Compliments TRUST COMPANY ATLANTA OF GEORGIA and Affiliated Banks ATLANTA- DeKalb National Bank of Brookhaven AUGUSTA -The First National Bank & Trust Company CoLUMBUS -The Fourth National Bank MACON-The First National Bank & Trust Company ROME -The First National Bank SAVANNAH -The Liberty National Bank & Trust Company '' Preface Thi publication i prepared for hi gh chool pupils and adult farmer enrolled in vocational agriculture of th e public chool ' ho have a need for information on managing woodland ar a . It i an effort to a emble in one publication information whi h will he h lpful in arriving at ba ic deci ion , and for doing ati factorily ba ic pra ti e in farm woodland managem nl. No great effort i made for going d ply into all the ha i cience that govern tree culture. W. R. Hine, Chief Divi ion of Information and Education, outhern Region and many oth r memb r of the . . Fore t ervice have contributed thi information, and have work d with repr ntative of the ocational Agricultural Education staff in organizing it for u e in the in tructional program of teacher of vocational auriculture. The t~die of many fore ter , and the ob ervation and exp ri n e of many men workin g over the year have gone into the information that i a embled . ince o many fore ter have contributed to thi bulletin, it i diffi ult to give special mention to them all, or to th agencie th ey repre nt. Among thee, the Southern Foret Exp riment tation lew Orlean , Loui iana ; the Southeastern Fore t Experiment Station, Ashville North Carolina the U. S. Forest Service, Southern Region, Atlanta, Georgia; the Georgia Forestry Commission, Atlanta, Georgia; and other State Fore try Agencie have made valuable contribution . When problems arise, for which thi publication does not give a complete answer, state, federal or indu trial fore ter hould be con ulted. State Department of Education Vocational Education Service AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION Atlanta, Georgia In Cooperation with U.S. FOREST SERVICE Atlanta, Georgia July 1955 FOREST PRACTICES - GEORGIA Vocational Agriculture TABLE OF CONTENTS ITEMS The Need For Good Practices In Growing And Utilizing Farm Forest Product PAGE 1 A. lm portance of the Farm Woodland ----------------------------------------------------------- 2 B. Importance of Forest Program Being Well Planned ---------- ------------------------------ 9 c. E ential Jobs in Producing and Utilizing Farm Fore try Products ------------- ______ 10 Job 1 . Planning The Fore t Program For the Farm __ --------------------------------------- 11 A. Importance of a Good Forest Program for the Farm . ------- ----- ------------ --- ---- 11 B. What Kind of Land to Use for Farm Woodlands ____________--------------------------------- 11 c. What Kind of Trees to Grow in the Forest ----------------------------- _---------- -------------- 12 D. What Method to Use in Establishing a Forest ---------------------------------- -----------____ . 15 Job II - Establishing A Forest By Artificial Reforestation ---------------- .---------- .. .----- --- 19 A. How to Obtain Tree Seedlings for Artifical Reforestation -------------------- ------------ 19 B. When to Transplant Seedlings .---------- ------------------------------------------ ---- ----------------- 20 c. What Spacing to Use in Planting Tree Seedlings ----------------------- ---------- ---------- 20 D. Procedure for Making Direct Seedings --------------------------- ----___ .. ------------- ---- __ 22 E. Procedure for Producing Ones Own Seedling --- ------------------------------ --------- 23 F. Procedure for Tran planting Wild Seedlings --------------------------- 24 G. Procedure for Transplanting Stock Received from Nursery -- ---- ---- ....... 24 H. Procedure for Managing the Young Forest ------------------------------ 28 Job III - Establishing A Forest By The Natural Regeneration Method ------------------------------- 29 A. What Method of Natural Regenerationto Follow --------- ------- .-- --------------- 29 B. Procedure to Follow in Natural Regeneration by Uneven-Aged Management ------... 30 c. Procedure to Follow in Natural Regeneration by Even-Aged Management --------- 31 Job IV - Protecting The Forest Stand From Fires ------------- ----------. ---- .... --------------- ___ 33 A. II) !> B. ~0\. C. D. E. Importanceof Protecting Forest Trees from Fires ------------- ------ .------------------ __ 33 What Method to U. e in Protecting Forests from Fires ------------------- ------------------- 35 Procedure for Protecting Woodlands Through Fire Prevention --------- ..-------- 37 Procedure for Preparedness in Fire Control -------------- .. ______ .. ____________ _________ -------. __ 41 Procedure for Controlling Fire by Suppression ------------- ---- ------ ------- ---------- 44 Job V - Combatting Insects And Diseases Of Forest Trees ------ ------------- .----------------- 49 A. Importance of Controlling Them .------------------------------------------------------ --------------- 49 c.B. What Insects and Diseases to Combat -- --------------------------------------------------- _____________ 49 Procedure for Combatting Insects _____ ---------------------------------------------------____ __________ 52 D. Procedure for Combatting Diseases ____ ------------------------------------ ---------------------------- 52 - ITEM PAGE Job VI - Preventing Damage To Forest From Livestock -------------------------------------- ------------------- 54 A. Importance of Preventing Livestock Damage ------------_____________ _______ ___ ________--- ---------- __ 54 B. How to Protect from Overgrazing ----------------------------------------------------- ----------------------- 55 Job VII - Removing Undesirable Hardwoods To Relea e The Ground For Natural Or Artificially Planted Young Stand ------------------------ ------- ------- _________ --------------------- 56 A. Importance of Removing Hardwood ---------------------- ----------------------- --------- -- --- -- __________ 56 B. What Methods to Use for Releasing Young Stand from Undesirable Hardwoods ______ 57 C. Procedure for Killing Back Unde irable Hardwood __________ ----------- ----------- ----- _______ 59 Job VIII - Harve. ting Forest Products From The Forest ___________________ ----- ---- ---- __ -------------------- 62 A. Importance of Proper Harvesting Method --------------------------------- _________ _______---- ------- - 62 B. Who Should Harvest the Fore t Products _ _ _____ _ _______ ------------- ----------------------- 63 C. What Method of Cutting to Use __ _______ ---------------------------------------- ____ ___ -------... --------- -- 64 D. Procedure for Harve ting by the Diameter Limit Cutting Method ------------------------------ 70 E. Procedure for Making Improvement Cutting ---------------------- _________----------- ---------------- 73 F. Procedure for Making Regeneration Cuttings ___ ______ ___ ----------------- -------- --------------- 79 G. Procedure for Removing Trees from the Forest ________------------------ ____ ___________ ___________ 79 H. Procedure for Protecting Young Trees During Cutting Operation _-------------- ---------- 83 I. Procedure for Working Ones Own Trees for Gum ____ ---------------------- _______ ______ __________ 84 Job IX Utilizing Fore t Product For Home And Farm Need __________________ __________-- ------------ 87 A. Value of Forest Products for Home U e ------------ _____ - ------------------ --- --------- -------------- 87 B. What Home Uses to Make of Farm Fore t Product 88 c. Procedure for Drying and Storing Forest Product ________________________ ________ -- ------------- 91 D. Rea on for Preservative Treatment o1 Fore t Product for Home U e __ ___________________ 93 Job X - Marketing Forest Product ---------------------------~-------- ______ ---------------- . ____ __________ _______ 94 A. Importance of Good Marketing Practices _______ ___ _______________ ------------------- _ 94 B. What Prod u.cts to Sell from the Forest --------- ---------- ____ _____ .----- __ ------------------- _____ 94 c. How to Market Forest Products _________ ---------------------------------------------------- _____ ______________ 96 D. What Price to Place on the Products -- --------------------- -------------- ------------ ------ ------------ 97 E. Marking Trees for Cutting ------------------ -------------- __ ___ ____________------------ --------- ---------- 97 F. Mea uring Fore t Product ______ __------- ------- -------- _____ --------------- ______ ........ _______ _____ __ 97 G. Offering the Timber for Sale in Bids __ ____ __________ --------------- ----------- _____ _________________ 105 H. Contracting with the Buyer ___ ____________ ---___________________ ________________ -------------- ___________106 I. Supervising the Job ___________________ _____________________ ____________________________ .. __ ____________ ___l 08 Glos ary of Forestry Terms __________ ____ ___ --- ---------------------- ___________ __-------- ------ ______ __________________________109 Selected References on Forest Practices ----------- ----------------------- _____ __ __ _______________________________ ___________ ____ ll5 A Well Managed Stand of Pines The Need for Good Practices in Growing and Utilizing Farm Forest Products Th tree i a complex plant. Each part of it ha a defini te function. Figure 1 hows the tree with it different part and f unctions. FIGURE 1 Courtesy U.S. Department of Agriculture 1 ENRICHED SOIL LAYER, SOURCE Of MUCH OF THE TliEE'S 1'000. THE HOME Of [ARTHIIIOIIMS. WHICH LEAVE MANY CHANfiELS fOR WATER AND AIR TO ENTER THE SOIL. NATURAL MULCH Of LEAVES (FOREST LITTER) PROTECTS THE SURFACE FROM DRYING AND ERODING . DECOMPOSING LAYER (FOREST HUMUS) INHABITED BY BENEFICI AL INSECTS . SUBSOIL, COMPOSED Of SOIL ~RTlCLES AND ~RENT MATERIA L THE DEEP ROOTS FINO THEIR HOME HERE, WHERE THEY ABSORB WATtR - ANCIIOR THE TREE fiiiMLY IN PlACE. The buds, leave , root tip , and cambium layer are the growing parts of the tree. Water contain ing a quantity of mineral in solution i ab orbed by the root carried up through the sapwood to the leave , and there combined with carbon from the air to make food. Thi food i carried by the inner bark to all growing part of the tree, even down to the root tip . Natural fore t oil i loo e and mellow. It i permeated by rodent burrow , and angleworm and insect pa age . The e allow air and moisture ready acces to the feeding rot . A cut of fore t product qui alent to on ar' urowth on 40 acre of managed farm woodland. Cr ett Exp rim ntal For t, . F. The need for gopd practi e in Fore t Production an be-t he hown by investigating three areas: (1) Importance of the farm woodland, (2) importan e f planning it well, and (3) the job, that when properly done, make for ucce in the enterpri e. A. IMPORTA CE OF THE FARM WOODLAND l. Trees are Adapted to Georgia Farms. The average farm in Georgia ha 67 acres in woodland. The woodland exceed the area of cropland and makes up 52 per cent of the total area of the farm. Most farm in Georgia have some woodland. There are ar a on the farm that have steep slopes, eroded field , low yielding oils and too little or too much moi ture, that may be better uited to tree crop than other use . The type of soil and the climatic condition of Georgia are favorable to one or more of the many kinds of profitable tree . 2 2. Forest Products are Needed for Every Farm. Lumber for farm buildings, fence posts, stack poles, fuel wood, pry poles and a hundred other items from the farm woods are continually in demand. When grown in the farm woodland, these products require a little labor to harvest them, but seldom any large cash outlay; however when purchased in town or from another's woods, they cost both time and money. 3. Woodland5 Bring in Returns from Surplus Farm Labor. Woodlands offer an outlet for sea- sonal surpluses in farm labor. Timber is unlike any other crop on the farm in that it may be stored on the stump for a reasonable period without loss or deterioration. Thus it is adaptable to the use of seasonal labor during periods of low requirements by other crops. The rate of pay earned for woods work compares very favorably with the pay for other farm crops. A well-stocked 40 acre test demonstration by the Southern Forest Experiment Station at Crossett, Arkansas, made an average annual return of $434, over a five year period-1946 to 1951, for labor and equipment used in harvesting wood products. The returns for labor and equipment was $1.11 an hour. The owner who cuts his own trees can earn good wages and at the same time, safeguard the value of the woodland for continuous production of forest crops. FIGURE 2 ,.m .. ,..,.., ....... ... . ...- ..... .. to _. ... _,,, - ~-h ,,, ... - lot Ill- lt l o " ,... ,, - ....._~ho.o,.o,.-.'"""''- U'''1-.-to - ,_.... '"'""..' -~~,oJ- o!l ol oh .....OI) 1-o o..-o l j lot ... I., - l ktooon tol.,.. loo o - 1 . , ...-.......-................. _--...... _, ,, , to U - tooo..u o -llo.. _ WHAT WE GET FROM TREES -[:-:-- =-- FUEL 1 T ~ ~la~o.L ---{~ CHARCOAL =- - - =--=- -- *""" o-EMKAl -:=::,:-_.... PI!ODUCTS :..=: ::: }-BARK- '" EXCILSIOR I- i== DtSTUATlON ..~........ WOOD.t.i.COd: r produ c from sprouts and generally have a heav y seed whi ch is not readily di spersed, tlwy a n uit d to Un-eve n Aged ma na ge ment. 2. The Even Aged Method' of management fit s into th e a cce pted cuttin g methods of tim ber opera~1,' "' ~'or : mall ar a it may be the only method th a t will provid e enou gh cut to interest a n operator. llu b n-a gcd m thod m ay be better for loblolly and shortl eaf pine a rea s wh e re th ere is a problem of tompetition from inferior ha rdwood s. Clear c ~1tting enabl es th e owner to riel hi s land of uncles ir- tlt lt hardwood by cuttin g or by fire. Lon gleaf pine requires full sunli ght for r egeneration and sati s- f.ll'tory ~ rowth a nd hen e requires even-a ged mana ge ment. Ma inte nance of a well stocked pine stand .' t' H'n-a p;ed lr enabl the timber to hold down th e growth of und esirable hardwood s during the uu matu I"<' yea r and Lim r educe costs of hardwood control. Clear c utting p ermits the owner to ex- p. o..tth. minra l II\ ~> rowm r I nvl a.01f11PJ1.n efHi f e th us cr eatm g or elI' mm. ati.on a good seedbed. Clea r cuttm. g al so p enmts th e of needl e spot di.sease and o-rass compet1.t1. on. use of fire The Even- tl"t'd H' p Ia . I l l ( ' I nttn h tt CONTNNERS Attach short ho$e SIN6LE BIT A~E I I CHEMICALS MAV BE. PUQCHASED AT LOCAL HAAP~ARE OR$ED DSALER * ~:i._~Not lesst.han~ Z lbs Ammonium Su/famate Crystal to I Gal. water. ~ ~p I ,If' STAIN U~E D'ESEL FUEL 0\L OR &UR~T 0\L Q .. USE f>.. REO STAIN IN CHEMICAL SOWTION SO THAT TREATED TREES CAN BE IDENTIFIED 2;4,.5-T IN WATER. lqai.2,4,5,-Tto so gal Ions water {Mu<;.t be kept aqitated) 2;4,5-T SOLUT,ON IN 0\L I gallon 2,4,5,=1" t o UJ gallons o"d (Must be kept a9itated) AMMON/liM SULFAMA TE ANO Z ,4;5;- T S OLUTION AR NON - TOXIC TO ANIMALS 59 2. Girdling Trees 5" D.B.H. and Larger With an Axe or Girdling Machine and felling small trees. FIGURE 27 Application: USE OF A'XE ~Complete girdle-cut throuqh oark into wood 1'1" inch.(Qenerally effective for all trees 12'' and larqer in diameter e~eptfor qumsJ Cut off completely with Vnotdi (May not kill because small hardwood trees sprout vigorously.) ./ Figure I. ~'-# -"" The above practice will kill many trees. A more c.ertainjob will be done and Kill will be quic.keriftree killing chemicals are usedasshownlnfiguresZ,3,"t. 3. Applying Chemicals. a. Applying dry ammonium sulfamate crystals (1) The larger hardwood trees, 5" and up, may be notched to from a cup, at 6" intervals around the stem at the base. One heaping tablespoonful, about 1 to 1lj2 ounces, of dry ammonium sulfamate crystals is placed in each notch ~nd on each V cut small stump. FIGURE 28 AMMONIUM SULFAMAT IN ORY CRYSTAL FORM Corrosive to metal-Use protected coated equipment cut nokh~ ld' apart around trunK at root collar. Use one heapinq tablespoonful of crystals per notc:n . Cut off completelyuse one heapinq tablespoonful of c:rysta Is per tree in Vno+ch /~ I ~~~~' ~~~ ~~ 4i/.. ~ __ _ .F_i_gu. _rez . ,,._~ ~.. ~ \ ~ . ,., .,. (Note: Save an oc.c.as1onal food and den tree for wild life) 60 b. Applying Liquid Chemical. (1) Chip a continuou frill completely around each of the unwanted hard, od tr 5" and larger. (2) Mix ammonium ulfamate cry tals inwater at the rate of two pound f th ry tal to 011 gallon of water (mix in a wooden vat with a pla tic poon), or, mix on aallon of 2 4, 5-T in ~0 gallon of water. (3) Add a red stain to either solution. (4) Apply either chemical solution to the gridle cut, to the frill cut, or, to the V-notch cut (Figure 29) use orne container, such as an oil can with a pout to facilitate putting th olution on the wood expo ed by its cutting. c. Applying 2, 4, 5-T to Base of Cull Trees. (l) Mix 2, 4, 5-T in diesel fuel oil or burnt motor oil at the rate of on galhn of 2, 4, 5-T to 20 gallon of oil. (2) pray on ba e of cull trees. FIGURE 29 A-onlic.ation : CHEMICALS IN SOLUTION or ~ 4- 5"-T in oil. Frill qird le-cutthrouqh bark into wood . Solution poured in girdle-fill cut!> with solution . Cu+ V notc.h-Wer no tch and top of -=-tump thor- oug;.;Q, h. ly 7 ., f .< -J..ii:'~~ Use a red s~ain or dye in chem ical solution so that treated trees can be read ily ,dent'lf1ed NO CUT Spray base thoroughly 61 Job VIII -Harvesting Forest Products from the Forest A. IMPORTANCE OF PROPER HARVESTING METHODS The farm woods is managed through cutting operations. Planting and protection help to establish and safeguard the trees, but the quality and quantity of the forest products grown are determined largely by the cutting methods used . Low grade products, such as fuel wood, may be obtained from trees of any form or species. High grade products, such as clear lumber, long straight poles relatively free of large limbs, and large clear veneer logs, are developed in con iderable measure through the care given cutting methods. Georgia's forest industries keep running on a continuing supply of raw material. A pulp mill costing 30 to 50 million dollars must run almost continuously, year after year for many years to earn a fair return on the investment. Trees must be kept growing in order that the mills may go on turning out pulp and paper. Then too, many people depend on the e plants for employment. Our standing timber will feed it today, saplings will feed it 10 years hence, and the eedlings of today will feed it 20 years hence. Georgia's forests are second growth stands. Under current cutting practices we are growing enough small trees to meet current needs but the reservoir of large trees is being reduced. The quality of our trees is likewise being reduced so that the income received is less than it should be. Unless the trend is changed, a number of mills using larger products, will be forced to liquidate. As they quit, the benefits they have brought in wages and indirect benefits will stop. Over cutting has helped reduce Georgia's average forest stand to 1,540 board feet per acre. Georgia's stands could support 6,000 or 8,000 board feet per acre. It is not feasible nor desirable to withhold all cutting in order to build the stands to full stocking. It is both feasible and practical to build up the stands by increasing the rate of growth through good harvesting methods. One practice that will conserve growing trees for future larger trees is to leave enough of smaller trees to keep the woodland well stocked. Much wood is wasted when small trees are cut for sawtimber if some of them might more properly be left to grow. The following table shows that relatively more wood is wasted in cutting small trees than for larger trees. PROPORTION OF WOOD NOT UTILIZED FOR LUMBER Average Diameter of logs at small end Proportion of wood not utilized for lumber Inches 8 12 16 20 Percent 54 44 40 38 62 Forest afford products and an opportunity for employment at good wages. The individual owner may likewise benefit through proper cutting practices. As a d fi . 4th0e following test by the Southern Forest acres of well-stocked woodland can do. Experiment Station, at Crossett, Arkansa e. ndl~e example ' In 1cate what At the start of the test 1937, the area was growing 244 board fee. t (Doyle cale) per acre per ear tion On the a 5 v ear average 1937-1941. The stand was cut poorer, less valuable trees were cut. The thrifty over t~ll conservatively straight trees each were year In each operaleft well paced to utilize the soil. After 14 years, the rate of growth ~ad mcrea~ed to 596 b_oard fe t per acre per year on a 5 year average 1947-1951. The wood growmg and bemg cut today IS of higher quality than that grown and cut 15 years ago. The smaller poorer quality trees have been cut out. Ba ed on quality lone the trees cut 15 years ago would be worth $5 to $1 0 less per thousand board feet than the trees being cut today. However using an average value of $25 per thousand board feet gives an indication of the change in producing power in this 40 acre woodland through good management. Expres ed in financial returns, this stand grew $6.10 per acre per year during the first five years of the experi- ment and after improvement cuttings grew at the rate of $14.40 per acre per year over a 5 year period 1947-1951. The rate of growth expressed in per cent of standing volume increased over the me period from 4.8 % to 9.2 % . In another test, two 40 acre tracts, one unmanaged and one managed through selective cutting, re carried for 9 years. The results are shown in the following table. TABLE 17 PARISON OF RETURNS FROM MANAGED & UNMANAGED STAND AT CROSSETT EXPERIMENTAL FOREST, SOUTHERN FOREST EXPERIMENTAL STATION Type of Management Stand Per Acre in 1937 Annual Growth Per acre over 9 yr. period Annual Interest Earned T o 40 acre tracks natural stands UIUDanaged (Board feet) 5640 (Board feet) 294 (Per Cent) 5.2 maangement 4180 418 10.0 B. WHO SHOULD HARVEST THE FOREST PRODUCTS er there are merchantable products to be removed from the forest the woodland owner is to decide whether the trees will be cut by himself or whether they will be harvested by a operator representing the forest industry. ~er doing his own cutting can make sure that the trees he wants cut are cut, and the trees e t are left. Moreover he can take care to protect young seedlings and selected "leave f can ~se the timber operation as employment for available farm labor and equipment. orest mdustry is short of labor, the owners may help in logging operations. 63 Unmanaged stand The unmanaged stand was notcut sinr.e 1915. The stand in 1942 amounted to 6,896 board feet per acre. The yearly growth over 10 years amounted to 390 board feet of pine and 53 feet of poor grade hardwood. The volume increase amounted to 5 % annually. Managed stand naged tand has been cut each year for 15 year . The tand in 1912 am unted to 6,010 per acre. The yearly growth over ten year period amounted to 700 b ard f t. Th volume ounts to 9% annually. TABLE 18 EXAMPLE OF AVERAGE LABOR REQUIREMENTS PER PRODUCT UNIT Product To roadside To mill or market Logs per MBM Pulpwood per cord Fire wood (Man hours) 4.8 6.0 9.3 (Man hours) 6 .0 10.1 15.4 On the other hand the forest industry may be better trained and equipped to do the harvesting. Industry, under the owner's supervision may do an equally good job of protecting the trees left to grow. C. WHAT METHOD OF CUTTING TO USE There are many methods of cutting. One method sometimes grades off into another depending on the degree of cut. The discussion of four representative cutting methods follows: l. Clear Cut - Which is intended to mean clear cutting at an early age or size, as for example, clear cutting for pulpwood when stand is 8" to 12" d.b.h., or for sawlogs when the stand is 10" to 15" d.b.h. regardless of whether many of the trees may be capable of growing rapidly into larger products. 2. Diameter Limit Cutting - Which is intended to mean the generally accepted practice of cutting all trees larger than an agreed upon minimum diameter. The diameter limit usually includes the cutting of all trees the buyer considers merchantable. 3. Improvement Cutting- Which is intended to mean any cutting made some years prior to harvest cutting which removes the less desirable trees such as those injured, diseased, insect infested, poor form, mature, and those that should be removed to thin out the stand to desired density and quality. Actually on a properly maanged stand there will be many improvement cuttings during the life of the trees of a given age group. Among these cuttings will be release cuttings to free young trees of overhead competition, thinnings, sanitation cuttings, weedings, and salvage cuttings. 4. Regeneration Cutting - Which is intended to mean the clear cutting of the final crop of mature t1ees in a series of two or more cuttings. There are several important factors that should affect one's decision on the method of cutting to use. They include: Effect on Volume of Wood and Consequently the Income Obtained From Each Method of Cutting. Tht- clear cut, diameter limit, and the regeneration cutting methods.. result in a high volume yield from the area. If the farmer needs a large cash return immediately these methods will give the greatest immediate returns. Improvement cuttings bring in a relatively low return per cutting, but provide for more frequent cuttings and higher total volume and cash returns from better quality trees over the years. 64 Effect on Later Stand of the Forest. Clear cutting at an early age remov require only low sale v~lue pr~ducts,. ~uch as fuel woo_d, p~lpwood, and fence removes many trees which are m position to grow rapidly mto high sale valu uality lumber, veneer and piling. Moreover many trees are removed at a t" P eqarning a h.Igh rate of m terest. m Clear cutting may be justified as a step to bring land into cultivation, which from forest management. Clear cutting, with prompt regeneration by natural or rt"!fi is a sound silvicultural method where large volume of wood fibre rather than .. 1 treeS is desired. For example, clear cutting may be ju tified by a company or owna tir products. The farmer who grows and sells his products will receive le for th m 0 : ; ft if he sells provement cc~lettairngcutf~inr a short rotation. The intermediate returns af~adrmcearrrywiinllg raec~eoirvteiomn oorfe by the elling thi . growing nm f r U~WltD into larger higher pnced products. The followmg example will serve to demon tr t th t it pay the small owner to clear cut a young stand as soon as it i large enough to m ulnrood A 127 acre abandoned farmland in southwest Georgia wa planted in 1935 t trees were measured by research foresters of the U. S. Forest Service in 1948 and a follows: TABLE 19 INCOME RECORDS ON A SLASH PINE FARM {Spacing at time of planting 15 ft. by 15 ft.) nge diameter of tree Diameter of largest tree lume of all tree per acre 1948 8.5 m. 13.1 m. 22.7 cord 19 9.8 in. I . in. 31.2 1.7 cords plus 147 bd. ft. or 147 board feet or 2 cord per l.7 cord plu 949 bd. ft. per r of trees in sawtimber (all trees to 8" top) 1,912 bd. ft. lue of growth per acre over 18 years pwood @ $5 per cord, sawat 25 per M. Bd. Ft. $161.30 rate of return per acre per year would be $10.00 if the tree trees were left to grow into sawlogs and the area ha earn d &ve years from 13 years of age to 18 years of age. r year above example presents factual support for retaining a portion of young . nd to grow to r products. The same argument holds for leaving a well to k d tand 10 0 g cia reach maturity. 65 The following example from the Hitchiti Research Center, Southeastern Forest Experiment Sta. tion near Macon, Georgia, indicates the value of leaving a well stocked stand of loblolly pine. Volume of Saw Timber left to grow. (Board ft. per acre) 2,157 4,650 5,767 TABLE 20 INCOME FROM LOBLOLLY PINES Volume of saw Timber grown each year. Yearly increase in volume (Bd. Ft. per acre) 303 574 774 (per cent) 14 12 13 Annual Value of increase with sawtimber@ $30 per 1000 board feet $ 9.09 17.22 23.22 This example from a practical test indicates that with more good tree left to grow per acre, land will grow more volume. Naturally the owner sacrifices the use of the cash he could have by heavier cutting. However, the cash left, invested in growing trees, earns a good rate of interest, cause the trees increa e not only in volume, but also in quality and value of product grown. In diameter limit cutting, the fact that stands are crowded in some portions and adequately stocked in other portions, is taken into account. A diameter limit may clear cut all the trees from a given tion of the stand, thus leaving the ground or at least setting the stand back to seedling stage. In the diameter limit method, the more open grown trees are because they are the larger trees. In ways the stand may lose in productivity cause of too large openings. On the hand, the diameter limit cutting method fail to take any trees from a crowded nnnm of the stand because they are all below set diameter limit, and the stand crowded with no benefit from the operation. Diameter limit cutting Unmanaged stands grow trees fast or slow without a mechanical measurement for judgment regard to value of product. tree condition, quality and rate of Thus it will leave wholly undesirable because they are below the agreed diameter limit. It will take from the stand many trees of promise because they are a little larger than the set diameter. The diameter limit may not always be a bad choice. It sometimes happens that the trees in a are of such a grouping in size classes that a diameter limit cutting does a fair job of 66 a. tting. For example, a stand may be made up primarily of two size group (1) cI)u~mrgite trees 1 atlU ( "' L. , J a in this case may sa i.i v.~r actory young stand growm g up underneath be set that will remove the old stand and leave the the old young taatn~mndatuArh . nd dl8m of .' r taY be beneficia1 even though It may not accomp1ISh any thm" mng m the young tand Auc .a c.uttl-n~a hnappen in a 11 or nearly secon d all the growth pm. e larger limby stan d trees th at and a dI"ameter leave most l1"m1.t f of the or cuttm. g be et whi .h clean intermediate one WgIa.1Hm1 tl m remo - auch thoughtful consideration falls more logically under improvement cutting . ow r, the Improvement cuttings provide crooked, limby, diseased and for growth damaged troefesthwehib~ehttewrilql unaoltitgyrotwreeisn.toInhigimh pqruoavleimtyenptrocduutctitsng lean, straight, healthy trees are removed . Improvement cutting permit the better tree to utili:e the ite and the wood added to them is naturally of higher quality. Sawlogs bring more money than pulpwood or fuelwood. Pole and veneer log u ually bring more money than sawlogs. Leaving tall, traight trees makes it po sible to grow high-priced pole . traight, clean trees properly paced will grow larger and more valuable poles, veneer and awlog . Many land owners, large and small, follow good cutting practices, grow better quality tree , nd as a result obtain better prices for the better trees. The following table of prices received by the Southern Region U. S. Forest Service for timber from the National Forest bears this out. PRICES RECEIVED FOR PINE TIMBER FROM NATIONAL FORESTS IN THE SOUTHERN REGION U. S. FOREST SERVICE 1953 State Alabama Arkan a Florida Georgia Louisiana Mi issippi North Carolina South Carolina Tennessee Texas Total & Average Volume Sold (M. Bd. Ft.) 13,614 53,034 4,413 6,238 16,969 26,670 2,433 12,961 1,403 72,751 210,486 Range in Stumpage Prices Low to High $12 .00 8.47 20.05 12.00 22.00 21.10 13.00 16.00 10.50 23.60 8.47 $36.60 57.12 32.40 41.15 48.00 46.25 40.81 44.50 48.00 46.10 57.12 67 The prices in the lower range reflect the fact that some trees were of poor quality or were grown in areas difficult of access. The higher range of price reflect in considerable measure higher quality products resulting from previous improvement cuttings that permitted the good trees to grow large. The owner may be tempted to cut his finest trees for high priced piling, or sawlogs, leaving the poorer trees. Such high grading of the stand will reduce total returns, and may materially reduce the sale price of remaining trees as they become ready for harvest. The more advisable pTactice is to maintain in the growing stand as many quality trees as the owner's financial ituation and the capability of the area will permit. Premium quality products generally find a market and usually at good prices. Moreover a stand of quality trees is a prime asset to the farm for sale or for collateral purposes. There is one more important consideration. Healthy, well-formed, fast growing trees tend to reproduce similar good treees. Diseased, forked, limby, slow growing trees tend to reproduce similar poor trees. Wise management will consider heredity in the selection of trees to leave for parent stock. A profitable size to which to grow pines is 18 to 24 inches in diameter at breast height. Logs from trees of that size will produce most of the products commonly required in present-day markets. Nearly all species of southern pine trees, grown under average conditions, decline in their rate of growth after they reach a size of 20 to 26 inches in d.b.h., or at about 60 years in age. Logs cut from trees around 20 inches in diameter can be handled with ordinary manpower and equipment in the woods, on the road and in the average sawmill. Larger trees often require spcial equipment or may be partly wasted. Hardwoods vary in their capacity to earn a return after they reach 18 inches in diameter. Red oak and yellow poplar are examples of hardwoods that will yield good returns growing from 18 to 30 inches. Cross Section of a Tree Grown at a Rate of 3" in 10 years Trees grow at varying rates. They grow faster in deep, fertile well watered, well drained soils. They grow slower on thin, unfertile, poorly watered or poorly drained soils. For a given soil an owner would have to determine the rate of growth. At Crossett, Arkansas, where growth rate is good, it is possible to maintain a growth rate of 3 inches in diameter in ten years for trees ranging from 8 to 20 inches. Based on this growth rate the following table shows how trees, on good growmg site and with good management increase in size and value. 68 n TABLE 21 AMETER IN STUMPAGE CALCULATED VALUE FOR LOBLOLLY AT THREE INCHES IN 10 PINE WITH YEARS AND SRAAWTTEIMOBFE~RO AT $20 PER THOUSAND BOARD FEET I GE Volumes and values of trees now and 10 years hence where diameter growth rate i at 3 inches in 10 years maintai Now 10 Years hence Merchantable length (feet) Volume (Bd. Ft.) Value at $20 per (M . Bd. Ft.) D.B.H. ( In ches) Merchantable length (feet) Volume (Bd. Ft.) Value at 20 per (M. Bd. Ft.) 8 16 18 10 16 32 12 32 82 14 48 146 16 56 219 18 56 298 20 56 392 $ .36 .64 1.64 2.92 4.38 5.96 7.84 ll 24 56 $ 1.12 13 40 113 2.26 15 48 182 3.64 17 56 257 5.14 19 56 342 6.84 21 56 449 8.98 23 56 585 11.70 There may be situations where the owner feels compelled to sacrifice his asset in a well stocked When faced with this decision he should carefully analyze the potential return from a well stand against the return from some other use of the money to be obtained from liquidating restlimber bank account. He may be in a position to obtain a bank loan on the timber at less cost than the growing timber will earn. eration cutting has a proper place in the management of the stand. When trees are rnashould be cut or they will fall off in growth rate and finally die. The regeneration cutting ect the final cutting after a series of improvement cuttings in the life of a tand, and prop~ -IUU.leQ it is a first step in the establishment of the new stand. ~-- of Ease in Making Sale on Method of Harvest. The clear cut, diameter limit, and the ati(,D cutting methods have the advantage of being readily understood by both owner and pur- Each sets a definite measurable basis against which a check can be made. They represent long established. These methods come down from the days when there was plenty of mature the forest was treated as a mine rather than a crop. Cutting is not understood by the many woodland owners. Relatively few owners cut ~trd:ina: to good cutting practices. Many timber buyers likewise do not understand how to volume of timber in a stand marked for cutting on an improvement basis. Tree selection for stand improvement requires some knowledge of trees which the woodland owner must factors, plus the usual resistance to change, keep many woodland owners from cutting by the improvement cutting method. 69 D. PROCEDURE FOR HARVESTING BY THE DIAMETER LIMIT CUTTING METHOD l. Setting the Diameter Limit. In ordinary practice the diameter is chosen by the purchaser of the timber. He makes the choice, based on his experience, as to the smallest sized tree that he can cut profitably, and sets the size of such tree as the minimum diameter to be cut. Under such procedure there may be differences in the diameters set by different operators within a given branch of the industry based on their equip ment, experience and judgment, and on current market demands. The decision on the minimum diameter should he made by the owner and with the best interest of his next crop of trees in mind. While compromise may have to be made to meet the owner's needs for cash, the long time effect on the forest should be seriously considered. Shall trees require more time for each operation. The operator, who buys a given stand of timber at a fixer price per thousand or for the whole allowed cut or the farmer cutting his own trees, makes relatively less on small trees than on large trees. The following table gives comparative data for trees of several sizes. TABLE 22 TIME, PER 1,000 FEET OF LUMBER, REQUIRED TO LOG AND SAW LUMBER TREES OF DIFFERENT DIAMETERS Diameter of trees (outside of bark) 4.5 feet above ground. inches Felling & sawing into logs minutes Time Required per 1000 Bd. Ft. of Lumber Skidding and bunching Loading & hauling to mill Handling & sawing into lumber minutes minutes minutes All activities minutes 8 345 143 411 312 1,211 10 290 94 380 248 1,012 15 202 54 315 143 714 20 151 48 280 112 591 25 109 43 255 102 509 The owner should set a diameter high enough so that there will be a reasonably satisfactory number and distribution of trees left after cutting. This he can do by the following procedure: a. Measure all trees for diameter at breast height. b. Classify the trees by diameter classes. c. Compute the basal area for each diameter clas . This is done by ( 1) reading the area of circles equal to the diameter, (2) multiplying by the number of trees in each diameter class, and (3) adding the basal area for each diameter class. Example: A 10" tree has a basal area of .55 square feet. Ten trees would have 10 x .55 square feet or 5.5 square feet. d. Divide the total basal area in square feet by the total number of acres in the woodland sale area. This will give the basal area per acre. 70 e. Include among the diameters to be left enough of the smaller diameters so that after cutting there will remain about 80 square feet basal area per acre below the minimum diameter. For example, let's assume a farmer has 10 acres well stocked with trees of varying sizes up to 24 inches in diameter. He determines by measuring the trees that he has the following numbers by size classes on the average acre. TABLE 23 EXAMPLE OF TIMBER STAND ON AVERAGE ACRE DBH Number trees (inches ) 2 200 4 100 6 50 8 25 10 20 12 15 Basal Area Per tree (Sq. ft.) .02 .09 .20 .35 .55 .79 Total Basal Area (Sq. ft.) 4.0 9.0 10.0 8.7 11.0 11.8 DBH Number trees Basal Area Per tree (inches) (Sq. ft.) 14 12 1.07 16 10 1.40 18 8 1.77 20 6 2.18 22 2 2.64 24 4 3.14 Total Basal Area Total Basal Area (Sq. ft.) 12.8 14.0 14.2 13.1 5.3 12.6 126.5 In this example there are a total of 126.5 square feet on the representative acre. By cutting all trees above 16 inches there will be left 81.3 square feet of basal area. The minimum d.b.h. then becomes 16 inches. 2. Meauring the Diameters. The diameter is measured outside the bark at stump height which is usually assumed to be 12 inches from the ground. The lower portion of the trunks of many trees flare wider between breast height and the ground. The diameters mentioned in our example were at d.b.h. The minimum d.b.h. will therefore have to be adjusted to a minimum stump diameter. The table shows approximately the relation diameter at breast height to diameter at a one foot stump height. TABLE 24 COMPARISON OF STUMP DIAMETER WITH D.B.H. Stump diameter Outside bark 1' High Pine D.B.H. 41/2' High Hardwood D.B.H. 41/2' High Inches Inches Inches 6 5.0 5.4 10 8 .2 8.5 15 12.2 12.3 20 16.2 16.6 24 19.4 Each owner will have to make this adjustment to suit his trees. It is sound business to state specifically that (1) the minimum diameter will be so many inches, (2) that it will be measured at a definite height from the average ground level around the tree, and (3) that it will be the average o:f two measurements across the stump, one at its widest and one at its narrowest width. 71 E. PROCEDURE FOR MAKING IMPROVEMENT CUTTINGS woodland that is properly man.a?ed ~ill be ful~y stocked wi~ healthy _vig01:ous trees u.niformly d' tributed over the area. This conditiOn I S accomphsh~d by a sen es of cuttmgs m the growmg stand .:..ich removes the undesirable trees and favors the desirable trees. 1. ~ c _- ,_e .;e _, Tree.s to Leave and those to Cut. lect to leave commercially ;alua~le spec~es. Pine on. sites ~here pine normally grows, and hanhrocMII either alone or mixed w1th pme on nch, well-dramed sites. lect to leave straight trees with a single central stem, moderate sized live limbs covering about ODIHIIIIIU of the length of the stem, healthy trees uninjured, and trees free of disease and insects. following table is a guide to the number of trees to leave so that the stand will continue to much a the soil is capable of growing. TABLE 25 BER OF TREES TO STOCK IN THE STAND FOR DIFFERENT USES Number of Trees Required Per Acre For Seedlings and Saplings 2 1,000 2 800 590 For Poles 400 240 Size of Trees d.b .h. Number of Trees Required Per Acre For Sawtimber 10 155 12 115 14 90 16 72 18 60 20 51 22 42 24 36 26 31 28 27 30 24 ~dkates. for example, that if all trees are 10 inches in diameter, 155 will be required ince tands do not grow with trees all of one size, the average acre would raapng in diameter around 10 inches. mature trees and overly large limby trees. dieeaaed or insect infested trees such as pine trees showing th~ abnormal growth on Rust Canker, or the brown needles and pitch tubes of southern pine beetles; and Niilu! fruiting bodies of fungi, open decayed places, or abnormal swellings on the rly formed trees - trees that have crooked or forked trunks. GaDrImILaedbIt.rfedespescukch; as, trees with broken tops trees with and leaning trees which m' ay fall. larue b scars caused by fire ' grade or noncommercial species- low value oaks and ]ow quality hardwoods fairly good trees where necessary to provide growing space. trees have some defect and since it is desirable to keep the area stocked, rather than create a large opening. 73 2. Check Tree Marking by Use of the Basal Area Gu.age. A good procedure for checking on the stand to leave is found in the basal area method. Generally speaking, over a 5 to 10 year growing period, we may assume that average sites will support trees with about 80 square feet basal area per acre. Basal area can be determined with the use of a basal area angle gauge. The cruiser stands in the center of any given area where he wishes to determine the basal area. He sights through the gauge and determines the number of the leave trees to count and which not to count. Each leave tree that spans the interval in the scope at dbh should be counted. Trees too narrow to span the interval should not be counted. For borderline trees, which barely span the interval, tally every other one. The cruiser revolves in a complete circle counting or rejecting each tree. The number of leave trees counted and multiplied by 10 gives the basal area per acre of trees at the sampling point. If this basal area is below 80, no further marking is necessary for thinning. If the basal area materially exceeds 80 then additional marking is in order. Mark enough of the less promising trees to bring the basal area down to 80. The cruiser moves through the woodland using the gauge from time to time to check as necessary. Instructions covering thinning according to silvicultural rules are discussed elsewhere. The gauge is used as a check or rough guide. FUGURE 30 R I ~~ I ~===:;:;;:.r==:::::lr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -r---.r.J.,~li.l 'I 74 3. Making Thinnings to Improve the Stand. Well-stocked stands of young or inte_rme~iate ~ged trees, wheth~r plant~d or grown naturally, will cinautsiemsembaencyom?reanccr~oewsdteodd. iSeolmeaevicnrgowa drmelg~tiIvSeldyecslueaabrl e. It results m keepmg stem. Severe crowd!ng the branches small d slows down the gro:.. of each tree, mcludmg the better trees whiCh should grow on for larger, h1gher quality products. The crowding may become intensified to a stage wherein wood growth, which should be added to the better quality trees, is wasted on less valuable trees. Also, if the smaller trees are not salvaged, they will die and rot. ThiiUlings free the better trees and allow them to continue to grow. Thinnings may be made at any time when the stand needs it. Normally, the owner waits until he bas a use or sale for the the products thinned. Proper thinning requires cutting when competition reduces the length of the green crown to approximately one-third the total length of the stem. Enough trees are removed in the thinning to allow the side branches room so that they will not severely interfere with each other until the next cut. One way to grasp the idea of allowing proper spacing in a thinning is to cut out sufficient trees so that the space left between any two healthy well formed trees is sufficient to allow each to double its Jive top width on at least two sides toward the neighboring trees. 4. Making Sanitation Cuttings. Trees are sometimes attacked by insect or diseases. Loblolly and slash pine are sometimes infected with Fusiform Rust. The disease may kill infected trees and may spread to uninfected trees. Trees with a heavy infestation of southern pine beetle will die and the insects harbored by them will attack other trees. Sanitation cuttings remove the source of trouble from the stand. They leave lhe healthy trees to grow. Sanitation cuttings to control diseases are usually carried out as part of the Rplar improvement cutting program. If diseased trees are not removed in the regular commercial aperations, they may be removed as soon as possible thereafter, in order to free the ground for eeedlings. It is not essential to remove every diseased tree. Many pines with fusiform rust many poplars with decay, may continue to grow, earning a good return until their commerci worth and the needs of the stand justify removal. 'tation cuttings to control infestations of southern pine beetles are emergency measures to be . . .rtallten as needed. Infested trees are felled and removed from the stand. In case of severe out- it may be necessary to spray unremoved tops and stumps with benzine hexachloride to prevent spread of insects. Salvage Cuttings. stands are sometimes so severely injured by fire, insect attack, and windstorm or sleet, necessary to salvage the damaged timber. Occasionally a single tree of large value and is killed by lighting. operations remove the dead and damaged trees, leaving the uninjured trees to grow. In fire-injured trees, salvage cuttings romove the weakened trees which will not recover and be an invitation to attack by insects or disease. be kept in mind that any one of the above cuttings may include all types. 75 6. Pruning The Trees In a Stand. Under conditions of proper spacing, natural pruning will remove mo t of the lower br h d hence reduce orelI.mm. ate ~he need f~r arti"fical prunm. g. However,_ natural pruning may be adneclaeysedan 80 that the trees are of considerable size before the dead ends of hmbs are covered and clear valuable ood is formed over them. Open stands may never prune properly. Even with the most thoro h ;runing by nature occasional live limbs, and many dead limbs, persi t. These should be pruned ~~- It i wasteful to prune unles the pruned trees are left 20 or more year for the growth of knot free ood- In about four years after pruning trees growing at the rate of 3 inches in diameter every 10 ears, will start forming clear wood over the end of small branches cut or broken off. For large branches, 6 years after pruning is usually required. FIGURE 31 "RESULTS OF PRUNING" bu.tt log, 12 inches in diameter (top end), came from a tree that was pruned when about 6 diameter (breast high, outside bark). The knotty wood center, or core, is about 4 inches in The log has been sawed into l -inch boards, mostly clear lumber. 77 Pruning is expensive in labor. It is difficult, painstaking work. The job requires care in the removal of the branches to insure quick and proper healing. Pruning may not pay off unless the owner is in a position to obtain the better price for the pruned product. Pruning is usually done when the trees are about 12 to 50 feet in height, 3 to 8 inches in diameter and still making height growth of two or more feet per year. Pruning is a refinement in cultural operations. However, with so much that needs to be done for most woodland areas, pruning is not a high priority practice. The steps in pruning are as follows: Pruning Pine Tree While Young To insure Maximum Growth of Clear Lumber. a. Select about 100 straight, healthy, uninjured trees on each acre. The trees should range from 3" to 8" d.b.h. and be spaced about 20 feet apart. The large, limby trees should be avoided. FIGURE 32 PROPER PRUNING METHOD A .B How to cut off different-sized branches in forest pruning so as to avoid possible stripping of the bark and injury to the tree. A, Small branches can be cut off by one sawing (a). B, Branches up to 2lj2 inches in diameter usually can be cut in the same manner as A, but a safer method is to make an under cut (a), followed by an over cut (b). C, If there is special reason to prune branches over 2lj2 inches in diameter they may best be removed by two complete cuttings - the first consisting of an under cut (a), followed by an over cut (b), which causes the wood to crack or split and the branch to drop, leaving a stub. A complete, smooth cut is then made (c) by sawing off the stub, without injury to the tree. 78 b. Cut all branches alive or dead for a distance up the stem, usually 8 feet on a 12 foot l7 feet on a 25 foot is a pract1ca1 he1ght tree, 25 feet on a 36 foot tree, and 33 feet on a 11 m1t. The pr_umng may be done at penod1' ca1 50 foot m terval t.reTeh. eOrldeinngathn.1Yof17 rfeeeet rown left must be at least one-thnd the length of the stem. g n c c. Cut branches flush with the bark. A saw is preferable to an axe or other tool ince it . doing the JOb accurate1y and without InJury to the trees. permits d. The unpruned trrees are gradually removed in improvement cuts, leaving the pruned tree to grow to the desired size for high value veneer or awlogs. e. Prune during dormant season to reduce dangers of insect infestation. F. PROCEDURE FOR MAKING REGENERATION CUTTINGS Regeneration cuttings remove the remaining mature trees except those needed for adequate reproduction. 1. Select and cut 1;2 to 2/3 of the stand 3 to 10 years before the stand is slated for final harvest. Trees usually build good crowns capable of producing abundant seed in about 3 years. 2. If conditions warrant the area may be burned under carefully prescribed procedures, for the purpose of killing undesired hardwood growth or to improve conditions for seedling establishment. 3. When seedlings are well established cut the remaining trees, except for seed trees. Seed trees may be left for insurance against the necessity of replanting. 4. Protect seedlings from fire, cattle, etc. 5. Cut seed trees before they seriously interfere with young trees. G. PROCEDURE FOR REMOVING TREES FROM THE FOREST Regardless of the cutting method used, the person responsible for the cuttings should follow good 'ques in cutting the trees and removing them from the forest. The practices given below will 'litate the cutting operation. Selecting Tools for Harvesting Small Products Su.ch as Fu.el Wood, Fence Posts, and Pu.lp WIOOd. tools and equipment required to harvest forest products vary somewhat with the products. all woodland owner, doing a limited amount of timber harvesting from year to year, can get with the following tools : Axes - ingle or double bit as preferred. (3 to 41f2 pounds) Crosscut saw. Six feet, narrow and thin for 2-man crew; or, bow saw for 1-man or 2-man 2-man power saw. edges - steel or magnesium for hardwoods; well-seasoned dogwood or persimmon for ea~ and heavy duty wagon or truck- Il/2 to 2 tons. ns - for binding load. of desired size and type for wagon or truck. Wllletstor1es. files, guages, rules, sawsets, etc. 79 2. Selecting Tools for Harvesting Large Products Such as Sawlogs and Poles. a. Same as in small products listed above. b. Larger cross cut saws. c. Cant hooks for use in turning and loading logs. d. Tongs or grabs for skidding logs. e. Heavy chains for skidding and loading. f. Trailer if long logs or poles are to be hauled. Tools and equipment should be kept clean, sharp and m good repair. Sharp cutting tools and strong equipment in good repair, make for efficient operations. 3. Exercising Care in Harvesting. Care should be exercised in all woods operations. Timber harvesting is hazardous work. There are opportunities for injury, often serious injury, at practically every step of the job. A slip of the axe or saw, a falling limb or a rolling log, may cost a limb or a life in a brief instance of careless ness. The woods worker must therefore, be constantly alert and careful in everything he does. 4. Cutting the Tree. a. Determine the best direction of fall, taking into account the following: ( l). Rot or mechanical injury near the base weakens the wood fibers there and influences the direction of fall. (2). Young trees may be damaged. (3). The lay of the ground to prevent breakage in falling and to secure an advantageous lay for bucking, loading and skidding. (4). Wind direction. b. Make sure that all persons, animals and equipment are safe: ( l). Consider the possibility of falling limbs. (2) . Make sure there is a quick, safe line of retreat as the tree falls. (3). Make sure that all other persons and all animals and equipment danger from the tree when it falls. c. Cut out a clear space in which to work. d. Make the undercut. 80 (1). Select side of the tree toward which it is to fall. (2). Make the first cut, usually with th saw, horizontal and at right angle to the trunk. Cul about one-fourth the distance through the trunk . Make the cut as close to the ground as conveni ent generally under twelve inches. (3). Make a second cut with the axe or saw. This cut is made 5 inches above the first cut. It is made slanting, at a 45 degree angle to the trunk and down to the back edge of the first cut. Remove the wedge of wood. Remove all chips. (4) . To avoid splintering cut the corners at the end of the undercut in softwoods; cut deeper at the center of the under cut in hardwoods. (5). To save the saw on tough-barked bardwods such as hickory, chip away a belt of bark where the saw is to cut. FIGURE 33 FELLING A STRAIGHT Undercut e. Make the felling cut: ( l). The felling cut is made on the opposite side of the tree from the undercut and parallel it- horizontal or level and at right angle to the trunk. (2) . The felling cut should be made two inches or more above the undercut, depending on the of the tree. (3). Keep the saw well sprinkled with kerosene when cutting pine to di soolve the resin and cutting easier. (4) Keep a constant watch to see if the tree will fell as planned. (5) U e wedges to prevent binding of the saw and to insure better control of the fall. (6) . Cut to within about an inch of undercut,holding enough wood to ontrol the fall. (Hold ood m corner away from direction of lean.) (7) Be sure to withdraw saw and step back out of danger from the trunk a the tree begin (S) Watch for falling limbs, which may be broken off or thrown back a the tree fall Also trees for hanging limb , which may be broken loose as the tree falls. 81 5. Bucking the Logs. a. Trim branches from sides and top of trunk as far into crown as the trunk is considered mer- chantable. Leave branches underneath as necessary to support trees and prevent binding in sawing. b. Measure off lengths of products to get best utilization. Allow about 4" extra for trimming when the log is sawed into boards or other products. Cut trunk so as to make logs with as much clear length as possible. Cut trunks with sweep or crook so as to obtain logs as straight as possible. c. Cut logs from butt end and progress toward the top. d. Use wedges early and drive often to lessen pinch and friction. e. Chop off limbs beneath the trunk as necessary to making sawing easier. f. Make sure each log is cut free from other logs and tops. g. Provide support for free overhanging portion of trunk before cutting to avoid splitting the log. h. Check the free end of a log on a steep slope to prevent it rolling on to sawyer. Stand above the log when the cut is nearly completed. 6. Skidding the Logs. Logs are dragged or skidded from the place where they are felled and cut from the tree, to a concentration point for storage and loading. Skidding, for small operators, is usually done with a team or a tractor if available. Logs are skidded for short distances, only, u ually not more than 200 feet if the land is flat, somewhat more if skidding is down grade. Fellers should have the skidding in mind at the time of felling. Tree tops should be felled wherever possible, so as not to interfere with the skidding. Where po sible, two or more trees should be bedded across each other with the tops bunched and the logs in the clear. Care should be taken to avoid covering logs with tops. 7. Loading the Logs. Logs may be loaded on a truck or wagon in a number of ways. Two of the more common ways are (1) loading by gravity from a skidway, and (2) loading by crosshaul with a team, chains and skid poles. FIGURE 34 FiGURE 28.-Loading docks: A, Simple type for sloping ground; B. dodc made by cribbing logs; C, bank used as dock. 82 In loading by gravity, the logger selects a hillside for his skidway. A deck with a log frame is constructed on the hillside in such fashion that the logs will roll down the hill aero s the deck and then down on to the truck or wagon over skid polles. In loading by crosshaul, a chain is wrapped around the log, and it is pulled onto the load by a tea m. FIGURE 35 CROSSHAULING 8. Hauling the Logs. For the small landowner doing his own work, logs are usually hauled on a wagon or truck. Road- ways are cleared into the woods as far as necessary to pick up the logs with a minimum of skidding. Hauling is easier in fairly dry weather when roadways and the ground generally are firm. Roads are opened along easy grades to hold power, required for hauling, at a minimum. Roads should be kept well drained and in constant repair to save wear and tear on equipment and time that might otherwise be lost. H. PROCEDURE FOR PROTECTING YOUNG TREES DURING CUTTING OPERATIONS Regardless of the amount cut or the method of determining the cut, every possible care should be taken to save the trees to be left, including the young trees, from injury during cutting opera- tions. Some of the ways in which care should be exercised are as follow : 83 1. Tree hould not be felled on top of the young growth. Damage to the advanced growth can be avoided by careful selection of a spot relatively free of young trees in which to drop the top. 2. Care hould be taken in felling not to break branches or skin up the larger trees left standing. Broken bran hes and skinned places caused in a logging operation are the direct cause of defects in the lumber produced in later operations. Such injuries also open the way for insect attack. 3. The arne precautions hould be taken to prevent injury to trunk and loss of limbs by tractors and other equipment and tool . 4. The mall material used for pry poles, stakes, eros -lay , etc., hould be obtained from the less de irable tree and pecie , saving the better trees for future growth . 5. Care should be taken not to pile brush on young growth since it may mother it or deform the growing trees. Young trees bent over by brush and tops hould be freed. 6. During period of extended dry weather, care hould be taken not to pile pine tops close to living pine trees since this may make it easier for pine beetle to attack and kill the living trees. In times of drought, ( l month or more of a rain deficiency of l" or more), it is usually advi able to stop logging operations of pines to prevent serious pine beetle infestation. 7. Do not permit awdust to pile up around living trees, for it will kill them. 8. Be espec1all)' careful witl> fire since the tops from felled tree add materially to the heat of a forest fire. I. PROCEDURE FOR WORKING ONES OW TREES FOR GUM Living slash pine and longleaf pine tree yield a gum which is converted into valuable products including tmpentine, ro in and pine oils. In the pa t the harve ting of gum was the primary, and sometimes the only use made of the tree in the tand. Current trends in management are toward selecting the trees to be cut as previously described and working them for gum before cutting. Under thi approach, the trees are selected for cutting three to five years ahead of the actual cutting operation . Trees marked for cutting, which are suitable for gum production, are turpentined three to five years and then cut. The same process may be followed for ucceeding cuts. There are a few determination that should be made. Good Naval Stores Practice; Bark chipped, acid used to stimulate gum flow, curved gutter, doubleheaded nails, rust free cup. l. Is a Cupping Operation Feasible? After the trees to be cut are marked the land owner should determine whether or not there are sufficient cupable trees to justify an opera tion. The expected gum yield is indicated in the following table. Unless the owner has sufficieol 84 trees available on his own or neighbor's lands to yield at least ten barrels of gum annually, a cupping operation may not be practical. 2. Are Gum Markets and Cupping Equipment Available? If the owner believes he ha sufficient trees to start a cupping operation, he should be checked with the nearest gum processing plant as to the expected returns for the gum. They will usually arrange to supply him with needed equipment and materials. They may also arrange to haul his gum from the farm to the proces ing plant. If the owner has a feasible operation, but decides not to work the trees himself, he can arrange to lease cupping rights to someone else. TABLE 26 GUM YIELD FROM SLASH AND LONG- LEAF PINE, BARK CHIPPED AND TREATED WITH ACID EVERY TWO WEEKS D. B. H. 9 10 11 12 13 Barrels of gum per 10,000 cups Slash Longleaf 130 150 167 180 190 222 278 266 266 255 Face width lJs of circumference. 1. Selecting the Trees for Cupping. a. Cup all suitable trees which are marked to be cut - preferably trees 9 inches d.b.h. or larger. Yields increase with the dia- meter. b. Cup only the trees to be removed in the next improvement operation. c. Select trees with good crowns and not over 5 degree lean from vertical. d. Cup only where there is an average of 20 or more faces available per acre. Acid Spraying on Barked Chipped Face. e. Cull non-productive trees at time of evaluation of cups. 2. Installing the Cups. a. Install cups in December or January. b. A lead streak should be put on when cup is elevated. 3. Making the Streaks. a. Bark chipping and acid stimulation is recommended over wood chipping. b. Individual streaks should not be over 1;2 to 3;4 inches high. c. Chip regularly. 85 d. Delay first streak until 3 to 6 weeks after lead streak. e. Start regular treaking in March, depending on weather. f. e cup covers when streaking. g. Keep chips and bark from gum. h. Maintain vertical sides to edge of streaks, because it saves gum and the face of the tree. 4. Dipping Gum. a. Dip on 4 or 5 treaks or as necessary depending on gum flow. b. Prevent waste of gum through overflow. c. Scrape is removed at end of season. d. Cups are elevated after faces are scraped. e. Keep the gum clean of dirt, bark, chips, and ru t. 5. Securing Tools and Equipment. Rust resistant cups and gutters, double headed nails, hogal, bark hack, cup cover, acid spray gun, dip paddle, dip buckets, and dip barrels are necessary. 86 Job IX - Utilizing Forest Products for Home and Farm Needs A. VALUE OF FOREST PRODUCTS FOR HOME USE. The farm itself offers the best market for products from the farm wodland. Lumber in the home and farm buildings for protection of the family and livestock; posts for fencing stock and guarding cultivated crops; fuelwood for warming the family and cooking the food are needs of most farms. Wood is useful in so many ways that it would be difficult and expensive to run the farm without it growing right there at hand. Lumber used from the farm costs the farmer only about one-half as much as lumber purchased at the mill. Most mill operators, doing custom sawing, will saw the lumber on shares - usually on 50-50 basis. Fence posts and fuelwood likewise bring a better return when used on the farm. TABLE 27 ESTIMATED QUANTITIES OF WOOD USED ANNUALLY ON THE AVERAGE FARM Item Units Number Volume in Cords Lumber Board feet 1000 2 Posts Pieces 80 1.3 Fuelwood Cords 10 10 TOTAL 13.3 Fuelwood constitutes a substantial part of the annual farm requirement for wood. Fuelwood does not require either strength or durability. While some trees give higher heat values than others. A sound basis for selection of wood for fuel should be that it will not serve for higher or more profitable uses. Fuelwood should be obtained from thinnings, weedings, and sanitation cuttings or it should be obtained from otherwise unused tops, limbs, slabs or wasted portions of the tree. Farmers are beginning to use saw dust and chipped wood as a means of supplying humus to the soil. A cord of wood cut from low grade trees may remove a product that could not otherwise be sold or used. Its removal should release growing space for more valuable trees. A cord of wood cut from high grade trees may remove as much as 500 board feet of lumber. With good timber selling @ $20 on the stump, that cord of wood amounts to $10 worth of salable products. Ten cords as an average year's wood supply thus remove $100 worth of stumpage. 87 B. WHAT HOME USES TO MAKE OF FARM FOREST PRODUCTS l. Farm Uses and Desired Wood Properties. The following table gives a li t of the more com mon farm uses for wood products and the wood properties desirable in each . TABLE 28 PROPERTIES OF WOOD REQUIRED FOR DIFFERENT FARM USES Farm Use General Farming Equipment support & sills, flooring framing, rafters, siding, shingles, bridging and underpinning Fence posts and stack posts (untreated) Gates and fence boards Well Platforms Fuelwood Properties of wood required Medium decay resistance, medium bending strength, splintering, resistance, and hardness. High decay resistance, medium bending strength, high nailholding, properties, and narrow sapwood. Moderate bending strength, medium decay and weather resistance, high nailholding properties, and freedom from warp. High decay resistance and good bending strength. High heat value and splits readily. Bending strength is the load-carrying capacity of wood when used in a horizontal position and resting on two or more supports. Bending strength applies to items such as bridge stringers, scaffold platforms, etc. Stiffness i the property which resists deflection and applies especially to items such as beams, rafters, floor joi ts, ladder side rails and axe handles. Endwise compressive strength applies to the carrying capacity of wood when loaded endwise of the grain, as in posts used for building foundations. Toughness is the ability of a wood to withstand suddenly applied loads and shocks such as are subjected to tool handles, wheel spokes, and wagon tongues. Decay resistance is of considerable importance to all farm operators. It costs just as much to build porches, construct bridges and build form buildings with timber subject to decay as with decay resistant or treated timber. Replacement is less frequent with decay resistant material. For example, it has been estimated that the average annual requirement of untreated fence posts is 80 per farm. If durable posts were used, they should last 10 - 20 years and replacement would be at the rate of about 12 posts per year, a material saving in labor. 2. Relative Bending Strength of Different Wootl~. Because of its importance in many ann uses, and its approximate correlation with other strength properties (most wood high in bending strength are also high in stiffness, compressive strength, and toughness.) Common woods are classified according to relative bending strengt.i1 as follows: 88 TABLE 29 BENDING STRENGTH OF DIFFERENT WOODS High Bending Strength Ash, white Beech Elm Hickory Locust Maple, hard Oak Pine, Southern Walnut Intermediate Bending Strength Ash, green Cedar, red Cypress Gum, red Hackberry Hemlock, Eastern Poplar, yellow Sycamore Tupelo Low Bending Strength Bas wood Cedar, white Chestnut Cottonwood Maple, red 3. Other Strength Properties of Different Woods. Wood having other strength properties are classified as follows: TABLE 30 STIFFNESS, COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH, AND TOUGHNESS OF WOODS High in Stiffness Ash, white Beech Elm Hickory Locust Maple, hard Oak Pine, Southern Walnut High in Compressive Strength Ash, white Cedar, Eastern red Hickory Locust Maple, hard Pine, Southern Walnut High in Toughness Ash, white & green Beech Elm, soft and rock Hackberry Hickory Oak Walnut 4. Special Qualities for Certain W oods TABLE 31 NAIL HOLDING, HARDNESS AND HEARTWOOD OF WOODS High in Nail Holding High in Hardness High in Heartwood Ash, white Beech Elm Hickory Maple, hard & soft Oak, white & red Pine, southern Sycamore Tupelo Ash, white & Green Beech Cedar, eastern red Hackberry Hickory Locust Maple, hard & soft Oak, white & red Pine, Southern Sycamore Tupelo Walnut Cedar, Southern Pine Chestnut Black locusts 89 5. Decay Resistance of Different Woods. Natural durability varies widely with factors uch as exposure conditions (wood placed in wet and poorly drained location rot more rapidly), the kind of fungi which cause the decay, and the percentage of heartwood. Following is a durability cia iiication of common woods (heartwood only) based on service under conditions favorable to decay. TABLE 32 DECAY RESISTANCE OF VARIOU (heartwood only) WOODS High in Decay Resistance* Intermediate in decay Resistance Cedar, Red Che tnut Cypres Locust, black Oak, post Walnut Mulberry 0 age Orange Sa safras Elm, soft & rock Gum, red Locust, honey Pine, Southern Oak, white * Heartwood only sap wood of all species decay rapidly. Low in Decay Resistance Ash, white & green Basswood Beech Cottonwood Hemlock Hickory Maple Oak, red Poplar, yellow 6. Heating Qualities of Different Woods. The relative value of the different trees for heating purposes is given in the table: (Applies to dry wood only). Kind of Wood Hickory Oak Beech Birch Hard Maple Ash Elm Locust Longleaf Pine TABLE 33 HEATING QUALITIES OF WOOD Heating Equivalent of 1 Cord 1 ton of coal Kind of Wood Shortleaf Pine Red Gum Sycamore Soft Maple Sweet Gum Cherry Cedar Poplar Cypress Basswood White Pine Heating Equivalent of 1 Cord 2f3 ton of coal 1/2 ~f)n of coal Green wood fresh from the woodlot should be dried for a period of 6 months. Large sticks should be split to speed up drying. Sticks should be piled on skids off the ground. The piles should be located on high dry ground and exposed to the wind and sun. 90 C. PROCEDURE FOR DRYING AND STORING FOREST PRODUCT Lumber properly dried and kept will stain, check, warp and decay. dry will not decay. If not properly dried and ke t p d ry, 1urnber Lumber may be satisfactorily dried when properly piled in the open air and left for a 00 of 60 to 90 days. All lumber gives off moisture to the surrounding air or take it up until th:e.::is- ture in the lumber comes in balance with that in the air. The rate at which expo d lumber gives off moi ture depends upon air drynes , temperature and wind. These factor vary with locality easons, and method of piling. ' Lumber is dried by circulation of air through the pile. Horizontal circulation of air i caused primarily by local wind currents and is influenced by variation in yard layout, foundation con truction and piling methods. Vertical circulation is caused by increased air activity as evaporation cools the pile and air. This cau e a downward flow of air and can be regulated somewhat by altering vertical air passage within the pile and by altering pile foundations. Two methods of piling are considered - flat piling and end racking. Flat piling is used almost univer ally. The drying rate is relatively slow. The weight of the pile tends to keep the boards from warping. Flat piling i uited to species that are likely to check, honeycomb, or warp. Most hardwoods are in this category, especially oak, beech, hickory and sycamore. It is less suited to pecies that are susceptible to ap stain. Among these are the pines, and soft hardwoods. 1. Flat-Piling Lumber a. Choose a well-drained site. b. Free site of brush and weeds. c. Scrape area of pile to bare, firm soil. d. Build firm, decay-proof foundation. e. Elevate front foundation 18" from ground. Establish foundation on slope toward rear of 1" to 1'. f. Pile lumber so that top front gradually extends out over base at rate of 1" to 1'. g. Keep front end of boards even across pile with none projecting to lead water into pile. h. Insofar as practical, pile separately by species and thickness. i. Build up tiers of boards separated by flues from top to bottom of pile, flues between tiers averaging 4" in width. j. Stickers used across pile to separate layers of boards should be l" x 2" for soft woods and 1" x ll/2" for hardwoods. They should be air dried for at least a week before used in piling. k. Roof pile, by laying crosswise, 2" x 4" at front, middle and rear and covering with double layer of low-value boards. Have these overlap in rear by 21j2' and front by 1'. l. Keep area free of weeds and other obstructions to flow of air. 2. End-Racking Lumber Lumber piled on end is comparable to a flat pile tipped on end. End piling is economical of labor and gives relatively fast, though not uniform, drying. Lumber can be brought to a condition where stain will be relatively minor in 3 to 15 days. The lumber can then be flat-piled. a. Choose a well-drained site. b. Free site of brush and weeds. 91 c. rape area to bar , firm oil. d. Floor th area with cull tock. Allow several days for floor to dry. e. Con truct a central ra k to lean the board again t. f. tand layer of board again t the central ra k. g. tand ucce ive layer of board , separating them by cro ticker . h. upport cro s ticker on horizontal board at height of central rack, held in place by supporting tick . 1. Tear down end-racked pile after 10 to 15 day , depending on dryne of weather. j. Flat-pile the lumber. When lumber i properly air dried, tore in a dry, well-ventilated building until u ed. Round product uch a fence posts and pole hould b peeled, Lacked on supports to allow free air circulation until air-dry - about 2-4 month . FIGURE 36 FIGURE 37 Flat pile of hardwood , upported of log and cross beams. Base u ed in flat piling: A, temporary base B, permanent base. 92 FIG RE 38 End Racks of Lumber. D. REASO FOR PRE ERVATIVE TREATMENT OF FOREST PRODUCTS FOR HOME SE Preservative Treatment for Wood. The principal wood de troying agencies of interest to us in thi text are fungi and in ect . Wood properly dried and kept dry generally will not rot. The heartwood of certain species as black locust, white oak, cedar, chestnut, and cypress have high resistance to G.ecay. However, even the e may be destroyed by fungi under conditions favorable to its growth. Termite will de troy any wood expo ed to termit infe ted soil. Any of our woods may be treated with per ervative which will add many year to their period of ervice. The pine and oft hardwoods are especially ea y to treat and give service comparable to the more decay re i tant wood . There are many chemical compound that may be used to treat wood to prevent decay. For the purpose of thi text, only two, coal tar creo ote and pentechlorophenol, will be con idered. Either one will a ure 20 or more year of ervice with properly treated wood. Creosote is so destructive to fungi that it may be mixed with cheaper oils a an extender. Creosote has a di advantage for some u e in that it has a strong odor. Wood soaked in pentechlorophenol or copper naphthalate will resist attacks by termites. Odor from wood treated with these chemicals will disappear in open air. 93 Job X - Marketing Forest Products A. IMPORTANCE OF GOOD MARKET! G PRACTICES There are many products that may be sold from a farm forest. They include such products as sawlogs, veneer bolts, poles, pulpwood and naval store ~ Some farmers develop special markets for fence posts and stack poles, etc. Enterprising children have at times worked up a market for Christmas trees and Christmas decorations. The sale of forest products adds to farm profits, and contributes raw materials for industry to manufacture into useful products. The owner's decisions and marketing practices determine in large measure the future productivity of hi woodland, as well as his immediate ca h return. The various methods of managing a forest when harvesting it products have been discussed in a previous unit. As a general rule the e discussions point to con ervative cutting practices conceived to keep the woodland fully productive and to maintain and improve the quality of products grown. B. WHAT PRODUCTS TO SELL FROM THE FOREST Almo t any merchantable stand will contain a variety of product . Most tands if large enough to provide a merchantable cut have both pulpwood and sawlogs. Many stands a they grow larger will have some trees suitable for poles and or veneer. Market each product as it becomes available. From the young stand, market fuel wood, stack pole , and pulpwod as thining and improvement cuttings. As the tand grows, market larger products such a sawlogs and poles. From the more mature stand, market veneer bolts, piling, and large logs. The older stand would al o yield smaller products such as pulpwood from tops and smaller tree . Products vary materially in the price that they will bring. Generally peaking, saw logs will bring more per unit of volume than smaller products, such as pulpwood and fuelwood. Large awlogs, veneer bolts and poles usually bring still higher prices. Large log , with a high percentage of choice lumber, should bring premium prices. A comparison of the returns from wood sold as pulpwood and as lumber is given in the following table. The prices for either product may vary from those quoted in the table, and local values hould be computed to give the current local companson. TABLE 34 COMPARSION OF STUMPAGE VALUES, WITH PULPWOOD SELLING AT $5 PER STANDARD CORD AND SAWTIMBER SELLING AT $20 PER THOUSAND BOARD FEET D.B.H. (Inches) Number of Trees Pulpwood Volume Value In Cord Per Tree Sawtimber Board Feet Per Tree Value Per Tree 6 33 8 13 10 7 12 4 14 3 16 2 1 $ .15 1 .38 18 $ .36 1 .71 32 .64 1 1.25 82 1.64 1 1.67 146 2.92 1 2.50 219 4.38 94 The compari on 1 predicated on the a sumption that the tree in each ca e c ld be ood e1ther pulpwood or lumber. There are, of cour e, trees or portiOn of tree where thiosui tuh for Small tree from thinnings may have no value for sawlogs. A few larger trees in a stand n;t le ized trees may find no ready buyers for sawlogs. 0 pu pw The top of pine trees, and some culls, in a saw timber size tand may find a market only a pulpwood. An example of the pulpwood that may be salvaged from the tops of sawtimber tre . p-:1 given in the table below. In thi example sawtimber i utilized to a 6" top diameter and wood to a 4" d"tameter. p- D.B.H. 10 12 14 TABLE 34A PULPWOOD FROM TOP (TO 4" DIAMETER) OF SAW TIMBER TREES Volume of Pulpwood Cubic Feet Per Tree Number Tree Top Required To Make A Cord of Salvaged Wood 4.8 19 6.5 15 7.7 13 If aw timber is only utilized to an 8" or 10" top diameter the amount of wood that might be alvaged for pulpwood would be materially greater than given in the table. The owner might properly decide to ell a pulpwood all the tree marked for cutting from his young tand. A few of them might be worth more as sawlogs, but, if the volume in sawlog size is inadequate to interest a buyer then the owner would do well to ell all as pulpwood. Based on the same rea oning the owner might decide to ell all the tree in a mall awlog stand a awlogs even though a few might be worth more as pole . The question of whether there is a merchantable volume of veneer bolt , poles, sawlogs, or pulpwood is one to be an wered by the buyers. Minimum operable volume of aw timber, when a mill is to be et up on the property, i omewhere around 1000 board feet per acre, with a mini mum total volume of 50,000 board feet. Minimum operable volume of pulpwood is ordinarily three cord per acre and a minimum total cut of 16 cord or one car load. The minimum volume natur ally varie with operators and other con ideration . Th farmer hould aim to ell timber product when the market for them is up, and when prices are low he hould let the tree grow. Price for fore t product have had their rises and declines along with pro perity of the times. Over the past 50 years they have gradually increased. The existing situation of depleting upplies of sawtimber-pine, white oak, yellow poplar and other species ugge t that the price for large, quality product will continue upward. Meanwhile, if the owner delays the sale of well formed, well spaced tree they will continue to increa e in size and value. After the farmer has looked over his woods and decided that he has products that might make up a ale he should check with the local fore ter and local buyer of various products. He should be sure he ha a market for hi products before he cuts. Forest products deteriorate rapidly once the tree i killed or felled. Decay and insects attack promptly. Once the tree is dead or down the owner 95 may be for ed to ell at a low price or lo e the value of the produ t. B for making a ale the owner hould mea ure hi product . C. HOW TO MARKET FOREST PRODUCT The woodland owner ha two major choices in the method of selling hi fore t products. He can ell the tanding tree , or ell product in partially proce ed form, uch a logs, pulpwood, veneer bolt , and board . If old a partially fini hed product the owner may ll them at orne point of delivery a log kidd ed to a log landing deck, pulpwood d livered to the car, and lumber delivered to the concentration yard . l. elling Timber Prodncts as Stumpage in tanding Trees. Mo t timber i old a tumpage in tanding tree . Both buyer and eller readily under tand thi method . Under thi y tern the owner 11 certain tree agreed upon for an agreed upon price. Th timber buy r a sume the re pon i bility of logging the area. The owner has no respon ibilitie except tho e re erved to him in hi contract, and u uall tho e re ervation refer to upervi ion to in ure protection of leave tand, fence , and oil and water re our e . The tre old are de cribed by the owner, either on a diameter ba i or a marked tree ba i . Both the owner and th e operator need to know the volume of ea h product, and where pertinent, the quality. Accordingly the volume of product must be determined by mea urement to in ure a ound deci ion in a tumpage ale. The ale of timber a tumpage may offer one ob tacle in that each operator tend to want to cut only one product. The pulpwood man may want to cut all de ignated trees into pulpwood, even though orne might bring a better price for awlogs pole , or other pro duct . The awmill man may wi h to buy most of the tlee for awlog even though orne tree mi ght yield higher price from the pole buyer. The sawmill man may not want to bother cutting the tree that hould be removed a pulpwood. The pole man may want to cream the b t tree from the tand and leave too little good aw timber to interest the sawmill man . Good practice suggests that all tree that should orne out, be marked and measured according to the products available. Bids hould be obtained from all intere ted partie . The bidder offering the be t bid, all thing con idered, hould be awarded the ale. When tree are properly selected a already et forth in previou chapter this method work quite ati factorily. The sale of stumpage has the advantage that once the owner and operator agree on the ale, there i no further nece sity on the part of the owner to be cone rned with the volume of timber products. 2. elling Timber Products With the Understanding That They will be Measured in the Form Into Which They are Cut. A considerable volume of timber i old at an agreed upon price per unit of product. Thu an owner with pulpwood for ale will sell the pulpwood at o much per cord or other unit of mea ure. The pulpwood is cut from tree designated by the owner. The pulp wood bolt are measured at a de ignated place, usually before leaving the owners woodland. Log may be sold and measured ~n the same manner. Sometimes the log are carri d to the operator' mill and sawed into lumber and then measured in board feet as lumber. When the timber i sold and measured as cut product - awlog , lumber, veneer bolts, pulpwood, etc., the owner may have continuing responsibility for measuring and checking on the volume removed from his property. When the timber is old on the ba is that it will be cut into lumber and measured, the owner ha a still further concern a to whether the operator obtains as much volume and quality lumber a po ible. 96 D. WHAT PRICE TO PLACE ON THE PRODU CT The price that an operator or indu try can pay for fore t product depends on many factor . Price for fore t product will be relatively high (1 ) when times are pro perous and there i much u e of lumber a in construction. (2) when lumber i not readil y available from other regions a the We t Coa t. (3) When the timber for sale is of high quality, i.e., desired pecie uch a pine, white oak, yellow poplar; large ize trees; and tree trunk relatively free of knot - in short trees that will cut out a high percentage of clear wood products free of knots and other defect . (4) When the timber for ale in a given tract is readily acces ible over good road in fairly large volume and the distance to be hauled i not great. When the e condition are reversed the price will be relatively low. An owner in his early improvement cuttings, should mark many low quality trees for for harvest. He should be willing to accept orne deduction in price in order to have the low quality trees removed. Later on, the owner may obtain relatively better prices for the better quality products grown through con ervative harve ting. The many factor involved in arriving at a price for timber products make it extremely difficult to lay down a set of rules or guide to follow in deciding on a price. The owner with timber to sell will do well to inquire around to find out what timber of similar quality and accessibility is bringing. Hi neighbor who have sold timber, the local timber buyers, and the local forester are logical source of information. Data thus obtained will give a range of values as a guide, or the owner might determine the price he would have to pay for lumber and then obtain figures on the co t for logging and milling. Subtracting the e co ts with due allowance for operator services and profit, will give a calculated appraisal. The owner should have a fair range of values in mind before contacting a buyer. If the price offered is too far below a fair appraisal, it is a afe bet that the growing timber will return more at a later date. E. MARKLNG TREES FOR CUTTING If the owner's deci ion i to sell selected trees then tho e trees should be clearly de ignated. One good way to de ignate the trees to be cut is to use marking paint. A pot of paint is made with a bru h or paint spray gun about head high so that the owner and the timber buyer and his loggers can readily pick out the tree to be cut. The tree is also marked near the ground a a means of checking on the cutters. Sub equent discussion of estimation of volume is intended to refer to the trees designated for cutting. Should the owner want a record of leave trees they may be separately recorded and calculated. F. MEASURING FOREST PRODUCTS Measure forest products either ( 1) before the sale is made or (2) at orne time and stage in the logging proce s when the owner can be certain of getting fair and full measure with reasonable convenience. l. Estimating the Volume of Saw Timber in Standing Trees. The volume of sawtimber in standing trees is estimated by doing three steps (a) measuring the tree at breast height. (b) estimating the number of merchantable 16 foot logs, and (c) reading the volume in board feet from a prepared table. 97 Marking Tree for Cutting a. Measure the Diameter at Breast Height. A diameter tape tran lates the mea ured circum ference into an average diameter through the center of the tree; a Biltmore tick held against the bark gives a reading equal to the diameter through the tree parallel to the tick. 98 log b. Determine with a , (8 feet long) using Biltmore stick a cale on the the number side. After a of merchantable log number of careful m(e1a6ufreemt eInong~an~ half owner may be able to e timate the number of log in each tree by ey . The timber ' limber check him elf from time to time. (Figure 40) owner hould Figure 39 FIGURE 40 Measuring Standard Tree With Biltmore Stick E timating Number of Log m Tree. c. A each tree i measured, talley it on a form ( ee below). In tallying a 16 inch one-log tree, the tally man would run hi eye down to 16 in the fir t column on the left and then across to a 1 under number of log . He would enter a dot for 1 tree. Succeeding trees would be recorded with the following sy tern, known a the dot and quare sy tern. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 99 When the tree m a tand are all mea ured and tallied, the tally heet might appear a follow . TABLE 35 AWTIMBER TALLY SHEET FOR STA DI G TIMBER Diameter Numbet: 16-Foot Logs at 4lj~ Ft. 1 2 3 4 5 Inche 10 2l 11 12 t8l' 12 ~ ~2,s. 14 16 18 20 ...2 .......... 1 ,. 1 5 ~ 11 3 2 ~ ...... 10 5 1 # 2 22 d. Look up the volume in the Volume Table (see Table 36 following) and compute the total volume. Thus, a 10 inch one-log tree from the table ha 30 board feet. Eleven uch trees have 11 x 30 board feet or 330 board feet. The volumes by ize clas es are computed by thi procedure. They are then totaled to give the total volume. TABLE 36 TREE VOLUME TABLE SCRIBNER DECIMAL C.* RULE SECOND GROWTH SOUTHERN PINE-FORM CLASS 80. D.B.H. Inche 1 10 3 12 5 14 7 16 10 18 13 20 16 Number of 16 foot loss 2 3 4 5 (Board feet per tree* ) 5 9 12 13 17 18 23 27 23 30 34 29 38 43 D.B.H. Inche 22 24 26 28 30 Number of 16 foot log 1 2 3 4 5 (Board feet per tree* ) 20 35 47 54 24 44 58 68 74 29 54 71 82 92 33 64 86 96 110 39 76 100 115 132 *Multiply values by 10: Example, 10" d.b.h. wi th 1-16 foot log, 3 x 10- 30 board feet. 100 2. Measuring the Vo lume of Lumber in The Logs. FIG RE 4] awlog,. and orne other product are often old by numb r of board f t a m a ured in the log. A board foot contains 144 cubic inche . For example, a pie e of lumber on inch thi k tw lve inche wid and twelve inche long equal a board foot. a. Mea ure the diameter of the log and the length of the log in feet. The diameter of the log i mea ured in ide the bark at th mall nd . in e th nd of th log i u uall not a perfect cir I , two mea urement ar u ually taken, on a ro th wide t diameter of the circl and one aero the nanowe l diamet r. Then th two m a ur m nt ar averag d. Th 1 ngth of th log i m a ur d in ev n feel aft r allowing about 3 inch at the end for trim. b. R ord the m a ured log on a log Lally heet uch as th one hown below. The record i made following the pro edure for tree cale tally. Diameter of log mall end in ide bark (in he ) TABLE 37 TALLY HEET FOR umber of Log By Length in Feet 8 10 12 14 16 18 6 7 8 au 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 101 c. Determine the volume in board feet for a log in a given ize, diameter and length from the table below. Thu a log 8 inche in diameter and 8 feet long has a volume in the table of 10 board feet. The 21 logs in this clas would then have 210 board feet. Each ize class is computed in this way. The everal volume are added to give the total volume. TABLE 38 LOG VOLUME TABLE contents of logs, in board feet, by the Scribner decimal C log ru.le Diameter of log small end, inside bark (inches) Oontents, according to length of Jog in feet 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 20 -- ------ ~ ------- -- -- - -- Bd./t. Bd./t. Bd./t. Bd./t. Bd.[t. Bd.[t. Bd./t. Bd./t. Bd./t. Bd./t. Bd./t. Bd.[t. 869170___-___.-_-____-___-_______-__-___-________-___-____-____-____-____-_____-____-___-___-__-____----- 5 10 10 20 30 5 10 10 20 30 10 10 20 30 30 10 20 20 30 30 10 20 20 30 30 10 20 20 30 40 10 20 20 30 40 10 20 20 30 50 20 30 30 40 60 20 30 30 40 60 20 30 30 40 60 20 30 30 40 70 ! ! _________________ 12 _________________ 13 _________________ 14 _________________ 15. ____________ ____ _____---- 30 40 50 60 - 70 30 40 50 60 80 40 40 40 50 50 50 60 60 60 70 70 80 70 80 90 90 98 100 110 120 50 70 80 100 120 60 70 90 110 130 70 80 100 110 140 70 80 100 120 150 80 90 110 130 160 80 100 120 140 180 16 __________________ _ 17__ ________________ _ 80 18________ __________ _ 19 __________________ _ 20 _____ _____________ _ 90 110 120 90 100 120 130 100 120 130 150 110 130 150 160 120 140 160 180 130 150 170 190 140 160 170 190 210 230 140 160 190 210 240 150 170 200 220 260 160 180 210 240 280 170 200 230 250 300 180 210 240 270 310 200 230 270 300 350 21 __________________ _ 22 __________________ _ 23 __________________ _ 24______ __ _____ _____ _ 25 __________________ _ 150 170 190 210 170 190 210 230 190 210 230 250 210 230 260 280 230 250 280 300 250 270 310 330 230 260 290 310 340 370 270 290 330 350 400 280 310 350 380 430 300 330 380 400 460 320 350 400 430 490 340 380 420 450 520 380 420 470 500 570 26 __________________ _ 27 __________________ _ 28. _________________ _ 29 __________________ _ 30 __________________ _ 250 270 290 310 330 280 310 330 350 370 310 340 360 380 410 340 380 400 420 450 370 410 440 460 490 410 440 470 490 530 440 480 510 530 570 470 510 540 570 620 500 550 580 610 660 530 580 620 650 700 560 620 650 680 740 620 680 730 760 820 31 __________________ _ 32__________________ _ 33 __________________ _ 34 __________________ _ 35 __________________ _ 360 370 390 400 440 400 410 440 450 490 440 460 490 500 650 490 510 540 550 600 530 550 590 600 660 580 600 640 650 710 620 640 690 700 770 670 690 730 750 820 710 740 780 800 880 750 780 830 850 930 800 890 830 920 880 9 0 900 1, 000 980 1,090 36__________________ _ 460 520 580 630 690 750 810 860 920 980 1,040 1,150 3378..~_-_-__-_-_-_-_-_-_-_--_-_-_-_-_-_-_ 39 __________________ _ 40-------- - -- -------- 510 540 :I 580 600 630 680 640 670 700 750 710 730 770 830 770 800 840 900 840 900 960 1,030 1,090 1,160 1, 290 870 930 1, 000 1,070 1,130 1, 200 1,330 910 980 1,050 1, 120 1,190 1,'260 1, 400 980 1, 050 1, 130 1, 200 1, 280 1, 350 1, 500 102 d. elect a log rule to u e in mea uring tree... and log . In thi text the Scribner Decimal C. rule i u ed to compute the volume of aw timber in log and tree . There are other rules. The three most widely u ed in the South are Doyle, cribner, and International. They differ con iderably. A comparison of the three well known log rule a applied to outhern Pin following table. aiv n m tb TABLE 39 BOARD FOOT CONTENTS OF 16 FT. LOGS BY INTERNATIO AL 1/.i, INCH, SCRIBNER, AND DOYLE LOG RULE D.B.H. Inches 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 International 1;4 inch 39 51 64 80 97 116 136 cribner 30 42 55 70 86 104 123 Doyle 16 25 36 49 64 81 100 D.B.H. In che 15 16 17 18 19 20 International l;J inch 157 181 205 232 260 290 ribner 144 166 189 216 243 272 Doyle 121 144 169 196 225 256 It hould be noted that the volume of lumber a aw mill man will obtain from a log depend somewhat on hi kill, the width of hi saw, and the amount of wa te resulting from decay, sweep and other defect . It should al o be noted that the awmill man con ider the relative values given for different log rule and he will be willing to pay more per thou and when mea ured by the Doyle rule than when measured by other rules. The U. S. Forest Service use the Scribner rule when measuring national forest timber for ale. There i another point in the use of tree volume tables. Tree vary in form and hence in the volume of board feet or cubic content. Tree on one site may have a relatively large diameter at breast height and become mailer relatively fast a you mea ure up the stem. On a better site, tree taper more lowly and con equently have more volume of wood for a tree of a given d.b.h. Thus the first log may vary from 80 board feet in a rapidly tapering tree to llO board feet in a slowly tapering tree. The tree scale volume table used for saw timber and pulpwood in this text are for average southern pine. The timber owner may need guidance from a forester in selecting a volume table to u e in e timating his particular stand of trees. 3. Measuring the Lumber As It Is Cut. There i one further way of elling lumber and that is to mea ure each board after it is cut. Thi method can give accurate re ult . It may prove inconvenient to keep up with the awing - particularly if the logs are sawed el ewhere than on tthe owner~ property. The sawyer may be careless or untrained and not get a much lumber from the logs as h~ should. a. Measure the board for width, thickne s and length and enter on a form by sizes. b. Compute the volume of a board of each :size. c. Compute the volume of each size class by multiplying by the number of boards of that size. d. Total the several volume for different size to give the overall volume. 103 4. Measuring the Pulpwood. The following pecification for pulpwood are fairly representative. The farmer will want to obtain specifications from the corhpany with whom he ha a market for pulpwood. a. Specie : All pecie of Southern Pine. b. Dimen ion: Length- 5' 3"; Diameter, d.i.b., Minimum 4", Maximum 20"; over 20" quartered. c. Preparation: Trimming - knots and branche trimmed Au h; and bucking by saw-reasonably square (axe cut wood not acceptable.) d. Condition : Only sound and rea onably traight tick , and no burned or charred wood. Cat faces accepted only if cleared of charred urface and free of metal. The procedure used to mea ure pulpwood is much the same a for measuring saw timber. The volume in standing trees may be estimated by (1) recording the everal trees by diameter and number of four foot bolts available and (2) by calculating the volumes using a pulpwood volume table similar to the one hown below. TABLE 40 PULPWOOD VOLUME TABLE - Rough Wood, in Standard Cords (Top utilization averaging 4 inches inside of bark) D.B.H. Inches Cords For Different Len8ths Merchantable Stems 16ft. 24ft. 32ft. 40ft. 48ft. 56 ft. 64ft. 6 .02 .04 .05 8 .04 .06 .08 .10 .12 10 .06 .09 .12 .15 .18 .21 12 .12 .17 .21 .25 .29 .33 14 .16 .21 .27 .32 .37 .43 16 .20 .26 .33 .40 .46 .53 If the farmer decides to use the above table of volumes to calculate his pulpwood then he has to obtain a tally of the pulp trees marked for cutting. He will first prepare a skeleton tally sheet with the diameter and merchantable stem lengths as in Table 40. He will then record each marked tree in its proper place using the tally sy tern explained on page 99. Next he will multiply the volume per d.b.h. and tern length by the number of tallied trees. Finally, he will add all volumes to get his total volume of marked trees. This volume will be in standard cords of wood. A tandard cord of 4 foot stick or bolts measures 4 ft. high by 8 ft. long. Pulpwood i ometime cut longer than 4'. Some is cut 5' and 3" long, for example. A volume in tandard cords can be converted to a volume in units of 5' 3" sticks, by multiplying by a factor of .762. 104 A an aid for a quick but not nece sarily accurate estimate of the amount of pulpwood available in a stand the woodland owner might u e the following table in average econd growth pine . TABLE 41 APPROXIMATE N MBER OF PI E TREES PER CORD OF 128 CUBIC FEET D.B.H. 5 6 7 8 Number of trees Per cord of 128 cu. ft. 42 22 14 10 D.B.H. 9 10 ll 12 umber of tree Per cord of 128 cu. ft. 7 6 5 4 The procedure would be ( 1) tally the number of trees marked for ale by diameter classes 5", 6", etc., (2) divide the number of trees tallied for each diameter cla s by the number of trees required in that inch cla s, (See column 2) to give the number of standard cords, and (3) add the number of cord for the everal inch cla se to give a total volume for sale. Thi procedure will give a rough idea, perhap good enough for the purpo e of inviting a purchaser in to look over the timber. The sale might then be made at a tated price per cord and with the product actually measured after cutting. Pulpwood may be mea ured when piled in the woods or when loaded in trucks. With 4' stick the face measurement for a cord i 32 quare feet. A unit with 5' 3" stick also has a 32 square foot face measurement. Wood piled on a truck or anywhere el e, can be measured to determine the number of square feet hown on one side of the pile. The average length time the average height will give the quare feet, and this figure divided by 32 will tran late the measurement into cords or units. G. OFFER! G THE TIMBER FOR SALE I BIDS When the owner ha decided that he ha sufficient timber to make a ale, and, when he has measured the product, or if it is to be measured a cut, he should obtain bid . Ordinarily the owner should adverti e his timber so that he will obtain bids from several buyers. The owner can advertise through the local papers, or he can contact the several buyer and other informed people in the commu~ity. Different buyer often sell different products, some worth more and some worth less. Some operators can log more cheaply than others. The more efficient logger, and the operator who makes a higher priced product will ordinarily be able to pay a higher price for tim- ber. Competition between buyers is likely to result in a higher return for the products sold. If the amount bid does not reasonably meet the fair range of price the owner worked out for his apprai al then he simply need not sell. The owner hould examine some of the tands cut by prospective buyer to determine the care which they give to the trees that are left. One logger may be far more careful than another in protecting the trees that are to be left. The owner who plans to grow another crop of timber may select the careful operator even though he gets a little less for the trees marked. uch reduction in immediate return hould properly be considered as investment in succeeding crops. 105 H. CONTRACTING WITH THE BUYER A wellprepared contract force the buyer and eller to think over the problem which may arise. Con ideration in advance help prevent misunder tanding . A contract of ale may not be neces ary when the buyer and the eller have known each other for a long time and have a ound ba is for mutual trust and confidence. There is no better ba is for busi ness tran action than fair and honest dealing. Men with a reputation for uch dealing do not require a contract to in ure a fair deal all around. Where uch confidence i not a sured, the woodland owner will do well to have a contract, signed by the buyer and the seller and at least one witne s. Regardle of th ize of the timber ale, the following information hould be con idered m the agreement for the be t intere t of all parties concerned. Name and addre e of contracting parties. Date and place contract was igned. Guarantee of ownership of timber and payment of taxe and other fixed charge , and right of ingre and egres . Location and de cription of products being sold. Method of measurement to be used to determine volume of product sold. Method of payment, including rate per unit, time, place, and in what amounts. Restlictions regarding cutting, logging, milling, and removal of products from the property, in eluding period allowed for harvest and provision for exten ions. Penalti for damage or ontract violation. U e re triction on contract and other areas. Provision for fir prevention and control. Performance bond or guarantee of compliance. Method of adjustment of disputes or disagreements. Following i a ample Timber Sale Agreement. It will apply to any forest product. SAMPLE TIMBER SALE AGREEME T --------------------------------------------------- ' of ------------------------------------------------ _______________ --------------------------- ([or we) ame of Purcha er) (Post Office) ( tate) hereinafter called the purchaser, agree to purcha e from ------------------------------------------------------------- ( eller's name) of ___________ -------------------------------- ____, --------------------------------------- hereinafter called the seller, the ( Po t Office) ( tate) designated tree from the area described below. I. De cription of Sales Area: ( Describe by legal ubdivi ions, if surveyed, and approximat e, if not) II. Tree de ignated for cutting: (Cro s out A orB- use only one clause) A. All ------------------- tree marked by the eller, or hi agent, with paint pots below stump ( p cies ) 106 height; al o dead trees of the arne pec1e which are merchantable for B. All ..................... trees merchantable for (Kind of for ____----- _ __ 1 product ) . ( pecie ) . . ( ~ind of for t product ) whiCh mea ure .................... mche or more outside the bark at a pomt not le than 6 inche abov the ground; al o other - tree marked with paint spots below tump h ight by th ell r or ( pecie ) hi agent. III. Conditions of Sale: A. The purchaser agree to the following: l. To pay the eller the sum of $.......... .................. for the above-described tree and to mak payment in advance of cutting in amounts of at lea e $............................ each. 2. To waive all claim to the above-described tree unless they are cut and removed on or b . fore ....................................................................... (date) 3. To do all in hi power to prevent and suppress forest fire on or threatening the Sale Area. 4. To protect from unnecessary injury young growth and other trees not designated for cutting. 5. To pay the seller for undesignated trees cut or injured through carelessness at the rate of $_______________ each for trees measuring 10 to .............. inches in diameter at stump height and $.............. each for tree ................ inches or over in diameter. 6. To r epair damage caused by logging to ditches, fence , bridges, roads, trails or other improvements damaged beyond ordinary wear and tear. 7. Not to assign this agreement in whole or in part without the written consent of the seller. B. The eller agrees to the following: l. To guarantee title to the fore t products covered by this agreement and to defend it against all claims at hi expense. 2. To allow the purchaser to use unmerchantable material from tops of trees cut or from trees of .................... pecies for necessary logging improvement free of charge, provided such improvement are left in place by the purcha er. 3. To grant the freedom of entry and right-of-way to the purchaser and his employees on and aero s the area covered by this agreement and also other privileges usually extended to purchasers of tumpage which are not specifically covered, provided they d onot conflict with specific provisions of this agreement. C. In ca e of dispute over the terms of this agreement we agree to accept the decision of an arbitration board of three selected persons as final. Each of the contracting parties will select one person and the two selecteawill select a third to form this board. Signed in duplicate this ................ day of ---------------------- 19......... (Witness) (Witne s) (Witne s) (Witne s) 107 ( Purch aser) ( eller) I. SUPERVISING THE JOB Soil, water, sunshine and tree seeds determine whether or not a given area of land can grow trees. With only limited exceptions the land of Georgia can grow trees. The owner determines whether a given area will grow trees, and he decides the volume and quality of the trees grown on the land allotted for forest. The owner must maintain his interest and supervision over each operation that affects the forest. This does not necessarily require a great deal of physical work. It does, however, require knowledge of conditions, problems, possibilities, and decisions as to what should be done; and checking to insure that deci ion are carried out. The owner who will carry through with wi e upervision will grow profitable crops of forest products. 108 Glossary of Forestry Terms Acid stimulation - In turpentining, use of diluted solution of ulphuric acid to keep resin ducts ope~ and extend the period of flow of oleoresin. Angle of repose - In erosion control, the steepest angle at which the oil of a given type will r t naturally. Appraisal, timber - An evaluation of the value of wood products, with due con ideration of market price for fini hed products and the several items of cost involved in harve ting, tran porting and manufacturing the products. Back fire - A fire set ahead of an oncoming conflagr~tion for the purpose of robbing the intervening area of fuel and thus helping to control the mam fire. Basal area - The area, u ually expressed in square feet, of the cross section at breast height of a ingle tree or of all tree in a tand. Bark chip - In turpentining, to cut away the bark and cambium in a thin layer above the cup and expo e the urface of the sapwood o that acid may be applied to stimulate the flow of oleore in (gum). Biltmore stick - A mea ure devi ed to permit convenient determination of a tree's diameter; and to permit the convenient determination of a tree's height to any selected point. Board feet - Unit of mea urement for lumber - length in feet X width in feet X thickness in inche = number of board feet. Example: a board 1 foot long X 1 fot wide and 1 inch thick contain 1 board foot. Bole - Trunk of a tree. Bolt - A segment awed or plit from a hort log. Breast height - 41/2 feet above average ground level. Buck - To saw felled tree into shorter cuts. Butt- Base of a tree; lower end of a log. Cat face - Fire scar at the base of a tree; or, a defect on the surface of a log, generally elliptical in shape, resulting from a wound. Central dispatcher - As relating to fire protection organization, a person who receives information on the fore t fire situation and sends the men, equipment and supplies where needed to fight fire. Check dam - In ero ion control, a small dam set in a gully to arrest the rapid movement of soil and water. Chip - In turpentining, to cut away a thin section of a sapwood or bark above the cup to stimulate the flow of oleoresin (gum); the narrow portion of sapwood or bark so removed. Clear-cut - Descriptive of an area from which the entire timber s tand has been cut. Example: a stand may be clear-cut for lumber, pulpwood or both. Clear lumber - Lumber (boards) practically free of defects such a knots or decay. Commercial - As relating to forest land, land capable of growing salable forest products, and used for that purpose. Competition - As relating to timber growing, the struggle among plants for moisture, plant food and growing space. 109 Concentration yard A place where load of pulpwood are delivered for torage or transfer to railroad car or large truck for shipment to milL Cone The fruit of conifers such as pine and cypress. Contract The decision freely agreed to by two or more parties m a tran action. Here mean a agreement relating to a timber ale. Cord A unit of mea urement for wood. The standard cord contain 128 cubic feet within its outide urface . The u ual measurements of a standard cord are 4 feet X 4 feet X 8 feet. Crook A defect in a tree stem, log or pole con isting of an abrupt bend. Crop Tree A tree elected for additional growth into larger, more valuable products, while competing tree are designed for earlier harve t. Cross-haul A method of loading logs for tran portation. One end of a line i pa ed over the load, around the log to be loaded, and made fast to the load. Power applied to the other end of the line imparts a rolling motion to the log. Crown The upper part of a tree, including the branches with their foliage. Cup In turpentining, a receptical to catch the gum. Decay The decompo ition of wood ub tance by fungi. D.B.H. Diameter at brea t height (4Y2 feet from ground). Diameter class Diameter within a defined range. Example: A two inch diameter class at 10 inches might range from 9.1 to 11.0 inches. Diameter tape A graduated measuring device which when placed around the stem of a tree permits one to read the average diameter through the stem. Dip In turpentining, to collect oleore in from a cup; the oleoresin (gum) so obtained. Dip-bucket Bucket u ed in the collection of gum. Dormant Life functions are at a virtual standstill. Duff The more or le compact covering on the mineral soil, composed of dead vegetal matter, principally fallen foliage, which i in process of decomposition. Egress A pa sage way to move products and equipment from the fore t area. Elevated cup - In turpentining, the cup is raised at the end of one or more ea ons to reduce the di tance of flow from chipped streak to cup. End rock - In air dry seasoning of lumber, boards are stood on end, with the fir t layer of board leaning against a central rack, and ucceeding layers separated by small sticks and leaning one again t another. Epidemic - A greatly expanded increase in pest occurrence. Extender - A liquid, non toxic and relatively inexpensive in it elf, that is used to spread a toxic sub tance over a wider area. Face In turpentining, the expo ed surface of a tree from which oleore in exudes. Fibre - The cells which con titute the framework of a plant; perform the living functions of the plant and constitute the re idue known a pulp on the chemical transformation of wood to paper and other products. Firebreak - An existing barrier, or one constructed before a fire reaches the line. The barrier i free or cleared of all fuel materiaL It is de igned to stop or check creeping or running fires but not spotting fire erves. a a line from which to back fire or otherwise fight a fire. llO Fire hazard - Fuel or per ons or conditions that constitute a threat to safety from fi re. Flat pile - In air dry sea oning of lumber, boards are piled in orderly horizontal layer . A"u c.ueula- tion i induced by supporting fir t tier of boards a few inches above ground level, by ticks which eparate succeeding horizontal layers of boards, and by arranging for vertical air hafts a the pile is made. Flue - A vertical air space created in piling lumber. Form of tree - Relate to qualities of the stem such as straightnes , forking, branching, taper. Frill - A chain of overlapping axe cuts severing the bark and cambium and reaching into the ap wood, completely encircling the stem, usually at convenient cutting height. Fuel - Inflammable material in the wood - including fallen foliage, grass, woody parts of the tree. Fungi - In forestry, a plant that grows in wood or bark and causes decay. Fungicid'e - A ml\terial toxic to fungi, applied for their control. Germination - Botanically, the resumption of growth in a eed. Girdle - To encircle the stem of a living tree with cut that completely sever the bark arid cambium and often are carried deep into the outer sapwood, for the purpose of killing the tree by pre venting pa age of nutrient chemicals or by admitting toxic materials. Gum (oleore in) - A natural combination of re inous substances and es ential oils occurmg m or exuding from plants including slash pine and longleaf pine. Hack - In turpentining, a strong U-shaped knife fastened to a short handle, which bear on its lower end an iron weight, used to chip the streaks on a turpentine face. Hardwood - Generally one of the botanical group of trees that have broad leaves, in contrast to the conifers; also wood produced from such tree . Heartwood - The inner core of a woody steam, wholly composed of non-living cells, and usually differentiated from the other enveloping layer (sapwood) by its darker color. Heel-in - To store young trees prior to planting by placing them in a trench and covering the roots with soil. Rogal - A turpentining tool, with a strong elliptical blade, used to slab off bark, preparatory to seating a cup. Honeycomb - The development of checks in the interior of a piece of wood. Humus - The plant and animal residue of the soil, which are undergoing decomposition. Inferior - In forestry, intended to mean trees of poor form, defective or of inherently low quality. Ingress In fore try, a passageway into a forest area. Knot - The portion of a branch that has become incorporated in the body of the tree. Larvae In forest entomology, the early form of an insect that undergoes a metamorphosis. Lead streak The first streak put on after hanging the cup at the initial installation, or after eleva tion of the cup. The lead streak is made in advance of regular chipping operations as a means of stimulating the tree to exude more gum. Leave tree A tree selected to the left for additional growth usually because of its good form, vigor or other desirable qualities. Ill Log To cut and deliver log . Log deck A platform where logs are a sembled for loading and tran portation to the mill; where log are held for sawing. Log rule - A table showing the e timated or calculated amount of lumber whi h can be sawed from a log of a given length and diameter. Manag d stand - A forest stand on which good fore t practices are being or have been carried out. Marked tree - U ually a tree elected for harve t. A mark u ually with paint, is made at about eye height to permit identification of trees to be cut, and another at ba e of tree to aid in checking after the stand is cut over. Marking rules Guide laid down for the selection of tree to cut and tree to leave. Maturity, economic or financial The age at which a tree or tand will no longer increase in value fa t enough to earn a atisfactory rate of intere t. Mineral soil - Soil compo ed chiefly of mineral matter, laying below any accumulation of leave , gra or humu. Mop-up - The act of making a fire afe after it i controlled, uch a extingui hing or mothering with oil any burning material that might e cape. Naval stores - Time honored name used to de ignate the turpentine industry and its products. Overstory That portion of the tree in a fore t tand forming the upper crown cover. Peel - To remove the bark and cambium from the tern of a tree. Piling - Round timbers to be driven into the ground to support various tructure . Pole - Timber in the round, usually used to upport power or telephone line . Preservative - A chemical ub tance which, when uitably applied to wood, makes it resistant to attack by fungi, in ects, or marine borer . Pruning - Removal by natural or artificial method of dead or living branches from standing trees. Quality of tree - As related to form, freedom from defect, value of wood. Rate a/ spread of fire - The increa e in size of a fire perimeter per hour in chains, feet, or some other unit. R egeneration - The process by which a forest is renewed. Reproduction - The process by which a forest is renewed; natural eedling . Salvage - In forest maangement, to utilize trees or products that would otherwise be unused and lost. Sawlog - A log of suitable ize to be manufactured into lumber. Scrape . Oleoresin from which the volatile oils have evaporated. It accumulates on the sacrified "face" of a tree that is being bled. Seedbed - In natural reproduction, the oil or fore t floor on which the eed falls. In nursery prac tice, a prepared area on which seed is sown. Seedfall - The natural liberation and fall of seed from trees. Seedling - A small tree - generally less than 2 inches in diameter. Seed tree - A tree selected for reproduction of a tand because of its obvious good form and seedSeed source - As related to geographical origin of seed or, to qualities of parent trees. bearing capacity. 112 eed year - A year when ed i abundant for a given tree or species. ilvi ulture - The are of producing and tending a forest; the application of the knowledge of ilvi in the treatment of a fore t. ize class - One of the interval into which the sizes of trees are divided for cia ification and u Example, eedling, pulpwood, and awtimber sizes. kid - To pull logs from tump to skidway, landing, or mill. kidway - Two pole laid parallel to each other and at right angles to a road, u uall rai ed abo the ground at the end near t the road. Logs are piled on a kidway pending th re bein loaded on tru k . Softwood - Generally, one of the botanical group of tree thar in mo t ca e have ne dle or cal -lik leave ; the conifer ; al o, the wood produced from u h tree . pacing - In silviculture, distan e between tree trunk . Species - Kind of tree . tack pole - A pole used to upport a tack of p anut , etc., to facilitate drying. tain, blue - A deepseated fungus discloration, predominantly bluish, but sometime graying, blacki h, or browni h in appearance. Confined almost exclusively to sapwood. tand - An aggregation of tree occupying a specific area, and sufficiently uniform in composition ( pecie ) , age, arrangem nt and condition a be di tinguished from the fore t on adjoinincr areas. tickers - A trip or board placed crosswi e between cour e of lumber m a pile for the purpo of facilitating air circulation. Stocking - Den ity of tand. Stratification - The operation of burying eeds, often in alternate layers, in a moist medium such a peat or sand, to overcome dormancy or accelerate germination. Streak In turpentining, the inci ion made when a tree is chipped. Stumpage - In a general sen e the standing merchantable timber on an area; the value of timber as it tands uncut in the woods. = Symbol ' one foot Symbol " = one inch Sweep A gradual bend in a log, pole or piling, con idered a defect. Tally - A record of the number of forest products such as logs, poles or pulp sticks in standing trees, boards cut from a log. Taper - The gradual diminution of diameter in a stem of a tree or a log from base to top. Termite - Wood eating insect. Transpiration - The process by which water vapor leaves a living plant and enters the atmosphere. Transplant - To lift and replant a seedling; a tree that has been transplanted. Turpentine - The liquid product resulting from the distillation of oleoresin; to tap a tree for oleo- resm. 113 Undercut - In logging, the notch cut in a tree to govern the di r ti n in which the tree i to fall and prev nt plitting. Utilization - That branch of forestry concerned with the operation of harve ting and marketing the fore t crop and other re ource of the fore t. Veneer A thin heet of wood cut on a veneer machine. Volume, mer hantable - Th amount of alable wood in a ingl tree or tand. Warp - An vari tion of a board from a true or plane uda . Wildstock - Naturally grown eedlings. 114 Selected R eferences On Forest Practices U. . Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Protect Hardwood tand From Grazing, Leaflet o. 86 Planting outhern Pine Leafl t o. 159 Grazing Longleaf- la h Pine Fore t ircular o. 928 Mea uring and Mark ting Farm Tim! r, Farm r ' Bulletin o. 1210 la h Pine, Farm r Bull tin o. 1256 Shortleaf Pine, Farmer ' Bull tin . 1671 Pruning outhern Pine , Farmer ' Bull tin o. 1892 Care of Damaged hade Tr es, Farmer Bulletin o. 1896 Poi on-Ivy, Poi on- ak and Poi on umac, Farmer ' Bulletin o. 1972 Farm Building from Hom - rown Timber in th outh, Farmer ' Bulletin No. 1975 Prevention and Control of Gulli , Farmer ' Bull tin o. 1813 Managing the mall Fore t, Farm r' Bull tin o. 1989 U. . Department of Arrricultur , Fore t ervice, Washington D. C. mall awmill - A Pocket Guide - gri ultur Handbook o. 70 Water and ur For t, gricultur Information Bull tin o. 7l Water of Cowe ta, A.I. B. 117 Protecting th For t from Fire, Agriculture Information Bulletin o. 130 Management of atural la h Pi ne tand in th Flatwood of outh Georgia and North Florida, Circular 1o. 845 Littl leaf Di a of hortl af and Loblolly Pin , Circular o. 940 Timb r tand Improvem nt in the outh rn Appala hian Region, Mi cellaneous Publication o. 693 U. . Department of Agriculture, oil Con ervation erVce, Wa hington, D. C. Making Land Produce eful Wildlife, Farmer ' Bull tin o. 2035 Agricultural Exten ion ervice, Universit of G orgw ollege of Agriculture, Athens Working Tr for a al tore , Bull tin 532 Georgia Fore try Commi sion, Atlanta Georgia Tre - Opportunitie nlimited 115