Adults learn again

Adults LearnAgain

Adults Learn Again
Curtis Ulmer Professor and Head Department ofAdult Education College of Education University of Georgia James A. Dinnan Professor of Reading and Adult Education Department ofAdult Education College of Education University of Georgia
STATE OF GEORGIA DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

Adults Learn Again Editor: Ruth J, Carpenter Assisted by Robert Stevenson and Carolyn Carson Graphics: Caroline Benefield and Nancy Courtenay Cover Design: Charles Johnson Typists: Linda Chester and Pauline Heuberger Copyright 1981 by State of Georgia Department of Education. All rights reserved except that teachers may reproduce material with source cited for
cl~ssroom use.
Funds for writing and publishing Adults Learn Again were provided under Public Law 95-561 and Public Law 91-230, Section 310 by the Georgia Department of Education for the Division of Educational Development, Adult Continuing Education Unit, Dr. Charles McDaniel, State Superintendent of Schools. The materials and ideas contained in this publication represent the views of the authors and not necessarily those of the personnel of the Georgia Department of Education. The Georgia Department of Education does not discriminate in employment or educational activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex or handicap.

For the past several years we have had the pleasure of conducting staff development programs and workshops for adult basic education teachers in Georgia. These activities have allowed us to become acquainted with the public school adult basic education program in Georgia, and this acquaintance has renewed our faith in the relevance of adult education. Miss Margaret Walker, a gracious lady, has directed the state program since 1972 and has been instrumental in establishing staff development programs, workshops, and various other programs for teacher training. Her thinking is future oriented, and she has led the way in suggesting and supporting innovative staff development programs. This curriculum guide was a result of her support and is respectfully dedicated to Miss Margaret Walker, State Coordinator, Adult Continuing Education Unit for Georgia.
Curtis Ulmer James A. Dinnan

CONTENTS

Foreword

A\'

Preface

XVll

UNIT I THE PLAN

Chapter 1 Introduction

3

The Philosophical Model / 5

The Nature of the Adult or Life Cycle Education / 6

The Nature of the Adult Training Process / 7

The Nature of the Adult Learning Process Applied

to Basic Communication Skills / 10

Organization / 11

References / 13

Chapter 2 Developing Performance-based

Instructional Strategies

15

Andragogy / 15

Principles for Adult Learning / 17

Adult Education Curriculum Models / 17

Adult Performance Level Curriculum / 20

APL Goals and Objectives / 21

Occupational Knowledge / 21

Consumer Economics / 22

Health / 22

Community Resources / 23

Government and Law / 23

Transportation / 24

Summary / 25

References / 25

Chapter 3 Competency-based Adult

Education (CBAE)

27

CBAE Defined / 28

Functional Literacy / 28

Adult Functional Competence in the

United States / 30

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viii

Contents

Measurement in CBAE / 31 Philosophical Considerations for CBAE / 32 Adult Education Teaching-Learning Principles / 32 The Teacher/Facilitator Roles in CBAE /34 Conclusion / 36 References / 37

UNIT II TEACHING COMMUNICATION

Chapter 4 Teaching Basic Relationships

41

Oral Language / 42

Basic General Language Relationships /47

Specific Relationships / 50

Units / 51

Relations / 51

Classes /51

Systems /52

Summary /52

References / 53

Chapter 5 Teaching Written Communication

55

Reading Readiness / 56

Visual Line Discrimination / 56

Visual Letter Discrimination / 56

Visual Word Discrimination / 60

Reading Words / 61

Teaching Letters / 61

Types of Relation and Matter Words / 62

Most Frequently Used Words /64

Reading Simple Sentences / 65

Basic Sentence Structure / 65

Changing Meaning / 70

References / 71

Chapter 6 Teaching Basic Communication

73

Sentence Development / 74

Paragraphs / 76

Theme Organization / 77

Contents

Writing about Life Experiences I 77 Conclusion I 80 References I 80

Chapter 7 Teaching the GED Student

83

The General Education Development Test I 83

Vocabulary I 85

Reading Comprehension I 86

General Reading I 88

Practical Reading I 90

Prose Reading I 91

Poetry 191

Drama I 92

Using Practice Tests I 93

References I 94

UNIT III TEACHING COMPUTATION

Chapter 8 Principles of Teaching Mathematics

to Adults

97

The Language of Mathematics I 98

Mathematics Anxiety I 99

Curriculum Principles 1100

The Methods I 102

The Program I 102

Teaching Materials I 102

References I 104

Chapter 9 Teaching Introductory Mathematics

105

Oral Language Readiness Assessment I 106

Language Skills I 106

Teaching Numbers 0 to 9/107

Teaching Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication,

and Division I 109

Teaching Fractions /111

Conclusion I 114

References I 116

x

Contents

UNIT IV TEACHING SPECIAL POPULATIONS

Chapter 10 Education for the Older Adult

119

The Population / 120

Where Do Older Adults Live? / 121

Health /121

Public Assistance / 122

Employment / 122

Special Educational Needs of Older Adults / 123

Needs of early old agers: 55-75/ 125

Needs of later old agers: 75 + / 125

Learning Competencies for the Older Adult / 125

Facilities / 127

Time of Classes / 128

Summary / 128

References / 129

Chapter 11 Adult Basic Education and

Handicapped Adults

131

Who Are the Handicapped? / 131

Types of Handicaps / 132

Effects of Handicaps on Learning / 134

Why Should Adult Educators Be Concerned? / 134

The Handicapped Person / 136

How to Treat Handicapped Persons /137

Kelley Workshop: Adult Basic Education for

Handicapped Adults / 138

Adult Basic Education Teachers and Handicapped

Adults /139

Agencies Assisting Handicapped Persons

(Federal Agencies with Regional or State Offices

in Georgia) / 144

State of Georgia Agencies Providing Services to

Handicapped Persons / 144

Other Resources / 145

References / 146

Contents

xi

Chapter 12 Teaching English as a Second Language 147 Basic Principles of Teaching ESL / 148 The Student / 150 Basic Learning Technology / 151 The Cultural Dimension of Teaching ESL / 151 Cultural Characteristics / 152 ESL Class Composition /153 The ESL Teaching Process / 154 Teaching Materials for ESL / 155 Summary /157 References / 157

UNIT V THE TEACHING PROCESS

Chapter 13 Counseling the Adult Basic Education

Student

161

The Counseling Setting /162

The Uniqueness of Counseling Adults / 162

The Change Process /162

The Counselor as Learning Specialist / 163

The Counselor and the Learning Process /164

The Learning Environment /164

The Reasons Adults Return to the

Classroom / 164

Adults' Individual Learning Needs /164

Examining Adults' Attitudes / 165

Relationship between Counselor and

Students / 165

Qualifications for Counseling Adults / 166

Community Agencies /166

The Adult Counseling Process /168

Goals of Counseling Programs /168

Recruitment /168

Orientation / 169

Educational and Vocational Planning / 169

Approaches to the Special Problems of Counseling

Adults /170

xii

Contents

Adult Concerns / 172 Internal / 173 External / 173 Adult Education Counselors' Problems / 174
Summary /176 References / 176

Chapter 14 Teaching and Learning: Techniques 177 Traditional View of the Teacher / 177 Adult Education View of the Teacher / 178 Adult Basic Education Techniques / 179 Needs Assessment /181 The Group Process and Adult Basic Education Students /182 Group Process Techniques /183 Group Discussion / 183 Role Playing / 184 Brainstorming / 184 Uses for Group Process /185 References / 185

Chapter 15 Evaluation of the Teaching Process

187

Cautions about Evaluation and Testing / 188

The Adult Basic Education Evaluation Model /188

The Process of Student Evaluation /189

Program Evaluation / 198

Evaluation Uses / 201

Evaluation Instruments / 201

Student Evaluation of Teacher / 202

Conclusion / 202

References / 203

Contents

xiii

FIGURES

1 Teaching Communication and Computation through Lifecentered Roles / 19
2 Visual Line Discrimination / 57 3 Printing the Alphabet Using Straight, Curved, and Hooked
Lines / 59 4 Spectrum Ranging from Frozen to Boiling / 66 5 Spectrum of Life Stages / 68 6 Game for Teaching the Concepts of Positive and Negative
Numbers / 110 7 Stage 1: Profile of an Illiterate Adult before Entering an In-
structional Program / 190 8 Stage 2: Profile of an Illiterate Adult during the Transition
to an Instructional Program / 192 9 Stage 3: Profile of an Illiterate Adult Involved in a Meaning-
ful Instructional Experience / 194 10 Stage 4: Profile of an Adult Who Has Become Literate /196

TABLES
1 Adult Functional Competence in the United States /31 2 Teaching Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, and Divi-
sion as Systems / 112 3 Common Fractions /114 4 Decimal Fractions / 115 5 Percentages / 115 6 Converting Coins to Fractions / 116 7 Work-related Disabilities / 133 8 Learning Limitations Checklist / 140 9 Checklist of Areas of Discrimination or Barriers against
Handicapped Persons / 141 10 Services Provided Handicapped Persons by Federal Pro-
grams /142

I I I I
I I I I
I I I I
I I I I
I I I I
I I I I
I I I I
I I I I
I I I I
I I I I
I I I I
I

Foreword
During the decades of the '60s and '70s we experienced rapid social and technological changes which influenced every facet of public school education. Some may feel that many of the changes were not always constructive. However, since the middle 1960s the traditional mission of public schools in Georgia has been expanded to ins.lude adults who, for one reason or another, had inadequate schooling as youths to make it possible for them to be successful in competing in the job market or in their daily lives.
The State of Georgia, through the Department of Education, is committed to making available quality adult education programs to every citizen who wishes to improve his/her basic educational skills. To accomplish this goal, every effort has been made to provide high quality in-service education programs to the 931 teachers and administrators who work in this program. The development of an Enriched Curriculum for Public School Adult Education is just one of a number of ongoing programs designed to improve our educational services to adults. Adults Learn Again is an appropriate tide for this curriculum guide since our goal is to provide quality programs to the more than 50,000 adults who enroll each year in Georgia's public school

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Adults Learn Again

adult education program. To serve them better is the continuing goal of the teachers and administrators on the local level and the staff of the State Department of Education.
Charles McDaniel Superintendent of Schools State of Georgia December 1980

Preface
In years past, communication was so much simpler than it is today. Before the migration from rural areas to urban centers, parents assumed the duties of training their children individually, through trial and error, in the tasks needed for living. Today most training is left to the schools. Considering the enormous job of mass training the population, education has made great achievements.
Unfortunately, in the great stream of humanity being educated, some students have been, and are still being, .left behind. These men and women need help in gaining access to the mainstream of our culture, an undertaking which requires them. to change their behavioral characteristics and which asks those who teach them to develop special skills and learn new methods of teaching.
In aiming toward this behavioral change on the part of his students, the adult basic education teacher ,does not have to reshape the values or cultural mores of the learners but rather, capitalizing on these students' experiences, provide them with the means to perform in the mainstream.
To find out why individuals or groups of people have fallen behind in their educational developm~nt, the adult teacher must understand in what ways these people are different from the

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Adults Learn Again

groups who are successful learners, that is, what they have to offer which is the same and what they have to offer which is different.
Through inquiry and observation, the adult teacher can attempt to find the source of the differences in performance and the explanation of how the unsuccessful individual's actions, thought processes, or physical characteristics make progress hard for him to achieve. Then, through training, the teacher can strengthen the similarities, correct the counterproductive actions, and provide the individual with the means of becoming a contributing member of society.
It is often difficult for the individual who is having trouble keeping up with the group to understand that he is actually a unique, properly functioning human being with an intellect capable of processing vast amounts of knowledge. After all, how many times has a slow learner been told, not only in words but also in actions, that he is "stupid"?
The teacher's task is to encourage these students to see themselves as potentially successful learners. By identifYing and correcting the students' difficulties, the adult basic education teacher can start these learners on the road to progress and can direct them toward a future sharing of the life of the total society.
Toward these ends, this book was written.
Curtis Ulmer James A. Dinnan Athens, Georgia December 1980

UNIT I
THE PLAN

Chapter 1
Introduction
This book is written for the adult education teachers of Georgia who have given so generously of their time and talent to bring an adequate program of education to adults. Many of the innovations, suggestions, and procedures recommended in this book came from years of class visits, workshops, and discussions with teachers from over the state. The curriculum materials and teaching procedures will not be new to many of these teachers. The central purpose in writing this book is the integration oflearning theory, teaching practice, methods, and adult development into a curriculum which allows the teacher to use his* experience to individualize instruction for adults. A corollary purpose is to provide the new adult education teacher with a guide to effective teaching. A brief overview of the national adult education program is included to illustrate how Georgia's program complements the national one.
The figures vary, depending on the definition of literacy and the source quoted, but the fact is that some ten to twenty million United States citizens do not have the educational skills required to survive in today's society. For these persons the American
*Throughout this book, he, his, and him are used in the generic sense to include persons of both sexes.
3

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Adults Learn Again

Dream will remain largely unfulfilled because they find it difficult to achieve either socially or economically. The price the country pays includes the erosion of the national economy, a lowered general standard of living, and, perhaps more serious, the perpetual dependency of a significantly large segment of the population on the total society. Social observers believe that chaos may be imminent if the numbers of people who cannot cope in a technological society continue to increase.
In 1964, with the passage of the Economic Opportunity Act (EOA), the U.S. Congress placed responsibility for eradicating adult illiteracy on public education. Since that time, federal funds have been appropriated annually and channeled to local school districts through the state departments of education to fund programs of adult literacy.
The purpose of the Adult Education Act of 1966 is unique in two senses: It recognizes the social and economic consequences of illiteracy and, of greater significance, it dictates a curriculum for adults stressing individual competencies. The instructional plan and curriculum model that follow are a direct response to the requirements of the act and the educational philosophy stated in this book. The following portions of the act have been influential in shaping a new concept of education based on relevance, needs, and adult learning principles:
Section 302. It is the purpose of this title to expand educational opportunities for adults and to encourage the establishment of programs of adult education that will(1) enable all adults to acquire skills necessary to func-
tion in society, (2) enable adults who so desire to continue their edu-
cation to at least the level of secondary school, and (3) make available to adults the means to secure train-
ing that will enable them to become more employable, productive, and responsible citizens. The act continues by prescribing the framework or goals for the teaching curriculum by stating:

Introduction

5

The term "adult education" means adult education for adults who lack sufficient mastery of basic educational skills to enable them to function effectively in society or who do not have a certificate of graduation from a school providing secondary education and who have not achieved an equivalent level of education.
The term "adult basic education" means adult education for adults whose inability to speak, read, or write the English language constitutes a substantial impairment of their ability to get or retain employment commensurate with their real ability, which is designed to help eliminate such inability and raise the level of education of such individuals with a view of making them less likely to become dependent on others, to improving their ability to benefit from occupational training and otherwise increasing their opportunities for more productive and profitable employment, and making them better able to meet their adult responsibilities. The Adult Education Act mandates a fundamental change in the purpose of education. First, it requires adult education for "the here and now" rather than training for delayed returns according to the traditional educational model. Further, it specifies education in terms of adult performances and competencies. And, these standards of achievement-performances and competencies-are what this book is about!

The Philosophical Model
Three principles or concepts have provided theoretical and philosophical guidance in preparing the materials included in this book. While these principles are subject to individual interpretation and must be adapted to varying circumstances, as they should be, they provide a structure for the curriculum of adult

6

Adults Learn-Again

basic education* that hopefully avoids a prescribed application. They are:
1. the nature of the adult or life cycle education 2. the nature of the adult teaching process or methods 3. the nature of the adult learning process applied to basic
communication skills In terms of adult education practices, the teaching process is broad and general and allows the instructor considerable flexibility in adapting instruction to the needs and interests of a specific group. In this process, the teacher is viewed as a facilitator of instruction and the student is viewed as a partner. Achieving clarity and specificity in the use of language is the first phase of the adult learning process and must be mastered before the adult student adequately learns to read, write, or compute. Depending on factors of time in class, prior learning, and individual aptitude, this phase of learning may require a few days or a few months for completion. Once learned, the adult student will have the key for more efficient learning.

The Nature of the Adult or Life Cycle Education
Every stage in life is different, and it follows that responses to learning stimuli will differ during the life cycle. Responses which occur at one age may not only be inappropriate at another age, they may even interfere with or impede the learning process. For example, the infant learns to be secure while cradled in his mother's arms, but the seven-year-old would likely be very uncomfortable in the same circumstance. The sixteen-year-old may have some interest in a vocational program while the thirty-year-

*To avoid confusion, throughout this book the term, adult basic education, will be used to refer to all programs, grades K-12, sometimes called adult basic education, adult general education, GED programs, and other designations which refer to high school completion.

Introduction

7

old would be intensely interested in such training if he was unemployed.
Further, the teaching process should vary at different life stages. The fifteen-year-old would not feel free to openly question the authority of the teacher while the fifty-year-old may well know more than the teacher about many topics which are being used to demonstrate the application of learning.
Professor Malcolm Knowles (1970) developed the concept of andragogy and Professor Robert Havighurst (1972) that of developmental tasks in efforts to change the traditional teaching process from a child-centered, pedagological, authoritarian, lecture method of learning by memorizing to an adult-centered, democratic, life-centered, problem-solving approach to continuing education. Knowles stressed the parallel assumptions and processes of adulthood, while Havighurst developed the concept of developmental tasks based on the life cycle of the adult and the corresponding tasks of education. When combined and extended, these concepts form the basis for the scientific study of the nature of adulthood as a prerequisite for teaching adults.
In the past decade, the study of adult development has become a popular subject through the influence of books such as Passages (Sheehy 1976) as well as a scholarly field of inquiry. The basic assumption of adult development is that socially, psychologically, and emotionally the adult changes as he ages and these changes must be reflected in the teaching program. At one stage of deVelopment the adult may be aggressively pursuing education to improve his job performance while the same adult at another stage may study poetry to expand his self-concept. One adult wants to learn to read to assist his children with their homework while another wants to read the Bible.

The Nature of the Adult Teaching Process
An adult's nature changes from the "leaving home" stage of the early twenties, through the "catch-thirty" years, to the "middle-life reexamination" of the forties and fifties, to retire-

8

Adults Learn Again

ment in the sixties and later (Sheehy 1976). As the life focus of the adult changes, so must the focus of the teaching-learning process adapt to reflect the various needs of the adult learner. In a group of adults in which the learning task is centered on reading skills, there will be wide differences among the members in terms of age, occupation, need for learning, and ability to learn. These differences, as such, require that the adult teacher become a facilitator of learning. The term facilitator implies knowledge of the learning process, of the materials, of the subject matters, and, above all, of the adult students' goals, dreams, aspirations, and motivations.
As the adult teacher assumes the role of learning facilitator, he follows a sequential, although overlapping, series of steps in consultation with the adult students. The seven steps in a learning program are generally categorized as-

1. Climate
The instructional climate must be emotionally, psychologically, and physically supportive to the adult student. The classroom climate must be sufficiently psychologically supportive to calm a fearful adult learner and yet challenging enough to make him want to continue.

2. Planning
The planning must be mutually conducted and agreeable to both the teacher and the learner, with initial short-term goals set to meet the expressed needs of the learner.

3. Diagnosis of Needs
Diagnosis of needs must be a joint decision in accordance with the options, materials, and learning resources available to the student. If the student's experience leads him to such limited short-range objectives as the need to figure lumber or maintain

Introduction

9

a checking account, in all likelihood he will expand his goals as he learns to accomplish his original objectives.

4. Formulation of Objectives
Formulation of learning objectives must also be a mutual teacher-student effort with the direction coming from the experiences and perspective of the learner. In this instance, the critical elements for the facilitator are being able to view the problem from the perspective of the adult learner and then to build from that plateau. This sharing of the adult student's perspective allows the student to maintain control of his learning activities instead of working toward an abstract goal.

5. Program Design
The program design has two important elements. First, the subject matter should be sequenced in terms of the ability and readiness of the student to work with the materials, and, second, the materials should be understandable in relation to function. For example, arithmetic may be taught as shop mathematics for the mechanic and as grocery shopping for the housewife.

6. Implementation
Program implementation may be problem-oriented in a traditional classroom setting, in a learning center, or in a tutorial setting.

7. Evaluation
The purpose of evaluation is to aid the facilitator and the adult learner in assessing progress toward goals the student has set. Evaluation can also assist the teacher in determining when to change materials, move to the next level of instruction, or recommend program changes.

10

Adults Learn Again

The Nature of the Adult Learning Process Applied to Basic Communication Skills

Good theory is practical theory. While theories and principles about the learning process abound, educational theorists are still not sure exactly how a person learns. However, practicing adult educators have developed a series of learning principles based on the nature of adulthood. It is not the purpose here to espouse a particular adult learning theory. However, the focus of this chapter and indeed the entire book is to advocate that learning principles for teaching adults be extracted from the nature of the adult teaching and learning process. In the Handbook ofAdult Education, Jack R. Gibb (1960, pp. 54-64) has compiled an excellent set oflearning principles for teaching adults. (See Chapter 2 for excerpted list of these principles.)
The theoretical base for teaching communication and computation presented in this book comes from the works of Dinnan and Lodge (1976). They believe that learning to read depends on the individual's ability to manipulate and use the language in terms of basic relationships which are generally understood by most people. However, these researchers believe that for various reasons a significant number of adults and children have not developed this facility and, therefore, do not possess the skills necessary to learn to read, write, and compute. Dinnan has developed both a simple instrument to determine whether or not a person has developed the required language readiness skills and a series of learning experiences to correct the deficiency where it exists.
Basically, the Dinnan method teaches language skills based on the concepts of the relationships of time, space, amount, and quality, with a system for classifying new information. For example, Dinnan believes that many adults must learn how to classify the physical world through language and thought before they can learn to communicate effectively in the larger society.
The purpose, then, of this book is to develop a curriculum approach to teaching adult basic education based on the nature

Introduction

11

of the adult, of the adult teaching process, and of the learning process in communication.

Organization
This book is organized around five themes in adult basic education: curriculum, teaching reading and writing, teaching computation, special populations of adult basic education, and the teaching process in adult basic education.
UNIT I-THE PLAN CHAPTER 2 Developing Peifonnance-based Instructional Stratti!Jies-Discusses the concepts of adult learning and the Adult Performance Level teaching theories. CHAPTER 3 Competency-based Adult Education (CBAE)Develops a rationale for individualized instmction based on the life needs of the adult student. The concept of functional competency is developed along with teaching practices required to implement individualized instmction.
UNIT II-TEACHING COMMUNICATION CHAPTER 4 Teaching Basic Relationships-Introduces the curriculum approach to teaching communication and computation skills to adults through basic instmction in relationships in language. Discusses the use of relationships of time, space, amount, and quality; the PS Oral Reading test; and basic exercises for teaching beginning reading and writmg. CHAPTER 5 Teaching Written Communication-Presents materials and exercises suitable for adults who read at or below the fourth-grade level. CHAPTER 6 Teaching Basic Communication-Presents materials and exercises for adult students wha read at or above the fifth-grade level but below the eighth-grade level. CHAPTER 7 Teaching the GED Student-Addresses the

12

Adults Learn Again

needs of the independent reader who is working toward the high school diploma or for the GED certificate.

UNIT III-TEACHING COMPUTATION CHAPTER 8 Principles of Teaching Mathematics to AdultsDiscusses the concepts and skills that must be taught before instruction in mathematics begins. The relationships of time, space, amount, and quality are introduced for the specialized language of mathematics. CHAPTER 9 Teaching Introductory Mathematics-Introduces the language of mathematics and drills for teaching signs and amounts. Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, fractions, and negative numbers are discussed.

UNIT IV-TEACHING SPECIAL POPULATIONS CHAPTER 10 Education for the Older Adult-Discusses education for adults sixty-five years of age and above in terms of health, needs, programming requirements, and interests. Myths about this population are discussed in terms of their educational needs. CHAPTER 11 Adult Basic Education and the Handicapped Adult-Focuses on the educational needs of the handicapped, special facilities, and agencies which assist handicapped people. CHAPTER 12 Teaching English as a Second LanguageCovers the educational requirements of foreign-born adults in terms of their culture, prior educational background, and the ESL teaching process.

UNIT V-THE TEACHING PROCESS CHAPTER 13 Counseling the Adult Basic Education Student-Discusses counseling the adult basic education student in terms of the special needs of the adult student and the duties and responsibilities of the counselor who works with this population. CHAPTER 14 Teaching and Learning: Techniques-Examines the roles of the traditional teacher and the adult

Introduction

13

teacher to determine attitudes about teaching which lead to suggested techniques. Group process is discussed as it relates to an individualized instruction program. CHAPTER 15 Evaluation of the Teaching Process-Discusses evaluation in terms of the profile of illiterate adults, transition to instruction, involvement in an instructional program, and the profile of literate adults. The focus is on the evaluation of the adult student rather than evaluation of the teacher or the program.

References
Dinnan, James A., and Lodge, Robert A. Communication: A Meta Theory ofLanguage. Athens, Ga.: Jaddy Enterprises, 1976.
Gibb, Jack R. "Learning Theory in Adult Education." In Handbook of Adult Education in the United States, edited bv Malcolm S. Knowles. Washington, D.C.: Adult Education Ass'aciation of the U.S.A., 1960.
Havighurst, Robert J. Developmental Tasks and Education. 3d cd. New York: D. McKay Company, 1972.
Knowles, Malcolm S. The Modern Practice ofAdult Education: Andragogy vs. Pedagogy. Chicago: Association Press, 1970.
- - - . Self-Directed Learning: A Guide for Learners and Teachers. Chicago: Association Press, 1975.
- - . The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species. 2d cd. Houston: Gulf Publishing Company, 1978.
Sheehy, Gail. Passages: Predictable Crises in Adult Life. New York: Dutton, 1976.

Chapter 2
Developing Performancebased
Instructional Strategies
This chapter briefly reviews certain adult education concepts that influenced the development of adult performance levels as a component of the adult basic education curriculum. The term andragogy (adult-centered instruction) and the concept of adult development are two major components of the adult-centered curriculum and are discussed in some detail. The major emphasis, however, is directed to the performance skills an adult must possess if he is to perform adequately in his roles as a parent, citizen, worker, and productive person.
Andragogy
Andragogy, popularized through the writing and research of Malcolm S. Knowles (1970), is a theory based on the life development stages of adults whose experiences, responsibilities, and psychological orientation requite a special approach to education. These factors must be identified and taken into account in the teaching process for the adult to be willing to participate in educational activities. Teaching methods in adult education must of necessity differ from the ones used in elementary and secondary education although the desired results are often the
15

16

Adults Learn Again

same. The intellectual stimulation and instructional theo[\! of learning may be the same for children and adults, but each person learns in terms of his cognitive development, developmental stage, and social-psychological development.
Knowles (1970, pp. 39-49) has identified five areas describing adulthood which must be considered in teaching or developing programs for adults.

Self-concept The adult learner knows what he wants from education although he may not be able to express his needs in educational terms. Since he has functioned as a self-directed person in making life decisions, he wants the opportunity to participate in planning his education. To function effectively, he requires respect as a person and a supportive classroom environment.

Experience The adult has a lifetime of experience to draw on. One person in a class may be an expert in a certain area while other members of the group have different competencies. Sharing their life experiences creates a rich learning resource for class members. Thus, the mechanism for mutual planning is in place, and a skilled teacher can involve the class members in developing a learning program.

Readiness An adult returns to school for an imperative purpose. The need is now. Only through self-diagnosis will the developmental tasks of the adult surface.

Time Perspective The adult tends to think in terms of the time he has left. Therefore, he is more interested in immediacy of application than he is in learning for delayed returns. Since for him education is a part-time endeavor in a busy life, he wants his learning to be on target-his target.

Orientation to Learning Generally, the adult student is not interested in mathematics, physics, or chemistry as abstract sciences. He is problem-centered and wants to know how these subjects will help to solve life-centered problems. Further, the

Developing Peiformance-based Instructional Strategies

17

problem-centered application must be one he encounters in his life. Learning mathematics to be able to cut and sew the family's clothes and studying chemistry to understand the nutritional values of foods are much more interesting to the adult learner than learning these subjects as abstract sciences.
The importance of what the student does rather than what the teacher does is the basic tenet of andragogy. The teacher is seen as the person who facilitates learning. As a facilitator, the teacher's role is expanded rather than limited since he must know appropriate materials, adult learning principles, and the individual learner and his requirements for learning. The principles of andragogy logically lead to learning principles based on the requirements ofthe adult student-principles which have shaped and guided the practice of adult education for years.

Principles for Adult Learning
(Gibb 1960, pp. 54-64)
Learning must be problem-centered. Learning must be experience-centered. Experience must be meaningful to the learner. The learner must be free to look at the experience. The goals must be set and the search organized bv the learner. The learner must have feedback about progress toward goals.

Adult Education Curriculum Models
Robert J. Havighurst (1972) views education as an integral
part of life which represents an individual's way of meeting the ?emands and aspirations of the present period of his lite. In makmg education relevant to an individual's lite, Havighurst believes that in each phase of life there are developmental tasks centered on the role of an individual as a parent, worker, citizen, and con-

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Adults Learn Again

sumer and that all human beings face the same types of tasks. He defines a developmental task as one that arises at or about a certain period in the life of an individual which, if accomplished successfully, leads to happiness and to success with later tasks, but, if failure results, leads to personal unhappiness, societal disapproval, and difficulty with later tasks. He describes a teachable moment as a critical period in a person's life when he is most receptive to instruction and most capable of achieving developmental tasks. The adult's motivation for learning and readiness to learn peak at or about the time he faces a developmental task.
Havighurst's work provides a theoretical base for developing a curriculum for adult basic education. The Havighurst model emphasizes using the life roles of the adult as a parent, worker, citizen, and consumer in developing and teaching communication and computation skills. His work was influential in developing teaching materials such as YOu and the Law, Using Credit Wisely, Social Security, and How to Interview for Employment to replace the Dick-and-Jane-type series.
The concepts developed by Havighurst were important in developing the public school adult education movement since they utilized the principles of adult learning. Central to the Havighurst model is the concept of teaching the basic skills of communication and computation through a logical system of adult-centered roles rather than through memorizing an unrelated series of facts. In other words, the adult student learns valuable life skills at the same time he is learning to read and compute. Figure 1 illustrates this instructional plan.
Enriching the life of the adult student through improving his ability to deal with his environment is the key to the Havighurst concept. This model asserts that the teacher's role is to become a facilitator of learning and a specialist in the culture of the student and in the use of a variety of life-related materials as opposed to the teacher's conventional role as a purveyor of knowledge.
Many creative variations of this curriculum have been developed for adult education by individuals and school systems over the past fifteen years or so. Most systems have utilized the

Figure I
Teaching Communication and Computation through Life-centered Roles
LIFE ROLES

LIFE ROLES

Core Knowledge
of Communication
,and
Computation

Parent

L . Consumer
.I.~..

20

Adults Learn Again

concepts of andragogy and adult learning principles and have adapted them to meet local needs. These needs vary depending on the adult education clientele group: the customary local adult student, inmates in correctional institutions, ethnic and non- English speaking minorities, or persons whose beliefs depart from community norms. The traditional focus of teaching methodology and the techniques of teaching becomes secondary to the primary focus of relating instruction to the life roles of the adult student.

Adult Performance Level Curriculum
The concept of adult performance levels has become a model for a number of states in their adult basic education programs. The words concept and model are important since they convey the sense of applying adult education principles when duveloping programs for adults. This model is not a curriculum in the sense that a set of teacher behaviors is prescribed. It is a curriculum in the sense that desired student outcomes are described in specific terms. The term adult peiformance level (APL) is used throughout this book to refer to those competencies which an individual must possess to function effectively in today's society. Implicit in this definition is the requirement for communication and computation skills at a level that will allow the adult to be trained and retrained throughout his productive lifetime. Since the term funetionalliterac)1 has meaning only in a specific time and place in a specific culture, it will be used solely to describe the individual in a specific situation.
The APL curriculum and performance objectives were developed over a period of several years by researchers at the University of Texas (Northcutt et al. 1973). This study developed a taxonomy of adult needs in six general knowledge areas: occupational knowledge, consumer economics, health, community resources, government and law, and transportation.
The next step involved identif)ring the skills required to fulfill these needs. Four primary skills were identified by the re-

Developing Peiformance-based Instructional Strate~qies

21

search team: communication, computation, problem solving, and interpersonal relations. APL curriculum denotes a twodimensional structure in which the learner applies newly acquired skills to a problem area of his life. At the same time, the adult student is learning to make decisions based on personal investigation. At some point, the adult will become able to cope with modern life and reverse what might have been a hopeless downward spiral.
In sununary, the APL research team developed and validated a series of goals and objectives which define and describe adult functional competency, tested these objectives in a national assessment of performance of adults, and created a prototype of adult functional competency. The prototype varies in terms of time and place as well as in terms of the need of the individual adult student.
Using this research as a basis, curriculum developers and teachers can now develop teaching strategies using the national measurements of adequate adult performance in the six areas of adult need. Thus, the APL curriculum provides both the objectives for adult basic education and the criteria bv which to measure effectiveness. However, APL does not speci~' teaching method, nor attempt to order the objectives, nor, most important, address the question of teaching the skill areas. Obviously, a learner cannot master the objectives for functional competency without a basic knowledge of the skill areas.
The chapters of this book address strategies for teaching and learning the skill areas to implement the APL process for particular segments of the adult education population.

APL Goals and Objectives
(Northcutt et al. 1973)
Occupational Knowledge
GOAL: To be aware of the means by which mobility in an economic environment can be enhanced.

22

Adults Learn Again

OBJECTIVES: 1. To associate words and symbols encountered in all phases
of the area of occupational knowledge with their meanmgs. 2. To know the various sources that may lead to employment. 3. To choose employment according to recognized personal attributes, needs, and interests. 4. To establish criteria by which to evaluate job opportunities. 5. To prepare for job applications. 6. To know standards of behavior for various types of employment. 7. To know the financial and legal aspects of employment.

Consumer Economics
GOAL: To manage a family economy and demonstrate an awareness of sound purchasing practices. OBJECTIVES: 1. To associate words and symbols encountered in all phases
of consumer economics with their meanings. 2. To manage a household efficiently. 3. To shop with preparedness and economy. 4. To identify and locate information concerning the types
of insurance available. S. To plan money management.

Health
GOAL: To know the basic requirements for maintaining personal and family health and safety and the procedures for correcting health problems. OBJECTIVES: 1. To associate words and symbols encountered in all phases
of health with their meanings. 2. To meet personal and family health needs.

Developing Peiformance-based Instructional Strategies

23

3. To plan meals according to needs and resources. 4. To recognize and prevent common diseases. 5. To apply first aid in emergencies. 6. To know agencies that supply birth control information. 7. To avoid conditions which foster environmental hazards. 8. To react with aid and comfort to other individuals in
times of stress and change.

Community Resources
GOAL: To be aware of community resources and to be able to contact and make use of those resource organizations appropriate to needs. OBJECTIVES: 1. To associate the names of the various community agen-
cies which fall under a given category (suggested categories: health, finance, legal aid, housing, employment, public transportation, recreation, education, service clubs and organizations, consumer protection) with their services and functions. 2. To use the telephone directory and the telephone. 3. To identify and locate sources of information. 4. To locate and use the library facilities available in the community. 5. To write a letter requesting information from a community agency.

Government and Law
GOAL: To understand governmental functions, agencies, and regulations which define individual rights and obligations of a member of society. OBJECTIVES: 1. To associate words and symbols encountered in the area
of government and law with their meanings. 2. To register to vote and to know voting procedures. 3. To apply for licenses (marriage, animal ownership, busi-

24

Adults Learn Again

ness, driver's, vehicular, sporting) and to know the circumstances when they are needed. 4. To identify the government agency responsible for servicing individual and community needs. 5. To have an understanding of how government services are financed. 6. To understand the restrictions and protections afforded by laws normally encountered in daily lite.

Transportation
GOAL: To understand transportation systems and to discern and use the mode of transportation appropriate to needs. OBJECTIVES:
1. To associate signs and symbols employed in describing vehicular, pedestrian, and locational aspects of public transportation by using verbal and written forms.
2. To measure time by the use of time-indicating devices. 3. To locate points of departure or interest by giving and
executing oral directions. 4. To use transportation schedules by reading and locating
items for calculating distances, time, and fares. 5. To identify and locate sources of information for spe-
cific transportation needs. 6. To identify and contact data sources to verbally request
needed information. 7. To locate points of departure or interest by use of maps
and diagrams. 8. To travel between two places with exclusive reference to
maps. 9. To make verbal and written transport and overnight ac-
commodation reservations. 10. To select the most appropriate mode of transportation
determined by need and available resources.

Developing PerfOrmance-based Instructional Strategies

25

Summary

These goals and objectives represent the life needs of the adult student in the four skill areas: communication, computation, problem solving, and interpersonal rclations. These skill areas are the keys by which the goals and objectives of an individual may be realized. They equip a person to measure his worth in terms of his relation to society, to nature, and to himself. The purpose of the APL curriculum is to provide an efficient framework, with content specified by the individual adult, within which these goals and objectives can be efficiently realized.

References
Gibb, Jack R. "Learning Theory in Adult Education." In Handbook of Adult Education in the United States, edited by Malcolm S. Knowles. Washington, D.C.: Adult Education Association of the U.S.A., 1960.
Havighurst, Robert J. Developmental Tasks and Education. 3d ed. New York: D. McKay Company, 1972.
Knowles, Malcolm S. The Modem Practice ofAdult Education: Andragogy vs. Pedagogy. Chicago: Association Press, 1970.
Northcutt, Norvell W et al. The Adult PeifOrmance Level Study. Austin: Division of Extension, University of Texas, 1973.

Chapter 3
Competency-based
Adult Education
The philosophy of competency-based adult education (CBAE) rests on the concept that recognizes the importance of individualized instruction and the generally accepted emphasis on student behaviors in learning. CBAE has focused attention on this important concept in adult education because it concentrates on the pureose and outcome of education in terms of the learner. For this reason CBAE has become the official instruction model in adult basic education programs in Georgia and some thirtytwo other states across the country.
An important distinction ofCBAE is that it is not a curriculum. Rather it is an adult education process in which the emphasis is on the learner and his goals. This is not a new process. CBAE extends and defines the goals of instruction based on the concept of life roles developed by Havighurst and others. In his book, Developmental Tasks and Education, Havighurst (1972) cites the need for education to be concerned with the life roles of the individual. CBAE and the Havighurst model develop a concept for teaching communication, computation, and development of self in terms of performance in t.he "real world." In other words, adult instruction in basic skills is for the "here and now" as opposed to the traditional model of learning for delayed rtturns.

28

Adults Learn Again

CBAE Defined

The following definition of CBAE was developed by participants at the National Invitational Workshop on Adult Competency Education held in New Orleans, February 1978:
Competency-based adult education is a performancebased process leading to demonstrated mastery of basic and life skills necessarv for the individual to function proficiently in society The three key concepts in the definition are: (1) performance-based, (2) basic skills, and (3) life skills. Performance-based skills refer to the individual's ability to function adequately; basic skills refer to the necessarY academic skills of communication and computation, and life skills refer to those personal and attitudinal competencies required for optimum utilization of new learning. In this sense, CBAE is a process which requires that learning be specifically directed tmvards life's circumstances for the individual and that the role of the teacher become one of facilitator. Although the term CBAE is of relatively recent origin, the concepts are generally as old as the adult education movement. The unfolding process has been one of refining terminology in the light of experience. The development and refinement of learning principles willlikc1y continue. A unique feature of CBAE is the flexibility of the program in terms of the ability to respond to local needs, customs, and populations. This flexibility allows the program focus to be different for individual students in a class although all are learning to read and write more effectivelv.

Functional Literacy
Two broad educational and social trends appear to be responsible for the development of CBAE. One is individualized instruction and the other is the concept of functional literacy.

Competency-based Adult Education

29

Individualized instruction is a prominent focus of this book, and its major purpose is to assist the adult student in becoming occupationally, personally, and educationally sclf-sufficient-thus achieving functional literacy. functional literacy is the ability of a person to perform socially, economically, and personally in his culture and location at a reasonable level of effectiveness. It follows that the educational requirements to achieve functional literacy change as society grows more technical and complex.
A brief review of the evolution of the concept of functional literacy provides understanding of the term's meaning and, more important, a basis for educational planning for the decades
ahead. In some cultures, the ability to sign one's name is all that is
required to be labeled "literate." In the United States in the 1700s in a predominately farm economy, few persons bothered to go to school for more than four or five years since they could become successful farmers by learning from their parents and grandparents. This situation generally prevailed in the United States until the industrial revolution. Consequently, the early definition of literacy by educators and census personnel was attaining the four,th-grade education level.
The industrial revolution in the United States redefined the concept of literacy since greater educational, social, and basic communication skills were required for the people who moved from the farms to work in the factories. Sometime around the turn of the century an eighth-grade education became the standard for functional literacy. The achievement of an eighth-grade level of proficiency became the target for adult education, as defined in the Adult Education Act of 1966. However, educators and legislators have generally agreed that the completion of high school or its equivalent is a minimal level for functional literacy. !he age of technology or the atomic age that symbolically began In 1945 with the explosion of the atomic bomb required a new look at functionalliteracv.
Discovering precis~ly what this definition lacks must be addressed by teachers, curriculum planners, and administrators of adult education programs. The fact that the demands of the

30

Adults Learn Again

broad culture set the standard for functional literacy is clear. The way that these requirements must be met at the local level is not so clear. For example, functional literacy for workers in the health professions and in the new technologies is set at a post high school level, generally an associate degree from a junior college. FWlCtional literacy for farmers, construction workers, and service workers is set at the high school equivalency level.
In addition to defining functional literacy, the broad culture in the United States also requires an individualized approach to adult education. Following this logic, the broad culture defines the purpose of a basic education as the acquisition of communication and computation skills that permit a person to "learn how to learn." Since changes in society will presumably continue, probably at an accelerated rate, it follows that education will be a lifelong process. The only constants in this process are the basic skills of communication and computation. Acquiring these skills by the adult learner is imperative as a first step in becoming functionally literate. A second important consideration is that, since success in life depends on the individual's performing a wide variety of roles, the judicious blending of basic skills and performance is necessary to achieve functional literacy.

Adult Functional Competence in the United States
In a national study of the functional competence in the United States by the University of Texas (Northcutt et al. 1973), approximately 20 percent of the adults were found to be functioning with difficulty. Nine areas of competency were tested. Three levels of competency were established by the researchers: functions with difficulty, able to function, and most able to cope. The group that functions with difficulty is the target population for adult basic education.
Table 1 illustrates the extent of the problem in the United States (Northcutt et al. 1973).

Competency-based A dult Education

31

As shown in Table 1, the adult population that pcrt()rms basic lifc tasks with difficulty totals from approximately 19 million to 39 million pcrsons, a rangc indicating that a person who cannot pert()rm in one area is also likely to havc difficulh' in other life roles. Computation, problem solving, and consumer economics, the three largest groups, are clearl~' interrelated, and thus the need to teach computation in terms of its relevance to consumer economics and other lite skills becomes evident.

Measurement in CBAE
The ultimate success of CBAE depends in large part on the abilih' of adult educators to evaluate adult education programs in te;ms of student performances. While the ultimate e\'aluation will be according to student performances in life roles, interim pert(xmance-based measures must be de\Tloped and used to measure teacher and program effectiveness. The American College Testing Program has developed the Adult Pertormance Level Survey and Content Area Measures. Additional APL com-

Table 1
Adult Functional Competence in the United States

l'eifonnance Areas
Computation Consumer economics Problem solving Government and law Communit\' resources Reading , Health Occupational
knOWledge Writing

Percent orAdults Who Function with DIfficulty
32.9 29.4 28.0 25.8 22.6 21.7 21.3 19.1
16.4

Appm\'imatc Xllnlher or
PersOlH i11 u.s. l'opulatiOll
Who Function ll~th DIfficulty
39,000,000 34,700,000 32,800,000 30,100,000 26,400,000 25,400,000 24,900,000 22,300,000
18,900,000

32

Adults Learn Again

petcncies and assessments can be adapted by individual programs to measure student progress. There are also adequate conunercially produced evaluation instruments. In keeping with the objectives of CBAE, however, the best evaluations are ones prepared on the local program level. While classroom teachers cannot be expected to develop sophisticated evaluation measures, they are responsible for establishing a set of objectives with each of their students. This makes the student a partner in determining his progress towards the goals established. This is the practice of CBAE at its most effective level.

Philosophical Considerations for CBAE
The UNESCO-sponsored book, Learning to Be (Faure et al. 1972), redefines education in general terms as the process of helping the individual become all he is capable of becoming. CBAE, if defined in societal terms, would have the same definition since the emphasis is on the individual and the process stresses individualized learning, with the learner being an equal partner in the process. The emphasis is on democracy, equality, and opportunity and thus on a broadening of our educational system to include adults engaged in lifelong education.

Adult Education Teaching-Learning Principles
The learner in a CRAB program should be viewed with special attention to his lift circumstances. Human beings are born with a natural potential for learning. If CBAE students have learned a language, they have demonstrated their ability to learn. Their desire to learn ma\, have been frustrated in their earlier experiences with school. In fact, they may not view as very important many of the values and much of the knowledge that schools hold dear. A CBAE program will allow them to decide what is relevant learning in their lives.

competency-based Adult Education

33

The adult must perceive learning as having relevance for his life. When learning is viewed and practiced as an extension and condition of life, the adult student will learn faster. The learning will be concrete rather than abstract, and thus it is easier for the adult to use and practice in his own life.

Learning that involves a change in a personYs self-concept is threatening and tends to be resisted. The adult tends to wear his
social and personal identity as a badge. He joins clubs, churches, and adopts a jargon or special language to be identified with and at the same time to preserve his identity. Learning which threatens or contradicts this identity is painful and frightening and involves a change in the structure of self.

Learning that is threatening is easier to achieve when external threats are at a minimum. The adult learner who is not
functionally competent lives in a world of threats. Society has graded him and found him lacking. The first task for a CBAE program is to make him comfortable and free from the threat of grades, teacher judgments, and evaluation. With teacher assistance he must define his goals, set the search, and evaluate his progress. Goals and objectives can be expanded as new learning occurs and self-concept expands. Thus, learning is perceived as a natural part of life and not as a condition imposed by others. As the adult learner achieves success in one area, relationships to other areas develop and the beginning of the ability to conceptualize is born.

CBAE promotes andfacilitates the ability to learn through ~. When the adult student practices ~is new learning on the JOb, 10 the home, and in the marketplace, he has begun the pro~ of becoming independent through learning. The more prac~c he has, the more he can direct his own learning experiences In ~e classroom. Obviously, learning that is practiced is more readily retained.

34

Adults Learn Aqain

Independence) creatwtty) and selfreliance of the learner are all facilitated when the primary evaluation is by the learner and the secondary is by the teacher. An independent learner is the goal of CBAE. An atmosphere of freedom and mumal respect between smdent and teacher and among students is important in the education process. The adult smdent must have the freedom to decide which learning is important to him and the knowledge of how to proceed to\vard that learning.

CBAB facilitates the concept of lifelong learning as well as the process oflearning how to learn. The acquisition of the basic skills of communication and computation frees the person for a lifetime of learning if he has learned to love the process of learning.

The TeacherlFacilitator Roles in CBAE
The role of the teacher in CBAE departs from the role of the traditional teacher because of the differences in age, experience, self-concept, and occupation of the adults being taught. The instructional mode may vary from the classroom, learning laboratory, mtorial, or church, depending on the circumstances. Since CBAE requires individualized instruction, the teacher lecmres infrequently and then on topics of general interest as opposed to subject matter information.
A word of caution appears necessary. The adult who cannot read or write at all may require considerable support initially until he gains the self-confidence to proceed on his own. The most helpful arrangement would be for a volunteer to work with this smdent for a few months.
The teacher's role in competency-based adult education includes the following imperatives:
To create a climate in the class that is conducive to learning. The teacher must somehow develop a good relationship with the class and facilitate classmates' getting together in a social setting.

Competency-based Adult Education

35

To help elicit and clarify the purposes for the individuals in the class as well as the more general purposes for the group. The teacher can tolerate a varieh' of purposes and should not be afraid of conflicting aims. B~' giving indi,'idual adults a sense of freedom, he is also helping create a climate for learning.
To rely on the desire of each student to implement those purposes which have meaning for him as the motivating force behind significant learning.
To encourage independent CBAE shldents to organize their search for learning and assist dependent learners to become independent.
To become an expert on materials and learning resources, In addition to published materials, the teacher should use the community as a resource for instructional materials, Newspapers, Social Security materials, and job notices become the raw materials of learning resources in CBAE courses.
To become a resource to be utilized by the group. The teacher becomes a counselor, friend, and consultant to his class. In the best sense, he is a resource person skilled in the use of materials and in his ability to assist the shldent in coping with his learning projects,
To be able to accept those attihldes and beliefs of his Shldents that differ from his, The attihldes of shldents on values, family, sex, and religion often vary from those of the instructor. The teacher cannot afford to judge his shldents, but, on the other hand, he must not compromise his own values.
To be able to share his values, attihldes, and beliefs with his students on a peer basis. When the classroom climate produces muhlal acceptance, the teacher can share his beliefs with his class. In such sharing, he is not evaluating other beliefs.
To be aware of his own limitations. There is no one model f?r successful teaching. If the teacher accepts his limitatIOns, it is likely that the class will also accept them. The

-

36

Adults Learn Again

teacher should never enter into situations in which he is uncomfortable or cannot function effectively. For example, the teacher may be quite comfortable in creating a good working climate in the class but uncomfortable in dealing with individual class members' personal problems. In this instance, he should refer the student to a counselor or an agency for assistance.

Conclusion
CBAE is not a curriculum in any sense. It is a process of individualized instruction based on the needs of the adult student. The competencies each student wishes to learn come from his own life role supported by increased knowledge of basic communication and computation skills. The process assumes that every adult student wishes to learn and will learn, provided he is in a supportive learning setting and is learning relevant information that will enhance his own life.
CBAE makes certain assumptions about the teaching and learning process. Essentially, it is a democratic process that gives the learner the opportunity to be in charge of his education and challenges the teacher to be a learning facilitator. The teacher is required to give up his traditional role as a purveyor of knowledge and assume a role as a specialist in learning. As a learning specialist, he is as concerned with providing emotional support to the adult, setting a proper climate for learning, and becoming a specialist in materials as he is in dealing with the specifics of learning. His knowledge of the ways students learn and his understanding of the individual students' goals are co-equals with subject matter in the learning process.
It should be emphasized that this is not a new or different direction for adult education. It is a process that has evolved over many years, a strategy for teaching and learning that emphasizes the needs of the adult student. The process can and should be adapted from community to community, from rural to urban settings, and from group to group.

competency-based Adult Education

37

References

Faure, Edgar et al. Learning to Be: The World of Education 10day and 1Omorrow. Paris: UNESCO, 1972.
Fischer, Joan Keller. "Summary of a Review of Competency-based Adult Education." Prepared for the U.S. Office of Education, April 1978. Mimeographed.
Havighurst, Robert J. Developmental Tasks and Education. 3d cd. New
York: D. McKay Company, 1972.
Kasworm, Carol E., and Lyle, Buddy R., eds. Proceedings of a National Invitational Workshop on Competency-based Adult Education, Austin, 1Cxas, June 1978. Austin: University of Texas, National Institute of Education, Contract No. NIE 6-78-0235, n.d.
Kay, Patricia M., and Rosner, Benjamin. "Arc Teachers Really Prepared to Handle Competency-based Teacher Education?" Journal ofResearch and Development in Education 7(Fall 1973) :47.
Knox, Allan B. "Competence for Adult and Continuing Education Practitioners and Scholars." Champaign: University of Illinois, n.d. Mimeographed.
Northcutt, Norvell W et al. The Adult PeifOrmance Level Study. Austin: Division of Extension, University of Texas, 1973.
Rogers, Carl R. Freedom to Learn. Columbus, Ohio: Merrill, 1969.
Scrinivason, Lyra. Perspectives on Informal Learning: Functional Education for Individual, Community, and National Development. New Haven, Conn.: Van Dyck Printing Company, 1977.
Taylor, Paul G. "Selected Issues in Competency-based Adult Education: A Delphi Study." Paper prepared for the Office of Education, April 1978. Mimeographed.

UNIT II
TEACHING COMMUNICATION

Chapter 4
Teaching Basic
Relationships
Before the teaching-learning relationship in reading and writing can begin, the student must have a clear understanding of basic relationships in language. Fortunately, most people develop an understanding of basic relationships in language; however, a significant minority does not achieve this understanding and must have help before learning to read and write. This chapter provides a strategy for teaching basic relationships.
The learning act requires that a person receive a stimulus to his intellect, which then uses previously stored associations to contrast or match that stimulus. It is basic for every person to attempt to understand the order and structure of things around him. Each of us experiences the external world through the basic senses. We see, hear, taste, smell, or touch the world about us. Each sense sends a message to the intellect to be assimilated into our knowledge system. The intellect's filing system uses a basic set of relations by which the person understands everything from the most elementary fact to the most complex concept. These relationships can be grouped into four separate classes: time, space, amount, and quality. When a person shares his experiences, it is called "communication." Communication depends upon both parties using the same relationships. When general agreement on these oral, written, or motion symbols oc-
41

42

Adults Learn Again

curs, a language is formed. Any given societal group, as it collects more and more data about the world of its members, eventually records these observations, and a written language comes into being. Written language may take many forms, even as art, music, or numbers.

Oral Language
The basic form of communication is "oral language." One of the most important observations about a person who has fallen behind in educational achievement is the fact that he has learned a language. This seemingly obvious observation means that his intellectual process is working perfectly, for without such a properly functioning process he could not learn to communicate at all. He is receiving information, his intellect is working, his memory is functioning, and his speech is testimony that he has properly processed the information he has received. So why, then, is there an apparent lack of communication between this person and the rest of the general language group? The language used by the person having trouble serves him well in most of his daily communications. It gets him a drink of water, attention from others, and, in a limited way, all his immediate needs.
The answer lies in the fact that language operates at two different levels, personal and general. The personal level is directly connected to one's immediate environment. A "good meal" to you is one offering pleasant tastes, or a compatible combination of foods, or perhaps interesting company. But what is "good" to you might be distasteful to someone else. When you hear, "The boy went to the store;' your perception of the boy might be black or white, short or tall, young or old. The store might be a small grocery or a supermarket. Whatever your perception is, it is an association with your basic experience. Therefore, a "lot of money" to you is an amount relative to your needs and expectations. The personal level of language serves you as well as it serves the person having trouble.
The general level of oral communication requires much more agreement in terms of the relationships. These agreements

Teaching Basic Relationships

43

must use common denominators in order to have both the sender and receiver operating as a unit. This does not mean that the personal aspect of language is disregarded but that the general level of common associations is entered. Basically, the process by which the human intellect deals with its world is through contrasts. One cannot know anything in isolation; one must understand everything relative to something else. You cannot know "hot" unless you can judge it by some other concept, such as "cold," ''Warm:' "cool," or any other temperature relationship which can be used in order to know "hot." In general communication, the most basic contrast is expected to be used by both parties. The personal association takes second place. Herein lies one of the root problems of the person who is failing in general communication: the use of personal instead of the expected general patterns.
Deviant patterns of association in general language between two individuals will cause a complete breakdown because the common denominator, or basic agreement of the contrast association, is not present; and thus no communication of common meanings can take place.
The key to,building any lasting structure is a good foundation. Each individual must master the basic skills in oral language performance before attempting any other training. Thus, the common associations presented in this chapter are only a portion of the necessary sets the individual must use in general communication. The teacher is expected to go beyond those presented here into as many interest areas as possible. The major importance of the sets provided in this text has been established through research and experience as the core of necessary language thought patterns and should be specifically taught.
The first step should be a quick assessment of the individual's performance in word association. This three-minute test gives an indication of a student's performance.

Directions 1. The test items are to be read to the individual in private and the responses recorded in the spaces provided.

44

Adults Learn Again

2. Give no more than five seconds for an answer. If no response is given within that time, draw a line in the response area. (Do not go back to any word.)
3. The only directions are these: "Give the first word you think of when I say this word." Do not give any examples or make any comments about the responses. Answer all questions with, "Just give me the first word you think of."
4. Score the test according to the "type" of examples given in this text.

Oral PIS Language Inventory

Directions: "Give the first word you think of when I say this word."

1. m 2. you 3. go 4. smile 5. old 6. all 7. few 8. work 9. high 10. day 11. city 12. first 13. open 14. large 15. white

16. pay 17. front 18. short 19. poor 20. top 21. before 22. mornmg 23. easy 24. hot 25. on 26. over 27. only 28. was 29. happy 30. down

Student's name Years of schooling

Date Age

Teaching Basic Relationships

45

This test is very simple and should not threaten most students because it requires only oral responses. The test items are taken from the most often used words in the English language. The expected response is a contrast to the words given. The results indicate the level of performance the individual uses with regard to the general language performance expectations. Thus, if a student uses 50 percent "personal associations;' he will remain outside the general communication of expected associations half of the time. This, of course, would destrov anv communication behavior. The extent of the training in oral language sets will depend upon the individual's performance. All students should be informed, after testing is over, of the proper ways they should be using these basic sets in their thought patterns. To give the students support and reinforcement at this point, it is advisable to reemphasize that they have a perfectly working intellect, based upon the fact that they have learned a language.
The following key gives examples of possible contrast and noncontrast (or personal) responses to the words in the test. The use of contrast responses by the student is considered correct for general language use. Any personal response is considered incorrect and indicates difficulty in general language communication.

Word Responses

Word

Contrast Responses

1. in 2. you 3. go 4. smile 5. old 6. all 7. few

out, on, over us, we, them, me stop, stay, corne frown, laugh, cry new, young, average none, some, few many, none, all

Noncontrast (or Personal) Responses
bed, jail, side gone, happy, here horne, to the store, up me, today, a while man, shoe, me gone, the candy, tall money, laughs, things
(continued)

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Adults Learn Again

Word

Contrast Responses

8. work play, unemployed, sleep

9. high low, middle, (hi - bye)

10. day

night, week, year

11. city

country, suburban, state

12. first

last, middle, end

13. open closed, shut, ajar

14. large small, tiny, average

15. white black, yellow, red

16. pay

give, take, steal

17. front back, side, middle

18. short long, average, regular

19. poor rich, wealthy, affiuent

20. top

bottom, side, middle

21. before after, at, ante

22. morning evening, night, day

23. easy hard, average, soft

24. hot

cold, warm, frozen

25. on

off, in, under

26. over under, in, below

27. only every, all, some

28. was

is, will, wasn't

29. happy sad, moody, ecstatic

30. down up, over, middle

Noncontrast (or Personal) Responses
none, for money, tonight drugs, sky, building Tuesday, December 25th, pay Atlanta, noise, traffic in line, day, book door, mouth, the can dog, car, building people, line, bread day, me, none door, of the line, teeth man, bread, you me, us, thing box, spin, dog noon, the class, him light, sun, sleepy money, time, chair sun, me, toast the bed, the stove, the money the moon, and easy, paid me, I came, one here, gone, in girl, dog, times and under, me, town

In correcting the test, note the total number of responses that match the sample general communication associations. In order for students to be using the expected associations, they should have a score of 26-30 correct general association sets. The lower the score, the more difficulty a student will have in understanding communication. A score of 15 or under could

Teaching BlUic Relatwnships

47

mean a total breakdown in a student's performance, especially in an educational setting where precise directions are given and performance can be achieved only if both the teacher and the student use a common language association base.

Basic General Language Relationships
Considering all the sections dealing with training a person to communicate with the general population, teaching basic generallanguage relationships is the most critical and often the most misunderstood. When a student can perform upon command to put an object in a container, this act demonstrates that he "knows" what in means. For example, "John, put the pen in the cup." He does it correctly. "John, take the pen out of the cup." He does it correctly.
But you cannot draw the conclusion from these actions that he uses in-out as a thought set. You do not have to teach him "in" or "out"; he knows and can demonstrate that he knows these words. Your task is to pair them up as a set so that when "in" is used as a point of general communication, "out" is the automatic contrast response associated with the stimulus. Therefore, the training has as its goals the pairing of basic contrast sets, basic associations used in general language communication, and a common core of expected relationships.
The following contrast sets have been selected because of the large amount of repetition found in our language. These sets should be taught and demonstrated often enough so that they become automatic thought patterns. These references are used to locate a relationship in time, space, amount, and quality. Without the use of these automatic thought responses, all succeeding training will ultimately break down. This training is paramount to success. It takes variable amounts of time for individuals to use these relationships correctly, but five to ten hours of planned instruction and home training seem to be sufficient for adults.
The first step is to explain the total concept of why contrast thought patterns should be used. Next review some of the

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"wrong" responses and explain that several lessons will be devoted to using the most common associations found in general language patterns.

Contrast Sets Used to Teach Reading

Time Relations
Is-was was-will were-arc had-have
did~o
Space Relations
top-bottom over-under above-below high-low
u~own
before-atter start-finish
~egin-cnd
first-last front-back
in-out

lett-right apart-together open-closed
to-from ncar-far on-off side-middle
Amount Relations one-two none-all
whole-part zero-cverything
Quality Relations few-manY big-little long-short large-small
straight-curved

Here is a list of the most commonly used words in the English language. These words arc rank ordered as to their frequency of usc and comprise over half of all the words ever used in communication. (Contrast Word in Parentheses)

1. the (them)
2. and (but) 3. a (two)

29. ask (tell)
30. all (none) 31. this (those)

57. who (where)
58. them (it) 59. could (will)

85. two (a)
86. did (do) 87. some (none)

Teaching Basic Relationships

49

4. to (from) 32. from (to) 60. do (did) 88. these (it)

5. of (to)

33. one (zero) 61. up (down) 89. than (neYer)

6. in (out)

34. or (and) 62. then (now) 90. after (before)

7. I (we)

35. are (were) 63. time (space) 91. down (up)

8. that (those) 36. were (are) 64. more (less) 92. see (saw)

9. was (is)

37. which

65. other

93. first (last)

(why)

(those)

10. it (them) 38. him (we) 66. [into]*

94. good (bad)

11. he (they) 39. my (our) 67. has (had) 95. yery (neYer)

12. for (against) 40. we (I)

68. man

96. know

(woman)

(unknown)

13. is (was)

41. me (them) 69. its (theirs) 97. may (is)

14. with

42. will (was) 70. like (were) 98. come (go)

(without)

15. had (have) 43. an (two) 71. get (giYe) 99. made (make)

16. his (our) 44. there (out) 72. now (then) 100. thing

(relation)

17. as (was) 45. would (can) 73. make

101. long (short)

(made)

18. on (off) 46. their (her) 74. our (mine) 102. well (sick)

19. you (they) 47. when

75. little (big) 103. how (why)

(where)

20. at (by)

48. so (did)

76. [don't]* 104. before

(after)

21. haye (had) 49. said (say) 77. can (might) 105. [I'm]*

22. not (yes) 50. if (because) 78. year (day) 106. old

(young)

23. but (arid) 51. no (yes) 79. only (all) 107. back (front)

24. her (their) 52. go (stop) 80. any (eYery) 108. much

(little)

25. by (after) 53. about

81. oyer (under) 109. going

(before)

(went)

26. she (them) 54. been (be) 82. just (more) 110. many (few)

27. be (was) 55. what (why) 83. your.(our)

28. they (you) 56. out (in)

84. look

(looked)

*Two words cannot be contrasted.

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Adults Learn Again

Teaching Contrast Relations

Units

apple strawberry pear

grapes banana orange

Relations

whole-piece big-small on-off
top-bottom one-two

Classes
Fruit that grows on trees
apple pear banana orange cherry

System

Fruit

watermelon cantaloupe cherry
Fruit thatgrows on vines grape
strawberry watermelon cantaloupe

Specific Relationships

In order to develop a lesson to teach specific relationships, the following outline is suggested:

Units Relations Classes Systems

(the individual items) (time, space, amount, or quality) (separating individual items into groups) (subject area being used)

This outline will be used throughout the entire instruction.

Teaching Basic Relationships

51

It enables the student to follow a familiar pattern and accomplish the goal of an education, that is, that the student be able to demonstrate that he knows the subject matter under consideration by classifying the data.
When preparing the outline, the teacher should start at the bottom and work up to the top. (When teaching the outline, he should start at the top and work to the bottom.) Thus, in developing an outline, choose something to work with that is part of the adult's experience. A system might be something to eat, such as fruit.

Units
The first section to develop is the units. Bring in real fruit, plastic pieces, or pictures, but each item should be separate so that when the student classifies the fruit he can put like pieces together. After each step has been completed, review the entire outline.

Relations
Items must be presented so that they can be put into the proper groups and the chosen contrast relations can be developed. Thus, using two apples, cut one into pieces and leave the other whole (whole-piece). Show a big orange and a small orange (big-small). Put some grapes on a plate, take some off a plate (on-off). Have someone point to the top of a strawberry and then point to its bottom (top-bottom). Point to one cherry, point to two cherries (one-two).
Classes
Fruit grows both on trees and on vines. For purposes of classification, separate into tree-grown and vine-grown the following fruit: apples, strawberries, pears, grapes, bananas, cherries, watermelons, canteloupes, and oranges.

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Adults Learn Again

Systems
The lesson is to decide how to separate fruit into groups. Any of several different ways to separate fruit can be used-by size, color, or the areas, seasons, or even the manner of growth. No more than nine items in any given area should be used because this exercise also prepares the student for basic references in mathematics using numbers zero to nine. There are many variations for classification, and in the illustration a system with easily observable differences is used.

Summary
The entire procedure is designed to provide the student with automatic contrast responses and thought patterns that match general communication expectations. These contrast relation~ are used in teaching reading, writing, and mathematics. They are the fundamental core of the language; without these associations a person will remain at the personal level of communication and probably outside of formal instruction. The use of a teaching structure, units-relations-classes-system, enables the individual to process any type of data and to experience success at each level. All future material will follow the same format. One method of testing whether or not these relationships are automatic is to give the individual or group oral stimulus words and require instantaneous responses. This level is not useful for an extended period. Since people communicate in sentences, programs should be designed to move successively from words to complete sentences in the most efficient and quickest way possible.

Teaching Basic Relationships

53

References

Dinnan, James A. "Categorization of Paradigmatic-Syntagmatic Oral Responses." Journal ofReading Behavior 5:207-11.
- - - , and Lodge, Robert A. Communication: A Meta Theory ofLanguage. Athens, Ga.: Jaddy Enterprises, 1976.

Chapter 5
Teaching Written Communication
In this chapter the steps used in preparing the student to communicate through writing are based on using the contrast relations developed during the oral language stage. The three sections are as follows: Reading Readiness
Visual Line Discrimination Visual Letter Discrimination Visual Word Discrimination Reading Words Teaching Letters Types of Relation and Matter Words Most Frequently Used Words Reading Simple Sentences Basic Sentence Structure Changing Meaning Each section is presented with teaching suggestions. The time needed for instruction will vary from class to class and student to student. The teacher is encouraged to use any additional material available and adapt it to fit the desired competencies.
SS

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Adults Learn Again

Reading Readiness

Visual Line Discrimination
Visual discrimination of lines is taught to help the student differentiate among various types of lines which make up the printed English language. The eleven basic lines that can be used to print the alphabet are classified into three categories: straight, curved, and hooked.

Teaching Suggestions
Using 5" x 8" unlined cards, draw the eleven lines with a mttqic marker. Place the individual cards on the chalk tray, making sure you mix the different ~YjJes oflines. Explain to the students that these are the lines that will be used to print the words and sentences that they will soon be reading. Point to the fOur straight lines, emphasizing that, although the lines are at different angles, they are all straight. Observe that the curved lines are a circle and two half-circles. Note that one is open on the front (left) and the other is open on the back (right). Compare the open curved lines to the closed curved lines. For the four hooked lines, point to the top and bottom hooks, and note the direction ofthe hook, front or back (left or right) .
Call on students to choose two different ~YjJes oflines and tell the class whether the.y are straight, curved, or hooked. Note all the different sets of relations which can be made with these lines: long-short, top-bottom, front-back, open-closed, straight-curved.
The final step is to have the students classify. Ask them to separate the cards into three piles according to the lines.

Visual Letter Discrimination
Letters are made up of lines. Alphabet readiness is to teach the student to discriminate the letters of the alphabet by noting the different height of the letters. Students are not taught the names of the letters at this time.
On a music scale holder, place blue chalk at each end, green

Teaching Written Communication

57

Figure 2
Visual Line Discrimination
r Units
) '" 'I ( l,; / 0 I-J

Relations
I long ' I top
J front

short
J bottom l,; back

( opcn

0 closcd

I straight

) curvcd

-,"'/ Classes straight

CO) curvcd

hookcd 'IrJl,;

System lines

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Adults Learn Again

chalk next, and red chalk in the middle. Make a set of lines on the board, and identify the top blue line and the bottom blue line, then the top green line and the bottom green line. The middle line will be red. Print the alphabet on the board using the straight, curved, and hooked lines. The alphabet can be classified into categories, high, middle, low, according to the relationship to the lines, that is, high, middle, and low letters are discriminated by which color lines they touch. All high letters touch the top blue line, all low letters touch the bottom blue line, and all middle letters are between the two green lines. The red line is used for the center of the letters.

Units

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz

Relations
open open at the top one curve high

Letter c u n h

Letter

closed

0

open at the bottom n

two curves

m

low

y

Classes

High Letters bdfhklt

Middle Letters
acelmnor suvwxz

Low Letters
gJ P q y

System

Alphabet

Teaching Suggestions
On 5" X 8" unlined cards print each letter of the alphabet) using the same color lines as on the blackboard.
Many students may know the names of various letters) but you
should emphasize each letters formation by saying) (ens) that is a 'lJ/

Figure 3
Printing the Alphabet Using Straight, Curved, and Hooked Lines

Blue

I i1"
Green lfz"

3"

! Red --
Green If2"

11"
BIue
BIue

Middle Letter

High Letter

I i1"
Green 1/2"

3"

Red

Green! Yi'

Ii"

BIue

High Low

Low

Letter Letter Letter

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Adults Learn Again

but is it a high, middle, or low letter?)) Ask each student to identify at least two diffirent ~vpes ofletters. Ultimately have the students classify all twen~v-six letters into three piles of htqh, middle, and low letters. Use as many different internal relations (open-closed, etc) as possible
during the training period.

Visual Word Discrimination

Visual word discrimination is used to establish that words can be made up of a few letters or many letters. The students do not have to read the words; only classifYing long and short words is necessary. The following outline can be used for teaching visual word discrimination patterns.

Units

it because brother

on
10
justice

particular up beautiful

Relations
Words with straight letters
Word with high letters
First letter
Word with open letters

it

Word with

pa~icular curved letters

Word with beautiful low letter

brother Last letter

Word with because closed letter

justice
up brother
on

Classes

Long Words because brother justice particular beautiful

Short Words it on
10
up

Teaching Written Communication

61

System

Words

Teaching Suggestions
Use different words on the board but print them carefulZv, using the proper letter ftrmation. Establish that any one-~vllable word is classified as a short word and an.v multi-~vllabic word as a long word. Keep the words as long or short as possible to establish the concept. Place the words on individual cards and have the students make two piles, one oflong words, one ofshort ones.
Reading Words
Teaching Letters
The use of time, space, amount, and quality can apply to all aspects of teaching communication. Individual letters of the alphabet can be,printed by using three lines: straight, curved, and hooked. The adult student must learn to discriminate and recognize letters in relation to the position of the three lines. For example, a middle hooked line with a curved line on the front is an "a," a high straight line with a curved line in back is "b." "I" is a high letter, "p" is a low letter. The use of high, low, and middle and of front and back, together with practice in drawing the three lines in various combinations, should enable the students to print the alphabet in a short time.
A word of caution is in order at this time. Since 99 percent of the writing the adult students will see will be printed, they should not be exposed to cursive writing. The idea in learning to print the alphabet is to spend the least amount of time possible on this phase of reading and writing.
The letters of the alphabet should be presented in contrast pairs. Choose the largest possible number of discrimination patterns when making up the pairs. Make five-line paper for the

62

Adults Learn Again

student to print on by getting three different color ditto sheetsred, green, blue (or purple). First, make the blue lines, then slip the green carbon under the front sheet and draw the green line. Finally, put the red carbon under and draw the red line. Thus, you will have five-line, three-color paper to match the form printed on the board.
Demonstrate the correct contrasts in each pair, and explain the various lines used to make the letters. The students should use the correct form of the letters. This will help them discriminate words much faster when they start to read.
A suggested sequence might be as follows:
ab 1) gr wf cd kl st xv ef mn ub zp gh op vh
Note the position of the mouth when forming the letters, also give several oral examples of words beginning with the letters under consideration. Since there are twenty-eight different sounds to the letter a, and twenty-two sounds to the letter 0, do not separate long and short vowel sounds at this time. Rather, try to be consistent in using words with like sounds.
Even though most students have some knowledge of the letters, both in oral and written form, their awareness of the important features of the printed symbol is sharpened by this exerCIse.

Types of Relation and Matter Words
The two major types ofwords are matter and relation. Matter words refer to anything that has weight and volume. A simple explanation terms anything that can be heard, felt, tasted, touched, or seen a matter word. Matter words can be classified into two categories: human and nonhuman. They can be broken down into other classes, of course, but for this exercise two categories are sufficient.

Teaching Written Communication

63

Matter Word\-

Human I-we man-woman boy-girl teacher-pupil

Nonhuman pencil-pen chalk-eraser table-chair door-window

Relation Word\-
A relationship word locates one piece of matter with another. Thus, "John is in the old barn" reveals the relationship of John to barn.
time-is space-l11 amount-the quality-old

Learning to identity the four types of relationship words is the ultimate classification exercise for this chapter.

Time Is-was have-had arc-were now-then do-did was-will
Amount
one-two none-all whole-part few-manv

Space top-bottom over-under
in-Dut up-down open-closed
on-Dfl'
Quality old-new big-little long-short large-small

Teaching Suggestions Discuss clearly the difference between a matter JVord and a re-
lation JVord. Ask ifyou could put a pound of candy or a glass in your

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Adults Learn Again

hand and then ask fOr a pound ofCCinJJ or a pound ofccup.JJ ReinfOrce the concept that matter has weight and volume.
Present the relation words on 3" x 5" cards, one word on each halfofthe card.
IN-OUT

Give each student ten cards. Mi.'JC up the words so that some are in each ofthe categories. You could also print the words in pairs on the boardfOr the students to copy. Explain what the words mean; demonstrate everything possible. For example, when you explain the set tofrom, you should walk to the door and then from the door. Ifyou are differentiating on-off, put something on the table then take it off the table. Demonstrate is-was-will be by showing something is here; remove it, it was here; then explain that will be means it is coming. Language helps us observe the world around us. If we cannot experience it through our senses, then both teacher and learner will remain confused.
After the students have learned twenty sets of words (forty words), take scissors, cut the words apart, and mix them up. Ask the students to match them together correctly again. Then give them two moregroups ofwords and repeat again.
Enlar;ging the word bank can continue as long as the students wish to improve their vocabularies. Remember, only use contrast sets, nevergive single words.

Most Frequently Used Words
The list of contrast words in Chapter 4 includes over half of the words a person will ever speak, hear, read, or write in the English language. Each pair of words should become a part of the student's thinking patterns and should be perceived on sight. Thus, with these words mastered, the student knows half of everything he will read.
One way to expand vocabulary is to provide the students a framework in which to place these words. This framework is called a spectrum.

Teaching Written Communication

65

Some spectrums range from minus to zero to plus and thus contrasts on both sides of the zero, such as frozen-cool or burning-warm as well as hot-cold, can be developed. Other spectrums start at zero and progress towards an end.
Regardless of the method the teacher uses to expand the students' vocabulary, words must always be given in pairs since one item cannot be understood bv itself. The student should be encouraged to get his own dictionary or, better still, a thesaurus. The basic rules of retrieving, alphabetical sequence, guide vv'Ords, multiple meanings, etc., can be taught when the teacher judges that the students are ready. A notebook for recording spectrums should be part of the students' home responsibility. Specific assignments might be given to the group as a whole, for example, "What words do we use to express our feelings towards or away
from other people?" Suggest pairs such as like-dislike, love-hate.

Reading Simple Sentences
Basic Sentence Structure
All preparation for the development of language awareness culminates in the most basic form of communication, the sentence. It is the point at which all training equalizes, and the relationship of the world around us becomes a shared experience with other human beings. The written form should be presented with the greatest possible simplicity of structure.
All sentences have as their major purpose the communication of two pieces of matter, using time, space, amount, and quality as the indicators of the specific relationships. Thus, the most frequently used words are constantly repeated to indicate relationships among a multitude of matter references.

Figure 4
Spectrum Ranging from Frozen to Boiling

frozen

freezing

cold

l1'D1

hot

searing

bolling~

S

Figure 5

pectrum of Ll'1i:e Stages

<4llIr :inf:an~t

~~=~ youth

middle-age

. \'
elderly

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Adults Learn Again

Teaching Suggestions

Write several word pairs on the board. Examples could be:

father
man baby
gas

garage house crib tank

Point out that each word is used to name a given piece ofmatter and that each has weight and volume. Now, add a relation word.

Father was in the garage. The man is in the old house. The baby will be in the crib. The gas is in the tank.

Discuss the individual words, their categories (time, space, amount, and quality), and the relationships of the complete simple sentence as a source ofknowledge about the world. Do this exercise fOr at least twenty-jive diffirent simple sentences. Have the students use familiar items and give them the assignment to develop several sentences with items found in their home environment. Make sure they use two pieces ofmatter in each sentence. Give them a sentence or two without both pieces of matter, and discuss the problems of using sentences with only one matter reference. For example:
He isgone. -Gone where? To bed, dead, from the country? The truck is in. -1n what? The water, the garage, the city? Stress that clarity in communication depends on relating two pieces of matter in a sentence.

Changing Meaning
Matter references in a sentence can be used in a variety of relationships. By changing each specific relationship, a new meaning is communicated; thus, through contrast, an awareness of the power of the most frequently used words can be developed. Designing the specific relationship to be changed, such as

Teaching Written Communication

71

time or space, can act as a check to find out if these categories are understood bv the students.
father was in the garage. Change time-Father is in the garage. Change time-Father will be in the garage. Change space-Father was near the garage. Change space-Father was far from the garage.
Each sentence can be manipulated at least five different ways. The student develops an awareness of the various meanings, plus a repeated exposure to new vocabulary.

Teaching Suggestions
Write fOur simple sentences on a sheet of paper, leaving space below each sentence fOr at least five changes. Change matter references, father (mother), house (church, or any building), as well as relation reftrences, in (out), is (was). After making the changes in these four sentences, ask the students to dictate a sentence fOr you to print on the board and then have them change specific relationships at your direction. . Continue thts ~vpe ofexercise fOr about thi~v different sentences. Each time, stress how a single relationship changes the entire meaning ofthe communication.

References
Cartelli, L. M. "An Experimental Study in Oral Language Readiness in Paradigmatic Language Behavior in Two Primary Classes of Learning Disabled Children." Ph.D. dissertation, University of Georgia, 1976.

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Dinnan, James A. "A Comparison of Thorndike/Lodge and Carroll Prime Frequcncy Word Lists." Reading Improvement 12 (1975): 44-46.
McNinch, G.; Richmond, M.; and Hornsby, J. "Syntagmatic-Paradig-
matic Shifting in Word Associations across Grade Levels." Southern Journal ofEducational Research 4 (1970): 193-206.

Chapter 6
Teaching Basic Communication
As the basic form of communication, the sentence relates two or more matter words by indicating specific types of relationships between and among them. The four types of relationships among the matter words are time, space, amount, and often quality. Thus, any basic form of communication must provide a minimum of two matter words in order to avoid confusion in the exchange of ideas.
The man is at the new bank. man, bank - matter relation
is - time relation at - space relation the - amount relation new - quality relation
The basic reason for communication is fc)r a person to perceive the relationship of the world around him. If the student is to understand the fundamental use of language, more specifically the sentence, and know how the parts make up the whole, then he will need a series of vocabulary development exercises.
73

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Adults Learn Again

This chapter includes sentence development, paragraphs, theme, organization, and writing about life experiences.

Sentence Development
In teaching the basics of sentence structure, the teacher can exchange various parts of the sentence and demonstrate to the students how the entire meaning is changed when this is done. Before proceeding, the teacher should make sure that concepts of the relational aspects of time, space, amount, and quality are understood in a general manner.
The sentence should be introduced in its basic form before progression to a more complex set of relationships is attempted. Since at this point the student should have mastered most of the prime frequency words, expanding his vocabulary in reference to matter words is now very important. Remember to continue to use a contrast to every word presented.
For example:
cat-dog father-mother bank-school pipe-matches door-window
Thus, when a sentence is dictated bv a student, the teacher should ask for a contrast and put the second sentence on the board. Make sure the students copy both sentences in their notebooks.
The woman was making a salad.
The woman was making a cake.
Any contrast word to salad would be acceptable; any word the student uses which is a contrast to the word given should be accepted.
Proceed with at least twenty-five basic sentences, each with a contrasting sentence, and have the students place the new con-

Teaching Basic Communication

75

trast words in the vocabularv section of their notebooks. The vocabularv. thev. choose will be words in which thev. have the greatest interest, and this selection will help individualize the instruction. Every day each student should be given sentences that only he reads and writes. One person might be interested in tools while another is interested in learning how to read a bookkeeping text. Usc a common list of the most used words, such as the American Herita;lfe Word Frequencv Book, to instruct the class.
The tollowing "question words" should be introduced as a signal tor further intormation on the part of the reader.
When, where, how many, who, what, wi1\', how
when-time where-space how manv-amount who-human matter what-nonhuman matter why-one's assessment of a relationship how-sequence of events
Place several sentences on the board and then ask questions which require specific answers.
The man is under the car.
When is the man under the car? (past, present, tllture) Where is the man? How manv men are in this sentence? Who is under the car? What is the man under? Whv is the man under the car?
The woman took the cans out of the old cabinet 111 her kitchen and cleaned the shelves.
When did the woman clean the shelves? (past, present, future)
Where did the woman clean the shelves? How manv shelves did she clean? Who cleaned the shelves? What did the woman clean? Whv did she clean the shelves?

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How did the woman clean the cabinet1 Was the cabinet old or new1
By providing an awareness of the meaning of the several types of questions which can be asked, the teacher can help the student see the necessity for clear writing. Also, the teacher can bring the student to an understanding of the reason authors use sentences with a number of words.
Write the following sequence of sentences on the board, and explain how each sentence adds to the clarity of the communication.
The man went to the store.
The man, Mr. Jones, went to the store.
The man, Mr. Jones, went to the drug store.
The man, Mr. Jones, went to the drug store this morning.
The man, Mr. Jones, went to the drug store at the mall this morning.
The man, Mr. Jones, who lives at 25 Spring Street, went to the Revco drug store at the mall on highway 319 this morning.

Paragraphs

A paragraph is a grouping of sentences about a specific subject or relationship. Each of the sentences adds further clarity to the subject. One way to show how the sentences all fit together is to present a short paragraph and ask the students how each sentence gives further understanding to the subject. Then, in order for them to understand the structure of a paragraph, give them a paragraph with a sentence that does not belong and see if they can pick it out.
The woman went to the store to buy a dress. She wanted to spend no more than $20. The first store she went to had only dresses from $50 to $150. They were nice, but she could not afford them. Then she found a little store that had just what she wanted. She bought a red dress for $18.

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Mr. Smith had a wreck with his car, and he wanted to get it fixed. He got three estimates; all were too high for him. The cheese sandwich was awful. He had to fix it himself. He saved a lot of money and did a good job.
Make a point of noting that each paragraph is always indented, indicating a new type of relationship. The subject has not changed, but a new relationship is going to be presented.
Mary went to buy a new car. She had been looking at all the prices in the paper. She decided to look at two cars, a Ford and a Chevrolet.
The salesman was very nice when she arrived. They talked about how much money she had to spend. He showed her several cars she could afford.
The car she finally bought was a blue, two-door Ford. It had attractive bucket seats and white sidewall tires.

Theme Organization
A theme i~ a series of sentences organized into paragraphs about a given subject. The basic concepts of a theme are sequence and clarity of information. One of the best ways to help an individual read and write a theme is by teaching him how to outline. Organization of thoughts into main ideas and subordinate details can be taught from a simple outline. Stress the concept that paragraphs are new relationships about the main subject. One important item in a theme is its summary conclusions. This final paragraph should address the problem presented, suggest pertinent questions, or summarize the data presented.

Writing about Life Experiences
Writing about life experiences provides the adult basic education student a concrete way to write themes on topics of inter-

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est. Themes can be adapted to the educational level of the individual and can provide hundreds of high-interest topics. In addition to developing a writing habit and recording his experiences, the adult can test his new learning about the topic of his theme. For example, a chronically tardy adult may write a theme on the value of being punctual when reporting to work, try the new behavior, and evaluate its effectiveness for his future conduct.
When preparing newly literate adults to write about life experiences, it is helpful to stress the role of the adult as a parent, consumer, worker, and citizen. These four basic themes can provide the integration between the instruction received in the classroom and its application to real life. This is individualized instruction at its best since each theme comes from the adult student's life. Behavior is modified, and new learning occurs when the learner applies new concepts by writing themes and acting them out in his daily life.
An initial job-related theme may be very simple. For example:
My name is Mary Brown.
I work in a factory.
I repair telephones.
As the student progresses in writing skills, the theme becomes more complex.
My name is Mary Brown, and I work for the Southern Bell Telephone Company.
I work in the repair shop on Central Avenue where I replace broken plastic telephone parts.

Finally, the student begins to develop relationships in her theme by writing in greater detail about her work and her ambitions.
My name is Mary Brown, and I work tor the Southern Bell Telephone Company on Central Avenue replacing plastic telc-

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phone parts. I am interested in learning about assembling telephone circuits and in training for home telephone installation. My supervisor, Mr. Jones, told me that I could qualify for a job as a repairman if I take algebra and earn a high school equivalency certificate. I talked to the school counselor about my plans.
Life-experience writing benefits students by allowing them to grow in understanding their own life circumstances and teachers by giving more information about their students' lives and aspirations. The illustrations move from the very concrete-I repair telephones-to the complex-I replace broken plastic telephone parts-to establishing basic relationships-I, my supervisor, algebra) GED.
Inferences can be made from the last theme. It appears that Ms. Brown is concerned about passing algebra, and, while it may not be required to take the General Education Development (GED) test, her supervisor has made algebra and the GED prerequisites for a better job. Ms. Brown also implied that she plans to take algebra and the GED since she talked to the school counselor about her plans.
The teacher and counselor should be better prepared to help Mary Brown since they now have more information about her. She may not have the background to take high school algebra, but she is certainly motivated to take the prerequisite courses.
As Ms. Brown moved from the concrete to the complex and inferential in her writing, she demonstrated growth in her ability to communicate. At the concrete level, communication is difficult and related more to a child's thought patterns than an adult's. It is difficult to find relationships between sentences and paragraphs. As the adult student learns to write more skillfully about his life experiences, he is also learning to think logically. It is reasonable to assume that the adult student can function more effectively in his life roles as he learns to organize his thoughts in writing about these roles. Writing themes about his lite experiences also makes the adult a more competent reader. As he begins

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to use relationships and make implications in his own writing, he begins to recognize them in passages he reads. For example:
Southern Bell Telephone is a high-technology company. Its recruiters are looking for qualified employees. Southern Bell is a quality company to work for.
The following relationships may be observed:
Southern Bell-technical subjects Adult student-preparation Southern Bell employee-good compensation

Conclusion
The concept underlying the study of communication in this book is based on teaching a system of thought and language patterns using relationships of time, space, amount, and quality. Once these patterns are learned by the adult student, he is ready to tackle more complex relationships. Complex life experiences appear to be the best source for teaching theme writing. Family, work, community, and consumer relationships offer hundreds of situations about which the adult student can write. Language is the key to thought, and it follows that the more perceptively a person can write about his life, the more likely he is to make judicious life decisions.
Newly literate adults should be encouragcd to write every day. The teacher's role should be to assist thc student to grow in his writing ability by helping him to recognize relationships, alternativcs, and inconsistencies.

References
Dinnan, James A., and Lodge, Robert A. Communication: A Meta Theory ofLanguage. Athens, Ga.: Jaddy Enterprises, 1976.

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Newman, Anabel P. Adult Basic Education Reading. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1980.
Stauffer, Russel G. The Language Experience Approach to the Teaching of Reading. 2d ed. New York: Harper & Rmv, 1980.

Chapter 7
Teaching the GED Student
Sometimes teachers will look at a book's table of contents and turn to the chapter or chapters dealing with their immediate assignments or specific interests. If this is the first chapter you have turned to, before reading it you will need to read Chapters 4, 5, and 6 on the fundamentals of reading instruction because this chapter builds on the training in those chapters.
As with any good structure, the foundation must be solid if the building is to last. Without the knowledge of how language works in communication, a person might be able to perform a "repeat" task yet still not understand the significance of doing it and certainly not be able to extrapolate the conception to new and unfamiliar material.
The General Education Development Test
The General Education Development (GED) test is an examination designed to test a person's ability to function at a high school level. The test was developed some forty years ago and has been revised several times over the years. The GED is a fivepart, multiple choice test covering the following areas: Test 1Writing Skills, Test 2-Social Studies, Test 3-Science, Test 4-
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Reading Skills, and Test 5-Mathematics. Test administration time varies from one and one-half to two hours, depending on the test.
All states have developed standard scores required to pass the test, and most states issue a high school credential for successfully passing the battery of tests. The credential issued by the various states is a legal certificate and can be used as a high school diploma for purposes of employment, college admission or certification in areas requiring a high school diploma. While the numbers of persons completing the GED vary from state to state and year to year, approximately 12 percent of high school completions in the United States each year are GED graduates. The requirements to take the GED differ from state to state, and it is recommended that the adult basic education teacher become familiar with his state's regulations which determine a person's eligibility to take the GED.
Two of the tests, writing skills and mathematics, require specific information in order to be successfully completed. Grammar, punctuation, and spelling are included in the writing skills test, while arithmetic, algebra, and geometry are included in the mathematics test. The other three tests, social studies, science, and reading, depend on the student's ability to read and interpret passages from the respective fields of study.
The GED has been widely accepted by business, industry, and education. The high school credential issued for successfully passing the GED has over the years added a new dimension to adult education; that is, an evening program that offers a high school credential based on performance rather than "time in seat."
This chapter will cover the general parts usually tested by the reading section of the GED test. Although students must be informed that reading is an integral part of the entire examination, including mathematics, this section relates to the reading skills section and will cover:
Vocabulary skills
Reading comprehension

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General reading Practical reading Prose reading Poetry Drama

Vocabulary

For a student to understand any materials, he must know the words and their general meanings. It is impossible to understand any item by itself; it must have a contrast. With a contrast, a person can correctly store information in his memory and retrieve it on command. Therefore, any vocabulary training, no matter how brief, should be done by presenting contrast pairs. The GED test uses many formal types of words in its questions. In order for students to understand what answers are required, it is necessary for them to have a working vocabulary of the words used in the questions. Select five sets of words each day and ask the students to write them in their notebooks at the beginning of class. These words should be placed in a special technical vocabulary section and not mixed with their general vocabulary list. Give examples of new sets and quickly review the old ones. Since vocabulary development is an ongoing process, the general vocabulary list should be presented in the same way each day. The following contrast sets of words can be used to begin vocabulary building.

fiction autobiography formal poetry connote dialogue tragedy optimism

nonfiction biography informal drama denote monologue comedy pessimism

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poet paragraph word main idea symbolic infer

novelist line letter subordinate idea real state

Use these sets of words in contrasting sentences. Make sure everyone understands the contrasting meaning. Add any contrast set to these often used "question words" that were found to have caused your former students trouble.

Examples:

A book offiction is not a true or factual story. A book of nonfiction is based upon a real event or a series of facts.
An autobiography is written by the person the story is about. A biography about a person is written by someone else, not the person the story is about.
Aformal event is carried out according to a set of rules. An informal event is a happening that takes place as the group wants or decides.
Poetry is language in rhythm or rhyme. Drama is a play performed by actors about the behavior of some person or persons.

Reading Comprehension
Comprehension is an individual's ability to perceive the relationships intended by an author. In a broader sense, it would include any form of the arts or sciences. The writer records his observations of the world about him and attempts to share them

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with other individuals; the reader brings his actual or vicarious experiences to the situation which he integrates with his reading, thus developing new relationships. When this happens, communication has been achieved. Often authors are highly sensitive to a specific set of circumstances and their insights help others cope with everyday living and heighten their knowledge of their relationship to the world about them. Comprehension is not memorization of great numbers of facts but rather useful knowledge which is stored. Thus, the teacher's task is to help the individual become conscious of the relationships among items, events, and the people involved in them, especially themselves.
The structure of the material presented in the GED uses the contrast of main idea with supporting details.
The main idea has several other names. An example of an item with several names all referring to the same thing might be used with the students.
Frankfurter-hot dog, wiener, red hot, dog, frank.
Main idea-theme, writer's expression, author's expression, author's intent, general theme, good headline, best title, primary idea, most important thing, passage subject, topic, main controlling idea, and passage meaning.
The main idea can also be expressed as to the "matter" under consideration. Is the author writing about a person or a group of people? Is the author writing about a specific thing or a group of things?
The author can write about a specific relationship, such as love, running, or courage. The object of locating the main idea is to allow the student to identify the subject under consideration and separate it from the supporting sentences.
The term, supporting details, also has several names, all referring to the same concept. Each time an author gives an example in support of the main idea, he is attempting to help the reader understand by giving him several different types of relationships, thereby drawing on his experience.

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Supporting details-specific facts, who, what, where, why, how, which, example, subtopic, verified details, and subordinate ideas.
Often a reader is confused when an author uses too many different types of relationships as examples to support his main idea. It is necessary to alert the student to the general use of the first or last sentence as a topic sentence. It is also important to remind the student that the indentation at the beginning of a new paragraph signals that a new type of relationship is about to be presented, not a new topic but a different relationship to the main idea.
The GED test usually provides short themes with only a few paragraphs. The questions involve much more detailed information than main ideas alone so teachers should use the same type ofvocabulary in their training as the students will encounter in the real examination.

General Reading
The section in the GED test called general reading presents material that might be encountered by an individual during the course of his everyday living. The subject matter can range from social issues to light science features. The basic idea is to ascertain whether or not the student can read for understanding in several areas. Facts are called for and a great number of questions are based upon the student making an inference.
The factual questions depend a great deal on the precise reading of the question. Words such as who, what, where, when, how, and how much demand exact information. ''Who'' and ''what'' call for an answer that involves some type of "matter." ''Where'' involves a special relation. ''When'' involves a time reference. "How" asks for some type of sequence. "How much" requires an amount answer. Be careful to have your students note the words such as not, except, least, all, or but. Often students

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overlook these small but important words in their haste to complete the test.
The word that causes the most difficulty for the student is why. If the answer is not specifically stated in the test, the individual must assess the situation presented and, using his best judgment and knowledge of the facts, render an answer to the question. There are many types of intricate relations that could influence a given situation, but the student must be taught to give a general assessment of the situation-one which is most often the case, not the exception.

For example:
The man wiped the sweat from his brow on his shirtsleeve. His hair was all mussed up. As he drank from the cup, the water rolled down his chin. His shoes were covered with mud and tied with string. You could smell him ten feet away.

What is the writer implying about the character of this man?

a. neat b. hard c. SISSY

d. calm e. messy f impeccable

Well, you would probably say messy (e) is the correct answer. It is the most acceptable answer from the facts of the paragraph. However, the case could be made that the man might have only used his oldest clothes for a very dirty, hard job, and was really a very neat and orderly person. But that thil1king is really conjecture; the only data to work with is what is written on the page, and the student who wants to qualify his answer,
even if it could be right, will miss the question time after time.
Students must be aware of the need to stick with the material at hand and answer in general terms.
Using poems, short stories, and paragraphs as a means of asking the student inference questions based upon how a person acts or a thing operates can help the student understand that

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many questions are based upon what the author has written about a situation and implied but not specifically stated in the words used in the question. Material on many subject areas should be used in preparing for the GED because inferences must be made by the students throughout the entire GED test.

Practical Reading
Practical reading involves material found in many types of papers and books and usually presents some type of information retrieval task. The single most important point for the student to keep in mind is awareness that the skill being tested is following directions. Sequence, location of information, matching questions with presented material, and inference will be required. The student should be taught to scan and skim the presented material first and then quickly note the type of questions being asked. Then, he should rapidly read the selection and answer the questions.
Words such as entry, illustrates, before, first, usually, object, frame, situation,form, article, or best-jits should be contrasted and put into the technical vocabulary section of the students' books.
You might get several government forms and practice filling them out with your students. Duplicate a cake recipe that gives mixing directions and add a series of questions for them to answer. Several card catalogue items might be put on one sheet, and questions that would require precise searching could be also used. Of course, newspapers are a main source of training material and are usually available from the publisher free of charge.
Finally, propaganda can be noted through the use of words that include or exclude everything or everybody. For example; i~s true, all, none, every, never, and always are words used to sell people ideas or merchandise. Who wrote the material? Why was it written? What is it trying to do? These are questions that should be noted when reading any type of material whether it be ideology or some radical group's material as examples of blatant propaganda. The more subtle propaganda will take even a very keen person some time to understand.

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Prose Reading

Prose reading can be divided into contrasting pieces. Practical prose might be considered textbooks or informative data, while literary prose is a communication of fiction or nonfiction (essays, biography). The GED test concentrates on literary prose in the Reading Skills Test.
Again, you must assist the students in recognizing the author as an artist painting a picture of a character, scene, situation, or specific types of relationships. The author is trying to share his experience with the reader in the most vivid way possible. People's behavior because of different happenings or circumstances and their causes and effects is ever-present in a work of art. The author's communication is an attempt to search for the order and structure of the world about him, and, by his words, make the reader also aware. As a painter uses many shades of color, so too does the author use many shades of words. He chooses them carefully and blends them into the whole structure. Often, you read a work over and over and each time you are surprised by a new insight, and, to your delight, you too can relate to another experience, something you now share with the author. This, of,course, is the joy of reading a teacher hopes each student will someday have. For now, the task is to teach an awareness of what lies ahead and ask questions of plot and setting, inferring character, tone, style, and passage meaning. The New Cambridge GED Program) The Reading Skills Test, has several sections on these skills and the type of questions usually asked on the GED test. Develop several ofyour own favorite selections using the same format. Have your students prepare their own examples of prose according to this format. Again, "inference" is a big part of the test, and the use of the generally accepted answer should be reviewed.

Poetry
Poetry is language in rhythm or rhyme or both. It can be a work of art or a piece of junk. Fortunately, many works of art

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remain from our heritage. Poetry, like other forms of written expression, is an author's attempt to share his experiences about the world with other human beings. Since language in rhythm or rhyme is deeply pleasing to the human mind, another dimension is added through poetry.
One of the most versatile styles of writing, poetry offers many familiar short selections. Choose your favorites and enjoy sharing the beauty of verse. Beware of the cultural bias that poetry is only for sissies or little children. Discuss the beauty of the poem, the loveliness of its rhythm or rhyme, and the emotion the poet is experiencing so your students can learn to appreciate and like poetry.
The use of figurative language should be discussed in terms of examples the students know from their backgrounds. In that way it can be shown that authors also use figurative language in their poems. The vocabulary of meter, irony, mood, repetition, sound, rhyme, rhythm, and literal meaning should all be interwoven with demonstrations and discussions of many short poems ranging from Shakespeare to modern well-known poets. Remember that most of the difficult or unknown words of a poem are given in a glossary after the poem.

Drama
Drama is meant to be seen and heard, not read. One of the most difficult parts of reading drama is the insertion of the names of the speakers and the various directions or settings. The same question words of who, where, when, how or why should be reviewed before attempting to read any drama since only small excerpts from the play can be used. Drama is a form of communication that was used long before most people were taught how to read (as was the opera which was meant for everyone to see and hear). One of the keys to reading drama excerpts is to skim down the names of the speakers and note how many people are involved in the story. In addition, skim the difficult words pre-

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sented at the end of the selection. Also note the number of lines usually set off in multiples of five. You should approach a drama selection the same way as you did a poem or an excerpt from a short story. It is an author's communication about a world he knows and the actors bring their skills to give the audience the feeling of being there. Many of the questions require an inference type answer so you should work with the words implies or imply versus stated with your students.

U sing Practice Tests
One final suggestion. Before taking the GED, your students should take the practice test developed for the GED. The practice test is free and is available from the American Council on Education upon request. The answer sheets, questions, and instructions are the same type and format as the GED. During the practice test administration, you can show the adult student the correct position of the answer sheet, how to read the test booklet and record answers efficiently, and how to estimate the amount of time to use on each section. This is the proper time to instruct the adult on test-taking procedures such as the generally accepted'belief that the first response to a question is usually correct. The student's score on the practice sets will give you a good indication of the scores the student will achieve on the GED. Use the results of this pretesting to praise the students while correcting their deficiencies.
Adult students tend to become nervous in a test situation. Excessive nervousness can effectively lower test scores and may cause the adult to fail at this critical time. Familiarity with the test format, administration, and amount of time allocated for each test should help the student perform effectively. Time spent on the practice tests is valuable and should never be cut short.
Through proper instruction in the communication program and orientation to the GED, you can take pride in helping your students achieve the goal of high school education.

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References

Dinnan, James A., and Lodge, Robert A. Communication: A Meta Theory ofLanguage. Athens, Ga.: Jaddy Enterprises, 1976.
The New Cambridge GED Program. The Reading Skills Test. New York: Cambridge Co., 1978.

UNIT III
TEACHING COMPUTATION

Chapter 8
Principles of Teaching Mathematics to Adults
Teaching mathematics to adults offers the adult teacher a most rewarding experience on the one hand or a frustrating experience for the student and himself on the other. The premise of this chapter states that three elements are required for teaching mathematics successfully:
1. Mathematics is communication and the logic of teaching communication must be applied to the language of mathematics.
2. A mathematics curriculum must be based on the relationships of time, space, amount, and quality, and the adult student must master these relationships in his language patterns to learn mathematics successfully.
3. The adult teacher must understand the principles of adult learning.
The successful mathematics teacher who understands and applies these three elements and who has adequate knowledge of the subject matter will find that his students are highly motivated and will readily learn the basic concepts that are essential for continuing mathematics study.
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The Language of Mathematics

Relationships are conveyed by spoken or written language, and learning is complete when the essential relationships in the communication and mastery of the facts and principles are understood by the adult student. It follows that in teaching mathematics adequate time must be given to the search for the relationships. This is the fundamental problem in teaching mathematics; it has been demonstrated repeatedly that the adult who returns to school does not necessarily understand either verbal or written relationships and consequently does not grasp the underlying mathematical concepts. Therefore, a study of the language of mathematics in terms of the basic relationships of time, space, and amount must be undertaken before the more traditional instruction is presented. Theoretically, almost any concept can be understood if it is presented to the learner in terms of his ability to understand the language and in terms of his experience. This is illustrated in mathematics in instances where elementary school children are taught calculus concepts and can solve problems in the subject.
Understanding language is the first requisite to solving a problem in mathematics. Solving a sentence or mathematics problem consists of selecting the right elements of the situation and putting them together in the right relations, with, in addition, the right amount of weight or influence for each.
Dinnan and Lodge (1976) view language as an integral part of man's comprehension and believe that a thorough understanding of the meaning of language is basic to the nature of comprehension. They further state that all data are assimilated using the same intellectual processes and that these processes are dependent upon the recognition and utilization of certain relationships.
The relationships referred to by Dinnan and Lodge, basically those of time, space, amount, and quality, are the same for teaching reading and mathematics although the emphasis shifts from words in reading to numbers and signs in mathematics.

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Clear communication in mathematics is achieved when the teacher and adult student are using the same basic relationships in communication, either verbal or written. This allows the adult student to clarify and organize his thoughts in understanding the concept as well as solving the problem.

Mathematics Anxiety
Mathematics anxiety or mathophobia is so prevalent among adult students who return to the classroom that the phenomenon should be noted. Mathematics anxiety is widespread for people who are fully capable of mastering elementary arithmetic although they dislike it. This conflict indicates a strong emotional response to mathematics, which stems from many factors, educational and social, and is most likely a result of unfortunate childhood experiences in learning mathematics. Mathematics tends to build on itself cumulatively in the sense that the adult must master whatever material is presented in order to have success with subsequent materials. When the adult misses something, there is a gap in his information that will cause problems sooner or later. Some authorities believe that memorization in place of understanding helps to generate anxiety. In many cases, negative teacher attitudes and feelings about mathematics are reflected in the attitudes and feelings of the student. Whatever the cause of mathematics anxiety, student frustrations in attempting to learn mathematics are the result.
Low self-esteem, previous failures, and embarrassment at being back in a learning setting are important factors in mathematics anxiety in adult students. The adult teacher who is aware that perhaps as many as half the class members are anxious to the extent that their anxiety interferes with learning mathematics will plan his teaching program to relieve these anxieties. Deemphasizing grades and examinations and creating a mutually supportive classroom atmosphere will go a long way in alleviating anxieties about mathematics. Other sections of this book also describe

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teaching programs that are conducive to relaxing adults' general tensions about learning.
Mathematics anxiety, as well as other fears about school, will vanish when the adult understands that the curriculum for adult education is individualized and the application is essentially tailor-made for the student. Of course, it is essential that the students achieve early success in mathematics and see its practicality for solving routine life problems.

Curriculum Principles
Introductory mathematics should be thought of as communication and should not be isolated from the reading program. Exercises in relationships such as high-low, large-small, and whole-part conducted for reading readiness should use numbers and mathematical concepts as well as reading concepts to familiarize adults with mathematical relationships. The adult student should move from the concrete to the abstract in terms of relationships as preparation for substituting numbers and symbols for concepts. A factor in successfully teaching mathematics is the ability to communicate relationships between objects using terminology that the adult students understand. The adult student should not begin the study of mathematics until he has completed the Oral Language Readiness Assessment and has demonstrated his ability to locate objects and concepts in time, space, amount, and quality.
Mathematics has specialized language consisting of words, phrases, numbers, and symbols. It should never be assumed that the adult knows what add to (+), subtract from ( -), divide by ( + ), greater than (, less than ), and equal to (=) mean, much less the concepts the symbols refer to. These words, phrases, numbers, and symbols should be related to time, space, and amount in terms the adult understands before he begins to manipulate them.
The basic organization for teaching mathematics concepts is a classification system for presenting new information to adult

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students. The system utilizes units, relationships, classes, and systems. When information is processed through these four categories, a structured and concrete learning transaction is probable.

The unit is the basic stimulus or learning task, for example, the names of items, such as fractions.
Relationships used to measure the likeness or differences of any given unit are time, space, amount, and quality references.
Classes are groups of units that have been compared and found to have some observable similarities or differences.
Systems are groups of units that tie together several classes because of a broader relationship (the subject under consideration) .

The introduction of common fractions as a svstem illus-

trates this concept. The unit would be a fraction or fractions, the

relationships would locate size or amount, the classes would intro-

duce similarities or differences between units, and the s.'Ystem

would be common fractions.

In preparing the unit, the teacher would always begin with

the system and work back to the unit, developing a common

language and concept. The student would always begin with the

unit and work towards the system. The only limit to the number

of units that can be produced within a system is set by the teach-

ers' and students' time and imagination.

Student Learns
Unit
1Relations Classes System

~,~,%

I

Smaller than-larger than

Away from Y2-back towards Y2

Common fractions

Teacher

Prepares

This system can be used in numerous variations to teach

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mathematics concepts. It is important to remember that classification is used to process information, and once this has been accomplished the model has served its purpose.

The Methods
The Program
Mathematics is best taught by following the same general rules that apply to teaching all aspects of the adult education curriculum. These five commandments of good teaching can be briefly restated as follows:
Teach what the student is interested in knowing and can use in daily life. TIe in lessons in communication and other subjects with the arithmetic lessons. Use a variety of appropriate materials from various sources. Begin instruction at the adult student's comprehension level. Teach by means of concrete, useful examples.
In mathematics, teaching what the students want to know means preparing units on checking accounts, comparative shopping, measuring in the metric system, and other activities suggested by the students. Practically every facet of life in the home and on the job requires some knowledge of mathematics. Anyone who has been embarrassed by having a check returned for lack of funds because he forgot to record a previous check well understands the need for precision in money matters.
Teaching Materials
Three types of materials are recommended for teaching basic mathematics. First are the materials required to teach the ba-

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sic relationships that are discussed in Unit II. These are essentially used to develop a language readiness for mathematics and should be followed by the more specific materials designed to teach the specialized language of mathematics. These materials are for specific purposes and must be prepared by the teacher and adult student since they are not available from publishers. Preparing the materials is a learning experience for the adult student since the materials demonstrate the knowledge of underlying mathematical concepts.
Second are the materials that are used in the daily life of the adult. The supply is unlimited. Bank statements, grocery advertisements, contracts, salary withholding statements, and the like can be effectively used to teach basic mathematics. A quart container that is marked by ounces, cups, and volume can be used to teach a number of concepts.
Third are the materials that are sold by publishers. Most of these materials are excellent, adult-centered, and useful for individualized instruction. However, they should be used only to supplement and reinforce concepts that the student and teacher have decided are important for the beginning student. As the student masters basic mathematical concepts and becomes increasingly independent, he may be prepared to use a programmed workbook. To facilitate learning, the teacher must know which materials are appropriate for specific students. The teacher's role as a learning specialist requires that he have a broad knowledge of the materials in his field. This knowledge is essential for teaching mathematics since only portions of workbooks may be needed for a particular task. The experienced adult teacher realizes that workbooks are important for reinforcing concepts and providing skill-building exercises but understands their limitations in individualized instruction programs.

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References

Dinnan, James A. "Key to Learning." Journal of Reading Behavior 3 (1971): 1-13.
- - - , and Lodge, Robert A. Communication: A Meta Theory ofLanguage. Athens, Ga.: Jaddy Enterprises, 1976.

Chapter 9
Teaching Introductory Mathematics
This chapter is written to guide adult education teachers who are teaching beginning mathematics. Its primary purpose is to introduce concepts to adults who function below the eighth-grade level; however, it may be useful as a review for advanced students who can manipulate numbers but do not understand the underlying concepts. While no one should work below his level, mathematics is a cumulative subject and each adult student should be able to demonstrate that he can classify information in each step of mathematics. Once students have demonstrated this competency and can manipulate data, they should, of course, proceed to the next unit of instruction.
Teaching students to classify language in terms of time, space, amount, and quality is described in Unit II of this book. Language classification is critical to the effective teaching of mathematics due in large part to the introduction of signs and symbols as a specialized language of mathematics. The adult student must understand the concept underlying this use of signs and symbols rather than repeat information gained through memorization or drill if he is to master the fascinating study of mathematics.
lOS

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Adults Learn Again

Oral Language Readiness Assessment

The place to begin teaching mathematics is in the reading or communication program. Those persons who did not score well on the Oral Language Readiness Assessment test should not be given instruction in mathematics until they have demonstrated facility in classifying data through improved language skills. This process should not take a long time-perhaps a few days-at the most a few weeks. Just as a carpenter could not report to work without the proper tools, neither can the adult student tackle the study of mathematics without first obtaining the necessary language conceptual tools for the job.

Language Skills
It cannot be assumed that the adult student knows the specialized language of mathematics-skills and understanding must be demonstrated by the student. Until every sign and every specialized word he is to use in a unit of instruction are clearly understood and automatically translated, he is not ready to manipulate data (or numbers).
Three steps are involved in this process. First, the special "word" vocabulary of mathematics must be learned; second, the special "sign" vocabulary of mathematics must be understood; and finally, translation ofwords to signs and signs to words must be mastered. To middle-class teachers and students who have grown up using this language it may appear unnecessary, but many adult students have never made these associations and cannot begin learning mathematics until they are mastered. The following classification system illustrates a way to begin teaching the mathematics vocabulary.
When the adult student demonstrates facility in the language of mathematics by classifying teacher-prepared materials, he may wish to prepare units as an exercise to share with other class members. There is no prescribed time that a student needs

Teaching Introductory Mathematics

STUDENT Units

plus, minus, multiply, divide

I107

Relations - more-Iess/big-small

1Classes System

away from zero-back towards zero mathematics words

Units
Relations -
1Classes System

+,-,x,+

f

more-Iess/big-small

away from zero-back towards zero

mathematics signs

Units Relations -
1Classes System

+, plus, -, minus more-Iess/big-small same as-different from translating signs to words

f
TEACHER

to work at this level-indeed some may skip it altogether if their language patterns permit. However, a considerable degree of mathematics anxiety is thought to be generated by a lack of understanding of the "special" language used in teaching mathematics.

Teaching Numbers 0 to 9
Practically everybody can count, including the nonreader who has spent a lifetime counting change from purchases, counting the number of items to be sure there is a dozen, and in various other everyday activities using numbers. It does not follow, however, that these same nonreaders can manipulate numbers by adding, subtracting, and various other uses of numbers. The chances are that they think of 0 as nothing or the lack of something. The position of 0 between positive and negative numbers is an important concept for the student to leani in beginning

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mathematics. For a sound foundation in beginning the study of mathematics, the adult student must begin by understanding the use of numbers from 0 to 9 and 0 to negative 9. As a matter of fact, the study of 0 to positive 1 and 0 to negative 1 comprises in large part the study of beginning mathematics.
The facts that 0 occupies a position and is something, that it can occupy a place in an equation or problem that does not necessarily occupy a center space, and that the equal sign ( = ) in an equation usually means 0 are not generally understood by beginning adult students. Since learning mathematics depends on understanding each step in a process, the concept of zero should be taught relatively soon.
A device* for teaching numbers, the concept of zero, and the concept of negative numbers is a game that can be played by two students. The game consists of a stand with thirty-seven hooks mounted on a bracket with 0 as the center point, two columns 0 to plus 9 to the right and two columns 0 to minus 9 to the left. A single dice is used to begin play. Each player has a tag on the zero hook. The first player rolls the dice and moves
his tag to the + side the number of spaces that show on the dice. The second player rolls the dice and moves his tag to the + side
the number of spaces shown on the dice while, at the same time, the first player must move his tag back towards zero the number of spaces shown on the opponent's dice. As play proceeds, it is likely that one or both players will cross zero from the positive to the negative side. The chances are that this may occur several times in the course of the game. The player who first reaches
+ 20 or more wins the game.
This game demonstrates several concepts. 1. As the players cross zero in counting, they will find that
zero occupies space as they see that from + 1 to - 1 is
two spaces as opposed to one space. 2. They will learn about negative numbers.

*This device was developed by a member of the Adult Education faculty, University of Georgia.

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109

3. They will learn the fundamentals of addition and subtraction as concrete facts rather than as concepts and thus will be able to deal with the concepts much more easily once they have seen them work.
4. They will learn how to proceed into double-digit numbers.
5. They will begin to associate the use of numbers to other life situations.
The teacher will be able to devise other games and activities to accomplish the same goal of providing facility in dealing with numbers through concrete illustrations. Learning is facilitated when a person moves from the concrete to the abstract and sees a practical application for the knowledge. From the games and manipulations the teacher will want to move quickly to using numbers for measuring, counting money, calculating distances, and utilizing numbers in everyday practices.
The next step in teaching numbers involves using numbers larger than nine. This is primarily a vocabulary and recognition task where the student translates the number language or code to the verbal language. While most students may be familiar with this application, it should not be taken for granted. Each adult student should be able to demonstrate facility in these translations before proceeding to the next unit.

Teaching Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, and Division
Assuming that the student has mastered the language of mathematics, the position of zero, and the use of positive and negative numbers 0 to 9, he is ready to begin manipulating numbers. In each instance, the concept should be taught by relating it to a known or actual experience in the student's life. The student may view a page of numbers to be manipulated as a foreign language but will readily see the value and practical 'application of adding a grocery list, dividing a pie into six equal pieces, sub-

Figure 6
Garnes for Teaching Concepts of Positive and Negative Numbers

0 -9-8-7-6-5-4-3-2-1
. JJ JI JJ JI JJ JJ J} J1

123 456 78 9 ~ SJ Jl 'SJ J1 S' J1 SJ .y

-9 -8 -7-6-5-4-3-2-1 ~ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

~~.yJ1~~~~~

~~~~~~~.y.y

Teaching Introductory Mathematics

111

tracting the rent from the salary check, or multiplying the weekly insurance premium t<? find the monthly cost.
A brief readiness test might consist of preparing several classification units for the students to manipulate so they will become familiar with the various relationships involved. Table 2 illustrates one way to begin this unit.
The problems used to teach addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division should come from the experiences of the class members. Ideally, mathematics should be taught at this stage by the reading teacher as a natural component of consumer economics, occupational courses, etc., where the problems grow from the reading material.
One example that has been used many times by adult education teachers involves shopping for grocery specials using the Thursday edition of the local newspaper. In this problem, the adult student has a total list to add, with the calculations necessary to determine the unit prices for items that sell three for $1.27 or extending the price of six bars of soap at 18<t each, or subtracting discount coupons from prices of the unit. Additionally, it is easier to demonstrate that multiplication is a shortened way of adding when obtaining the price of twelve items at 36<t each than when attempting to explain multiplication as a concept or through memorization. If the adult student has a good conceptual grasp of numbers, it appears easier to teach these four areas as a logical unit rather than teaching them separately.

Teaching Fractions
When dealing with numbers, the concept of "1" refers to one unit or digit. When dealing with populations, the meaning can change dramatically although the concept remains the same.
For example: one student, in one classroom, in one grade, in one
school use the number one in a variety of meanings. There may be thirty students in the class, two hundred in the grade, and twelve hundred students in the school. These differences in the meaning

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Table 2
Teaching Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, and Division as Systems

Units Relations

26 +2 +3
Big More Over More than

89 +2 +3
Small Less Under Less than

Classes System

Back towards zero Addition

Away from zero

Units Relations
Classes System

26 -1 -2
Big More Over Positive
Away from zero Subtraction

8 12 -9 -3 Small Less Under Negative
Back towards zero

Units Relations
Classes
System

2x2 Big More
Away from zero More than
Multiplication

4x4
Small Less

8x 12

Back towards zero Less than

Teaching Introductory Mathematics

Units Rlations
Classes
System

2--;-2
Big More Bigger than Away from zero Division

113

4--;-2

16--;-4

Small Less

Less than Back towards zero

of one are important concepts when teaching or introducing an adult class to the study of fractions. Assuming that the adult students have grasped the language of mathematics and have learned to work with numbers, they should be ready to study fractions.
It is best to introduce the three classes of fractions at one time since common fractions, decimals, and percentages are generally expressed in terms of parts of"1." Adults will learn these facts quickly when they understand that coins are expressed in terms of decimal fractions, weather forecasts are expressed in terms of percentages, and measurements are generally expressed in terms of common fractions. The class members can provide examples from home and work to illustrate the uses of the three classes of fractions. There is little point in teaching common fractions, decimal fractions, or percentages until the adult student is comfortable with the concepts, popular usages, and the relationships among the three classes of fractions. It is often difficult for those who are beginning to work in fractions to understand why 1/2, .50, or 50 percent of something can be a very large number and, at the same time, be less than the whole or less than one.
The next step in the process of teaching fractions is making simple conversions from one class of fractions to the other two classes. An obvious beginning is to use familiar objetts for illustrations such as one quarter for 25 percent, two quarters for 50 percent, and three quarters for 75 percent. Class members can use their experience and ingenuity to think of illustrations.
The classification system is ideal for teaching fractions since

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the students work from units, relations, and classes within the system. The student can prepare posters or collect materials to illustrate the relationships within the systems as well as among the svstems.
Tables 3-6 illustrate the relationships in each system of fractions and present a coin conversion chart which displays three systems of fractions. Coins are an ideal teaching tool for fractions since they are based on the decimal system and are in dailv. use bv. adults.

Conclusion
Basic mathematics should flow from and be an extension of language. The same classification system that is used for reading works equally well for basic mathematics. Learning mathematics depends on the adult teacher being able to classifY or code information and the adult student being able to declassifY or decode

Units Relations
Classes
System

Table 3
Common Fractions

1/8 2/8 % % 5fs % 7fs %

Larger than Towards Above Up

Smaller than Away Below Down

Less than 1/2
1/8 2/8
%

More than V2 5fs % 7fs

Common Fractions

Teaching Introductory Mathematics

115

Units Relations
ClRSses
System

Table 4
Decimal Fractions

.01 .05 .25 .50 .60 .75 1.00

Larger Towards
More Above

Smaller Awav Less Below

Less than 1/2 .01 .05 .25

More than 1/2 .60 .75 1.00

Decimal Fractions

Units Relations
ClRSses
System

Table 5
Percentages

1% 10% 25% 50% 60% 75% 100%

Smaller Below Less Towards

Larger Above More Awav

Less than 1/2 1% 10% 25%

More than 1/2 60% 75% 100%

Percentages

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Adults Learn Again

Table 6
Converting Coins to Fractions

Coin
1 5 10 25 50 $1.00

Fraction
1/100 5/100 10/100 25/100 50/100 100/100

Decimal
.01 .05 .10
.25
.50 1.00

Percent
1% 5% 10% 25% 50% 100%

infonnation provided by the instructor. Learning takes place when the student learns to classify information as well as to decode infonnation. At this point, the student is able to generalize and apply prior learning to new situations.

References
Dinnan, James A. "Key to Learning." Journal of Reading Behavior 3
(1971): 1-13. Sullivan, K. M. "An Analysis of the Mathematical Language of Se-
lected K-6 Grade Mathematics Texts Utilizing a Communication Theory of Language." Ph.D. dissertation, University of Georgia, 1980.

UNIT IV
TEACHING SPECIAL POPULATIONS

Chapter 10
Education for
the Older Adult
Bradley C. Courtenay*
At every age, adults have special needs, but this is particularly true for persons sixty-five and older. However, contrary to popular myths and misconceptions, the older adult has many of the same educational needs that the younger adult has. In addition, the older adult has pursued over the years a variety of interests he wants to continue. There is one important difference-older adults generally have more opportunity to attend adult education classes since they are often retired or work only part-time.
Generally speaking, older adults live at home, are mobile, and do not have health problems. They constitute a significant percentage of enrollment in programs throughout the country. Attention to their needs and effective recruiting practices will pay rich dividends to both the programs and to the older adults. In terms of wisdom, maturity, and wide experience, older adults are assets to the classes they attend.
This chapter describes the demographic, educational, and personal characteristics of older adults. The experiences they have gathered over a lifetime far outweigh their educational lim-
*Assistant professor, joint-staffed with the Department of Adult Edu-
cation and the Gerontology Program of the Georgia Center for Continuing Education, University of Georgia, Athens.
119

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itations. As a group, they differ widely in educational, occupational, social, and cultural backgrounds as well as in personal characteristics. Older adults should be seen as assets in a learning situation and the myths of aging should be replaced with facts.

The Population
Ninety-five percent of older Americans live in communities, not in institutions, and depend on community resources and services. Mostly, they have lived in the same neighborhoods for many years and are a stabilizing social, cultural, and political force in the community. In the United States, 1.4 million people reach the age of sixty-five every fifty weeks (Weg 1978). After taking the death rate into account, a net increase adds over 400,000 persons to the over sixty-five group each year. Barring catastrophic accidents, this figure will increase. As birth rates continue to decline, it is inevitable that the United States will begin to shift from a youth-oriented to an adult-oriented culture. The implications for education, particularly adult education, are obvious.
In 1977, out of a total U.S. population of 216,500,000, almost 11 percent was sixty-five or over (Weg 1978). Comparing that figure to the 1870 figure, when only 3 percent of the population was sixty-five or older, the implications for the education of a middle-aged U.S. can be seen. The increases in the numbers of persons sixty-five or older are not due to the life span of the individual becoming significantly longer but rather reflect the fact that, because of the eradication of childhood diseases and improved health care, more persons are reaching old age. Of the persons over sixty-five in a community, 87 percent have no limitation on their mobility because of health problems. As amazing as this percentage is, it will undoubtedly rise as health care improves under Medicare and other programs for the older adult.
Another reality of aging which has implications for adult education programs is the fact that women live longer than men. While there are 106 male births for every 100 female, by age

Education for the OlderAdult

121

twenty and thereafter women increasingly outnumber men. Weg (1978) reports that by age sixty-five the ratio of women to men is 145: 100. Since women tend to marry men older than they are, widows outnumber widowers 5.2 to 1. For example, in 1975, 79 percent of older men were married while only 38 percent of older women were married. Programs for the older woman living alone will continue to be needed for the foreseeable future. If major breakthroughs in cardiovascular diseases occur, the average life expectancy at age sixty-five could increase from sixteen to twenty-five years. The mission of our society as a whole and adult education in particular is to improve the quality of these added years.

Where Do Older Adults Live?
While it is true that many older adults move to Florida where 16.4 percent of the residents are age sixty-five and older, the majority live where they spent most of their life. The flow from farm to urban and from urban to suburban has not been characteristic of the older adult as it has for the young adult. In urban areas, people sixty-five and above tend to live in the inner city; in nonurban areas, most live in towns with populations under 2,500 rather than on farms. The aged population in rural areas tends to be younger than in urban areas. The rural aged suffer more interference with mobility and need more services in this respect than do the urban aged.
Health
As would be expected, in comparison with younger adults, the older adult tends to have more and longer hospital stays, visit physicians 43 percent more often, and spend more money on drugs for chronic problems. However, it should be noted that improved medical care for older adults makes it possible for them

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to continue a normal life and to participate fully in community and adult education activities.
The four leading chronic conditions that limit the activities of older adults are heart disease, arthritis, rheumatism, and visual impairments, while the three leading causes of death are heart disease, cancer, and cerebrovascular disease. The highest percentage of suicides across all ages and sexes is for the white male over sixty. While numerous causes for this tragic statistic can be found, the figure indicates that the older male believes the cultural stereotypes about aging and cannot see a useful and productive life after sixty. Adequate information and programs of education should reduce this high suicide rate.

Public Assistance
Over the past forty years, the number of older adults who are dependent on public assistance has increased from nine to eighteen per hundred. Two divergent forces will likely influence this ratio during the 1980s. Continuing inflation and higher energy costs will further erode the purchasing power of the savings, pensions, and Social Security benefits of older adults and force more and more of them to depend on public assistance.

Employment
Fear of inflation and high energy costs will force many older adults to postpone retirement or reenter the work force for part-time or full-time employment.
Weg (1978) notes that persons sixty-five or older represented 28.5 percent of the labor force in 1976, with 20.3 percent of the men and 8.2 percent of the women employed. The majority (43.9 percent of the men, 58.3 percent of the women) were employed part-time. In 1974, the median earnings for men were $12,152; for women, $6,957. In 1979, the average monthly Social Security benefit for retired workers was $293.39;

Education for the OlderAdult

123

for the spouse, it was $148.03. Employment needs will obviously be a motivating force that will result in many older adults returning to adult education programs, particularly retraining for part-time employment.

Special Educational Needs of Older Adults
Every adult age group has special needs that must be translated into educational objectives if the educational program is to respond adequately. The individual nature of adult education programs should be particularly responsive to the needs of the older adult.
The older adult is functionally illiterate more often than his younger counterpart. According to Weg (1978), more than two million of the above sixty-five population cannot read and write, and almost 50 percent did not complete the eighth grade. While these figures will slowly improve, there is a continuing need for adult education programs for this population to assist these older adults become more effective in coping with employment needs and in relating to increasingly complex social and personal tasks. Since the goals bf the adult educational programs are to assist individuals become or continue to be self-sufficient, both socially and economically, and since older adults treasure self-sufficiency above all else, they will participate in these programs so that they can maintain or achieve independence.
What are the special needs of the older adult? Obviously, the greatest needs of many older adults are the abilities to read, write, and compute at a minimal level (McClusky n.d.). Many older adults do not need or want a secondary school diploma or certificate of high school equivalence but do want to read, write, and compute at least at the seventh-grade level, the level which appears to be the minimum for a person to learn independently or to be trained for various occupational opportunities. While the minimum level obviously will vary with individuals, the pressing need is to make it possible for adults to read, write, and

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Adults Learn Again

compute at a level which allows them to continue to learn, whatever their objectives.
Older adults' priority needs can often be fulfilled while they are sharpening their communication skills. According to Hiemstra (1972), Londoner (1971), McClusky (n.d.), and Peterson (n.d.), the following types of education are particularly relevant to the needs of the older adult for coping with a new environment or circumstance. Education should be designed for-
I. becoming physically fit to maintain good health and to provide a high level of energy
2. achieving economic self-sufficiency to maintain, increase, and manage income
3. making legal decisions, deciding on housing, adjusting to new family relationships, and making productive use of leisure time
4. satisfying "expressive needs" by engaging in an activity as opposed to meeting a goal
5. gratifying "contributive needs" by working as a volunteer or paraprofessional in providing a service to the ill, needy, or disadvantaged
6. fulfilling "influence needs" to advocate for social change through working to influence the decision-making processes on issues affecting older people
7. satisfying "transcendence needs" for self-improvement through studies in religion, literature, art, and philosophy.
Adult education for older adults should be responsive to both the instrumental needs and the expressive needs that determine the quality of life, once instrumental needs are met. Instrumental needs of adults may be classified as survival aids; expressive needs may be classified as socialization and developmental tasks that a person must accomplish if he is to continue to grow and develop.
Commercial materials are increasingly available to assist teachers of older adults. Havighurst (1976) defines needs in terms of the developmental tasks of the older adult, which he categorizes as follows:

Education for the OlderAdult

125

Needs of early old agers: 55-75
1. Dealing with the tension of disengagement vs. engagement or re-engagement
2. Planning a strategy for old age

Needs of later old agers: 75 +
1. Living with dignity, self-control, and comfort 2. Making a contribution to society 3. Remaining a part of normal community life,
including interaction with younger people 4. Maintaining vitality of body and mind
Instrumental and expressive needs should become the lesson plan for the adult education teacher when planning instruction programs. Through placement tests for assessing communication skills and assigning adequate counseling programs, the teacher will be able to assist older adults in making wise decisions for their continuing education.

Learning Competencies for the Older Adult
What learning skills do older adults bring to class? They bring much more than is commonly believed, and they bring much more ability to learn than they believe they possess. Older adults fall prey to the myths of aging about intelligence decline and difficulties in learning which have prevailed in our society. For that reason, they have to be reassured that they can learn. Unless illness or some physical impairment interferes, the ability to learn continues through life (Baltes and Schaie 1974). True, some slowing and loss of efficiency in learning may be experienced (the literature of learning is not conclusive), but learn they can. The accumulation of prior learning often produces a wisdom that enhances and enriches new learning.
Experience in teaching older adults has provided insights

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Adults Learn Again

into conditions that hinder learning for older adults and, quite possibly, for all adults. These conditions are:
1. Forced pacing instead of self-pacing 2. Noise distraction 3. Overstimulation-too much to learn at one time 4. Material that does not relate to needs 5. Material that is not easily and immediately useful To compensate for the special learning problems of the older adult, which are often physiological and psychological in nature, the adult teacher may wish to consider Agruso's (1978) recommendations.
Complex materials to be learned should be presented in units or segments which reduce the alternatives for incorrect response. This is intended to relieve anxiety and confusion created by overstimulation.
New materials should not be presented until the old or preceding materials are thoroughly learned and, if possible, applied to a practical real-life setting. This provides maximum strength of learning before going on to new learning situations. New learning is enhanced by a variety of stimuli or presentations. The use of audiovisual aids will help the adult retain new learning.
Class members should discuss new learning and assist each other in understanding and interpreting the materials. Often a class member can be of more assistance than the teacher in explaining concepts to a peer.
Whatever is to be learned should be meaningful, in contrast to abstract, since the older learner appears to perform better in practical situations.
Finally and perhaps most important, the speed with which a task is carried out should be reduced to meet the sensory slowdown in the older learner.

Education for the Older Adult

127

Older adults bring a rich legacy of prior learning to the classroom that helps them to sort out and catalogue new learning. Aker (1971) notes that older adults' prior experiences assist them in knowing what they want to learn, how they want to learn, and, more important, how they will put the new learning to work. They are more interested in analyzing broad perspectives than in discovering minute details.
The older adult is highly motivated and tends to be an impatient learner when he perceives that he is not getting what he came for. He is not necessarily a quick or spectacular learner, but once he grasps a fact or concept he does not forget it and can apply it in practice. He has a logical and practical mind that must sort out connections and extensions among facts before he considers them practical. He has tenacity and will persist in a course of learning activity as long as it is relevant to his needs. He will drop out of a class or activity when it does not meet his needs or expectations.

Facilities
Facilities for the older adult have not had a high priority for adult educators. However, as older adults enroll in increasing numbers, more attention will have to be devoted to facilities that are appropriate for them.
Simply stated, the physiological, psychological, and social needs of the older adult should be considered when facilities are used for adult education classes. Unfortunately, facilities are seldom, if ever, constructed for adult education students. Indeed, in most cases they are built for children or young adults.
As the adult ages, a number of physiological changes which affect learning-or the circumstances of learning-occur. He loses hearing and visual acuity, his skin loses its elasticity making him keenly sensitive to heat and cold, and his joints stiffen so that he finds it hard to climb stairs or sit for a long time in uncomfortable chairs. In short, he has an acute need for facilities that compensate for his physical limitations.

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Adults Learn Again

Facilities used by the older adult should have adequate lighting, good acoustics, and adequate heating and cooling systems, and ideally be on the ground level, and barrier-free. A barrier-free elevator is needed in buildings with classes on the second floor or higher. The facility should have comfortable chairs and movable tables. Tablet armchairs can be torture for adults who come packaged in many more sizes and shapes than their youthful counterparts.
Adult educators seldom have an ideal facility, and they have learned to adapt existing facilities to accommodate the older adult. By being aware of the special needs of the older adult, they can adapt their teaching practices, arrange furniture, and provide a social climate to enhance learning for the' older adult.

Time of Classes
The retired older adult generally prefers day classes to evening classes for various reasons including fear of going out in the evening, reluctance to drive at night, and fatigue at the end of the day. Often, older adults' energy levels are highest in the morning hours.

Summary
The fact that more people are reaching age sixty-five than are being born points to the increase in the average age of the student who participates in continuing education. Even more significant is the fact that almost half of the older students have received only eight years of education. Added to that demographic profile is the fact that intelligence does not decline with age, so that, in the absence of disease, one has the capability for lifelong learning.
Educational institutions need to prepare to serve the older student better by recognizing the potential for continued learning. Staff and administration also need to study and make adap-

Educationfor the OlderAdult

129

ration relative to the special characteristics of the older adult, such as decline in vision, hearing, and coordination; concern for learning that is relevant and applicable; the need for both instrumental and expressive learning opportunities; and the often overlooked resource of experience gained over time.
Few adult educators would disagree with the concept of lifelong learning. To respond to the learning needs of the older adult is to practice that concept; and to plan for them is also to plan for one's own experience as an older person.

References
Agruso, V. M., Jr. "Memory." In Learning in the Later Years: Principles
ofEducational Gerontology. New York: Academic Press, 1978.
Aker, G. F. "Learning and the Older Adult." In Education for Older Adults, edited by G. F. Aker. Tallahassee, Fla.: Florida State University, Department of Adult Education, 1971.
Alpaugh, P. K.; Renner, V. J.; and Birren, J. E. "Age and Creati,oity:
Implications for Education and Teachers." Educational Gerontology: An International QuarterZv 1 (1976):17-40. Baltes, P. B., and Schaie, K. W "The Myths of the Twilight Years." Psychology Today 8(1974):35-40. Butler, R. N., and Lewis, M. 1. Aging and Mmtal Health. 2d ed. St. Louis: C. V. Mosby Company, 1977. Havighurst, R. J. "Education through the Adult Life Span." Educational Gerontology: An Inter1lational QuarterZv 1 (1976):41-51.
Hendrickson, A. ''Working with Senior Citizens." In A Manual on
Planning Educational Programs for Older Adults, edited by A. Hendrickson. Tallahassee, Fla.: Florida State University, Department of Adult Education, 1973. Hiemstra, R. P. "Continuing Education for the Aged: A Survey of

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Needs and Interests of Older People." Adult Education 22(1972): 100-109.
Londoner, C A. "Survi"al Needs of the Aged: Implications for Program Planning." International Journal ofAging and Human Development 2(1971):113-17.
McClusky, H. Y. "Education for Aging: The Scope of the Field and Perspectives for the Future." In Learning for Aging, edited by S. Grabowski and W D. Mason. Washington, D.C: Adult Education Association of the U.S.A., n.d.
Peterson, D. A. "The Role of Gerontology in Adult Education." In Learning for Aging, edited by S. Grabowski and W D. Mason. Washington, D.C: Adult Education Association of the U.S.A., n.d.
Weg, R. B. The Aged: Who, Where, How VlTell. Los Angeles: University of Southern California, 1978.

Chapter 11
Adult Basic Education and Handicapped Adults
Allen B. Moore*
Who Are the Handicapped?
Everyone, at some stage of life, experiences one or more comtitions that prevent him from participating in a particular activity because of the design of a facility or the requirements of employment. Handicaps may be caused by physical, mental, or emotional conditions or by some combination of these conditions. Most handicaps (e.g., result of strokes, diseases, accidents) happen after birth.
Precise data about the numbers of handicapped adults denied access to work are confusing. For example, the Bureau of Census (1979, p. 78) reports (Table 7) that there are approximately 7,227,000 adults aged 18-64 with a disability which prevents them from working. Another source, the Yearbook ofSpecial Education (1979-80, p. 4), states that there are 28,000,000 handicapped adults in the U.S. who are denied access to work. It is not known how many of these handicapped adults are also
*Assistant protessor, joint-stafied with the Department of Adult Education and the Institute of Conmmnity and Area De"clopment, University of Georgia, Athens.
131

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illiterate and could benefit from adult basic education instruction. As a matter of fact, illiteracy is a handicap, although an invisible one. It is estimated by the Bureau of Census (1979, p. 78) that there are 124,000 men and 150,000 women in Georgia who have a handicap that prevents them from working. Approximately 1,788,110 (NACOAE 1974) adults in Georgia have less than a twelfth-grade education and are considered functionally illiterate. The important question for adult basic education teachers has two parts: (1) How many handicapped adults are illiterate? and (2) How many illiterate adults have a physical, mental, or emotional handicap that prevents their access to education and impedes their ability to learn?

Types of Handicaps
Steinfeld (cited in the White House Conference Report, p. 151) categorizes handicaps resulting from incomplete development, aging, accident, heredity, or disease into sixteen areas:
1. Difficulty interpreting information 2. Impairment of sight 3. Impairment of hearing 4. Loss of agility, reaction time 5. Prevalence of fainting, dizziness, poor balance 6. Incoordination 7. Limitation of stamina 8. Difficulty moving head 9. Difficulty lifting and reaching 10. Difficulty handling and fingering 11. Inability to use arms, shoulders 12. Difficulty bending, sitting, and turning 13. Difficulty using legs and feet

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Table 7
Work-related Disability

Number of Persons 18-64

Percent with Work Disability

United States Both Sexes 124,628,000 13.3

Georgia Both Sexes 2,898,000* 19.0

Georgia Men
Georgia Women

1,394,000 1,505,000

19.4 18.7*

Percent Percent Not Percent

Prevented Able to Able to

from

Work

Work

Working Regularly Regularly

5.8

1.7

5.8

9.5

2.3

7.2

8.9

1.5

9.0

10.0

3.1

5.5

Source: Bureau of Census. "Population Characteristics: Demographic, Social, and Economic Profile of States, Spring 1976." Current Population Reports. Series 20 No. 334. U.S. Department of Commerce, lanum', 1979, pp. 78-80.

*Data recorded as reported in source.

14. Inability to use legs and feet 15. Hyperesthesia (sensory loss) 16. Dimensional extremes

The Yearbook of Special Education (1979-80, p. 5) quotes the U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare definition of a handicapped person as "anyone with a physical or mental disability that substantially limits one or more of such major life activities as walking, seeing, hearing, speaking, working or learning."
Handicapping conditions are:

Alcoholism Cancer Cerebral palsy Deafness or hearing
impairment

Mental retardation Multiple sclerosis Muscular dystrophy Orthopedic, speech, or
visual impairment

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Diabetes

Perceptual handicaps

Drug addiction

such as:

Epilepsy

eDyslexia

Heart disease

eMinimal brain

Mental or emotional illness

dysfunction

eDevelopmental

aphasia

Effects of Handicaps on Learning
Handicaps which prevent access to classes, groups, and meetings would definitely have an effect on learning. These could be classified as environmental or structural barriers.
The degree of a person's ability to see and hear obviously will have an effect on his rate of learning. Helen Keller is an example that learning can take place, but it is difficult.
Diseases or conditions that distract the individual or impede the ability to concentrate, interpret, and react to media, materials, instructors, and peers have an effect on how an individual learns.
Why Should Adult Educators Be Concerned?
Concern for one's fellow man is a prerequisite for teaching and facilitating learning. Those who administer an adult basic education or vocational training program which receives federal money are responsible for providing these educational services to handicapped adults.
Two laws regarding handicapped people are of special interest to educators: Title V, Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (P.L. 93-112) and The Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 (P.L. 94-142).
Section 504 contains several provisions which apply to adult basic education and vocational training programs. Several

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135

parts of P.L. 93-112 must be understood by adult education teachers and administrators (Yearbook ofSpecial Education 1979-80, pp.7-9):
Consider a disabled applicant for admission on the same basis as nonhandicapped applicants.
Provide or locate free sources of learning aids, such as cassette tapes for vision-impaired students.
Evaluate, within one year, the quality and availability of academic programs and related services to handicapped students and begin to correct inadequate policies or practices.
Make the evaluation with the assistance-and expertise-of disabled persons or organizations for disabled persons.
Note that there are no requirements to provide ramps, elevators, and other devices to remove physical barriers in every part of a single building.
Make every program, viewed as a whole, accessible to handicapped students This may be done by redesigning equipment, providing aids, moving classes to accessible locations, altering existing structures, or making other accommodations so that disabled students can participate in every program.
Design new buildings to be barrier-free.
In recruitment, advertising, or processing of applications for employment-do not inquire about any disability an applicant may have or require a physical examination before a job offer is made.
For disabled employees, make reasonable accommodations to a disability by providing:
A reader for a blind employee who handles paperwork
An interpreter for a deaf employee whose job requires using a telephone

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Adequate workspace for an employee who uses a wheelchair
Minor adjustments in working hours if an employee is required to visit a methadone clinic daily

The Handicapped Person
Practical suggestions for meeting, teaching, and working with handicapped adults include (Young et a1. 1970):
The handicapped person (he or she):
1. may fail to possess feelings of personal adequacy, self-worth, and personal dignity; he/she may have failed so often in school that he/she is provided with a feeling of hopelessness. She/he may also be unable to accept the disability which has been reinforced by society's negative stereotyping.
2. may frequently be a disabled learner limited in his/ her capacity to master basic communication and computational-quantitative skills.
3. may have limited mobility within her/his community and thus have little knowledge of not only the mechanics of getting about, of how to use public transportation, but will lack important information regarding the community's geography, institutions, and places of commerce and industry. As a result, she/he may not view himself as part of his/ her community.
4. may possess personal-social characteristics which interfere with his/her ability to function satisfactorily in a competitive work setting.
5. may be affected by chronic illnesses and by sensory-motor defects which reduce her/his effective response to training and placement.

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137

6. may possess physical characteristics which can elicit rejection and can be viewed by peers, teachers, and employers as unpleasant.
7. may lack goal orientation and particularly that which is related to selection of an occupational training area and the anticipation of fulfillment in that area.
8. may have unrealistic notions as to what occupational area would be appropriate.
9. may lack exposure to worker models. This is particularly true of the large number of handicapped youth whose families receive public assistance or who are plagued by chronic unemployment.

How to Treat Handicapped Persons
The following suggestions which are especially helpful to teachers of adults with handicaps have been compiled by the New York State Easter Seal Society:
I. First of all, remember that the person with a handicap is a person. He is like anyone else, except for the special limitations of this handicap.
2. A disability need not be ignored or denied between friends. But until your relationship is that, show friendly interest in him as a person.
3. Be yourself when you meet him.
4. Talk about the same things as you would with anyone else.
5. Help him only when he requests it. When a handicapped person falls, he may wish to get up by himself, just as many blind persons prefer to get along without assistance. So offer help but wait for his request before giving it.

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Adults Learn Again

6. Be patient. Let the handicapped person set his own pace in walking or talking.
7. Don't be afraid to laugh with him.
8. Don't stop and stare when you see a handicapped person you do not know. He deserves the same courtesy any person should receive.
9. Don't be overprotective or oversolicitous. Don't shower the handicapped person with kindness.
10. Don't ask embarrassing questions. If the handicapped person wants to tell you about his disability, he will bring up the subject himself.
11. Don't offer pity or charity. The handicapped person wants to be treated as an equal. He wants a chance to prove himself.
12. Don't separate a disabled person from his wheelchair or crutches unless he asks you to. He may want them within reach.
13. When dining with a handicapped person, don't offer help in cutting his food. He will ask you or the waiter if he needs it.
14. Don't make up your mind ahead of time about the handicapped person. You may be surprised at how wrong you are in judging his interests and abilities.
15. Enjoy your friendship with the handicapped person. His philosophy and good humor will give you inspiration.

Kelley Workshop: Adult Basic Education for Handicapped Adults
Kelley Workshop, Inc., located in Athens, Georgia, serves physically, emotionally, and psychologically handicapped adults.

Adult Basic Education and HandicappedAdults

139

Individuals are referred to Kelley Workshop from the Georgia Division of Vocational Rehabilitation Services for assistance in assessment, education, training, and job placement. Adults are given a battery of cognitive, affective, and psychomotor tests to determine their strengths, limitations, and emotional readiness for entering into a program for adjustment and employment.
After individuals have been assessed, the~T design a plan of adjustment and work with their counselor. Periodic reviews of the plan are made by the individual and counselor in order to revise, update, and keep oriented toward employment objectives. When appropriate, basic education instruction is a part of the individual's program of adjustment. Instruction is directly related to workshop activities, for example, subcontract jobs which reimburse the individual on a per-work-hour or item basis, and the individual's employment objective.
As the individual progresses through the program and toward his adjustment objectives, attempts are made to place the client in a job. Placements are usually made in the Athens or surrounding area.

Adult Basic Education Teachers and Handicapped Adults
Very few adult basic education teachers will have the background information and detailed assessment data fe)r handicapped adults that is available at Kelley Workshop. Therefore, the adult basic education teacher must be resourceful in understanding the variety and extent of limitations that adults may possess when entering basic education programs. Sight and hearing (or physical) limitations may be noticeable or the individual may explain them to the teacher. Emotional and psychological limitations may be the most difficult to identifv and overcome. Table 8 is a ch~cklist of learning limitations that may be encountered with adults participating in the basic educatio~1 program.
Administrators or teachers in an adult basic education pro-

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Adults Learn Again

Table 8
Learning Limitations Checklist

Physical Limitations

1. Standing

20. Hypertension

2. Sitting

21. Diabetes

3. Lifting

22. Insomnia

4. Bending

23. Anxietv

5. Stooping

24. Depression

6. Reaching

25. Auditory hallucination

7. Carrying

26. Olfactory hallucination

8. Pushing

9. Pulling

Mental

10. Climbing

1. Emotional problems

11. Balance

2. Treatment for drug or alcohol abuse

12. Verbal

13. Walking

Behavior Observations

14. Physical exertion 1. Verbal communication

15. Vision

2. Social interactions

w/glasses

3. Logical thought

w/o glasses

4. Posture

16. Perception

5. Apparel

17. Epilepsy

6. Attitude/interest

18. Cardiac problems 7. Agitation

19. Back problems

8. Motor depression

9. Self-confidence

Adult Basic Education and Handicapped Adults

141

Table 9
Checklist ofAreas ofDiscrimination or Barriers against Handicapped Persons

o Catalogs and preadmission literature
o Admission procedures o Access to classes/courses/meetings
o Academic adjustments
o Auxiliary aids and services o Nonacademic activities o Housing o Employment o Building access (when holding classes/meetings, etc.):

Site Considerations Changes in Level

o parking space o curb cuts

0 ramps
0 elevators

o sidewalks

0 lifts

Doors
o width o opening
pressure
o threshold
Building Access

Rest Rooms
o location o Size
o stall width
& depth
o grab bars

Seating
o space for

wheelchairs
o traffic circulation

Floors and Halls 0 width 0 surface covering 0 obstructions/hazards
o operating mechanisms/
controls
o height
o ease of manipulation
Water Fountains
o height o controls

Telephone
o height o volume control

Table 10
Services Provided to Handicapped Persons by Federal Programs
PROGRAMS
1;1!!!lllllli!I~~~II~111

SERVICES
Diagnosis Evaluation Treatment Personal Care Da\' Care Domiciliary Care Spec. Li'ing Anang. Training EducatIon Sheltered Emplo\'ment Recreation Counseling Protective SCfyiccs Tnfrlrn'l<lori ......n & Referral

~o

v

"""jY"" v

v

,......L... v l-""

v

vv

vv

vv

vv

vv
vi I I vv

v

vjv vv

vv

v

vlvl flo"" Y" "'"

vli""'IY"IY" V [Y'" I,.....

v

vlv

""'Io""rv/"'/Y"/,;IY"/Y"

GarI'IlCtIIIe sur..,. Therapeutic Theatment Treat. Mental pisorders Maint. during Treatment Interprcrer Services Employ. Opportunities Mobility Train. Blind Social Services Homemaker Services Health Services Home Health Aide Chore Services Friend. Visiting Telephone Reassurance Asst. In Obtain. Hsg. Adapt. HSG. & Construct. $1,500 Homeowner Repair Nutrition-Meal Delivery Home Del. Meals Foster Care Home Mgrnt. & Maint. Adult Day Care Health Support Family Planning Home & Money Mgrnt. Food, Shelter, Clothing $250 Home Repairs Income Lab & X-rays SkiUed Nursing Home Extended Care Outpatient Services Physician Counsel to Home Purchs. Congregate Housing Escort Services

1

1"..'.1 \ ,...... \ '

...

...

...

...

...

...

...... ... ...

...

...

...

...... ... ...

......

...

... ...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...... ...

...

...

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...

...

...

...

...

...

...

... ... ...

...

.........

...

...

...

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...... ...... ... ...... ... ... ...... ... ...

144

Adults Learn Again

gram should be aware of areas of discrimination or barriers against handicapped persons (Table 9).

Agencies Assisting Handicapped Persons (Federal Agencies with Regional or State Offices in Georgia)
There are 0\'Cr eighty separate federal agencies (White House ContCrence 1977, pp. 312-16) that provide services to handicapped persons. Most of these have a regional or state office located in Georgia. Examples of agencies include:
Mental Retardation Program Community Mental Health Services Support Basic Grants to States for Vocational-Technical Education Administration on Aging MedicaidlSRS-MSA Veterans Administration ACTlON Small Business Administration (Handicapped Assistance
Local Programs)
Table 10 identifies services provided by federal programs. Areas identified with a mav have basic education programs that include sheltered employment, vocational training, and vocational rehabilitation.

Georgia Agencies Providing Services to Handicapped Persons
The Cooperative Extension Service home economist should be contacted tc)r infc)rmation about teaching-learning facilities, rehabilitation, and transportation services available to handicapped adults in a particular county or region. The Georgia Department of Human Resources has personnel in the divisions of Vocational

Adult Basic Education and Handicapped Adults

145

Rehabilitation, Physical Health, and family/Children Services who can offer assistance to handicapped adults. Home Health Agencies, located throughout Georgia, can also provide services, such as speech therapy, physical and occupational therapy, and nutritional counseling, to handicapped adults. Georgia's Subregional Libraries provide "talking books" for the blind and physically handicapped. Cooperative Educational Service Agencies (CESAs), located throughout Georgia, can be called upon to help locate assistance, services, and resources for the handicapped.

Other Resources

Arthritis Foundation, 2799 Delk Road, S.W, Marietta, Ga. 30067
Booklet on how to make inexpensive aids for handicapped and disabled persons (Free)
Fashion-Able, Rockyhill, N.J. 08533 Fashion-Able Catalog (50)
Accent on Living, P.O. Box 700, Bloomington, Ill. 61701 Assertion Living Quarterly Magazine ($4.00/year) (Other titles at cost) Write for list of titles
Source: Atlanta Journal/Constitution-Sunday, February 10, 1980

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Adults Learn Again

References

Marquis Who's Who, Inc. Yearbook ofSpecial Education: 1979-80. Chicago: Marquis Academic Media, 1979.
National Advisory Council on Adult Education. A Target Population in Adult Education. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1974.
U.S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census. "Population Characteristics: Demographic, Social, and Economic Profile of States, Spring 1976." Current Population Reports, Series 20, No. 334, (January 1979).
U.S. White House Conference on Handicapped Individuals: Awareness Paper. Proceedings from May 1977, Voll. Washington, D.C.: GovernP1ent Printing Office, 1977.
Young, Earl B. et al. Vocational Education jOr Handicapped Persons: Handbook jOr Program Implementation. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1970.

Chapter 12
Teaching English as a
Second Language
In years past it was relatively safe to assume that teaching English as a second language (ESL) was a local problem primarily confined to large cities on the east and west coasts of the United States. The past twenty years have dramatically changed that situation and every region of the U.S. has foreign nationals and U.S. citizens who must learn to speak English to enter the mainstream of their new life. In some sections of the U.S., Spanish has become a second language. The successive waves of Cubans, Asians, Puerto Ricans, and other foreign nationals who have settled in every part of the U.S. have added a new dimension to adult education-that of teaching English as a second language.
This chapter is intended to serve as an introduction to the various dimensions of teaching ESL, provide references for further study, and suggest teaching materials for the new teacher to use. The process of teaching ESL differs markedly from teaching adult basic education to native citizens since the total process of learning to speak English and coping with and understanding new customs must proceed as an integrated experience of acculturation. The penalty for failure is a frustrated student who will, at worst, leave the program and, at best, will be an incompletely developed learner.
147

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Adults Learn Again

This chapter does not discuss the technical aspects of teaching reading and writing since the materials in Unit II work for ESL as well as for the native adult. However, it is important to note that instruction in reading and writing must not begin until the ESL student has learned to speak English.
The user of a language is often unaware of how he uses it and how its structure influences his speech patterns. Language is spoken thought although communication is not always achieved for various reasons. An hour's discussion with a foreign national who had learned textbook English often results in mental exhaustion for both parties because of the effort needed to achieve two-way communication. A Chinese student who spoke beautiful textbook English estimated that he was only 20 percent effective in his first year of university study because he did not understand the meaning of the lectures although he did understand the meaning of the words. Language and culture cannot be separated in the classroom or in the marketplace.

Basic Principles of Teaching ESL
The principles listed here are by no means complete. The purpose is to discuss those that may assist the new ESL teacher in determining the differences in teaching the ESL student from the native basic education student.
The ESL student must learn to communicate by listening and speaking before he begins to learn to read and write. A person must know what a word means before he can read or write the word with understanding. He cannot communicate through reading and writing beyond his spoken vocabulary. The ESL teacher should stress basic sentence structure, survival words, and provide ample opportunities for the ESL student to practice vocabulary drills. The drills should follow the exercises in Chapter 4 to introduce students to basic language relationships as they learn words in a continuum.

Teaching English as a Second Language

149

The ESL student cannot adjust to our culture and become a participating citizen until he speaks, understands, and thinks in his new language. In a sense, the language of the street, the job, and the marketplace becomes the ultimate learning objective of the ESL student.

Language has structure, and the structure must become habit for the ESL student. The structure and panerns of communication are important, and correct use must become an habitual way of speaking for the ESL student to be an effective communicator. Chapter 4 discusses the structure of the English language and provides drills recommended to begin its teaching. When the ESL student has learned a basic vocabulary, he is ready to learn the structure of the language.

The ESL program teaches language and culture simultaneously; however, it should not be implied that one culture is superior to another. The ESL teacher must avoid making anv statements that could be interpreted as value judgments that one culture is superior to another. The foreign student must learn the cultural anributes of the new region and country, but this does not mean that he will not continue to value the cultural traditions of his homeland. It follows that the efrective ESL teacher will become familiar with the cultures of his students.

The ESL student must learn the ways words sound when spoken in conversation. Radio, television, and movies are valuable learning experiences for the ESL student. for meaning to become clear, the student must learn to understand spoken sentences as quickly as possible. While meanings of words are important, they do not necessarily lead to communication.

Oral practice in conversation is the most effective learning method for beginning ESL adult students. The successful ESL teacher knows that the most effective use of classroom time is devoted to structuring and organizing outside learning experi-

150

Adults LearnAgain

ences for the adult student. Obviously, most of the learning will take place outside the classroom while the student is acquiring facility in the language. When a sufficient level of language fluency is reached, the process of learning to read and write the new language can begin.

The Student
ESL adult students may be from any part of the world. They may be bankers, medical doctors, farmers, or mechanics. Some may hold graduate degrees while others cannot sign their names in their native language. Back home they may have been powerful and wealthy or poor and oppressed. However, as nonEnglish speaking persons they share in common the inability to cope in a strange and alien land. They cannot shop, find a restroom, travel by bus, or communicate without assistance.
Some students are shy and diffident while others are aggressive. Some do not wish to attend class where there are persons of a different religion present. Lingering hostilities from past or present territorial or political disputes may be a barrier to learning for some. When a husband and wife attend the same class, the wife, who may have been trained to be subservient to the husband, may not feel free to speak up in class.
In any event, the adult education teacher must become an expert at finding ways to provide direction and purpose for the students through an instructional program to match the unique needs of each student. In a sense, the ultimate goal of the teacher of the ESL student and of the native born illiterate is the samethat is, to assist the individual adult to become all he is capable of becoming. However, instructing persons who do not speak English requires that considerable time be spent learning English as a prerequisite to learning new skills or applying skills learned in another culture. However, the concept of learning to cope on the job or in the marketplace while learning to read applies both for the native born and foreign born. The process will be slower for foreign born students in most instances since they have the

Teaching English as a Second Language

151

added job of learning the spoken language and the customs of a new culture.

Basic Learning Technology
The mechanics of learning to read and write the English language are the same for the foreign born student as they are for the native adult. The need to understand and use language in terms of time, space, amount, and quality to communicate with others is basic to learning to read and write. The processes described in Units II and III for teaching communication and computation skills apply to the ESL student. The important point for the ESL teacher to remember is that the process cannot be hurried or changed. Until the ESL student has achieved facility in classifying information, he cannot think in his adopted language. After he learns to classify information, he thinks in his new language and is able to communicate. As discussed earlier, speech does not necessarily imply communication. For that reason, it appears that instruction in formal grammar in the early stages of learning a new language may impede the process of learning and frustrate the efforts of the ESL student to learn English.

The Cultural Dimension of Teaching ESL
Because language is a part of culture, or more precisely because language is the outgrowth of culture as a whole, it is easy to see how differences may result from the way different people perceive the same thing. An innocent act or word in one culture may be offensive to a person from another culture. When the teacher expresses ideas in English, he may need to explain them also in terms of the culture of the foreign student. While it is true that the primary purpose of ESL is to assist the student to become integrated into our society, it is important that the foreign student does not lose his values attached to his original cul-

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Adults Learn Again

ture. His life focus is to gain the language and communication skills to function effectively in his adopted culture. This will occur when he is prepared to compete successfully as a doctor, lawyer, banker, carpenter, or employee in skills he brought from his own culture or when he acquires adequate basic communication skills to train for productive employment. In addition, he must learn to function as a parent, citizen, and consumer in his new culture.

Cultural Characteristics
A brief review of some national cultural characteristics will illustrate the need for the ESL teacher to be aware of their importance to his foreign born students.
For example, Americans are taught to look a person in the eye when speaking to indicate our sincerity and truthfulness. In some Spanish-speaking cultures, this is viewed as a mark of disrespect, and eye contact is avoided when speaking to an authority figure.
Cambodians consider the family their first loyalty-before country or religion. The extended family generally consists of three generations. The family unit consists of the spirits of the dead as well as the unborn. Whatever a man does, he does out of family consideration rather than for himself, and personal relationships within the family are treasured above material possessions. Westerners have a difficult time with names since Cambodians use the family name, middle name, and given name in that order. The wife usually keeps her family name, and the children take the father's name.
Generally, persons from eastern countries prize politeness and may seem shy and reluctant to interact. They may refuse help even when they want and need it and may refrain from asking questions even about important matters. They are considerate and gentle people. Their emotions are private and personal and are never expressed in public. They smile for all occasions. They find many of our practices offensive. It is an insult to touch them

TelUhing English as a Second Language

153

on their heads or slap them on their backs. It is rude to call them with a finger gesture or by waving, and it is considered impolite for a person to put his feet on a table since the foot is the lowest part of the body.
Typical eastern students are modest and will refuse praise saying they don't deserve it. They are afraid to lose face in class so they seldom volunteer answers. They expect the teacher to make all decisions for them.
The Japanese have generally learned classroom English, but they are not proficient enough in spoken English to converse when they come to the United States.
The Japanese enjoy conversation and are very good listeners. Because saving face and being polite are very much a part of the Japanese culture, it is difficult for the ESL teacher to assess his students' comprehension and speaking levels. The Japanese are afraid of being laughed at and want to be secure in social settings. They are competitive, hard-working people and prize prestige and recognition. However, with all their politeness, the Japanese have been unsuccessful in learning to arrive on time. They have little regard for the western value of punctuality.

ESL Class Composition
The typical ESL class will have persons from several different cultures with varying levels of education and ability to communicate in English. An ESL teacher in writing of her experiences said:
Nothing in my years of public school teaching had quite prepared me for becoming an ESL instructor. I could count to ten, tell the time of day, and greet the husband of my aunt in my college-style French. During the summer we part-time instructors suddenly found ourselves with two young Mexican men who were illiterate in their own language, and two El Salvadorans-one well educated, and the other with a third-grade education. They were joined almost im-

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Adults Learn Again

mediately, by a young woman from Ecuador, a bride of four weeks, just arrived in the United States. Next came two young women from Viet Nam and yet another young man from Cambodia. She concluded by saying, ''We teach our students, but we, in turn, are learning from them as well."

The ESL Teaching Process
The ESL student presents a different challenge to the adult education teacher than the native illiterate does. Since the ESL student does not speak English as a rule, is in a cultural transition, and lives in isolation when separated from his family, these problems must be addressed before effective instruction in reading and computation begins. In fact, it is advisable to develop a spoken vocabulary of "survival" words before instruction in reading and writing begins. The primary difference in teaching practices centers on the need for the foreign students to learn spoken English so that they can understand and be understood by the people they must deal with in the various social and health care agencies and in food and clothing stores. For the teacher, the primary difference lies in his need to appreciate the cultural dissimilarities between the United States and the countries his students call home.
Survival words (which should be given as contrast sets) such as stop, go; men, women; smoking, no smoking; can be identified by the adult student from the job, the home, and the marketplace. Difficult words for the individual student can be put on language master cards and used each day until he has mastered the word or phrase. Use of language master cards teaches the sound of the word as well as the symbol for the word, thus providing a basic spoken and sight recognition for the symbol. While survival words may vary from person to person, the teacher may wish to prerecord a number of words that all students should know.
Field trips to various places in the community are an excel-

Teaching English IU a Second Language

ISS

lent way to learn. Class trips to a supermarket, drugstore, or health department provide abundant sources of new words as well as opportunities for learning more about the community. The class may be divided into groups, and each group may assume the responsibility for collecting words about a classification of articles. For example, one group may classity fruits by name, size, and shape while another does the same for vegetables. Later they may construct posters using the illustrations described in Unit II adding the name of the item under the picture. The field trip will provide experiences that the student would not likely attempt alone as well as the basis to teach the relationships required in learning to communicate.
Class visits to museums, typical American restaurants, and the movies add variety and interest. Endless diversity is possible by expanding assignments for advanced students or by having advanced students accompany new students on trips.
The objectives of the field trip cover the students' learning new vocabulary, sentence structure, and the differences in spoken English. The languages of the street, the school, social work settings, and the job all differ. Considerable time will be required for the ESL student to master these differences, and practice is the only way to learn these nuances. The experienced teacher will always be alert for opportunities for his students to add to their range of experiences with their new language and their new culture.

Teaching Materials for ESL
The selection of classroom materials for ESL has sparked many lively discussions among ESL teachers. In addition to teacher preference, the composition of the class should play the major role in material selection. The nationalities represented, their education level in their native language, their facility in the USe of spoken and written English, and other factors will determine their need for materials. Obviously, one set of materials for a class is not sufficient even though the set may be at various

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instructional levels. The ideal situation would combine teacherprepared basic instructional materials for each student with commercially prepared supplementary readings and exercises. This is not practical, in most instances, since this preparation would place intolerable demands on the teacher's time. However, the ESL teacher experienced in planning a program of study for the individual can call on community resources for a rich supply of materials. Social Security materials, drivers' license applications, banking forms, and applications for employment provide highinterest, real-life materials for the student.
Using commercial materials is a necessity, and these are generally very good. They are usually written for specific purposes and difficulty levels. The more comprehensive materials cover each area of language learning: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. In selecting materials for classroom use, the individual teacher will want to evaluate them in terms of the ease with which he can add to or leave out portions to adapt them to his own teaching objectives. Commercial materials should also be evaluated in terms of adult interests and motivation.
Ideally, the ESL classroom will be a miniature library. Graded instructional materials on three or more levels, high-interest books for adults on several reading levels, dictionaries, and community resource materials are necessary components for a program to be adequate. There should be different types of instructional materials appropriate for each student in the ESL class.
Programmed materials, the learning center, or the laboratory approach are not practical for ESL classes. However, language master cards and a tape recorder can be effectively used in ESL classes. As a general rule, ESL students are not independent learners although a goal of ESL instruction should always be to assist the student to become an independent learner.

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Summary

English as a second language is a relatively new teaching activity for many adult education programs. The skills and sensitivities required for teaching ESL students require special training and different materials for beginning instruction. As the ESL student gains facility in English and becomes secure in his new environment, he may be integrated into the ongoing adult education program.
It is clear that for several years to come there will be increasing demands on adult education programs to provide ESL classes. The patterns of refugee relocations and settlement have created a need for classes in small towns and rural areas across the United States. The requirements for teaching ESL dictate special training programs for teachers in every state. The logical source for providing the necessary funds for hiring consultants, buying materials, and preparing teachers for certification is the state department of education.

References
Dobson, Julia M., and Hankins, Gerald S. Conversation in English. New York: American Book Company, 1978.
Dykstra, Gerald et al. Composition: Guided Free. New York: Teachers College Press, 1974.
Graham, Carolyn. Jazz Chants. New York: Oxford University Press, 1978.
Hall, Eugene J., and Costinett, Sandra. Orientation in American English. Silver Spring, Md.: Institute of Modern Languages, Inc., 1971.
Kohl, Herbert. Reading, How To. New York: Bantam Books, 1974. Krohn, Robert. English Sentence Structure. Ann Arbor, M"ich.: Univer-
sity of Michigan, 1971.

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Lorenz, Marian Brown. Patterns of American English. Dobbs Ferry, N.Y.: Oceana Publications, 1971.
Mellgren, Lars, and Walker, Michael. New Horizons in English. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1978.
Praninskas, Jean. Rapid Review ofEnglish Grammar. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1975.
Raimer, Ann. Focus on Composition. New York: Oxford University Press, 1978.
Rivers, Wilga, and Tempedey, Mary. Practical Guide to the Teaching of English. New York: Oxford University Press, 1978.
Taylor, Grant. Learning American English. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1956.
- - - . Mastering American English. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1956.
Ulmer, Curtis. Teaching the Culturally Disadvantaged Adult. Engle-
wood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1972.
Yorkey, Richard C. et al. Intercom. New York: American Book Company, 1979.

UNIT V
THE TEACHING PROCESS

Chapter 13
Counseling the Adult Basic Education Student
This chapter* presents the exciting process of counseling the adult student. It is written primarily for the adult basic education teacher although the professional counselor may find it useful as a way to become acquainted with the special needs of adults who have few, if any, communication skills as they apply to reading, writing, and mathematics. Since education must be responsive to the needs of special groups, the definition of counseling as adapted to the special population of undereducated adults is the facilitating service provided by professional counselors, teachers, paraprofessionals, and volunteers to assist these adults in planning their educational experiences, in coping with their life circumstances, in taking advantage of services provided by various community agencies, and, most important, in changing their behavior in significant ways. For undereducated adults, the purpose of education is to assist them to grow, to be lifelong learners, and to reach their full potential. Finally, the purpose of a basic education is to assist the individual to learn how to learn
*Special appreciation is extended to Dr. William Scaggs, President, Meridian (Mississippi) Junior College, for pennission to use materials he developed.
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through learning how to read, write, and compute effectively and how to perform successfully as a citizen, parent, and worker.
By avoiding professional jargon and using practical experiences drawn from the life roles of the adult student, this chapter stresses a practical operational approach to the process of counseling adults.

The Counseling Setting
Under the Adult Education Act of 1966, federal funds are allocated to state departments of education to develop local programs of adult basic education. While the states have considerable flexibility in administering these programs, the usual pattern is to allocate funds to local school districts for programs.
The programs are typically taught by part-time teachers although full-time adult teachers are used in increasing numbers in urban areas. In rural areas, the teacher often has little contact with supervisors and must depend entirely on his own skills for the complete program. While larger ones may offer the teacher some assistance, very few programs have the services of a trained counselor. for this reason, the situation in which the teacher also acts as the counselor will prevail for some time. In any event, the "front line" of teaching is the place where the teacher must assist the student to grow in understanding and to cope with his unique environment at the same time he is improving his literacy skills. A student cannot make progress satisfactorily without acquiring both personal and educational skills.

The Uniqueness of Counseling Adults
The Change Process All adults have the desire to learn and to grow. for some,
neither the learning nor the growth has been adequate to allow

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them to meet their adult responsibilities. The process of adult counseling is designed to help adults identi~' behavior changes that are significant to them personally, select opportunities to achieve those behavior changes, and achiC\'e those desired changes in a satis~'ing manner. In this change process the adult student develops educational and coping skills which in combination support the total growth of the indi\idual.
The adult student ma~' not be aware that, whether or not he achie\'Cs the objectives that brought him back to class, his selfconcept and his view of the world about him will be altered. The adult basic education student will likely resist these changes in himself~ but his concept of what constitutes an effective human being will be changed. These changes in attitudes toward humanistic values are as much a part of adult learning as the behavior changes brought about by new learning. The percepti\'e counselor will be alert to changes in self-image and to improvement in literacv skills in each individual student and will watch for these influences on the student's home environment.

The Counselor as Learning Specialist
The counselor is a specialist in assisting adults to learn more effectively. He accomplishes this as he diagnoses and responds to the adult shldent's vocational, educational, and personal problems. At the same time he is providing assistance, the counselor should assume the duty of assisting the adult to take greater selfresponsibility. Wide differences exist among adults in basic education classes in terms of previous education, ability, social and ethnic backgrounds, and even language patterns. The counselor must first be aware ot~ and understand, these characteristics in order to deal effectivelv with them. Manv of these characteristics adversely affect the altult's performance' in learning new skills, and the counselor must be alert to the individual differences in adult students and their ways of expressing these behaviors.

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The Counselor and the Learning Process

If the purpose of the counseling program is seen as assisting the adult student in his total learning process, then understanding how and why adults learn is basic to counseling. Let us briefly cover a few assumptions about the learning process of adults. While these assumptions may be relevant in youth counseling, they are imperative in dealing with adults. Essentially they deal with human dignity, worth of the individual, self-awareness, and the belief that, provided he has sufficient information, in a given situation the individual will make a choice that is correct for him.

The Learning Environment
An adult learns more effectively when he is accepted and valued as a person. Indeed, a voluntary learner must feel accepted and comfortable in his learning environment before constructive learning can take place.

The Reasons Adults Return to the Classroom
Adults are concerned with "the here and now," and learning is easier when they can see practical applications for the information they are learning. As reasons for attending basic education classes, most adults list personal improvement first, closely followed by vocational improvement. His reasons for returning to school may be somewhat obscure to the adult student, and it is important that the counselor assist him in sorting out and interpreting these reasons.

Adults' Individual Learning Needs
Educators tend to think in terms of grade level, disciplines, and units oflearning. However, no two persons learn at the same rate or, for that matter, in the same way. Adult students differ

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from each other in terms of needs, aptitudes, interests, and rate of learning. They become frustrated and lea\'C the learning setting when their individual needs are not being met. Failure in a learning situation adds to the lack of confidence and low selfesteem the adult student has experienced in many other facets of lite. The counselor should be aware of the adult student's ability and reading level and should plan initial instruction so that the greatest chances f(JI" success are provided.

Examining Adults' Attitudes
As people age, they become more rigid and unyielding in their beliefs and attitudes. Their prejudices tend to become "fact." It takes considerable insight for an adult to change a belief developed over the years. If the adult "believes" something to be true, he will behave as if it were true. Assisting the adult to gain insight into his feelings is a difficult part of the counselor's job. Yet learning and personal growth depend on examining longterm beliefs or prejudices held by the adult student.

Relationship between Counselor and Students
The adult education counselor must relate to the adult education student as an equal. He must come across as a "real" person and exhibit consistent behaviors and attitudes toward his students. The adult basic education student is often patronized by persons he deals with and becomes an expert in reading nonverbal clues. At all times the counselor must "be himself" and express a genuine empathy and concern tC)f his adult students. The ability to believe in and accept adults as they are is a fundamental attribute for an adult counselor. Often this personal quality of accepting adult students is the greatest need, yet for one reason or another, it is hardest to give. If he is to establish successful communication with his students, the adult counselor must be-
open and must accept people as they are

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nonjudgmental and must not allow himself to pass judgment on his students
supportive and must let his students know that he has confidence in them as human beings capable of solving their own problems

Qualifications for Counseling Adults
The counselor's role is varied and demanding. Before effective counseling can be accomplished, the counselor must be technically proficient in counseling skills, have an understanding of the teaching programs and materials of adult basic education, have considerable information about lifestvles of the adult student, and be able to communicate with persons who hold different values and beliefs-and gain their acceptance. Ideally, he would also know a great deal about the learning characteristics of adults.

Community Agencies
The population segment of adult basic education is composed mostly of poor people, minorities, and recent immigrants. For these underprivileged people, their lack of reading and social skills tends to deprive them of the services provided by various local, state, and national agencies. It is ironic that many poor adults know little, if anything, about the numerous agencies that provide a variety of services to the poor.
The following community agencies are available to assist adults who need their services. Their services mav varv somewhat from community to community, and it is part of the counselor's job to become familiar with the local agencies so that he can refer adult students to them as the need arises.
Public Health-Health screenings for children; crippled children; dental health; emergency health; pap smear test; kidney

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and cancer treatment; hypertension, diabetes, and pulmonary disease screening; environmental health.

Public Welfare-Financial aid to families with dependent children, food stamps, adoptions, foster homes, protective services, work incentive programs.

Public Mental Health-Hospitalization; half-way houses; day programs; outpatient clinics; individual, marital, family, and group therapy; drug stabilization; community support programs; drug and alcohol treatment; community education and consultation (mandated by federal legislation and particularly helpful to the adult education student); mental retardation.

Youth Public Offenders-Residential, outpatient, and "inhome" services for juveniles who are in trouble with the law.

Vocational Rehabilitation-Phvsical and mental health services to aid vocational rehabilitation, counseling evaluation, vocational training for the handicapped.

Aging-Meals, transportation, recreation, education; and a variety of social services tor the elderly.

Manpower-A variety of evaluation, trammg, and educational programs aimed at moving individuals into the job market.

Family Counseling-Individual, couple, family, group, and sex therapy.

Community Action-Transportation, counseling, health e~ucation, manpower development, and a variety of other ser-
Vices to aid the economically handicapped.

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The Adult Counseling Process

The ultimate goal of counseling is to make it easier for adults to learn through facilitating the process of placement, scheduling, goal setting, and assisting in personal and family problems that arise when adults return to school. The importance of an adequate counseling program cannot be overemphasized. For example, most adults who enter adult basic education programs leave school before completing their program of study. A significant number leave during the first month. They leave for reasons such as job changes, family responsibilities, ill health, and failure to see the connection between what they are doing in class and their reasons for enrolling. An adequate counseling program should materially reduce the rate ofthese dropouts. Additionally, a good counseling program makes the learning program more efficient and eftcctive for those who stay. Since adult basic education programs are diftcrent from other education programs, the objectives of the counselor also difter.

Goals of Counseling Programs
The primary goal of adult basic education counsclors is to provide the circumstances and personal counseling necessary to assist the adult student to assume greater responsibility for his own learning. This process is not easy for people who make up the population segment which is dependent on the larger society for economic survival. However, the rewards for success are so great and the penalty for failure to the individual and society so large that the programs of basic education must be continually refined and improved.

Recruitment
Counselors who understand and have rapport with the underprivileged segment of society are best suited for recruiting

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adults into basic education programs. The counseling process begins at the recruiting stage which is the time for the counselor to assist the adult in setting realistic goals. Ideally, the counselor will guide each adult toward the type of program best suited for him in communities where several basic education programs exist. For example, a nonworking mother would be advised to attend a day program; a person with a job would be best sihlated in an evening program; while persons with different needs would be directed to a CETA program or a vocational/adult basic education program. Correct program placement often makes the difference between success and failure for the adult shldent. Unforhlnately, most rural areas do not offer a choice of programs, and the counselor should make every attempt to provide classes at a time and place appropriate to the needs of his students.

Orientation
The registration and orientation process should be planned so that every registrant can have an individual session with the counselor. This is the time when the shldents should be introduced to the counseling service and should have the different services available explained to them.
As a general rule, testing should not be done in the orientation session. For purposes of placement, the counselor should use a brief word list for initial grade level placement in a five- or ten-minute session. Diagnostic testing should be postponed until the adult shldent is comfortable in the new setting. The tone and setting of the orientation should be supportive whiie conveying the message that each person will assume responsibility for his own learning program. Questionnaires and data gathering should be held to a minimum.

Educational and Vocational Planning
A potentiallv stressful situation for the adult basic education student com"es when he discovers how long it will take to

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meet his goals. The adult tends to be an impatient learner and to see progress in terms of immediate rather than long-range goals. The adult student requires a sense of accomplishment, and the counselor must assist him in establishing short-term goals so that he can experience immediate positive feedback about progress toward his goals. For this reason, the instructional program must be geared to the goals of the individual, and the counselor must be aware of each student's goals. The adult needs to know realistically where he is now, where he wants to go, and what steps he must take in the process. Seldom does the objective of receiving a high school certificate or achieving a grade-level completion answer these questions sufficiently for the adult.
Occasionally, an adult will enroll for the purpose of learning to sign his name or to count money. The role is reversed in these instances, and the counselor must assist the adult in developing a series of short-range goals leading to a long-term goal.
When tests or evaluations are used in this or other activities, care must be taken in their interpretation to make sure the adult feels that his overall well-being is more important than the test or the test results.
The success of the adult education program depends, in part, on the cooperation and teamwork of the professional staff. Counselors' insights must be conveyed to the administrative staff and the teacher to maximize the results to the student.

Approaches to the Special Problems of Counseling Adults
The adult basic education counselor encounters special concerns and problems in working with most adult students. These concerns and problems are real to the adult student and are most often generated from feelings of inadequacy about his ability. to learn and from a sense of frustration or hostilitv. toward the school. The counselor's responsibility is not to provide pre-

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scriptive information but to treat each question as the genuine concern of an individual in need of help.
There are, however, some general approaches to be used as adults raise their questions:

Get the right question. Frequently, the question an adult asks will not be the real question he wants to ask. The counselor must take care to see that the stated question is not a reflection of an unstated one. The counselor must apply his skills to ensure that the true concern of the adult is being verbalized.

Respond by seeking more information. Because of the frequency with which problems common to all adult learners are brought to the counselor, it becomes easy for counselors to develop routine responses to what appear to be routine questions. The counselor has a responsibility to seek the underlying factors which cause a given individual to ask a particular question. This can best be accomplished by seeking more information about the counselee and about his feelings toward the problem.

Jointly define the problem. Before moving the counseling interview toward problem solution, the adult and the counselor should make certaih they share an understanding of the question. The counselor may find it helpful to restate the question to be sure that the adult concurs with his definition of the problem.

Contribute relevant information slowly. In responding to questions, counselors frequently overwhelm adults with information. While it is important that the counselee be given information which will help him resolve his problem, it is vital that this information be provided in a manner which allows the counselee to understand its relevance.

Draw out the feelings of the adult. Usually adult-initiated discussion of a problem or question begins with statements of fact. As the feelings of the adult are as significant as facts, the adult counselor will help the adult express his feelings.

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Help the adult seek alternatives. Preoccupation with a concern can frequently prevent the adult from recognizing alternative approaches to a solution. The counselor should try to lead the adult to see what other options are open to him.

DonJtgive advice. The problem with giving direct advice is that the adult may take it. Telling adults what to do about problems transfers their responsibility to the counselor. When this occurs, the counseling goal of individual development is subverted.

Let the adult solve his own problem. It is not enough for the counselor to avoid giving advice, he must also allow the adult to work out his own solutions to problems. The counselor's role remains to contribute information, provide understanding and support, and encourage the adult to seek his own answers.

Summarize. The adult counselor may review the question or problem in the light of the total interview and determine if the adult concurs in his description of what has been communicated. If possible, the adult should be encouraged to summarize the session.

Adult Concerns
The following questions, which are often raised by adult learners returning to school, reveal a great deal about their selfimages, fears, and doubts. Often these questions indicate problems which interfere with learning. Obviously, many problems which relate to employment concerns, family troubles, and lack of economic resources make it difficult, if not impossible, for students to attend class. The counselor's role is to assist the adult student to identify, clarify, and deal with these problems. The problems tend to fall in two categories: (1) internal, caused by feelings of inadequacy for the task generally based in lack of in

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formation and (2) external, caused by work-related constraints, by need for transportation, and by conflicts with family responsibilities.

Internal
"I'm too old to go to school." "I'd like to withdraw." "My test scores are low." "What new skill can I learn at my age?" "How long will it take me to complete the program?" "1 did not like school when I attended as a child." "1 placed at only a 3.5 grade level, and my friends did much better."

External
"I have to withdraw."
"I'm needed at home-my wife/husband does not approve of my attending school." "1 can't afford to come."
I
"When do I have time to see a counselor?" "My boss is not sympathetic." "1 don't understand this application form." "When I have a chance for overtime, I must take it." "School is too far from home."
Fortunately, many anxieties and frustrations of the adult basic education sWdent ~an be dealt with through a team approach. !he teacher and counselor can address many of these problems ill group discussion. Class members tend to support each other and give valuable help in opinion forming and sharing. In other cases, direct intervention may be required to assist the individual to sort out his priorities and options. The counselor must be

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careful to avoid having the adult student become excessively dependent on him in solving problems. A self-directed adult who learns to deal with his problems is the counselor's goal.
There are occasions when the adult student must drop out. The counselor can assist the student in the transition in two ways. first, the counselor needs to know the real reason for the termination (which often is not the stated reason). finding out the true reasons why students drop out often provides information that \vill assist teachers and administrators to correct or improve circumstances that cause students to drop out. Second, the counselor can reter the shH.icnt to a social agency for assistance.

Adult Education Counselors' Problems
Most adult counselors share a common characteristic with their adult students; they, too, are moonlighters. The part-time counselor is usually drawn from the public school system where his role is considerably different. While the ideal situation in the adult education program would be to employ full-time counselors, funds are not often available to attain this approach. The major problems tix the part-time counselor are getting to kno\\' his adult students, establishing rapport with them, and finding the opportunities to work with them during class time. Most part-time adult students ha\'e hIll-time jobs and [1111ilv responsibilities that make it difficult ti)\" them to devote more than class time at school. Since the teachers and administrators generall~' work part-time also, and at difierent locations ti"om their fulltime jobs, the communications problem may extend to the teacher, administrator, and counseling team.
Adults are otten reluctant to see a counselor, believing that they are competent to solve their problems. Olwioush', manvof them are competent. Howen::r, bv planning adequate schedules, registration procedures, and other related tasks, the counselor indirectly helps all adults enrolled. The efiective counselor is not "office bound" since he knows th~lt to be an efiective counselor he must spend most of his time with the students. However, the

Counseling the Adult Basic Education Student

17.5

counselor must "sell" this conccpt to program administrators and gain thcir understanding ,1Ild support t<)r an outrcach pro-
gram. Thc adult basic cducation counselor is oftcn frustratcd I1\"
his bilurc to help thc adult studcnt. Sincc thc counselor has thc rcsponsibilitv of assisting thc adult student in idcnti~'ing altcrnativcs, hc may feel that hc has Elilcd if thc adult chooscs an altcrnativc that thc counselor considers a poor choicc. Howcver, thc adult studcnt mav havc cithcr madc thc choicc hc felt was correct or takcn what appcarcd to bc thc onlv option available. The "poor" choice rcflcctcd thc adult student's judgmcnt f()llowing good counseling procedurc. Another important beror in evaluating thc rcsults of counseling is timing; adult bcha\'ior changc is a slow proccss, and it nu\' be wccks or months aftcr a counseling session beforc thc changc bccomcs intcgratcd in bchavior.
Thc values of thc adult basic cducation studcnt arc likelv to be considcrablv differcnt from the \'alucs of thc counselor, and they ma~' differ in significant ways. for instancc, somc cthnic groups belicvc that it is an insult to look into thc cycs of an authority figurc. Othcr groups havc learncd to exist bv thcir wits, and thc successful thid~ liar, or chcat nu~' be a local hero. Going to church, tclling thc truth, working hard, and plaving fair mav be alien conccpts to mal1\'. Thcir beliefs may bc personall\' offensive to thc counselor. If hc sces his task as improving learning opportunitics, hc will not makc an df<xt to changc studcnts' bchavior. Ncithcr should hc change his o\\"n \'alucs or behavior. The counselor docs have thc rcsponsibility to learn as much as possible about thc cultural values and differenccs, li\'ing col1liitions, and bcliefs of thc adult studcnts hc counsels in an effort to improve his counseling scn'iccs. This \\"illlikel~' sen'c a secondary purpose of achie\'ing understanding and cmpathy on thc part of the counselor.

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Summary

Counseling and teaching adult basic education students are human development processes for both the adult student and the counselor. Growth of the individual is the ultimate goal-for the adult student to become more proficient in making decisions and for the counselor to become more proficient in working in this process. To be effective, the counselor, more than most professionals, must have in addition to professional ~raining personal characteristics of warmth, tolerance, acceptance, and, hopefully, a measure of wisdom.

References
Anderson, Darrel, and Niemi, J. Adult Education and the Disadvantaged
Adult. Syracuse: Syracuse University Publications in Continuing Education, 1970. Scaggs, William F. Guide to Adult Education Counseling. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1972.

Chapter 14
Teaching and Learning: Techniques
The aim of education is to enable man to "become himself" ... for these reasons the commission laid stress above all on two fundamental ideas: lifelong education and the learning society.
Edgar Faure et al. Learning to Be The emerging definition of education in the 1970s is broadly defined: enabling an individual to become all he is capable of becoming. Obviously, this definition mandates lifelong learning. Acceptance of this definition requires a new look at the role of the teacher and the techniques he uses to facilitate the instructional process. Methods, techniques, teaching, learning, and instruction are interrelated and cannot be isolated from the educative process. Neither can they be separated from the goals and values society requires of education.
Traditional View of the Teacher
Paulo Freire (1970, p. 59) developed a list of teacher attitudes that represent a traditional view of teaching. In this view the teacher-
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1. teaches and the students are taught 2. knows everything and the students know nothing 3. thinks and the students are thought about 4. talks and the students listen-meekly 5. disciplines and the students are disciplined 6. chooses and enforces his choice while the students com-
ply 7. acts and the students have the illusion of participating
through the action of the teacher 8. chooses the program content and the students (who are
not consulted) adapt to it 9. confuses the authority of knowledge with his own
professional authority, which he sets in opposition to the freedom of the student

Adult Education View of the Teacher
The following list of teacher attitudes for adult education classes is more typical and appropriate. The acceptance of these teacher attitudes dictates a wide variety of classroom techniques. In this view, the adult teacher-
1. suggests appropriate topics, activities, and skills to meet the adult student's goals, but the goals are set by the shldent
2. gets acquainted with the adult student as an individual before assisting him through evaluation and goal setting
3. utilizes as resources in the teaching process the special skills and knowledge of the group
4. establishes a warm accepting classroom climate where adults learn to trust each other as well as the teacher
5. is skilled in the subject matter he teaches 6. involves the group members in decisions that affect
them 7. recognizes that healthy group interaction facilitates
learning but that adults learn as individuals and at their own rate

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8. acccpts adult students as pcrsons of worth although thcir value s.vstems mav. diffcr from his own
9. prefers that the studcnt discover the answer to a question or problem rather than being told thc answcr
10. is responsive to nonverbal cues that rcflcct disagrcement, confusion, or hostility on the part of the adult student
11. understands that learning rates of individuals vary and does not judge or evaluate individuals by group norms
12. is a member of the learning tcam and continues to refine and improve his teaching and lcarning skills
These attitudes and skills are illustrative of the requirements for teaching adults. What they reflect is the orientation required for the transition from teaching children to becoming an effective teacher of adults.

Adult Basic Education Techniques
Two factors in particular appear to need consideration when planning adult education programs: The first is the nature of the materials to be learned, and the second is the educational level of the student. The adult who reads with difficultv cannot function as an independent learner although he should be a partner in the planning process. The adult learner who reads at or above the seventh-grade level can work independently in some circumstances. The nature of the materials to be learned and the adult student's adjustment to the learning setting are the determining factors. For example, programmed texts and workbooks present materials in a logical and sequenced order with frequent tests to let the student determine his progress. Some specialized topics, especially those requiring sequenced presentations, can be effectively presented through programmed instruction. Videotape instruction, electronic teaching devices, and filmstrips are interesting variations of programmed materials.
Judicious use of programmed instruction can extend the teacher's effectiveness; however, there are limitations to the use

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of these materials. There is the matter of cost vs. utilization. These materials are sometimes quite expensive, and they do not appear to be effective for more than a short period of time. Some authorities doubt that thev. are effective for more than thirtY. minutes at a time. Obviously, factors of motivation, fatigue, and educationallevel influence their effectiveness as well as the length of time they can be efficiently used.
The second factor, gauging the educational level of the student, is much more complex. Many adults enrolled in adult basic education classes have never learned to read, write; or do simple arithmetic. Other adult basic education students have reading, writing, and computation skills below the seventh-grade levelthe level that is generally considered the threshold for self-directed or independent learning. Those who read below this level tend to regress in reading skills unless they receive additional instruction. Perhaps the functional definition for the education needed for persons functioning below the seventh-grade level would be: an education to prepare a person to learn how to learn. If this definition or concept is accepted, then the emphasis in adult basic education programs should clearly stress the teaching of reading, writing, and arithmetic. This does not preclude teaching competencies in other areas of living or the use of adultcentered instruction, but it does identif)' the program focus. Stated another way, it appears clear that a literate individual can learn to cope by reading instructions, signs, and general information while the person who has not developed reading skills will likely remain in perpetual dependency on the larger society.
To summarize the planning factors, it appears that the tasks of learning communication and computation require structure and sequenced steps in the teaching/learning process while the tasks of living effectively require understanding and an active participation by the adult student. Learning theories have provided a conceptual structure for achieving each of these goals. The effective adult education teacher must become adept at satisfying both goals. In a very real sense, the life tasks of the student (not the teacher) dictate the teaching process. For the adult to grow he must participate in the teaching-learning process and

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see himself as worthy-to learn he must build on previous expenences.

Needs Assessment
Needs assessment is obviously not a teaching technique. However, it is a necessary prerequisite for identi~'ing clientele for the program and selecting appropriate methodology and techniques for the teaching levels. The needs assessment in adult basic education programs has two important functions. The first function is primarily administrative and/or curricular in approach. It provides the identification and size of the special populations to be served within the school district. For example, among the target population, how many are ethnic minorities, physically handicapped, aged, institutionalized, rural, urban, or need English as a second language? The answers to these questions will establish the program parameters and will dictate what special facilities are needed as well as what teacher training programs must be designed for each of these special populations. The selection of teaching locations and facilities and the criteria for teacher recruitment as well as teaching techniques and methodologies depend on answers to these and similar questions.
The second function of needs assessment is to discover the educational and social needs of the members of a specific class. If the program has a strong counseling component, the teacher may have access to student records that include test scores indicating reading levels and personal data. If these are not available to the classroom teacher, they must be secured before effective instruction can take place. However, when these data are given, the tasks of interpretation and translation to a teaching/learning program remain. This process requires a translation for each person in the class, based on his learning in terms of his reading level, prior experiences, motivation, and current needs.
Since the task of the adult teacher has been defined as being a facilitator of learning, this role becomes considerably different

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from the traditional one because it focuses on the student in terms of his self-concept, needs, and life outside the classroom. \Yhat works for one student will not necessarilv work for another. \Vhile student needs as individuals do not rule out group instruction, they do eliminate the teacher as the principal source of instruction. However, they do not rule out the teacher as the instructional leader. He functions as a facilitator by being a materials specialist, a specialist in diagnosing weaknesses and prescribing (with the adult's assistance) individual programs, and by creating a learning climate in the classroom or laboratory.

The Group Process and Adult Basic Education Students
Group process appears, for the most part, to fit the unique needs of the adult basic education student. This student differs markedly from the average in his feelings and attitudes about education and schools. As a result of his earlv educational experiences, he tends to have psychological problems of suspicion, hostility, fear, and general discomfort when returning to the classroom. An adult student's sense of inadequacy and inferiority is often expressed by dropping out of a program when his fears are apparently confirmed. Until these fears are allayed and a social climate for learning is established, there is little reason for beginning to teach a communication or computation program.
The group process is a teaching technique that is based on group interaction and support as a method of learning. The works of Knowles (1970, 1975), Maslow (1970, 1972), and Rogers (1965, 1969) establish a theoretical basis for the group process of learning when the instructional goal is to change or modihr attitudes and behavior. Where the social climate has been set and the student is secure, interaction with others in a group discussion provides a forum for the student to test new ideas and gain confidence in his ability to express ideas. In adult basic edu-

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cation programs, the major purposes ofgroup process are to provide a group setting for the adult student in which-
1. a climate of trust and mutual support prevails 2. new behaviors can be introduced without threat to the
individual 3. new behaviors can be tested by the individual 4. individual members are encouraged to contribute ideas 5. group action can reinforce individual beliefs 6. failure or lack of understanding can be acknowledged
without fear 7. the sense of isolation developed over a lifetime of being
unable to communicate adequately is overcome 8. new learning is most likely to be transferred to other set-
tings in the home, on the job, and in other social settings

Group Process Techniques
Depending on the tasks, there are many types and varieties of group process. The most commonly used group techniques in adult basic education classes are group discussion, role playing, and brainstorming. A full discussion of group techniques can be found in a number oftexts. Additional descriptions can be found in the references at the end of this chapter.
Group Discussion
Group discussion, which can range from a few minutes to an hour or so, can be a relatively unstructured process extending and/or clarif)ring a topic. There are few rules, and the principal roles of the teacher are to keep the discussion focused on the problem and to open the discussion to the entire group rather than allowing it to be limited to one or two persons. Other functions of the teacher are to be sure that divergent opinions can be expressed and discussed and to bring the discussion to a close at the appropriate time when all views have been aired. It is impor-

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tant that the teacher remain neutral and never summarize a discussion by giving his opinions of the correct answers or interpretations.

Role Playing
Role playing is particularly valuable in adult basic education classes as a technique to introduce subjects that are potentially embarrassing to the students. Since in role playing the adult student plays a part, he can introduce subjects he would never discuss otherwise. Dress codes for work, personal hygiene, job interviews, and countless other sensitive areas are ideal for role playing. In the usual role play format, the teacher assigns roles, generally conflicting, to two or more students. The students then act out their roles, and a group discussion of the characters presented in the roles follows. Generally, role playing is limited to a few minutes and is followed by a discussion. Role playing can be used in conjunction with other group process techniques to illustrate or amplifY a problem. It is generally an enjoyable exercise for the adult student and a valuable technique for the adult teacher.

Brainstorming
Brainstorming, a technique for generating new ideas or exploring the parameters of a problem, utilizes the resources of an entire group rather than relying on the teacher or a few vocal students. The basic rules for brainstorming are-
All members should contribute ideas for solving a problem. All ideas are recorded. No idea is criticized during the session. Large numbers of ideas are sought. The refined list of ideas generated is a group product.

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Uses for Group Process

The importance of using group processes in a life-centered curriculum is based on the participation by the adult student in problems directly related to his life. Thus, immediacy of utilization, development of trust, and the sense of value to the individual of his input combine to make group process an important facet of the adult basic education program.

References
Faure, Edgar et al. Learning to Be: The World of Education TOday and TOmorrow. Paris: UNESCO, 1972.
Freire, Paulo. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Seabury Press, 1970.
Knowles, Malcolm S. The Modern Practice ofAdult Education: Andragogy vs. Pedagogy. Chicago: Association Press, 1970.
- - - . Self-directed Learning: A Guide for Learners and Teachers. Chicago: Association Press, 1975.
Maslow, Abraham H. Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper and Row, 1970.
- - - . "Defense and Growth." In The Psychology ofOpen Teaching and Learning, edited by M. L. Silberman et al. Boston: Little, Brown, 1972.
Rogers, Carl. Client Centered Therapy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1965.
- - - . Freetwm to Learn. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 1969.

Chapter 15
Evaluation of
the Teaching Process
A cliche in adult education states: "It's what the student does that's important-not what the teacher does." While persons making such statements are often guilty of oversimplifYing complex concepts, the fact remains that the basic purpose of adult education lies in improving the student's performance. Therefore, the focus of this chapter will deal with adult students' performances in using newly acquired skills in the marketplace, on the job, and- in interpersonal relations. The assessment of these skills is the ultimate purpose of evaluation.
Another adult education cliche that gained much credence in the early days of adult basic education programs states: "You don't test adults." The logic behind the statement, some years ago, was that most tests were constructed for children, and the results were disastrous when adults were forced to take tests normed and constructed for a different population. "Look, Judy, Look" and "I See Dick" were used as horrible examples of the misguided use of tests for adults. Somehow, testing and evaluation became svnonymous, and as a result effective evaluation suffered in many adult education programs. Fortunately, this is not the case today, and there is a variety of evaluation material on the market for adult programs.
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Adults Learn Again

Cautions about Evaluation and Testing

At the risk of furthering the use of cliches, it appears that adult students arc demanding evaluation of their work and will discontinue school attendance when they perceive, regardless of whether or not their perception is correct, that they are not making progress towards their goals. Further, testing is only one facet of evaluation, and the earlier this fact is understood by the adult student the easier it will become to begin the process of instruction. Finally, testing is an emotion-laden topic. Our society has subtly translated rank on test scores to correspond to the worth of the individual. Memories of childhood failures must be dealt with before a testing program can be effective. The concept of testing for the purpose of placement and assessing progress toward the student's goals should be the primary emphasis in discussing tests with the adult student. One final note-the teacher has lived in a world in which tests-ACT, NTE, GRE, etc.-influenced the college he attended, his acceptance in his profession, often his salary, and his own feelings of competence and self-worth. These feelings are communicated through attitudes, nonverbal signals, and other means to his adult students. The teacher must be alert to the possibility that he may say one thing and communicate the opposite to the adult basic education student.

The Adult Basic Education Evaluation Model
The evaluation model which follows suggests that evaluation is a process that extends to all the life roles of the adult student and, further, that the purpose of instruction is not only functional but also has application to the student's life roles. The functional goal of evaluation, in this sense, is to measure student achievement in terms of social, vocational, and personal gains in competence as well as in educational progress.
To simplifY the description of these life roles and to delineate them for purposes of evaluation and instruction, they are

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189

classified in four broad categories. In general terms, the teacher must understand the limitations of being undereducated and, in specific terms, must be able to prescribe an individual program of study for the adult student to use in evaluating his progress. The following profiles (Lethbridge 1967) describe the adult basic education student as the subject for evaluation in very general terms and, more importantly, set the rationale for evaluation where it properly belongs-on the individual.
These profiles illustrate that the goals of evaluation and teaching merge for the adult who enrolls with negative feelings about himself and his education and hopefully proceeds to become a self-directed individual capable of functioning competently in a complex society.
The four areas are the self-worth of the individual, the search toward a better life, the assessment of growth and achievement, and the aim toward self-direction.

The Process of Student Evaluation
Enrolling for the first time finds the adult basic education student at his most vulnerable and traumatic point in terms of continuing his education. Unfortunately, he often finds the school has not changed to an adult-centered curriculum. In the school's efforts to classify, rank, and order, the student is besieged with paperwork and placement tests to determine his instructional level. The assumption that everyone can read and follow directions is not valid in the case of registering adult basic education students. In the ideal situation, each student is interviewed by an experienced teacher or counselor, and initial placement is made to a class or laboratorv based on the interview. As soon as possible, the student should be given the Oral PIS Language Inventory. The test can be administered and scored in ten to fifteen minutes and can help determine the initial placement for the adult student. The purpose of the Oral PIS Language Inventory is to determine whether the adult has the language

Figure 7
Stage 1* Profile of an Illiterate Adult before Entering an
Instructional Program
Has a Devastated Concept
ofHis Worth as an
Individual
Last to be hired First to be fired Target for replacement by automation If employed, is forced to work several jobs to survive
190

Has few purposeful uses of leisure time
Can't share in great productivity of our nation
If employed, is a hazard to self and others
Is the major component in the cycle of poverty
Has limited credit

Is grossly uninformed
Can't serve in armed forces
Tends to perpetuate illiteracy through his example to his offspring
Can't qualify as a voter
Can't comprehend the school structure to help himself or his children

Is an inefficient consumer
Is a target for the "hard sell" of inappropriate goods and servICes

Places minimal premium on educational pursuits
Has limited stimulation toward cultural enrichment

Has difficulty complying with society's regulations
Is likelv to be or become a welfare recipient
Leads a survival-based life
Has minimal interest in parenting
Forced by his economic limitations to restrict much of his social life

Is seldom sophisticated in interpersonal relationships Has innate potential for anger and resentment
Is easily discriminated against
Is unable to seek recourse to obtain his basic rights
Is fearful of new experiences Has no effective way of modif)ring his own destiny

Is unfulfiIIed as an individual

Is not inclined to utilize the agencies provided by society to serve him

Is unaware of the changing world around him

*The four stages represented by Figures 7-10 were developed bv Elliott Lethbridge, Coordinator of Adult Basie Education, Rochambeau Adult School, White Plains, New York.

191

Figure 8
Stage 2 Profile of an Illiterate Adult during the Transition to an
Instructional Program
Has Translated His Value Yearnings for a "Better Life)) into Action by Taking the Vital First Step
Looks at himself and his limitations Arrives at a judgment that he is not satisfied with what and where he is Sees the relationship of his illiteracy to his unsatisfactory existence Having carefully tested the attiUldes of his immediate cycle of contacts (which may include family, friends, employer, coworkers, and neighbors), realizes that they would support and encourage his going back to school
192

Makes cautious, general inquiry about school for adults
Makes the decision to take the first step to visit an adult school
Musters his inner strengths to overcome his fear of embarrassment and guilt and actually visits an adult school
Meets the teacher or guidance counselor and makes known his decision to renew his education
Discovers that there actually is an organized educational program specifically designed for adults who do not read well
For the first time, admits to a stranger that he reads less effectively than he wants to
Finds that the teacher understands and accepts readily the fact that he hasn't had much schooling
Realizes that the teacher encourages him to establish his educational plan
Feels accepted as an individual of worth by the way he is treated by the school staff

Has his intention to better himself reinforced during his discussion with the counselor and/or teacher
Participates in a simple screening test and realizes that his counselor and/or teacher will get him started
Is reassured as he discusses how he will match his available time to the class schedule
Feels his anxiety disappear as he finds his class consists of adults
Establishes kinship with other members of minority groups within the class
Is impressed, even in the first class session, that his is an organized active group of adults working together
Is allowed an opportunity to participate during this first session and, thus, feels accepted and less of an outsider
Is given books and writing materials which are specially selected for him
Quickly determines that his classmates are reading at about the same level he is
Rather easily becomes involved in an active, planned education program

193

Figure 9
Stage 3 Profile of an Illiterate Adult Involved in a Meaningful
Instructional Experience
Experiences an Emerging Sense ofSelfworth as He Acquires Skills and Demonstrates to Himself and His Peers That He Is Quite Capable ofGrowth and Achievement
Readily adjusts to the routine of concentrated effort Builds a physical tolerance for the visual and verbal demands of classroom participation Is forced to reorganize his lifestyle to permit time for school attendance Demonstrates a high commitment to better himself in terms of adjustment of his pattern of living
194

Pays the price required in terms of travel and less free time
Displays tenacity by returning to class when personal problems force an interruption in attendance
Is versatile in managing solutions to demands of travel, babysitting, and finances
Is often willing to sacrifice some earning power to attend school
Reacts enthusiastically to the success he experiences and the gains in basic skills he achieves
Is stimulated by the experience of reentering the world of the student
Acquires a momentum in his daily productivity and learning effort
Demonstrates a sophistication in his communication with peers and teachers
Is impatient with what he perceives as relatively slow progress in learning to read
Requires of his teachers wellorganized and purposeful learning experiences

Discovers the satisfaction of learning
As success is increased, finds his motivation is increased at an accelerating rate
Regularly demands feedback as to the rate and quality of his progress
Has acquired a high degree of tolerance to relatively long periods of concentrated learning
Acquires a variety of basic skills and presses to utilize them
Accepts guidance in solving personal problems
Utilizes his newly found confidence to negotiate for assistance with staff of public and private agencies
Contributes his personal experiences in class discussions
Is beginning to be informed about the world around him
Reaches out to others and builds high-quality relationships with students and teachers
Experiences a shifting upward of the initial goals which he had set for himself
Demonstrates a genuine gratitude for the opportunity he has been given to help himself

195

Figure 10
Stage 4 Profile of an Adult Who Has Become Literate
Has a Newly Acquired
Concept ofHimself as an
Able Individual Who Has the Ability to Move to Determine His Own Destiny
Is a more valuable employee Can be considered for more responsible positions within his job setting Is eligible for and interested in vocational training to increase wages Based on his successful educational experience, is anxious to get further education Utilizes leisure time in reading Can read about opportunities available to him
196

If employed, can now read the directions, signs, and regulations
Realizes the value of education for his children and places a high premium on their school adjustment and achievement
Can apply for credit from legitimate lending institutions
Has learned to apply his reading and computational skills to the art of consumer purchasing
Can read the various published regulations of society and is delighted to be able to fill out reports and forms
If a welfare recipient, may be able to become independent by benefiting from vocational training
Can command a higher rate of pay as a result of more stable vocational skill
Can budget income to manage expenditures more effectively
Having a new dignity and concept of self-worth, is able to lead his children to aspire
Is a better informed individual as a result of informal and formal reading
Is eligible to exercise voting freedom

Can get a driver's license
May be secure enough, based on his successful school experience, to become involved in P.T.A. activities
Realizes the essentiality of education for his children and is more inclined to discuss their progress with the school authorities
Is not as easily discriminated against because he is sure of his rights under the law
Has had successful and pleasant experiences in his school and thus is ready to try new expenences
Is more confident of his own ability to seek society's help in the solution of his problems
Has an understanding of how to utilize public and private agencies to help him
Is a more fulfilled individual and has more time and inclination to guide his children
Is receptive to overtures from organized community groups to join and participate
Is much more knowledgeable concerning the changing world around him
Participates in educational activities

197

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Adults Learn Again

skills to begin instruction or whether he needs to work on basic relationships in the language before he receives instruction in reading.
The ultimate purpose of evaluation is to assist the individual to plan his growth and improvement. Any other reasons for evaluation are secondary since they relate to administration, record keeping, and data compilation to compare programs or results. While these secondary reasons for evaluation are important to the school system and are often required of the teacher, they are administrative in nature and do not advance the desired goals of assisting the individual. For this reason, standardized tests normed on a national or regional level are not herein described or recommended. The general use for standardized tests is to describe the characteristics of a population. Such tests may be of value to an adult student who wishes to know his probable score on a General Education Development (GED) test or his probable score on an entrance examination to meet a particular objective or goal.
The adult basic education teacher will certainly be interested in evaluating his students' progress. As a matter of fact, this is an ongoing process of teaching and occurs when the student and teacher look over completed projects, workbooks, and readings and discuss the results together. The feedback the student receives from the teacher is an evaluation of his work and is necessary for revising old learning goals and setting new ones.

Program Evaluation
Program evaluations are the most common and best known type of evaluation conducted by school systems. Program evaluations are conducted to determine the cost efficiency of a program, to compare student progress with regional or national norms, to examine teacher effectiveness, and to identify other administrative or supervisory concerns. The steps are generally in four parts: deciding the questions to be answered, collecting

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data to answer the questions, anal~'zing and interpreting the data, and modi~'ing the program in terms of the data analysis.
The most important part of any research is tormulating the research question. Data are useless if they do not contribute directly to program improvement. The mO\'Cment to individualized instruction in adult basic education programs tollowed years of program evaluation to determine the conditions and curriculum that appear to facilitate adult learning.
A word of caution is necessary at this point. Programs, like students, should not be compared with each other, except in very general terms. Programs differ in terms of purpose, location, clientele, and instruction. Also, program evaluation is conducted to improve a specific program, and generalization of data from one program to another is, at best, an estimate.
The following program evaluation questions are typical ones which an adult basic education program might use tor selfexamination.
What factors contribute to our new student enrollment drop-out rate of 30 percent during the first four months?
What changes in employment have occurred tor our GED graduates the past five years?
What do our students like/dislike about our new competency-based instruction program1
What is the average grade level advance in reading skills after 100 hours of instruction?
What is the best wav to teach adult basic education students the effective use of leisure time1
Is the use of a learning laboratory cost effective in terms of capital expenditure?
How much time should a teacher devote to teaching coping skills vs. communication and computation?
What is the best way to teach coping skills in a communications and computation class?
The possibilities for research/evaluation questions are endless and can be as diverse as the programs and populations they represent. General guidance for program evaluation may be

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Adults Learn Again

gained from the literature, but specific guidance must come from all who are directly involved in the program. Administrators, counselors, teachers, and students should all be involved in the planning and implementation of program evaluation.
In spite of the fact that student evaluation should be the primary focus of adult basic education, the persons who control the budget and the general public are generally informed of the results of program evaluation.
Questions such as the following are bound to arise: Why are our adult students reading one grade level below the national average? Why does it cost our program $300 per student year when the national average is $225? Why do our teachers recommend an inner-city learning laboratory with costly equipment when we have classrooms available at a nominal cost? The adult education administrator must be able to answer such questions with facts generated from program evaluation when dealing with board of education members who are concerned with getting the most educational value for every dollar spent. While the educator understands the difference between a reading level advancement from grade three to grade four and an advancement from grade nine to grade ten, the school board members and the general public may not be aware that differences exist. Careful interpretation of program data is required so that the various groups who review the information have a clear understanding of its meaning. A principal value of program evaluation is realized when the results are channeled back into the instructional program through the teachers and counselors. Hopefully, a continuing process is initiated as students constantly revise their learning goals, teachers reexamine their instructional goals, and students, teachers, counselors, and administrators rethink program goals. As each interrelates to the others a dynamic process of program improvement, based on the reality of an individually devised program, becomes constant.

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Evaluation Uses

The final result which justifies evaluation is improvement: student learning, and teacher, curriculum, and administrative effectiveness. While test designers and school administrators would likely agree in principle that the justification for evaluation always ends with the student and his learning goals, evaluation practice often does not follow this principle. When a program is questioned by the school board or the press, the issue becomes involved in emotion and opinion, and specifically chosen data can be used as a weapon to support biased viewpoints and divert attention from the effectiveness of the program. When discontinuance of funds on the national level is threatened, massive student letter-writing campaigns are organized to impress legislators about the importance of the program. These measures are generally required by the circumstances of the hour and, while they are not based on objective purposes, they are often effective. Effective or not, such occurrences are costly in terms of student, teacher, and administrator confidence in adult basic education programs. The important point to stress is that the longrange goal of evaluation is to inform the taxpayer and legislator of the value received for the adult education dollar appropriated. For these programs, the teachers, counselors, and students should be involved in the selection of the instrument and each group should clearly understand the purposes of testing. The individual who is tested should always have the results interpreted to him in terms of his goals and program.

Evaluation Instruments
Neither the use of standardized tests for evaluation nor an extensive testing program for evaluating adult basic education programs should be encouraged. The use of evaluation instruments can best be decided in terms of program and student objectives at the local level. However, a program leading to the

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Adults Learn Again

GED equivalency certificate may indeed need and require formal evaluation instruments.
The Adult Performance Level Survey (Northcutt et al. 1973) developed by the American College Testing Service (ACT) based on research conducted at the University of Texas considers the functional needs of the adult basic education population and thus is an exception to the prohibition against the use of formal instruments. In fact, this survey can be an important evaluation tool since it measures the competencies needed to perform in an open society. The survey also measures (in theory) the goals of many state-adopted curriculums. The test is available in both a short and a comprehensive form. The use of this measure on a statewide basis may be indicated when the program goals are closely related to the Adult Performance Level Curriculum.

Student Evaluation of Teacher
The teacher must have information about his teaching effectiveness. A good beginning is to use a self-evaluation scale. The focus of this scale should be on three topics: the teacher's knowledge of the students, the teacher's knowledge of his subject and how it can be related to the students' goals and life roles, and the methodology used in presenting instruction. A self-assessment survey, together with student-teacher evaluation, should be extremely helpful to the teacher as he works to become more effective.

Conclusion
When discussing evaluation, the temptation to construct an evaluation model is always present. Resist. Through the use of a flow chart with appropriate arrows and squares, the process of evaluation will be orderly and flow from assessment, formation of objectives, pretests, instruction, and posttests to various

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203

evaluations of students, teachers, and programs. In the real world of adult basic education programs, the teacher and administrator often work only part-time, the program objectives are basically societal and not easily measured (at least on a shortterm basis), and personnel and funds are not available for comprehensive evaluation. Yet adult education teachers, administrators, and counselors are united in the goal of professionalizing adult basic education programs. They see the need for full-time personnel who recognize the unique situation of the adult student, the adaptive curriculum for adult basic education, and the specialized methods for teaching this population. These goals cannot be met without adequate C\'aluation of the student, teacher, and program, however difficult this is to accomplish.
While these materials are written primarily for the classroom teacher, the emphasis of enluation quite properly belongs on shH:!ent achievement. This is where adult basic education teaching excels. Teachers can say-we have learned about our students; we have planned programs for students individually; we have conducted instructional programs and have followed students when they leave the program. Many exceptional programs have conducted formalized evaluation programs of student achievement and have included program and teacher evaluations. The task is clear-evaluations are critical and methods must be devised and time allocated f()f this important aspect of adult basic education.

References
Lethbridge, Elliott. A Pr~file of an Illiterate Adult. White Plains, N. Y.: Rochambeau Adult SchooL 1967.
i\orthcutt, Norvell W et al. The Adult Peiformance Level Study. Austin: Division of Extension, University of Texas, 1973.