Comparative religions: objectives with further definitions, 1990

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COMPARATIVE RELIGIONS OBJECTIVES WITH FURTHER DEFINITIONS
Copyright c 1990 Georgia Department of Education, Division of Instructional Media

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
CONTENT OBJECTIVE
A 1. Assesses the various approaches to the study of religion including theological, ethical-philosophical, historical, psychological and sociological
Religion may be defined as a system of ideas and practice characterized by (a) belief in extra-sensory reality overtly expressed in (b) a prescribed tradition accompanied by (c) normative prohibitions and commands which regulate both personal and communal behavior. The comparative study of religion is the exploration of similarities and differences, systematically categorized, of the ways in which humans in different areas and cultures experience religion.
There are many ways in which comparative religion is approached: theological examines beliefs related to the sacred; ethical-philosophical, the normative frame of reference and the rational-cognitive justification; psychological, behavioral manifestations and premises of spirituality; sociological, the political-communal functions of religion; and historical, the sequence of cause and effect, preferably within the overall context of social history.
Notwithstanding advances in comparative religion, methodological issues are still a problem, e.g., Christian-European assumptions of superiority and the tendency to use Christianity as a standard of excellence by Christian scholars; failure to be critically aware of the importance of orthodox revivalist traditions as people seek to maintain their cultural identity through finding their religious roots; and, especially in the west, with its emphasis on separation of church and state, to look upon religion as an isolated entity rather than as a significant aspect of the total culture.
1. Examines different definitions of religion, noting similarities and differences and explains which definition is most satisfactory (C)
2. Writes a personal definition of religion and justifies its component elements (C)
3. Explains and illustrates with examples the comparative study of religion, using a western, eastern and primal religion (C)
4. Evaluates the relative contribution to an understanding of religion derived from each approach (C)
5. Describes some methodological limitations to the comparative study of religion and suggests means by which they may be overcome (C)
6. Explains why it is important to obtain a perspective on a religion from a practitioner as well as a non-practitioner (C)

COMPARATIVE REliGIONS (11-12)
CONTENT OBJECTIVE
A2. Analyzes the role of ritual in religion
Ceremony, cult (practice), rite and ritual are synonyms indicating adherence to prescribed procedures in observing rites of passage (birth, puberty, marriage, death), honoring heroes and holidays or assuaging or making adjustment to the supernatural. In all cases, these terms indicate sensitivity and awareness to a harmony induced by proper behavior; in religion, these terms also connote a magical power associated with correct observances. The public behavior of many religions is expressed through ritual, and the holy place, natural or artificially contrived, is designed to reflect the peregrinations, kneeling, standings, prostrations, genuflections and other bodily movements which accompany prayer, singing, chanting, listening or manipulating sacred realia and symbols. Much religious awareness is strengthened and transmitted through ritual, even for the adherents of a particular faith, while the mental image of religions, other than our own, is usually evoked through the recollection of observed rituals, direct or vicarious, such as Muslims prostrate in prayer or Hindu devotees on the ghats at Varanasi.
1. Compiles a list of things done in religious practice (preferably in the student's own church, synagogue, mosque, temple or home observance) with an explanation of how these practice are rituals (C)
2. Explains how rituals function as religiodrama of beliefs (C) 3. Distinguishes among elements of religion, such as theology, ethics and
ritual and explains their interconnectedness (C) 4. Examines the role of ritual in religions which are lay and ecclesiastically
oriented (C) 5. Gives examples of religious rituals which are individually observed and
those in which there is collective participation (C) 6. Assesses the role of individual and collective ritual in the development
of community consciousness (C)

COMPARATIVE REliGIONS (11-12)
CONTENT OBJECTIVE
A.3. Examines the importance of personal commitment in religious activity
Religious belief, knowledge and practice is preaching normally transmitted through enculturation, including religious participation and teaching (e.g., Sunday school for Christian groups), exhortation (preaching) and study (Bible, Torah, Koran, Upanishads or other sacred literature). Parents and significant others, whether relatives or friends, model the level of participation with respect to rate and intensity, not only pertaining to workship but to various other religious activities (youth, women's and men's groups, clubs, study circles, meditative states, vision seeking, special projects -- needy, homebound, addicted, etc.).
In religious activity, participation may range from dormant (identification by name only, such as marking religious affiliation on a questionnaire), occasional or feast day (Easter, Passover, Ramadan, Sun Dance, Buddha's Birthday), regular or normally present, dedicated and active, and professional (one whose life work is associated with religion). The level of commitment is subject to many personal and social factors and may take various forms, such as ecstasy, mysticism, piety, catechism, meditation, self-enlightenment, physical exercises, social interaction, social service, proselitization and ritualistic elaboration. On a six-point scale, selfcommitment might be measured as rejection, acquiescence, conformity, conviction, dedication or fanaticism.
1. Gives examples of various types of religious activity and describes the facet of religious life embodied in such activity (C)
2. Constructs a questionnaire and collects data on the variability in religious participation by class or school sample (C)
3. Investigates techniques by which individuals in an increasingly plural religious society, such as United States, may be both personally committed to their own religious tradition and practice tolerance toward other traditions (C)
4. Evaluates the proposition that the growth of religious toleration is a product of religious indifference more than of the principle of religious freedom for all (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
CONTENT OBJECI1VE
AA. Identifies the relationship of religion as part of culture
The definition of religion makes religion a part of culture. Belief in extra-sensory power, symbolized by gods, God, ancestors, spirits and ghosts, helps to give a sense of meaning and purpose to the universe and to individual existence, a longing for assurance that transcends the scientific (a relatively recent development in history) or the philosophical. Religion thus generates two types of norms -- belief and ritual for interacting with the supernatural and social norms for individual and group behavior. Violation of the norms is punished--hell, reincarnation in a lower form, inability to escape the endless cycle of life, ancestral revenge in the form of mishaps, bad crops and disease. Observance of the norms is rewarded.
Over time religion has become identified with all aspects of the life cycle and such diverse specialties as literature, art, music, dance and architecture, helping in the formation of distinctive cultural landscapes and civilizations identified with dominant religious traditions.
1. Collects pictures or illustrations of different examples of religious architecture and explains the relationship of the architecture to religious practice (e.g., mosque to Friday noon prayer with sermon in Islam), distinguishing arrangements which have a congregational as compared with a personal worship emphasis (C)
2. Demonstrates with appropriate illustrations the influence of the sacred on secular architecture (C)
3. Gives examples of religious influence on music, painting, interior decoration and textile design (C)
4. Examines the relationship of religious sanctions and norms to the process of socialization within the context of United States culture (C)
5. Collects data on selected behaviors such as courting, military service and membership in a political party from a member of a religious group different from one's own and relates such views reflected by the data to different religious norms (C)

COMPARATIVE REliGIONS (11-12)
CONTENT OBJECTIVE
A.5. Recognizes the commonalities found in all religions
The four commonalities in all religion are belief in the supernatural; ritual with which to approach the supernatural; norms of recommended and prescribed behavior; and artifacts, specialists and followers.
Belief in the supernatural is the prerequisite of religious belief. Magical systems are different from religious; magic seeks to control supernatural power while religious systems accept the inferiority of the behavior to the supernatural. Ritual is the adherence to prescribed procedures in observing rites of passage. All religions also generate norms for individual and group behavior. The cultural imprint of religion is shown in a great variety of artifacts, both of a sacred and profane nature. Specialists are the full time practitioners who maintain religion by practicing and leading its ritual, exhortation and example (preachers, priests, clergy, monks, nuns, medicine men and women, imam). But no religion could exists unless there were followers, devotees who believe and who sustain religion by their religious exercises and support of religious beliefs.
1. lists, defines and gives examples of commonalities (universals) found in various religions (C)
2. Hypothesizes an explanation for the existence of categories of common religious expression (C)
3. Asks students of different religious traditions to demonstrate differences relating to prayer and explores reasons for different approaches (C)
4. Assesses the relevance of the distinction between religion and magic (C) 5. Examines the different role functions of specialist and lay person in
religion and the extent to which they are interdependent (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
CONTENT OBJECTIVE
B.6. Traces the origin and development of the beliefs of Hinduism
Hinduism, the religion of the majority of the people of Indi~ is derived from the Arabic word for Indi~ Hind, and thus may be said to be simply the religion of the people of Indi~ exclusive of minority sects. With roots in Dravidian, pre-Aryan religion and Vedic ideas as old as 2,800 B.C., Hinduism is also one of the world's oldest, if not the oldest, contemporary religions.
Hinduism consists of three major deities -- Brahm~ the creator; Vishnu, the preseIVer; and Shiv~ the destroyer. No Brahma devotional cults developed, but in time there have emerged two dominate gods of personal appeal, Vishnu and Shiv~ each of which became trinities expressing the attributes of Brahma-VishnuShiva. The great temples of India are generally identified with either Vaishnite or Shairite adoration.
Core beliefs in Hinduism include the doctrines of dharm~ karm~ samsar~ ahimsa; pursuit of one of three margas as a way of release from the round of rebirth; and a social system based on caste, modified but still strong in postIndependence India. Related to these are five moral precepts: nonviolence, truthfulness, honesty, chastity and freedom from greed. Five mental virtues are purity and cleanliness of body and diet, the development of powers of self-denial and endurance, religious study, religious meditation and contentment. Such traits may be cultivated by lay persons while they are in the householder stage and are a guide to good behavior even if a person never becomes a celibate or reaches the stage of world renunciation.
1. Identifies by name some of the basic literature of Hinduism and explains the contribution of different sources to Hindu belief (e.g. Vedas, Upanisads, Puranas, Dharmasastras) (C)
2. Describes broad chronological stages in the development of Hinduism and some of the characteristic emphases of the periods (e.g., Early Vedic, Late Vedic, Oassic, Bhakti, Neo-Hindu) (C)
3. Defines the meaning of such terms as Brahman (ultimate reality), atman (soul, real self), samsara (rebirth), dharma (right conduct), adharma (unrighteousness, evil), karma (cause and effect, deeds), moksa (release from human condition), ahimsa (non-violence), varna (color, four caste system), jati (occupational castes) and dasyu (outcaste) (C)
4. Examines cow veneration and vegetarianism in Hinduism as examples both of change and of cultural continuity (C)

Comparative Religions (11-12), B.6. (Cont.)
5. Identifies the principal deities of Hinduism and explains how interpretations of Hinduism can be both monotheistic and polytheistic (C)
6. Explains the origin and policies of Hindu organizations (e.g., Arya Samaj, Rastriya Swayamsevak Sangh, Bharatiya Jana Sangh, Hindu Mahasabha) (C)
7. Explains the contributions of modem Hindu movements (e.g., Swaminayaran, Hare Krishna, Sathya Sai Baba) (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
CONTENT OBJECTIVE
B.7. Explains the development of variation in belief and practice of Hinduism
Conquest, fusion, geographic distance, language differences and political independence are factors which have contributed to variation in belief and practice as well as those of a more purely religious nature - indigenous religious beliefs, cult preferences, philosophical interpretations and responses to modernization.
1. Identifies and explains the sources of variation in Hindu belief (C) 2. Examines and explains the importance of language in religion and its
political implications (e.g., organization of Andra Pradesh, a Telegumajority speaking state, and subsequent reorganization of Indian states on linguistic lines) (C) 3. Examines the geography of India, invasion routes from the northwest and sea connections for commerce and trade to explain how spatial distance contributed to the political and religious independence of South India (C) 4. Examines and compares North Indian style temples, such as those near Bubaneshwar or at Khajuraho, with South Indian styles at Kanchipuram, Tanjore, Madurai or other Tamil sites and explains the relationship of architectural variation to religious belief (C) 5. Gives examples of differences in belief and practice as expressed by the concepts of Great Tradition and little Tradition (C) 6. Explains how Vedic revival reflects an orthodox response to modernizing influences in India (C) 7. Assesses yoga as a variant of Hindu practice and explains its significance in Hindu religious practice (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
CONTENT OBJECTIVE
B.8. Analyzes the organization of religious hierarchy in Hinduism
Hinduism is a highly personalized religion in which believers are free to follow their own ways to salvation. Although Brahmin functionaries control observances at the great temples, these are primarily resorted to as places of special pilgrimage, and most Hindu worship is by the individual without benefit of clergy, whether it is by domestic ritual, study, meditation or prayer to a village spirit or godling. World Hindu conferences and world Hindu organizations reflect an ecumenical emphasis and not any kind of hierarchical organization.
1. Analyzes the diversity of beliefs in relationship to the absence of a religious hierarchy (C)
2. Explains the relationship of caste to access to temple worship in preindependence India and the continuance of restrictive practices notwithstanding prohibitions in the Indian constitution (C)
3. Analyzes the impact of caste on Indian society and the use of religion as a sanction to maintain caste distinctions (C)
4. Explains why the impact of caste on religious practice in a village is stronger than in a large city (C)
5. Analyzes the relationship of caste to education and the predominance of Brahmin-born in nineteenth century professional life in India (C)
6. Explains the caste system as the legacy of both social convention and religious belief (C)
7. Explains why the practitioner of rites at a traditional Hindu wedding is most likely to be of Brahmin origin (C)

COMPARATIVE REliGIONS (11-12)
CONTENT OBJECTIVE
B.9. Examines the performance of ritual in Hinduism
There are various categories of domestic ritual in classic Hinduism: Sandyhas (Meditations of the Twilight); Pancamahayjna (Five Great Sacrifices); Samskaras (Rites of the Rounds of Life); and Puja (Ritual of Image Worship).
In the Sandyhas, personal meditations were designed for the passing of the sun -morning, noon and evening. Among some high caste Hindus, the dawn meditation still survives. The devotee arises before dawn, washes one's body as a religious rite and recites Rig Veda 3.62.10 as the sun rises.
The Pancamahayajna is a daily rite of prayer and food offerings to five kinds of beings -- gods, spirits, family ancestors, humanity and Brahman -- performed by a member on behalf of the family.
The Samskaras are associated with the life cycle, among the most important of which are jatakarman (birth ceremony intended to help the mother through labor), namakarana or naming follows in about ten days, annaprsana (feeding, takes place at six months with taking of solid food), upanayana (initiation ceremony) which takes place between ages of eight and twelve when a high born Hindu begins the study of the Veda and receives the sacred thread, worn as the mark of a twice born Hindu, vivaha (a Hindu wedding, officiated by a Brahmin), aurdhvadaihika (the cremation rites for a deceased, in which the eldest son ignites the funeral pyre) and sraddhas (postmortem rites made monthly for the deceased on the death date and annually thereafter). All Samskaras are performed in the home except for actual burning of the deceased, carried by mourners to the cremation ground on a litter.
Puja is associated with image worship, especially the idol(s) in a home shrine in which adoration, including prayer, and thrice daily food offerings are made to the selected personal god. Temple puja is similar to that of domestic adoration, but the process is more elaborate, often beginning with the ringing of a bell at the entrance to announce that the worshipper is at hand; praying to Ganesha, the elephant headed god for good fortune; making a votive offering; partaking of sacred water and food; and walking around (in the new Birla temples) the cell of the god. Puja in connection with pilgrimage to holy sites is especially commended and, in temples, the services of Brahmin priests are especially important as intermediaries in the ritual.

Comparative Religions (11-12), B.9. (Cont.)
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Many village rites conform to local practices, following puja outline but involving animal sacrifice performed by low caste functionaries.
Yoga, the pursuit of Brahman through the personal meditation, may be thought of as a highly abstract ritual of personal concentration which may be associated with physical aids to spiritual exercise.
1. Names and describes the significance of major forms of domestic ritual in classic Hinduism (C)
2. Explains the relationship of domestic to temple puja (C) 3. Explains the relationship of domestic ritual to developing a religious
sentiment among devout Hindus (and any other religions which provide ritual support for personal observance) (C) 4. Explains the differences in anticipated observance between high and low caste Hindus (C) 5. Contrasts the involvement of Hindu families in ritual with American Christian funeral ceremonies (C) 6. Compares and contrasts variants of Christian domestic ritual known to students with those described as recommended practices for high caste Hindus (C) 7. Describes alternatives for body disposal for Indian families who are unable to afford the expense of cremation (C) 8. Assesses the possibility that the actual practice of Hinduism departs substantially from the recommended norms and explains reasons for divergence (C) 9. Evaluates the possibility that yoga might constitute a form of personal ritual for a devotee (C) 10. Evaluates the significance of sraddhas rites for maintaining a sense of family continuity (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
CONTENT OBJECTIVE
B.10. Assesses the impact of Hinduism on other areas of Asian culture
By the beginning of the Christian area, Indian culture had achieved a high level of achievement not only in Hinduism and Buddhism but also in the practical arts. As Indian traders from South India and Gujerat moved eastward, they carried with them the skills of wet rice agriculture, which became so important in the economies of South East Asia and Indonesia, and a higher level of other skills than existed among indigenous people in those areas. Instead of a massive diffusion of Indian culture through migration, it is most likely that native rulers invited the educated and learned class of Brahmins to settle among them, and these in tum introduced such things as Indian healing practices, astronomy, navigation, the use of horses and domesticated elephants, stone architecture, textile dying, decorative arts and written literature, including the use of Indian scripts. With the Indian arts went Hinduism and Buddhism, which in Further India existed side by side, as in Cambodia until the 14th century when replaced by Theravada Buddhism and in Indonesia until the Majapahit Hindu empire fell to Muslim onslaught in'the late 15th century.
One of the most powerful records of this influence is shown in monumental architecture which reflects Indian influence. The massive complex at Angor in Cambodia was originally built for Hindu Saivite worship, although later adapted to Buddhist use. The erection of the great Buddhist temple at Borobudur east of Jogyakarta in the 8th century A D. marked the height of Buddhism in Java. Although Buddhism is now the dominant religion in Southeast Asia and Hinduism important in Indonesia only on the island of Bali, the Ramayana and Mahabarata have been assimilated to popular culture and form the basis for dramatic and dance personations. In Thailand, a small number of 4000 Brahmin families continue to play an official role as astrologers and advisers.
As Hindus have taken up residence and become citizens of other countries, Hinduism is increasingly becoming world-wide instead of remaining only a religion of India. It also attracts a small but ardent discipleship of Western devotees who seek alternate religious solutions.
1. Uses examples of Angor in Cambodia and Prambanam in Java to illustrate the diffusion of Hindu belief and Indian culture (C)
2. Explains the importance of the Tamil development of wet rice culture to the food supply of Asia (C)

Comparative Religions (11-12), B.lO. (Cont.)
3. Demonstrates Hindu cultural continuity in the art of the wayang in modern Java (C)
4. Examines reasons for the persistence of Hinduism on Bali (C) 5. Gives evidence relating to the transmission of Hinduism through an
invited Brahmin class of a advisers rather than migration of Indians (C) 6. Assesses the importance of trade in the diffusion of Hinduism (C) 7. Develops a pictorial display of the influence of Hinduism on the
monumental architecture of southeast Asia (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
CONTENT OBJECTIVE
Cll. Traces the origin and development of the beliefs of Buddhism
Buddhism is the name of a world-wide religion, or family of religions, originating in the teaching of Sidhartha Gautama, 563-483 B. C., a Kashatriya of the Shakla clan who left home and family to seek wisdom an~ having attained enlightenment, became known to his followers as the Buddha, or Enlightened One.
Having attained Enlightenment, he set out on a mission of teaching and conversion in northeast India, rejecting priests, Vedas and sacrifice of the Upanishad Brahmin tradition. He was, however, inevitably influenced by the context of Hindu thought, even when proposing other alternatives, such as spiritual salvation through self-discipline and establishing a middle way between such accepted Hindu practices as speculative philosophy, extreme asceticism and dependence on yoga.
In his lifetime he enunciated a system of ethics incorporating the Ten Precepts (the first five of which were to be observed by lay persons as well as monks); enunciated The Four Noble Truths to the Path of Deliverance, with its eight steps of righteousness; and established rules for the Sangha, the monastic order (monks and nuns separate) to perpetuate and disseminate his teachings. The objective of his teaching was to develop a well rounded personality, recognizing five skandas or aspects of state of being which would culminate in a universal love of all humankind and attainment of enlightenment which would permit an individual to enter Nirvana and break the cycle of endless becoming.
On his death, however, the process of Buddha-deification began, inevitably changing a philosophy of personal redemption into a multiplicity of sects as differences developed among his followers and as missionaries took the religion to other areas of India and other countries.
1. Outlines the life of Buddha according to the received legend including his princely origin, childh~ protected youth, marriage, "Four Passing Sights," "Great Renunciation," "Six Years of Quest," 'The Great Enlightenment," "Sermon in the Deer Park at Benares (Sarnath)" teaching and establishment of the sangha and death (C)

Comparative Religions (11-12), B.1l. (Cont.)
2. Identifies the ethical percepts embodied,in 'The'Ten Percepts" (C) 3. States the five principles for admission to the order of monks or nuns
(C) 4. Outlines the teachings of the Buddha relating to states of being
(skandhas) (C) 5. States and explains the relevance of the Eightfold Path to an individual's
religious life (C) 6. Explains social and religious conditions in India which would have
contributed to a deification of the Buddha, beginning with his cremation (C) 7. Summarizes the approach of Buddha to the surcease of pain and suffering embodied in The Four Noble Truths (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
CONTENT OBJECTIVE
C.12. Explains the development of sects in Buddhism
The growth of sects in Buddhism reflected, first of all, differences in expectations of converts to Buddhism. These in India, home of Buddhism, were Hindus who were not only divided by caste but by different ways - those of ritual meditation and philosophy. These differences were magnified within Indian Hinduism by geographic area, and as Buddhism spread from the core Magadhan territory, to the west, east and south, local variations began to become evident. The first important schism occurred at the fourth century Second Council at Vesali.
At Vesali, there were two groups, orthodox elders (known in the Pali language as Theravada) and reformers, a larger party which wanted a relaxation in the doctrine and discipline of early Buddhism. This reformer group became the core of ideas which eventually resulted in the rise of Mahayanna Buddhism in northwest India, from which it eventually diffused over the trade routes of central Asia to China, Korea and Japan.
The mahayanists (Maha, great; yanna, vehicle, in the sense of a way or means) called the followers of Theravada Buddhism Hinayana (in the sense of lesser vehicle, with a pejorative connotation both as to importance and size). Although Hinayana is extensively used in Western literature, the conservative older Buddhism never accepted this term and prefers to be known as Theravada, the form of Buddhism which became dominant in Ceylon and Southeast Asia.
It was not until the 11th century AD. that Buddhism became firmly established in Tibet. Here a type of Tantric Buddhism, with its emphasis on mysticism and magic, fused with an indigenous demonology to form a third and peculiar Tibetan variant, known as Vajrayana.
The basic literature and the beliefs of these major divisions differ, with more refined subdivisions by geographic area and class.
1. Identifies major sects in Buddhism (C) 2. Explains the role of Asoka (273-238 B.C.), Emperor of Maurya (in
modem India), in the propagation of Buddhism and the impact of his various Rock Edicts (C) 3. Indicates how Theravada beliefs are thought to relate most closely to those of Gautama Buddha (C)

Comparative Religions (11-12), C.12. (Cont.)
4. Explains the popular appeal of Mahayanna Buddhism with its emphasis on multiple saviors external to man (C)
5. Explains why the massive Indian Mahayanna Buddhist literature began to use Sanskrit, the classical language of Hindu India, instead of the Pall variant, in which appeared the original canon (C)
6. Describes indigenous Tibetan belief in magic and demons and how Tantric Buddhism reflects a synthesis of demonic belief and ethics (C)
7. Explains Tibetan Divisions of the Vajrayana Buddhism in the Red Hat and Yellow Hat sects (C)
8. Examines the origin of the position of Dali Lama, the spiritual leader of Tibetan Buddhists, and reasons for his political-spiritual position (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
CONfENT OBJECTIVE
C.l3. Analyzes the organization of religious hierarchy in Buddhism
The characteristic organization of Buddhism is the Sangha, the order of monks and nuns, affiliated for meditation and learning and then with added teaching and service functions. A typical monastery consists of monks (nuns), novices and lay associates. The monks and novices are supported by the community by endowments and contributions of f~ so that the begging bowl is just as much part of regalia as the saffron robe. All Theravada Buddhist males are expected to be monks for a period of a few months to a lifetime. In the Mahayanna tradition, only a few males become monks, and it is usually for a lifetime.
Monks are communities of equals in which decisions are made by the assembly in accordance with the rules of the Vinaya Pitaka (Monastic Rules). The senior monk or abbot normally gains his position through acquiescence, but in China some monasteries were hereditary endowment with abbotship the property of a family. Monasteries on the Indian model have been essentially democratic units, while in China there was a tendency to bureaucratize and manage the system, especially during the Tang Dynasty when Buddhism functioned as a state religion. Before the rule of celibacy was imposed in Tibet, abbotships were hereditary, but even the Dali Lama is selected by the community of monks. From the 17th century until the suppression of Buddhism in Tibet by Chinese communists, the Dati Lama served as the political head of a religious state.
Although Buddhist revival has placed increasing emphasis on the use of religion to maintain cultural continuity, Buddhism remains a personal religion, an ethical means for individual salvation. However, increasing attention is given to the social responsibilities of the state and service responsibilities of interacting monasteries, in the tradition of Asoka, especially in Theravada countries. There is essentially no religious hierarchy in Buddhism, even though special respect is given by junior monks and laity to older monks who serve as spiritual guides.
1. Describes the daily life of a Theravidian monk (C) 2. Describes a selected Buddhist religious establishment, identifying the
school and sect to which affiliated, the configuration of buildings and the uses to which they are applied (C) 3. Explains how the practice of males in Burma and Thailand of twenty years of age living for two months the life of a monk contributes to a sense of cultural identity and equality (C)

Comparative Religions (11-12), C.13. (Cont.)
4. Contrasts the concept of authority and revealed' dogma in a hierarchical order of religion with one in which each individual has the responsibility to achieve Nirvana following the sutra (doctrines) of the Buddha as a guide (C)
5. Compares the way of dharma in classic Hinduism with the interpretation of Gautama, noting similarities and differences (C)
6. Explains how the tendency of the Sangha in India to be concentrated in a few important centers, such as Nalanda, contributed to a demise of Buddhism in India (C)
7. Assesses practices in which modem Buddhist monasteries engage to make both the Sangha and Buddhism more relevant to modern societies (C)

COMPARATIVE RELIGIONS (11-12)
CONTENT OBJECTIVE
C.14. Examines the performance of ritual in Buddhism
The custodians of Buddhist faith and ethics are the monks, whose primary function is study and meditation and not the observance of rituals. Buddhism is not only characterized by three major divisions but also by an endless number of sects as it moved into different territories and as new teachings developed, especially in Mahayana Buddhism. With so many variations in Mahayana Buddhism, no generalization about ritual is reliable, although a common feature to both Theravada and Mahayana is the recitation of texts in temples (although the approved texts for recitation may be different).
Services in Buddhist temples, as in Hindu, are individualistic and not congregational. The cycle of the service typically includes offerings of flowers before the Buddha-image; repetition of precepts; recitation of chants, scripture or teachings; the lighting of incense sticks and candles; and the offering of food, which is then distributed to the poor. Devotion at stupas, shrines for the preservation of relics generalized to signify the Buddha, involves walking around the stupa with appropriate recitations.
In Theravada countries, monks still observe the four-times a month upasatha service, often attended by visitors, and a sermon is given by a monk for their benefit. Visitors are often lay associates. Monks also officiate at funerals and conduct special ceremonies, according to the wealth and expectations of the petitioner. In Tantric sects, the mystical and symbolic mandala replaces the Buddha image as a ritual focus. Individual prayer wheels and great temple prayer cylinders are a feature of Tibetan devotion.
1. Explains why ritual is not a dominant aspect of Buddhist worship (C) 2. Differentiates between the place of ritual in Mahayana, Theravada and
Vajrayanna Buddhism (C) 3. States the pattern of ritual in a typical Theravada temple (C) 4. Explains the significance of the stupa and the ritual associated with it
(C) 5. Explains the role of the mandala in Buddhist ritual, where appropriate
(C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
CONTENT OBJECTIVE
C.15. Assesses the impact of Buddhism on other areas of Asian culture
Buddhism originated in India -- the original Theravada sects, Mahayana and Vajrayana They often existed side by side with monks of different sects sometimes sharing the same vinaya or code of monastic disciplinary rules. The earliest organized missionary activity took place under Asoka in the third Century B. C., and this early Theravada variety eventually became dominant in Ceylon and Southeast Asia, replacing and fusing with indigenous sects and earlier Hinduism.
Although Mahayana Hinduism originated in northwest India and diffused to Borobodur in Java, it had its greatest success outside India, first in the oases cities of the Chinese West and then penetrating China, Korea and Japan, following the trade routes. But in these countries which already had developed religions and cultures, Buddhism was not accepted simply as a missionary gift but was profoundly changed in the context of these civilizations and national cultures, generating Buddhist sects peculiar to those areas, with their own sacred texts.
In addition to religious belief, the icognography and architecture of Buddhism contributed to the arts and monuments of Asia, with many of the most important legacies treasures from a Buddhist presence. Ethical norms also served to create stable systems of conduct which contributed to cultural continuity, even in the midst of change. The systems of governance, education, family relations, commerce and science have all been influenced by Buddhism.
In the twentieth century, Buddhism became identified with a nationalist revival in many countries, and has often served as a source for maintaining a cultural identity against the homogenizing influence of the West. But with Buddhism, as with other religions practiced by men, earthly performance does not always meet high expectations, even in the lands where Buddha is revered.
1. Explains how Mahayana Buddhism was modified in China and Japan to meet the expectancies and needs of those cultures (C)
2. Gives examples of the influence of Buddhist architecture on the monumental architecture of China, Japan and Southeast Asia countries (C)
3. Demonstrates and explains the importance of Buddhist iconography in the decorative arts (C)

Comparative Religions (11-12), C.15. (Cont.)
4. Explains the interaction of religion with_the state in China and Japan and the rise of nativist reactions after centuries of Buddhist influence (C)
5. Explains the appeal of Zen Buddhism to the Japanese warrior class and "short cut" Amitabaha Buddhism to the peasant class of China (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
CONTENT OBJECTIVE
D.16. Traces the origin and development of the beliefs of Taoism, Confucianism and Shintoism
Taoism orginated in China before Buddhism was translated into the Chinese language. Shintoism orginated in Japan.
Taoism must be clearly distinguished into a philosophical and religious phase. The philosophical ideas, which rejected state ceremonialism and feudal formalism, have always had a greater appeal to students from the West than religious Taoism, characterized by mysticism and strongly influenced by Tantric Buddhist elements. The comer stone of Taoist philosophy, attributed to Lao-tzu, is the Tao Te Ching (Treatise of the Tao and Its Power). This book accepts the premise that when things are allowed to take their natural course, perfection and harmony results. In this sense the Tao, as applied to the universe, is not hindered. Tao (which simply means way in general, or, cosmologically, ultimate reality) is attained by an individual being attuned to it, without the interference of government and social constrictions. The most important popularizer of Taoist philosophy was Chuang-tzu, who did for the ideas attributed to Lao-tzu what Mencius did for Confucius. The Yang-Yin concept in his ideas are associated with ever ceasing change and retu~ based on a law of reciprocal causality. Thus the surest road to personal redemption is inactivity, and he extolled the vision of a natural man in harmony with nature who had been corrupted by society. The philosophical naturalism of Chuang-tzu, which continues to be a source of inspiration for Chinese creativity in literature and art, was not to become the characteristic of Taoism, as much as mysticism and magic, invoked first to prolong life and then as a way to salvation. By the first century AD., magical emphasis had become dominant, with alchemy and pharmacology pursued to gain immortality.
Confucianism is attributed to an historical teacher K'ung-fu-tzu (Master Kung, Latinized to Confucius), a sixth century social reformer who wanted to end the suffering or ordinary men resulting from the state of anarchy then prevailing. Love of fellow man was central to his philosophy. The object in life was to become a superior man, virtuous in life and socially responsible. All men, however humble in origin, could aspire to a virtuous life, which was the basis of a just state, an idea analogous to the philosopher-king idea of Plato. The chun-tzu or superior man was a blending of education and nature, and no state could be set right unless the rulers were morally upright. Thus the art of state craft and ethics were united. Tien (Heaven) was a cosmic moral power, neither a source

Comparative Religions (11-12), D. 16. (Cont.)
of salvation nor favor subject to intercession. Confucius also accepted such traditional practices of the time as ancestor worship and filial piety, so that many aspects of antecedent Chinese belief and practice became Confucionized, including the emphasis on status and etiquette. His successor Mencius elaborated the notion that men were basically good, an aspect of humanity that could be developed through self cultivation, love of fellow man, practice of righteousness, decorum in behavior and the exercise of wisdom.
Shen-tao, the way of the higher spirits, is an animistic religion of Japan, characterized by innunerable deities and a mytbol~gy which emphasizes the divine origins, and hence superiority, of the lan~ people and emperor of Japan. It persists in Japan as a little tradition, without abstract philosophies but this inherited act, observance, or festival; and, in place of laws, it has customs.
Contact with sixth century Chinese Buddhism led to a systematization of Shinto, but with the dominance of Buddhism in court circles by the eighth century AD. there was a fusion or accommodation, called Ryobu or Mixed Shinto.
It was not until the latter part of the nineteenth century, after the Meiji restoration, that Shinto was made the state religion and the sacred concept of the Emperor as a divinity was enshrined in the Japanese constitution. One of the first acts of the Emperor Meiji was to purge Shinto of its Buddhist elements, leaving it to exist as an autonomous religion. State Shinto was incorporated in school ceremonies and made part of the national morality, while the Grand Imperial Shrine at Ise was made a focus of national objectives and imperial ceremonies. State Shinto was reinforced by the code of the warrior, Bushido, with its unswerving devotion to the Emperor. State Shinto and Bushido reinforced the spirit of militarism in Japan, especially since any religious dissidence and criticism was suppressed.
After the defeat of Japan and American occupation, State Shinto was abolished. After a period of disenchantment and shock, Shrine Shinto revived. It is now an important force in Japan, along with a revived Buddhism and forceful and energetic new religions.
1. Names some of the important elaborators of Confucian thought and explains their contributions (C)
2. Identifies and explains basic concepts in philosophical Taoism and how these ideas were reinterpreted in religious Taoism (e.g., Tao, Yin-Yang, Heaven, law of reverse, perfection of nature) (C)
3. Distinguishes Taoism as a philosophical system and as a religious system and explains the characteristic beliefs of each (C)
4. Describes and'explains the importance of the Taoist Trinity (C)

Comparative Religions (11-12), D.16. (Cont.)
5. Describes conditions in China which motivated Confucius to be a social reformer (C)
6. Describes the disestablishment of State Shinto with the military defeat of Japan in 1945 (C)
7. Describes the background of Shinto and summarizes the Shinto myth of creation (C)
8. Explains the emergence of State Shinto as a government inspired national and patriotic religion (C)
9. Examines the manner in which Bushido complemented Shinto and contributed to the rise of Japanese militarism (C)
10. Examines the difference in the concept of individual achievement as a process of self-realization (fulfilling one's potential) and exerting one's utmost as an example of filial piety (C)
11. Examines some major ideas of Confucius and explains their significance as part of an ethical system (C)
12. Examines the Chinese interest in long life and how this interest in Taoism turned to magic (C)
13. Compares the respect accorded a teacher in Confucian tradition with that reflected in contemporary American thought (C)
14. Evaluates the proposition that State Shinto was not a religio~ but a patriotic way to create national unity in Japan (C)
15. Evaluates factors which apparently contribute to the stability of the Chinese family and the place of the family in the Chinese social order (C)
16. Evaluates the proposition that Confucianism is a system of ethics and not a religion (C)

COMPARATIVE RELIGIONS (11-12)
CONTENT OBJECTIVE
D.17. Analyzes the organization of religious hierarchy in Taoism, Confucianism and Shintoism
The fIrst level of hierarchy in Taoism is that of priests and believers, since believers are initiated into Taoism by priests who know the sacred rites. Since the Nationalist Chinese fled to Taiwan, there has been a revival in the Five Peck Rice Sect, where a new head, Celestial Master was named in 1970. Here the distinction in the Black Heads (priests) and Red Heads (magicians) may be distinguished by the color of their hats. Taoism was suppressed by the Communists but survives in Taiwan and other large overseas Chinese communities.
Confucist thought and practice were so entertwined with traditional Chinese society that it is not appropriate to think of a religious hierarchy. As a predominantly ethical system, it was devoid of a religious hierarchy per se, but state officials at different levels carried on certain activities as their part of a stratffied society. At the imperial level, the emperor conducted sacrifIces to heaven and earth as representative of the people as well as ancestor worship, under the control of the court. These were not observed by the people in later periods. Below the court were the literati, high officials and rich gentry class. Twice a year local officials offered prayers at the Confucian temples. At the lowest official were the yarnell, who combined ceremonial with administrative functions. At the popular level were a variety of local practices, carried on by villages and neighborhoods, including personal petitions to local shrines and individual involvement in yogic and hygienic practices. At the family level, the most important, the center of religious practice was the ancestral cult.
The literature on Shinto of a general nature is largely concerned with the historical and cultural context of Japan in which Shinto developed and has little to say about the organized aspects of Shinto. The hereditary priesthood is common to Shinto, but anyone with appropriate training may become a priest. During the period of State Shinto, 1868-1945, Shinto priests were state officials appointed by the government and graded into a series of ranks. Today Shrine Shinto is primarily managed by a nationwide Shrine Association, but there are also many local shrines with their Ujiko (parishioners) and local priests, with management in the hands of Ujiko representatives. The priests have no pastoral relation and duties consist of performing priestly functions. Many Japanese homes have

Comparatjve Religions (11-12), 0.17. (Cont.)

~

,

shrines in which both Buddha and Shinto observances may be made. They are

similar in nature, involving simple offerings and prayers. Formerly the emperor

was the head of Shrine Shinto. Thus hierarchically Shinto before 1945 consisted

of the emperor, priests at shrines designated national, local shrines and finally the

domestic observer.

1. Describes the role of the Celestial Master in Taoism (C) 2. Describes the various levels of ritual observance in Confucianism and
the absence of a clearly defined hierarchy in the religious sense (C) 3. Indicates how Shinto priests were appointed under State Shinto and
graded with postwar organization under the Shrine Association (C) 4. Explains the functional distinctions and relative ranking of Black Heads
and Red Heads in Taoism (C) 5. Explains why Taoism is now found mainly in Taiwan and overseas
Chinese communities (C) 6. Explains the fusion of church and state in China exemplified in
Confucian ritual (C) 7. Explains the importance of the Emperor in State Shinto before 1945 (C) 8. Explains the hostility of the Manchu dynasty to the specifically religious
institutions that existed alongside the state cult (e.g., Buddhism, Taoism, Islam) (C) 9. Compares and contrasts a Confucian memorial temple with a Taoist religious temple (C) 10. Assesses the importance of the family in a Shinto religious hierarchy (C) 11. Assesses the proposition that Shinto lacks a religious hierarchy (C)

COMPARATIVE REliGIONS (11-12)
CONTENT OBJECfIVE
D.18. Examines the performance of ritual in Taoism, Confucianism and Shintoism
With its major and minor divinities and folk gods, ritual has an important place in Taoist practice. There are special rites for the dead, ordination of priests, birthdays of the gods and avoiding calamities and invoking special favors. The chiao is pure ritual, the preserve of the priests, who periodically renew the community at three-year intervals with a special chiao for temple restoration once every generation. The chiao is characterized by a public feast outside the temple, with the esoteric communication with the Taoist Trinity taking place behind the closed doors of the temple. It is modelled on the former Imperial Court audiences with the Sun of Heaven. The typical Taoist temple, now found in such places as Taiwan, Singapore and Hong Kong, are ornate buildings replete with images in which incense, the burning of temple money and messages and the use of a variety of sacred objects are commonplace. These may be purchased by devotees from the temple attendants.
The most vibrant rituals of Confucianism were at the local level, which involved the participation of villagers, either as neighborhoods or as individuals. The traditional practice of most enduring significance is the cult of family ancestor worship.
After the Meiji Restoration, State Shinto (Jinja-Shinto) was rigidly separated from Religious or Sectarian Shinto (Kyoha-Shinto) and made a cult of loyalty to national institutions. To mark this alleged separation of a patriotic rite, Shinto priests at the state shrines were forbidden to perform such unmistakably religious ceremonies as funerals. Twice yearly rituals were a form of national purgation, performed in June and September. Priests practiced abstinence for a month before. The ceremony itself was simple. Priests waved over the people a nusa or purification wand, read the ritual, accepted penalty offerings and, in olden times, the people rubbed themselves with straw or paper effigies, transferring guilt to the effigy which was borne away by the water into which thrown. At the appropriate time, the emperor pronounced from the capital imperial absolution. In addition to rituals at the major shrines, before 1945 most of the major national holidays were based on Shinto festivals. Shinto does not have weekly religious service. People go to shrines when convenient and, at the major shrines, are hardly distinguishable from sightseers. Rites of passage include visits to the shrine of the tutelary kami of a new born baby 30 to 100 days after birth; visits of children

Compara~ive Religions (11-12), D.18. (Cont.)
of three, five and seven to give thanks for the k3lIli's protection and to pray for healthy growth (November 15); an Adult's Day observed on January 15 by young men when they achieve their twentieth birthday. Japanese are both Shinto and Buddhist concurrently, with two family altars, one to the Shinto kami or protecting spirit and a Buddhist one for family ancestors. Weddings follow Shinto rites; funerals, Buddhist.
1. Names some of the occasions involving ritual in Taoism (C) 2. Explains the relation of the emperor to the former Shinto rites (C) 3. Describes a ceremony in honor of Confucius at a memorial temple (C) 4. Explains the purpose and ritual of chiao (C) 5. Explains why the visit of individuals to a Confucian temple were more
important in maintaining the Confucian tradition than the official ceremonies (C) 6. Explains the function of incense and burnt messages in temple worship of Taoism (C) 7. Explains how worship at a shrine differs from regular worship of a Christian congregation (C) 8. Explains why most Japanese observe both Shinto and Buddhist rituals (C) 9. Compares Shinto rites of passage observances with birthday observances in the United States (C) 10. Collects an illustration of a Taoist temple and explains any rites depicted (C) 11. Examines the place of the family in the Chinese social system and the importance of ancestor worship in transmitting Confucian ideals (C) 12. Describes the relationship of Shinto rites (matsuri) to occupations and daily life (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
CONTENT OBJECTIVE
D.19. Assesses the impact of Taois~ Confucianism and Shintoism on Chinese and Japanese culture
Although Taoism enjoyed the status of a state religion for a brief period, it was overwhelmed by Confucianism. As it competed with Buddhism for adherents, it embraced much of the folk religion of China and has been especially popular with ordinary Chinese. It offered them a nativistic route to salvation and provided a multiplicity of deities to take care of many challenges and vicissitudes of life. Much of the color of Chinese celebrations is associated with Taoist practice. Taoism, in the philosophic sense, has always provided another view of man and society to that provided by Confucius. It has always been a source of inspiration for art and literature, in contrast to the Confucian tradition, which always emphasized moral message over artistry.
For 2,000 years the dominant philosophical and ethical tradition in China was Confucian, providing a rational theory not only for individual behavior but also the state. Confucian belief became synonymous with state belief, the approved social order. Although externally suppressed by Communists, it has become so identified with the Chinese character that it will probably persist the vicissitudes of Communis~which has been in power in China only since 1949, a period of just over 40 years compared to two millenia of Confucian influence. A major source of the strength of Confucianism was that it was not so much a new departure but a reaffirmation of traditional Chinese values, conservatory rather than revolutionary.
Before the development of State Shinto, Shinto existed as a pervasive folk religion in Japan, even during the periods in which Buddhism was the state religion and still persists in the villages and towns. Since holidays and festival occasions are Shintoist in ceremony, there is a pervasive Shinto cast to Japanese culture, even after disestablishment of State Shinto and the assurance of freedom of religion to all sects. However, because Shinto is part of the natural heritage, the government supports the maintenance of certain Shinto ceremonies as "cultural properties." Thus what can not be done in the name of religion can often be achieved in the name of culture. There may be some relationship of the continuance of the Japanese nationalistic spirit, cultivated by State Shinto, to Japanese economic development. Japanese companies maintain Shinto shrines; Japanese managers

Comparative Religions (11-12), D.19. (Cont.)
are regularly sent to Zen Buddhist training to de:velop single mindedness; and Confucian situational ethics permit Japanese to adapt themselves to situations which are regarded by westerners, with an abstract morality, as unprincipled. An overview of Japan indicates that despite Westernization, many traditional religious practices in Japan are quite strong.
1. Identifies elements of Shintoism present in contemporary Japanese society (C)
2. Explains how Taoism helped to perpetuate the traditions of Chinese folk culture (C)
3. Explains the appeal of Taoism to Chinese creativity (C) 4. Explains elements in Confucianism which reinforced Chinese institutions
(e.g., ancestor worship, the place of etiquette and ceremony and the role of the emperor) (C) 5. Explains the strength of Confucian education as a moral system and its weakness as a knowledge system (C) 6. Explains why Taoism continued as a popular religion notwithstanding the dominance of Confucianism as the state cult (C) 7. Examines how the extension of educational opportunities to Chinese of humble origin united both peasants and elites in a shared system of values (C) 8. Investigates the development of State Shinto as a nativist revival against foreign influence and the possibility of some form of revival against continuing "westernization" (C) 9. Assesses the influence of the civil service examination system on maintaining aspects of Chinese culture (C) 10. Ascertains whether the stability of the Confucian system was a negative or positive aspect in China's technological development and political evolution (C) 11. Evaluates the interaction of State Shinto with Japanese militarism and the possibility that it might emerge again as an accompaniment to Japan's economic clout (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
CONTENT OBJECTIVE
E.20. Traces the origin and development of the beliefs of Judaism
Judaism, the name of the religion of the Jews, derives its name from the southern Kingdom of Judah, whose inhabitants became the members of the Diaspora after the destruction of the temple and the expulsion of the Jews from Jerusalem by the Romans in the first and second centuries AD.
The four major sources of belief in Judaism are Bible, Talmud, philosophy and mysticism. Basic beliefs and ideas may be considered under such heads as God, Torah, covenant with Israel and ethics.
Belief in the unity of God carries with it the prohibition of worshipping other gods. God is also viewed as the creator of the world, but this creative expression is continuous and not mechanistic, expressing itself through the process of history.
Torah has a number of meanings. In general, it refers to direction or way, often in a legalistic sense, and may be both oral and written. In the latter sense it refers to the Pentateuch, the first five books of the Bible, attributed to Moses, and is especially revered. In the oral sense, it permitted an elaborate expansion of behavioral precepts, as in the Babylonian Talmud.
A central concept of Judaism is that God, called Yahweh, selected the Israelites as His chosen people and brought them from slavery out of Egypt, giving them the land of the Canaan as their home. The alleged covenant between Israel and God was expressed in the Torah, the violation of which was assumed to bring retribution from God who demanded righteousness and justice. Out of this growing ethical awareness developed a prophetic tradition, which reflected a high sense of moral obligation sanctioned by Torah. This concept of a growing oral tradition, extending behavioral prescriptions to guide behavior in all its aspects, eventually led in the post-Jerusalem period to the development of the Babylonian Talmud (Mishna and Gemara). Actual behavior in devotion, prayer and festal occasions provides a basis for habitual practices which have been important in obtaining both the separateness and the cultural identity of Jewish communities.
1. Identifies basic beliefs of Judaism (C) 2. Explains how in the development of the Bible the authorship of certain
books were attributed to famous Israelites of older historical periods to give them greater authority (e.g., Torah) (C)

Comparative Religions (11-12), E.20. (Cont.)
3. Examines the late history of Judaism inthe Hellenistic-Roman period and explains the beginning of a rabbinic~synagogue tradition in contrast to the priest-temple tradition (C)
4. Appraises the significance of the first commandment, in terms of the possible existence of other deities (C)
5. Evaluates the cultural significance, and its diffusion to other parts of the world which had no tradition of a "rest" day to honor a deity, of the prohibition against all manner of work on the seventh day, the Sabbath (C)
6. Evaluates the significance for the development within Judaism of a verbal tradition, as opposed to a visual tradition, growing out of the prohibition of images and their worship common to religions of that time in Palestine (C)
7. Investigates the formation of the Judaic canon (Bible in Hebrew) and relates the emergence of ideas concerned with the Exodus and the Ten Commandments, the idea of non-cultural assimilation in the conquest of Canaan and the role of prophecy and the conflict with the priestly tradition (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
CONTENT OBJECTIVE
E.2!. Explains the development of sects in Judaism
Sects for the purpose of this objective will be used in the sense of a difference in tradition, practice or belief which marks one group of religious practitioners from another of the same broad religion. Historic Judaic sects, existing in the first century AD., included Pharisees, Sadducees, Scribes, Essenes, Zealots and Sicarii and Naziries.
Differences in rabbinic traditions in Diaspora Judaism were reflected in the period of the amoraim (interpreters) which had two major centers -- Palestine and Babylon -- for commentaries on the Mishn~ the second century compilation of rabbinic law that became the vehicle of Judaic preservation. Both the Jerusalem and the Babylonian traditions were included in the Talmud (which came to include the Mishnah). The Babylonian Talmud eventually became the standard of the Jewish community.
Medieval European Judaism came to be characterized by two major branches -one German-French, Ashkenazi, and the other Spanish-Arabic, or Sephardic. The Ashkenazi tradition was traced to Palestine; the Sephardic, with its stronger Arab connections, to Babylonia.
Modem Judaism in the United States has been profoundly affected by three different nineteenth century Ashkenazi movements precipitated by the attainment of civil liberties in Europe. Reform Judaism is associated with Abraham Geiger (1810-1874) who became chief rabbi of the Berlin congregation in 1870. Orthodoxy, the continued emphasis of the maintenance of Jewish communal separateness, is associated with Samson Raphael Hirsch (1808-1888), leader of a separatist community at Frankfurt-am-Main. Conservative Judaism is identified with the positive historical Judaism of Zecharias Frankel (1801-1875), who admitted the need for change but not as radically as that of Reform Judaism, which originally attempted to make Judaism mainly another religion in a state with a deemphasis on the separateness of the Jews as a community.
1. Identifies sects of Judaism (C) 2. Identifies the religious and historical significance of various Judaic sects
and appraises their contribution to the development of Judaism (C)

Comparative Religions (11-12), B.2l. (Cont.)
3. Differentiates between three branches ofJudaism in the United States, explaining their origins, beliefs, practices and relative appeal in the contemporary world (i.e., Reform, Orthodox and Conservative Judaism) (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
CONTENT OBJECTIVE
E.22. Analyzes the organization of religious hierarchy in Judaism
The concept of hierarchy implies the existence of a gradation of authority with the power of superior offices to control inferior offices. Such an organization does not exist in the United States, even within the three distinct Judaic traditions -Reform, Conservative, Orthodox.
Even among Orthodox, where a minimum of ten adult males is required to hold a synagogue service, it is the congregation that seeks out and calls its rabbi. Once the rabbi has been called, Orthodox are bound to follow his interpretation of Torah and Talmud, whereas Reform Jews would regard any such interpretations as advisory only.
The major officiant at a synagogue service is the cantor, one who chants in an approved manner. But any Jewish male with the requisite knowledge may serve, since there is no clerical class to which reading from the Torah of liturgical chanting is limited.
In some Orthodox synagogues, precedence in Torah reading is accorded to Kohens (family descendants of the high priest Aaron); Levites, descendants of the family of Levi who were designated to assist the Aaronic priests in the care of the tabernacle and later the temple; and Israel, descendants of the other ten tribes. This precedence is hereditary but carries with it no religious authority.
The status of authority in Judaism is derived from study and learning and recognition by the community of one's scholarship in Torah and Talmud.
In the Hellenistic-Roman period, there was a hierarchy in Judaism associated with temple worship. There were the priests and their assistants and the great mass of worshippers who came to sacrifice at the temple. The Sanhedrin was the chief legislative body of the Jews, dominated by Sadducees. During the post-temple Roman period, the Romans, in accordance with their centralizing tendencies, established the office of Jewish patriarch which had the status of a Roman prefect.
1. Defines and explains the meaning of terms associated with historical hierarchies in Judaism (e.g., Aaronic priesthood, Levites, Kohens, rabbinate, patriarch, Roman prefect, exilarch) (C)

Comparative Religions (11-12), E.22. (Cont.)
2. Explains the concept of "clerical class" and its absence in modem Judaism (C)
3. Explains why Orthodox congregations may, in their precedence of Torah readers, retain more symbols of a hierarchical past than may be found in Reform congregations (C)
4. Appraises the tendency of temple worship and sacrifice to be associated with hierarchy and that of lay-directed synagogues to be associated with scholarship and learning (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
CONTENT OBJECTIVE
E.23. Examines the performance of ritual in Judaism
Central to Judaism, the most pronounced in Orthodox synagogues, is concern for Halakha, right practice or rules of conduct, in contrast to enquiry about belief and ethics which regulates not only synagogic worship but personal life. Thus, in Judaism there is no sharp demarcation between the religious and the profane as all aspects of life are governed by Torah and Talmud. In consequence, in Orthodox families life is suffused with a practice of prayer which begins with a five o'clock thanksgiving in the morning and terminates with night prayers on retiring. Public holy days and festivals (e.g., Rosh Hashana, Yom Kippur, Hanukkah, Passover), specially observed in the synagogue, have their counterpart in home observance, which strengthens a sense of Jewish identity. The centrality of Halakha is important from both the standpoint of the individual and family as well as synagogue.
Individual. The morning begins with thanksgiving, ablution and a series of benedictions which may be followed by prayer, using phlacteries and prayer shawl, preferably in a synagogue but permissible at home. The day also includes late evening and night prayers, which may be among the Orthodox in synagogue, and study of Torah and Talmud.
Observance of dietary restrictions and maintenance of a kosher kitchen, including separation of utensils for meat and dairy products, is the special province of wives and mothers who thus have an extremely important role that is especially related to the role of women in Judaism.
Ceremonies of the life cycle are associated with infant circumcision; Bar Mitzva, by which males are formally initiated to read Torah and become sons of the covenant; marriage under a canopy symbolizing the bridal bower; and preparation of the dead for burial in a holy shroud.
Synagogue. The seventh-day Sabbath is an obligatory rest day in which Orthodox walk but do not drive cars to the synagogue. The heart of synagogal worship is the public reading of Scriptures. The Pentateuch is arranged so that a complete cycle of readings is completed during the year with the selection of pertinent passages for festival days.

Comparative Religions (11-12), E.23. (Cont.)
Considerable ceremony and care is taken with the removal and return of the Torah scrolls to the container against the east wall, either a chest recalling the holy ark or a recessed closet with doors and a curtain. The scroll is housed in cloth or metal containers, often richly embellished as is the ark. Liturgical furniture consists of prayer desk and a pulpit, which, in the Sephardic tradition, may be combined into one desk, teva. Since worship and ritual is concerned primarily with prayer and reading, there are no complicated ritual requirements except relating to the reverence shown in behavior toward the Torah.
1. Describes and explains the importance of personal religious ceremonies related to the life cycle as practiced in Judaism (C)
2. Explains the significance and meaning attached to the major religious festivals celebrated in Judaism (C)
3. Describes the significance of dietary restrictions in creating a special role for women in Orthodox Judaism (C)
4. Relates the general ritual of synagogic worship with the importance of reverential treatment of the Torah (C)
5. Explains the complementary relationship of individual and family ritual with that of the synagogue and religious holiday cycle and appraises its importance in maintaining Jewish identity (C)
6. Compares and contrasts the role of individual-congregational worship in Judaism and Christianity and explains the significance of these differences in religious life (C)
7. Appraises the significance of prescribed prayers and routines in developing and maintaining a pious attitude (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
CONIENT OBJECTIVE
E.24. Assesses the impact of Judaism on other areas of Western culture
The major influence of Judaism has been religious. Christianity began as a Jewish heretical sect among Jews who accepted the claim that Jesus of Nazareth, a teacher of righteousness in the Nazirite tradition, was the expected Messiah (Christ in Greek). Judaism also served as the spiritual source for Islam for Abraham, father of Ishmael from whom the Arabs claim descent, was also the father of Jacob (Israel), progenitor of the Israelites.
Since the Haskala (Enlightenment), citizens of Judaic origin in various countries of the world have made notable contributions in all fields of endeavor -- the English premier Disraeli; Karl Marx, economist, sociologist, revolutionist; Felix Mendelssohn, the earth nineteenth century Romantic composer; Albert Einstein, physicist and a passionate pacifist of the interwar years; and Martin Buber, theologian, to mention a few of the most notable names. Their careers and contributions reflect access to education and their own efforts, however, more than to any particular Judaic, i.e., religious, contribution.
Throughout Judaic history incidents dealing with persecution and establishment of a homeland have been significant in a cultural context (e.g., Holocaust, establishment of the state of Israel).
1. Identifies contributions of citizens of Judaic origin to Western culture (C)
2. Describes and appraises the impact of Jewish belief and practice on the emergence of Christianity and Islam (C)
3. Evaluates the importance of a tradition of Judaic scholarship of Torah and Talmud in the transfer of scientific and literary scholarship (C)
4. Explains why, after the Enlightenment and Emancipation, certain prominent Jewish families felt the need to convert to Christianity (C)
5. Describes how the Holocaust furthered the political establishment of the State of Israel (C)
6. Explains how the tendency of Germans to regard German Jews, the most acculturated of European Jews, as a pariah people helped contribute to the Holocaust (C)

Comparative Religions (11-12), E.24. (Cont.)
7. Assesses how differences among Jews relating to peace with the Arabs of Palestine and the United Nations Resolution regarding the creation of a Jewish state and an Arab state after the partition of Palestine provide for continuing instability in the Middle East (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
CONTENT OBJECITVE
F.2S. Traces the origins and development of the beliefs of Christianity
Christianity, the most widely disseminated of world religions, takes its name from Jesus of Nazareth who was called Christos (Greek), the anointed one, the Messiah. While the religion is attributed to Jesus, the system of beliefs held as orthodox (approved) and catholic (universal) is a product of the second and third centuries in which church fathers systematized belief and ritual, claiming two sources of authority -- Jesus as the fulfillment of Old Testament Judaism and the expression of the Logos, or Divine Reason, existing before the creation of the world.
From the beginning of the ministry of the Apostles, there were differences in organization, belief, precedence and even the audience (Jews only or including gentiles) or route of conversion (become a Jew first or merely accept Jesus as the Christ). As missionaries carried their message of the risen Christ and Savior from Jerusalem to other parts of the Roman Empire, the apostolic message interacted with Greek philosophy and prevailing religious beliefs. Thus one of the earliest controversies arose over the nature of Jesus -- was he truly God, truly man or possessing characteristics of both man and God. This controversy ended in an early division in Christianity between churches with monophysite (one nature) interpretations preserved in such historic churches as the Egyptian (Coptic), Ethiopian (Coptic), Armenian, Syrian and Mar Thoma (India) and dyophysite as orthodox doctrine both in Rome and Byzantium (two natures, God and Man, distinct and not intermingled). Greek Orthodox (Byzantine) and Western Catholic (Rome) grew apart over differences in liturgy, beliefs and organization, a break which was finalized in 1054 AD.
The sources of belief of Christianity are the Bible, especially the New Testament; Church councils; tradition; and authority. The Protestant Reformation in the West, partly a national movement, retained most traditional beliefs but rejected the authority of tradition and that of the Pope. Instead, the Bible was accepted as the sole source of authority. However, interpretation was strongly influenced by previous philosophic conceptions.
Two standard statements of orthodox or accepted belief are the Apostle's Creed and the Nicene Creed. The Apostle's Creed is used in the Roman Catholic, Anglican and some Protestant Churches such as Methodist. It grew out of baptismal catechumens and took its present form (in Latin) in the sixth and seventh centuries in southern France. By 1216 it was the official creed of the

Comparative Religions (11-12), F.25. (Cont.)
Western Church. The Nicene Creed is the only creed shared by Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox (Greek) and many Protestant churches. It was at one time thought to have been a product of the Council of Nicae (325 AD.), but an early Greek version was first explicitly stated in the Western Church and became accepted by the papacy in the 11th century. Its principal liturgical use in the West has been in connection with the Eucharist (Lord's Supper, Holy Communion). In addition to such orthodox creeds, other statements of belief have been set forth in such documents as the Augsberg Confession of 1530 (Lutheran) drafted by Phillip Melancthon. It influenced the Anglican Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion and the Methodist Twenty-five Articles.
While creeds, confessions and catechism of Christian belief are common, many Protestant churches, such as the Disciples of Christ, reject the use of any fixed credal statement in teaching or worship. Furthermore, Christianity includes a number of churches holding unorthodox doctrines (e.g., Quaker, Mormon, Christian Science, Universalist-Unitarian), so it is only possible to state in a very general way the beliefs of a particular denomination rather than the beliefs of a generalized Christianity.
1. Identifies sources of belief of Christianity (C) 2. Compares the Apostle's Creed with the Nicene Creed and explains the
use of two different creeds (C) 3. Explains why such groups as Quakers, Mormons, Christian Science and
Universalist-Unitarian are classified as unorthodox rather than as orthodox in relation to Christianity (C) 4. Examines the origin of canonical and non-canonical books about the life and teachings of Jesus and explains how these differences could contribute to differences in belief (C) 5. Contrasts the attitude of the people of the Roman world to the fusion of state and religion in the emperor with the doctrine of separation of church and state as presently interpreted in the United States today (C) 6. Explores the historical significance of having major centers for ancient Christianity in such diverse places as Alexandria, Antioch, Constantinople, Jerusalem and Rome (C) 7. Examines how the existence of a unified Roman world and the free transmission of mystery religions in the first to third centuries AD. facilitated the expansion of Christianity (C) 8. Evaluates the proposition that the Protestant Reformation was not so much a change in Christian belief as it was a change in church organization and practice (C)

Comparative Religions (11-12), F.25. (Cont.)
9. Evaluates the possibility that Christianity_may have remained one among many religions had it not been made the official religion of the Roman Empire by Constantine (C)
10. Identifies advantages and disadvantages in having creeds as statements of agreed upon belief in Christian churches (C)

COMPARATIVE REliGIONS (11-12)
CONTENT OBJECflVE
F.26. Explains the developments of sects in Christianity
The numerous sects or religious divisions or denominations in Christianity, historic as well as contemporary, arose from the same factors that contribute to sectarianism in other religions, Le., diversity of beliefs, doctrines and organization, which, in turn, reflect the cultural context in which proselytization occurs, ethnic and linguistic differences especially identified with the rise of territorial-national sects and power aspirations of church officials and lay members.
The word "catholic," often associated with the Western or Roman Catholic Church, is derived form the Greek word katholikos, meaning universal, an idea which was first expounded by S1. Cyril of Jerusalem in 348 AD. on the four grounds of world-wide extension (then Roman), doctrinal completeness, adaptation to the needs of mankind everywhere and its moral and spiritual perfection. It came to be a synonym for orthodox belief, and those who deviated from this unity were regarded as heretical. The Byzantine (Eastern) Church never relinquished its claim to being catholic, and the Anglican as well as a number of Protestant sects claim to adhere to the catholic tradition. Thus the meaning of the term is conditioned by context of use.
In the historical evolution of Christianity, sects may be viewed as arising in distinct periods, Le., the Judaizer-Gentile conversion controversy of the early missionary period in the first century; emergence of the historic churches of Jerusalem, Antioch, Constantinople, Alexandria and Rome; the early church period to 500 AD. the preceding may be regarded as specialized aspects); the medieval period from 500 AD. to 1500 AD.; the sixteenth century Reformation; the stabilization of distinct sects in the 17th and 18th centuries; and, restricted to the United States, the rise of new sects from older Protestant sects.
1. Identifies sects in Christianity of broad historical time periods (C) 2. Identifies and describes nineteenth and twentieth century Protestant
movements in the United States (e.g., Adventists, Christian Science, Mormonism) (C) 3. Explains how the existence of Jewish communities in Roman cities aided in the spread of Christianity (C) 4. Explains why Roman authorities often considered Christian communities a sect of Judaism (C)

Comparative Religions (11-12), F.26. (Cont.)
5. Identifies the iconoclastic controversy in the church in the eighth century AD. and explains how this controversy laid the foundation for the eventual schism between Eastern (Byzantine) and Western (Roman Catholic) branches of Christendom (C)
6. Explores the role that John Calvin played in the development of the Reformed Church in France and the Netherlands (C)
7. Explores the diffusion of Lutheranism to other countries in Europe (C) 8. Describes the social and economic climate of the late eighteenth century
which contributed to the emergence of Baptists and Methodists (C) 9. Assesses the proposition that when certain Protestant sects became the
majority in a country, they, too, attempted to establish consensus and uniformity, as did the Council of Trent with respect to reaffirming Catholic doctrine and the primacy of the pope (C) 10. Evaluates the proposition that Luther did not make the Reformation, he was merely a catalyst to a long existing desire for church reform (C)

COMPARATIVE RELIGIONS (11-12)
CONTENT OBJECTIVE
F.27. Analyzes the organization of religious hierarchy in Christianity
Christianity has never been a unity in belief or sect; consequently no religious
hierarchy has ever existed for Christianity. In contrast, various patterns of
organization developed in various territories reflecting differences in belieft sect and nationality. Even at the height of the Papacy, the claim of the Bishop of Rome to primacy, except in the honorific sense, was rejected by the Eastern Churches. They held that all the Apostles were equal in authority as successors to Jesus (although they were willing to concede an honorific precedence to the Bishop of Romet the seat of the Empire before the capital was transferred to Constantinople) and that matters of doctrine and practice were to be decided by church councils representative of all branches of the chur~ht with final consensus dependent upon the commendation of believers.
Traditional church organization was episcopal, with a bishop presiding over a diocese which included a number of parishes presided over by a priest. Originally the bishop combined priestly with teaching, preaching and pastoral functions of a church. As the number of believers increased, it was necessary to recruit helpers, who were commissioned by the Apostolic laying on of hands. Eventually, the bishop became primarily an executive officer, although in churches which retain this organization (e.g., Roman Catholic, Angli~ Scandinavian Lutheran, Methodist), it is the prerogative of the bishop or his representative to preside at communion and to baptize and to confirm. Pastors/priests are assigned to their churches and may be rotated.
In many Protestant denominations, notwithstanding affiliation in some kind of regional or national conference for mutual help, the governing unit is the individual church. Church members call and dismiss the pastor and elect lay men and women as elders and deacons to serve as a management committee and to assist the pastor in the conduct of the service. In this congregational organization, each church is autonomous and there is no clerical hierarchy.
1. Outlines the structure of the Roman Catholic Church with respect to the papacy and curia, college of cardinals, college of bishops, diocesan organization with bishop as head, priesthood and pastor of parish, role of ecumenical councils, organization of religious communities (monks
and nuns) and, since Vatican n, the role of lay councils in parish life (C)

Comparative Religions (11-12), F.27. (Cont.)
2. Describes the organization of Eastern Orthodox churches (officially the Orthodox Catholic Church) (C)
3. Describes the organization of Independent Orthodox Churches which do not recognize the Pope or Patriarch of Constantinople, even in an honorific capacity (e.g., Armenian, Coptic (Egyptian), Coptic (Ethiopian) (C)
4. Compares the organizational patterns of the Lutheran church in different countries (e.g., episcopal in Scandinavia, synodal in Germany, congregational in the United States) (C)
5. Compares and contrasts the Roman Catholic organization on as a "top down" hierarchy with Presbyterian organization as a "bottom up" hierarchy (C)
6. Identifies principles of congregational government and identifies churches in the United States associated with this tradition (C)
7. Describes the organization of the Mormon and Christian Science denominations in light of their historical origins (C)
8. Explains why congregationalism is primarily found in the governance of churches originating in England and the United States (C)
9. Explains how differences in interpretation of appropriate church organization was a factor in the Protestant Reformation (C)
10. Compares and contrasts the organization of the two largest Protestant denominations in the United States, Baptist and Methodist (C)
11. Evaluates the idea of church organization as a barrier to church unity notwithstanding protestations of ecumenicalism (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
CONTENT OBJECTIVE
F.28. Examines the performance of ritual in Christianity
Ritual, the prescribed form for conducting a devotional service, ranges from the priestly, with highly structured words, acts and symbols in which the congregation is primarily witness to a mystery celebrated by priests to a simple order of worship in which the emphasis is on reading from the Bible, congregational singing and the sermon by the preacher. From the ornate symbolism of the Eastern orthodox mass to the quiet meeting of Friends (Quakers) gathered to experience the Inner Ught, there is a great diversity in Christian ritual. In all churches which claim adherence to a "catholic" tradition, the most elaborate ritual is associated with the celebration of the Eucharist, commonly known as mass in the Roman Catholic Church. In many Protestant churches, the Lord's Supper is observed as a simple memorial, with laymen assisting the pastor. The other sacrament common to catholics (general sense) and Protestants is baptism, a rite of especial importance in churches which emphasize adult baptism after affirmation of faith and do not practice infant baptism.
Sacraments important in Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches, but not to all Protestant groups, include confmnation, penance, holy orders, matrimony and extreme unction. Each sacrament is associated with its particular rituals.
1. Identifies important sacraments in Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches (C)
2. Describes the ritual of the Eucharist (Holy Communion, Lord's Supper) in a Roman Catholic or Orthodox church and in a Protestant Church which does not claim to be catholic (e.g., Baptist, Adventist, Pentecostal) (C)
3. Demonstrates a commonality in most Christian churches of the use of reading from the Bible (C)
4. Examines the relationship of differences in belief to expression in ritual, the actual observance of beliefs (C)
5. Compares the order of worship in a liturgical or ritualistic church with one that makes singing, extemporaneous prayers and sermon the main features of service (C)
n 6. Evaluates the significance of Vatican on the celebration of the mass
(C)

Comparatjve Religions (11-12), F.28. (Cont.)
7. Evaluates the relationship of churches with members constituting a "priesthood of believers" to the use of congregationally oriented worship and participation (C)
8. Explains how differences in ritual satisfy different psychological needs in devotional exercise (C)

COMPARATIVE REliGIONS (11-12)
CONTENT OBJECTIVE
F.29. Assesses the impact of Christianity on other areas of western culture
Christianity emerged at a time when there was no concept of religion existing compartmentalized from government. In the person of the monarch, the sacred and profane were simply different manifestations of authority vested in the ruler. As long as religious devotees made obeisance as a patriotic rite to the ruler, as in emperor worship in the Roman Empire, a great deal of religious diversity was permitted. When Constantine made Christianity an official religion of the empire, an attempt was made to replace religious diversity with religious uniformity. Persecution of Christians was replaced with persecution of pagans and dissident Christians, so that freedom of thought was replaced with Christian apologestics, and scientific and philosophic enquiry as well as poetic, dramatic and literary expression all suffered from the threat of heresy. The papal inquisition thus not only had the effect of enforcing religious conformity but also generally served as a means of censorship.
Until the twentieth century the two types of monumental architecture that influenced style were political, the royal palace, and ecclesiastical, churches and churchly residences. These conformed to the prevailing regional preferences, so that just as the high naved Gothic church became the great expression of faith in northern Europe, the baroque domed church and the single-spired rectangular hall became the expressions of the Roman Catholic and Protestant faith in Latin America and the United States.
The two great patrons of music were kings and churches. During the middle ages and early Renaissance, church music and secular music were largely monophonic. The cantata, oratorio and requiem became vehicles for a great outpouring of religious movement.
Visual art was dominated by Biblical and Christian motifs in the Byzantine, Western European Middle Ages, and during the Renaissance. Most of the visual images identified with Biblical themes are derived from painting, mosaics, icons, sculpture and tapestries.
Whether in East or West, various churches have been heavily involved in politics. Politics more than belief made the break between Rome and Constantinople irreconcilable. The Crusades were as much a great desire for profit and plunder as they were for piety, and substantially weakened the Byzantine Empire. In Spain and its colonies, the Spanish inquisition became an instrument of political

Comparative Religions (11-12), F.29. (Cont.)
as well as religious orthodoxy, effectively stifling <:lissent that led to the Reformation. For the next two centuries, religious wars, or wars that quickly took on a religious tinge, dominated Europe, and every conceivable type of humanity was practiced by Christians on their Catholic or Protestant enemies in the name of Christ
The economic influence of Christianity has been less notable than its political impact. From the very inception there was an involvement in taking care of the sick, poor and of widows and orphans, and the ascetic ideal and eschewing worldly goods became institutionalized in monasteries and nuns. In economics matters, Christianity has tended to support the status quo rather than economic reform which would benefit the laboring classes. While the Protestant ethic thesis of the German sociologist Max Weber has been hotly debated (Le., that work, thrift and efficiency were a sign of the elect of God taught by Calvin) this ethic was essentially one of personal salvation, not of a general social consciousness. On the whole, Christianity has supported capitalism, decried Communism and emphasized individual ethics and personal salvation rather than social ethics and economic justice.
1. Gives examples of how Christianity influenced vocal and instrumental music (C)
2. Gives examples of Christian influence on such visual art forms as mosaic, painting, sculpture and tapestry (C)
3. Gives examples of the interrelationship of politics and Christianity in the American colonies (C)
4. Describes the impact of Christianity on architecture in the Byzantine, Medieval, Renaissance and modem periods (C)
5. Describes ethical standards of personal and public behavior which are related to Christian ethics (C)
6. Describes the role of the Catholic Church in the preservation of learning during the Middle Ages (C)
7. Explains the continuing interaction of religion and politics in the United States (C)
8. Explains the important role of church institutions in providing hospital and other welfare services before the rise of public institutions (C)
9. Examines the role of both Catholic and Protestant churches in expanding education before the establishment of state supported school systems (C)
10. Assesses the support of capitalism by Christian churches (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
CONTENT OBJECTIVE
G.30. Traces the origin and development of the beliefs of Islam
Islam (submission to the will of God) is a monotheistic doctrine taught by Mohammed in the seventh century AD. which reflects the deliberate organization of religion and government into one community, the organized believers, or umma, founded in the year 622 AD., the year of the Hegira or flight of Mohammed and his followers from Mecca to Medina and the beginning of the Islamic calendar.
Mohammed's teachings were simple and direct -- the unity of God the creator and controller of man, judgment according to the life lived, practice of generosity and need of Meccans to return to a purer way of life. The teachings of Mohammed, partly transcribed during his life, were collected after his death in the Koran (also Qu'ran), the holy book of Islam. The Koran (reading) is regarded as the directly revealed Word of God and is the first authoritative source of Islamic belief. The second source of beliefs are the Hadith, traditions, sayings and stories about Mohammed, two authoritative collections which form the basis for the Sunna and the Sunni sects.
The basic beliefs of Islam may be summarized as unity of God; angels as servants of God, chief of whom is Gabriel; prophets, most important of whom are Abraham, Moses and Jesus, with Mohammed the last, or seal, of the prophets; holy books, culminating in Koran, revealed by God to Mohammed; predestination; heaven and hell; day of last judgment; and bodily resurrection.
As Islam expanded outside of Arabia, it came into contact with other ideas and doctrines. Especially important was translation into Arabic of Aristotle and other Greek followers, with a strong rationalist emphasis. Counteracting this trend was a latent mysticism inherent in the Koran and the stimulus of both Buddhist and Christian asceticism and the older cult saints in North Africa. These forces led to the emergence of Sufism which became a strong force in Islam, especially in India and Indonesia although it challenged Sunni orthodoxy throughout the Muslim world.
The history of Islam has largely been an attempt to maintain orthodoxy. In the last two centuries, trends to restore pristine Islam, such as the Wahabi movement in Arabia, or to give it an interpretation more consistent with modem trends and

Comparative Religions (11-12), G.30. (Cont.)
science, as in Azad of India, have both been char:;tcteristic of Islam as it attempts to give place for modem science borrowed from the West or to maintain its own distinct cultural identity.
1. Describes the social-political-religious situation existing in Mecca at the time of Mohammed and relates the situation to the origin of Islam (C)
2. Describes specific means in which the teachings of Mohammed improved the status of women in Arabia (C)
3. Explains reasons for the lack of political democracy in early Islamic states notwithstanding egalitarianism in Arabia and the rejection of race and caste distinctions in Islam (C)
4. Explains how Jewish opposition to Mohammed in Medina influenced Mohammed to make Mecca rather than Jerusalem the focus of prayer and the Haj (C)
5. Compares basic beliefs of Islam with those of Christianity and Judaism (C)
6. Evaluates the impact on belief of reformist tendencies in Islam (C) 7. Evaluates forces or conditions prevailing in conquered countries that
facilitated conquest and conversion to Islam (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
CONTENT OBJECTIVE
G.3l. Explains the development of sects in Islam
Over the years a myriad of sects, religious divisions or denominations have developed in the Islamic faith. There is a Hadith in which Mohammed warned that seventy-eight sects would arise in Islam. Having come in contact with sectarian divisions within Arabia, it took no great prescience for him to anticipate that many divisions would arise. These began soon after his death. Some sects related to the succession to the caliphate; others grew out of different juridical or legal schools interpretations of the nature of man and God growing out of contact with Greek philosophy, Sufi brotherhoods and modem reform movements.
The mostly known sects or divisions grew out of the question of succession to the caliphate. The Shiite sects believed that the successor to Mohammed should come from the family of Mohammed; the Sunni sect believed that the best method of getting the most qualified successor was by election.
1. Identifies differences between the Sunni and the Shiite sects of Islam (C) 2. Identifies some general reasons for the emergence of different groups
within Islam, notwithstanding a unity of belief based on the Koran and Hadith (C) 3. Enumerates some of the emergent sects in Islam and explains the basis of their distinctiveness (C) 4. Compares and contrasts proliferation of sects in Islam with other religions (C) 5. Examines the importance of the Druse in contemporary Lebanon (C) 6. Investigates the role and influence of Aga Khan IV (C) 7. Explains why the modem Saudi state, as custodian of Mecca, is especially concerned with security during the Haj (C) 8. Assesses the significance of the successionist controversy for political development in the Islamic world (C) 9. Assesses the reasons conservative regimes have been hostile to the Iran of Khomeni and his successors (C) 10. Assesses legal-political developments within Islamic countries which have restricted the functioning of the Sharia (C) 11. Evaluates the significance of the juridical schools within the orthodox Sunni tradition (C) 12. Evaluates the Wahabi movement in terms of the premise "All reform in Islam is a reaffirmation of orthodoxy" (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
CON1ENT OBJECTIVE
G.32. Analyzes the organization of religious hierarchy in Islam
Strictly speaking, Islam has had no clerical class based as it is upon equality among believers and individual prayer, even when performed collectively in a mosque, the place of worship.
Interpretation of the Koran and Hadith nevertheless required the emergence of a learned class and functionaries associated with the mosque. The juridical class, growing out of its relation to the Sharia (Islamic law), consists of ulema or mullah (legal scholars), mufti (consulting jurists) and qadi Gudges). The status of ulema is accorded by consensus; mufti and qadi are appointed by government as part of the Islamic state's legal system.
A mosque is a place for offering Islamic prayers. Individuals may go to a mosque, if convenient, or individually pray wherever they may be. The Friday mosque is supposed to be large enough to accommodate a community for prayer and sermon.
Functionaries of mosques include such positions as caretaker, muezzin (crier, who gives the call to prayer, now often recorded and broadcast over a loudspeaker), preacher (Friday sermon); and imam, prayer leader. In Islamic states, there is a Ministry of Waqfs (Endowment) which appoints such functionaries.
1. Identifies major divisions of personnel associated with Islam and explains their functions (C)
2. Determines reasons for the lack of clerical hierarchy in Islam (C) 3. Describes the means by which a Muslim acquires the status of ulema (C) 4. Assesses the possibility of decline in the prestige of ulema in some
Muslim countries (C) 5. Evaluates the influence of the mullahs in Iran (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
CONTENT OBJECI1VE
G.33. Examines the performance of ritual in Islam
The five major practices of Islam, called the Five Pillars, are Confession of Faith, once in a lifetime; prayer, five times daily, congregationally in a mosque or individually, with especial emphasis on the Friday noon prayer with sermon; zakat, payment of a tax to charity, now voluntary; fasting during the month of Ramadan; and pilgrimage to Mecca if a person can afford it, once in a lifetime. A sixth pillar, jihad, striving, especially in war, was proposed by the Kharijites but never was recognized as such.
Practices in Islam are austere. Prayer is normally preceded by ceremonial bathing with dust if water is not available, as in the desert, and the prayer cycle consists of oral and silent prayers and recitations from the Koran in standing or genuflectional position with head touching the floor. The mosque is an austere covered hall or open courtyard with no chairs. The congregation stands in rows and follows the example of the imam, all facing in the direction of Mecca, marked by a circular niche often ornamented with geometric or arabesque design. Since those who go to mosques to pray know the prayers (the Arabic language is used irrespective of the vernacular) and the procedures, no imam is necessary. There is no music, no singing and no use of pictures, candles or any ritual objects.
Ramadan is the ninth month of the Muslim lunar calendar. From sunup to sundown eating, drinking and smoking are enjoined. Morning and evening prayers take special significance during this month. The month of Dhu al-Hiiiah is the last month of the Muslim year and is the month of the haj, the prescribed pilgrimage to Mecca. The prescnbed ritual takes place between the 7th and 10th day of the month. Pilgrimage to Mecca (a city forbidden to non-Muslims) at other times of the year is called "umrah" or minor pilgrimage and is similar in procedure to that of the haj. A person who has performed the haj is known as haiii and is especially respected. Other places of pilgrimage are, in order of importance and sanctity, the mosque of the Prophet in Medina and the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem.
The two most important festive days in Islam are Id al-Fitr, celebrating the end of Ramadan, and Id al-Adha, marking the end of pilgrimage. There are minor feast days and many local feast days according to the geographic area.

Comparative Religions (11-12), 033. (Cont.)
1. Identifies the Five Pillars of Islam andexplains'the significance of each practice (C)
2. Investigates the sequence of one of the five daily prayers and explains the content of word and posture in detail (C)
3. Describes the sequence of activities performed in connection with the prescribed pilgrimage to Mecca (C)
4. Ascertains the number of pilgrims who, with air travel, now come to Mecca for the haj (C)
5. Describes steps the Saudi government now takes to facilitate such matters as accommodations, f<><>d, sanitation and health during the haj (C)
6. Explains the relationship of the haj to establishing the sense of belonging to a worldwide community bound by a common faith (C)
7. Explains the pilgrimage significance of the Mosque of the Prophet and Dome of the Rock (C)
8. Assesses the extent to which the procedures for prayer in Islam encourage participation (C)
9. Evaluates the impact of the observance of Ramadan on preserving Islamic faith (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
CONTENT OBJECTIVE
G.34. Assesses the impact of Islam on other areas of Middle Eastern culture
Mohammed set out to create an ideal theocracy, in which the head of religion and the state, entitled caliph or khalifa after his death, was fused into one leader. Religion so interpenetrated the total culture that it is impossible to separate the secular from the religious, whether in literature, art, architecture, law, domestic and international politics or personal social relations.
Islam, as with other religions in their geographic areas, has had both positive and negative impacts. Intellectually, the contact of Islamic scholars with Greek philosophy led to a high level of development in philosophy, astronomy, mathematics and medicine. Mer the twelfth century, religious orthodoxy had a negative impact on speculative thought, thus Islamic countries did not have the equivalent of a Renaissance in business organization and technology or in government were ill prepared to cope with the penetration of western powers.
In architecture, Islamic artists were quick to adapt both the column and the dome to use in monumental buildings, especially mosque and mausoleum, with distinctive decoration. Edifices such as the Alhambra in Spain, the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem and the Taj Mahal are synonymous with an elegance both of style and execution. The decorative arts were highly developed, and are still practiced by skilled craftsmen in such vastly separated places in the Muslim world as Morocco, Egypt, India and Indonesia.
Notwithstanding the inherent egalitarianism of Muslim society, based on the equality of all believers, this religious democracy has not been successfully translated to political democracy. When Muslim countries finally became independent, they had little experience with state democratic institutions, since states at the highest level had been operated as government by a military aristocracy. Thus Muslim states (e.g., Pakistan, Iraq, Syria, Indonesia, Algeria) although technically democratic with an elected president and legislature were, and are, essentially governments in power through support of the military.
1. Describes Islamic accommodation with people of different faiths in conquered territories and compares this treatment with Christian Europe's treatment of non-Christians in the Middle Ages (C)
2. Describes contributions of Islam in such fields as philosophy, poetry, architecture, painting and medicine (C)

Comparative Religions (11-12), G.34. (Cont.)
'-
3. Investigates social and family values which Muslims think are threatened by western modernization (C)
4. Suggests reasons why Islamic creativity appeared to falter at the very time Europe began to break out into a wider world through overseas voyages of exploration and discovery (C)
5. Uses the recent history of libya and its relations with the United States to explore the possibility of mutual disillusionment and value differences between a Muslim state with a western state (C)
6. Assesses the issue of Palestine as a source of tension between the United States and the Islamic world (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
CONTENT OBJECTIVE
H.35. Examines interrelationships among and within various world religions
Interrelationships among religions may be noted in parallels in belief and observable practices. Beliefs typically embrace a mythology of creation; explanation of the nature of a supreme being and the dependence or relationship of humans to that being (not in Buddhism); a system of ethics and nature of evil; methods of maintaining contact with the supreme being and maintaining the right way, directly or through mediation with saints or divinities; and the effect of death -- rebirth, heaven-hell or non-existence. Belief systems also incorporate elements relating to inward states and personal being and the importance of devotion. Observable practices include the presence of places or houses of worship, observance of holy days, visits to holy sites, specialist personnel with different knowledge and functions and claims to local or universal loyalty. The social importance of religion is evidenced by its architecture and associated embellishment and public festivals.
1. Constructs an outline for examining common concerns of contemporary religion, irrespective of religious belief or practice (C)
2. Compares and contrasts the Hindu and Christian approach to the doctrine that the present life is not paramount (C)
3. Compares and contrasts Christian and Islam ideas with respect to an after life and retributive justice (C)
4. Compares devotional traditions in Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism and Islam (C)
5. Gives examples and explains the relationship of cultural context to religious belief and practice (C)
6. Explains the interrelationship of religion and aesthetics in major religions (C)
7. Contrasts the non-violent approach toward nature of Buddhism with the approach of Judaism and Christianity and determines which approach provides a value basis, if any, for environmental protection (C)
8. Assesses the premise that in the study of a religion the context of a religion, the total culture, is just as important as the study of formal religion in understanding religious dynamics (C)

Comparative Religions (11-12), H.35. (Cont.)
9. Evaluates the proposition that civilizations which developed in connection with Hinduis~ Buddhis~ Islam and Christianity were "religious civilizations" (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
CONTENT OBJECTIVE
H.36. Assesses the impact of modernization on religious development
Modernization is typically associated with the forces of industrialization and urbanizatio~ which in tum depend on inanimate energy, factory production by quasi-monopolies and an economic system dominated by profit rather than ethical considerations. Modernization is also associated with open societies and the freeflow of ideas, a growing emphasis on individual rights in lieu of social responsibility and political democracies which often become increasingly plutocracized. Modernization is also associated with the dominance of free enterprise or capitalism, in contrast to managed economies (socialism and communism) and an increase in material goods, services and standard of living. For non-Western countries, modernization also implies some transfer of western values, although this acceptance may be deliberately selective, as in Japan which has synthesized capitalist methods with Japanese values of communal solidarity. Modernization is, therefore, simply another way of conceptualization social change which has accompanied the replacement of societies predominantly agricultural with industrial production, organization and values.
Four characteristic patterns of coming to terms with modernization by members of religious groups are rejection of the modernization (e.g., the Old Order of Amish), return to orthodoxy (e.g., Muslim Brotherhood, Moral Majority in the United States and militant Zionism in Israel), creation of alternatives (e.g., church-based movement for black civil rights and Latin American liberation theology), rejection (severance) from religion and to acting as if the change did not exist.
1. Describes new emphases in the Roman Catholic Church after Vatican TI, 1962-1965, an attempt to deal with modernization with a faith (C)
2. Compares and contrasts the message of Christian revivalism, c. 1900, with television evangelism, c. 1990, and notes areas of similarity and change (C)
3. Explains why the rise of Methodism in the late eighteenth century might be considered an example of a "constructive alternative" (C)
4. Explains why modernization often engenders a renewal of traditional or indigenous religious beliefs and practices, especially in Third World countries (C)

Comparative Religions (11-12), H.36. (Cont.)
5. Determines how the change in priorities_within the World Council of Churches reflects an increasing participation of southern hemisphere churches to establish approaches more consistent with the needs of their areas (C)
6. Assesses the impact of World War II on New Guinea and the kinds of religious-eultural adjustment made (C)
7. Analyzes new modes in which African Independent churches attempt to confront modernization and their own African past (C)
8. Selects a specific religion and conducts research to ascertain types of response to modernization (C)
9. Ascertains if there are parallels in the United States to liberation theology in Latin America and, if so, explains their origin and connections (C)
10. Evaluates the premise that religious reform is a reaffirmation of orthodoxy (C)
11. Explores the extent to which Christian missionary work now represents diffusion within culture areas rather than transmission from Christian to non-Christian areas (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
CONTENT OBJECTIVE
H.37. Evaluates the influence of religion on world issues
Issues are topics or problems about which there is debate or controversy. World issues are not so much distinct from national or domestic issues but are simply issues common to humankind viewed in a global context.
An enumeration of world issues such as population growth, poverty, uneven development, environmental degradation, global warming, loss of tropical forests, extinction of remnant tribal peoples, regional conflicts, civil war, infant mortality, disease, illiteracy and superstition are part of the litany of world ills. Perhaps the greatest world issue is that, despite the great growth in knowledge and ease of communication, there has been no comparable increase in the amount of empathy among peoples. Notwithstanding the fact that the Roman Church has always expanded its organization to encompass the known world and that Protestants united in the World Council of Churches (1948) and Buddhists in the World Council of Buddhists (1950) as consultative organizations, this effort is directed primarily to serve the inward, parochial and self-centered interests of various religious groups and not toward world outreach. The limited role religion has played in many world events and issues is illustrated by the two World Wars in which Germany, the home of Luther and Evangelical Protestantism, was the aggressor. In these wars the clergy lined up behind their various national governments and, as in previous wars, prayed to a war god for victory.
This does not mean that religion has not served useful social purposes. Buddhist monasteries early established a tradition of caring for the wayfarer, healing the sick and teaching and many notable examples of various religious groups to help the material, as well as the spiritual, needs of potential converts can be given. Nevertheless, while various mission groups continue to combine healing and teaching with preaching, there is no good data to show that religion has a positive affect of helping to address world issues. On the issue of population limitation through birth control, the official position of the Roman Church and Pope John has been negative rather than positive. On the other hand, there is the Pentecostal success in identifying its work and message with the poor, a theme which became identified with conferences of Catholic Bishops at Medellin and later at Puebla (personally attended by the Pope).

Comparative Religions (11-12), H.37. (Cont.)
1. Identifies world issues directly or indirectly related to religion (C) 2. Describes religious ramifications of selected world issues (C) 3. Compares a church position or an issue with that of United States
government and reports similarities or differences (C) 4. Compares a church position on a world issue with that of the United
Nations and reports similarities or differences (C) 5. Ascertains if there are different positions on issues taken by different
religions (e.g., Buddhism, Christianity, Islam) (C) 6. Assesses the extent to which religious groups have attempted to
influence national government policy or United Nations policy (C) 7. Draws a conclusion evaluating the influence of various religions, and
religion generically, on selected world issues (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
SKIlL OBJECTIVE-
A 1. Identifies and classifies ideas according to the frame of reference, ideology or bias of different writers or speakers
Classifies ideas by frame of reference, ideology or bias means the ability to recognize differences in general frame of reference of opposing groups such as political conservatives versus liberals, religious believers versus unbelievers, feminist historians versus traditionalist historians, pacifists versus militarists, etc.
1. Recognizes examples of gender stereotyping in passages from history or social science texts (C)
2. Sorts political commentary into conservative and liberal categories (C) 3. Gives examples of how a military officer might give a different
interpretation of a war than a person who did not serve in the military (C) 4. Sorts several narratives about historical periods into those which might
have been written by authors representing different frames of reference (C) 5. Identifies important events or interpretations which have been left out of texts due to the frame of reference, ideology or bias of the authors (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
SKIll. OBJECTIVE ...
A2. Uses a bibliography
Features of a book refers to sections of the book and to format characteristics which help readers to locate information quickly and efficiently. Features include title and title page, table of contents, glossary, index, appendix, bibliography, headings for units and chapters, boldface type, endnotes, footnotes, marginal notes and chapter summaries.
1. Obtains overview of a textbook by reading the table of contents, statements printed in boldface type, marginal notes and chapter summaries (C)
2. Locates specific topics by reading the table of contents and index (C) 3. Locates definitions of key terms by reading the glossary (C) 4. Selects additional books to read by scanning the bibliography (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12) SKILL OBJECTIVE ...
A3. Compares, analyzes and evaluates artifacts in relation to subject content
An artifact is a product of human workmanship. To compare, analyze and evaluate artifacts means to determine their approximate age, the location in which they were produced and the culture which produced them.
1. Identifies the culture and region which produced a given artifact (C) 2. Identifies possible uses for a given artifact (C) 3. Compares and contrasts cultures given representative sets of artifacts (C) 4. Analyzes the general level of civilization of a culture when given a set of
representative artifacts (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
SKIlL OBJECTIVE .
A4. Locates and interprets suitable data from multiple types of sources, e.g., specialized references, newspapers, periodicals, nonprint
Locates and works with information from a variety of sources refers to independent study or group projects which take students beyond the social studies textbook. Social studies information can also be found in such sources as standard reference works, trade books, photograph collections and the mass media.
1. Uses photograph collections and the non-print mass media to obtain facts and generalizations about other places and people or about social problems (C)
2. Interviews people from other places and cultures or who have special knowledge about a social problem (C)
3. Locates standard references and appropriate trade books in school media center (C)
4. Uses published scholarly studies on specialized topics related to social studies (C)
5. Obtains information from the local community (C) 6. Uses more than one source of information during independent study or
group projects (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
SKIIL OBJECTIVE_
A.5. Analyzes interpretations of same event from different news sources
Analyzing interpretations of the same event from multiple sources means that the interpretation of an event is determined in part by an observer's frame of reference, perspective or point of view. Scholars tend not to see differing interpretations as clearly right or wrong, but as more or less complete and as reflecting the beliefs, values and assumptions of the person making the interpretation.
1. Compares and contrasts different interpretations of a event (C) 2. Identifies important differences in the frames of reference of two or more
interpreters of an event (C) 3. Evaluates the expertise of two or more interpreters of an event (C) 4. Identifies possible bias in the frames of reference of two or more
interpreters of an event (C) 5. Identifies possible elements of own frame of reference which might affect
interpretation of a given event (C)

COMPARATIVE RELIGIONS (11-12)
SKILL OBJECTIVE
A.6. Determines the sequence of events required for a given historical interpretation
Events can be sequenced in chronological, causal or logical order. To determine or arrange the sequence means to recognize the time order of events, the cause/effect order of events or the logical relationship between premises and conclusion.
1. Produces an historical timeline with events in proper sequence (C) 2. Identifies the approximate dates of major events in American or world
history (C) 3. Recognizes probable cause and effect when given a set of events (C) 4. Draws an appropriate conclusion given a set of premises (C)

COMPARATIVE RELIGIONS (11-12)
SKILL OBJECI1VE ...
A.7. Analyzes cause and effect relationships
Identifies cause and effect relationships means the ability to (1) differentiate between those relationships which probably are causal and those which probably are not, (2) recognize those events which probably have multiple causes rather than a single cause, (3) determine the probable direction of causation and recognize that some cause/effect relationships are bi-directional and (4) recognize that the existence of causal relationships is difficult to demonstrate.
1. States causal claims as tentative or probable rather than certain (C) 2. Gives an example of possible bi-directional causality (i.e., instances in
which two variables may be both cause and effect) (C) 3. States more than one possible cause of an effect (C) 4. Identifies the cause (independent variable) and the effect (dependent
variable) in a straightforward example (C) 5. Gives an example of a possible noncausal relationship (C) 6. States alternative possible causes (rival hypotheses) when given a causal
claim (C) 7. States the components or steps in a simple true experiment for
determining causation (C)

A8. Takes notes and develops outlines from a formal extended lecture or reading
Takes notes means that the reader, listener or observer is able to abstract the essence- of a message. Develops outlines means that the student is able to express that abstracted message in outline form. Outlining requires the student to sort main ideas from subordinate ideas and to express the relationship of the latter to the former.
1. Identifies main ideas and subordinate ideas in a written or spoken message (C)
2. Expresses the chronological or logical sequence of main ideas by sequencing those topics in an outline (C)
3. Expresses the relationship of subordinate ideas to main ideas by listing the subordinate ideas as subtopics in an outline (C)
4. Uses a standard outline format (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
SKILL OBJECTIVE ..
A.9. Distinguishes between fact and opinion
The terms fact and opinion are coordinate concepts, because an example of fact serves as a nonexample of opinion and vice versa. Furthermore, both terms are ambiguous in that each term has multiple acceptable meanings that are applicable to history and the social sciences. A student who can distinguish between fact and opinion knows multiple meaning for each term and can correctly sort a set of examples of these coordinate concepts. Sometimes fact versus opinion refers to the fact that some descriptive claims are based on reasonably solid evidence and others are based on little more than guesswork. Sometimes fact versus opinion refers to the difference between a finding and a conclusion based on that finding. In this case, the finding is referred to as a fact and the conclusion is an interpretation or opinion that goes beyond and gives meaning to the finding. Sometimes fact versus opinion refers to the difference between descriptive claims and normative claims or value claims. Descriptive claims are fact in that their truth can be tested using empirical procedures. In contrast, it makes no sense to speak of the truth of a value claim or normative claim. The goodness of a normative claim is ultimately a matter of judgement or opinion.
1. Distinguishes between descriptive claims for which there is good evidence and descriptive claims which are based on guesswork (C)
2. Distinguishes between descriptive claims and value claims (C) 3. Distinguishes between findings and conclusions (C)

COMPARATIVE REI1GIONS (11-12)
SKILL OBJECTIVE
A.lO. Distinguishes between objective and subjective primary source material
Source material may be objective or subjective in several ways. Data which are gathered using instruments which require a minimum of inference to score, such as multiple-choice tests, are sometimes referred to as objective versus subjective data gathering techniques, such as the use of interviews. Data that can be reduced to a set of numbers is sometimes referred to as objective versus data which can only be described verbally. Statements which contain obvious emotive loading are sometimes called subjective versus objective statements which use language that has been nearly stripped of its emotive overtones. Furthermore, sources which describe only behavior are sometimes called objective versus sources which attempt to describe the inner life, the feelings and commitments of human subjects.
1. Distinguishes between quantitative and qualitative data (C) 2. Explains the advantages and disadvantages of quantitative versus
qualitative data (C) 3. Distinguishes between descriptions of human behavior and human
feelings, ideas and commitments (C) 4. Explains the advantages and disadvantages of data which is limited to the
description of behavior and datil which attempt to describe inner states of human subjects (C) 5. Rewrites descriptions so that emotive loading is reduced (C) 6. Explains how emotive loading sometimes reflects the bias or frame of reference of the author or speaker (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
SKIlL OBJECTIVE-
A 11. Acquires and processes information by using thought processes (recall, translation, interpretation, application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation)
Thought processes refers to skills variously labeled analytic thinking, critical thinking or reflective thinking. Examples of those skills include the ability to deduce possible instances from a generalization, to form generalizations from a set of instances, to draw valid conclusions from a set of premises, to recognize inconsistency and to recognize and challenge assumptions.
1. States and challenges possible assumptions underlying a conclusion (C) 2. Develops analogies which test the consistency of a position (C) 3. Challenges the adequacy of analogies developed to test the consistency of
a position (C) 4. Draws a valid inference when given a set of premises (C) 5. Offers alternative hypotheses in response to a problem (C) 6. States alternative outcomes which would weaken or strengthen the
evidence in support of a hypothesis when given the details of a planned experiment (C) 7. States the limitations of evidence offered in support of a hypothesis (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
SKILL OBJECTIVE ...
A 12. Uses charts, tables, graphs and grids to acquire information
Organizes, summarizes and interprets information refers to the ability to deal with raw data efficiently. Unorganized data are difficult to interpret. When data are summarized in charts, graphs, tables, timelines, or other graphic forms, trends can be observed, comparisons can be made more readily and major ideas can be remembered. The groups of skills involved are the ability to read and to produce charts, graphs, tables and timelines.
1. Answers a question by correctly interpreting a chart, graph, table or timeline (C)
2. Transfers data into a chart, graph, table or timeline (C) 3. Interprets themes of graphic displays produced in newspapers or
magazines written for children or adults (C) 4. Produces a graph, chart, table or timeline using data from history or one
of the social sciences (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
SKILL OBJECTIVE
A 13. Uses appropriate features of books for information: foreword, preface, table of contents, glossary, index, append~ bibliography
Features of a book refers to sections of the book and to format characteristics which help readers to locate information quickly and efficiently. Features include title and title page, table of contents, glossary, index, appen~ bibliography, headings for units and chapters, boldface type, endnotes, footnotes, marginal notes and chapter summaries.
1. Obtains overview of a textbook by reading the table of contents, statements printed in boldface type, marginal notes and chapter summaries (C)
2. Locates specific topics by reading the table of contents and index (C) 3. Locates definitions of key terms by reading the glossary (C) 4. Selects additional books to read by scanning the bibliography (C)

COMPARATIVE RELIGIONS (11-12)
SKIlL OBJECTIVE ...
A14. Takes notes and develops outlines
Takes notes means that the reader, listener or observer is able to abstract the essence of a message. Develops outlines means that the student is able to express that abstracted message in outline form. Outlining requires the student to sort main ideas from subordinate ideas and to express the relationship of the latter to the former.
1. Identifies main ideas and subordinate ideas in a written or spoken message (C)
2. Expresses the chronological or logical sequence of main ideas by sequencing those topics in an outline (C)
3. Expresses the relationship of subordinate ideas to main ideas by listing the subordinate ideas as subtopics in an outline (C)
4. Uses a standard outline format (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
SKIlL OBJECTIVE
B.15. Defines a problem
To identify a problem is to address and describe a given set of circumstances. These circumstances may be intellectually puzzling, require a prediction, require the resolution of social conflict or confront the observer with an ethical dilemma. These circumstances may be related to personal experience, historical events or events within the context of any social studies class. The circumstances may be interpreted as having desirable and/or undesirable effects or consequences.
1. Describes and labels problems using language that is precise and relatively free of emotive loading (C)
2. Describes situations which keep a person, society or region from being as successful as they might be (C)
3. Identifies a set of circumstances which the student cannot explain, such as "Holding all other things constant, why is the average temperature of the atmosphere inversely related to altitude?" (C)
4. Identifies political-ethical problems faced by a society (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
SKIll.. OBJECIlVE-
B.16. Formulates hypotheses or interpretations and subjects them to an orderly critical process
To formulate hypotheses is to develop possible explanations for problematic circumstances or to predict possible consequences of proposed solutions to a problem. To evaluate an hypothesis is to question its relevance to the problem under consideration, question the evidence given in support of the hypothesis, question whether the full range of plausible hypotheses has been explicated and compare and contrast rival hypotheses.
1. States an hypothesis and the evidence which supports it (C) 2. Compares and contrasts several hypotheses and the evidence which
supports them (C) 3. Modifies hypotheses in the light of new evidence (C) 4. Questions the logical relevance of the hypothesis to the problem (C)
5. Asks others to suggest additional hypotheses (C)
6. States the kind of evidence that might cause the hypothesis to be abandoned (C)
7. States the degree of certainty with which the hypothesis might be true or false (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
SKILL OBJECTIVE ....
B.l7. Identifies criteria to evaluate the design of a proposed investigation
A proposed investigation is a plan of action to test empirical hypotheses, generalizations, propositions or theories which may be stated as questions. To evaluate the design is to analyze the plan of study to see if it is appropriate for the question being tested. To identify criteria for the analysis is to select the appropriate standards by which the plan or design can be evaluated.
1. Selects standards for judging the effectiveness of the investigation (C) 2. Asks questions about the expertise and bias of authors when consulting
written sources (C) 3. Asks questions about the adequacy of the sample when reading research
reports or conducting original research (C) 4. Asks questions about the validity of tests, interview schedules or
questionnaires when reading research reports or conducting original research (C) 5. Asks questions about the plausibility of rival hypotheses (C) 6. Examines own frame of reference for bias (C) 7. States appropriate qualifications or limitations of findings when drawing conclusions (C) 8. Analyzes the investigation in light of the set of standards and makes changes where necessary (C) .

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
SKIll OBJECTIVE
B.IB. Cites short- and long-range consequences of alternatives
Alternatives or choices are options available in a given situation. Each option may produce results which indicate that the choice was true or false or good or bad. Results may also be immediate or projected. It is possible to describe likely outcomes for each option. To make a decision is to select the alternative which is most likely true or most likely to produce good rather than bad effects.
1. Lists the possible solutions to a given problem (C) 2. Lists the possible outcomes to be expected if the solution is true when the
problem is an intellectual puzzle (C) 3. Lists the possible desirable and undesirable outcomes when the problem
is an ethical issue (C) 4. Decides whether possible outcomes are immediate or long range (C) 5. Selects the alternative which is most likely truet that is the alternative
which will most likely produce the predicted effects, when the problem is an intellectual puzzle (C) 6. Selects the alternative which will most likely produce good rather than bad effects when the problem is an ethical issue (C) 7. Accepts consequences which indicate that the alternative chosen was false when the problem is an intellectual puzzle (C) 8. Accepts responsibility for making an ethically undesirable choice (C)

COMPARATIVE RELIGIONS (11-12)
SKIlL OBJECTIVE ....
B.19. Selects appropriate resources to gather data
Sources are materials or procedures which provide information. They include, but are not limited to, newspapers, magazines, films, books, computer programs, people and original empirical studies. To identify the best source is to select those materials and procedures which will provide the most relevant, reliable and valid data.
1. Generates a list of materials and procedures for obtaining information on a given subject (C)
2. Identifies community experts who can provide information about a problem (C)
3. Consults standard references (e.g., encyclopedias, atlases) (C) 4. Consults library sources such as the card catalogue and Reader's Guide
(C) 5. Collects information pertinent to topic (C) 6. Evaluates which sources would be most relevant for a given subject (C) 7. Decides whether original empirical research is needed (C)

COMPARATIVE REliGIONS (11-12)
SKILL OBJECTIVE
B.20. Accepts or rejects hypotheses or interpretations on the basis of collected evidence
A hypothesis or interpretation is a possible explanation for a certain behavior on the part of an individual or group. To accept or reject that explanation is to agree with it or discard it based on information presented. To state a conclusion is to acknowledge your agreement or disagreement with the explanation.
1. States whether the findings provide strong, moderate or weak support for the conclusion (C)
2. Distinguishes between conclusions and findings related to hypotheses (C) 3. States a conclusion related to a hypothesis and states the findings which
support that conclusion (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12) SKIlL OBJECTIVE ...
B.2l. States in a conclusion the acceptance or rejection of hypotheses or interpretation
A hypothesis or interpretation is a possible explanation for a certain behavior on the part of an individual or group. To accept or reject that explanation is to agree with it or discard it based on information presented. To state a conclusion is to acknowledge your agreement or disagreement with the explanation.
1. States whether the findings provide strong, moderate or weak support for the conclusion (C)
2. Distinguishes between conclusions and findings related to hypotheses (C) 3. States a conclusion related to a hypothesis and states the findings which
support that conclusion (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
SKILL OBJECTIVE ....
B.22. Chooses a reasonable solution to various alternatives
A problem may be an intellectual puzzle for which there is no ready answer, an ethical issue or a set of circumstances which have negative consequences. To choose a reasonable or appropriate solution is to select from possible alternatives the behavior which appears to have the best probability of success or, in some cases, the solution which is most prudent, that is, has the best probability of avoiding disaster. At times, the most reasonable decision is to recognize that not enough is known to make a wise choice. When confronted with ethical problems, reasonable choice requires selecting which values to support.
1. Lists alternative possible solutions to the problem (C) 2. Recognizes the communal nature of problems and attempts to reach
consensus concerning the meaning of the problem statement and of proposed solutions (C) 3. Lists the evidence or reasons which support or oppose each possible solution, including conflicting values, when appropriate (C) 4. Selects one choice, when the evidence is adequate to support one choice, or explains why a choice is premature (C) 5. Qualifies the selection by presenting the evidence which supports it, as well as its limitations, and states the conditions under which a different choice would be more reasonable (C)

COMPARATIVE REliGIONS (11-12)
SKILL OBJECTIVE-
B.23. Changes the solution if new data warrant it
Data are findings. A solution is a decision concerning either an intellectual puzzle or an ethical issue. New data may indicate that former solutions were incorrect.
1. States decisions as tentative rather than absolute, indicating openness to new data or new interpretations (C)
2. States possible evidence or consequences which would indicate that a decision was incorrect (C)
3. States the degree of certainty with which a decision is judged to be correct (C)
4. Seeks critique of decisions and invites critics to present new evidence or new interpretations (C)
5. Changes position when the balance of evidence shifts (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11..12)
SKIlL OBJECTIVE
B.24. Observes interrelationships between two problems and between solutions to each
A problem is either an intellectual puzzle or an ethical issue. A solution is either an answer to the puzzle or a decision concerning an ethically appropriate course of action. To observe interrelationships between more than one problem and solution is to understand how several causes and effects are linked together and influence each other.
1. Identifies problems that are not independent of each other and explains their relationship (C)
2. Gives an example of how a solution to one problem might be the cause of another (C)
3. Gives an example to illustrate that problems seldom have single causes (Le., problems are produced by multiple causes) (C)
4. Gives an example to illustrate that the solution to a problem can have multiple unintended consequences (C)

COMPARATIVE RELIGIONS (11-12)
SKIll OBJECTIVE-
C.25. Translates dates into centuries
One hundred years is a century, thus the period 0-99 after the birth of Christ is called the first century, AD., and the second 100 years (100-199) are the second century of recorded history after Christ. The centuries since Christ are labeled AD. Those before Christ are labeled B.C.
1. Places a given date into the correct century, either AD. or B.C. (C) 2. Describes a given date with the appropriate adjective reflecting the
correct century (C) 3. Translates centuries on the Christian calendar to centuries on a non-
Christian calendar (C)

COMPARATIVE RELIGIONS (11-12)
SKILL OBJECTIVE
C.26. Formulates generalizations and conclusions about prehistoric and geological time
Conclusions or generalizations are principles based on facts. Assimilating facts and developing a valid principle from those facts requires some understanding of events and the ability to think critically about the validity of claims based on those events.
1. States a conclusion or generalization and justifies it with several facts (C) 2. States whether a conclusion is based on a population of events or on a
sample of those events (C) 3. States whether a sample of events which serves as the basis for a
conclusion or generalization is representative of the relevant population of events (C) 4. Formulates a generalization about the ability of experts to predict the duration of important events, such as the length of wars or the length of economic depressions (C)

COMPARATIVE RELIGIONS (11-12)
SKILL OBJECTIVE
C.2? Formulates generalizations about time in studying the development of human affairs
Conclusions or generalizations are principles based on facts. Assimilating facts and developing a valid principle from those facts requires some understanding of events and the ability to think critically about the validity of claims based on those events.
1. States a conclusion or generalization and justifies it with several facts (C) 2. States whether a conclusion is based on a population of events or on a
sample of those events (C) 3. States whether a sample of events which serves as the basis for a
conclusion or generalization is representative of the relevant population of events (C) 4. Formulates a generalization about the ability of experts to predict the duration of important events, such as the length of wars or the length of economic depressions (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12) SKILL OBJECfIVE ...
C.28. Clusters dates-events to establish time relationships among historical events
Important events are understood in part by locating them in time. The Constitution of the United States, for instance, cannot be understood apart from locating it as a product of the late eighteenth century. Furthermore, important events happen in chronological proximity to each other. Those events help define important historical periods.
1. States the date or approximate date of important events (C) 2. Identifies important historical periods by the events that occurred during
those periods (C) 3. lists events which occurred during an important historical period (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12) SKIll OBJECTIVE
C.29. Relates the past to the present in the study of change and continuity in human affairs
Over time change occurs in all societies; however, some basic activities or patterns do not change, but have a sense of continuity. Many current happenings have their roots in events from the past, and these happenings are better understood if their antecedents are understood.
1. Compares a current event to a similar event in history (C) 2. Identifies recurring patterns of similar events in history (C) 3. Traces current religions to their origins and explains how religions have
influenced major events in history (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12) SKIlL OBJECTIVE
D.30. Identifies goals and priorities
Successful completion of cooperative tasks depends on the ability of members to clearly define desired ends or objectives. When more than one end or objective is acceptable for a situation or problem, one should first rate or rank the relative desirability of achieving each option.
1. States a group's goals for a cooperative project (C, A) 2. Identifies tasks for the completion of a group task (C) 3. Prioritizies tasks for completion of a group task (C, A)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12) SKILL OBJECTIVE ...
D.31. Participates in a group activity observing set rules or procedures
The ability to accomplish a task in cooperation with others in an important characteristic of a citizen in a democratic society. The establishment of procedures to be followed often accompanies and encourages the completion of cooperative tasks.
1. Follows rules for class discussion (A) 2. listens to opinions of other students (A) 3. Shows respect for the rights and property of others (A) 4. Formulates rules to be followed for 3; student organization (C, A) 5. Debates an issue following preset rules and procedures (C, A)

COMPARATIVE REliGIONS (11-12)
SKILL OBJECTIVE
D.32. Works with others using democratic principles
In a society in which all persons are guaranteed the right to express their own opinions, citizens must be able to engage in face-to-face exchanges of ideas. Respect for the right of others to have differing opinions and the ability to accept compromise solutions to problems are important aspects of such idea exchanges.
1. Gives opinions on choices for a class activity (A) 2. Debates solutions to a current events problem (C, A) 3. Participates in a civic improvement project (c, A) 4. Contributes to the completion of a cooperative oral presentation on a
relevant topic (C, A)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12) SKILL OBJECTIVE ....
D.33. Identifies and uses alternatives methods of managing conflict
In situations involving social interaction, differences of opinion may result among group members. Such dissension or conflict may be resolved by generation of a set of options which could be used to settle the differences. Alternative options should then be judged before a decision is reached.
1. Appeals to an outside source to resolve group conflict (C, A) 2. Lists alternatives to resolve a conflict in a group (C, A) 3. Shows the ability to compromise in group situations (A)

COMPARATIVE REliGIONS (11-12)
SKILL OBJECTIVE
D.34. Uses many sources to obtain current information and opinions
Personal beliefs are made, modified, change or strengthened based on data gathered from external origins. A large number of these external origins exist in the form of reference materials and the beliefs of others expressed in various media or in person.
1. Interprets stated positions of politicians (C, A) 2. Debates alternative solutions to a current political or economic problem
(C, A) 3. Compares and contrast two opinions on an issue (C, A) 4. Contrasts the opinions expressed in editorials (C) 5. Interviews school officials and students on a relevant topic (C)

COMPARATIVE REliGIONS (11-12) SKIlL OBJECTIVE
D.35. Evaluates the reliability of information gathered
One aspect of decision-making is the ability to judge the worth or accuracy of data used to make decisions. The valuing of the data is dependent on a variety of factors which must each be weighed to give an assessment of the accuracy of the data.
1. Explains sources of bias in collected data (C) 2. Distinguishes fact from opinion in print and non-print material (C) 3. illustrates how individual perception may differ from person to person (C) 4. Identifies possible areas of unreliability in personal interviews (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12) SKILL OBJECTIVE ....
D.36. Obtains the views of others
Citizens in a democratic society form beliefs based on their own experiences and knowledge. These beliefs are formed by analyzing others' beliefs and allowing others to freely express those beliefs even when they conflict with one's own views or positions.
1. Participates in a debate on the election of a government official (C, A) 2. Debates possible solutions to a current social problem (C, A) 3. Compares and contrasts newspaper editorials on the same topic (C, A) 4. Outlines arguments for and against a pending action of a local, state or
national government (C, A)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12) SKIll OBJECTIVE ....
D.37. States reasons for advocated position
Citizens in a democratic society are free to express their opinions on various issues they encounter. One function of a citizen is to formulate rational and logical arguments in support of his or her opinion or position on an issue and share these with other citizens and leaders.
1. Explains one's position on a topic of current events (C, A) 2. lists reasons for support of a candidate for public office (C, A) 3. Explains how one's position on an issue was determined (C, A)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12) SKIlL OBJECTIVE
D.38. Presents viewpoint to other citizens, leaders, officials, etc.
Citizens in a democratic society are free to express their opinions on various issues they encounter. One function of a citizen is to formulate rational and logical arguments in support of his or her opinion or position on an issue and share these with other citizens and leaders.
1. Explains one's position on a topic of current events (C, A) 2. lists reasons for support of a candidate for public office (C, A) 3. Explains how one's position on an issue was determined (C, A)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
SKILL OBJECTIVE--
D.39. Organizes and participates in activities for effective action to support personal views
Citizens in a democratic society have many opportunities to be involved in community or public activities to support their personal views. Involvement may be improved and made more efficient by setting goals, organizing and prioritizing tasks and initiating action in a systematic way.
1. Plans a campaign for a school election (C, A) 2. Plans for political action on a current issue (C, A) 3. Seeks the support of public officials for a stated position (C, A) 4. Takes part in the activities of community action groups (C, A) 5. Explains various means by which one's opinions or ideas can be promoted
(C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12) SKILL OBJECTIVE ....
EAO. Identifies problems of cartography in projecting the globe onto a flat surface as related to historical maps
Map-makers face a fundamental dilemma in attempting to draw the features of a three-dimensional world on a two-dimensional surface. Various technical methods have been devised by map-makers to accomplish this task, but distortions always occur in the representation of some part of the world.
1. Differentiates between several major types of map projections (C) 2. Locates areas of distortion on a map (C) 3. Explains why distortions appear on particular map projections (C) 4. Contrasts representation of particular land areas on different map
projections (C)

COMPARATIVE RELIGIONS (11-12) SKILL OBJECTIVE
EA1. Locates political divisions
For each land area on earth, there are a variety of physical and political subdivisions. By using maps, physical feature names or political place names may be identified.
1. Identifies political boundaries on a map (C) 2. Distinguishes physical and political boundaries on a map or globe (C) 3. Distinguishes state and national boundaries on a map or globe (C)

COMPARATIVE REliGIONS (11..12)
SKILL OBJECTIVE
E.42. Locates air and ocean currents which affected exploration and development
The natural cycles of movement in the atmosphere and in the larger bodies of water covering the earth provided energy sources for pre-engine powered ships. Juxtaposition of points of land in the paths of consistently moving sea and air streams influenced where sea-faring explorers ventured and later established settlements. These naturally occurring air and sea patterns are identifiable on specialty maps.
1. Identifies major air currents on the earth (C) 2. Identifies major ocean currents on the earth (C) 3. Explains how air and water currents affected early explores (C) 4. Explains how air and water current encouraged development of certain
coastal areas (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
SKILL OBJECTIVE ...
E.43. Interprets the key or legend on maps
Color, labeling, symbolic figures and sometimes texture are used by cartographers in their attempt to make two-dimensional models of the earth's surface. Depending on the purpose of the model, the cartographer will choose various abstract symbols to represent real features on the earth or to convey some sort of data about the area of focus. Many symbols are standardized and will be used by cartographers, while others will be peculiar to the purpose of the map or the cartographer.
1. Identifies the meaning of symbols on a map (C) 2. Explains the purpose of a map based on information in a map key (C) 3. Locates information for a specific purpose on a map (C) 4. Draws conclusions about a region based on information in several maps
(e.g., the economy, culture) (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12) SKIlL OBJECfIVE-
E.44. Analyzes a variety of maps
Cartographers create plane surface representative models of the earth for a variety of uses. Some are general use models which give general information about the surface features of the earth in an area. Others are for specialized use and provide specific sets of data for users with specific needs. By accessing various types of maps and synthesizing information from them, users are able to gain information, generate theories or draw conclusions that would not have been available from a single source.
1. Identifies special purpose maps needed for specific information (C) 2. Locates information in multiple map sources to support or refute claims
made by others (C) 3. Collects economic and/or political data using map references (C) 4. Uses multiple map references in support of a hypothesis (C) 5. Draws conclusions based on information in multiple map references (C)


COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
SKIll OBJECTIVE
EAS. Uses maps and globes to explain geographic settings of historic and current events
A more comprehensive understanding of a world occurrence may be gained by the analysis of cartographers' plane or spherical surface representative models of the area in which the occurrence happened. Gazetteers or indexes to atlases may be used to find grid coordinates for places which may then be found on the model.
1. Locates regions of interest on a map or globe (C) 2. Locates appropriate maps for a specific purpose (C) 3. Uses an index or gazetteer to find grid coordinates of a place of interest
(C) 4. Draws conclusions about (political events, current economic events,
historical and current events) based on information in maps (C)

COMPARATIVE REliGIONS (11-12)
SKILL OBJECTIVE
.46. Uses general and special atlases and gazetteers for historical study
Collections of maps may be found in books which contain both general purpose and special purpose maps. Such books often contain an index of geographic names with accompanying information to assist users in locating places on the maps in the collection.
1. Locates maps of a region of interest in an atlas (C) 2. lists characteristics of a region based on information in various types of
maps in an atlas (C) 3. Uses an index or gazetteer to find grid coordinates of a place of interest
(C) 4. Locates appropriate maps in an atlas for a specific purpose (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11-12)
SKILL OBJECTIVE
E.47. Infers human activities and ways of life from data found on a map or combination of maps
Plane surface representative models of the earth's surface may be created for a variety of purposes. General purpose models and specific purpose models may serve as reference sources for a variety of data collection needs. Many of these models focus on the effects of people on the earth or give information about their culture.
1. Chooses appropriate maps to gather information about human activity in a specific region (C)
2. Uses multiple maps to gather data in support of a conclusion about the people of a geographic region (C)
3. Draws conclusions about human activity in a region based on information in several maps (C)
4. Locates multiple types of information on a map or maps to refute or support statements about human activity in a region (C)

COMPARATIVE REUGIONS (11..12) SKILL OBJECI1VE
E.48. Uses and interprets the concept of scale on a variety of maps
For each two-dimensional representation of the earth done by a cartographer, a unit of distance is used in the model that is proportional to the distance inr-eallife. Using information in the legend,aetua1 distances may be computed by use-nof the representative model.
1. Locates map scales on various maps (C) 2. Contrasts distances on large- and small-scale maps (C) 3. Translates numerical map scales into words (C) 4. Computes actual distances based on map measurements (C)