to the tree. A, Small branches can be cut off by one sawing (a). B, Branches up to 2lj2 inches in diameter usually can be cut in the same manner as A, but a safer method is to make an under cut (a), followed by an over cut (b). C, If there is special reason to prune branches over 2lj2 inches in diameter they may best be removed by two complete cuttings - the first consisting of an under cut (a), followed by an over cut (b), which causes the wood to crack or split and the branch to drop, leaving a stub. A complete, smooth cut is then made (c) by sawing off the stub, without injury to the tree.

78

b. Cut all branches alive or dead for a distance up the stem, usually 8 feet on a 12 foot

l7 feet on a 25 foot is a pract1ca1 he1ght

tree, 25 feet on a 36 foot tree, and 33 feet on a 11 m1t. The pr_umng may be done at penod1' ca1

50 foot m terval

t.reTeh. eOrldeinngathn.1Yof17 rfeeeet

rown left must be at least one-thnd the length of the stem.

g n

c c. Cut branches flush with the bark. A saw is preferable to an axe or other tool ince it

.

doing the JOb accurate1y and without InJury to the trees.

permits

d. The unpruned trrees are gradually removed in improvement cuts, leaving the pruned tree

to grow to the desired size for high value veneer or awlogs.

e. Prune during dormant season to reduce dangers of insect infestation.

F. PROCEDURE FOR MAKING REGENERATION CUTTINGS
Regeneration cuttings remove the remaining mature trees except those needed for adequate reproduction.
1. Select and cut 1;2 to 2/3 of the stand 3 to 10 years before the stand is slated for final harvest.
Trees usually build good crowns capable of producing abundant seed in about 3 years. 2. If conditions warrant the area may be burned under carefully prescribed procedures, for the
purpose of killing undesired hardwood growth or to improve conditions for seedling establishment. 3. When seedlings are well established cut the remaining trees, except for seed trees. Seed trees
may be left for insurance against the necessity of replanting. 4. Protect seedlings from fire, cattle, etc. 5. Cut seed trees before they seriously interfere with young trees.

G. PROCEDURE FOR REMOVING TREES FROM THE FOREST
Regardless of the cutting method used, the person responsible for the cuttings should follow good 'ques in cutting the trees and removing them from the forest. The practices given below will
'litate the cutting operation.
Selecting Tools for Harvesting Small Products Su.ch as Fu.el Wood, Fence Posts, and Pu.lp WIOOd.
tools and equipment required to harvest forest products vary somewhat with the products. all woodland owner, doing a limited amount of timber harvesting from year to year, can get with the following tools :
Axes - ingle or double bit as preferred. (3 to 41f2 pounds) Crosscut saw. Six feet, narrow and thin for 2-man crew; or, bow saw for 1-man or 2-man 2-man power saw.
edges - steel or magnesium for hardwoods; well-seasoned dogwood or persimmon for
ea~ and heavy duty wagon or truck- Il/2 to 2 tons. ns - for binding load.
of desired size and type for wagon or truck. Wllletstor1es. files, guages, rules, sawsets, etc.
79

2. Selecting Tools for Harvesting Large Products Such as Sawlogs and Poles.
a. Same as in small products listed above. b. Larger cross cut saws. c. Cant hooks for use in turning and loading logs. d. Tongs or grabs for skidding logs. e. Heavy chains for skidding and loading. f. Trailer if long logs or poles are to be hauled.
Tools and equipment should be kept clean, sharp and m good repair. Sharp cutting tools and strong equipment in good repair, make for efficient operations.
3. Exercising Care in Harvesting.
Care should be exercised in all woods operations. Timber harvesting is hazardous work. There are opportunities for injury, often serious injury, at practically every step of the job. A slip of the axe or saw, a falling limb or a rolling log, may cost a limb or a life in a brief instance of careless ness. The woods worker must therefore, be constantly alert and careful in everything he does.
4. Cutting the Tree.
a. Determine the best direction of fall, taking into account the following:
( l). Rot or mechanical injury near the base weakens the wood fibers there and influences the direction of fall.
(2). Young trees may be damaged. (3). The lay of the ground to prevent breakage in falling and to secure an advantageous lay for bucking, loading and skidding. (4). Wind direction.
b. Make sure that all persons, animals and equipment are safe:
( l). Consider the possibility of falling limbs. (2) . Make sure there is a quick, safe line of retreat as the tree falls. (3). Make sure that all other persons and all animals and equipment danger from the tree when it falls.
c. Cut out a clear space in which to work.
d. Make the undercut.
80

(1). Select side of the tree toward which it is to fall.
(2). Make the first cut, usually with th saw, horizontal and at right angle to the trunk. Cul about one-fourth the distance through the trunk . Make the cut as close to the ground as conveni ent generally under twelve inches.
(3). Make a second cut with the axe or saw. This cut is made 5 inches above the first cut. It is made slanting, at a 45 degree angle to the trunk and down to the back edge of the first cut. Remove the wedge of wood. Remove all chips.
(4) . To avoid splintering cut the corners at the end of the undercut in softwoods; cut deeper at the center of the under cut in hardwoods.
(5). To save the saw on tough-barked bardwods such as hickory, chip away a belt of
bark where the saw is to cut.

FIGURE 33 FELLING A STRAIGHT

Undercut

e. Make the felling cut:
( l). The felling cut is made on the opposite side of the tree from the undercut and parallel it- horizontal or level and at right angle to the trunk.
(2) . The felling cut should be made two inches or more above the undercut, depending on the
of the tree. (3). Keep the saw well sprinkled with kerosene when cutting pine to di soolve the resin and
cutting easier. (4) Keep a constant watch to see if the tree will fell as planned. (5) U e wedges to prevent binding of the saw and to insure better control of the fall. (6) . Cut to within about an inch of undercut,holding enough wood to ontrol the fall. (Hold ood m corner away from direction of lean.) (7) Be sure to withdraw saw and step back out of danger from the trunk a the tree begin
(S) Watch for falling limbs, which may be broken off or thrown back a the tree fall Also trees for hanging limb , which may be broken loose as the tree falls.
81

5. Bucking the Logs. a. Trim branches from sides and top of trunk as far into crown as the trunk is considered mer-
chantable. Leave branches underneath as necessary to support trees and prevent binding in sawing. b. Measure off lengths of products to get best utilization. Allow about 4" extra for trimming
when the log is sawed into boards or other products. Cut trunk so as to make logs with as much clear length as possible. Cut trunks with sweep or crook so as to obtain logs as straight as possible.
c. Cut logs from butt end and progress toward the top. d. Use wedges early and drive often to lessen pinch and friction. e. Chop off limbs beneath the trunk as necessary to making sawing easier. f. Make sure each log is cut free from other logs and tops. g. Provide support for free overhanging portion of trunk before cutting to avoid splitting the log. h. Check the free end of a log on a steep slope to prevent it rolling on to sawyer. Stand above the log when the cut is nearly completed. 6. Skidding the Logs. Logs are dragged or skidded from the place where they are felled and cut from the tree, to a concentration point for storage and loading. Skidding, for small operators, is usually done with a team or a tractor if available. Logs are skidded for short distances, only, u ually not more than 200 feet if the land is flat, somewhat more if skidding is down grade. Fellers should have the skidding in mind at the time of felling. Tree tops should be felled wherever possible, so as not to interfere with the skidding. Where po sible, two or more trees should be bedded across each other with the tops bunched and the logs in the clear. Care should be taken to avoid covering logs with tops. 7. Loading the Logs. Logs may be loaded on a truck or wagon in a number of ways. Two of the more common ways are (1) loading by gravity from a skidway, and (2) loading by crosshaul with a team, chains and skid poles.
FIGURE 34
FiGURE 28.-Loading docks: A, Simple type for sloping ground; B. dodc
made by cribbing logs; C, bank used as dock.
82

In loading by gravity, the logger selects a hillside for his skidway. A deck with a log frame is constructed on the hillside in such fashion that the logs will roll down the hill aero s the deck and then down on to the truck or wagon over skid polles.
In loading by crosshaul, a chain is wrapped around the log, and it is pulled onto the load by a tea m.
FIGURE 35 CROSSHAULING
8. Hauling the Logs. For the small landowner doing his own work, logs are usually hauled on a wagon or truck. Road-
ways are cleared into the woods as far as necessary to pick up the logs with a minimum of skidding. Hauling is easier in fairly dry weather when roadways and the ground generally are firm. Roads are opened along easy grades to hold power, required for hauling, at a minimum. Roads should be kept well drained and in constant repair to save wear and tear on equipment and time that might otherwise be lost.
H. PROCEDURE FOR PROTECTING YOUNG TREES DURING CUTTING OPERATIONS
Regardless of the amount cut or the method of determining the cut, every possible care should
be taken to save the trees to be left, including the young trees, from injury during cutting opera-
tions. Some of the ways in which care should be exercised are as follow : 83

1. Tree hould not be felled on top of the young growth. Damage to the advanced growth can be avoided by careful selection of a spot relatively free of young trees in which to drop the top.
2. Care hould be taken in felling not to break branches or skin up the larger trees left standing. Broken bran hes and skinned places caused in a logging operation are the direct cause of defects in the lumber produced in later operations. Such injuries also open the way for insect attack.
3. The arne precautions hould be taken to prevent injury to trunk and loss of limbs by tractors and other equipment and tool .
4. The mall material used for pry poles, stakes, eros -lay , etc., hould be obtained from the less de irable tree and pecie , saving the better trees for future growth .
5. Care should be taken not to pile brush on young growth since it may mother it or deform the growing trees. Young trees bent over by brush and tops hould be freed.
6. During period of extended dry weather, care hould be taken not to pile pine tops close to living pine trees since this may make it easier for pine beetle to attack and kill the living trees.
In times of drought, ( l month or more of a rain deficiency of l" or more), it is usually advi able to stop logging operations of pines to prevent serious pine beetle infestation.
7. Do not permit awdust to pile up around living trees, for it will kill them.
8. Be espec1all)' careful witl> fire since the tops from felled tree add materially to the heat of a forest fire.

I. PROCEDURE FOR WORKING ONES OW TREES FOR GUM

Living slash pine and longleaf pine tree yield a gum which is converted into valuable products including tmpentine, ro in and pine oils. In the pa t the harve ting of gum was the primary, and sometimes the only use made of the tree in the tand. Current trends in management are toward selecting the trees to be cut as previously described and working them for gum before cutting.

Under thi approach, the trees are selected for cutting three to five years ahead of the actual cutting operation . Trees marked for cutting, which are suitable for gum production, are turpentined three to five years and then cut. The same process may be followed for ucceeding cuts. There are a few determination that should be made.

Good Naval Stores Practice; Bark chipped, acid used to stimulate gum flow, curved gutter, doubleheaded nails, rust free cup.

l. Is a Cupping Operation Feasible? After the trees to be cut are marked the land owner should determine whether or not there are sufficient cupable trees to justify an opera
tion. The expected gum yield is indicated in the
following table. Unless the owner has sufficieol

84

trees available on his own or neighbor's lands to yield at least ten barrels of gum annually, a cupping operation may not be practical.
2. Are Gum Markets and Cupping Equipment Available? If the owner believes he ha sufficient trees to start a cupping operation, he should be checked with the nearest gum processing plant as to the expected returns for the gum. They will usually arrange to supply him with needed equipment and materials. They may also arrange to haul his gum from the farm to the proces ing plant. If the owner has a feasible operation, but decides not to work the trees himself, he can arrange to lease cupping rights to someone else.
TABLE 26 GUM YIELD FROM SLASH AND LONG-
LEAF PINE, BARK CHIPPED AND TREATED WITH ACID EVERY TWO WEEKS

D. B. H.
9 10 11 12 13

Barrels of gum per 10,000 cups

Slash

Longleaf

130

150

167

180

190

222

278

266

266

255

Face width lJs of circumference.

1. Selecting the Trees for Cupping.

a. Cup all suitable trees which are

marked to be cut - preferably trees 9 inches

d.b.h. or larger. Yields increase with the dia-

meter. b. Cup only the trees to be removed in

the next improvement operation. c. Select trees with good crowns and not

over 5 degree lean from vertical. d. Cup only where there is an average of
20 or more faces available per acre.

Acid Spraying on Barked Chipped Face.

e. Cull non-productive trees at time of evaluation of cups.

2. Installing the Cups.

a. Install cups in December or January. b. A lead streak should be put on when cup is elevated.

3. Making the Streaks.

a. Bark chipping and acid stimulation is recommended over wood chipping.
b. Individual streaks should not be over 1;2 to 3;4 inches high.
c. Chip regularly.

85

d. Delay first streak until 3 to 6 weeks after lead streak. e. Start regular treaking in March, depending on weather. f. e cup covers when streaking. g. Keep chips and bark from gum. h. Maintain vertical sides to edge of streaks, because it saves gum and the face of the tree. 4. Dipping Gum. a. Dip on 4 or 5 treaks or as necessary depending on gum flow. b. Prevent waste of gum through overflow. c. Scrape is removed at end of season. d. Cups are elevated after faces are scraped. e. Keep the gum clean of dirt, bark, chips, and ru t. 5. Securing Tools and Equipment. Rust resistant cups and gutters, double headed nails, hogal, bark hack, cup cover, acid spray gun, dip paddle, dip buckets, and dip barrels are necessary.
86

Job IX - Utilizing Forest Products for Home and Farm Needs
A. VALUE OF FOREST PRODUCTS FOR HOME USE.
The farm itself offers the best market for products from the farm wodland. Lumber in the home and farm buildings for protection of the family and livestock; posts for fencing stock and guarding cultivated crops; fuelwood for warming the family and cooking the food are needs of most farms. Wood is useful in so many ways that it would be difficult and expensive to run the farm without it growing right there at hand. Lumber used from the farm costs the farmer only about one-half as much as lumber purchased at the mill. Most mill operators, doing custom sawing, will saw the lumber on shares - usually on 50-50 basis. Fence posts and fuelwood likewise bring a better return when used on the farm.

TABLE 27 ESTIMATED QUANTITIES OF WOOD USED ANNUALLY ON THE AVERAGE FARM

Item

Units

Number

Volume in Cords

Lumber

Board feet

1000

2

Posts

Pieces

80

1.3

Fuelwood

Cords

10

10

TOTAL

13.3

Fuelwood constitutes a substantial part of the annual farm requirement for wood. Fuelwood does not require either strength or durability. While some trees give higher heat values than others. A sound basis for selection of wood for fuel should be that it will not serve for higher or more profitable uses. Fuelwood should be obtained from thinnings, weedings, and sanitation cuttings or it should be obtained from otherwise unused tops, limbs, slabs or wasted portions of the tree. Farmers are beginning to use saw dust and chipped wood as a means of supplying humus to the soil.
A cord of wood cut from low grade trees may remove a product that could not otherwise be sold or used. Its removal should release growing space for more valuable trees.
A cord of wood cut from high grade trees may remove as much as 500 board feet of lumber.
With good timber selling @ $20 on the stump, that cord of wood amounts to $10 worth of salable
products. Ten cords as an average year's wood supply thus remove $100 worth of stumpage.
87

B. WHAT HOME USES TO MAKE OF FARM FOREST PRODUCTS

l. Farm Uses and Desired Wood Properties. The following table gives a li t of the more com mon farm uses for wood products and the wood properties desirable in each .

TABLE 28 PROPERTIES OF WOOD REQUIRED FOR DIFFERENT FARM USES

Farm Use General Farming Equipment support & sills, flooring framing, rafters, siding, shingles, bridging and underpinning Fence posts and stack posts (untreated) Gates and fence boards
Well Platforms
Fuelwood

Properties of wood required Medium decay resistance, medium bending strength, splintering, resistance, and hardness.
High decay resistance, medium bending strength, high nailholding, properties, and narrow sapwood. Moderate bending strength, medium decay and weather resistance, high nailholding properties, and freedom from warp. High decay resistance and good bending strength. High heat value and splits readily.

Bending strength is the load-carrying capacity of wood when used in a horizontal position and resting on two or more supports. Bending strength applies to items such as bridge stringers, scaffold platforms, etc.
Stiffness i the property which resists deflection and applies especially to items such as beams, rafters, floor joi ts, ladder side rails and axe handles.
Endwise compressive strength applies to the carrying capacity of wood when loaded endwise of the grain, as in posts used for building foundations.
Toughness is the ability of a wood to withstand suddenly applied loads and shocks such as are subjected to tool handles, wheel spokes, and wagon tongues.
Decay resistance is of considerable importance to all farm operators. It costs just as much to build porches, construct bridges and build form buildings with timber subject to decay as with decay resistant or treated timber. Replacement is less frequent with decay resistant material. For example, it has been estimated that the average annual requirement of untreated fence posts is 80 per farm. If durable posts were used, they should last 10 - 20 years and replacement would be at the rate of about 12 posts per year, a material saving in labor.

2. Relative Bending Strength of Different Wootl~. Because of its importance in many ann uses, and its approximate correlation with other strength properties (most wood high in bending strength are also high in stiffness, compressive strength, and toughness.) Common woods are classified according to relative bending strengt.i1 as follows:

88

TABLE 29 BENDING STRENGTH OF DIFFERENT WOODS

High Bending Strength
Ash, white Beech Elm Hickory Locust Maple, hard Oak Pine, Southern Walnut

Intermediate Bending Strength
Ash, green Cedar, red Cypress Gum, red Hackberry Hemlock, Eastern Poplar, yellow Sycamore Tupelo

Low Bending Strength
Bas wood Cedar, white Chestnut Cottonwood Maple, red

3. Other Strength Properties of Different Woods. Wood having other strength properties are classified as follows:

TABLE 30 STIFFNESS, COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH, AND TOUGHNESS OF WOODS

High in Stiffness
Ash, white Beech Elm Hickory Locust Maple, hard Oak Pine, Southern Walnut

High in Compressive Strength
Ash, white Cedar, Eastern red Hickory Locust Maple, hard Pine, Southern Walnut

High in Toughness
Ash, white & green Beech Elm, soft and rock Hackberry Hickory Oak Walnut

4. Special Qualities for Certain W oods

TABLE 31 NAIL HOLDING, HARDNESS AND HEARTWOOD OF WOODS

High in Nail Holding

High in Hardness

High in Heartwood

Ash, white Beech Elm Hickory Maple, hard & soft Oak, white & red Pine, southern Sycamore Tupelo

Ash, white & Green Beech Cedar, eastern red Hackberry Hickory Locust Maple, hard & soft Oak, white & red Pine, Southern Sycamore Tupelo Walnut

Cedar, Southern Pine Chestnut Black locusts

89

5. Decay Resistance of Different Woods. Natural durability varies widely with factors uch as exposure conditions (wood placed in wet and poorly drained location rot more rapidly), the kind of fungi which cause the decay, and the percentage of heartwood. Following is a durability cia iiication of common woods (heartwood only) based on service under conditions favorable to decay.

TABLE 32
DECAY RESISTANCE OF VARIOU (heartwood only)

WOODS

High in Decay Resistance*

Intermediate in decay Resistance

Cedar, Red Che tnut Cypres Locust, black Oak, post Walnut Mulberry 0 age Orange Sa safras

Elm, soft & rock Gum, red Locust, honey Pine, Southern Oak, white

* Heartwood only sap wood of all species decay rapidly.

Low in Decay Resistance
Ash, white & green Basswood Beech Cottonwood Hemlock Hickory Maple Oak, red Poplar, yellow

6. Heating Qualities of Different Woods. The relative value of the different trees for heating purposes is given in the table: (Applies to dry wood only).

Kind of Wood
Hickory Oak Beech Birch Hard Maple Ash Elm Locust Longleaf Pine

TABLE 33 HEATING QUALITIES OF WOOD

Heating Equivalent of 1 Cord
1 ton of coal

Kind of Wood
Shortleaf Pine Red Gum Sycamore Soft Maple Sweet Gum Cherry

Cedar Poplar Cypress Basswood White Pine

Heating Equivalent of 1 Cord 2f3 ton of coal
1/2 ~f)n of coal

Green wood fresh from the woodlot should be dried for a period of 6 months. Large sticks should be split to speed up drying. Sticks should be piled on skids off the ground. The piles should be located on high dry ground and exposed to the wind and sun.
90

C. PROCEDURE FOR DRYING AND STORING FOREST PRODUCT

Lumber properly dried and kept will stain, check, warp and decay.

dry

will

not

decay.

If

not

properly

dried

and

ke t p

d ry,

1urnber

Lumber may be satisfactorily dried when properly piled in the open air and left for a 00 of 60 to 90 days. All lumber gives off moisture to the surrounding air or take it up until th:e.::is-

ture in the lumber comes in balance with that in the air. The rate at which expo d lumber gives

off moi ture depends upon air drynes , temperature and wind. These factor vary with locality

easons, and method of piling.

'

Lumber is dried by circulation of air through the pile. Horizontal circulation of air i caused primarily by local wind currents and is influenced by variation in yard layout, foundation con truction and piling methods. Vertical circulation is caused by increased air activity as evaporation cools the pile and air. This cau e a downward flow of air and can be regulated somewhat by altering vertical air passage within the pile and by altering pile foundations.

Two methods of piling are considered - flat piling and end racking. Flat piling is used almost univer ally. The drying rate is relatively slow. The weight of the pile tends to keep the boards from warping. Flat piling i uited to species that are likely to check, honeycomb, or warp. Most hardwoods are in this category, especially oak, beech, hickory and sycamore. It is less suited to pecies that are susceptible to ap stain. Among these are the pines, and soft hardwoods.

1. Flat-Piling Lumber
a. Choose a well-drained site. b. Free site of brush and weeds. c. Scrape area of pile to bare, firm soil. d. Build firm, decay-proof foundation. e. Elevate front foundation 18" from ground. Establish foundation on slope toward rear of 1" to 1'. f. Pile lumber so that top front gradually extends out over base at rate of 1" to 1'. g. Keep front end of boards even across pile with none projecting to lead water into pile. h. Insofar as practical, pile separately by species and thickness. i. Build up tiers of boards separated by flues from top to bottom of pile, flues between tiers averaging 4" in width. j. Stickers used across pile to separate layers of boards should be l" x 2" for soft woods and 1" x ll/2" for hardwoods. They should be air dried for at least a week before used in piling. k. Roof pile, by laying crosswise, 2" x 4" at front, middle and rear and covering with double layer of low-value boards. Have these overlap in rear by 21j2' and front by 1'. l. Keep area free of weeds and other obstructions to flow of air.
2. End-Racking Lumber
Lumber piled on end is comparable to a flat pile tipped on end. End piling is economical of labor and gives relatively fast, though not uniform, drying. Lumber can be brought to a condition where stain will be relatively minor in 3 to 15 days. The lumber can then be flat-piled.

a. Choose a well-drained site. b. Free site of brush and weeds.

91

c. rape area to bar , firm oil. d. Floor th area with cull tock. Allow several days for floor to dry. e. Con truct a central ra k to lean the board again t. f. tand layer of board again t the central ra k. g. tand ucce ive layer of board , separating them by cro ticker . h. upport cro s ticker on horizontal board at height of central rack, held in place by supporting tick . 1. Tear down end-racked pile after 10 to 15 day , depending on dryne of weather. j. Flat-pile the lumber.
When lumber i properly air dried, tore in a dry, well-ventilated building until u ed.
Round product uch a fence posts and pole hould b peeled, Lacked on supports to allow free air circulation until air-dry - about 2-4 month .

FIGURE 36

FIGURE 37

Flat pile of hardwood , upported of log and cross beams.
Base u ed in flat piling: A, temporary base B, permanent base. 92

FIG RE 38
End Racks of Lumber. D. REASO FOR PRE ERVATIVE TREATMENT OF FOREST
PRODUCTS FOR HOME SE Preservative Treatment for Wood. The principal wood de troying agencies of interest to us in thi text are fungi and in ect . Wood properly dried and kept dry generally will not rot. The heartwood of certain species as black locust, white oak, cedar, chestnut, and cypress have high resistance to G.ecay. However, even the e may be destroyed by fungi under conditions favorable to its growth. Termite will de troy any wood expo ed to termit infe ted soil. Any of our woods may be treated with per ervative which will add many year to their period of ervice. The pine and oft hardwoods are especially ea y to treat and give service comparable to the more decay re i tant wood . There are many chemical compound that may be used to treat wood to prevent decay. For the purpose of thi text, only two, coal tar creo ote and pentechlorophenol, will be con idered. Either one will a ure 20 or more year of ervice with properly treated wood. Creosote is so destructive to fungi that it may be mixed with cheaper oils a an extender. Creosote has a di advantage for some u e in that it has a strong odor. Wood soaked in pentechlorophenol or copper naphthalate will resist attacks by termites. Odor from wood treated with these chemicals will disappear in open air.
93

Job X - Marketing Forest Products

A. IMPORTANCE OF GOOD MARKET! G PRACTICES

There are many products that may be sold from a farm forest. They include such products as sawlogs, veneer bolts, poles, pulpwood and naval store ~ Some farmers develop special markets for fence posts and stack poles, etc. Enterprising children have at times worked up a market for Christmas trees and Christmas decorations. The sale of forest products adds to farm profits, and contributes raw materials for industry to manufacture into useful products. The owner's decisions and marketing practices determine in large measure the future productivity of hi woodland, as well as his immediate ca h return.
The various methods of managing a forest when harvesting it products have been discussed in a previous unit. As a general rule the e discussions point to con ervative cutting practices conceived to keep the woodland fully productive and to maintain and improve the quality of products grown.
B. WHAT PRODUCTS TO SELL FROM THE FOREST

Almo t any merchantable stand will contain a variety of product . Most tands if large enough to provide a merchantable cut have both pulpwood and sawlogs. Many stands a they grow larger will have some trees suitable for poles and or veneer. Market each product as it becomes available. From the young stand, market fuel wood, stack pole , and pulpwod as thining and improvement cuttings. As the tand grows, market larger products such a sawlogs and poles. From the more mature stand, market veneer bolts, piling, and large logs. The older stand would al o yield smaller products such as pulpwood from tops and smaller tree .

Products vary materially in the price that they will bring. Generally peaking, saw logs will bring more per unit of volume than smaller products, such as pulpwood and fuelwood. Large awlogs, veneer bolts and poles usually bring still higher prices. Large log , with a high percentage of choice lumber, should bring premium prices. A comparison of the returns from wood sold as pulpwood and as lumber is given in the following table. The prices for either product may vary from those quoted in the table, and local values hould be computed to give the current local companson.
TABLE 34 COMPARSION OF STUMPAGE VALUES, WITH PULPWOOD SELLING AT $5 PER STANDARD
CORD AND SAWTIMBER SELLING AT $20 PER THOUSAND BOARD FEET

D.B.H. (Inches)

Number of
Trees

Pulpwood

Volume

Value

In Cord

Per Tree

Sawtimber

Board Feet Per Tree

Value Per Tree

6

33

8

13

10

7

12

4

14

3

16

2

1

$ .15

1

.38

18

$ .36

1

.71

32

.64

1

1.25

82

1.64

1

1.67

146

2.92

1

2.50

219

4.38

94

The compari on 1 predicated on the a sumption that the tree in each ca e c ld be

ood e1ther pulpwood or lumber. There are, of cour e, trees or portiOn of tree where thiosui

tuh for

Small tree from thinnings may have no value for sawlogs. A few larger trees in a stand n;t le

ized trees may find no ready buyers for sawlogs.

0 pu pw

The top of pine trees, and some culls, in a saw timber size tand may find a market only a

pulpwood. An example of the pulpwood that may be salvaged from the tops of sawtimber tre .
p-:1 given in the table below. In thi example sawtimber i utilized to a 6" top diameter and

wood to a 4" d"tameter.

p-

D.B.H.
10 12 14

TABLE 34A PULPWOOD FROM TOP (TO 4" DIAMETER)
OF SAW TIMBER TREES

Volume of Pulpwood

Cubic Feet Per Tree

Number Tree Top Required To Make A Cord of Salvaged Wood

4.8

19

6.5

15

7.7

13

If aw timber is only utilized to an 8" or 10" top diameter the amount of wood that might be alvaged for pulpwood would be materially greater than given in the table.

The owner might properly decide to ell a pulpwood all the tree marked for cutting from his young tand. A few of them might be worth more as sawlogs, but, if the volume in sawlog size is inadequate to interest a buyer then the owner would do well to ell all as pulpwood. Based on the same rea oning the owner might decide to ell all the tree in a mall awlog stand a awlogs even though a few might be worth more as pole .

The question of whether there is a merchantable volume of veneer bolt , poles, sawlogs, or pulpwood is one to be an wered by the buyers. Minimum operable volume of aw timber, when a mill is to be et up on the property, i omewhere around 1000 board feet per acre, with a mini mum total volume of 50,000 board feet. Minimum operable volume of pulpwood is ordinarily three cord per acre and a minimum total cut of 16 cord or one car load. The minimum volume natur ally varie with operators and other con ideration .

Th farmer hould aim to ell timber product when the market for them is up, and when prices are low he hould let the tree grow. Price for fore t product have had their rises and declines along with pro perity of the times. Over the past 50 years they have gradually increased. The existing situation of depleting upplies of sawtimber-pine, white oak, yellow poplar and other species ugge t that the price for large, quality product will continue upward. Meanwhile, if the owner delays the sale of well formed, well spaced tree they will continue to increa e in size and value.

After the farmer has looked over his woods and decided that he has products that might make up a ale he should check with the local fore ter and local buyer of various products. He should
be sure he ha a market for hi products before he cuts. Forest products deteriorate rapidly once the
tree i killed or felled. Decay and insects attack promptly. Once the tree is dead or down the owner

95

may be for ed to ell at a low price or lo e the value of the produ t. B for making a ale the owner hould mea ure hi product .
C. HOW TO MARKET FOREST PRODUCT
The woodland owner ha two major choices in the method of selling hi fore t products. He can ell the tanding tree , or ell product in partially proce ed form, uch a logs, pulpwood, veneer bolt , and board . If old a partially fini hed product the owner may ll them at orne point of delivery a log kidd ed to a log landing deck, pulpwood d livered to the car, and lumber delivered to the concentration yard .
l. elling Timber Prodncts as Stumpage in tanding Trees. Mo t timber i old a tumpage in tanding tree . Both buyer and eller readily under tand thi method . Under thi y tern the owner 11 certain tree agreed upon for an agreed upon price. Th timber buy r a sume the re pon i bility of logging the area. The owner has no respon ibilitie except tho e re erved to him in hi contract, and u uall tho e re ervation refer to upervi ion to in ure protection of leave tand, fence , and oil and water re our e .
The tre old are de cribed by the owner, either on a diameter ba i or a marked tree ba i . Both the owner and th e operator need to know the volume of ea h product, and where pertinent, the quality. Accordingly the volume of product must be determined by mea urement to in ure a ound deci ion in a tumpage ale. The ale of timber a tumpage may offer one ob tacle in that each operator tend to want to cut only one product. The pulpwood man may want to cut all de ignated trees into pulpwood, even though orne might bring a better price for awlogs pole , or other pro duct . The awmill man may wi h to buy most of the tlee for awlog even though orne tree mi ght yield higher price from the pole buyer. The sawmill man may not want to bother cutting the tree that hould be removed a pulpwood. The pole man may want to cream the b t tree from the tand and leave too little good aw timber to interest the sawmill man . Good practice suggests that all tree that should orne out, be marked and measured according to the products available. Bids hould be obtained from all intere ted partie . The bidder offering the be t bid, all thing con idered, hould be awarded the ale.
When tree are properly selected a already et forth in previou chapter this method work quite ati factorily. The sale of stumpage has the advantage that once the owner and operator agree on the ale, there i no further nece sity on the part of the owner to be cone rned with the volume of timber products.
2. elling Timber Products With the Understanding That They will be Measured in the Form Into Which They are Cut. A considerable volume of timber i old at an agreed upon price per unit of product. Thu an owner with pulpwood for ale will sell the pulpwood at o much per cord or other unit of mea ure. The pulpwood is cut from tree designated by the owner. The pulp wood bolt are measured at a de ignated place, usually before leaving the owners woodland. Log may be sold and measured ~n the same manner. Sometimes the log are carri d to the operator' mill and sawed into lumber and then measured in board feet as lumber.
When the timber i sold and measured as cut product - awlog , lumber, veneer bolts, pulpwood, etc., the owner may have continuing responsibility for measuring and checking on the volume removed from his property. When the timber is old on the ba is that it will be cut into lumber and measured, the owner ha a still further concern a to whether the operator obtains as much volume and quality lumber a po ible.
96

D. WHAT PRICE TO PLACE ON THE PRODU CT
The price that an operator or indu try can pay for fore t product depends on many factor . Price for fore t product will be relatively high (1 ) when times are pro perous and there i much u e of lumber a in construction. (2) when lumber i not readil y available from other regions a the We t Coa t. (3) When the timber for sale is of high quality, i.e., desired pecie uch a pine, white oak, yellow poplar; large ize trees; and tree trunk relatively free of knot - in short trees that will cut out a high percentage of clear wood products free of knots and other defect . (4) When the timber for ale in a given tract is readily acces ible over good road in fairly large volume and the distance to be hauled i not great. When the e condition are reversed the price will be relatively low.
An owner in his early improvement cuttings, should mark many low quality trees for for harvest. He should be willing to accept orne deduction in price in order to have the low quality trees removed. Later on, the owner may obtain relatively better prices for the better quality products grown through con ervative harve ting.
The many factor involved in arriving at a price for timber products make it extremely difficult to lay down a set of rules or guide to follow in deciding on a price. The owner with timber to sell will do well to inquire around to find out what timber of similar quality and accessibility is bringing. Hi neighbor who have sold timber, the local timber buyers, and the local forester are logical source of information. Data thus obtained will give a range of values as a guide, or the owner might determine the price he would have to pay for lumber and then obtain figures on the co t for logging and milling. Subtracting the e co ts with due allowance for operator services and profit, will give a calculated appraisal. The owner should have a fair range of values in mind before contacting a buyer. If the price offered is too far below a fair appraisal, it is a afe bet that the growing timber will return more at a later date.
E. MARKLNG TREES FOR CUTTING
If the owner's deci ion i to sell selected trees then tho e trees should be clearly de ignated. One good way to de ignate the trees to be cut is to use marking paint. A pot of paint is made with a bru h or paint spray gun about head high so that the owner and the timber buyer and his loggers can readily pick out the tree to be cut. The tree is also marked near the ground a a means of checking on the cutters. Sub equent discussion of estimation of volume is intended to refer to the trees designated for cutting. Should the owner want a record of leave trees they may be separately recorded and calculated.
F. MEASURING FOREST PRODUCTS
Measure forest products either ( 1) before the sale is made or (2) at orne time and stage in the logging proce s when the owner can be certain of getting fair and full measure with reasonable convenience.
l. Estimating the Volume of Saw Timber in Standing Trees.
The volume of sawtimber in standing trees is estimated by doing three steps (a) measuring the tree at breast height. (b) estimating the number of merchantable 16 foot logs, and (c) reading the volume in board feet from a prepared table.
97

Marking Tree for Cutting
a. Measure the Diameter at Breast Height. A diameter tape tran lates the mea ured circum ference into an average diameter through the center of the tree; a Biltmore tick held against the bark gives a reading equal to the diameter through the tree parallel to the tick.
98

log

b. Determine with a , (8 feet long) using

Biltmore stick a cale on the

the number side. After a

of merchantable log number of careful

m(e1a6ufreemt eInong~an~

half

owner may be able to e timate the number of log in each tree by ey . The timber ' limber

check him elf from time to time. (Figure 40)

owner hould

Figure 39

FIGURE 40

Measuring Standard Tree With Biltmore Stick

E timating Number of Log m Tree.

c. A each tree i measured, talley it on a form ( ee below). In tallying a 16 inch one-log tree, the tally man would run hi eye down to 16 in the fir t column on the left and then across to a 1 under number of log . He would enter a dot for 1 tree. Succeeding trees would be recorded with the following sy tern, known a the dot and quare sy tern.

1 2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10





99

When the tree m a tand are all mea ured and tallied, the tally heet might appear a follow .

TABLE 35 AWTIMBER TALLY SHEET FOR STA DI G TIMBER

Diameter

Numbet: 16-Foot Logs

at 4lj~ Ft.

1

2

3

4

5

Inche

10

2l 11

12 t8l' 12 ~ ~2,s.

14 16 18 20





...2

..........


1 ,.

1



5 ~ 11

3 2

~ ......


10 5

1

#

2

22

d. Look up the volume in the Volume Table (see Table 36 following) and compute the total volume. Thus, a 10 inch one-log tree from the table ha 30 board feet. Eleven uch trees have 11 x 30 board feet or 330 board feet. The volumes by ize clas es are computed by thi procedure. They are then totaled to give the total volume.
TABLE 36

TREE VOLUME TABLE SCRIBNER DECIMAL C.* RULE SECOND GROWTH SOUTHERN PINE-FORM CLASS 80.

D.B.H.

Inche

1

10

3

12

5

14

7

16 10

18 13

20 16

Number of 16 foot loss

2

3

4

5

(Board feet per tree* )

5 9 12 13 17 18 23 27 23 30 34 29 38 43

D.B.H. Inche
22 24 26 28 30

Number of 16 foot log

1

2

3

4

5

(Board feet per tree* )

20 35 47 54 24 44 58 68 74 29 54 71 82 92 33 64 86 96 110 39 76 100 115 132

*Multiply values by 10: Example, 10" d.b.h. wi th 1-16 foot log, 3 x 10- 30 board feet.

100

2. Measuring the Vo lume of Lumber in The Logs.

FIG RE 4]

awlog,. and orne other product are often old by numb r of board f t a m a ured
in the log. A board foot contains 144 cubic
inche . For example, a pie e of lumber on inch thi k tw lve inche wid and twelve inche long equal a board foot.

a. Mea ure the diameter of the log and the length of the log in feet. The diameter of the log i mea ured in ide the bark at th mall nd . in e th nd of th log i u uall not a perfect cir I , two mea urement ar u ually taken, on a ro th wide t diameter of the circl and one aero the nanowe l diamet r. Then th two m a ur m nt ar averag d. Th 1 ngth of th log i m a ur d in ev n feel aft r allowing about 3 inch at the end for trim.

b. R ord the m a ured log on a log Lally heet uch as th one hown below. The record i made following the pro edure for tree cale tally.

Diameter of log mall end in ide bark (in he )

TABLE 37
TALLY HEET FOR
umber of Log By Length in Feet

8

10

12

14

16

18

6

7 8

au

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17
101

c. Determine the volume in board feet for a log in a given ize, diameter and length from the table below. Thu a log 8 inche in diameter and 8 feet long has a volume in the table of 10 board feet. The 21 logs in this clas would then have 210 board feet. Each ize class is computed in this way. The everal volume are added to give the total volume.
TABLE 38
LOG VOLUME TABLE
contents of logs, in board feet, by the Scribner decimal C log ru.le

Diameter of log small end, inside
bark (inches)

Oontents, according to length of Jog in feet
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 20
-- ------ ~ ------- -- -- - --
Bd./t. Bd./t. Bd./t. Bd./t. Bd.[t. Bd.[t. Bd./t. Bd./t. Bd./t. Bd./t. Bd./t. Bd.[t.

869170___-___.-_-____-___-_______-__-___-________-___-____-____-____-____-_____-____-___-___-__-____-----

5 10 10 20 30

5 10 10 20 30

10 10 20 30 30

10 20 20 30 30

10 20 20 30 30

10 20 20 30 40

10 20 20 30 40

10 20 20 30 50

20 30 30 40 60

20 30 30 40 60

20 30 30 40 60

20 30 30 40 70

! ! _________________ 12 _________________ 13 _________________ 14 _________________ 15. ____________ ____

_____----

30 40 50 60

- 70

30 40 50 60 80

40 40 40 50 50 50 60 60 60 70 70 80 70 80 90 90 98 100 110 120

50 70 80 100 120

60 70 90 110 130

70 80 100 110 140

70 80 100 120 150

80 90 110 130 160

80 100 120 140 180

16 __________________ _ 17__ ________________ _

80

18________ __________ _
19 __________________ _ 20 _____ _____________ _

90 110 120

90 100 120 130

100 120 130 150

110 130 150 160

120 140 160 180

130 150 170 190

140 160 170 190 210 230

140 160 190 210 240

150 170 200 220 260

160 180 210 240 280

170 200 230 250 300

180 210 240 270 310

200 230 270
300 350

21 __________________ _ 22 __________________ _ 23 __________________ _
24______ __ _____ _____ _ 25 __________________ _

150 170 190 210

170 190 210 230

190 210
230 250

210 230 260 280

230 250 280 300

250 270 310 330

230 260 290 310 340 370

270 290 330 350
400

280 310 350 380 430

300 330 380 400 460

320 350 400 430 490

340 380 420 450 520

380 420 470
500
570

26 __________________ _ 27 __________________ _ 28. _________________ _ 29 __________________ _ 30 __________________ _

250 270 290 310 330

280 310 330 350 370

310 340 360 380 410

340 380 400 420 450

370 410 440 460 490

410 440 470 490 530

440 480 510 530 570

470 510 540 570 620

500
550 580 610 660

530 580 620 650 700

560 620 650 680 740

620 680 730 760 820

31 __________________ _ 32__________________ _ 33 __________________ _
34 __________________ _ 35 __________________ _

360 370 390 400

440

400 410 440 450 490

440 460 490
500
650

490 510 540 550 600

530 550 590 600 660

580 600 640 650 710

620 640 690 700 770

670 690 730 750 820

710 740 780 800 880

750 780
830 850 930

800 890 830 920 880 9 0 900 1, 000 980 1,090

36__________________ _ 460 520 580 630 690 750 810 860 920 980 1,040 1,150

3378..~_-_-__-_-_-_-_-_-_-_--_-_-_-_-_-_-_ 39 __________________ _
40-------- - -- --------

510 540
:I

580 600 630 680

640 670 700 750

710 730 770 830

770 800 840 900

840 900 960 1,030 1,090 1,160 1, 290 870 930 1, 000 1,070 1,130 1, 200 1,330 910 980 1,050 1, 120 1,190 1,'260 1, 400 980 1, 050 1, 130 1, 200 1, 280 1, 350 1, 500

102

d. elect a log rule to u e in mea uring tree... and log .

In thi text the Scribner Decimal C. rule i u ed to compute the volume of aw timber in log and tree . There are other rules. The three most widely u ed in the South are Doyle, cribner, and International. They differ con iderably.

A comparison of the three well known log rule a applied to outhern Pin following table.

aiv n m tb

TABLE 39
BOARD FOOT CONTENTS OF 16 FT. LOGS
BY INTERNATIO AL 1/.i, INCH, SCRIBNER, AND DOYLE LOG RULE

D.B.H. Inches
8 9 10 11 12 13 14

International
1;4 inch
39 51 64 80 97 116 136

cribner
30 42 55 70 86 104 123

Doyle
16 25 36 49 64 81 100

D.B.H. In che
15 16 17 18 19 20

International
l;J inch
157 181 205 232 260 290

ribner
144 166 189 216 243 272

Doyle
121 144 169 196 225 256

It hould be noted that the volume of lumber a aw mill man will obtain from a log depend somewhat on hi kill, the width of hi saw, and the amount of wa te resulting from decay, sweep and other defect . It should al o be noted that the awmill man con ider the relative values given for different log rule and he will be willing to pay more per thou and when mea ured by the Doyle rule than when measured by other rules. The U. S. Forest Service use the Scribner rule when measuring national forest timber for ale.
There i another point in the use of tree volume tables. Tree vary in form and hence in the volume of board feet or cubic content. Tree on one site may have a relatively large diameter at breast height and become mailer relatively fast a you mea ure up the stem. On a better site, tree taper more lowly and con equently have more volume of wood for a tree of a given d.b.h. Thus the first log may vary from 80 board feet in a rapidly tapering tree to llO board feet in a slowly tapering tree. The tree scale volume table used for saw timber and pulpwood in this text are for average southern pine. The timber owner may need guidance from a forester in selecting a volume table to u e in e timating his particular stand of trees.

3. Measuring the Lumber As It Is Cut.
There i one further way of elling lumber and that is to mea ure each board after it is cut. Thi method can give accurate re ult . It may prove inconvenient to keep up with the awing - particularly if the logs are sawed el ewhere than on tthe owner~ property. The sawyer may be careless or untrained and not get a much lumber from the logs as h~ should.
a. Measure the board for width, thickne s and length and enter on a form by sizes. b. Compute the volume of a board of each :size. c. Compute the volume of each size class by multiplying by the number of boards of that size. d. Total the several volume for different size to give the overall volume.

103

4. Measuring the Pulpwood.
The following pecification for pulpwood are fairly representative. The farmer will want to obtain specifications from the corhpany with whom he ha a market for pulpwood.
a. Specie : All pecie of Southern Pine. b. Dimen ion: Length- 5' 3"; Diameter, d.i.b., Minimum 4", Maximum 20"; over 20" quartered. c. Preparation: Trimming - knots and branche trimmed Au h; and bucking by saw-reasonably square (axe cut wood not acceptable.) d. Condition : Only sound and rea onably traight tick , and no burned or charred wood. Cat faces accepted only if cleared of charred urface and free of metal.
The procedure used to mea ure pulpwood is much the same a for measuring saw timber. The volume in standing trees may be estimated by (1) recording the everal trees by diameter and number of four foot bolts available and (2) by calculating the volumes using a pulpwood volume table similar to the one hown below.

TABLE 40

PULPWOOD VOLUME TABLE - Rough Wood, in Standard Cords (Top utilization averaging 4 inches inside of bark)

D.B.H. Inches Cords For Different Len8ths Merchantable Stems 16ft. 24ft. 32ft. 40ft. 48ft. 56 ft. 64ft.

6

.02 .04 .05

8

.04 .06 .08 .10 .12

10

.06 .09 .12 .15 .18 .21

12

.12

.17

.21

.25

.29

.33

14

.16

.21

.27

.32

.37

.43

16

.20 .26 .33 .40 .46 .53

If the farmer decides to use the above table of volumes to calculate his pulpwood then he has to obtain a tally of the pulp trees marked for cutting. He will first prepare a skeleton tally sheet with the diameter and merchantable stem lengths as in Table 40. He will then record each marked tree in its proper place using the tally sy tern explained on page 99. Next he will multiply the volume per d.b.h. and tern length by the number of tallied trees. Finally, he will add all volumes to get his total volume of marked trees. This volume will be in standard cords of wood. A tandard cord of 4 foot stick or bolts measures 4 ft. high by 8 ft. long.
Pulpwood i ometime cut longer than 4'. Some is cut 5' and 3" long, for example.
A volume in tandard cords can be converted to a volume in units of 5' 3" sticks, by multiplying by a factor of .762.
104

A an aid for a quick but not nece sarily accurate estimate of the amount of pulpwood available in a stand the woodland owner might u e the following table in average econd growth pine .

TABLE 41 APPROXIMATE N MBER OF PI E TREES PER CORD OF 128 CUBIC FEET

D.B.H.
5 6 7 8

Number of trees Per cord of 128
cu. ft.
42 22 14
10

D.B.H.
9
10
ll 12

umber of tree Per cord of 128
cu. ft.
7 6 5 4

The procedure would be ( 1) tally the number of trees marked for ale by diameter classes 5", 6", etc., (2) divide the number of trees tallied for each diameter cla s by the number of trees required in that inch cla s, (See column 2) to give the number of standard cords, and (3) add the number of cord for the everal inch cla se to give a total volume for sale. Thi procedure will give a rough idea, perhap good enough for the purpo e of inviting a purchaser in to look over the timber. The sale might then be made at a tated price per cord and with the product actually measured after cutting. Pulpwood may be mea ured when piled in the woods or when loaded in trucks. With 4' stick the face measurement for a cord i 32 quare feet. A unit with 5' 3" stick also has a 32 square foot face measurement. Wood piled on a truck or anywhere el e, can be measured to determine the number of square feet hown on one side of the pile. The average length time the average height will give the quare feet, and this figure divided by 32 will tran late the measurement into cords or units.

G. OFFER! G THE TIMBER FOR SALE I BIDS
When the owner ha decided that he ha sufficient timber to make a ale, and, when he has measured the product, or if it is to be measured a cut, he should obtain bid .
Ordinarily the owner should adverti e his timber so that he will obtain bids from several buyers. The owner can advertise through the local papers, or he can contact the several buyer and other informed people in the commu~ity. Different buyer often sell different products, some worth more and some worth less. Some operators can log more cheaply than others. The more efficient logger, and
the operator who makes a higher priced product will ordinarily be able to pay a higher price for tim-
ber. Competition between buyers is likely to result in a higher return for the products sold.
If the amount bid does not reasonably meet the fair range of price the owner worked out for his apprai al then he simply need not sell.
The owner hould examine some of the tands cut by prospective buyer to determine the care which they give to the trees that are left. One logger may be far more careful than another in protecting the trees that are to be left. The owner who plans to grow another crop of timber may select the careful operator even though he gets a little less for the trees marked. uch reduction in immediate return hould properly be considered as investment in succeeding crops.
105

H. CONTRACTING WITH THE BUYER
A wellprepared contract force the buyer and eller to think over the problem which may arise. Con ideration in advance help prevent misunder tanding .
A contract of ale may not be neces ary when the buyer and the eller have known each other for a long time and have a ound ba is for mutual trust and confidence. There is no better ba is for busi ness tran action than fair and honest dealing. Men with a reputation for uch dealing do not require a contract to in ure a fair deal all around. Where uch confidence i not a sured, the woodland owner will do well to have a contract, signed by the buyer and the seller and at least one witne s.
Regardle of th ize of the timber ale, the following information hould be con idered m the agreement for the be t intere t of all parties concerned.
Name and addre e of contracting parties. Date and place contract was igned. Guarantee of ownership of timber and payment of taxe and other fixed charge , and right of ingre and egres . Location and de cription of products being sold. Method of measurement to be used to determine volume of product sold. Method of payment, including rate per unit, time, place, and in what amounts. Restlictions regarding cutting, logging, milling, and removal of products from the property, in eluding period allowed for harvest and provision for exten ions. Penalti for damage or ontract violation. U e re triction on contract and other areas. Provision for fir prevention and control. Performance bond or guarantee of compliance. Method of adjustment of disputes or disagreements. Following i a ample Timber Sale Agreement. It will apply to any forest product.

SAMPLE TIMBER SALE AGREEME T

--------------------------------------------------- ' of ------------------------------------------------ _______________ ---------------------------

([or we)

ame of Purcha er)

(Post Office)

( tate)

hereinafter called the purchaser, agree to purcha e from -------------------------------------------------------------

( eller's name)

of ___________ -------------------------------- ____, --------------------------------------- hereinafter called the seller, the

( Po t Office)

( tate)

designated tree from the area described below.

I. De cription of Sales Area:

( Describe by legal ubdivi ions, if surveyed, and approximat e, if not)

II. Tree de ignated for cutting: (Cro s out A orB- use only one clause) A. All ------------------- tree marked by the eller, or hi agent, with paint pots below stump
( p cies )
106

height; al o dead trees of the arne pec1e which are merchantable for

B.

All ..................... trees merchantable for



(Kind of for

____----- _ __

1

product )

.

( pecie )

.

.

( ~ind of for t product )

whiCh mea ure .................... mche or more outside the bark at a pomt not le than 6 inche abov the ground; al o other - tree marked with paint spots below tump h ight by th ell r or
( pecie )

hi agent.

III. Conditions of Sale:
A. The purchaser agree to the following: l. To pay the eller the sum of $.......... .................. for the above-described tree and to mak payment in advance of cutting in amounts of at lea e $............................ each. 2. To waive all claim to the above-described tree unless they are cut and removed on or b . fore .......................................................................
(date)
3. To do all in hi power to prevent and suppress forest fire on or threatening the Sale Area. 4. To protect from unnecessary injury young growth and other trees not designated for cutting. 5. To pay the seller for undesignated trees cut or injured through carelessness at the rate of $_______________ each for trees measuring 10 to .............. inches in diameter at stump height and $.............. each for tree ................ inches or over in diameter. 6. To r epair damage caused by logging to ditches, fence , bridges, roads, trails or other improvements damaged beyond ordinary wear and tear. 7. Not to assign this agreement in whole or in part without the written consent of the seller.
B. The eller agrees to the following: l. To guarantee title to the fore t products covered by this agreement and to defend it against all claims at hi expense. 2. To allow the purchaser to use unmerchantable material from tops of trees cut or from trees of .................... pecies for necessary logging improvement free of charge, provided such improvement are left in place by the purcha er. 3. To grant the freedom of entry and right-of-way to the purchaser and his employees on and aero s the area covered by this agreement and also other privileges usually extended to purchasers of tumpage which are not specifically covered, provided they d onot conflict with specific provisions of this agreement.
C. In ca e of dispute over the terms of this agreement we agree to accept the decision of an arbitration board of three selected persons as final. Each of the contracting parties will select one person and the two selecteawill select a third to form this board. Signed in duplicate this ................ day of ---------------------- 19.........

(Witness) (Witne s) (Witne s) (Witne s)

107

( Purch aser) ( eller)

I. SUPERVISING THE JOB Soil, water, sunshine and tree seeds determine whether or not a given area of land can grow trees. With only limited exceptions the land of Georgia can grow trees. The owner determines whether a given area will grow trees, and he decides the volume and quality of the trees grown on the land allotted for forest. The owner must maintain his interest and supervision over each operation that affects the forest. This does not necessarily require a great deal of physical work. It does, however, require knowledge of conditions, problems, possibilities, and decisions as to what should be done; and checking to insure that deci ion are carried out. The owner who will carry through with wi e upervision will grow profitable crops of forest products.
108

Glossary of Forestry Terms
Acid stimulation - In turpentining, use of diluted solution of ulphuric acid to keep resin ducts ope~ and extend the period of flow of oleoresin.
Angle of repose - In erosion control, the steepest angle at which the oil of a given type will r t naturally.
Appraisal, timber - An evaluation of the value of wood products, with due con ideration of market price for fini hed products and the several items of cost involved in harve ting, tran porting and manufacturing the products.
Back fire - A fire set ahead of an oncoming conflagr~tion for the purpose of robbing the intervening area of fuel and thus helping to control the mam fire.
Basal area - The area, u ually expressed in square feet, of the cross section at breast height of a ingle tree or of all tree in a tand.
Bark chip - In turpentining, to cut away the bark and cambium in a thin layer above the cup and expo e the urface of the sapwood o that acid may be applied to stimulate the flow of oleore in (gum).
Biltmore stick - A mea ure devi ed to permit convenient determination of a tree's diameter; and to permit the convenient determination of a tree's height to any selected point.
Board feet - Unit of mea urement for lumber - length in feet X width in feet X thickness in inche = number of board feet. Example: a board 1 foot long X 1 fot wide and 1 inch thick contain 1 board foot.
Bole - Trunk of a tree.
Bolt - A segment awed or plit from a hort log.
Breast height - 41/2 feet above average ground level.
Buck - To saw felled tree into shorter cuts.
Butt- Base of a tree; lower end of a log. Cat face - Fire scar at the base of a tree; or, a defect on the surface of a log, generally elliptical in
shape, resulting from a wound.
Central dispatcher - As relating to fire protection organization, a person who receives information on the fore t fire situation and sends the men, equipment and supplies where needed to fight fire.
Check dam - In ero ion control, a small dam set in a gully to arrest the rapid movement of soil and water.
Chip - In turpentining, to cut away a thin section of a sapwood or bark above the cup to stimulate the flow of oleoresin (gum); the narrow portion of sapwood or bark so removed.
Clear-cut - Descriptive of an area from which the entire timber s tand has been cut. Example: a stand may be clear-cut for lumber, pulpwood or both.
Clear lumber - Lumber (boards) practically free of defects such a knots or decay. Commercial - As relating to forest land, land capable of growing salable forest products, and used
for that purpose.
Competition - As relating to timber growing, the struggle among plants for moisture, plant food and growing space.
109

Concentration yard A place where load of pulpwood are delivered for torage or transfer to railroad car or large truck for shipment to milL
Cone The fruit of conifers such as pine and cypress.
Contract The decision freely agreed to by two or more parties m a tran action. Here mean a agreement relating to a timber ale.
Cord A unit of mea urement for wood. The standard cord contain 128 cubic feet within its outide urface . The u ual measurements of a standard cord are 4 feet X 4 feet X 8 feet.
Crook A defect in a tree stem, log or pole con isting of an abrupt bend.
Crop Tree A tree elected for additional growth into larger, more valuable products, while competing tree are designed for earlier harve t.
Cross-haul A method of loading logs for tran portation. One end of a line i pa ed over the load, around the log to be loaded, and made fast to the load. Power applied to the other end of the line imparts a rolling motion to the log.
Crown The upper part of a tree, including the branches with their foliage. Cup In turpentining, a receptical to catch the gum. Decay The decompo ition of wood ub tance by fungi.
D.B.H. Diameter at brea t height (4Y2 feet from ground).
Diameter class Diameter within a defined range. Example: A two inch diameter class at 10 inches might range from 9.1 to 11.0 inches.
Diameter tape A graduated measuring device which when placed around the stem of a tree permits one to read the average diameter through the stem.
Dip In turpentining, to collect oleore in from a cup; the oleoresin (gum) so obtained. Dip-bucket Bucket u ed in the collection of gum. Dormant Life functions are at a virtual standstill.
Duff The more or le compact covering on the mineral soil, composed of dead vegetal matter, principally fallen foliage, which i in process of decomposition.
Egress A pa sage way to move products and equipment from the fore t area.
Elevated cup - In turpentining, the cup is raised at the end of one or more ea ons to reduce the di tance of flow from chipped streak to cup.
End rock - In air dry seasoning of lumber, boards are stood on end, with the fir t layer of board leaning against a central rack, and ucceeding layers separated by small sticks and leaning one again t another.
Epidemic - A greatly expanded increase in pest occurrence.
Extender - A liquid, non toxic and relatively inexpensive in it elf, that is used to spread a toxic sub tance over a wider area.
Face In turpentining, the expo ed surface of a tree from which oleore in exudes.
Fibre - The cells which con titute the framework of a plant; perform the living functions of the plant and constitute the re idue known a pulp on the chemical transformation of wood to paper and other products.
Firebreak - An existing barrier, or one constructed before a fire reaches the line. The barrier i free or cleared of all fuel materiaL It is de igned to stop or check creeping or running fires but not spotting fire erves. a a line from which to back fire or otherwise fight a fire.
llO

Fire hazard - Fuel or per ons or conditions that constitute a threat to safety from fi re. Flat pile - In air dry sea oning of lumber, boards are piled in orderly horizontal layer . A"u c.ueula-
tion i induced by supporting fir t tier of boards a few inches above ground level, by ticks which eparate succeeding horizontal layers of boards, and by arranging for vertical air hafts a the pile is made. Flue - A vertical air space created in piling lumber. Form of tree - Relate to qualities of the stem such as straightnes , forking, branching, taper. Frill - A chain of overlapping axe cuts severing the bark and cambium and reaching into the ap wood, completely encircling the stem, usually at convenient cutting height.
Fuel - Inflammable material in the wood - including fallen foliage, grass, woody parts of the tree. Fungi - In forestry, a plant that grows in wood or bark and causes decay. Fungicid'e - A ml\terial toxic to fungi, applied for their control. Germination - Botanically, the resumption of growth in a eed. Girdle - To encircle the stem of a living tree with cut that completely sever the bark arid cambium
and often are carried deep into the outer sapwood, for the purpose of killing the tree by pre venting pa age of nutrient chemicals or by admitting toxic materials.
Gum (oleore in) - A natural combination of re inous substances and es ential oils occurmg m or exuding from plants including slash pine and longleaf pine.
Hack - In turpentining, a strong U-shaped knife fastened to a short handle, which bear on its lower end an iron weight, used to chip the streaks on a turpentine face.
Hardwood - Generally one of the botanical group of trees that have broad leaves, in contrast to the conifers; also wood produced from such tree .
Heartwood - The inner core of a woody steam, wholly composed of non-living cells, and usually differentiated from the other enveloping layer (sapwood) by its darker color.
Heel-in - To store young trees prior to planting by placing them in a trench and covering the roots with soil.
Rogal - A turpentining tool, with a strong elliptical blade, used to slab off bark, preparatory to seating a cup.
Honeycomb - The development of checks in the interior of a piece of wood. Humus - The plant and animal residue of the soil, which are undergoing decomposition. Inferior - In forestry, intended to mean trees of poor form, defective or of inherently low quality. Ingress In fore try, a passageway into a forest area. Knot - The portion of a branch that has become incorporated in the body of the tree. Larvae In forest entomology, the early form of an insect that undergoes a metamorphosis. Lead streak The first streak put on after hanging the cup at the initial installation, or after eleva
tion of the cup. The lead streak is made in advance of regular chipping operations as a means of stimulating the tree to exude more gum.
Leave tree A tree selected to the left for additional growth usually because of its good form, vigor or other desirable qualities.
Ill

Log To cut and deliver log . Log deck A platform where logs are a sembled for loading and tran portation to the mill; where
log are held for sawing. Log rule - A table showing the e timated or calculated amount of lumber whi h can be sawed from
a log of a given length and diameter. Manag d stand - A forest stand on which good fore t practices are being or have been carried out.
Marked tree - U ually a tree elected for harve t. A mark u ually with paint, is made at about eye height to permit identification of trees to be cut, and another at ba e of tree to aid in checking after the stand is cut over.
Marking rules Guide laid down for the selection of tree to cut and tree to leave. Maturity, economic or financial The age at which a tree or tand will no longer increase in value
fa t enough to earn a atisfactory rate of intere t.
Mineral soil - Soil compo ed chiefly of mineral matter, laying below any accumulation of leave , gra or humu.
Mop-up - The act of making a fire afe after it i controlled, uch a extingui hing or mothering with oil any burning material that might e cape.
Naval stores - Time honored name used to de ignate the turpentine industry and its products.
Overstory That portion of the tree in a fore t tand forming the upper crown cover. Peel - To remove the bark and cambium from the tern of a tree.
Piling - Round timbers to be driven into the ground to support various tructure . Pole - Timber in the round, usually used to upport power or telephone line .
Preservative - A chemical ub tance which, when uitably applied to wood, makes it resistant to attack by fungi, in ects, or marine borer .
Pruning - Removal by natural or artificial method of dead or living branches from standing trees. Quality of tree - As related to form, freedom from defect, value of wood.
Rate a/ spread of fire - The increa e in size of a fire perimeter per hour in chains, feet, or some other unit.
R egeneration - The process by which a forest is renewed. Reproduction - The process by which a forest is renewed; natural eedling . Salvage - In forest maangement, to utilize trees or products that would otherwise be unused and lost.
Sawlog - A log of suitable ize to be manufactured into lumber. Scrape . Oleoresin from which the volatile oils have evaporated. It accumulates on the sacrified "face"
of a tree that is being bled.
Seedbed - In natural reproduction, the oil or fore t floor on which the eed falls. In nursery prac tice, a prepared area on which seed is sown.
Seedfall - The natural liberation and fall of seed from trees. Seedling - A small tree - generally less than 2 inches in diameter.
Seed tree - A tree selected for reproduction of a tand because of its obvious good form and seedSeed source - As related to geographical origin of seed or, to qualities of parent trees.
bearing capacity.
112

eed year - A year when ed i abundant for a given tree or species.
ilvi ulture - The are of producing and tending a forest; the application of the knowledge of ilvi in the treatment of a fore t.
ize class - One of the interval into which the sizes of trees are divided for cia ification and u Example, eedling, pulpwood, and awtimber sizes.
kid - To pull logs from tump to skidway, landing, or mill.
kidway - Two pole laid parallel to each other and at right angles to a road, u uall rai ed abo the ground at the end near t the road. Logs are piled on a kidway pending th re bein loaded on tru k .
Softwood - Generally, one of the botanical group of tree thar in mo t ca e have ne dle or cal -lik leave ; the conifer ; al o, the wood produced from u h tree .
pacing - In silviculture, distan e between tree trunk . Species - Kind of tree .
tack pole - A pole used to upport a tack of p anut , etc., to facilitate drying. tain, blue - A deepseated fungus discloration, predominantly bluish, but sometime graying,
blacki h, or browni h in appearance. Confined almost exclusively to sapwood.
tand - An aggregation of tree occupying a specific area, and sufficiently uniform in composition ( pecie ) , age, arrangem nt and condition a be di tinguished from the fore t on adjoinincr areas.
tickers - A trip or board placed crosswi e between cour e of lumber m a pile for the purpo of facilitating air circulation.
Stocking - Den ity of tand. Stratification - The operation of burying eeds, often in alternate layers, in a moist medium such a
peat or sand, to overcome dormancy or accelerate germination.
Streak In turpentining, the inci ion made when a tree is chipped. Stumpage - In a general sen e the standing merchantable timber on an area; the value of timber
as it tands uncut in the woods.
= Symbol ' one foot
Symbol " = one inch Sweep A gradual bend in a log, pole or piling, con idered a defect. Tally - A record of the number of forest products such as logs, poles or pulp sticks in standing
trees, boards cut from a log. Taper - The gradual diminution of diameter in a stem of a tree or a log from base to top. Termite - Wood eating insect. Transpiration - The process by which water vapor leaves a living plant and enters the atmosphere.
Transplant - To lift and replant a seedling; a tree that has been transplanted. Turpentine - The liquid product resulting from the distillation of oleoresin; to tap a tree for oleo-
resm.
113

Undercut - In logging, the notch cut in a tree to govern the di r ti n in which the tree i to fall and prev nt plitting.
Utilization - That branch of forestry concerned with the operation of harve ting and marketing the fore t crop and other re ource of the fore t.
Veneer A thin heet of wood cut on a veneer machine. Volume, mer hantable - Th amount of alable wood in a ingl tree or tand. Warp - An vari tion of a board from a true or plane uda . Wildstock - Naturally grown eedlings.
114

Selected R eferences On Forest Practices
U. . Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
Protect Hardwood tand From Grazing, Leaflet o. 86 Planting outhern Pine Leafl t o. 159 Grazing Longleaf- la h Pine Fore t ircular o. 928 Mea uring and Mark ting Farm Tim! r, Farm r ' Bulletin o. 1210
la h Pine, Farm r Bull tin o. 1256 Shortleaf Pine, Farmer ' Bull tin . 1671 Pruning outhern Pine , Farmer ' Bull tin o. 1892 Care of Damaged hade Tr es, Farmer Bulletin o. 1896 Poi on-Ivy, Poi on- ak and Poi on umac, Farmer ' Bulletin o. 1972 Farm Building from Hom - rown Timber in th outh, Farmer ' Bulletin No. 1975 Prevention and Control of Gulli , Farmer ' Bull tin o. 1813 Managing the mall Fore t, Farm r' Bull tin o. 1989
U. . Department of Arrricultur , Fore t ervice, Washington D. C.
mall awmill - A Pocket Guide - gri ultur Handbook o. 70 Water and ur For t, gricultur Information Bull tin o. 7l Water of Cowe ta, A.I. B. 117 Protecting th For t from Fire, Agriculture Information Bulletin o. 130 Management of atural la h Pi ne tand in th Flatwood of outh Georgia and North Florida,
Circular 1o. 845 Littl leaf Di a of hortl af and Loblolly Pin , Circular o. 940 Timb r tand Improvem nt in the outh rn Appala hian Region, Mi cellaneous Publication o.
693
U. . Department of Agriculture, oil Con ervation erVce, Wa hington, D. C.
Making Land Produce eful Wildlife, Farmer ' Bull tin o. 2035
Agricultural Exten ion ervice, Universit of G orgw ollege of Agriculture, Athens Working Tr for a al tore , Bull tin 532
Georgia Fore try Commi sion, Atlanta Georgia Tre - Opportunitie nlimited
115