Oral and written communication [1982]

Introduction to the Model

The acquisition of oral and written language is a complex human process. Competency in speak ing and writing is far more than the mastery of a collection of skills. A competent speaker or writer has developed a process for translating thoughts and feelings into language that can be read and understood by a wide range of audiences. While the processes may vary. they are not random or wholly individualized.
The instructional strategies in this guide are based on the notion that the ability to use language develops as a child actually uses language. The model for instructi9n which follows evolved as a result of observing young children acquire oral language and from discussing children's individual processes with writers and teachers of writing.
Fluency The initial goals in the teaching of oral and written language center around the need to familiarize students with the medium. When students begin to produce language. just as when they begin to acquire any other complex behavior. they need practice. support and response. Experimentation is encouraged. Children must have the opportunity to speak and write often. Judgments about the fine points of correctness and form are suspended. Children. in their initial attempts at language production. are trying to find a personal voice and to gain confidence. The teacher must keep in mind the importance of encouragement and acceptance; frequent positive response is crucial. Specific skills are far less important than whole pieces of discourse or the discussion of those oral or written efforts. Working to develop ease and familiarity with language is the primary goal during the fluency period.

Co.trot As students begin to feef comfortable with their oral and written efforts as a means of expression. instructors gradually begin to help students become more precise in their speaking and writing. Because these media make many complex de mands on the students. teachers must help them learn the appropriate controls through practice and particularly through revision. Arranging purposeful settings and responsive audiences for students' efforts will provide opportunity for much of the direct teaching of rhetorical and usage conventions: publishing student writing and directing students to write for diverse audiences will accomplish similar ends in written communication. The teaching of the controls. especially in writing (e.g.. usage and mechanics. punctuation and spelling). should be integrated grad ually into activities. Evaluation of these particulars should also be cumulative. beginning first with a few criteria and slowly adding to them as students gain more familiarity and sophistication. Careful control of language. oral and written. grows gradually: instructors should not try to hurry the process by making inappropriate demands on the inexperienced student.
Effectivene As students learn to control language. they learn to make judgments about their efforts and to make conscious decisions about the effectiveness of these efforts. They learn to function as their own critics and editors and to accept advice and counsel from other editors. They explore and consider syntactic and rhetorical options. selecting those appropriate to form and audience. Practice and criticism build an intuitive sense. Students develop a "feel" for what works in effective speaking and writing.

Growth from fluency to control to efecttveneu I' II cooperative venture between students and teachers. Teachen who work with their student, during the process have many opportunities to model the behaviors of a competent speaker and writer and to gain a fuiler understanding of their students' development.
Remember. no single speaking or writing activity. teacher or grade level can provide a student every language skill. Language is a complex human behavior: it develops gradually through practice. The activities in thiS guide are designed to help teachers lead students through the pro cess in an incremental. step.by.step manner. The :umulative effect of such concentrated practice should produce competent speakers and writers.

The chart on page represents an abbreviated

alii.'" list of behavion for both teachers and students.

It offen some suggestions for

students

as their speaking and writing matures. It Is left to

the teacher to determine at what point Control

should become a factor in the instructional

program. (i.e third grade. fifth grade or even

second grade,. This point varies according to the

experiences and the maturity of the students

involved. The same is true of Effectiveness; its

introduction might be most appropriate in t.he

ninth grade with 50me students and the 12th

grade with others. The stages. as the arrows on

the chart suggest. do not displace each other:

they are added. Efforts at fluency should be

continued throughout grades K through 12.

A Developmentc:l lt~odel for Oral and VJritten Communication

Flaency'-------------------------------------)~,

Control-----------------)-:J-

Effectiveness -----:>~

Student beh.vion
1. Produces language (oral and written I. 2. Enjoys words. 3. Experiments with structures. 4. Shares thoughts. ideas. feelings. S. Responds supportlvely to oral and
written presentations of classmates. 6. Develops self-confidence and Iinds
a personal voice.

Student beh.viors
1. Seeks and provides feedback. 2. Experiments with mode and
audience. 3. Experiments with different voices. 4. Considers alternative methods
of delivery-style, syntax. organization and presentalion. 5. Works within constraints and limits. 6. Seeks peer audience evaluation, reaction. response. 7. Proofs and edits writings.

Student behaviors
I. Adapts language choices to situation and audience.
2. Controls a variety of rhetorical and syntactic devices.
3. Speaks and writes with polish and technical precision.

Tcber beh.vion
1. Encourages partldpatlon. 2. Creates a stimulating and supportive
classroom environment. 3. Develops nonwrbal. oral and
written practice activities. 4. Listens and responds to students'
oral and written efforts with encouragement. S. J'Yovldes opportunities for students to practice and demonstrate publicly accomplishments. I.e.. provides audiences for oral presentation, displays and pub. Iishes written material. 6. Develops students' skills In respond. ing to and helping each other. 7. Provicla through personal action and b_eahalvctonr l _ mocIeI_ for th.e.s.tu.de.n.ts'

Te.cher beh.vion
1. Encourages partIcipation. 2. Responds to students' oral and
written products with suggestions for improvement. 3. Structures real speaking and writing situations. 4. Analyzes problems and develops practice activities. 5. Evaluates students' oral and written presentalions.

Tcher beh.vion
I. Offers technical advice and assistance.
2. Develops real speaking and writing situatipns.
3. Acts as editor and critic. 4. Challenges students to
attempt difficult exercises. 5. Evaluates students' oral and
written products with a variety of previously established and announced criteria.

Adapled from a mocIeI by Dan Kirby. iC 1981. Reprinted lllith permission.

"

Classroom and Instructional
Management

Proficiency in oral and written communication requires frequent and regular practice. For too long students have been admonished to be quiet rather than encouraged to take part in profitable discussion. For too long they have had insufficient opportunity or demand for written composi tion. To provide for adequate opportunity for both of these activities. classroom exercises should be quite different from the usual oral question and answer routine or the lack of opportunities for written communication. Such practices will afford more productive and surely exhilarating experiences for teachers and students.
Many of the classroom strategies and activities will involve not only oral and written communica tion but also the companion skills of listening and reading. Oral panel discussions and press conferences will require research and note taking. careful listening and the making of judgments. Role playing will in many cases demand an understanding. through reading. of the fictional. legendary or historical characters to be portrayed. Regular class discussion on subjects of scholarly. general or humorous interest will foster courte ous and attentive listening. increase ability to speak clearly and coherently and will call for further reading to gain adequate information on the subject under discussion.
Writing will take place quite frequently and peer evaluation of these writings discussed in small groups will cut down appreciably on the need for the reading and grading of each paper by the teacher. Also. it will give students practice in reading aloud. in listening critically. in becoming aware of the structure and use of language. Finally. it will help develop the insight and judgment needed for students to decide if they have written what they intended their audience to read.
Meeting in small groups of five or less. students read their short papers to one anothel'. After a bit of practice they learn to give positive. helpful criticism to each other in matters of content. coherence. style. mechanics and conventions. The teacher. as monitor or arbitrator. is ready to respond to a raised hand or a spoken query to settle differences of opinion or answer relevant

questions. Students then have the opportunity of revising their papers. using or rejecting the suggestions of their peers as they wish.

Perhaps only one student paper among five

needs to be read and evaluated by the teacher;

or the teacher may give each student the opportu-

nity to select the paper thought to be the best of

at""'" his or her most recent he. and collect only

these from the

The teacher may vary

the method of selection and reduce the possibil

ity of a student preparing only one good paper

when several were to be written.

Short speeches. prepared by each student for presentation to the class. may be evaluated by peers in much the same way. Each student in the small group. making a speech to the group. has the advantage of hearing helpful suggestions or requests for clarification which are not often possible when addressing a large audience.

A trial run before this small group. prior to presentation to the teacher and entire class. is beneficial to the speaker. demands careful atten' tion from peers and trains the peers in audience conduct.

Teaching students to work in groups is an art in itself. But the patience required is reward~d in student performance and teacher satisfaction.

The teaching and learning of grammar and usage take place in a variety of ways. Students will work on the errors they make rather than correcting flawed sentences written by someone else or published in grammar texts; the latter examples do not address the problem and may actually introduce. develop or reinforce a new error.

Sentence-eombining exercises make use of cor rect sentence structure and encourage inventiveness and judgment. while introducing the more sophisticated structures of the English sentence. Learning new vocabulary and spelling practice are worthy side effects to the process of sentence combining.

Small group or paired activities will replace the written short answer exercises usually graded by teachers or aides. Students using textbook exer

Grammar and Usage

The following sections address specific activities and suggestions for implementing instruction in various modes of discourse. Much is said of praise and of editing; little is said of what we commonly label grammar. There is good reason for this: it is not simply an omission. Language instruction wiU be the subject of another document. one that will consider the teaching of mechanics, syntax and usage.
This is not to say that we intend for language instruction to be a separate area of language arts. Problems in correcting grammar and usage arise as soon as children begin to speak or to write and continue throughout their lifetime. Similarly. correction begins at that same point and continues until an individual is no longer concerned with precision in language use.
Instruction in conventional usage and in usage conventions is and ought to be an integral part of the language arts classroom. There is no professional way to avoid it. However. an overdose of correction is detrimental to the individual.
When problems arise in a student's use of language. as they will from the beginning. instruction must follow; but this instruction should address the needs of the student in terms of his or her own writing. not in terms of a textbook. As a student begins to write dialogue. for example. that is the time to explain the use of quotation marks. As students seek to say more complicated things and attempt to say them in more complicated ways. that is the time to explain and demonstrate the punctuation of clauses and

phrases. The aCGuisition of skills will he une\'c~ rhroughout any group. Some students will Ieam to handle commas. for example, rapidly; others will be laboring with them into college.
While periodic reviews of mechanics are not harmful. annual repetitions are. Repeating the same exercises year after year to the same students will simply age both st~dnt and teacher prematurely. Such repetition and the lack 01 appropriate change oniy disaffect everyone and .'vaste time.
As problems in the students' writings develop, the students should be given proper corrective in struction and subsequent papers should be checked for anticipated improvements. If improvements do not develop, repeated instruction may be necessary for those who need it. Changing instructional techniques or approaches may be helpful. Subjecting an entire class to repeated exercises required by only 40 percent is futile. The result is an inefficient use of teacher and student time.
For best results a personal approach to teaching is required. Group instruction is needed to introduce and develop new topics. concepts and ideas. but errors emerging in the work of some students are signals that some need additional help. i.e. those students still producing the errors. There are numerous ways to do this. from the usc of special text exercises designed to correct sp.ecific errors as well as individual tutoring. The teacher's goal is to help students acquire a skill as soon as possible and to eliminate reteaching.

dses wiD work individually. but they will dlscuu the exerdla and their answers and cond..-ionl In small groups. teaching and learning &om each other. with adult arbitration when needed.
The most effective method of teaching grammar will result from full class discussions of errors found In the students' own speech and papers. The papers. reproduced without student identity disclosed. will be written on the board or an overhead transparency. Healthy discussions occur over what may be wrong. how it can be corrected and what rule of grammar is involved. Working with examples from their own speech and writing makes a penonal impact on students; the Information Is more vivid and more thoroughly absorbed than filling in the blank or correcting sentences.
A factor which is &equently overlooked. particularly in the classroom. is nonverbal communication between teachers and students. A teacher's protracted frown or pursed lips. the hands in &ont. all fingers touching. or the fierce glare with hands on hips. can indicate disgust or dlsap-

proval as dearly as a verbal tirade. A student. squirming and uneasy. may need only a trip to the bathroom. while another. making reputed trips to the pencil sharpener may need mcouragement about the writing assignment.
In oral communication, paralanguage, the denial of the spoken words by tone of voice or facial expression, can convey more meaning than the words themselves. The simple phrase. "good morning," can be said with genuine good humor or with such venom that it approaches an insult. Too little attention is given to this form of communication, yet it is an essential medium for understanding.
FineDy. a positive classroom climate and genuIne praise for worthwhile effort will.accompllsh more teaching and learning than all the negative criticism and red marked papers. The classroom should always be a cooperative place where teacher and students join in decision making, in oral and written communication and in the exciting business of learning.

A Note Fro.n. the Writers

"-..

Objectives for this document are to provide teachers with a model to help students learn to express themselves well; to regard language development with little fear or apprehension: and to assure as much success as the individuals' potentials and the teachers' skills can jointly accomplish.
We realize that school is not necessarily a train ing ground for future literary prize winners. We are aware the majority of the students who attend public schools will probably never produce written works of classic quality. Our intent is to help make all students more comfortable and more effective in their use of language. We are not dismissing the budding literary geniuses: it is our conviction that they. too. will be served by the program that follows.
Our plan is deceptively simple. To learn to speak or to write. inevitably. one must speak or write often. as much as possible and in every imaginable context. Injunction must be balanced with encouragement: correction with praise. The students' faltering beginnings must be received with the same pride. excitement and reward as were their infant attempts at speech and move ment.
Regular opportunities for trial and error. for success and failure. must be an integral part of

the program. Every note of praise must sound louder than evzry comment of correction.
One does not learn to speak \.lJithout correction. but neither does one learn by being silenced. The repetition inherent in the natural process that enables the young to acquire their native tongue can and should be a regular facet of a program of language instruction provided by the school.
A communication program is offered that supports both the receptive and the expressive modes of language. Cpportunities for each are a regular feature: they must be the norm not the exception. While we do not always capitalize on it. we already provide a great deal of practice in listening within our schools: but opportunities for our students to talk seem lacking.
For this program to succeed. for young people to realize their potential. students must be encour aged to talk and to write as much as they are now being exhorted to listen and to read. This responsibility rests with those of us who work with young people: we must talk to them. listen to them. read what they have written and com ment upon their work. We must provide suitable and varied audiences for our students. audiences responsive and meaningful to the students themselves. This is one of our greatest challenges.

Imagining

School talk and school writing are too often dominated by the academic and the drab. Yet in each of us. at every age. lurks delightful imagination. fleeting fantasy, even gruesome possibility. We dare not dwell on them. Instead. we learn to submerge them and concentrate on the reality of educational and sociological demands.
Children come to school strong in imagination and full of make-believe. Some have engaged in made up conversations among their dolls or stuffed animals; many have enjoyed imaginary friends or playmates. Such behavior is sometimes tolerated and sometimes discouraged by parents and teachers.
In the early school years lists of things. words and people are often memorized: stories become mere sequences of events. In later years poems are desecrated by reducing them to mere iambic pentameter or anapestic trimeter. Term papers

on assigned subjects become chores rather than joyful explorations. Frequently. such papers result in counterproductive student-coping strategies such as plagiarism.
The need for some of the exercises mentioned above is not to be denied. The exercise of the imagination. however. should also be permitted. Evidence indicates its use should be encouraged throughout the years of formal schooling. Surely, in the area of the spoken and the written word. imagination should play a major role.
Imagination sparks the use of various sentence structures and invites the search for the right word. the succinct phrase. And it is not only in the area of creative activities that imagination is a necessary ingredient; oral and written discourse in any area is enriched and enlivened by imaginative and selective use of language.

SO"Jple Activities
YJithout Words or Dialogue Grades K..2

Purpoee
The purpose of this activity is to encourage youngsters to make up stories and speeches that ac company pictures. thereby telling a brief incident or story. The delight young people take in put. ting ideas into the heads and words into the mouths of pictured people or creatures is capital. ized upon in this activity.
Objective
The learner will
invent actions. developments and dialogue to accompany a sequence of pictures with no written information or speeches.
dictate the action andlor speech to the teacher or aide for later reading.
listen attentively and watch the words as the teacher or aide reads what has been dictated.
attempt, with encouragement and help, to reread what has been dictated and read.
Materiala
Picture books without words (See Resources), or comic strips from which the dialogue balloons have been removed Paper and pencils
A i d. .
a. Ideally a fifth or sixth grade class of students. each of whom can act as an aide to an individ ual first grader.
b. Several fifth or sixth grade students who can serve as aides to groups. if the unit must be done in groups.
Sa ..,
Acombination ofthe language experience method for encouraging creativity, and the lap method for learning to read (seeing the words while hear ing them read), is the basis for this activity. Each student develops a small story based on pictures.

dictates that .story to ;omeone dse for transcription. hears that story read and then attempts to read the story alone.
Procedlll'
1. Distribute books without words. or the comic strips without dialogue. to each student. or group of students (no more than five). The grouping will depend on whether there is a class of older students or group of adults who can assist each student or very small groups of students.
2. Allow a few minutes of quiet time for students to observe the pictures and begin to make up what is occurring and what is being said.
3. Students tell the aide what they think is hap. pening to the characters in the pictures or comic strip; the aide writes whatever the student is dictating. (Moffett. "Language Experi. ences," pp. 204-205.)
4. Aides should hold the written material so that the students (individuals or the group, if the material was group-contributed) can see the writing, while the aides read what has been written. (Moffett. p.197..Lap Method:' pp. 201203.)
5. Following this reading, permit each child to attempt to read what has been dictated.
EvalaadoD
1. Teacher evaluation consists first of noting the interest and participation of students in the talking stage. i.e. when children are dictating. If tape recorders are available. contributions can be taped.
2. The teacher and the aides can note the read ing success of each child from their dictated language. Tape recorders may be used to advantage here.

FoUow"
Cut out c:h8rllden &om different comlc Itripe and have students put them together in a story.
Use a film or cartoon without sound and have students supply the sound track.

Select two pk:tura of people from magazines. Have students discuss what kinds of people the
pictured indIvIduaJa ..... to be; m.. ask tt.n
to invent a conversation between the individuals. When this is transcribed. students can read their
work as above and. also. act the parts.

Changing Names Grades 3-4

P u r p o
Choosing a name other than your own. by which you might like to be called for a brief period. is an engaging experience. The purpose ofthis activ-
ity is to permit students to do this and :0 imagine
what sorts of persons they might be with their new names.
Objective
The learner wiil
select a name other than his or her own. Imagine how this new name (personality) might differ from the present one.
state orally why the name was chosen.
fabricate some of the possible characteristics associated with the new person and present these characteristics orally.
write brief descriptions of the new self and share this writing with group members.
Material. and Aid.
Usts of names and/or dictionaries of names (for use if children cannot think of names with
ease)
An upper class aide(s) to help with students who are having difficulty selecting names and to help with spelling the names
S u_ _u y
This activity gives children the opportunity to pretend to be different individuals for a brief period of time. It demands that they think about their own characteristics and that they create characteristics suited to the newly named person.
Procedares
1. Students have a quiet time of perhaps three minutes during which they each decide on a different name. No talking is allowed: heads on desks and eyes closed will help the process. Those few who cannot decide on a name at the end of this time may be allowed two extra minutes to search the teacher's resources.
2. Students write their own names and their chosen names on slips of paper which have been given to them. (Spelling errors may be cleared

up as the ;,ct!vit,, progrl"sses.) This will prevent the name "copying" which might occur if they are called out.
3. Volunteers among the students state their choscm names and explain brie~1y 'xhy :hey chose them. Stop at ten volunteers or .less to avoid saturation.
4. Meeting in groups nf five. students 'Jegin to tell. one at 3 mne, what sons of persons these New Names are-physical characteristics, sports, hobbies, attitude toward school, speciallikes and dislikes. Each student is allowed t'J/O minutes. This brief speech. and hearing one another's ideas. should fire the imagina tion enQugh to prompt writing down ideas.
5. Each student then writes a brief description of the new self. These are shared in the groups. (Spelling can be corrected by the teacher and an older student aide, moving among the groups.)
6. Two descriptions from each group, chosen by the group members. are read by the chosen members to the class. As each description is read aloud, students are asked to comment on whether or not the New Name seems like a real person. "Can you really tell what sort of person New Name is?" "Is New Name different from the real person/creator?" "How?"
EvaluatioD
1. Peer evaluation has taken place during the discussion suggested in Number 6 above.
2. Time should be allowed for students to revise their own description after the peer evaluation has taken place. The papers are then turned in for teacher evaluation.
3. Errors which indicate the need to introduce or reinforce certain items are tabulated as a checklist by the teacher for later instruction. Effort is made to leave certain modes of expression typical of this age level as they are. (e.g., "Me and my Daddy like to fish.") Only those glaring errors which prohibit understanding are noted on the descriptions for further revision. Misspelled words are spelled correctly by teacher or aide on the papers.

4. Fi.... revised papers are collected to be pat together in a simple booklet which i. given title ..lected by the cIuL
Follow Up
Mix up slips of paper with just New N..... on them. With oniy the blank sides of the slips

showing. Itt ........... pick up. slip and write e short letter te this penon. The letters are to 1ndJc:at. that the writer ...... that this student is new to the school and to invite this new student to visit the writer or to attend a bail game or a party.

Thing Pretending

,.

Grades 5-6

Pmp~.
By the fifth grade many students have lost interest in pretending to be other people. Pretending to be an inanimate object offers a new chaHenge to imaginations which may still harbor some ree-
oilections of earlier pretending. The purpose ot
this activity is to permit these students to impart thinking and communicating powers to:)bjeets and to write a monologue for a chosen inanimate object.
Obj.edv. .
The learner will
select an object which that student would like to pretend to be.
using the first person voice. write one or two paragraphs explaining what it is like to be the object chosen.
Mat.rial. a.d Aid.
1. Butcher paper. magic markers and Scotch tape
2. Upper grade aides to assist with spelling and in manipulating materials
Sa uv
Accustomed to people as people and things as things. young students often delight in giving human feelings and reactions to inanimate objects. As things react to people. young imaginations can devise ridiculous situations about which they will enjoy writing.
Proc:.d......
1. Allow two or three minutes of quiet time in order for each student to decide on an object which they will pretend to be. It is helpful to make suggestions such as an old tennis shoe. a pencil. a bicycle. the 800r. a yard swing. Urge students to be imaginative and to think up their own objects. Remind them that they cannot be people or animals.
2. Explain that the object can tell whether its life is happy or sad. how people treat It. and how the object can improve its life if it hasn't been a happy one.

3. Remind students that they are pretending to be the object and therefore are to use the first person pronouns. ".". "me" and "my."
4. Allow about twenty minutes for writing one or two paragraphs.
5. Direct students to meet in groups oi five. read :heir pape:,s to each other. make suggestions and criticisms and revise their papers while in the group.
6. Have revised papers read again in the same groups. in order that finished papers may also be read aloud.
7. Call for volunteers to read papers aloud. Have as many papers read as seems reasonable. depending on the general interest of the class. Suggest that students write down the name of eaeh reader and a comment about the paper after each reading.
8. When perhaps 10 papers have been read. encourage a brief class discussion or comment on those papers. Continue this as long as interest is maintained.
9. Aides tape student papers to butcher paper and butcher paper to the wall. The name of eactt object can be written at the top of each piece with magic markers.
Evala.doD
1. Self-evaluation and peer evaluations have taken place as a part of the group activities and during the volunteer readings to the entire class.
2. Teacher evaluations are possible during read ings to the class. Evaluation of those papers not read can be made from reading the ones Posted on the wall.
3. Mechanics and usage erron should be noted
by the teacher for future group or individual work.
FoUo.Up
The original groups can write conversations that might take place among the things selected by their groups. This is an exercise that moves

from the first person monologue to the conversation mode and encourages practice in the
use of correct punctuation of quotation&. ThhI may be an excellent time to teach the use of quotation marks as they relate to other punctuation. especially since this exercise would still involve things talking as people do.

The original activity can be repeated with animals taJking .. people or with readinp &om dauic or modem bealt fables.
Students can illustrate their object ilnd its adventures on butcher paper.

Where I'd Like to Be

,.

Grades 7-8

Pupo-
Daydreaming about a real or an imaginary place in which a person would like to be conjures up descriptions. whether remembered or invented. that stir the imagination. The purpose of this activity is to permit students to describe. in vivid detail. such places. Even the real place takes on such glamour and allure in memory that imagined delights are the reality one spuriously describes.
ObJee:tIv. .
The learner will
recall from memory or create a place in which that student would like to be at the moment of the activity.
state orally what sort of place it is and tell briefly why it was chosen.
write a description of this place. attempting to include many of the five senses in the descriptions.
share individual efforts. comments. suggestions and positive criticism with peers. thus enabling all the students to revise their papers through the use of peer feedback.
M.ted.fa
Paper. pencils. pens Several magic markers or large pens Butcher paper or other large sheets Masking tape
S a . "
The combination of nostalgia and fantasy. or the exercise of the imagination. can produce vivid description. Caution should be urged so that students avoid the preposterous and the absurd. In this activity the imagination should be tempered Pbyrothce li_mi_ts of the possible. .
1. Suggest that students think quietly for a few minutes about some place in which they would like to be at this moment. The place can be real. a remembered spot or an imaginary place. It may be a vacation spot or a private place where one can enjoy reading. music or private thoughts and feelings.

2. Permit 10 or 12 volunteers to state the place in which each would like to be and the reasons ior their choice. Description is not needed or desirable at this point.
3. Assign students to write a brief description of the chosen place. remembering to use as many as possible of the five senses--seeing, hearing, smelling. tasting and touching. This should not require more than 30 or 40 minutes.
4. Let students meet in groups of five to read
their papers to each other for suggestions and positive criticism.
5. Permit time for revision of papers and then reconvene in groups. Students select the most interesting paper(s) from each group to be read to the class.
6. Let one student make a list. on butcher paper or computer paper. ofthe names of all ofthe places chosen by the students. Head it with the title "Where We'd Like to Be" and tape it to a wall.
Ev.lu.don
1. Peer evaluation takes place as group members discuss papers.
2. Teacher evaluation of five (or more) papers read aloud is possible during the reading. Other papers can be evaluated by the teacher. making positive comments whenever possible about content and ideas. while keeping a list of all mechanical errors to be referred to for future teaching.
Follow Up
Working in groups. students can decide on the items which could be included in a travel folder.
Students can plan and outline possible travel brochures for the locations which they have described.
Students can illustrate the places they have described. A longer project would be group writing of brochures for selected places. using the outlines and items previously decided upon.

Dialogue Grades 910

P1If'IHMe
Previous study of one-act plays and short stories will enable students to fabricate brief situations which lend themselves to the writing of dialogue in a short story or lines in a play. This activity permits students to have this experience.
ObI_d_.
The learner will
create a brief, original episode requiring dialogue which might be a part of a short story or a one-act play.
choose between writing the dialogue as part of a short story or as a play.
write the dialogue in the chosen form.
preface the completed dialogue with a brief written presentation of the situation in which the dialogue takes place. including whatever explanation concerning the charaders is essential for understanding the piece.
M. . . . . . .
Copies of one-act plays and short stories containing several good examples of dialogue.
Grammar handbooks as references for proper punctuation of dired quotations.
s . . . "
Dialogue enlivens many different forms of written discourse. but learning to write dialogue is a special skilL This activity encourages the imaginative development of dramatic episodes using dialogue and reinforces the knowledge of the corred form for conversation in a story or lines in a play. (This activity will take several class patoda.)
Puc.i
1. Read to the dau an example 01 short
Itory with great deal of dialogue.
2. Lead. class discussion concerning the ways in which the dialogue enhances the story. "Does it make a particular charader's personality more vivid?" "Does it acid Informa-

tion you need?" "Is the action furthered by the dialogue?" "How does dialogue accomplish these things?"
3. Read a one-act play. If there are severa! copies available, have students read the different parts.
4. Direct a dais disnIssion about how these characters reveal themselves through their own speeches or through comments made to them or about them by other characters. Include some consideration of the way the action is also revealed by the lines of the characters.
5. Have students spend sufficient time (perhaps an entire period or a homework adivity) inventing a situation in which they will be able to create dialogue to advance action in a story or play or to reveal characters. These situations can be sketched in .note or outline form.
6. Assign students to write the prefaces to their dialogues (brief explanations ofthe situation and whatever information is necessary concerning the characters). This may be done before or aft~ the next step.
7. Students are to decide upon the written form they will use (play or short story) and write their dialogues.
8. Meeting in small groups of three, students wiD read their pieces to each other for criticism and suggestions.
9. TIme is aUowed for revision following the group sharing.
10. Seleded finished products are read aloud or acted out. The manneI' 01 selection wiD vary - one from each group. volunteers or whatever ....... appropn.te.
(The rema'nder of th,. actIu'" may be done In .mall group. of three to flue atudenta, depending on the alae of the clau and whether atudenta are
able to work well Independently.)

,.

E. . . . . . . .
Peer evaluation will take place in the ....... group activity and when the final papers . . read.
Teacher evaluation can he done rapidly as papers are read, but a thorough evaluation will no doubt be desired. Positive comments on each paper and suggestions for improvement will be emphasized. If the level of achievement in some of the finished products suggests a need, students should revise and improve their papers.
Grading will be done after revision. Errors in mechanics and punctuation should be kept on a checklist for future teaching.
Follow- Actlvida
To acquire agility in both forms of using dialogue, students can rewrite their dialogue in the form not used with the first writing.
Students should be encouraged to write the entire short story or one-act play which they have started. Perhaps a group would like to collaborate on this activity. These could be put

In ,. booklet .... apia placed in the school media centa'.
Writing Incmffbly Short Pfays, Poems, Storie1l, by James H. Norton and Francis Gretton (Harcourt)
Some sugge1lted short stories "Miss Phipps Improvises," by Phyllis Bemiey "Tobermory:" by Saki "The Dressmaker's Don:' by Agatha Christie "My Queer Dean:' by Ellery Queen
All of the above are found in Suspense, A Treasury for Young Adults. edited by Sean Manley and Gogo Lewis (Funk and Wagnalls)
One-Act Play. "Amicable Parting," by George S. Kaufman and Leueen MacGrath "The Patient,Of by Agatha Christie
The above plays and other appropriate ones can be found In Twenty One-Act Plays. edited by Stanley Richards (Doubleday).

Nursery Rhymes Grades 11-12

Purpotte
Many nursery rhymes and stories children enjoy today just for the story element '~ere originaily political or social satires written in England to ridicule individuals or situations. The simplicity of these small literary pieces lends itself to imagined symbolism geared to present social, theological or psychological thinking. This activity permits students to invent modern symbolism
as It may be deduced &om a story or poem and
to justify their choices of symbols.
Objecd". .
The learner will
fabricate meanings in the simplest stories and poems using the total situation of the piece and the most insignificant details as symbolic justifications of these meanings.
present these meanings orally and in writing. attempting to convince the audience that they are possible intentions of the authors.
Mat. . . . . .
Several copies of children's stories and rhymes
5. ...."
A &ee use of the imagination will permit students to create out of simple situations profound sym. bollsm which may be ridiculous. but will appear to be the intentions of the authors.
PhK:ed_ _
1. Divide the class heterogeneously Into groups of five.
2. Distribute copies of nursery rhymes and tales to each group.
3. Explain that they are to try to see into one or two of these pieces of imaginary symbolism meanings which were never Intended by the authors.
4. Read a short excerpt &om The Pooh PerpleJc.
by Frederick Crews. or a story by some
author who has done this sort of absurd but amusing speculation. to illustrate the kind of activity in which they are engaged.

5. If it seems wise. suggest general areas which might be addressed: e.g economy. religion. manners. mores. social Justice or psychology.
6. Instruct each group to choose a nursery rhyme or story on which to work. Be certain that no two groups choose the same piece.
7. in their groups let the students brainstorm possible symbolic implications in the chosen piece and in the details included.
8. Using the material suggested in the brain storming sessions, each student will write an individual analysis of the symbolism in the piece. Remind them that the most insignifi. cant details are to be considered as symbols or justification of the total symbolism.
9. Reconvening in their groups. probably the next day, students will read their papers to each other for enjoyment. helpful criticism and suggestions. and for choosing the most Interesting paper In the group to be read to the class.
10. Have all papers revised and proo&ead by the individual writers according to suggestions made in group discussion. and have the one selected in each group read to the class.
EvaJ_doa
1. Peer evaluation will take place In the group sessions described in #9 of the Procedures.
2. Teacher evaluation will be done only after revisions and proo&eading have been completed.
3. A booklet containing a copy of each of the ftnished pieces may be put together.
F........ Acdwldee
Since this fa difBcuIt piece of Imaginative writing to have accomplished. it may be well to have students repeat the process with a piece which was not used or heard In class. In this st0rming on one selection and let each student operate independently. If the group activity seems necessary. repeat that part of the procedures as well.

Whether the pncecling activity Is used or not. students are ready to analyze the symoollsm In poem which has not been studied previously. The group procedure may be used, or individual analysis may be undertaken. In either case. several pieces should be analyzed, each one by several students, for comparison. criticism and suggestions in preparation for revision and evaJuation.
Roarc. .
Books of nursery rhymes
Books of children's stories or fairy tales
The Pooh Perplex. by Frederick Crews
The Lion. the Witch and the Wardrobe. by C. S. Lewis. in the Namia Series
Books containing poems selected for analysis of symbolism
Any textbook on literary analysis

Ge. . . . . . . . . . . .
Positive reinforcement of student effort has proved more benefIc:iaj to learning than negative critidsm. Praise for unworthy effort. however. Is poor practice. Students are quick to detect sham.
Creating an audience other than the teacher for student work is important. This can be achieved through mobiles. bulletin boards or hail displays. school newspapers, completed booklets in the library. quarterly creative writing student magazines and various other methods.
The teaching of grammar and usage can be most effectively taught from lists of student errors with anonymous examples. This teaching involves class discussions concerning the erron. their possible correction and the rules governing the usage. Using the students' own writings. encouraging whole class discussions of problems and solutions. are more relevant than the grammar text rules and exercises and result in more permanent learning.

...

Describing

Description has traditionally been considered one of the four main types of writing, along with narration. argumentation and exposition. To describe something is to convey an image or impression of It in words which reveal appearance, nature or characteristics.
The most effective description usually includes details based on clear. concrete images. These details are presented. not merely cataloged. Selection for a definite purpose and a definite point of view becomes a consideration. Details are generally arranged in some logical pattern; that pattern may be spacial. associative or progressive. The discreet use of words of color, sound. motion and other adjectives which affect the senses enriches a descriptive piece of work. Descriptive writing reveals or implies the vividness, strength and intensity of the writer's personal observation of the world and its people.
Descriptive writing is evident in almost everything we read from a novel with real characters and an enticing setting to a good news story which 50 accurately reports the facts that the reader feels he or she is there. Most often. description is combined with narrative to create a vibrant story line or with other types of writing as a supporting device. Occasionally, It is used for its own sake.
This guide suggests that instruction in descriptive writing begins in the early grades as the child produces descriptions that merely catalog details. Gradually. in the middle grades students may begin to perceive the importance of discreet wording and point.of.vlew. Finally, the high school student probably matures into an effective descriptive writer. The teacher should always remember that this is a gradual process which develops only through extensive practice, sequential, purposeful instrudion and student insights that deepen with time.
The teacher must encourage and develop in individual students the sId1Is of keen obIervlItlon.

Lessons in observing details may in fad be ends in themseives at first as wei! as in the later stages of development. Gradually, students will come to see that although we can be overburdened with details in closely observing a scene or person. observations shouid be transla[ea and organized into selective. purposeful details to be effective in a piece of descriptive writing.
Instruction in description must build on the example of excellent writing from a variety of
media; e.g newspapers. books. film, magazines.
textL Students should be encouraged to read and to listen to outstanding passages of description so they begin to develop a feel for effective writing. Passages might be compared for degrees of effectiveness and rewritten for improvement. Shakespearean drama and old radio programs provide surprisingly good bases for discussion of the need for description in oral language.
Gradually description is combined with other methods of composing as it becomes appropriate. Since description is generally used to support other types of writing, students should be helped to see how its use can make all types of writing more effective. An exercise which produces a detailed charader or descriptive scene might be used as the basis for a short story, for a collection of pieces from several students, or for a novel. Expository writing or persuasion may be enriched by strong descriptive support.
An emphasis upon real situations, scenes, people and things with which student writers can identify and which elicit feelings or ideas they would like to communicate to others is important. The descriptive writing process should always be kept in the pelspective of real communication to real audiences for real purposes. Students should have the freedom to describe that which is meaningful to them, whether it is a special toy in first grade or a special elderly person in high school.

...

Sample Activities

Toys
Grades K-2

Purpose
Students will plan. dictate (or write). revise/edit and publish a descriptive paper about a favorite toy.
ObJecdv_
The learner will
list characteristics of a favorite toy.
describe a favorite toy based on the list of characteristics.
revise descriptions based on peer input and self.evaluation.
edit descriptions for publication.
Material8lAida
Paper and pencil Parent commitment to assist at home A favorite toy selected by each student which
can be left at school for four or five days Parents. paraprofessionals or student aides to
assist in class. if possible
S".1lI'\'
After parents have been informed of this activity. students will discuss description and practice listing characteristics of an interesting object. From this discussion a list of suggestions for descriptions will be developed. Parents will assist students at home in dictating characteristics of a favorite toy using this list of suggestions. This list will form the basis for a paper to be dictated! written in class. The toy will then be brought to class and two or three peers will develop a list of characteristics for each student's toy. Using these additional observations. students will revise their papers. share them orally with the class. edit them for mechanics. illustrate them and place the final product in a class booklet entitled "Our Favorite Things." The booklet may be on display for parents' night or copied for all students to take home.

hoced__
1. Inform parents of this activity and recmit their assistance for at least one night of homework.
2. Provide parents a complete overview of the activity.
3. Discuss description as a skill with the entire class. Stress that to describe something we can use ail five senses--sight. sound. taste. touch. smell. As further assistance to the reader. the students might begin at one point (e.g. the top and move to an opposite point. the bottom in this instance). Using a familiar object or toy. elicit its characteristics and list these on the chalkboard or chart paper. Remind students that touching or holding the object will create sensations which can be described. Sounds which the object might make can also be described.
4. Ask the class to summarize the kinds of characteristics that were included. These might include-shapes. color. relative size. likenesses or differences. material(s). function. weight. Explain that this list will be used to develop guidelines for parents to use as they assist the students at home.
5. Make copies of the students' list of charac teristics to be considered. Include a summary of the activity for parents' information and request that they use this list (and their own ideas) to help their child dictate characteris tics of a favorite toy at home.
6. Distribute the copied list; be sure students understand it; make the homework assignment. With a parent. the student should select a favorite toy at home that evening. Together they should list characteristics of that toy using the guidelbles developed by the class.
7. Using their lists from home. each student will dictate to an aide or write a descriptive

"

paper. The teacher should assist with each step. concentrating on content. not mechanics. These papers should be saved for a couple of days.
8. After the paper is developed. ask students to bring in their toy.
9. Assign students to groups of two or three. Each group should study two or three toys brought in by students in other groups. Each group should observe and handle the toy and develop together a list of characteristics which they observe. This task will be similar to the one completed with the parent. Lists should be written by the studel'"ts or an aide and saved until the followtng day.
10. Students should be given their toys. their first drafts and the comments written by a peer group. Using all of this information and with teacher's or aide's assistance as necessary, students should revise and rewrite their papers to make them as complete as possible.
11. Each student should read (after practice with parents or an aide) the second draft to the class with the toy described visible to aU. The class should be encouraged to comment on points that need to be clarified, to make additional observations and to praise descriptions that were weU done. If any revision is necessary, the student writer should be encouraged to take notes and revise the paper. Adult or peer assistance should be provided
as needed.
12. Each student should write a final draft of the descriptive paper for a class book. Students may also be encouraged to illustrate their papers with a picture of the toy being described.

13. As students finish their work. papers should be added to a class booklet (with cover already prepared) entitled Our Favorite Toys."
14. To thank parents for their assistance. and to help students realize the importance ot publication. invite the parents to see the work completed. Have the booklet with all of the toys available for a parents' night display.
15. Make copies of the book for all students to take home.
Evaluation
1. Opportunities for peer and self-evaluation are partially built into the entire process.
2. Teacher evaluation should focus on student participation and success in the entire process of this activity and in the fluency and effectiveness of the final draft.
3. The students should also receive some evaluation based on their involvement in group activities both as listeners and as contributors.
4. The students might be asked after aU have presented their papers aloud to evaluate orally their own products and participations.
S. Parents might be asked, after reading the complete class book to write an evaluation of the strengths and weaknesses of their own child's work.
Follow Up
The same activity, with variations for interest's sake, could be repeated with favorite pets or foods. Topics might be selected to support class studies in other content or concept areas being emphasized. Any topic requiring detailed observation and description would be appropriate.

-.

...

Faces Grades 3-4

P a r p o. .
Students will practice writing descriptions of people.
ObJectiv. .
The learner will
write descriptions of people concentrating on certain specifics from pictures and the real world.
revise and edit the descriptions written.
MaterialslAids
Paper and pencil Collections of pictures. at least three each of
singers. politicians. clowns. cowboys. mothers. 10-year-olds. witches
Bulletin board space People in real life to be observed
Aides. magazines and tape recorders
Chalk and chalkboard
Sa .."
Beginning with small group work. students will learn to list characteristics and write descriptions of people from pictures. Gradually. they will do the same for pictures of their own choosing.
Proceclar. .
1. Beginning with a large picture of a person and using class discussion and contribution. help students see those things which would lead to a good description of that individual.
2. Outline these on the board as the students suggest them. (If the need exists. the outline could be developed as a class composition for purposes of more complete explanation.)
3. Divide the class into small groups. Give each group one set of three pictures. e.g.. three singers or three clowns.
4. Ask the group to select their favorite picture from their set and list all the characteristics of the person that they notice. Later ask them to use the other pictures to differentiate their selected picture. i.e. list characteristics that

distinguish their clown or singer from (h~ others shown.
5. As a group. the students should use their list of characteristics to write a paper describing the picture they selected. {Younger or less able students wil! need the assistance of the teacher or an aide to dictate characteristics and their final paper).
6. Ask each group to stand in front of the room. display all three pictures and read their descriptive paper aloud. The class should be able to tell which picture is described. They can make suggestions for other discriminating characteristics that were not listed.
1. Students should select pictures of persons who are very distinctive and which can be used in class. (This can be done in class through a magazine search or as a homework assignment.)
8. Individually. students will list the characteristics of the person pictured and use this list to write or dictate a description of that person. The teacher should make copies or transparencies of these papers.
9. With individual student's pictures available for all to see. the class should discuss as many descriptive papers as possible. The class should be encouraged to note characteristics that might have been overlooked. ways in which the student could have described a characteristic more effectively. and good choices of wording. Papers which are not evaluated by the whole class should be studied and commented upon by small peer groups. (If necessary or desirable. this step can be handled completely in small groups.)
10. Using input from the class or small group. students should revise their descriptions and edit them for publication. As papers are completed. studentsshould placetheir papers along with the picture that inspired them on the bulletin board for others to view.
Evalaadoa
Teacher evaluation should focus on the individuals and their relative effectiveness. Participation.

use of peer assistance and development of detailed observation should be included in evaluation. p... evaluation is a part of the activity as il the expectation for students to provide it and to use it.
follow Up Invite one or several. confident. secure adult
volunteers for the students to use as models. Explain to the students that. like the painter. they are going to work with a live model for
1

their nat dacriptions. Caution the students to trar their guilts rapectfuUy but to be as accurate and as complete in their descriptions as possible.
Using the written descriptions. the students might develop a short story about their model.
Pets or other small animals may be SUbstituted for the models to add a different dimension.
Student descriptions can be developed around things other than faces. e.g. automobiles in the school lot. shoes.

Important Elements Grades 5-6

Purpo.e
Students will learn (he importance and use or detailed plAnning in writing a description.
Objective
The learner will
use detailed preliminary planning for descrip tive writing.
write a detailed description of a room or scene.
revise and edit a descriptive paper based on peer input.
Material.
Paper and pencil
Su ary
After writing an unplanned description of a room or scene. students will repeat the process using more careful planning and emphasizing point of view. time of day. season of year. mood and sensory observations. Papers will be revised based on peer questions and suggestions in a class editing circle. The final draft will be compared by the students with their own first. unplanned draft. Differences will be noted in journal style to be shared with the class. Both papers will be displayed on a "Before and After" bulletin board.
P1'ocedare.
1. With no preliminary planning have students write a description of the classroom as best they can. These papers should be held until the end of this series of activities.
2. Explain to students that they are going to write the same description of the classroom. but this time they will develop this draft according to a more detailed procedure. Differences in the first paper and the second (planned) paper will be studied at the end of this series of activities.
The planning stages are as follows A. Students select a point of view wom which
they will consider the classroom in their minds. Discuss the arrangement of details as an important part of point of view. Brainstorm possible alternatives such as how

the room might look from the teacher's desk. from the cloakroom. from a ladder outside the window. Encourage students to select an unusual perspet."tj", r:Gffi which to view the room.
B. Students should make an outline of tnese details under point of view.
C. Students should now consider time of day and contribute ideas about the way the room might look at different times such as before school starts in the morning. at lunch time. at midnight on a moonlit night. Students should select a time of day for their papers: under Time they should jot details that might be appropriate.
D. Stimulate the students' imaginations by asking them to consider how differently the room would look as the seasons changed. Students should select a season and jot down some thoughts under that heading.
E. Mood. feeling or emotion should now be considered. Explain the emotional content appropriate to mood. How might mood be made a part of the earlier selections of time of day and season? The chosen mood should provide unity for the entire description. Students should be encouraged again to jot down ideas. now under Mood.
F. Now ask students to list things seen. heard. smelled. and physically felt as they view this room. They should keep in mind the point of view. time of day. season and mood.
G. Lists of thoughts and ideas should be reviewed for consistency within the selected framework. A thesaurus may assist students in selecting more appropriate words for the mood of their papers and the class might discuss the importance ofsound and connotation as well as literal meaning in word selection.
3. Using all of the data collected from the planning stages. students should write a first draft of their description. At the top of the papers

should be listed Point of View. TIme of Dey. Season and Mood. for later reference. .
4. Ask the class to sit in a large circle for editing.
Collect papers and redistribute them so that each student has another's paper. Students should read each paper carefully and jot down questions that arise as they read. e.g.. points that are unclear. irrelevant material. inconsistencies. Each paper should have at least two critiques.
5. Students will revise their first drafts based on questions from the peer editing circle and also from pointers that they may have picked up in r'!ading others' papers. A final draft should be written and edited.
6. Before turning in final papers. students should be given time to read their first attempt at an unplanned description and compare it to their final draft. Each student should write reflections of the differences in the two papers and should note how planning affected the final result In a &ee, journal style.
7. These refledions should be shared orally with the class. A discussion of planning as an

important factor In writing good descriptions
should be a part of this sesaion.
8. Encourage students to create a "Before and .After" bulletin board showing their first and final attempts. {Journal-type retleetions might be used as a border.}
EvaluadoD
1. Awareness ofthe writing process. ofthe import tance of planning and a final draft showing improvements based on planning and input from peers should be considered in evaluation.
2. Peer e,,'aluation is an integral pan of this process. Teacher evaluation should take into account the students' following procedures. Including specified areas of description, students' planning and their involvement in and use of peer editing.
Follow Up
The same exercise might be used for a room or scene outside the school.
The students might engage in some imaginative writing using the same procedures for a fantastic locale or a futuristic scene.

Famous Journals Grades 7-8

P~.
Students will use famous journals as bases to develop their own. They will observe and record details of a person known to them. These notes will be used to write a descriptive paper about that person.
Objectives
The leamer wiD
listen to and discuss excerpts from famous journals or diaries.
observe a subject and record in journal fashion all details noted.
write and revise a paper describing the subject.
Material.;Aid
Paper and pencil
Copies of famous joumals. e.g. those by Pepys. Byrd. Boswell. Defoe
Relatives or associates to observe
Sa .."
After listening to and exammmg examples of famous joumals. e.g. those of Pepys and Boswell. students will discuss the qualities of vivid descriptive writing about characters in real life. They will then select a subject known to them. preferably a relative or associate. for an in-depth fiveday study. During their observations they will note all details relevant to the character of their study in joumal fashion. All notes will form the basis of a rough draft and revision for final submission to the teacher.
N.... In this actlulty It Is suggntl that th~ stud~ts' subjects should not b~ aware of obs~rvatlons and that pap~rs must b~ confidential ~tween stud~nt and t~ch~r. R~mind stud~ts to keep In mind that this is a school actluity and abRrvations should ~ kept to observations and topics approprtaIe to school.
Proc:ed. . .
1. In class read and discuss excerpts from famous joumals. These excerpts should emphasize character description. Good selections may be found in Pepys' Diary. Boswell's Life of Johnson and London Journal and Defoe's Journal of the Plague Year. Local school

media specialists should be of assistance in finding these materials and others appropriate for the intended grade level. Discussion should center around aspects of writing. i.e.. quality, amount and precision of details. lilieiiness and vividness of presentation. keenness and freshness of observations and v:qor and ease of style. Note that the aim of the writer is to bring the subject to liie in the mind of the reader.
2. Make long range assignment and discuss it in detail. Students should select an appropriate subject for an indepth character description. They should be advised that while active and flamboyant people make good subjects. quiet. more disciplined people are also good subjects because they often reveal deeper or more interesting details for the patient observer.
3. Students should be allotted two full weeks for observation although they need only take notes for five days. This will allow for days when nothing interesting happens or when the writer does not come in contact with the subject. Students should be encouraged not to allow their subject to know of the observation so that actions will be natural. Students should merely concentrate and remember. make notes surreptitiously, and get things down on paper when they have the opportunity. Tips for the observer might include

A. Note mannerisms. (How does the subject stand while talking? Manner of walking? Greeting people? How does he or she look at people?)

B. Include quotes. (Include bits of dialogue

that are typical and revealing of the sub-

ject's attitudes. opinions and speech pat-

terns.)



C. Show a variety of moods and situations. (What does the subject say and how does he or she look and act at meals? Early in the morning? At the end of the day? How does he or she react to anger-own and others? When is the subject at his or her best and what behavior is shown then?)

4. Students should spend two weeks observing their subjects and noting details as dilc:usHd in Step 3. The teacher should be available mainly to listen and to react to problems or questions that might arise ror students and to prOVide encouragement. advice and a reasonable check on student progress.
5. When journal entries are completed students should bring them ail to class. Each student should read through the material collected and decide on a form and appropriate style in relation to the subject and the type of information that is to be revealed. Emphasis in this selection should be on naturalness. The choice of form should be optional.
6. Students should begin writing a rough draft and continue until it is completed. This may take up to a week.
7. The teacher should confer with each student and through questions elicit ideas from the student for revision. The final draft should be submitted to the teacher for evaluation.
Not..Ow to the pouible personal nature of this assign ment. it is recommended that the teacher be the only

....-..-.If cMtoa 01
Iec:t or
work to be "......
Evaluatioa

that further publl-
nat be ....-rasing to the sub-
tIIiIIht be obtIliMd far die

Students should be evaluated on their individual participation in the prewriting stages of this activo ity and on their final drafts including the qualities of writing initially sought. i.e. vivid descrip. tion. abundance and precision of details. liveliness and vividness of presentation. keenness and fresh ness of observations and vigor and ease of style.

Follow Up

Encourage students to continue journal entries about other people or events in their lives. Such entries may form the basis for further papers including more involved narratives and poetry.
Some students might enjoy reading more from famous journals now that they understand the process and problems.

Adapted from "Be Your Own Boswell". by E. L Vergason in They Really Taught Us How to Write. National Council of Teachers of English. 1974.

Memories
Grades 910

Pupo
Students will develop interview questions. carry out an interview with an older person and use the responses to write a descriptive paper about an object, process or everyday experience no longer common.
Objectlva
The learner will
design questions for an interview.
interview an older person.
record the interview.
write an account of the interview in a style and form appropriate to content, purpose and audience.
revise the account based on suggestions and further information &om the person interviewed.
present an informal oral report of the interview.
submit for publication the written account in a reference booklet for the school media center.
M.teri""Aida
Paper and pencil
Older persons (preferably over 60) willing to be interviewed by students (e.g., relatives, neighbors, &iends. members of local historical societies)
Fox/fre books and magazines (optional)
s.."
After discussing this project, developing interview questions and practicing an interview in class, students will interview an older person to elicit detailed information and description about an object, process or everyday experience no longer common. Students wiD discuss appropriate form and style In class and write a first draft. They will discuss the draft with the person Interviewed and obtain comments or suggestions for improvement and additions from those people. Finally, the students will share their accounts orally with the class and submit edited copies for a reference booklet to be placed in the school media center.

Proced.....
Allow three weeks for this project.
1. Discuss the objectives, goals and range of activities for this project with the class. (Reading and discussing articles from Fox/ire books and magazines or from other similar materials may help inspire interest.)
2. Encourage brainstorming of Ideas for interviews and subjects and list suggestions on the chalkboard. (Enthusiasm is the key.)
3. Ask each student to locate a willing inter viewee as homework.
4. Discuss Interviewing and questioning tech niques. Explain to students that early questions should elicit a Bow of Ideas about objects, processes or everyday experiences which are no longer common but which were once familiar to the interviewee. Point out that specific, detailed questions should center around one olthose ideas and should allow the students a clear, lifelike impression of the interviewee's remembrances. Once students have the idea, provide some examples. They should then develop a set of questions for the next day.
No'.: Questions will 0/ necasity be open ended to elicit the most information ond must be subject to change or quick adaptation. The questions .hould only be a basis for the intervif!Ul. Student IntlmJif!Ulf!r'S should be prepared to adapt to any subject of interat to the intervif!Ulft. One which may be surpmlng can also be enlightening.
5. Brie8y discuss recording techniques for use during an interview. A tape recorder would be most helpful, but brief, inconspicuous notetaking (fully developed immediately after the interview) can be equally helpful.
6. ExpJain that notations about the Interviewee's appearance, gestures and voice quality may add great life to a final account of the interview.
7. Provide class time for students to practice their interviewing techniques in pairs with each student having a turn at each side of the interview.

8. Encourage sharing of observations. revIIIon of questions .. necesury. consciousnaa 01 the Interviewees feelings and effective ..... taking.
9. Allow at least five days, including a weekend. for students to complete their interviews.
10. When the students have completed their interviews. discuss ferm ,and style choices appropriate to audience. purpose and content (i.e., who will read the material: what is the intent ofthe piece- entertainment. history. information, and what should be included). Any choices meeting this criteria should be acceptable. Follow-up conferences with individual students having problema might be needed.
11. Allow at least two days to write the account derived from the interview. This is a first draft, but should be clear enough for the interviewee to read and discuss with the student.
12. Students should ask interviewees to read or listen to their first drafts and comment. correct or add details. In this proceu the student might note further details about the person.
13. Students should then revise papen based on input from interviewees.
14. Students should read their accounts aloud to the class emphasizing enjoyment and information sharing.

15. DiscuIIIon should follow each reading: interesting writing and dear observations should be highlighted and compIiIMnted.
16. The dass shouid assemble their accounts of the interviews in a reierence hook to be donated to the school Hbraryimedia center for use in similar projects.
Evalaation
Participation and success in meeting each objec tive should be the basis for the teacher's evaluation and for each student's self-evaluation. Interview, tapes or transcripts. student enthusi asm and reflection of student involvement with irUrviewee in 8naJ paper might also be r'fto~
FoUow.ap AcdvItNe
This project could lead into a study of regional writers of the time period described by most of the interviewers and lend new insight to this literature.
After reading books of an even earlier historical period. students might repeat this adivity by hypothetically Interviewing a character from the book or the author and supplementing their imaginings with further research. Students might try to assemble accounts of similar daily events through four generations (such as modes of travel) from personal accounts of representatives from each generation.

Local History Grades 11-12

Parpolle
Students will research various aspects of life in their locality from 1900 to present.
Objectives
The learner will
research regional aspects of American life in 20 year segments.
participate in oral discussion of various time periods.
participate cooperatively in class and small group discussions.
write and revise articles based on input from the students' own lives. research and peers.
present papers aloud to the class. analyze and evaluate the effectiveness of the
research and of the reporting.
MateriaJaiAid. .
Paper and pencil
School media center or public libraries and public archives
Chalk and chalkboard
S ary
Students will discuss and research regional aspects of past and modem American life. They will share their findings with their classmates. This research will be used to develop individual pieces for a time capsule describing modem American life intended for an audience 20 years from now. These papers will be presented to the class and analyzed for completeness. Bound copies will be prOVided each student to reopen in 20 years.
Procedarea
1. Draw a time line with 20 year segments &om 1900 to the present.
2. Ask students to brainstorm aspects of American life appropriate to those time periods. This might include entertainment. sports. travel. furniture. fashion. books. music. technology. appliances. daily chores. jobs. education. economy. reflections ofworld scene.

3. Students should discuss each aspect in 20 year blocks. It is likely that their knowledge will be sketchy; use this lack of information to lead into the assignment for the next few days.
4. Divide students into committees based on their interests. Each committee will address one or more aspects of American life such as educ~tion or entertainment. As a group. students will divide their major topic into subcategories for individual research in the library. (For example. entertainment may be divided into home. public. teenager. adult. children.) Each group will then be given two to three days to research its topics. Family photographs. advertisements. statistics from Almanacs and many other resources might be helpful. Notes will be helpful: however. the information gathered is not to be prepared as a report.
5. Continue the class discussion of the time line. Each committee should have an opportunity to participate and to contribute its new information.
6. Explain the full assignment to the students. each group of students will describe American life in the locality for an audience 20 years from now. Encourage enthusiasm and imagination. Remind students to consider all aspects worth developing.
7. Divide the class into small groups by areas of interest.
8. Allow a class period for groups to brainstorm specific topics within their category. The group should determine which topics each student will be responsible for developing. Students may need to write several papers or articles on each topic to address it adequately.
9. Allow several days for research. Encourage students to be open minded and wide ranging In their research; e.g human resources. newspapers. other media.
10. Encourage small groups to share information.
11. The groups should comment and sort impor-

tent details to be Included and Undt overI8ps" while covering noticeable gapL
12. Actual writing of the artldes might take several days and should include comments and input from other students.
13. Share papers within small groups and. per. haps. across groups to edit and to reveal areuofweakness.
14. Revise accordingly.
15. Present papers aloud to the class. After readings. discuss the completeness of the project and make additions as necessary.
16. Binet" copia of the ftnaI document for each student. the school media center. other ap-
propriate locations.

E. . . . . . . . .
1. The teacJ.......... should foc:ua Oft the !IItudenta. accomplishment of the objecttves.
their participation and enthusiasm In the overall project and the new insights gained of the present and the pall.
2. Individual and small group evaluations should supplement those of the teacher.
Folloa. Acd.idea
Students can share their project with the public. Teachers might arrange a local newspaper cover age or panel discussions for civic organizations.
The dau could move on to the group writing of a longer work .... the daaiption of the- current place and time they now have - aU that is
needed is character and plot.

Telling

Storytelling has as its basis the relating of a series of events. A story. however. contains more than just a narrative. It contains descriptions that support the events by relating significant details which enhance the <?njoymem and the understanding of the story. Stories also contain dialogue between characters, showing us how they feel, think and react.
Telling has varied purposes. A story may simpiy entertain. It may teach new ideas or lessons. In many instances a combination of these purposes appears in a story. In some more contemporary literature. the main purpose seems to be to create a mood or feeling. The narrative becomes poetic in the sense that imagery and ideas replace events as the vehicle for relating. While events are a part of the stories. characters and impressions are the focus of the piece. Teachers must be aware that such literature is difficult for many students to understand.
The purposes of writing that tells. then. are to entertain and to convey information or to create a mood through the elements of narration. description and dialogue. One of the purposes for teaching students to communicate in this mode should be to present and explain these principles which improve the students ability to communicate and to read and understand all forms of literature that tell. whether fictional or factual.
This should help the student discover what makes writing. their's or others. good or bad. This can best be accomplished through discussion of what happens in a piece of writing and what caused it to happen; why the writer chose to have it happen instead of something else. Through such discussion. students arrive at a clearer understanding of a writer's purpose and develop an appreciation for the inventiveness and language skill involved in writing.
The activities that follow deal with telling as a communicative act: they are based on certain assumptions.
In the elementary years (K through 4) students should learn the elements involved in telling a story and how to create their own stories. These basic principles should be taught through regular exposure to stories (read. seen or heard) and through structured and unstructured discussion

led by the h~i:l.cne~ I ather rhan through dH! lecture method. The students oecome familiar with many different stories through this exposure. They begin to recognize certain charactenstics of stories; e.g., some will begin to l'!cognize (hal a story is about someone or something. others wiil realize that something is going to ',3ppen 10 that person or :tling and that it may aifect them. Generally. because children ;)re introduced to many fairy tates and children's stones during these years. most of the stories will be romantic in nature with good winning over evil. These tales are sufficient for teaching the elements of a story.
Besides exposing students to many different sto ries in grades K-4. teachers should encourage students to tell their own stories. The students might relate true stories or invented ones. Both types of stories have their importance. In encouraging students to relate true stories, the teacher is better able to see how the students view themselves, their families and their world. On the other hand. when students make up stories they deal with romanticism and idealism as well as realism - not only what happened or what probably would happen but also what possibly could happen. Through inventive storytelling. students learn alternative courses of action and possible results of these actions. They also deCide which are preferable. The perceptive teacher can use such imaginative information as well as the child's reality to help direct a child's learning experiences about relationships with others.
After creating these stories. students should have the opportunity to share them. They might act out their story for another class or an assembly; they might tape their story for others. or they might draw pictures for the story and make a bound and covered story book. A project the entire class can carry out is to create a series of stories about the same character or characters. Students should discover early that writing is not usually an end in itself. Writing is a means of communication. It is meant to be read. considered. performed and. most of all. enjoyed.
At the 5 through 8 grade level. students should continue to develop an understanding of the elements of telling (what it is and how to do it).

and they should begin to understand the stewInvolved. During t..... yean. students sbouJd be exposed to a wider variety of stories. The focus should broaden from romanticism and comedy to include tragedy and irony. As the students read more and more. they should begin to identify stories according to purpose. The teacher must supply good examples of stories with different purposes and help the students see how the author achieves purpose. Questions concerning characterization, actions and language help stu' dents see that the author's purpose determines the type of story written and that the author's style determines how well the purpose is accom plished. However. in-depth study of stNcture and style should not be attempted. Discovering the author's purpose through discussion and teacher questioning will help the student become more involved with literature and reinforce the concept of reading as a pleasurable activity.
The students should have the opportunity to write their own stories after deciding on a purpose. This age enjoys group work and can help brainstorm ideas for the story. The result is usually a much more Interesting story and a much more enjoyable learning experience for the students. Again. these stories can and should be published.
Students begin to read stories with different purposes and In different forms (novels. short stories. dramas. narrative poems. musical ballads They should begin to recognize these forms and expand their writing to include them. By the eighth grade students should begin to answer questions dealing with the structure of the story

and why authors build their stOries In certain
ways. They will not be able to formulate their own questions about structure. but they should be able to respond intelligently to teacher questions about the elements and fundion of storytelling. It is not until high school or after that most students become independent readers capable of understanding. enjoying and learning through self-directed efforts. This is the ultimate ~oal for which we are striving.
In grades 912 students should become more involved with critical reading of stories and with writing and using different forms of fiction to meet their own purposes. Also. the students should begin to use the different forms of presentations (drama. chamber theatre. oral interpretation) for publication of their own works. More focus should be put on what makes a good story. Students should begin asking themselves why the author used certain words and decided on certain events: they should become familiar with widely used symbols and feel more comfortable about interpreting the literature personally. Such exercises help students discover the author's purpose. a precondition in many cases to a student understanding or enjoying a selection.
The goals for storytelling can be accomplished through integrated activities in the language arts; i.e. reading stories. listening to and discusso ing stories. writing stories and ultimately publishing and performing stories. Such activities fulfill two basic needs - the need to create and the need to communicate - and thus become an important part of the learning experiences.

Sample Activities

Make-a-Story Grades K-2

Purpose
To help young children create a story.
ObJ.aIv-
The learner will
re-tell events in sequence. discuss informally why an event occurred.
discuss informally the characters in a story.
discuss cause/effect relationships.
create a sequence of events and describe a character within these events.
listen to other students' ideas.
help make small group decisions based on group discussion.
Materi
Tape recorder and tapes Chalk and chalkboard Story Volunteers to aid
S a . "
This activity has several important aspects. The students will be learning to relate events in the time order and in cause/effect sequence. The students will also be inventing a piece of fiction. They will be speaking, listening, lti.aring ideas and reaching group decisions. Through this interaction. they will be involved in the process of constructive group work. Finally. the students will perform their story in front of others. They wiD be learning that creative fiction is by its nature a communicative art meant to be read or performed. The teacher's role is that of moderator and questioner, supporting student decisions concerning their story unless obvious contradictions appear in the story. In the event that the teacher must intervene. the problem should be stated clearly to the small group and they should

decide how to alleviate the contradiction. The teacher or an aide must aiso serve as the recoraer for the group. Proc:.d_ _
1. Students listen to a short story.
2. The teacher elicits from the group events in order of occurrence.
3. As students offer information. the teacher lists events in one column on the board. As characters are mentioned. they may be listed in a second column and any descriptive elements in a third column. (The teacher facilitates this process by asking directed. leading questions to the students.)
a. What happens in this story? b. Why did these things happen? c. Are there other things that happened? d. Who are the characters in the story? e. Describe one of the characters. How did
that character look?
4. After students have retold the story. the teacher gives them a list of questions relating to storyinventing. This list is similar to the questions that have been directed orally to the students. and it provides a format for collecting information to be used in inventing a new story. Sample questions for the list might include
a. Who is in the story? b. What is he or she like? c. What happens to this person? d. How did it happen? e. Why did it happen? f. What happened after that? g. How did that make you feel?
Not..The tmchu read. these aloud M the .tudmr.look at tlie Ii.t.
5. The teacher (student aides. parents. paraprofeSSionals) then divides the class into four or

..

five groups of five and begiM to ..... with each group at different tImH to help them create their own story.
6. After the story has been created In rough form. descriptive details are added.
7. The students in the group should praetk:e telling the story In order with aU details. (Each member of the group could be responsible for telling a portion of the story.)
8. When students have practiced the story enough and feel confident about it. the class then might have a "Storytelling Day." Each group presents its story to the other groups.
E"aI_CIoa
1. Teacher observes individual student efforts in
large group participation at initial reading and reteJling.
small group partidpation In developing the story.
class presentation of story.
2. Students can evaluate their own efforts by using the questions in Procedures. #4 above.

- ............. 3. Peer C8ft

ofthe Group Presented Story

be

the t8cher can _ _

foUowU1

An alternate procedure might be for some stu dents to write their stories in their own words. making any changes they would like. They could draw or paint covers for their stories and make story books. These could then be shared with other classes or exhibited on a buUetin board or in the school media center.
Some stories might ... suitable for acting out.
If so, the group could practice an improvisa-
tional form of the story. adding any dialogue they need and perform the story for the class or an assembly.
Students can create a puppet show through which to teU their stories. This might provide an outlet for the shy student as weU as provide an opportunity for creative expression by designing and creating the puppets and sets to be used.

,

Planet New Grades 3-4

P........
Students will write a description of a new planet and use it as the setting for a space story that they will create.
Objective.
The learner will
create a realistic planet with features based on those found in our solar system.
devise a space adventure using the new planet
as the setting.
demonstrate an understanding of why setting is important to a story.
M a t e d. . .
Resources on planets (e.g. filmstrips. pictures. printed materials)
Chalk and chalkboard Paper and pencil
5.88111'9
This activity is designed to integrate language arts skills with scientific information. After discussing planets and their characteristics, students create a planet. A story writing session follows and culminates in class presentations. P r o c n_ _
1. Students select one of the planets of our solar system to research.
2. Students are grouped according to the planet researched.
3. The different groups share their information. creating a knowledge pool for each planet.
4. Each group then shares this information with the entire class. (Teacher can ask for a volunteer from each group to teU the class about their planet or a specific person in each group can be auigned the role of reporter.)
5. Alter all reports are given, the students list on the board some of the information that was

true for all the planets. Example-No plant life. little oxygen. mountains and valleys.
6. Students use this information to describe a new planet. making that planet as reai as possible.
1. Students then read their descriptions to each other. the teacher or to the class.
8. The teacher then assigns each student to write a short space adventure that might take place on the new planet.
9. Students read finished stories to their group for feedback and editing.
10. Groups exchange stories for individual reading.
11. When completed. the stories should be prominently displayed in the room.
EvaJ.atioa
1. Peer evaluation is an integral part of the procedures as in steps 9 & 10 above.
2. Teacher evaulation should focus upon completion of the steps within the task. the task itself. the class readings or individual speaking assignments and the accuracy of information.
3. language/syntax problems which emerge in the final written products should be noted and corrected individually at another time and as is appropriate for the age/maturity group involved.
Follow Up
Students can illustrate their stories and display them in the library/media center or on a bulletin board.
Students can read or listen to other space stories and consider similarities between their stories and the others read.
Note-n.. tXffDHy .-ldlead..,. an Induetfue method
aJ dejlnlrtg the dernenfa aJ any Kiertce-."ace tTalIel story.

,

Outcomes
Grades 5-6

Parpoee
Students will discuss possible story outcomes and tell their own version of how they think a story will end. Students begin to understand that authors carefully construct stories and consciously plan endings.
Objecdw.
The learner will
discuss the relationship of decisions with outcomes.
complete a story's ending.
contribute to a large group discussion.
engage in small group discussion and decisionmaking.
compare story endings and make a decision as to which length ending Is best and why.
Materi_
An entertaining short story, e.g.. "Thank You, M'am" by Langston Hughes.
S ary
This activity combines discussion, listening and writing as the students produce an ending for a short story that Is unfamiliar to them. Students then listen to the different student-produced endll19s, discuss them and decide which are most appropriate. Afterwards, the teacher reads the author's ending and the ciass discusses the author's choice and speculates upon the pouiole reasons for the author's decision. Proced_ _
1. The teacher reads an interesting, action filled story to the daIL
2. The teacher reads enough of the story to Involve the students. identify the problem and thlt main charaders.
3. The teacher stops at the most critical point of the story.
4. The students discuss what might possibly happen (large group, teacher-led discussion).

5. The teacher should remind the students that the ending should be realistiC and probable. based on what they know of the characters, what the characters are like and what has aiready happened in the story.
6. Remind students that individual decisions are based on values and knowledge.
7. Ask the students to think about the main character values and what he or she might do.
8. After the possible endings have been discussed along with the reasons why students feel the way they do, the teacher breaks the class into different groups based on how students think the story should end. For example, if four students thought the main charader would capture the viUian and bring the villian to justice, let those students work in the same group.
9. The teacher, working with the different groups. makes sure students are on task, writing an ending for the story, and checks to be sure they are including appropriate details and making their ending logically consistent with characters in the story and previous events.
10. After endings are completed. one person designated by each group reads that group's ending.
11. The class as a whOle decides which ending Is most appropriate and why.
~ ..., Is mCMt Important. It Is through this dlKuMon that Ruden.. begin fa rnllu the Impor-
tance of reaI'-dt: detaII8 and ac:u-.
12. After the diSCUlSion. the teacher reads the author's story ending to the daIL
13. Students then discusa (large group, teacherled discussion) and critique the original ending. (It is important that the teacher let students express their likes and dislikes. It is also most important that the teacher help the students see why the author ended the . story as he or she did without detracting from the students' ideas.)

"

The teacher's evaluation of the students' work should focus on the appropriateness of details and actions in the students' papers. observation of group work and observation of participation in large group discussion. Peer evaluation is inherent in the selection of endings as in Step 1 above.

FoDowUp
The teacher can repeat this tactic with other stories.
As students develop their skills in relat:q events. the middie of the story or its beginmng might be the portion omitted for student development: in either case logical appropriate development and consistency are stressed.

Ballads Grades 7-8

P1upoae
Students will recognize that telling a story takes different forms. As a part of this activity. they will develop [heir own nanative poem and present it as a choral reading.
Obj.diva
The learner will identify narrative poems. write an extended definition of a nanative poem
(Including a definition of the ballad, the refrain. the possible rhyme schemes and the stanza length).
write a nanative poem. define and perform a choral reading of the
poem.
Mat"'"
Several examples of interesting narrative poems Printed copies of ballads and recordings of them if available 30-35 copies of human interest stories (high
......, interest/low vocabulmy; some newspaper stories
can be used)
In this activity students will be creating their own stories and using new story forms. They will read some of the human interest stories. They will then adapt a story and develop a poem in a narrative style. Finally, the students will perform their poem through a choral reading for the clasL
Proced. .
1. Read one or two examples of narrative poeIM to the cbI.- and play some song balleda; Lg., Kenny Rogen. ''The GambIer;" Gordon Ugbtfoot. '"The Sinking of the Edmund Fitzgerald;"
"The Legend of Barbara AlIan.'
2. After listening to the poetry, ask students to explain what they think is a narrative poem.

3. After students have arrived at a definition (which might be skeJetal but accurate). extend the definition.
4. Explain how the bailad differs from nanative poems. Use examples.
5. Divide class into small groups.
6. Give each group relatively short. but action&lied human inter!Sl stories to read.
7. After they have read stories. instruct students to decide on one from which they will write a narrative poem.
8. Using their notes on narrative poems and two or three examples, have students write their narrative poems.
9. Explain briefly what choral reading is, i.e.. group interpretation of poetry, and work with each group to decide how best to present their poem.
10. Have students perform their poems as a choral reading.
Eval_tioa
1. Peer evaluation ofthe presentations is advised. A form can be developed that permits students to evaluate their peers' work on various elements of the narratives and on the presentations. Emphasis should be upon commendation with criticism limited to one or two points.
2. Teacher evaluation should focus upon individual partidpation in the group work and upon the groups' collective products.
FoDowUp
Narratives which were developed can be printed. dupUcated and bound into a class book.
Sections of the d_ narratives can be illustrated independently or .. a part of the class book project.
The class can select one or more from among their works and practice and present these to other classes throughout the school.

Sample Activities
Persona Grades 910

Goal
This activity provides students the opportunity to develop an understanding of the effect perception has upon the manner in which a story is told.
ObJectiv_
The learner wiD
recognize that perception affects one's view of reality.
recognize that perceptions vary.
study the effect of perception in a first person narrative.
retell a narrative from the perception of a selected character.
M . t. . . . . .
Pencil and paper
Two short, first person narratives
Transparencies or visuals of optical illusions
Picture file
S. . ..."
Students will learn the importance of perception and its affect upon reality through direct experience with illusions that challenge perception and by reading and examining first person narratives. They will discuss and write a narrative of their own retelling a story from an adopted perspective.
Procedar.
1. Present visual images or devices which can be viewed in separate ways and which can distort reality (such as the "vase faces" illu-
sion used as the cover picture of Eng''''' Journal, September 1974 or the young woman
seated before a mirrored vanity and the overall skull impact in the picture "AU is Vanity" by C. Allan Gilbert.)
2. Explain the effect of individuals' mind-sets upon their perception of reality, i.e., how the mind acts as a filter.

3. Allow students ample time to discuss. argue. deny and agree that aUierent people see the same things differently.
4. Assign a short, first person narrative. such as Poe's "The Cask of Amontilia:=o" or Keys' "Flowers for Algernon" lor student reading.
5. In large or small groups, have students consider the effect of the narrator's personal ity upon the story. In the above works. Montresor's obsession and madness affect the way he perceives Fortunato, the events and the outcome afthe story. And CI1arlie's handicap, while creating a different situation. equally influences his view of the events surrounding him.
6. After limited time for discussion in step five,
ask students to list in order Oat outline) some
of the major events or issues in the story read.
7. Ask students to use their outlines to discuss how the events and Issues might have been altered ifanother character related the story, i.e. Fortunato's view in " .. Amontillado" or that of Dr. Strauss or Miss Kinnian in "Flowers ...." (This may be used as a writing assignment in itself, but keep the original goal of the activity in mind.)
8. Allow students time to discuss and to present their ideas about the Inevitable change(s) as a result of the shift in perception.
9. Review the importance of the individual's perception upon narrative development, I.e., the statements and observations which are made in a first person narrative must be consistent with the known attitudes, biases and limitations of the individual.
10. Collect from magazines pictures of various interesting people. Select pictures that arrest attention, e.g., an elderly person roller skating. Include an assortment of character types - young, old, voluptuous. squat.

11. ADO'll students to lip through the . . invite them to choose a picture they find appealing or use a lottery IMthod of selection.

e. friendly
f. loving g. chilly

h. sullen
L petty

12. Ask students to form small groups. Advise students to bring their pictures to their group.
13. In small groups have students study each picture.
14. Using character profile questions below, have students suggest how each group member's character might respond. The following are suggested questions for the students' character profiles. The questions should be expanded or extended.
Howwell-educ:atedlsyourcharacter? a. grade school b. high school Co trade school d. college e. professional school f. seU-made person
Howdoesyourcharactervlewtheworld? a. suspiciously b. openly Co prejudlciaUy d. broacInUndedJy e. hesitantly f. fearfuUy

What is your character's employment?
What is the view the community taKes of your charaaer?
15. Encourage students to assume the character's identity. Reinforce role playing as much as possible. i.e., use character's name in addressing the student.
16. Use a story (film, print or audio version) such as "Bernice Bobs Her Hair" as a narrative stimulus for retelling (i.e., as the studentai' characters might tell the story).
17. In the same working groups as step 12, ask students to discuss how each individual's character might tell the story.
18. Assign students to retell in writing the story from their character's perception.
19. Suggest students use working groups for editorial purposes.
20. Collect final papers for evaluation.
Eval_doa
1. Peer and self-evaluation are an Inherent part of the small group work and editorial efforts.

Howdoesyourcharaeterspeakandconverse? a. authoritatively tJ.loudly Co slowly d.quletly e. pompously f. nervously

Howdoesyourcharacterdealwithc0n8lct? a. escapes b. agressively Co directly d. sarcuttca1ly e. diplomatically f. deceitfully

Whatlsyourcharacter'spubllctmage?

L geMIQUS

f. loving

b......

Ie chJIIy

Co ftIIIty

h. .......

d. pleasant

L petty

e. &tendIy

2. Teacher evaluation should focus upon the students' in-class work as participating group members and upon the final written product. In terms of the student's paper. the primary objective Is the successful use of an adopted perception.
Fo...... ActIvItIe8
Extend this experience by assigning compositions for retelling other narratives.
Have students tell an incident from their lives &om their own perspectives, then from their parents' penpectives.
a.o-c-
Eng'.... Joumal. September 1964, Volume 63, Number 6.
Wakefield, Beverly. Perception and Communication, Theory Into Practice Seria.

What Isyour character'sprivateorpersonalface? "Spaces and illusions" poster available &om

a. generous

Co ruuty

The High Museum of Art. Educational Division,

b. stingy

d. pleasant

Atlanta, Georgia.

Dear Dilemma Grades 11-12

PurpoMiGoai
This activity provides a chance for !>1udents to tell a series of events that might have led to a panlcular situation. Students give advice on how to solve a hypothetical dilemma.
Objective
The learner .will
develop a series of events that might precede a given situation.
organize these events in a logical sequence.
tell these events to a larger group or the entire class.
give advice on how to solve a hypothetical situation.
Material.
Cards containing hypothetical situations
Samples of "Dear Abby" columns
S . . . "
In this activity students will brainstorm a series of possible events leading to a hypothetical situation. They will then organize those events in a logical sequence and tell that sequence to the class within a limited time period. Additionally, students will brainstorm possible solutions for a problem, then write a letter offering their personal advice.
P r o c . d. . . .
1. Have the students choose a partner with whom they can work amicably.
2. Without previewing, have each student choose a card on which a situation is written (i.e., they pick a card from a collection that is face down on a table).
3. TeU students to share each situation with their card partner.
4. Have students brainstorm events which might have led to the situation (i.e., students cooperatively develop a series of events which might have preceded the main event).
5. Each student organizes the preceding events.

This can be done on paper In jot list form or simply practiced for j:'Jiesentation from memorv
6. Each student must tell the events which were selected to a larger group or to the whole class in no less than one minute nor no more than two minutes. The list of situa tions below is not exhaustive. The ''!3cher should supplement with items that are appropriate to the region and to the students' environment. experience and ability. Items which may result in undesirable responses should be deleted.
a. Tell your teacher or principal the events which led to
your innocent possession of the school's burglar alarm and master keys.
your innocent possession of the answer key to tomorrow's final exam in mathematics.
your parking your car in the principal's reserved parking space.
your driving your car through the school's prize rose garden.
your ramming into the vice principal's brand new, diesel-powered station wagon.
the failure of your chemistry experiment and the resuking damage to the lab. two external walls and 14 windows in an adjoining building.
your innocent presence in the girls'/boys' locker room while members of the opposite sex are preparing to dress.
your 14th and final tardy to your founh period. after lunch class.
your parking the school's new educational training vehicle in the IS-foot ravine behind the school cafeteria.
b. Tell your parent or guardian the events which led to
your being brought home from a date in a police car.
your arriving home at 2 a.m. when you were due at 10:30 p.m.

your I.......... your sliter's (braths) wedding when you had been entrusted with the ringL
your breaking both headlights out of the family car.
your charging $100 wonh of merchan dise (new clothes) to their account.
Other stem sentences may indude siblings. dates, ministers. clviJ officials and so on.
7. After completing steps above. organize groups of three to five students and appoint a re-
corder from each group.
8. Distribute samples of "Dear Abby" newspaper column for students to .JM as a modeL
9. Discuss with students the task (that is. they will collectively discuss a hypothetical prob lem and then individually write a letter as a response).
10. Arbitrarily give each group two cards with dilemmas. Some possibilities are
how to ask for a date
how to gradously turn down a date
how to tell a person you have dated steadily that you wish to date someone else
how to tell someone you are sorry
how to back out of an unsupervised situation that you consider unwholesome without being called a prude or a chicken
how to tell someone you like very much that they have bad breath or dandruff
11. Have students dedde which dilemma they would like to discuss.
12. Tell students to brainstorm at least three distinct alternatives for the selected dilemma. Tell students to suggest steps for each alternative. The recorder is responsible for

pre................ . IittlngJot listslor
the aItenWh...

13. After ajlll ' . _

providetIlor

discussion. haw

prepare individual

letters te(Jing tile difemma writer how to

proceed in resoMng the problem. The style

of students' rapo... matches the "Dear

Abby" format.

14. Have students use group revision or editing process to refine their individual letters.

15. Give students opponunity to share the di lemma and one or two of the groups' individ ual responses with the whole class.

16. SubmI .... c:apiIs of

and eec:h gIOUp's

jot lists for t. . . . "Vb ........

Eval d o I I
Peer evaluation is inherent in the group editing process.
The jot list &om group work and teacher observation are evidence of partidpation.
Letten thelMelves become evidence of individual effort.
FoUO p A c d. . . . . .
Reverse "Dear Abby" responses by having students teU the distressed person the step-by-step worst possible course of action.
Using studentselected want ad &om local newspaper, have students prepare business letter inquiries to the advertiser. Responses are to include statements telling what experiences qual ify the students lor the desired positions.
Develop a column similar to "Dear Abby" as an Integral part of a classroom newspaper or suggest such a column to the sponsor of the school newspaper.

Explaining

Explaining undergrids other modes of discourse. such as interpreting. It involves activities quite similar to those in other instructional areas, such as reading. Thus. it becomes doubly important in itself as a mode of communication and as a building block ior other phases of instructions.
The similarity of activities in both instances offers the teacher the opporunity to reinforce. through additional practice. elements common to several skills. However. if the activities seem redundant, economize through careful planning. One or a series of activities could be used to build concepts useful for reading and writing and for specific disciplines such as social studies. science or mathematics.

identify the steps in the process or procedure.
recognize the order inherent in the steps.
organize and present the data in a fashion appropriate to the audience.
As students progress in age and ability. their efforts should obviously take on a greater level of sophistication. Providing logical deveiopmem. making connections and demonstrating relation ships will require more eifon and reiy upon the students' increasing maturity.
The how question for older students will become more abstract. Their responses will require the use of appropriate examples and appeals to pre cedent for justification.

In explaning an individual must be able to make something clear to someone else. The stated or unstated how must be answered. "How did this happen?" "How do I get to your house?" "How do you bake a cake?"

When working with older or younger students. the teacher will need to alert them to the differences in an explanation that is face-to-face (i.e. one in which the receiver's reactions can be seen and his or her confusion resolved by the other)

To satisfy this how question an individual must

and one that must stand on its own merits (one

in which the sender is unable to react to the

.

recognize that a process or procedure is comprised of steps.

receiver's confusion or responses, such as a set of written directions).

Sample Activities

Sequencing Grades K2

Purpm..
Through identifying and sequencing the steps in a process students will gain practice in an important part of explaining as a mode of communica tion.
ObJecdv.
The learner will
employ appropriate explaining processes.
order the steps in a process.
build group work concepts.
M.t.rt.la/Ald. .
One large, action picture for class demonstra-
tion
Several magazine action pictures of children in the midst of an activity. e.g., playing ball, skating. dancing, eating ice cream
Tape recordersltapes
Chalk/chalkboard
Markers/chart paper
Adults or older students, if possible
S. . . .I'
This activity leads students through the ordering and explaining of steps in a process. Both small group and whole class discussion are used.
Proud......
1. Show the large action picture to the class; be certain that an explanation ofsequential ac:tion is possible. Ask the students to Identify the m.in action in the picture. Write student
response(s) on the board, such as '"The chi1-
dren are playing ball;" -rIIey're pIaytng . . . . ballo"
2. Ask the students to name three different tasks or movements such as pitching. batting, catch ing, running required to complete or carry out the action in the picture. Write these on the board.

3. Ask the students which of these moves is the beginning action (put a #1 by it on the board). the next action (put a #2) and the next action (put a #3). Orally review the steps in the action by reading the words. phrases or sentences on the board in the correct sequence.
4. Divide the class into small groups and give each group a magazine picture. With the aid of an adult, an older student or a tape recorder, have students repeat the group procedure above in their small group. Activities will include identifying the main action. identifying three tasks or movements required to complete the action and putting these tasks in order.
5. When the groups have ftnished. each should report its ftndlngs. One student in each group might volunteer to show the picture, another to tell the main action and others to identify the steps. in appropriate order, in the task. The teacher should list these on a chart as they are spoken and display the charts to the class.
Eval_tioII
The teacher should be aware of specific word choices used by the students in the explanation process. The ordering process should be noted in the small group and large group discussions. Stu-
dents cooperative behavior as large group and
small group participants should be mentioned and praised.
Follow Up
Reinforce this process whenever possible by asking students to identify the sequences involved In certain tasks. e.g., going to lunch. pass-
Ing out books. collecting papers.
Reinforce this process and the Idea of group cooperation by allowing students to suggest ways to accomplish classroom tasks. Be certain to have them identify the steps involved and then carry through with their suggestions to test the procedures.

TV Shows

....

Grades 3-4

Purp. . . .
This activity is intended to help students gain In their understanding and employing appropriate explaining processes.
Objecd"e. The learner will use a personal experience as an example of
explainir g. participate in brainstorming group activities. explain individual choices using several rea-
sons.
Materi'"
Pencils. crayons, paper Chalk/chalkboard
5 ......"
Beginning with wh.lle class brainstorming, this activity guides individual students into identifying and developing reasons for their television preferences.
Proced. . .
1. Discuss the general process or procedure for brainstorming.
2. Brainstorm with class for a list of favorite television shows.

3. Discuss what students believe to be important for a good television show. List the criteria on the board as :>tudents suggest them.
4. Have each student select a personal favorite from the board list or one that has occurred to them since the Hst was made.
5. Based upon the criteria listed on the board. the students should cite three reasons for their choices, e.g., it is funny: it is exciting: they do interesting things.
6. Students should brainstorm five or six more reasons and then select the best three.
7. Complete activity by displaying each student's selection and reasons in written or pictorial form.
Eval..atioD
Teacher, peers and individual students should evaluate each product looking for three clear. specific, well-explained reasons.
follow Up
A survey or a ranking of the top programs could follow: the reasons for choices could be explored: the most common or most unusual programs could be discussed to discover first. second, third television choices.
A similar activity can be developed around favorite foods. sports, books and songs.

Things GradesS-6

Parpo_
This activity is intended to help students understand and employ appropriate explaining processes.
Objectives
The learner will practice using a variety of audience appeals.
cite relevant exam'" for support.
investigate ways of sequencing explanations.
make an informed selection from a range of organizational possibilities.
Matedala
Paper and pencils
S. "
This is an individual writing assignment, but the teacher should generate enthusiasm for the task by brainstorming "things" with the class. Stu dents share their finished writings with the large group. Procecl__
1. With students, brainstorm "things" which they might use as topics, e.g., lightbulb, weather vane, matches, clothes dryer. ball point pen, popcorn popper, mouse trap. The items should be suitable for a description of their use, i.e., something which involves a process and which is not too complicated.
2. Ask students to select one item and instruct them to make a list of information about the Item.
Example Mo... tra~mall wooden platform, a spring, bait holder, bait, mechanism, wire guillotine.

3. Determine the audience for which the students are to write. e.g younger students or peer group or parents.
4. Ask students to anange list items in a logical sequence. Options-backward sequence. random set quence. Think about a sequence to interest and engage your audience.
5. Ask students to ....dte the paper.
6. Ask them to think about the way the paper begins. Remind them that the paper will be read aloud. Hook the audience.
7. Ask them to share their papers with the class.
Ev. . . .d o e
1. An informal evaluation comes as writers read their papers.
2. Audience comments on particularly effective
use of sequence, interesting openings and can
creteness of language. A more formal evalua tion could be done using an evaluation checklist.
Opening 15 Sequence 1-5 Concrete language 15 Overall impact on audience 15
Include any usage and mechanics conventions you have been stressing in your teaching. i.e.. complete sentences 1-5 or punctuation 1-5.
FoUowU.
Asimilar assignment on another object could lead to small group feedback or use of the formal evaluation procedure noted above

.

Make It Appealing Grades 7-8

Purpose
This activity offers students the opportunity to extend their understanding and use of appropriate explaining processes.
Objective.
The learner will
practice a variety of audience appeals.
cite relevant examples for support.
investigate ways to order an explanation.
make an informed selection from the range of organized possibilities.
Materials
Chalk/chalkboard Paper/pencils Copy of opinion paper
su . . "
This lesson depends on teacher-guided whole class discussion. In addition to individual writing assignments. peer evaluation is used with a set of identified criteria (checklist). Proced__
1. Review with students the difference between fact and opinion statements.
2. Ask the class to suggest some opinion statements such as. "lUke that music". "Our backfield played badly." Accept all statements offered and write them on the board.
3. Ask students to determine if all the statements are opinion. Strike those that are not.
4. After the students are comfortable with the difference and are making opinion statements consistently. let them practice finishing statements such as "lUke that music because ..... or "Our punter is not as good as theirs because .
5. Guide the discussion toward considering support for an opinion. What is appropriate? How should support be stated?
6. Ask them to note the opinion expressed and to identify the support given that opinion in the paragraphs below.

"1 rhlnit lei<ev,s..," co",mer-ciau $houid be banned. Cam. IMTdGla ~y interrupt IJ1}' prograrru. Ellery fiftun minutes duriftg a mOllIe' there are jlve minutes oj com merciaa.
")\fost commert:ial! Off .,attrulhful. Take dog joOO com mercial" jor instance. llcnow companies Ivanl more ~'eo pie to buy their product. but ffally, most "eople don't care. Dog }ooo '5 dog food! My Jog will ent "ny ;<ina oj dog jood, and his heoUh is the ilome as it aiways was. BesIdes, my dog doesn't even warch rhe commerCIals.
"Teieviaion WOlIid be more enjoyable 1/ there were no commercia". Come to think of It. though. when would 1
get to get II ~?"
7. After the supporting statements are listed. lead the ~1udents in a brainstorming session to provide support for the following opinion. "Students should decide the menu for the school cafeteria." List supporting statements or rea sons on the chalkboard.
8. Then brainstorm a second list of situations in which students might need or want to state and support an opinion. e.g. the appropriate age at which young people should begin dating or at which young people should be allowed to drive or any topic of interest to the age group.
9. Ask them to choose one of those brainstormed topics for an opinion paper. Remind them to make a list of supporting ideas on their own before beginning to write.
Evailladon
When the students finish. have them exchange papers for teacher-guided peer evaluation using a checklist which might include the following.
Evidence Look at the reasons (evidence) given for the opinion. Are there at least three reasons? Can you suggest any better ones? Are there specific examples to illustrate reasons?
Anvngement Think about how the paper is arranged. Is the strongest evidence first? Last? Is each reason in a separate paragraph?
Language
Is the opinion expressed clearly? Is the language forceful?

Punctuation and Spelling Check spelling. Check for capitalization and punctuation in each sentence.
.. Reread Reread the paper one final time. Does it sound convincing? The checklist developed can also be used Eor revision and selE evaluation.
Follow Up
Following peer evaluation (use of checklist) in small groups. students (still in smail groups I

could brainstorm for both topic and support (evidence) for pro or con positions. Give particular emphasis to audlence-what is convincing to different groups of listeners or readers.
Use one or several of these topics in a classroom debate.

Feature Story Grades 9-10

G o a l l P u r p o

This activity will help students develop a heightened sense of audience. Students experiment with writing (or an outside audience. The feature story is explored. Students make appropriate language choices suitable for the work and the audience.

Objectlv_

The learner will develop a feature story. make appropriate language choices for that
story. write for an outside audience. participate in a small group editorial board.

M.t"'"
Copies of good feature stories

Examples of strong end paragraphs

Chalk/chalkboard

5. . ..."

Students write a feature story on the subject of

why

is a good teacher. Arti

cles are presented in small groups which select.

edit and submit the best to the school paper. Proced_ _

1. Have students brainstorm for the qualities that make a good teacher. Encourage stu dents to elaborate on characteristics.
2. Through the use of the criteria developed above. ask students to indentify a teacher past or present who exemplifies these characteristics.
3. Students complete a free writing assignment about this person and share their work in small groups.
4. Discuss the aspects 'Of a good feature story using examples selected for this purpose.
(See M.teri....)

5. Have students UlTite a feature story for the school paper on the subject wily _ _ _ _ _ _ _ is a good teacher. 1l1ey are individuaily to write an indepth anide on their favorite teacher. enumerating the good quaiities of that teacher as d model. Thz free writing assignment may form the basis of this article, or the students may by now have changed their minds.
6. The form of the article is that of a feature story. which is a long. researched article for the front page of a paper.
7. instruction in form should concentrate on the lead paragraph and pyramid organiza tion of material typical of journalistic style.
8. Careful proofreading is a part of this step.
9. Have students present articles in small groups, exchange feedback and then revise their efforts.
10. Ask students to return to small groups with revised articles. The group selects the best paper (s) and suggests further revisions.
11. Have the final drafts shared with the entire class.
12. The class then decides which papers to submit to the school newspaper.
Ev.Ju.don
Teacher evaluation should be begun through observation of student work. Join several of the small group's proceedings. Notice process and student's interaction in offering and accepting critidsm.
The students' efforts in free writing and in individ ual feature story writing can be evaluated. The evaluation should focus the directions given and the students' success or failure in adhering to them.

FoOo. . . . ActhI....

story or the WIG _ up and write editorials as

Repatlng objectives and procedures above. ..... dents can write similar stories. about adults out-

appl'Opl'Wte ( meaningful ........

of good teachen or

'-

side the classroom who are or were significant

Any of the above ideas can be redeveloped in the

individuaJs to them.

form of a narrative using a nonfiction or a fiaion

Similar stories can be developed about cia...

approach.

mates.

Reeoarcee

Students can modify material used in the feature

(See uplaiai Grades 11-12.)

Robot. Grades 11-12

GoaJIPurpo_
The purpose of this activity Is to help students develop a heightened sense of audience in their writing.
Objective.
The learner will
make language choices based on audience considerations.
develop a personal. interesting and coherent paper.
emphasize audience appeal.
Material.
Pencil and paper
Appropriate print and nonprint materials on robot themes
Su ary
The following activity takes students beyond the pedestrian and routine assignments that sometimes stiRe writing. This activity calls for imaginative fiction. but other options can be created. To assess audience appeal students read their explanations to peers as a culminating activity. P r o c . d_ _
1. The teacher sets the stage for the activity by assigning an appropriate reading such as Isaac Asimov's I Robot or Karel Capek's R.UR. or showing a film or filmstrip about a robot.
2. Instruct students to design a robot. Each must produce a sketch and provide a name for his or her design.
3. Each student then jots down notes on the follOwing.
The robot's components. functions and materials Its capabilities and Umitlations Its special features
4. Using their notes. the students Individually write a paper explaining their robots to potential buyers. The papers are to be accurate. (This isn't a used robot.)

5. In smail groups the students test market their designs and explanations.
6. Based on peer responses students make appropriate revisions.
7. The students read their papers:o potentiai buyers from other small groups. The buyers provide feedback on whether the explanations are clear or adequate.
Evaluation
1. Self and peer evaluation are integral parts of the activity. (See steps 5 and 7 above.)
2. Teacher evaluation focuses upon completeness of exercise. quality of description and effectiveness of audience appeal.
follow-up Activities
Maintaining the futurist theme. students can design a spaceship for travel in deep space. For this activity blueprints can be drawn. internal division indicated. floor plans provided and so on.
Jot down notes explaning what life support systems have been included and how these systems work. what recreational facilities have been included. what propulsion systems have been designed and how they work. what other provisions for living have been made. Using the notes and drawings. write a paper to convince others to join you on the trip into deep space or to buy the product and use it themselves.
Read your paper to a potential space voyager. After the space voyager has made a decision have the voyager give you feedback on your paper.
Alt.....t. Activity
Reverse the entire time sequence and ask students to design a product or products which could be used by colonial settlers.
These products must be of wood and capable of manufacture with hand tools only.

The written description can be in modem (anachronistic) language for convenience or for comic effect. The description can be made man challenging by requiring students to research the language of the time period and produce their descriptions as near to that language as possible.
ResourcestRefueac:. .
Irmscher. William Eo. Teaching Expository Writing. NY: Holt. Rinehart and Winston. 1979.
Kirby. Dan and Liner.. Tom Inside Out: Strate gies for Teaching Writing os 0 Developmental Procaa. NY: Boynton/Cook Publishers.1nc.,l981.
Koch and Brazil. Strategies Jor Teoching the Composing Procaa. Urbana. Ill: NCTC., 1978.
Martin. Nancy. et.aL. Writing and Leaming Across
the Curriculum. 1116. London: Ward Lock EducationaJ for the Schools Council. 1976 (available from Hayden).

MaaweII. Rhoda J. and Judy, Stephen. Com,.,.".
Michigan: The Michigan Council of Teaching of English. 1978-79.
Miller. James E. Jr., Word. Self, Reality: The Rhetoric of/magination. NY: Dodd. Mead. 1972.
Newan. Beth. Teaching Students to Write. Columbus: Charles E. Menill Publishing Company. 1980.
Olsen. Gene. Sweet Agony: A Writing Manual of Sorts. Oregon: Windyridge Press. 1972.
Stanford. Gene and Smith. Marie A. Guidebook for Teaching Creative Writing. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Inc. 1977.
Stanford. Gene and Smith. Marie A. Guidebook Jor Teaching Composition. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Inc. 1977.
Telm.lon Silo..,. - Channels 8 and 17
Pro/e'oft'" - Media and Methods

Persuading
)

As members of a highly communicative social group. we regularly send and receive numerous messages; many of these messages are intended to persuade. We exhort others to believe as we do. and we are ourselves exhorted to accept the beliefs. statements or opinions of others. In addition. if the statistics describing our viewing habits are to be credited. we are literally innundated with l?fforts at persuasion in the form of commercial advertising. it is. therefore. ex tremely important to help young people become more aware of and effective in their use of persuasive discourse; furthermore. it is equally important to help our students become more effective in their ability to identify persuasive arguments.
Predictably. efforts with younger students concentrate on developing awareness. not proficiency. The teacher's initial task is to help students recognize their own natural. normal attempts at

persuasion. Once students understand that persuading is not a new or an alien activity. eiforts should be directea at helping students to present their own ideas convincingly and to provide supporting information such as examples which help substantiate a position.
Activities at the elementary level include evaluatlng points of view. developing explanations. providing supporting examples. identifying individ ual motives. anticipating counter arguments and so on. At the high schooi level these practices , are pursued in greater depth. Students work to refine their persuasive skills and to become more adept at penetrating the manipulative messages aimed at all of us. Efforts focus on providing experiences which will help students recognize attempts (their own and those of others) at persuading.

)

)

Santple Activities

Don't Argue, Persuadel Grades K2

P u r p o
As senders and receivers of messages in society we must be aware of the elements of persuasion. This activity provides an opportunity for students to develop that awar....... to become familiar with persuasive behaviors that they or others use regularly and to identify these behaviors as persuasive. Further. it provides experience in oral communication. in role playing. in making value judgments and in logical thinking for decisionmaking. The teacher should work to develop awareness in the young person that they are doing this already at a subconscious level.
ObJectiv-
The learner will
develop insight into persuasion.
become aware of personal feelings and the feelings of others.
demonstrate logical thinking and decisionmaking.
Mated_
Collections of stories. fables. tales; material may be in print or on film. tapes. slides.
Sa ..." The activity is related to the students' environment and to literary selections read by or to the class. It includes the use of listening. speaking. valuing and evaluating skills. Role playing permits the students to walk in the shoes of the characters. (Students alternate between active roles as participants and passive roles as observers and jurists.) Pr0ce4_ _
1. Introduce for dlscusskm some topics or J-... directly related to the students' world. e.g the length and number of rec...... a playground. a school regulation. privileges reserved for older students.
2. Observe the students as they react to these topics and choose one or two topics for dis-

cussion based on the students' apparent interest.
3. Allow students enough time to consider the rnatter(s). and then elicit reasons why they think changes are nectlNlY.
4. Help them to formulate their answers so that they are convincing. i.e.. help them show you why something is unfair. why recess is too short. Help them develop and recognize the pattern inherent in a persuasive response.
5. More mature students might be able to explain the reason(s) for the present policy with assistance from the teacher or other adults in the classroom. If possible. invite an administrator or other adult to provide some rebuttal to the students' arguments. Again. emphasize the element of persuasion.
6. Help students develop an awareness that there is more than one side to every issue. (Reminding students of a story that they have read. seen or heard in which two sides are clearly presented clarifies this concept for them.)
7. Supply examples of how things are changed through persuasion and discussion. perhaps from events at home. in the community or in the school.
8. If possible invite an attorney to visit the class and explain his or her role in presenting a client's side of a legal problem. Emphasize in the discussion the importance for an attorney to persuade a judge and jury through evidence and support.
9. DiSCUIS the role of the attorneys. the judge and the jury in a triaL
10. Using a piece of literature read with the class. invite students to choose a character and to represent that character's side of an issue. (Material which features differences among parents and children. among siblings or among friends will work best as will certain beast fables such as 'The Mouse and

the Uon" and "Mice in CouncillBeUing the Cat".)
11. The teacher with the d ...s input can f0rmulate questions to ask each character which will elicit responses that support or represent a character's point of view. The important element in this step is to provide students a neutral setting in which to use persuasion. an opportunity to be persuasive while playing the role of their characters.
12. Students not representing a character can assume the attorneys' roles. the judge's role or the jury's role.
13. A mock trial is then held and the characters are given the opportunity to respond to the attorneys' questions and to present their sides of the issue as persuasively as possible. The jury votes on each case.
Evala.tioD
1. Teacher evaluation should focus on participation and upon the attempts, successful or otherwise, at persuasion.
2. Peer evaluation of the students' role playing is inherent in the jury ballotting.
3. The individual student 3hould evaluate his or her own participation. Some questions which might be appropriate follow.

Did I participate In the activity as completely as I could?
Did I listen as carefully as I could? When it was my turn to contribute some
thing, did I have something to say? ~ Did I represent m)' charader or role as ..,.oil
as I could? What might I do next time to improve on
my own performance? .. What did I learn from this activity?
Follow Up
Using a cassette rec )fder, have the members of the jury record their reasons for voting as they did.
Arrange a field trip to the courthouse to see the courtroom and meet some of the people who work there.
Act out some of the scenes in the story which were involved in the trial. Have the witnesses exchange roles.
Sketch or draw an important scene from the story, one that was involved in the trial.
Ask some of the students to appear as character witnesses to present facts not brought out at the trial. Students should be encouraged to be imaginative. to go beyond the story.

You End It Grades 3-4

Purpose
This activity combines each of the competencies inherent in the language arts. i.e. listening. speaking. reading and writing. It provides an opportunity for students to practice persuasion in the "low threat/no threat" context of a group activity while insuring that the students' efforts have a real audience which will provide immediate feedback.
Objecdv. .
The learner will develop skills in persuasion through the use of
reasons and convincing argument. demonstrate the integrated use of language
arts competencies; i.e., listening, speaking, reading and writing.
participate in a presentation. provide immediate feedback to peers for their
efforts.
M . t e r i......A I. . . .
Two engaging. open-ended stories. e.g.. Frank R. Stockton's "The Lady or the Tiger?" Additional adult personnel or older students to help with the groups
s...uy
The class is divided into two groups, each with a different story. The groups, after reading or hearing their stories. prepare arguments for possible endings which are to be presented to the other groups. The stories are exchanged and the endings presented. The second group to read each story votes for the ending they were persuaded is the best.
.~
1. Divide the class into two groups through random assignments. Each group should have an adult or older student to assist with the material to be read and the procedures to be followed.

2. Provide a different. open-ended story for each group to read or to hear.
3. Upon completion of the reading. the members of each group should nominate appro priate endings for the story that they were assigned.
4. As differences emerge within the group, ask the participants with similar points of view to work together. (Within each larger group there should be at least two different endings for the story.)
S. The students who favor one particular ending should (list) all the reasons why they believe their ending is best. The same procedure is followed by those with an opposing or different point of view. (Within any given classroom. there would be two stories in use and each story would have student groups developing persuasive arguments for at least two points of view for each story.)
6. Provide help for students as they organize their lists of reasons and suggest ways they might most persuasively present their views.
7. After these lists of reasons are prepared and the students feel they are ready to present their ideas, the class should be rejoined as a total group.
8. The open-ended stories are exchanged.
9. When the groups have finished their second story, they hear the endings suggested by the first group and the arguments for those endings. This can be done by panel presentations or less formally from various members of the group. Rebuttal time can be allowed if a modified form of a debate is desirable or appropriate.
10. The second group votes on the ending they believe to be most suitable based upon the arguments provided. This becomes a form of peer evaluation and is an automatic measure of success in persuasion.
11. The roles are exchanged so that each group has had an opportunity to present endings for their stories.

Eval ___
1. Peer evaluation is inherent as described in 10 above.
2. Teacher evaluation should be ongoing. focusing upon group participation of individuals and upon the individual and group performance which takes place before the class as a whole.

FoBowUp
Students can depict some scenes from the story in sequence Including the ending agreed upon by the class
Groups could reenact their endings through improvisations or the use of puppets.
The se'::ond group reading the story could develop their own endings and discuss or debate them.

Very Important Peol". Grades 5-6

p........
This activity provides students an opportunity to practice persuasive techniques by developing reasons and explanations in a noncompetitive environment. It also acquaints them with community personnel and helpful. supportive adults who work in vocations worth considering.
OttjecdY_
The learner will
provide reasons and explanations for choices.
persuade others that the choices are good ones.
acquire information concerning some vocations concerned with community support.
become familiar with some of the services available in the community.
Sa ..."
After exposure to professions which are directly related to the community, the students select a particular vocation and develop persuasive arguments, using reasons and explanations as to why the profession they have selected is so important. Winning or being most convincing should not be emphasized: providing persuasive evidence is the emphasis.
Proc.cI_ _
1. The students should be given an overview of professions directly related to the community, professions which might interest them. The list could include members of various professions such as healing (doctors. nurses. medical and X-ray technicians. emergency personnel), law and public safety (fireftghters. police. sheriffs. court recorders. tax assessors. bail"), agriculture (tanners. loraten. extension agents. marketen. implement duIen.), The lia is limited only by the community; h0wever. even at an introductory level. the teacher should preselect and limit positions to avoid bewildering the students.
2. The class should select three to five specific jobs, positions or professions presented or discussed. Those selected will then represent areas of interest for the class.

3. Working individually or in groups. the students select the occupation which they wish to present and begin to list the reasons which make this an important occupation.
4. Individuals who hold these positions should be invited to the class to explain to that group or to the class at large what they do for the community and how they carry out their work.
5. Set a minimum number of reasons or explanations for the students to supply for the profession chosen, but encourage them to go beyond this minimum. Remind them to concentrate on convincing others of the importance of the selected profession.
6. Students should then present their work to the class as a group report or as a panel discussion. If public reporting is not feasible, individual or group reports to the teacher will suffice.
7. Some written product should accompany the report or culminate the activity.
Ev. . . .t I _
1. Collectively, the student(s) who have completed a report and the teacher should determine if the preestablished minimum has been met.
2. They should discuss how convincing the arguments were. e.g. did the student(s) show how vital the position they discussed was to the community? Did the student(s) show what might happen if no one filled that position?
3. Class members outside the reporting group can be asked to provide positive comments about the report.
Follow Up
Displays can be created about the chosen professions.
Field trips to work sites can be arranged.
Students might prepare papers individually on profession or positions other than the one they or their group discussed. using the information provided by their classmates.

Focus
Grades 7-8

P1u'poee
It is possible to work with persuasion in a number of ways. However, all such efforts are made easier when there is a supportive and accepting environment. To encourage this kind of climate in the classroom both the teacher and the students must learn to respect each other's right to hold and present different views; developing such a rapport is the purpose of this activity.
O b j e c t h. .
The learner will
give supportive reasons or evidence for ideas and beliefs.
be open to. accept and understand different points of view.
listen carefully without interruption.
listen actively and accept opportunities to pose appropriate questions.
M. . . . . . .
Several short. young adult pieces of literature which include problem situations and characters with which students can identify
5 1'Y
Students have the opportunity to deaJ with beliefs and values in an activity which provides practice in persuasion. in active listening and in questioning.
Activiti. .
1. After completing an appropriate piece of literature (print. film or audio version), students are asked to concentrate on the characters' feelings.
2. Students complete, in writing. several senten-
u.ces that relate to one of the characters, e.g., feel best when. am with people who ..... or ... like to . _... and,". don't like to ... Students. in effect. adopt a role.
3. After each student has completed the unfinished sentences. the teacher may ask the students to arrange themselves into groups of three.

4. Each student. as a story character. is to have the full attention of the other two group mem-
bers ior three minutes. During this period that
student is ~o talk about the character's reo sponses. giving reasons and evidence why these are appropriate for that (:naracter.
5. Interaction is to be governed by the ioiiowing rules. Explain these carefully to the .;iass. A demonstration by adu'ts or older students is helpfuL
Focu.lng-Each group member is to be a focus person for three minutes. Do not let the attention of the group shift from the focus person until time is up or until that person asks to stop.
Acceptance-Be supportive. Give nods, smiles and expressions of understanding. If you disagree with the focus person, do not express disagreement or negative feelings.
Drawing out-Attempt to understand the focus person's position and beliefs. Ask questions which will help to clarify reasons for the person's feeling. Do not shift the focus to yourself.
(This activity can be used with almost any topic that requires small group discussion. It teaches listening as well as reasoning.)
Ev.luadoa
1. Peer evaluation entails the individual group members commenting supportively on the observance of the rules established and the explanations supplied.
2. The teacher should observe the performance of individual students and student groups.
3. The teacher should be alert to the evidences supplied and reinforce as many student supplied responses as possible and warranted.
4. Partidpation in discussion should be praised.
Folio. Up
Have students model the characters in the story as pieces of sculpture.

The sculptures should become animated _ they speak in defense of their action for thole ndnuIta.
Students may write and read letters of persuasion In defense of their characters'actions.
They may make three dimensional Objects as an extension of their explanations. highlighting events that were significant and set the stage for the actions explained i.e., a poster. collage. mobile. bulletin board displaying v0cabulary words that describe the character.
In this assignment students are to assume that their audience is a friend and that their friend has not read the work being discuued. The students' purpose is to persuade that friend to read the work. The work is to be one of the short stories read (seen. heard ... ).
When trying to Interest someone else in a story. one usually tells something about the plot. One

ofthe following thesis lt8tements may be helpful in beginning a paper.

You will enjoy

_

(tide)

~

beca~

(author)

the plot

from beginning to end.

is suspenseful keeps the reader guessing is humorous arouses human Interest and sympathy has many reversals illustrates a problem illustrates a time in history

Then develop the thesis by referring to three incidents in the story.

Persuasive Messages
Grades 910

GoallPurpo. .
As receivers of persuasive messages. we must be alert to proofs which seek to satisfy our motives. As initiators of persuasive messages. we must be concerned with motive appeal. We must express our messages in a manner that satisfies the motives of the listener. Students will have opportunity to develop their understanding of these facts by writing persuasive messages.
Objec:tiv. .
The learner will
select and narrow topics.
develop and write conclusions.
develop and write thesis statements.
gain insight into values and motives as an element of audience appeal.
demonstrate logical thinking.
develop. write and present a persuasive argument.
Materi".
Access to media center. current periodicals and other related literature
S . - y
Students, as a group. will follow a series of steps to develop a sample persuasive argument. Individually. in pairs or in small groups. they will then consider several topics for which persuasive arguments would be appropriate. partially develop persuasive arguments for two of their topics. and. finally. develop one fully into a presentable argument.
Proeed.....
1. ExplaIn to the students that they are to develop a persuMive argument that takes into account motive appeal.
2. Explain to students that thesis statements are essentially statements of purpose. They answer questions such as "What am I trying to prove?" or "What statement am I making?"

Often it is helpful to U<Tite a conclusion before writing a thesis statemem. this allows the writer the opportunity to keep ~h2 end in mind',vhile developing ,he inti'OJuctory statements.
3. Consider this conclusion - Sky divmg is a challenge because it presents the diver with a variety of unpredictable and dangerous hazards while requiring training and good sense.
4. Students should construct a thesis from this conclusive or final sentence.
5. Encourage students to develop introductions which present the thesis in palatable ways.
6. Assign students to work individually. in pairs or in small groups to develop. rehearse and refine their products.
7. Students should consider a number of topics that lend themselves to persuasion and in which they have some interest and expertise.
8. Narrow the topic selection alternatives to two.
9. Students should examine the usefulness and manageability of both topics. which must not be too broad or general. Individual. peer. group and teacher assistance may be a necessary part of delimiting a topic.
10. Students should repeat the process above (skip 26) for their two topics: i.e. develop conclusion. write thesis statements and develop introductions.
11. Discuss the following rhetorical items in detail with the students. Be certain they understand the meanings and importance of each. Questions and examples follow the items. This should be done with the large group and repeated with the specific topics selected by the students in small groups.
Thesis Statement
Reasonin" (effect-cause and cause-effect)

",..,...,... of/ecl (oc:currenm. a ___
and caUllllity) A. Occ:urence American leaden planned in advance the inviIIiaa of Cuba. B. Existence The abominable snowman really lives. C. Causality Spectator preference for action sports will lead to the death of baseball as a professional sport.
Proposition of value A. John Kennedy was a great president. B. Modern art is rubbish.
ProJHNIdo. 01,",Bey A. A program of free medical care for all citizens should be established by the federal government. B. The U.S. should continue its support of the United Nations.
Students will use some or all of the above tactics and activities in completing their work.
12. Students should decide on the one topic they would like to develop further.
13. Students should remember that a mere statement of purpose is not enough: the purpose has to be significant for the person who will be reading or hearing the work. The assumed audience may respond to the thesis with a thought such as.....m not sure I agree. but rd like to see or hear the writer's reasons for that assertion."
14. Students should develop and present a persuasive argument for the topic selected.
15. Students should analyze their products on the following criteria.
a. Each product should be evaluated on the organization. clarity. preciseness. persuasiveness and logic of the evidence presented by the student.
b. Is there a clear-cut thesis?
Co I. there a strong introduction?
d. Old. select the criteria which thought the audience would accept for judging the truth of my proposition?
e. Did. develop my proposition thoroughly?

f. eo. die eNE'

menr
..~1/". ".-.

' I' .,

8naI .... ?
OIU1,.,.,foila

E",.iuatioD
Peer evaluation should be an integral part of the group process with students providing feedback to each other.
Teacher observation of performance should be based on students' participation in group discussion as well as on their final products using the same criteria as in step IS.

FoBowp AdId ..
Students sharpen their' analytical skills by having them coDect (from television. films. newspapers. books. magazines, signs) examples of messages that they think are designed to trick people or to persuade them by flattery or other less than honest means. Bring them to class for discussion. (They need not confine their selection to the printed or spoken word. Pictures are designed to persuade, too.) Share these. See if the class reacts to it as the student did. Do the opinions of the group agree? What generalizations can be made about the teenage appeal ofthe ad? Would it appeal to an adult audience as much? Why. or why not? Check conclusions by asking parents and other adults how they respond to the ad. and then report to the dus.
Write an advertisement for a leading brand of soap or similar commodity. and then write a paragraph discussing the validity of the appeals you have used.
Suppose you were planning a model of a new car to bring the buyer a new way of life. What evidence could you use to support this claim?
Conduct a discuuion on these or similar topics
Does the audience believe advertising?
Why do you suppose that overadapting to the audience is a more usual problem in advertising than in other kinds of communialtions?
Drug COInpIlIIies have found dud news programs help to seU their products. but airline companies have found them ineffectuaL Can you account for this?

Modem l'fodves Grades 11-12

GoaiiPurpose
This activity familiarizes students lAlith the concept and use of motive appeal in audience persuasion.
Objectiv. .
The learner will identify the intended audience of an advertise-
ment. identify motive appeal in advertisements.
examine various persuasive devices. develop a persuasive argument.
Materials
Access to media center
Magazines (older editions and current ones) Reproductions of mail order catalogs such as Sears. Roebuck and Company 1904 and 1906 catalogs
Overhead projector
S ary
Students will identify the intended audience and appeal of advertisements which appeared in magazines. They will then adapt this information. consider the current consumer and develop a persuasive advertising campaign to sell this product in today's market.
P1'oced. . .
1. Allow students to peruse advertisements for products which appeared in magazines published at least 10 years ago. preferably longer.
2. Remind students that the purpose of an advertisement is to sell a product and. therefore. an ad must specifically appeal to its audience to be successful. Use an overhead transparency of such an ad for a discussion example.
3. Divide the class into smaO groups.
4. Have students exchange information about the ads they examine. (In this exchange they must at least identify the audience to which their ad was addressed and the particular motive appeal or selling point.)

NOle: R~~m[l()n (;1 t",rminoiogy sucn <IS bandwa9....-. and giinering generaUties i useful in identifying appeal through pfOlNl9Mda devices but III not eSlIlmtiai.
5. Tell each group to identify products or advertising strategies which are OO{ .wideiy used in current magazines. Formulate a master list of these items.
6. Consider older products for which interesting advertisements could be deveiopea.
7. Tell students. either in pairs or small groups. to select a product &om the list.
8. Have students make a list of selected product's features: e.g.. usefulness. attractiveness. materials. accessories. cost.
9. Ask students to reflect on the current lifestyle of Americans and identify which features might appeal to modern buyers.
10. Consider current magazine advertisements and identify appeals which can be adapted in persuading potential buyers to consider their product.
11. Remind students to identify a specific market (e.g children. teenagers. senior citizens. attomeys. teachers. health enthusiasts. sports fans) to which they will address their campaign.
12. Tell students to identify an appropriate appeal for that audience.
13. Have students examine various persuasive devices that could be used in their campaign.
14. Tell students to combine their information and to plan an advertising campaign which would persuade an identified modern consumer group.
15. Have students present their ad campaign to their classmates.
16. After each presentation. have the class identify three components of the campaign. namely audience appeal and persuasive device(s) and identify the point at which they were convinced to buy or not buy the item. (Students must participate in the audience role as representatives of the intended group.)

E .....
1. P evaluation Is inherent iD Itep 16-
2. Teacher evaluation should focus on the group. Is the campaign targeted precisely? Is the audience identification appropriate? Is the attempt at persuasion logtc:ai?
Is the overall effort representative of the group's collective skill and ability?
Follow-up Activiti. .
Students cross compare advertising of the same product in different market places such as Good H~ftIng and Psychology Toda)1.
Students compare advertising in American magazines and British magazines or other English language foreign journals.

Using praa books student. consider variety of appeal. used by profesSional publicists for persuading dlffennlt segments of the popuJadon to
attend the same movie. (The local theater owners have quite a number of these press books for their use in offering new filma In toea! areas.)
Students design adjunct material for their initial ad campaign such as buttons. bumper stickers. slogans. additional products including deluxe models. inexpensive models and 50 on.
Students role play various situations in which successful persuasion was a crucial factor such as talking a police officer out of a ticket or asking to borrow the fainily car or asking for an advance on their allou.ance.

Researching

Research is literally a process of discovery and organization. There are a number of steps in this process.
Clearly defining the purpose and the direction of the research
Identifying the available sources of information (in and out of school)
Gathering data from among the sources
Organizing the information obtained
Reporting the results
Traditionally. school related research has relied upon the school media center and the local public library. While these are valid and reliable sources. research should not be limited to or by these facilities. Recognition of the community as a valuable adjunct to the classroom is valuable in researching. Community members. business and governmental agencies and the media (national and local) are often underused sources for student research; everything from rock concerts to retirement homes should be given consideration as rich. relevant sources.

To be successful the researcher must gather useful information efficiently: most students will not be able to intuitively accomplish this. Teacher effort and instructional time will acquaint students with tactics and strategies for streamlining their efforts. Since the majority of thiS \l.or\< is done outside the classroom and. frequently, outside the school. the teacher must adapt some systematic method for assuring that students are progressing toward their goalls).
Reporting findings is usually done in school to the class or a small group within the class; the teacher should rarely. if ever. be the sole audience. This reporting can legitimately take a number of forms: e.g.. an oral report. a project. a studentmade tape or media product. or the traditional paper.
Ideally. the information sought by students should be of value and interest to them. The specified tasks are more successfully accomplished when they are related to the students' needs and when the students perceive the process. methodology and results of research as valuable means to a goal which they recognize.

..

Sample Activities

IVho Am I Grades K2

Parpoee
Since "Who Am I" may be the students' first efforts at research. it should be a positive experience. The activity is intended to help student. gain confidence as they acquire ......ch skiIIlI through practice and performance. The teacher must prOVide continuous and genuine encouragement and praise for all student efforts. The purpose is to provide practice in research skills at a level appropriate to the elementary student by exploring sources of information. collecting data and summariZing and sharing findings with class members. Cooperative behavior in smaD and large groups is an integral part of this activity.
ObJecdv_
The learner will
explore potential sources of information.
collect data.
report findings.
exhibit cooperative behavior.
Mat.......
Copies of class developed interest inventory Pendls. markers and butcher paper Glue and sdsson Magazines Chalk and chalkboard Manila envelopes or folders for each student Older students. paraprofessionals or volunteer
adults
s...., Students are Introduced to the r-m procaa
through an ac:tivIty focused on finding out about themselves. They seek Inlormatfon. c:oUect. and share ftndlngs. A subject of immediate Interest has been selected-the students themNJves.
Students partldpate in individual. small group and large group interaction. Speaking and listening skills are prac:tIced. Cooperative efforts should be encouraged and prajsed.

Proced......
1. In a large or small group setting. involve students in developing an interest inventory. e.g..
What things do you like to daydream about? What do you enjoy discussing? What is your favorite fragrance? What song do you like best? book? dance? What is your favorite toy? game? activity?
hobby? Which of your things do you value most? In what room of your home do you feel
most comfortable? If not at home. then where do you feel most
comfortable?
Record their answers for the inventory on the board or butcher paper using the students' own language. If this was done in small group. collect and merge the lists.
2. Provide stacks of magazines. Have students find pictures that represent their individual responses to their interest inventory. Tell students to coDect more examples than they think they will need. Give each student a folder or manila envelope in which to collect and store pictures.
3. Have students ftnd a partner. Spread large sheets of butcher paper on the floor and distribute pencils. One student should lie face up on the butcher paper while the partner traces that student's outline. Have partners switch places usng a new sheet of butcher paper and repeat the tracing so that each student .... an outline.
4. Encourage partners to help each other cut out their traced body outJina.
5. Students glue pictures onto traced outlines. i.e.. favorite foods pasted to stomach area. favorite dreams are pasted to forehead area and so on. Students can print their names or cut out and glue the letters of their names

..

onto their traced outline. Mutual assistance is appropriate throughout this activity.
6. ADow the worb to dry and display tMm In the room.
7. Encourage students to select three items from their body outUnes that best answer the question. "Who am I?"
8. Before making their final decisions. ask students to consult their parents and at least one friend. Have students add this in-put from the three sources (self, parent, friend) in pictorial or sketched form to the body outline.
9. Students are now to narrow the collected data to those three items that best represent them. These items can be starred or drded.
10. Divide the class into small groups ofthree to five. Students are to answer the question. "Who am I?" They can tell about themselves by explaining their traced body outlines and by identifying their three chosen items.
11. Encourage group members to ask questions.
Eval_do.
1. Carefully monitored peer feedback should be an integral part of this activity and its evaluation.
2. The teacher should observe and note student interaction. participation and enthusiasm. Additionally. teachers could evaluate the degree of success of this activity by considering questions such as "Did all students participate? If some didn't. why not? Were stu-

dents ........ III their research? Old they enjoy the activity? How cooperative were the ~ DIll . . . . . lilten well to ellCh ott.7'
3. Arrange students in 11 circle. Conduct " class meeting to help students evaluate their own performance as well as the success of their partners and smail groups. Use open-ended questions that help students consider the process.
Was I a cooperative member of the group? Did I have something to say? Did I say it? Did I listen when someone eise had some-
thing to _? Did I not oIer same suggestion that I should
have? Did I say something or do something that
did not deal with the topic.
Folio. Up
Have students bring in a baby picture of themselves. Post these on a bulletin board without names. Students can make up and tell imaginative stories for the pictures. (Tape these stories.) They can match baby pictures with classmates. Students can be encouraged to talk about reasons for their choices.
Encourage students to begin a saapbook entitled "MEl" They can collect family pictures and memorabilia. Students can make a cassette tape of a walk through their saapbook. Others can listen to the story and Sip through the pages.

..

Biographical Research Grades 3-4

Purpoee
This activity gives students further practice in research. Teachers should concentrate upon help-
ing students see that research Is a process. At
this age students are not expected to become masters at research; rather. student efforts should be encouraged and reinforced. Specific tasks include selecting a topic. locating possible sour-
ces. coUecting Infomudion and reporting 8ndings.
ObJectIY.
The learner wiD
select a topic.
locate potential sources of information.
collect information.
report findings.
Mat. . . . .
Articles on famous or weD-known people such as sports heroes. rock stars. explorers.
Magazines such as People, Life, Span. Ill.,.. trated, MS, Ebony
Special reference books. resources Bulletin board display of pictures of famous or
wen-known people Additional personnel such as the school/media
specialist Checklist for student use in preparing report
and for use in teacher and student evaluation
5 . . . "
This activity involves students in biographical research. They respond to stories and artides about famous people. Students bralnstonn for a list of famous or well-known people thllt they would like to research. They explore the school media center for sources, collect informlltlon and report findings in creative ways. PlaeM_ _
this activity Involves students In biographical research. Set the dlmate by preparing a bulletin board of famous 20th century people. Involve students In adding additional pictures and by reading to them artides about these people. Bring in a number of magazines such as People. Life. Span. lIIu.trated, MS. Ebony.

1. Explain to students that they will be doing some research on famous people.
2. Brainstorm for a list of famous people alive in the 20th century such as sports heroes. rock stars.
3. Identify for students the steps in research. i.e.. selecting a topic, locating sources for Information, conecting data and reporting 8ndings.
4. Discuss criteria for this activity with students. (See "Possible Research Criteria.")
5. Provide opportunity for students to make additions, deletions, alterations.
6. Provide a copy of the final criteria for media specialists' and students' use.
7. With the aid of the media specialist and teacher, students locate three differentsources of Information about the people they have chose. e.g., encyclopedias. biographies (individual, collected), spedal reference books (biographical dictionary, Junior Book of Authors. magazines).
8. Students should summarize information in a brief, biographical sketch. Assist students with format. Assist students In summarizing and sequencing information.
9. Write. dictate, practice dramatization or tape record the reports.
10. Share reports with the entire class. Students can become the famous person and share a_ brief synopsis of that person's career.
11. Encourage the class to ask questions.
E"aI_tIoa
1. Students should use the checklist to evaluate their own project.
2. The teacher should use the agreed upon criteria to evaluate the student's presentation. (See #4 above.)
3. The teacher should observe the presenter's willingness and ability to respond to questions asked. (Is student involved in assignment?)

"

4. The teacher should remain aware of the peer audience participation; i.e.. did the individual members ofthe audience listen ac:tively. attentively and supportively.
5. A modified form of the criteria can be used by peers to evaluate each other's projects.
FoUo. Up
Have students write or tape letters to the famous people they chose. Mail them.

Develop a buRetin board or wall display using student reports and pictures of the people collected by the dau.
Select one or two individuals from among those researched for the class to study in depth as a group project.

1
.-(
Topic Selection Considered no alternatives

Possible Research Criteria

2

3

4

.5

Some alternatives

Many alternatives

Ratiag

Topics
Uttle interest

Mildly interested

Really wanted to know about

Locating Sources of InfonaatioD
Didn't try to identify resources

Asked teacher or media specialist to suggest some sources

Asked teacher or media specialist. friends or parents to suggest sources

CoUecting Data
Used only one or two resources

Used only three resources

Used more than three resources

Resources were similar

Used only two kinds of resources

--'.e.. -All ftIClICloperila or all ~ magazlna. ftIClICloperIIa. _~ and so on ---minimum uolue 5: maximum uolue 25
.

Used three or more kinds of resources**
To"'

Elderly Character Sketda Grades 56

PtarpOM!
The purpose of the related activities leading toward a character sketch of an older person is to acquaint students with a procedure for collecting information from live sources-people in their community-and for reporting their findings effectively. The activities include reading literature related to the subject. learning the techniques of interviewing and practicinG writing skills related to composing the character sketch.
ObJectiv. .
The learner will
explore biases and attitudes concerning the elderly through literature. the visual media and discussion.
work cooperatively in small groups.
formulate interview questions.
practice and conduct interviews.
select the most relevant and interesting information from interviews for writing.
paraphrase and summarize information in their writing.
use appropriate punctuation in quoting their source.
concentrate on effective introductions and conclusions in their writing.
M a t. . . . .
File of possible community resource people Photographs of the elderly clipped from maga-
zines Uterary material which portray the elderly
......., Short stories or excerpts from novels
Cassette tape recorders Rating sheets
Interest in the actfvtty is generated through an exploration of attitudes toward the elderly. Students select subjects. practice the skills of interviewing. conduct the actual interview. free-write their findings with reference to their notes and revise their character sketch with references.

Proced__
The following activity involves students in listening, speaking. reading and writing. The research process Is emphasized. Interest in the activity is generated as students explore their own biases and those of others concerning the elderly. Teachers develop a resource file of community members willing to be interviewed. Data are gathered via the interview method with students selecting subjeeD. going out into the community. conducting interviews and preparing findings. The final product is a character sketch of an elderly citizen.
1. Generate interest in the project. Have poems on hand written by and about the elderly. Display photographs of older persons. Read a news story, short story or an excerpt from a novel concerning the elderly.
2. Divide the class into small groups of 3 to 5. Have each group appoint a reconIer. Review the rules for brainstorming with students. Brainstorm with students for a list of words and phrases sparked by the word elderly.
3. Have students analyze the lists generated. Ask them to divide their responses into two categories-Positive Images. Negative Images. Explore the topic of stereotypes and discuss biases toward the elderly. If time permits, students can freewrite on this topic.
4. Introduce the project. Students wiD conduct an interview of an elderly person. Project will culminate in a character sketch of an elderly person written by the student.
5. Brainstorm for a list of potential interviewees (grandparents. neighbors. community members. residents of local retirement village or nunbIg home)
6. Prepare ItUdents for a succeuluI interviewinA experience. Some of the . . . . in wtUch students wiD need help include
a. asking good interview questions-invitations to tell you more, think questions. etc.:
b. avoiding dead end question-yes/no questions. those which invade privacy;

Character Sketch Rating Scale

Your teacher will rate your finished conversation using this guide.

.,

.1

2

3

.. 4

5

Beginning Think about your opening sentence
again. Can
you find a more interesting beginning
Direct Quotations
What happened? You didn't use three quotations. Look back over your interview notes.
Punctaadon
Whoops! You still need practice with all those marks.
EndAn.
What ending? Did you forget to try several different endings?
A Feel for the Penon
Your paper is just too sketchy. Not enough detail and description. I couldn't hear your person talking.

I see you've been working on the hook.
Introduce your quotations carefully. Try to get the person's exact words.
You made a good effort. Check all of your quotation marks and punctuation carefully. These are a few mistakes.
Your ending needs work. Maybe you could find a more effective wrap-up.
Good effort. You are beginning to get the feel of good writing. Spend more time reworking and polishing your piece.

-Total minimum ualue 20; total maximum ualue 100

Good hook! You _ 'Ie. 4
got me into the paper quickly.

Yes! You used your quotations very well. I can hear the person talking.

_x 4 = --

Good. You were _ very careful to capitalize and keep the commas and end marks in the right places.

x 2 = --

A very effective ending. Good work.

__ x 4 = --

Yes. You captured your person on paper. I felt as if I were there during your interview.

_x 6 = --

Tota.

_

..

c:. taking helpful nota; cL conducting an Interview-being P.......
and being attentive; .. writing up interview notes.
1. Conduct practice interview sessions among students. Provide tape recorders if possible. Give students roles to play (interviewer. interviewee). Have students go through the entire interview process (see step 6 above). Replay taped interview. Let s-tudents talk about what went right or wrong.
8. Have students make appointments for their interviews. Be ready to supply letters of introduction for students. Have a list of people willing to be interviewed for thuse students who are unable to locate an elderly citizen. This is a good time to review courtesies with students. e.g. thanking interviewees for their willingness to help.
9. Allow several days for interviews to be completed.
10. Maintain interest in the project by continuing a literature unit on the elderly. Have students talk about ways the young and old are alike and different. Create a collage or other mini-project where students share their work. Because students will be using the exact words of their interviewees. this is a good time to teach students how to punctuate direct quotations on an elementary level.
11. When students have completed interviews. have them review their notes and mark interesting parts to include in their papers. Ask them to freewrite about their interviews and to share findings with a partner.
12. Help students use their interview notes to develop their character sketch. Introduce effective beginnings and endings. Urge students to include vivid descriptions and actual quotations (at least three) from their interviews.

13. Have students write their papers and share them in small groups. Encourage students to give each other feedback on their papers.
14. Provide a self-check rating sheet. Points should include heginning. direct quotations. punctuation, ~nding, detail and description.
15. Give students adequate Ume for revisions based cn their s.df-chec!< rating scale.
Evahladoa
1. Students will use a rating scaie for self-eval uation during revision of the character sketch. (See "Character Sketch Rating Scale:')
2. The character sketch may be presented in small groups for peer response before final revision. The finished product may be presented to the entire class.
3. Once the research project has been completed the teacher should use the rating scale to evaluate the written product.
FoUo.Up
This activity lends itself to follow-up study in several areas.
Students may find that the subjects of their character sketch are good sources for narrative writings such as folk tales. ghost stories. family histories.
The procedures for interviewing used in this activity may be applied to other subjects in the community. e.g. community leaders. business people and people in various professions.
Students may continue to work on using quotations. paraphrases. appropriate punctuation. effective openings and closings in sketches of people that they don't know directly such as personalities In the news. literary figures. historical characters.

TV Action Research Grades 7-8

p......
This activity provides an action research experience for students in which they learn to collect and synthesize data.
Objectives
The learner will
collect survey data.
organize and display ftndings.
present and explain conclusions to peer group.
Materi'"
Background information on Nielsen rating. Model for a Nielsen-style television viewing log. A television watching survey form. Poster board. lettering pens and butcher paper.
S . . - y
This activity involves students in collecting data on the programs they watch. in reacting to those programs and In analyzing their viewing habits. They conduct a TV viewing survery and share their findings through small group projects.
P r o c e d. . . .
1. Assign students to keep a general activity log which will Include the ways in which their out-of-school time is used.
2. Poll students concerning their recreational habits. Ask "How many hours do you watch TV per day. on weekends? Are family meals planned around TV? What are some of your non-TV activities. nonmedia entertainment activities? What isyour general opinion oftelevision programming? What is your opinion of community recreational opportunities for young people?
3. Provide nontechnical background information on nIling syttems such as Nielsen.
4. Auign students to keep a detaUed diary of
their television viewing habits to include day. time. channel and name of program plus their comments. if any. Have students compile and publish a class summary of viewing habits at the end of the week. To ensure success. carefully structure the assignment so students

know exactly what to do. Provide examples. Check on their progress after two days to clarIfy direction&.

S. Introduce a TV viewing survey. (Students examined thier own viewing habits in the above.) For this survey, students will investi gate the viewing habits or a wider audience. Students are to survey three people- an older person. a younger person. a person their ')wn age. Students should be involved in the construction of the survey form to be ..sed.

6. Give students well-defined directions for administering the survey. Caution students to be the detached researcher. Have students summarize the findings on their own.

7. Offer options for group projects. A sample project follows.

A. Collect all the TV viewing diaries your classmates prepared. Tally and analyze diaries. rating shows to determine which ones were most frequentJy watched. Work in pairs with one person reading the diaries and one person ma'dng the tally sheet. For example. you and your partner are tallying Monday. Make a tally sheet like this.

11I--..2....

N_ber

Show A

5 viewers

Show B Show C

3 viewers 7 viewers

NoI .-ching

11

B. When you have finished the tallying job, go back and give each show a rating. In this example. 26 students responded to their viewing at 2:00.

1lIolIU 2=-

N. . . . .

Show A

5

ShowB

3

howC

7

NoI.-t'hlng

11

T.... r ........ Au 26

Perc_t 19.2 11.5 16.9

C. Find Show A's rating by solving this problem-5 is what percent of 26? Divide the number (5) by the totai potential audience (26).

.192
26 \5.0
Multiply by 100 to get the percent-.192 x
100 = 19.2 and show A's rating is 19.2.
Practice on 8 and C to be sure you understand the process. Use a pocket calculator if one is available. Continue this procedure until you have given all the shows on Monday a rating. A second pair of students can tally Tuesday's shows. a third pair Wednesday's and so on.
D. Select the 10 top-rated shows from your list. Compare their ratings with other shows on other days.
E. Meet as a group to select the 10 toprated
shows in your survey.
F. Put the results on a poster and display them; use pictures and banners from TV magazines if possible or appropriate. The teacher can ask various groups to explain their findings to the class.
Evalaatioa
I. Teacher observation of the process will be facilitated with a checklist as follows.
lat. . .t.Students were involved throughout the process
e .....ad thoroughn....Students kept a careful journal of their own viewing habits
e.r.'uI sarvey.lnterviews were complete. i.e. the three people of appropriate ages were interviewed and the students recorded their responses in detail

Effecth

berStudents were

cooperative and helpful in and to their group

PT....t.ttea of liadlaStudents pre
pared attractive. readable displays and gave effective oraf presentations

2. Self-evaluation may include
A log of participation and ~ffon A final checklist of completed activity
3. Peer feedback should feature the same check list as that used by the teacher (see :.r 1 ;lbove! and should be used as an evaluation of group presentations.
FollowVp
Students could write explanatory or persuasive papers about the advantages and disad vantages of television viewing.
Students could write letters to television net works supporting or criticizing the quality of programming.
Students could write papers comparing and contrasting their own viewing habits with those of the individuals surveyed.
Students could write articles for the school newspaper and the community newspaper reporting their class's findings.
Students could read and discuss articles on the positive and negative influences oftelevision.
Note Step # 1 in procedura and_tep # 1 in evaluation are copyrighted by Allyn and Bacon. Inc. 1981. Reprinted with permlaion.

Real People Grades 910

P u r p o
Students are led to see literature as products of human effort. written by real people. Reading and responding are in.depth activities. They focus on a single author rather than on brief pieces by severaJ authon. The emphasis is on sharing insights and on individual student responses.
Objecdv. .
The learner will
study the life and work(s) of one author In depth.
use current secondary sources on author.
respond to several writings of a single author.
write summary portraits of author and hi. or her work.
M . t. . . . .
Ubrary resources about writers - Cummt BlographV, Who'. Who
Book. of library criticism. magazine reviews. biographies
Selected writings by the author
Relevant nonprint media (film. audio discltape)
s....."
This research procedure leads students to use a variety of primary and secondary sources. Literature is presented as the product of human efforts; teachers help students learn that authon are real people not merely literary giants. Each student delivers a creative presentation of a portion of the author's work. The sharing of feelings and opiniona about the author'. work is encouraged. The final produd of thia effort is a 5UIIUII8I'Y esaay.
Proced. . .
1. Toward the end of a class period write the name of an essayist. poet or novelist on the board and simply say "find out more about this writer."

2. Each class member must contribute at least one piece of information about that author at the next dass meeting.
3. Pass out copies of the author's work(si and read to the students from that author's material. Talk about the works and share your feeJings. Ask the students to share their feelings and invite them to speculate about the author. the authors origins. attitudes. biases. Direct them to read other works by that author.
4. If possible, incorporate other media such as films. recordings. slides or music about the author or the author's work to increase the students' interest and involvement. (To broaden the context for the writer's works, try something with visuals and sound in a multimedia presentation. )
5. Read some ofthe criticism about the author's work. If possible. read some of the author's own criticism. Discuss the role of the critic. Encourage students to make critical judgments of their own.
6. Ask students to present a portion of the writer's work to the class. perhaps as a short interpretive nading.
7. Involve the class or the group in a limited discussion of the work presented.
8. Each student should write a summary criticism of the author and the work. The teacher should encourage the students to include their own opinions and feelings.
9. Preliminary drafts should be shared and edited In smaJl groups.
E. . . . . . .
1. The teacher should be certain that the papers represent the student's own effort and incorporate material from a variety of sources. Criteria might include the following questions and should be provided to the student in advance.

Does the ruder get feel for the auIhor? Does the writer hook the reader'. int. . . in the author? Does the writer offer adequate support for
the opinion stated? Are papers developed portraits of the author? Does the author's humanity emerge? 2. Students' interpretive readings are responded to by the dass to provide peer evaiuation. Small groups should work together responding to and editing the summar') essays during revision for the finaj draft.
Follow-up Acdviti_ The same procedures can be used for writers in several genres. Students may also identify, interview and present to the class writers in their community. Students might attempt writing in the genre or on the subjects of the author they haw researched.

m...
From the Georgia Department of Education: 4261 Carl Sandburg Discusses His Work
9001 James Dickey. POet
4296 Mark Twain Gives an Interview
7292 Why Man Creates
DEK or tape recording.
Weiss. M. Jerry. From Writers tD St"ddent.s: The Pleasures and Pains of Writing. Newark. N.J.: IRA. 800 Barksdale Rd.. 1979.
Prlfd
Janeako, Paul. "In Their Own Words - Interviews with Authors." English Journal column.
Intemew.
Paris Reviews. Series 1-4.
Other
Local writers Kirby, Dan and Tom Liner. Inside Out: Deuelop-
mental Strategies/or Teaching Writing. Montclair, New Jersey: Boynton/Cook Publishers, Inc., 1981.

r

Detective Stories Grades 11-12

Adapted from W. Keith Kraus Murder. Mischief. and Mayhem: A ProCesIJ for Creative Research Papers Urbana. Illinois National Council of Teachers of English
1978

.........
Students approach research as a process of discovery. a mystery to be solved.
Objecd". .
The learner will
develop an understanding of the research process by going through the steps involved.
approach the research process and report findings with an unbiased attitude.
Interpret and analyze sources.
document sources using an appropriate format.
present research findings appropriate to a particular audience.
Mat. . . . .
A tape of Poe's "Tell Tale Heart"
A murder mystery
A synopsis of an actual murder case
Ubrary resources
......, An annotated list of topics
Writing a research paper Is often a &ightening prospect for students. Allay fears by giving students an overview of the entire process. Let them know what will be happening as they work this project. Establish the succeu-oriented IIIItUn of this project. Help students see t......... _
resident apem on their topic. They an in
charge of knowing more than anyone .... on that particular topic. Help students see this process as one of discovery, one in which they are detectives in search of clues. There will be false starts and deadend streets and this should

not be a signal to surrender. Present this activity as a case, as a mystery to solve. and emphasize process. Allow five to six weeks for the unit.
P r o c . d. . . . .
1. Generate enthusiasm for the project by sharing a Sherlock Holmes. Agatha Christie or other murder mystery. Playa tape of Poe's "Tell Tale Heart:' Discuss the role of the detective in these pieces.
2. Encourage students to give a brief summary of recent real murder stories. Brainstorm for a list of famous real detectives. Discuss the glamour mythology of detectives: use TV shows such as Rock/ord Files or Magnum Pl. as examples.
3. Present a synopsis of a murder case (see resources - Murder. MlKhief. Mayhem). Ask students how they might go about solvIng It. Point out the hours of searching for and sifting through myriad details to locate clues. Reinforce the notion ofthe often laborious research that goes into solving a case.
4. Explain that students will partldpate in a similar process for their research. Give a brief overview of the research process.
5. Conduct a school media center tour. Upossible. take a field trip to a nearby regional or college library. Introduce students to pot.... tiaI sources of information with which they may not be familiar. Give them hands on experience with microfilm or microftche.
6. Create and distribute a research activity sheet that makes it necessary for students to actually use the sources they have discovered. I.e assignments which require the students

to .... the InfomuItIon sources suggested In step 5. Be sure students can use Indices such as the New York Time. Index; require them to put on a reel of microfilm and locate information: have students use the Reader'. Guide to Periodical Literature. Avoid suggesting that dry, lifeless details are desirable. A culminating activity for this might be a short summary paper on the mood of the times as gleaned from details discovered in completing the activity sheet.
7. Introduce the overall project in more detail and assign topics. (see "An Annotated List of Topics" in Murder. Mischief and Mayhem) Poll student interests based on the topics available and assign topics based on students' interests.
8. Have students immerse themselves in the time period of their topic. Create questions which they might wish to consider.
What was life like?
What did people wear?
What were the big headlines?
Who was President?
What was the popular form of entertainment?
Assure students that this is neither busy work nor wasted effort. Suggest that they may be able to incorporate this information into their research papers and that their additional knowledge of the period will enhance their ability to complete the research.
9. Have students use the New York Times Index to determine the general events of their cases as best they can. Have them simply scan headlines of the Index and fill out what they can on the "Research Paper Fact Sheet:'

13. StreII accur.cy In notetaking. Point out
dlBenlices in writing styles from 19th to 20th century news stories. Remind students to maintain a researcher's detached view. (Encourage students to bring In examples of attitudes and ianguage that seem interestjn~.) Remind students to research 'AlOrds:!nri phrases that they do not understand. Help students with other aspects that may be troublesome such as trial material (see pp. 146 through 147. Murder. Mischief, and Mayhem), Alert students to be on the look~ OUI for materials. such as ;e!!z;'st,)t!1eeditor. that were never Cited. Fina:J).. help students understand the difference ;-;et",'een their synopsis qf material and outright plagiarism.
14. Help students brainstorm akemate sources of information such as trial transcripts.
15. Allow two to four weeks for students to review materials, take notes and construct rough drafts.
16. The major portion of in-class time can be devoted to helping students learn to write more effective introductions. to search for strong quotations and then to weave in those quotations. to actually construct the paper, to document sources and to build more effective conclusions. Students should at this time also be writing in a journal. It would not be inappropriate for teachers to provide a range of writing opportunities which are not necessarily related to the research paper.
17, Construct a checklist that reflects those research items you have been helping students learn. Let students work with a partner to check rough drafts. Students can help each other in the revision process.

10. Have students go back to the New York Time. Index and choose the stories they want to read. Assist students with some helpful hints on how to carefully screen the articles.

18. Allow time (one week) for final drafts to be written and submitted.
E v a l d o D

11. As students read. have them note information necessary for locating the article again should they need to go back to It.

1. Emphasize the process. Let the student know In advance that they are to be evaluated on
the process. i.e., selecting pertinent facts. maintaining a researcher's objectivity, choos-

12. Remind students that they are to check a

Ing quotations that strengthen their papers,

minimum of 30 sources and that they are to

arranging findings in an organized and effec-

.1.

construct a 10 to 12 page paper.

tive manner, Therefore. the teacher must use

the same checklist form that was giwn the studenta when evaluating the proce&
2. Self-evaluatlon should Involve the student In using the checklist provided.
3. Peer evaluation should be done with a part ner to check drafts for revision.
4. Finat products may be shared with the class.
FoUo Acdftd.-
Students may write their own mystery stories. possibly withholding solutions. for the class to solve.
The checklist may be applied to other research projects on other subjects.
Re.oUl'c"
Kraus. W. Keith. Murder. Mischief. and Mayhem. A Process!orCreatfve Research Papers. Urbana. Illinois. NCTE. 1978. Within this title see "An Annotated Ust of Topics."

N...".".,. .4rdde8
Locate (or have studenta locate) articles on murden or mysterieL
Tria"
Have students sit in on court proceedings or interview attorneys. jurists or others who have had experience with murder trials.
No"eltJ In Cold Blood hy Truman Capote Murder in Coweta County by Margaret Ann
Barnes
0.-. . .
,c TIN'" Angry Mtm by Reginald RoM
M. .
"Night Moves" by Bob Seegar
tv
Tape of "Mystery" hosted by Gene ShaUt. PBS

Interpreting

Interpreting is the act of deriving meaning from

demands an accounting for things outside. ~t

something. The something might be a fairly

demands that the writer observe features in the

simple experience or a very complex philosophi-

event or the statement and draw inferences from

cal treatise. We may interpret a child's throwing

them. Interpretive writing is not unchecked. It is

a pencil to mean that he or she Is angry or that

bound by the subject being interpreted. If the

he or she seeks attention; on the other extreme

features of that subject :ue neglected. th'!!1 !he

we may interpret Kant's Critique of Pure Reason

writing is no longer interpretation.

to mean whatever it might mean.

A program that intends to prOVide !>'1udentswith

Constraints upon the interpretation vary. Some-

experience and instruction in interpreting must

thing may be interpreted in light of its personal

draw upon a wide range of subjects. purposes

significance - what does this event or this

and situations for writing assignmer!s appropri-

statement mean personally or privately? Things

ate to the age and ability of the student. assign-

may be interpreted to determine the intent of

ments that require explanation and inference. A

their author - what does a gesture or statement

variety of assignments are necessary to encour

mean? There are other constraints - what is the

age the student to interpret. Drawing ail topics

significance of this statement to a nation. to a

from a narrowly conceived pool of resources,

listener. to the future of education or to the

giving all assignments an identical purpose or

detective who overhears it? These varying con-

asking the student to perform in only one situa-

straints may be thought of as differences in the

tion is clearly inappropriate. A program. for

purposes of the interpreting.

instance. that directs all interpretive writing to

...

Finally. the situation or the context for interpretation may vary. It may be undertaken alone in preparation for a paper: it may be presented orally as either a carefully prepared or an impromptu statement: it may be the consensus of a group: it may be the winning position in a debate: or it may simply be a discussion in which a variety of possibilities are explored and no resolution Is necessary.

poems. asks the author's intent and uniformly demands a three-to-five page paper on each topic. might be considered anemic. The opportunity to consider several genres or other materials should not be missed. A broadly conceived program. encouraging the teacher to vary assignments by subject. purpose and situation would certainly better sustain the interest of the student and more effectively teach him or her the precision of thought and expression demanded by the

Within this wide range of subject. purpose and

act of interpreting.

situation. there are two constant elements. All

interpretation demands both explanation and

Clearly. the few plans offered below do not

inference: that is. all interpretation attempts to

exhaust the possibilities. They simply suggest

make something clear or understandable. to find

ways of varying interpretive writing assignments.

reasons for something or to identify significance.

The individual teacher. reflecting upon the na-

These are all explanations of a sort: however.

ture of his or her students. the subject matter of

interpretation also demands reference to things

the course and the aspects of interpretive writing

outside the speaker or writer. It is not simply the

that might be varied will find a vast range of

reporting of feelings generated from within. It

possibilities for instruction in this mode.

..
I
<L

San:ple Activities

Emotions Grades K2

Purp.-

In this activity the students will begin to work with interpretive discourse at an introductory level. After discussing words which represent elY otions. they wiD try to interpret these emotions pictorially in c:oJJages.

O b j e c d. . .

The learner will
discuss emotions. explain some reasons which cause emotional
reactions.
develop pictorial representations of specific emotions.

M a t. . . . .

Poster boardIsentence strips for word cards Magic markers Magazines/scissors Display pictures
s.......

Students will engage in a discussion of words which represent emotions: then they will select emotion pictures from magazines and organize these pictures into collages. interpreting them for their classmates.

Proced.....

1. Use a recent happening at school. a foundation for a general discussion of emotions
and reasons for them. The situation might be a week of rain and no recess. winning the school's paper drive. a thunderstorm. a classmate moving away.

2. The teacher should relate personal feelings

about the inddent and invite students to do

the same.

,

3. Establish that emotions are normal. that they

affect younger and older people and that.

while men and women (boys and girls) may

show emotions differently. each person has

emotions.

4. As the word for an emotion Is used in the discussion. display a pre-made word card (or make the word card at that time) so that students can readily see the word as they discuss the feeling.
5. Suggest other WOlds th8t dacrlbe or represent emotions; e.g. joy, sorrow, happy. sad. anger. fear.
6. Discuss each word and feeling with the students. Ask them to relate other experiences they might have had which cause them to feel the same way.
7. After personal experiences are reviewed. displaya picture from a magazine which depicts emotion such as a child crying.
8. Invite the students to desaibe what is happening (tean are visible on the child's face) and how they think the child feels (sad).
9. Encourage the students to use all available picture cues (e.g a broken toy in the background) to explain a possible reason for the feeling.
10. Have students cut out various emotion pictures from magazines and newspapers.
11. The students should arrange their emotion pictures In a collage either focusing on a single emotion such as sadness or happiness or focusing on a range of emotions.
12. Once their collages are complete students should present them and provide the reasons for each picture selection: I.e.. interpreting both the picture content and the word for the emotion.
E. . . . . . . . .
I. Comment. and questions from the class or group can be used an informal usessment.
2. Teacher evaluation should focus upon the student's interpretation of both the word(s) they are representing and of the pictures they have selected to represent the words.

FoUo.Up
To reinforce the importance of the activtty. the students' work should be displayed.
The students can dictate or write brief stories about one of the pictures emphasizing the erne-

tions felt by the incliviclual(s) and perhaps the reasons _ those feelings
Stories from #2 above could be read to or by the dass members and suggestions for improvement and revision eouid be provided as wei! as some praise {or the student author's work.

What it MeaDs

....

Grades 3-4

Goal
The purpose of this activity is to provide students the opportunity to practice interpretive discourse.
Objective
The learner will
interpret action. behavior and meaning in the absence of verbal cues.
discuss the interpretations which are poutble
in relation to actions which lack verbal cues.
Sa ry
Students will see either a performance of mime (live or on film) or a film without dialogue. They will then discuss in small groups their interpretations of the material viewed. After some discussion and an opportunity to review the material. the students will prepare individual written responses which are interpretations of the actions.
RetIOIIIC_
Paper and pencil Film as described above or volunteers to perform mime

5. Once students have a grasp of the concept, proceed with the prearranged visual stimulus.
a. If mime is used either live or on film. select the least complex version available ilnd prepare the students by explaining briefly what mime is and some of its most obvious traits.
b. If a film is usN. turn off the soun~ and
substitute some simple background music. Select a film that is short. one which lends itself readily to interpretation, one in which the action is uncomplicated enough for the less able student to interpret. If it is impossible to find a short film that meets this criteria, a segment of longer film or videotape can be used. Teachers should consult with a school media specialist for specific titles that would be appropriate.
6. Once the students have had an opportunity to view the performance or film. arrange them in small discussion groups. Be certain each group has a student moderator who understands that role.

P r o c . d. . . .

7. In small groups students should share their

1. As background discuss the term interpreta-

impressions and interpretations ofthe events.

tion with the students so that they will be

8. A second showing should be arranged after

comfortable with the word. Some familiar

the brief discussion.

examples might prove helpful; e.g the meaning they attach to the ringing of a bell or the sounding of a buzzer to start and end dass. the meaning they attach to a nonverbal cue such as a scowling face or a smUing one.

9. After students have had a chance to review the material. they should individually write their own interpretation of what they have seen.

2. The students should be shown that interpretation is a normal occurrence and that they regularly interpret meanings from cues that are visual.

10. The students can exchange papers with partners for editorial advice and revision after which their papers should be submitted to the teacher for evaluation.

3. Explain to studenta that they wiD view a aeries

E"aI_doa

of events for which there wiD be no printed

1. Peer evaluation is provided throughout in the

or spoken cues and that they wiD have to

discussion groups and in the partnership

interpret the meaning of these events for

editing.

themselves.

2. Teacher evaluation should focus upon the

4. Point out that interpretation is not the same

students' attempts at interpretation. Key ele-

"f

thing as wild guessing. that it is based on

ments include the actual content of the stu-

events from which meaning can be deduced

dents' papers. students' use of evidence as

but which require some thought.

recalled from the viewing and the absence of

wild or extraneous Interpretation.. thOM dearly unrelated to the events itself. (This latter should be dlsc:uaed with the studenta to

be certain that they have not simply seen something the teacher missed or seen it from a different perspedive.)

Dialogue Grades 5-6

Goal
This activity ties writing 10 drawing; it focuses on the act of composing while creating the need for the students to interpret their work.
ObjectlY. .
The learner will
segment a simple activity or process In di.. creet logical steps.
represent the segments pictorially.
write brief sentences explaining each of the illustrated steps.
incorporate suggestions offered by classmates and the teacher.
.t. . . read the paper of another student and offer constructive criticism.
Large sheets of paper, pencils or crayons
S. ...."
After the teacher has explained the task and provided some examples. the students draw and caption a cartoon strip illustrating a process they know well. They are then to discuss thier products with one another, explaining their own and asking questions about the work of their peers. Procecl_ _
1. The teacher should demonstrate on the board or with overhead transparencies or chart paper a simple process based on an experience familiar to the students. One possible example might be a fire drill: the series might first depict the bell ringing, students leaving the class. students passing through the outer doors and students lining up for roD call. Other pouibilities might be going to lunch or collecting pepers.
2. Brainstorm with the cIaa some school or home related events which would lend themselves to this step-by-step presentation.

4. Students should begin to divide the event into steps that can be depicted and captioned in a four.panel cartoon.
5. When each child has some subject in mind. provide all with large sheets of paper which can be divided into panels.
6. Ask the students to draw each step of the process they have chosen ;'n a separate block from left to right and ask them to write a brief explanation of the step in the space at the bottom of the block.
7. When they are finished, ask them in pairs to read one another's paper and ask questions about points they don't understand. Tell them that if they discover that they have been unclear at any point, they may improve the drawing or the writing. You might also suggest that they help one another with details such as spelling. The teacher, too, should assist here, so that students are encouraged to seek assistance, so that they do not avoid using words about which they are unsure.
8. Try to provide opportunities to discuss the papers with each student, so that you may praise what was done well and help them understand where they may have failed to explain adequately.
9. The drawing, captions and explanations are interpretations of actions and provide an opportunity for students. to work with these skills.
Eval_ttoa
The teacher may observe both the written work and the subsequent talk to note
a. how thorough and accurate the explanation
is. b. how well the students observe and examine
what others have written. Co how weD they ask and answer questions.
Follow Up

3. After the list is created, encourage students to

Follow up work might include similar drawing

select one from among those lilted or one

and writing about activities in the science pro-

.

that they feel would work well.

gram or about processes studies in the social

science curriculum. Teachers may also enlist the aid of a library/media specialist in obtaining simple books about the topics children have identified so as to encourage further reading and interpretive writing exercises that might be based on that reading.

Some of the students may enjoy elaborating their
work. Blank filmstrip kits are available: however. regular 35 mm &1m which has been cleared of emulsion will serve for student-drawn filmstrips.

The Poet Means Grades 7-8

Goal
In the earlier grades. students' comments are often paraphrased. evaluative and expressive of personal reaction. It is appropriate to encourage students as they become more mature to interpret the material they read. Such interpretative assignments. while initially brief. acquaint the students with the importance of observing details and interpreting their significance.
ObJectlv. .
The learner will
read. discuss and interpret some short poems.
write a brief interpretation of a poem.
Mated_
Copies of some short. poetic pieces for student use such as Frost's "The Secret Sits." Hughes's "Motherto Son" or Sandburg's "Primer Lesson"
s....,
This activity involves students in the interpretation of poetry, both orally and in writing. The first step invites a personal, imaginative interpretation; the demand for careful, inferential reading is not a concern here. The second step encourages students to speculate about the writer's intended meaning and effort at inference; it also requires refledion on personal associations which serve as the basis of both discussion and brief writing.
PI'ocedu. .
1. Provide students with copies of several short, poetic pieces which invite interpretation. These pieces need not be serious; a popular song lyric might be among them or even something capricous or whimsical by a writer such as Ogden Nash.

3. For example. in Frost's "The Secret Sits." the students could be encouraged to speculate about the possible meanings of "The Secret." They might enlarge their discussion to include a secret which they know individually or as a group.
4. In step three the students have worked with a piece in a speculative. imaginative way. The teacher shlluld continue to encourage speculation but should now emphasize referring to the text of the poem for support.
For example. in Hughes' "Mother to Son." students might be asked to consider the parent's background. Is the woman speaking as if she were well-educated? Has she had a life of leisure or of hard work? What expectations does she hold for her son? What kind of stairway has life been for her? What kind of stairway does she expect life to be for her son? In responding to these questions or those related to a similar poem. the students should refer to the poem to support their interpretation. A right or wrong answer in the critical sense is less important here than a response which is logical and supportable.
5. At this point students should have had an opportunity to read. discuss and interpret several poems. If more practice is needed. several other pieces should be used The students should be familiar with the task and the expectations before they are asked to continue.
6. Introduce the poem that you wish the students to interpret in writing, one such as Sandburg's "Primer Lesson." Read it aloud to the class and provide some time for a brief discussion. After the discussion, distribute copies of the poem to the students and ask them to write a short paper, interpreting the poem.

2. Each student may work with every poem

U "Primer Lesson" is used. you might help

individually. Students may be assigned to

the student, by asking them to consider the

work in groups with the groups working on a

poet's meaning; i.e., "What does Sandburg

single poem or on all of the pieces selected or

mean by proud wo"'; why should you look

the class may consider each poem coilectiveJy.

out how you aae proud words; have you ever

The purpose is to invite interpretation and to

used proud words yourselP''' Similar questions

~

encourage the students to refer to the text of

for other poems are appropriate to aid the

the poem to illustrate or justify their observa-

students in developing the appropriate mindset

tions.

to develop their papers.

7. After the papers have been written. the stu dents should exchange them with a partner or with several members of a group for edit ing or revising.
Evalu.doD
The papers should oe analyzed for the degree to
which the students have attempted to refer to the words in the text and to explain them. If stu dents are simply expressing an opinion without reference to its origin in the text. then further instruction emphasizing close attention to the text should be planned.

Folio. Up
The interpretive writing based on the poems might be followed by work in other genres-short stories. piays. essays, in ail cases. takt< Cdf':' . '. allow time fo. personal response to the literature. so that it is not simply the object of analysis. Students should be willing to search their memories and imaginations for associations with literature and to talk about :ts~ers(;nai slgnHic3r;ce. They should also become accustomed to talking about the 'l'der's intentions as :he l. 'nil'.; be inferred from the lext. interpretation .nvoJ,,?s 0oth.

,
Logical Analysis Grades 9-10

Goal
The purpose of this lesson Is to interpret a persuasive essay in the form of a speech. The students are invited to examine the speaker's assumptions and logic in an effort to assess the quaUty of the presentation.
Objectlw_
The learner will
analyze the logic of a j)assage.
identify fallacious arguments in that passage.
explain the fallacy in the identified arguments.
analyze the passage in a clear and orderly essay.
M.t.......
The enclosed speech
Several articles or Items illustrating clear. logical arguments.
Several articles or Items illustrating unclear or specious logic.
s ...,
The task Is to analyze the logic of a persuasive passage. It assumes some previous work in the use of logic and critical thinking and in reading and discussing short persuasive essays which emernplily both strong and weak reasoning. Kn0wledge of a technical terminology is unimportant: however. previous experience I.. necesury In clarifying premises. providing evidence for generalizations. evaluating conOicts in evidence and opinion and documenting information.
In this activity students analyze a short passage exempIilying inadequate - perhaps even fraudu-
lent - argument. A follow-up may be a c:holce of IlION interadng or more dif8c:ult . . . . . . .
Procede_
1. Use a passage that clearly exemplifies some illogic for students to detect.
2. As a brief introduction. remind students of previous work on rational argument. Point

out that words do shape events. Remind students they are to ascertain if the words are honestly and reasonably arranged.
3. Have the class discuss the following example.
"The Cily COllncil of Cambridge. Mf&Qchllllerts. unan;
~ ,..tJ II .-IuCion (December J939' moIdng it
flIerIoI to ",...., ' - ' - . . - - . IJIIrocIuce or trarw-
_qaper. port ..",. . . _ ........... boGIr. map. 1ftCIlJCIIine. pamphlft.ltaltdbln or dreu/or containing the wordI Lmlrl or Lmingrad:' (HayalcllwlI. p. 33J
4. Suggest the class consider these questions.
What might the city council have had in mind?
What is the problem with the thinking evident in this resolution?
5. After discussing the passage. use other examples drawn from Hayakawa or elsewhere for additional practice.
6. When the students have warmed to the hunt for the nonsense underlying the examples. present the passage below. Suggest to the class that it is current and that It might persuade those who listen to It. Read It aioud first. and then diltribute copies for the students.
"MlMer PraIdfttt. felloul councilmen. The time has
c:onwfor .. ta maa II concertl effort to _ thillgreat dtJ/from eM "., _ _ tJ/ tftnCIlJe crfrM and datrvetfon whleh t. . . . . . each day to IItundcIIe It. The cltfHrq tJ/ our great and h'-'one mftrOpOllll h_ RI/Ierrd long
m_o1u;h_", eM ,.... tJ/ tltne bcriarlane -now we mU8t
" " . and ......" juatIce. We CCllt 110 IOttget tolerate the lICIflda'lun committed agcr/nIt the chllrr:hn
and IIIOIIIIIMrtIS tJ/ ourfore/fIth~the brutal beating. tJ/ our elder dtlHne. eM continuous thfl.ft from our .mall
m..m-. tltoM storeo~ lind shopkeepers who
_ eM l!feblood tJ/ our great dtJ/'. OI'IOfftJI. We mU8t
taU action ......, dUs, the IIIlIIt . . . til,., to our fIeIJ .", --"y.
"And ~,.110"""'" tltatJ-flecrfrM,.. _ _ our greotftt problem. LooIr lit the Jact-. WltIIln the I .
50 years. the number tJ/ cri.... committed by tltne
young Itood/urMlIoa _ them doubled. And yd socifty stili hand/n the crimlnalll with kid g/o_. I propose to
replace thlll plI8S/H. splnel_ tolenmc:e tJ/ odolncmt OlItnJga wltll II finn cmd pnJCIkll' approach. a program tJ/ action. " ,. not the IIOlUre tJ/ the AnNriean people to

de_roc,. . . . . . . .and.-ell anCfIocfaI ...... tevr at the,.,..

of _

TM A ~ PftIPIe - ~..

of tlte ""'" who fought at Lafngtort Gfld Corteonl. ar the

Alamo. cmd ort rite baaleflel. of Europe and the far'"

- CGIt no longer be ..a.fIefI with mere UIOfda. .......

glue them aomethfng more.

"1 haue :wo proPlnition The lint i. directed at that
u. mo.t dangerou. and odio" symbol oj our aocielV',
decadence - the motorcycle. Let bon them from our
,treeD. Can we allow rhe youth of "ur greor country ,!a
idolize the He//'a Angela crowd? Can we accept tile black leather Jacket with iu skull nd cro,.oones in <t ~OCte!"J dedicated to the preaerwatlort of peace and security for oil? How can we hope to curb the moral decay evident in our teenagers .~' we pennit thelle corrupting itlJluetlce. to remain unchallenged?

"Second. I propo.e an 8:00 pm curfew for everyone
beneath the age of21. Look at the ~.. of nch a plan. Aa eueryorte Imoula, crime JlourWta under the couer of darfr. It Ie the ptlrpoM of tItc CUf/evJ to ellmlnam thle
COllei'. force crime Into the fight of day where it mu.t
"ec_riIV wither and die. The curfew would rob the odo/elleent criminal. of their most important protection.
a. And It would be a blow against more than crime. Think
of I,. ua/ue for the cIty and the nation a whole.
Ratrlcted to their homa, the young bondf,. will be con-
atmItlV under the watchful eva of thefr poren" who will be oble to 1ft that thev attend the prop6' bualneu of
vouth-Mudla. helping around the house and the like. Denied the compcmlotuhlp of others like " ' - / _ the
teenagers will houe a chance to reform. Thev will II!am to deuate tIter..-eIua to tlte Idea" of the !omllv, of JUMice and of the Amerfcan WCIJ/ of life. Th,. bIll will be the /1m
real .,. touIard the Great Sody."
7. After reading the speech and handing out
copies. proceed as suggested in either A or B.

A. Discuss the speech briefly. after which the students write an analysis of the speech explaining in as clear and orderly fashion as possible, what is wrong - or right with the reasoning.

B. DIIcua the speech in detail, identifying selected laws. Provide the class with a current item that offers a similar opportunity for analysis of faulty logic, and assign an analysis on the basis of the new item as
describ.,d ;n A
Evaluation
The students' interpretations ai the :;peech may be evaluated by how effectively ~he students identity the 5peaker~s assumptions and by how carefullu and accurately they ;d~ntif~; "od explain the illogical elements.
FoUo.ap Acdviti_
Using an approach similar to the steps above the class might analyze an editorial. letter-to-toeeditor. 3dvertisement or an election year campaign spot.
H e s o a r c
Robert W. Allen and Lome Greene, The Propaganda Game. New Haven: AIM Publishers, 1969.
Layman E. Allen, et. aI., Queries 'n Theories. New Haven: Wff'n Proof Publishers, 1970.
Richard D. Altick. Preface to Critical Reading, New York: Holt. Rinehart and Winston. 1962.
S. I. Hayakawa. Language In Thought and Action. New York: Harcourt Brace and Jovanovich. 1972.
Ronald Munson. The Way of Words. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. 1976

Advice Grades 11.12

GeNII
The students will interpret an essay containing subtle irony. They will infer the writer's meaning within this material.
Objectives
The learner will
analyze the messages within sections of an ironic essay.
speculate about the author's intent In each section.
relate sections of the essay.
draw inferences about the essay from the relationship of the various sections.
discuss the essay with the rest of the class.
write a brief paper Interpreting the essay.
Material
Mark Twain's "Advice to Youth" or another suitable ironic selection
5. . .."
In this activity students interpret prose written In an ironic tone. Twain's essay is used as an example. It Is ostensibly a didactic, moralistic piece, presented for the edification of youth.
In analyzing and discussing this material, the students will gradually perceive that Twain's true meaning is to be inferred through the use of ironic language. The activity will culminate with a written analysis of the material read by each student.
Proced__
1. Begin by asking the students for examples of the sort of moral precepts they might expect &om adults or &om anyone .... who .. concerned with the ethical ecIuc:ation 01 youth. (This might be done as a total group or brainstormed in small groups.)
2. Compile the list on the board. 3. Discuss the list.
How vaiuable are these precepts or sayings as guides for your lives?

Do you find any that are especially helpful (or not helpful) or true or not true?
00 yOIl think that most (some. Ilone, alll people agree with and observe them?
Other questions.....
Note: (Polan/us' aduice to Loerr~ from Hamlet (I.iii) might be a rime Salling subSlitute lor the steps above or an odditlonol element to be URd in conjunction With ".J.J.
4. In small groups have students discuss and develop a written response to the following hypothetical question.
"If you were obligated to giue a bri~ lecturr to younger children. prrsenting a jew moral prKepts by which they might ron their /lu~, what would you include? What would you soy to them?"
5. Introduce Twain's essay as though It were serious. Read a few paragraphs aloud to the class to get them started.
6. Allow students time to finish reading. 7. After students complete their reading, elicit
reactions with a few general questions, continue to accept students' observations until the talk lags. 8. Discuss the difference between Twain's observations (statements) and his direct rec ommendations. 9. Refer students to lower case paragraph two (recommendations) and lower case paragraph three (observations) in "Advice to Youth." 10. Tum now to the last paragraph in the work. 11. Ask "What is implied in the last paragraph? Does that affect your reading of paragraph two? Is paragraph two still a recommendation?" 12. Note that the twists in Twain's writing introduce a slight problem in Interpretation - "Is there a moral implicit in Twain's presentation or Is Twain sarcastically condemning what he sees as typical behavior? For Instance, he seems to undermine the first lesso.. - obey parents when they are present - by denoundng as superstition their belief that they know better than you do.
Thus. he might be suggesting that readers rely on better judgment. Readers may come

from th8t paragraph conftdent in knowing

E"aJ_doa

'"

what Twain is recommending - humor your parents. avoid angering them but rely on your own judgment when you can. The essay's

The lesson is intended to foster creative interpretation. The students may become confused and this confusion in the mind of the students is to be

last paragraph, however. introduces another

resolved in the essay ~,:;;ting. Se\.'cr~l pCSiti'>i",S

complication. Twain has not flattered the

,ine foresee,ai, It:'.

human race. When he says, "build your char-

acter on these precepts and you will find that you are much like everyone else." he causes

There are serious recommendations to the reader. bur d~e~~~ ~re t~ ~e inferred.

the reader to doubt earlier conclusions. The reader who had felt exhorted to rely on personal judgment now hears that in doing so one is likely to turn out as bad as everyone else. How then. is the essay to be interpreted?"

There are 110 r:comm":'odations. but TI/Jain does comment satiricaily on cenain foibies.
There are :nconsistencizs that make '~he ~assaae impossible to interpret as il unified p:ec~. The,<?rmon ;:; :;impiy humorous.

13. Keep in mind that Twain's essay is humorous and thus may not be as rigorously logical and consistent as a more seriously intended piece.
NOTE: Do not aI/ow th~ humor to be obscured fly th~ ana/y.iL

The essays should be evaluated on the basis of the strength of the arguments offered. Do the students take into account relevant textual data? Do they provide evidence for generalizations? Do they state their case with reasonable clarity?
Foilowogp A-::tivities

14. After discussion. point out that the essay is

Work on other materials in which much of the

not as simple as it first appeared and sug-

meaning is carried by the tone coulG foilow.

gest a short composition interpreting it.

Personal essays or editorials by such writers as

Art Buchwald and Erma Bombeck will provide

"What don th~ eSICIV mmn? I. thne any ..mOUl
adulc~ In It? Doa It limply l!iIlpral an atdtud~ - If 10,

practice in dealing with irony and sarcasm in

.'

Ulhat? I. It limply funny? B~ IU~ to fIaIe gm6allza

prose. as well as the more traditional works from

tfoIU upon th~ specIJIa 0/ th~ euay."

writers such as Jonathan Swift.

..

Social Interacting (Ritualizi'lg)

Some communication acts function for purposes other than to convey information about the world or to influence opinions. What is the purpose of small talk about weather. family or crops? We often engage in such familiar interaction as. "Some game last night. huh?" "Yeah. aome game." Why do YOlongsters and adults tease each other and partidpate In riddling bouts? We place great importance on greeting each other, even if just to acknowledge another person's existence. Why? Are we concerned with exhibiting proper norms of politeness and. in some situations. proper norms of rudeness?
These are examples of social interactions of communication rituals. They serve a vital function by helping us build, redefine and maintain relationships. Through communication rituals we keep channels of communication operating smoothly. We manage the Oow of conversation so that we can accomplish the business of informing, influencing and expressing to everyone's satisfaction. Social Interaction (ritualizing) is the

primary way in which we express perceived roie relations like intimacy. status and affinity. It helps our partners know how to interpret our messages; e.g., as an order. a joke. an expression of warmth.
In face-to-face interaction. rituals operate in both verbal and IIOIIWI'tHd modes. Back slapping Is an Instance of ritualizing as Is the spoken phrase."Let's sit down for a minute and see if we can work out this problem together," In written communication ritualizing is related to tone and helps establish a relationship between reader and writer. In a consumer complaint letter positive results can often be obtained by induding, "I have long enjoyed Crispy Shnouies and look forward to the satisfactory solution of this problem so that I can once again purchase your product with confldence.' In reading works of literature. the author's depiction of communication rituals offers us cues with which we can infer relations between characters.

SaJnple Activities
l\Jice to Meet You Grades K2

Introductions serve an important purpose. One of the greatest hindrances to communication is uncertainty. Introductions provide some minimal shared imormatio.l. They justify our presence in a group. Students need to be able to make appropriate introductions of themselves and others. to be able to do so in situations of varying formality, to develop a sense of what makes for a good introduction and to recognize the need for introductions.
Objectives
The learner will
practice making introductions in various situations.
know the reasons for introductions.
recognize how it feels to enter a group with and without introduction.
M.teri.lsIAi...
Drawing paper and crayons. open space for role-playing.
S. . . .WV
In this activity students will discuss and role-play various situations which call for introductions.
Procedures/Activiti_
1. The teacher introduces the concept of introductions to the entire class by asking, "Who can remember meeting someone for the first time at a friend's house or at a ball game or at church?" "What did you feel at first about that other person?" "What's the first thing you did?"
Discussion should focus on feelings when meeting people when you are the only stranger in a group. Teachers should encourage students to comment on the kinds of information they would like to know about a newcomer. The teacher should offer concrete examples of situations in which introductions would be helpful (changing schools or classes. an adult

guest visiting class. visiting a relative in a distant town and meeting his or her ~~endsl.
2. In small groups. students ~rains(Qrm different ;;ituations which require :ntro(Juc:':;'.-:O'-'s. E::ch student chooses a situation. On a folded piece of drawing paper, students draw a situation in which a new person is being introduced. On the other half they draw a situation in which a person is not being introduced. Students should try to first imagine how lonely the sec ond person might feel. and then they should try to draw a face that expressesihese feelings.
3. The groups plan and act out the situations in which people are introduced and those in which they are not.
4. Within the large group, students discuss how they felt in the various roles and situations: they might also discuss the introductions which seemed most satisfactory. e.g.. what information was most helpful and useful to the group. what made the newcomer most comfortable and so on.
E v a l t i o D
Teachers should note for evaluation each of the following.
Involvement in the initial discussion. grasp of the need for introductions. volunteering situations calling for introductions.
Involvement in small group discussion. staying on tasks. creativity in thinking of situationespecially situations involving adults.
Attention to drawing. proper physical placement (nearness) of characters and facial expressions.
Role-playing participation. concentration on role and situation. production of talk. cooperative interplay, extended introduction.
Ability to identify feelings in final discussion.
Follow Up
Use ice-breaker activities such as the Name

Chain (each succeeding student must re........ ber the IUIIDeS of aU preceding students) on the first day of class.
Assign a student the responsibility for introducing all guests to the class.
Dictate letters of introduction pretending that a book character is going to visit a distant penpal.

Secure telephone company training units: practice telephone introductions at the beginning
of conversations lor various information-
gathering purposes.
Read aloud selections from Lewis Carroll Allee in Wonderland and Through the Looking Glass. pointing out the absurd manner in which characters handle introductions. Locate illustrative selections from other readings.

., ...

or

Look '0 See Grades 3-4

Objectiv. .
The learner will
develop social observation skills.
develop an awareness of the varied social rituals which are a part of life.
become aware of the importance of both verbal and nonverbal social interactions.
Mat. . . . .
Paper and pendl
S a . "
In this activity the students Il.ith the teacher's guidance will discuss, observe and record a variety of verbal and nonverbal social interactions, rituals which are daily occurrences and which affect their lives. They will organize and report their observations after a period of several days.
Proced. . .
1. The teacher should establish the topics and reality of social rituals (verbal and nonverbal) by asking students questions which will lead them to an awareness of the topics.
"What do you say when you see your friends in the morning?"
"How do your parents greet their friends?"'
"What do you say when you answer the phone?'"
"Do you know someone who doesn't answer the phone as you do? What do they say?""
"How does the school secretary answer the phone?"
2. Discuss with the students the reason those behaviors in # 1above differ and whether some are more appropriate than others.
3. Ask students whet the verbal behaviors above indicate about the person and what they represent: i.e.. professional person. business person. younger person. older person.
4. Brainstorm (describe) a variety of settings where differences exist in verbal and nonverbal social rituals: e.g., the ball field. church. school, home, libraries, skating rinks, elevators, movie theaters, balls, classes. steps.

5. With class input develop an observation form for their use to Jog obs'i!rvations of the rituals.

Event Who Verbai

Observation form
I Two people meet
I Adult friends "GOOd morning."
l "Hi! How are you?"

6. Instruct students to log at least three events at differing times each day, more if possible: it is important to establish a clear, accomplishable minimum.
7. At the end of the time period, students should present their logs and discuss the most frequent exchanges (responses) recorded. least frequent. most unusual.
8. The information from their logs should then be the basis for discussion on the reason these rituals exist, what they mean and how they differ among age and social groups.
Evalaadoe
Teacher evaluation centers upon students' class contributions and upon the thoroughness and quality of the logs submitted.
Follow Up
Using log strategy have students focus upon a particular form of encounter in its various forms (partings for example. or meetings among relatives).
Invite someone to class who has lived and traveled extensively outside North America. Discuss with them the logs and the observations and ask them to explain how these might dif-
.. fer In the country within which they lived or traveled.
Invite a foreign national to comment on his or her culture with respect to follow-up activities above.

Hello and Goodbye Grades 56

hrpoee
We have available to us many more resources for greeting and taking leave than simply saying "hello " and "goodbye". Our greetings and leavetakings are more than just polite and empty gestures. They express how we feel about our relationship with an acquaintance and how we are feeling about ourselves. Because these ritu
Ills are so common and also so varied. they repre-
sent a good vehic:le for allowing students to develop a concept of relationship. role and formality.
Objectlv_
The learner will
observe interpersonal relationships in various environments.
infer the nature of relationships.
recognize how formality in oral and written language signals.
the nature of relationships.
learn some parts of the latter.
Mat.......
Writing paper and pencil Butcher paper and markers Resources for field trips
s . . "
In this activity, students will observe greeting and leavetaking behavior. In groups they will compile a list of these rituals and put them in catego ries according to intimacy of relationships. The categories will also be applied to salutations and closings in letter writing. Pntced_ _Acdvitiee
1. In large groups. students disc:uu the varieties of greeting and leavetaking stndegies
they know, simply to sensitize them to the fact that they wiD need to look at more than Jult "hello" and "goodbye" in the obMlvation step.
2. Students discuss available contexts for observing such interactions: e.g., beginning and

ending of schoof day. religious services. family inteT'aetion. playgrounds. any public meeting place.
3. Students record in journals all the greeting and leavetaking behavior they observe in a week's time. Observations should include not only utterances. but also as much information as possible about situations and participants. (An alternative might be a trip to an airport. bus or train station. where students can engage in intensive observation jointly.)
4. The class should be divided into groups of four.
5. Half of each group will list or describe ways of saying "hello." half will list or describe ways of saying "goodbye." Usts will be written on four different sheets of paper. The firlt is headed loving. The second isfriendly. The third is cordial and the 6naI heading is rapcctfully formal.
6. Eac:h of the four sheets is divided into three columns headed respectively, spoken. nonuerbal and written: letter.
7. Group rnemben compile their observations and any strategies they can think of to add to the lists.
8. With large groups assembled. teacher compiles lilts on butcher paper &om each group's list.
9. On subsequent days students can add new observations to the proper list.
10. The reason we partidpate in the rituals of greeting and leavetaking should be the focus
of a large group discussion. Include ideas about how others feel when these rituals are ignored. Lead students to the point that help them define relationships by means of these and other rituaIL
. . . . . . .
Evaluation should include
1. participation in large group discussions; relevance insightfulness of comments.
2. involvement in observational phase.

..

3. partldpetlon In small group work and In task and social contributions.
4. comprehension of the four relationship categories and three code categories used in compiling the observations.
foDo. Up
This is natural place to present the parts of the letter heading, saluation. body and closing.
The same type of analysis can be applied to other social rituals such as congratulations. thanking and asking for favors.

Students can aperbnent by selectively violating the rules they have discovered. For example. they can greet a mend on the playground. "My dear James. how goood of you to join us this afternoon." Violations of norm::' are a rich source of discussion materiais. bUI sometimes. the consequences can be series. Use this tactic with more mature students and then only with careful preparation and caution.

.

Just Kidding Around Grades 7-8

P1aa'po8e
Students in the middle school grades are masters of various forms of verbal dueling including teasing, joking and riddling. These rituals serve important functions. They are a form of entertainment. transferring play to verbal channels. In some cuitures they are a rhetorical training ground. teaching skills necessary for survival such as control and quick response. They are a means for handling conflict nonviolently. for establishing a peer pecking order_ Word play of this type can also be a way of showing acceptance. By the same token. these rituals can be used most cruelly to ostracise those who are not in.
Objective.
The learner will
become sensitive to the functions of verbal dueling.
distinguish between friendly and unfriendly insults.
become sensitive to the effects of verbal repartee on others' feelings.
practice cooperative problemsloving.
write dialogues.
practice performing dialogue.
Mated'"
Writing materials and flexible space for discussing and performing
s. . .uv
In this exercise students will discuss types of verbal repartee and their effects. Working with parents they will create a scene involving two charaders. write a dialogue within structured requirements and perform the dialogue. PI'oced_ _A c : t I v i d _
1. The teacher should begin by pointing out that many rituals of this type involve taboo sub- . jects and profane or obscene words which are inappropriate for most classrooms. The teacher
.. should straightforwardly acknowledge this fact. mentioning that every culture has a set of taboos. The class should be challenged to

be imaginative enough to invent material which does not violate classroom propriety.
2. In the large group discussjon. begin with vol-
unteers teiling jokes. "knock-knock" roulines. playground chants. riddles. The teacher should ask students if they are aware how these rituals are used in conversation in various settings (ball field. parties. other informai conversa tions).
3. Stdl in a large group. discuss the difference between friendly put-downs and insults that hurt. How do you know when someone is just kidding around? Where is the cut-off point? When do insults lead to combat?
4. The teacher should assign the following. Pairs of students are to create a situation involving two friends. There is initial tension between the two in this situation. (They both perceive that one has let the other down in some important way.) The mythical friends are to practice thls put-down session. ending on amiable terms. After the student partners decide upon the basic situation. they are to write dialogue.
5. Students work on the assignment in pairs with the teacher circulating to give aid. The prod uct is a written dialogue about three pages long.
6. Each pair of students perform their dialogue before the large group. In a large group. discuss what made some of the dialogue especially successful (creative. situation. humor. realistic language).
Audience members should be able to identify the characters and the nature of the situation from what is expressed in the dialogue. No external narration is permitted.
EvaJ_doa
The teacher should focus on each question below for evaluation.
Old each student participate and cooperate in the dyadic task? Were the resulting dialogues creative. realistic representatives of peer relations? Was information about characters and context included? Was the lauguage natural?

Did performance skills include projection. oral expression and appropriate gestures?
Wen contributions to large group dlsc:ussion made? Were students' comments relevant? Did they display understanding of the functions of verbal duelling?
Follow-up Activitie.
Record putdown sessions in journals.
Alter dialogue so that friendship is broken at conclusion.
Advanced students may view or read several of Shakespeare's comedies or any of a series

of modem productions for examples of verbal dueling.

Discussion of riddling and joking can lead into a study of more extended forms of folk humor and literature. Students can collect shaggy cie:} stories. ghost storie: and tail tales or compose their own.

in multicultural classrooms. discuss differences among cultures in use of word-play rituals.

Introduce the art form of punning. Conduct a

pun contest along the lines of "The Gono

Show" or "S1.98 Beauty Show".

~

What Sballl Call You? Grades 910

GoallPurpo_
Although educators often place emphasis on students' learning to speak a standard English dialect. it is more sound to think of students acquiring a range of speech registers. ITom intimate to formal. By language choices, which cor stitute registers, we signal our definitions or perceptions of relationships with audiences. For example. the politicians who work with sophisticated economic data weekdays in Washington must return to their constituents on weekends. Politicians then must show that they are of the people by talking about "Them gall danged big city hucksters what ain't got sense nuff to set one foot front of t'other."
Among the most concrete resources we have for signifying a register are the terms of address we use to name each other. Thus. you name your colleague "Mr. Thomashevski" when speaking formally before your students. but "Melvin Thomaskerski" when introducing him to your aunt, "Mel" in the teachers' lounge and perhaps "M.T." at a football game. Students can begin to recognize registers and the dimensions of appropriate language use (as opposed to so-called correct language use) by a study of terms of address.
ObJecdv-
The learner will
become sensitive to varying terms of address.
recognize varying degrees of formality In use of terms of address.
explore role relationships which determine degree of formality in language.
relate thae abstract dimensions of reIatfon. ships to students' everyday communication
plitt......
MateriaialAicla
Chalkboard
Posterboard or large sheets of butcher paper/ newsprint

SlIlD.UY
Students will list the terms they use to address people who are representative of a variety of role categories. Through discussion and questioning students will attempt to isolate the social dimensions which govern the choice oftermsof address. The class will produce a type of flow chart illustrating their analysis. Students will discuss how relationships are at first defined (tentatively) and then maintained or redefined. and they will discuss how the nature of these relationships is reflected and manipulated by means of terms of address.
hoc.d._
1. Teacher explains the concept of role as a category; i.e a person's role often determines the types of behaviors we expect from him or her.
2. Individually, students spend a few minutes listing roles with which they might interact in a day (e.g., parent. sibling, adult acquaintance. teacher. friend. peer acquaintance, legal official).
3. Teacher compiles a master list of roles on chalkboard.
4. Next to each role designation. students list what term they would use to address a person in that category (e.g 8rst name, Ms.lMiss' Mr.lMrs. + last name. Coach + last name. nickname. professional title + last name only, kinship term. "Sir" and so forth). Expect different responses here. especially from students with differing backgrounds.
5. The central task at this point is to try to abstract the underlying sociaJ dimensions which determine choices of terms of address. For example. age is certainly one factor. and this should emerge in the c:lisc:ussion. If we meet someone our own age who has no apparent status or authority that sets him or her apart. we use first name. But an older person is usually addressed as Mr.. Mrs., Miss or Ms. (These terms of greater formality also show that the factor of sex is another determinant. Incidentally. an interesting issue pertains to

how we decide if someone is older. younga' a same age pettt. The Unes are not dear cut in American cultures.) 6. The discovery of underlying social dlmensions can be helped along by the use of hypothetical questions.
What do you call your employer (authority)?
What do you call ~10ur employer if he or she listens to rock and roll music? Is a change indicated if common interests or attitudes are shared?
What do you call your parent's friend after camping out for several days on a fishing or hunting trip? (Does age give way to intimacy?)
How do you feel when your teacher addresses you as Mr. or Ms.? (Do you feel more adult? Does that feeling make you uneasy?)
7. After the class has listed a number of underlying social dimensions which govern choices of terms of address, the teacher and students should try to construct a flow chart on the chalkboard. (If the students are more able and mature. this might be done in small groups.) When completed. use posterboard for a permanent illustration ofthe process. An example might look like the chart on page _ .
8. Since terms of address are means for acknowledging perceived relationships. use the chart'to help explain the significance of the terms and how terms define relationships. For example. what does it mean when your employer says, "You don't need to call me 'Mr. Jones: just call me 'Bob'?"
EvaluatioD
1. Teacher evaluation should focus on the students' volunteered contributions to large group discussion and on solicited answers to questions demanding appfication of the communication principles being discussed.

2. If the c:t.t ia .... ted. a group product. evaluation In tenns of completeness. present. ability, graphic consideration and so on could be included.
FoDo.... Ac........
Assign students to ;ese.arcn terms ror persons <." speciaj status (~.g. ambassadors, aIrline pilots. supreme court justices. retired military personnel). Resources include etiquette and secretarial handbook... special dictionary Sti!ctions. encyclopedic materials and so on.
~nvestiga12 :he way speaking practi::2s differ from titles used in letter writing.
An interesting research project involves cross cultural comparisons of terms of address. Oriental cultures. for example. place much more emphasis on the age factor with finer gradations than in America. Native American Indian cultures use kinship terms like Aunt and Uncle. with less regard for actual blood lines. In Germany someone might be addressed in a manner. if translated. like "Mr. Professor Doctor Smith."
Southern literature is an especially good source for material demonstrating use of terms of address to define relationships. Often racial barriers are erected in this fashion as in To Kill A Mocking Bird; an atmosphere of propriety may be projected without any basis in objective reality as in Glau M~agerl~.
R..uarc_
Susan Ervin-Tripp. "On Sociolinglistic Rules: Alternation and Cooccunence." in John Gimpen and Dell Hymes (Eds.). Directions in Sociolinglgtics. New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston. 1972.
Roger Brown and A. Gilman. "The Pronouns of Power and Solidarity'" in T. Sebeck, (Ed.). StYle in Languag~. Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1960.

--....(............,.........)

-....
\
--~

/ G:IfW
T

-r

._- 1 ,- -1

-- ....- . .....+. ..., +'.

-,.. / - \ " .. ......--.... + ptep.aw--

t

/~.\._04
........... "-- t

......" I .....,............
_-./ / .... "" ,._,~ '-.

-...-. -.-

~ ....-

c. . A J t - d e )
........

.-J--~ / .... ......pp

.10
- - .... +.pp
" (.u.p,..~d '.3I1od)

1/-
= .../...

(...aep'-~d ...1\1......-.. - - - - "'3ede

....O-H

...0......:".3YJO.. )

_1,..:Jede

Gavel to Gavel
_:_,:Grades,~,ll.12

GoaJJParp....

assume emergent roies of expert. skeptic. ten-

It'is'nsy (or at least quick) to make decisions as individuals. but the quality of those decisions

sion reliever. social leader. communication facilitator.

suffers from lack of multiple perspectives. Deci-

compose a position paper including minomy

sion making becomes more difficult as the size of

reports and recommendations.

a group increases. However. we can have more confidence in the quality of large group discussions assuming that the division of labor is used to promote a thorough investigation of problems

conduct a public relations campaign. including publication of the position paper, deSIgned to help bring about the final recommenU<.ltlons.

and solutions and that the group process encourages vigorous'debate and protects the rights of minorities. Parliamentary procedure represents

Materialt../Alda paper and duplication facilities

a set of rituals governing large group decision

libraries

making in a manner which contains conflict and channels it constructively. Since many organizations abide by some form of parliamentary pra-

community resource people as guest speakers a gavel (optional)

cedure. basic knowledge of its rules is a useful

Sa. . . .ry

life role skill. This activity uses parlimentary pracedure to conduct a long term project with the ultimate goal of producing a class position paper concerning a current issue of importance to class members.
Objecth. .

In organizing a large portion of class time around the exploration and solution of a particular issue. the teacher is actually employing an alternative curriculum model - class as community. When this model is successfully applied. results are impressive. for students are using communica-

The learner will sharpen knowledge of a selected critical issue.

tion skills in solving real tasks rather than simply learning about or artificially practicing them. Success in organizing the class as a task-oriented

construct an ongoing parlimentary system.

community hinges on finding an issue which can

.lliePis conduct
Ing tools:> (:::,\

of
'

meetiQ9.'s,.,,.~..m" fr the

fo~,.,,:,i~;: ,~j'.:;'~i ~,

sustain student motivation and on integrating appropriate learning objectives and materials -

order of business
agen~
main motion.
, subsicU8tYinotions privileged motions:, . incidental; motiODlJ,;
debate order of precedence of motions

films. works of literature. brief writing assignments and even grammar instruction - with the theme adopted by the class. In this project students use parliamentary procedure to organize themselves and conduct large group meetings leading ultimately to the production of a position paper concefiling some issue of vital interest.

committee system

'

l'Toc.d......

conduct a variety of research activities includ- "
">. >ing Ilbrary.research. ~ngtestirnonyfroIIt' .........
:~~~F~r:~~::dl<~ engage in large group decisIOn: I'nakiag concerning an issue of.critical importance_
assume formal roles of chair. secretary. parIimentarian.

1. Be certain students understand that it is essential for them to select an issue that is Intrinsically Interesting to them ",d will provide strong motivation. This Is done early in the term in informal large group discussion. For example. at one school. a pair of tragic automobile accidents involving classmates spurred a project concerning high school driver education.

".\.t- 't.

2. The teacher should stipulate that the final product will be a position paper distributed to school and community leaders including '.he P:,(\, (or ~ :irr.ibr ']!oupl. Tt c;hol.lld immediateiy become dr,;parent that ::'1udents need some form 01 struC1ure io guiae their work,

3. TI1 teacher should :-;::;::;!<}in ?i1rHamentary

::::? '.!e p~c..:za:.i.r:z J.:':C

'::::~m;:'~''::'2 ~:}~(~i'n. ~

',::ass netld not g;J:ntf)~1re~:itcT d<.pth:han

p;~J~';~~d .:;'~ ~~C':I ~~:':;;.: ';C:-'lC"J.; Y~2'~C~1 "c:xtS

sucn as Allams <inu ?~}.l0C'. Speak Upi

9. The report is disseminated to appropriate audiences accompanied by oral presentations where appropIUdL For example. the l>.ntire dass mav wish to discuss orally the .findings and recommendations with prindDai.
10. Follow-up publicity should be produced. The dass may decide to engage in oil persuasive campaign to reach other students by means of ;::oesters. ::l :nuitirnedi;:s 1ss~mo;v ~1'n~J'!'~m and ;)ublic address announcements.

~. It shouid Oe agreea :l1at ;;teering declsions will be made by the committee of the whole. Chair. secretary. parliamentarian and perhaps vice chair should be elected for two-week

cv.....d_
1. Teacher evaluation and peer evaluation
should focus upon the items below

terms.

a. Proper use of parliamentary rituais

5. Among the first orders of business will be the setting of 3 time :rame. Standing committees should be organized. These may include a medical research committee. law

b. Contributions to large group debate
c. Contributions to committee eiforts including quality research

enforcement research committee. popular

d. Quality of written contributions

culture committee. peer survey committee.

committee on ongoing information compila-

2. Depending upon the work assigned and com-

tion. document production committee and

pleted as a part of this activity, student

publicity committee. It should be empha-

products. such as written reports concerning

.4.

sized that these committees may assign work to students who may not be committee

special interests and oral reports presented to the large group. should be evaluated using

members. Labor is shared equitably.

procedures appropriate to the type and qual-

ity of the work and the maturity of the group.

6. The initial phase concentrates on group

research and report writing. The committee

3. Follow-up activities provide opportunities for

as a whole will need to be convened less

related sources of evaluation.

frequently once initial procedures are set up.

However. the large group should meet at

least twice a week for committee reports

and evaluation of the process. Also. the

FoUo.- Acdvi....

entire class will convene to hear guest speakers invited by the various committees.

In the class as community model. the teacher will relate a variety of class activities to the

7. After research is completed. a problem over-

central theme.

view and specific research review chapters can be drafted. At the same time. each committee should draft specific debatable resolutions for consideration by the committee of the whole. Resolutions are also accepted from the Ooor. Provision should be made for minority caucuses to compose dissenting views.

The theme and related work should provide subject matter for student journals. On several occasions students should produce expressive and narrative writings on the subject.
Students can write or orally present reviews of popular culture dealing with their subject including films. magazine articles and songs.

8. A final draft of the position paper. including minority reports. is produced. The entire class participates in editing.

Publicity activities described in the last step of this process will provide numerous opportunities for follow-up projects.

'f

~

R.-o.c:.
HarJen Adams and Thomas Pollock. Speak Up! New York: Macmillan. 1964.
Henry M. Robert. Robert's Rules of Order Newly
Revised. Glenview. n 1.; Scott Foresman. 1970.

John Gray and RIch8rd Rea. Parliamentary Pr0cedure: A Programmed Introduction. Glenview. 111.: Scott Foresman. 1973.

Appendix
Evaluating Speaking and Listening Skills in the Classroom

Communication does not thrive in a climate of evaluation. Presentation of self through speech is always extremely ego-involving and normal speech anxieties are heightened by testing. O.'al style. which is so dependent on .situation. audience and honest purpose. becomes artificial. Self-di..cIosure is inhibited. Meanings are distorted. Still. speaking and listening must be evaluated in some manner so that teachers can diagnose strengths and weaknesses. so that students can be aware of their successes and the routes to further grolA.oth. and so that oral communicaton can be legitimized for those who believe that educators are accountable for tangible outcomes. But in evaluating speech communication skills it is especially important to maintain a supportive climate. one in which students are encouraged to try out new communication behaviors without threatening their self-esteem. It is equally crucial that students feel they are communicating for genuine purposes. that the evaluation function is incidental to. and not the primary motivation for. interaction. Finally. feedback to students should be useful in guiding their further development. It should be concrete. primarily descriptive and include positive as well as negative remarks. The evaluator is a party to classroom communication and is therefore subject to limitations of his or her own communication skills. Evaluation might best be prefaced by. "This is what I observed your group doing." or "This is how I responded to your presentation."
Typically we think of speech evaluation in terms of teachers grading formal speaking assignments on some rating scale including criteria of pronounciation. standard usage. audibility. intonation and perhaps quality of written outline. This is too narrow a view in a number of respects since this typical speech assessment loses sight of the primarily communicative nature of the performance. We should try to define rating criteria in functional terms like appropriateness to audience. intelligibility and expressiveness. Also. criteria should go beyond elocution. should reflect that oral skills include ability in discovering. selecting and organizing supporting materials.

Evaluation oj oral skills need not be limned to formal public speaking. Especially in the elementary grades. students are not ready for thIS type of asse~sment. Although it may be easier to evaluate the extended noninterrupted discourse of public speaking. other classroom situations calling for evaluation include participation i1 small and large group discussions. role-playing interpersonal interactions (and other forms of dramatic improvisation). listening for various purposes and performance of social rituals. Not all evaluation need be teachercentered. Peer evaluation reinforces the notion that the teacher does not solely comprise the audience. All audio ence members experience valid reactions. Self evaluation encourages students to introspect and to apply communication principles in personally meaningful ways.
Finally. not all oral activities need be evaluated in a formal manner. Some assignments. even formal public speaking assignments at the secondary level. can be left upgraded. Often a teacher may discuss the class' performance in general terms rather than directing evaluation to individuals. and may discuss the class' performance in purely descriptive terms with no evaluative tone.
The suggestions and examples on the following pages illustrate these various approaches to evaluating speaking and listening. In using these illustrations. teachers will need to adapt them to grade and ability level.
A. U e.ing J. Standard"ed Te.t.. A number of com-
mercially published tests of listening ability are available. Among these are the Brown-Carlson and the STEP Usten ing tests. Often a unit which sensitizes students to the need to listen actively will result in gains on such evaluation instru ments.
2. Listening/or Cornprelaen.ion_ Teachermade tests of listening comprehension are easy to construct. At the upper grades these

can be administered in conjuction with lec

5. U.t.ning to Eua'uat. Ide... As students

ture materials. Frequently film and film strip

engage in discussion. listen to prepared pre

teacher guides include comprehension ques-

sentations or receive broadcast messages.

!

tions. If students are presenting informative

they should be able to judge the validity of

talks. it is a good idea to ask them to

the many persuasive appeals they encounter.

construct their own comprehension quizzes.

This type of listening is Important for at least

Their fellow students' accuracy I.vill serve as

two reasons. First. students need to learn to

useful feedback concerning the speaker's

defend themselves intellectually from inflated

effectiveness. It is helpful to offer instruction

claims and propaganda. In addition to engag-

in notetaking along with pratice in iistening

ing in sucn defensive listening. students need

for comprehension.

to be able to listen to evaluate ideas so they

can participate constructi'.'ehl in group dis-

3. Listening to Distinguish Facts from Opinions. A typical newspaper editorial will contain both facts and opinions. Read an editorial aloud and ask students to identify each sentence as fact or value judgement. Sports reporting often blurs the distinction. Here. vivid adjectives and verbs may evalua tively color accounts of events. One way in which factual accounts are distorted is by the inclusion of unwarranted inferences. Critical inference tests such as that in Example A can assess students' skills at distinguishing fact from inference in narratives.

cussion. One typical failure or classroom discussions is that individuals are '~ag~r to offer their own contributions without acknowledging or following up the ideas of their classmates. In some methods of conflict resolution. participants must state their opponent's point of view to the satisfaction of their opponent and identify points of agreement before offering a new argument or proposal. This is a workable system for many types of classroom discussions. as well. Since the mass media are major sources of persuasive messages in our society, students should df>lI1or.strate skill in analyzing and evaluating

4. Listeninfl for Speakers' Attitudes. Stu dents should be able to identify a speaker's point of view in public discourse. Locate a tape of Roosevelt's "Four Freedoms" speech. a videotape of the 1960 NixonKennedy debates or a recording of Martin Luther King Jr.'s "The Nonviolent Method." Ask students to identify the speakers' points of view on the various issues they are discussing. Ask students to extrapolate how these speakers would

broadcast advertisements. Bring in video tapes of television advertisements or secure films of CLEO Award winning advertisements. In the primary grades. students should be able to distinguish advertising from program content and recognize the persuasive intent of commercials. In middle school. students should be able to name several basic advertising strategies (bandwagon. testimonial. glittering generalities).

react to various current events. When stu

6. Listening for Aesthetic Appreciation.

dents are delivering persuasive presentations.

Much literature is written to be read and

ask audience members to identify their the-

heard. This is true of a good deal of poetry

ses as specifically as they can. Student speak-

and drama. Younger students enjoy listening

ers may be surprised to learn how often their

to stories told or orally interpreted from text.

peers have misinterpreted their claims. In

So do older students. A teacher who reads

interpersonal interaction. when we listen for

well may find that students are eager to

speakers' attitudes we are trying to listen

complete assigned work if they know that

emphatically. Students should be able to

odd minutes before the bell rings will be spent

practice such techniques of emphatic listen

in listening to literature. Tape recordings of

ing as reftecting feelings and paraphrase

radio theatre ("The Lone Ranger" or "War of

("What I hear you saying is ... "). The empa

the Worlds"). recordings of authors reading

thy test illustrated in Example B is suitable

from their works or recordings of actors

for high school students. but has been simpli.

interpreting prose are available. Evaluating

fied for use by students as young as fourth

students' responses to aural literature centers

grade. The students engage in a conversation

on their degree of engagement. empathy for

about favorite movies or the like for about 10

characters and ability to relate themes to

minutes before marking the scales.

their own lives.

Example A
Obsenratlon Assumption. and Inf....nc.. Workalaeet
Teacher reads the following pas.age aloud Harry got out oj the sports car. The poilce officer approached him with a pad in one hand Qndpencil In the other. After talking with Harry for a few minutes, the officer wrote down the necessary information. Harry returned to the car, slammed the door and continued to school.
Studen's number their page. 1..1(). Based on the story above. are the following statements True (1), False (F) or Unknown (?).

T

F

? The police officer stopped Harry.

T

F

? The police officer approached Harry before he had a chance to get out of the car.

T

F

? The officer had a pad and a pen with him.

T

F

? Harry was driving his car.

T

F

? The man who talked with Harry was a police officer.

T

F

? Harry received a traffic ticket.

T

F

? Harry slammed the door of his car.

T

F

? Harry was angry.

T

F

? Harry wen~ to work after talking with the police officer.

T

F

? Harry was traveling in a station wagon,

Example B
Em.adl,Tat Circle the answer rhat best describes how you fee!.

A. This is how I perceived my!ielf.
Happy 123 4 5 6 1 Sad Secure 1 234 5 6 7 Insecure Calm 1 234 5 6 7 Excited Tough 1 234 5 6 7 Gentle Open 123 4 5 6 7 Guarded

C. This is how I perceived my partner.
.. Happy 1 234 5 6 I Sad
Secure 1234567 Insecure Calm 1 2 345 6 7 Excited Tough 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Gentle Open 1 234 5 6 7 Guarded

8. Thi. i. how .y partner perc.ived
Happy 1 234 567 Sad Secure 1 234 5 6 7 Insecure Calm 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Excited Tough 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Gentle Open 1 2 345 6 7 Guarded

D. Thi. i. how my partner p.rc.iv.d him ..If or h.....lf.
Happy 1 234 567 Sad Secure 1 234 5 6 7 Insecure Calm 1 234 5 6 7 Excited Tough 1 234 567 Gentle Open 1 234 5 6 7 Guarded

Instructions for obtaining score
lJ Compan 1/0_ D pndiction. with your p.......... ".
Find tM numerical dlJJ~nncnJor rating. on each 0/ tM Jiu~ linn. Find 1M tum 0/ thew dIJJ~n.
Z} Compan,... pndlctlonl with your ............ C.
Total th~ difJ~n 01 beton.
31 Add th~ .um'Jrom .tq. 111 and (21. A .mall numerical
ualur tma to Indlcatr a high drgnr 0/ rmpathy.
Discuu with you. ponnrr poiblr 'rosan. why eoch oj you rrcriuN thr scon. you did.

7. U.,en;n" to Idendfy Souna. In kinder garten and first grade it is wise to devote
some attention to sound discrimination. Teech-
ers can create their own tapes or common
sounds or buy commercially available sets. For example. students can practice counting by listening to the sound of footsteps on dry leaves. Or students can demonstrate their knowledge of "safety sounds" by identifying a police office"s whistle. a fire engine siren. an auto horn. etc. Practice in discriminating speech sounds. - especially common articula tion errors such as r. I. sand th is also helpful. Notice that evaluating speech sound discrimination is not equivalel't to assessing reading phonics skills. In teaching spHCh sounds. no graphemic representations are provided. Instead. students may learn to associ ate a picture of Sammy the Snake with the snake hissing sound or Rudy the Race Car with the motor sound.
B. Self Communicatol' J. Communica'ion Apprehension. Anxiety
about oral communication is a personality trait with far reaching consequences. About one in five adults experiences communication apprehension to such a degree that it nega tively affects their academic success. choice of career and sometimes influences their choice of mate. Communication apprehension is a learned trait. and evidence points that it is learned somehow between kindergarten and third grade. Experts speculate that students learn to withdraw from the risk of communi cation when they are punished for speaking up and rewarded for silence. It is important that students learn from an early age that it is normal to be fearful of some communication situations. but that they need not avoid interactions. This requires open discussion of communication fears. It is vital that teachers identify apprehensive students in the classroom. (Note: Reticence is a broader concept and may be due to hostility. uncertainty or other factors. The quiet child is not necessarily apprehensive.) Apprehensive students need especially tender care and should never be forced to speak. Some valid assessment instruments are available and may be used for diagnosis or simply as stimuli for classroom discussion. The "Measure of Elementary Com munication Apprehension." shown in Exam pie C. may be read aloud with students

marking smiling. frowning or neutral faces to show their agreement with each statement. The "Personal Report of Communication Fear." presented in Example 0, is intended for grades 712.
2. Daily Interaction. Students should be aware of their daily interaction patterns and assess their own effectiveness as communicators. Students at all grade levels can keep a "conversation diary." In the primary grades this may take the form of a picture book with students drawing and perhaps labelling their various daily conversations. For older students. logging and reflecting on conversations should be encouraged as a regular part of journal writing. From time to time. remind students not to harp on the more negative interactions. as we all are wont to do. Students in early adolescence are beginning to form self.concepts and this is an especially important time to stress the role of communication in daily life. For it is primarily by seeing how others react to us that we get a feel for who we are. The family is a fundamental interaction unit and students at all ages can begin to understand how their families work by analyzing conver sations among family members.
3. Communicadon;n Careers. In exploring and choosing career options. students need to be especially aware of the role of communi cation in work. Some jobs. such as attorney or teacher. are transparently and exclusively careers in communications. Some jobs. such as physician or auto mechanic. require communication skills for effective functioning. Still other careers. such as interior decorator or police officer. are essentially communica tions oriented. but are rarely thought of as such. Students can choose and prepare for careers more Wisely if they are aware of the roles of communication in the world of work.
4. Con.umer of Ma Communication For many Americans. the role of mass com munication receiver is significant both in terms of our lifestyles and our personal development. Vet for students who may spend up to 40 hours a week viewing television alone. the immersion in mass communication is taken for granted and the significance of this role is rarely appreciated. Students need to evaluate their exposure to mass media and the effects this type of communica-

"Example C
Me.....e of Elementary Communication Apprebeioa Items Refer to Subsequent Tabl. .

very h..ppy I Uke it a lot.

happy I Uke it.

no feeUn. I don't cue.

(~

----.,. \..

;' ./"",.

" ......

unhappy I don't like it.

1. How do you feel when you talk to teachers or your principal? *2. How do you feel about talking to someone you don't know very well? *3. How do you feel when you hold something and talk about it? 4. How do you feel about talking to people who aren't close friends? 5. How do you feel about talking when you have a new teacher? *6. How do you feel about talking a lot when you are on a bus? 7. How do you feel when you are picked to be a leader of a group? *S. How do you feel about talking a lot in class? 9. How do you feel when you talk in front of an audience? 10. How do you feel about talking to other people? 11. How do you feel about trying to meet someore new? *12. How do you feel after you get up to talk in front of the class? 13. How do you feel when you know you have to give a speech? 14. How would you feel about giving a speech on televisitm? . 15. How do you feel about talking when you are in a small group? *16. How do you feel when you have to talk in a group? *17. How do you feel when the teacher calls on you? *lS. How do you feel about talking to all of the people who sit close to you? 19. How do you feel when the teacher wants you to talk in class? *20. How do you feel when you talk in front of a large group of people?

very unhappy I really do.'t
like it.

"Items with asterisks were responded to with the laces in reverse order.

Example D

Personal Report of Commanicatlo. F. .

Verbal Activity Scal.
YES yes ? no NO
YES yes ? no NO
YES yes ? no NO
YES yes ? no NO
YES yes ? no NO YES yes ? no NO YES yes ? no NO YES yes ? no NO YES yes ? no NO YES yes ? no NO YES yes ? no NO YES yes ? no NO YES yes ? no NO YES yes ? no NO YES yes ? no NO YES yes ? no NO YES yes ? no NO YES yes ? no NO YES yes ? no NO YES yes ? no NO

1. Talking with someone new scares me. 2. I look forward to talking in dass. 3. I don't like it when it is my turn to talk. 4. I like standing up and talking to a group of people,
. 5. I like to talk when the whole dass listens.
6. Standing up to talk in &ont of other people scares me. 7. I like talking to teachers. 8. I am scared to talk to people. 9. I like it when it is my turn to talk in class. 10. I like to talk to new people. 11. I enjoy talking. 12. Most of the time I would rather be quiet than talk. 13. Other people think I am very qUiet. 14. I talk more than most people. 15. Talking to other people is one of the things I like the best. 16. Most of the time I would rather talk than be quiet. 17. I don't talk much. 18. Other people think I talk a lot. 19. Most people talk more than I do. 20. I talk a lot.

tion has on them. To become aware of thdr media use. students may participate in a "media withdrawal" exercise. Students spend a day or a weekend free of print and electronic media. Beware of violent reactions from students whose fundamental lifestyles are threatened by this activity. Afterwards. discussion centers on heightened sensitivity to their own and others' use of mass media. on how students felt during withcir.::;wai. 00 the difficulties in this society of isolating one's self from seemingly omnipresent mass communication messages and on how students otherwise ~ccupied their time and minds. Other ways of sensitizing students to their use of mass media include media logs (recording time, location. content of diary fashion). and media inventories. one of which is reproduced in Example E. Once students are attuned to their media habits. they can begin to explore how their lives and attitudes are affected by this exposure. Sometimes a comparative approach may help lend per spective. Introduce students to examples of popular culture current two decades ago and ask if students a generation back might differ from today's youngsters because of their different mass media exposure. Discussion of mass communication effects can pertain to three areas - use of time (time spent with mass media as opposed to interacting with family and friends. developing hobbies. studying: time spend viewing and listening as opposed to reading); interests and values (mass media models for ideal career. malefemale relationships. consumer goods. physi cal appearance, sex roles. interaction styles; have mass media extended student interests by giving entry to a "global village"?): and intellectual functioning (attention span. perseverance or easy frustration in acqUiring knowledge. analytical skills. range of knowl edge).
s. Chusroom Communication. Achievement
in school. and pleasure in school. is a function of verbal interaction. The class is a community - what does the student contrib ute and what does he or she reap from this community? Students should be encouraged to evaluate their participation in largegroup discussion focusing on questions of attitude. topics and occasions that seem to bring out comments. listening habits. relationship to

mood and oua-ofschool concerns. relationship to homework and preparation. In addi tion to judging their own participation in the larger group. students should be given every Opp()rtUi.i(~ <,I.1S5\;5:: :t<'ir own performance,. in .::ommU"l[~."_,.] :'~.erclse5 and In small group activities. If students criticize their own public speaking performances. they will probably acquire more insight than could be :n1p~1112d by :cams of reach2r :>~[1::iS ~c.~rms. The~' may also be more nonest ~bc'Jt their D'.~,'n shonconlfnss ~h3fl mGstteac!"'i~:rs c~n bear to be.
c. Oral Language
1. Speech Disorders. Classroom teachers cannot be expected to serve as professional diagncsticians or therapists. On the other hand. teach'?rs are in the best l'osition to :;creen dysfunctional speech and refer students for proper treatment. This is of particular importance in the early primary 'ears. Certainly every student should receive rou tine hearing checks. But if students show repeated hearing difficulties due to infection, abuse or disease. the school nurse should be alerted. Expressive disorders are defined by three criteria. They render the student diffi cult to comprehend. They call attention to themselves rather than to the student's message. They make the student uncomfort able. Speech disorders most commonly encountered are dysfunctions of voice. of articulation. of fluency and delayed language development. Voice disorders of pitch (as in running up and down a musical scale when speaki"g) and quality (hoarseness) are often transitory. Also. young children may have some difficulty controlling voice volume. Students should have the opportunity to hear tape recordings of their voices and should learn not to abuse vocal apparatus. Consis tent misarticulation. (e.g.. substituting w for r or J. "slushy" or whistled s) are common and usually outgrown by time the student reaches third grade. Persistent prob lems should be referred. Informal enunciation is an element of style. not an articulation disorder. (See following section.) Fluency dis orders (stuttering and stammering) are serio ous because many can be prevented by avoid ing overcorrection in the elementary grades. Apparently some people are actually taught

. . . .1 0
...-.

IU 1IftIIMI ...._=-o\' .\" d

.....1Ip.o=-a lplta

!
I
I
!
I .1___0:> uPIAP:)\' IU.&lII=-.O:> p"n .=-ltld PO ....U

I

I
J

!I J

,I

I I

d J :I
ltdl\~

JJU
I

. .i. . . . . . . . . .
. . ., , , d . l t d
U,Zltaltk
."ooS ;),wo:>
....d.d."'....
S1I-.
"",pW

to stutter because parents and/or teachers call attention to natural hesitations and dysftuendes in speech. Children then be come overly conscious of their speech and have difficulty getting '.words out, For some reason. incidence of stuttering reaches a peak among fifthgrade boys. Don't tell students to choose their words before the.; speak. Don'1 tell students to speak more rapidly. Don't force a seif-conscious person 10 5peak. Lan guage delay (infantile vocabulary and syntax) may be due to lack of interaction or to emotional problems. In the first case. students ...:ill start to shO'.v great progress in kindergarten or first grade simply through exposure and interaction - so long as talk is encouraged in the classroom. In the case of speech delay due to emotional difficulties. professional help is required.
Z. Standard Dialect. Children come to school speaking the language variety of their regional. social and ethnic communities. It is well established that no variety is any more logi calor communicatively efficient than any other. There is no convincing evidence that language variety affects learning to read or write. so long as teachers do not confuse spoken and written language (as in correcting oral reading pronunciation). Instead. our cui ture teaches us to associate status and posi tive values with the kind of speech typified by "Broadcast English." This presents a serious problem for teachers since we often expect nonstandard dialect speakers to perform poorly. and those expectations may become self fulfilling. But we' all speak one dialect or another. Dialect. itself. is not cause for reme diation or negative evaluation. Analyzing students' native dialects and comparisons with language variation around the nation may even be a fruitful avenue for instruction in language. The Linguistic Atlas of the South east is a valuable and useful source for teachers to use in this analysis and in discriminating genuine language problems from legitimate dialect variations.
3. 1A.......e Appropri.te...... We some times want to teach our students to speak cor rectly. But what is correct speech? In some areas. in some situations. a person who speaks like a radio news announcer would be ridi culed and ostracized. No one speaks grammarbook English all the time. Even in teaching

we don't always speak in complete sentences. Surely it is unfair to evaluate student speech by criteria of correctness. criteria which are based on written language and not oral. But at the upper grades it is reasonable to evalu ate student sp".'?!:"h by criter;" oi a!ipropriaro. ness. Each of :.IS controis a range ot styles (also called "registers") which we select from in any particujar communication siluation. For example. we speak with different enunciation. vocabulary and syntax in (ront 01 dass. in the teachers' lounge .'lnd vet dH1erentiy at home with our famHies. Some of the faclOrs affecting the appropriateness 01 om choice of style include topic oi conversauon ie.g.. baseball versus symphonic music): setting (cocktail party versus library); purpose (e.g.. entertaining narrative versus academic exposition); and - perhaps most importantly - listener (child versus peer. small group versus assembly. friend versus stranger. boss versus c:)lIeague, celebrity versus neIghbor). "Hey. Slick. ya wanna chow down?" !nay be an appropriate luncheon invitation for a close friend. but it would be highly inappropriate to address the School Board Chairperson in this manner. Recognize. however. that it would be equally inappropriate to invite your friend (unless done with humor) by uttering. "Pardon my interruption. Sir. might you be desirous of coordinating your midday repast with that of my own?" Grammatically correct but communicatively inappropriate. In teaching oral language we wish to expand our students' stylistic options and to inculcate criteria for shifting styles to adapt appropriately to communication situations. In as sessing oral language. teachers need to determine what level of language usage is appropriate for the particular assignment. and evaluate on that basis. Thus. a student who says ain't may be adapting appropriately if he or she is informally addressing an audience of peers. On the other hand. if the activity specifies a role-playing situation in which the student is interviewing for employment as a salesperson at a highfashion boutique. ain't would rightfully incur nega tive evaluation.
D. Nonverbal Communication
It sometimes escapes both teachers and stu dents that speech is more than language. Non-

..

verbal communication accompanies language and Is an Integral part of speech communication. Probably the most Important point of evaluation in this area is that nonverbal signals ought to be consistent '.vith language. Mixed messages are confusing and often have deleterious interper sonal consequences. Nonverbal signals often cany the relationship (as opposed to content) aspect of mes,sages. They help us know how to interpret messages. They can also emphasize. illustrate. substitute (as in familiar signs for quiet. shop. etc.). and regulate the flow of conversation. There are six basic categories of nonverbal signals. Kinesic gestures include body posture. move ment and facial expression. Eye contact is so significant in establishing relationships that it deserves singular attention. Through eye contact we acknowledge shared humanity, establish trust. express intimacy. Pro.....ic signals communi cate by the use of space. We can distinguish between intimate. cordial and formal relationships by how we distance ourselves in conversation, Seating and furniture arrangement indicate rela tionships and can have profound effects on qual ity of communication. Toach is another impor tant means for communicating relationships. Learning cultural meanings of touch is a major task for primary grade children. P ....lin.ui.tic .ign.l. include all oral sounds which are nonlinguistic. Among these are yawning. crying. sighing. intonation. volume. rate of speech. hesitations. hems and haws. Al'tif.cte that we keep about us. our clothing. jewelry. cars. books and home decorations. are also means of nonver bal communication. In teaching and evaluating nonverbal communication. it is important to bear in mind that gestures such as laughter have universal meaning. but others. conversational distance for example. may be interpreted differ ently in different cultures.
Eo Role P1ayia. and O". . .dc l.pI'OViAdo.
Role playing and creative dramatics can be powerful instructional strategies as well as tools for personal growth. especially if used consistently from the early grades on. In a sense. all clauroom exercises which are other than natural interaction require a suspension of reality and entail a degree of simulation. It is Indeed difficult to know how to evaluate an imaginative per. formance. Certainly. it is defeating to allow evaluative purposes to overshadow students' joy in creative expression. Consider the follOWing six evaluative criteria.

"pia, D... "...,.,..,

tit. eo_ ....

eatio. ..",. sperifietl in tit. I

's

objecdl.'1f the purpose of the role-play is

to practice introductions of various degrees of

formality. does the student demonstrate these

behaviors?

I. til 'ude.t aeti.,el, inuolued in 'lie per/orrrtllnee? Does he or she get into the activity by participating with energy. by sol"o ing the communication problem creatively?

Is the student able to maintain concen tratio.. ? In pantomiming a ball game. does the student jerk his or her hand back when catching the line drive? Does he or she see the scene so that on~ character does not set her or his elbows where another character has just placed the bowl of steaming porridge?

Does the student cooperate and inter act with other "Iayers in plan..ing and perfornai..g the see..e? Does he or she feed lines to others (e.g.. "So tell me about your day. John."). help others create their parts. (e.g .. "You don't have to prove you're so tough. Let me help you carry that treasure,")?

When proper. doe. tile .tude..' play to tit. autlie..ee"! Without stepping out of character. does the student project loudly. allow the audience to view actions. avoid blocking other actors?

C.n the .tudent lyze the perfo....n. c. .? Can she or he abstract and express the communication principles which were demon strated in the improvisation? Are alternative scripts apparent? Can he or she explain what the characters were thinking. what guided their behavior at various points? Can students relate the improvised situation to events they may have experienced?

F. S ll Group Dleeuion.
Small group discussion skills are useful in their own right and can be useful instructional strategies. Peer group evaluation of compositions has been found to be helpful. But many teachers have found that for students to work well in groups. they must receive deliberate instruction in group dynamics. Whenever groups are used in a classroom. it is worthwhile evaluating the quality of the group process. Example F lists some basic questions about group process that may guide such evaluation. Understanding small group

..

Example F
Questions for Groap Commanicatlon A. . . . .
Important Not. The purpose of this analysis is to describe your group's dynamics. not necessarily to evaluate.
1. How did the group go about biting into the task? Any initial procrastinating? Attempts at organizing members?
2. How did the group arrive at a probiem solving strategy? Were alternative approaches (e.g., process of elimination. stating operating assumptions; discussed first? Any false starts? Any objections to the procedure finally adopted?
3. To what extent did the group engage in non-task oriented talk? At what point? Did this non-task oriented talk serve any function with respect to how the group was able to function in the task domain?
4. What kind of communication network operated? Were comments addressed to the group as a whole always. or occasionally to smaller factions? Did all members contribute comments equally?
5. What seating arrangement did your group assume? Any particular reason? Did the seating arrangement affect the flow of communication?
6. To what extent was disagreement voiced in the group? Did each member feel free to dissent? At what points in the discussion did you feel that further disagreement would be unwelcome or unwise? How did the group cope with conflict? Did the conflict help or hinder the final group outcome?
7. Did the group show signs of cohesiveness? How was this cohesiveness (or lack of it) established? How was it reinforced during the course of the meeting? Did you find a relationship between cohesiveness and conflict? Between cohesiveness and the final group outcome?
8. What role did each member play? Examples are experts. idea testers. switchboard operators, tension relievers. affect checkers. clarifiers. etc.
9. Was there any member perceived by others as the group's leader? Did this person perceive him/herself as leader? Were more than one leader evident? How were leadership tasks apportioned? In what sense did the leader lead? What were her'his contributions? Any relationship to expertise? Any relationship to seating arrangement?
10. Were both men and women present in the group? Did gender tend to affect the different roles assumed? Any relationship to the flow of communication or the degree of participation?
11. What was the group outcome? Did the group succeed at the task? Did the group succeed on the social dimension?
12. Was this a good task for your particular group to work on collectively? What were the costs of
performing this task as a group as opposed to working as individuals? What were sources of members'
satisfaction and dissatisfaction? Overall, what was the ration of costs to benefits in this communication event?

communication entails synthesizing information concerning roles (more fine-grained than just one leader and several followers). norms for behavior (humor. expressing warmth). decisionmaking process (authoritarian leader. majority rule. consensus). interaction patterns (who speaks to whom) and outcomes (personal satisfaction. task success. group status. social success). Ex ample G illustrates a self-evaluation form for group discussion. One system frequently used to represent group process is the Bales Interaction Process Analysis. consisting of six taskoriented categories and three positive and three negative group maintenance categories. As shown in Example H. participants or observers can rate each group member aet~ngto each type of behavior. Another method of recording group process is the communication network. Here. a line with an arrow is drawn from each name to each other member. When a participant directs a comment to one (or several) other members. an observer places a slash mark on the corresponding arrow(s). The flow of communication within the group thus becomes graphically apparent. When groups are assigned a joint project (panel discussion. group paper). the issue generally arises as to whether a single grade should be assigned to aU group members. Under this system.
those who work hard carry the slouchers. and those who are less competent pull down those of high ability. One option is to assign both an individual and a group grade. However assigning a single group grade has the advantage of forcing the group to attend to its dynamics. rather than acting as a largely unrelated congregation of individuals. Groups should devote the last flve minutes of each meeting to evaluating their communication. Structured methods of evaluation (e.g. process recording forms) should be used as often as possible. In any event. group members should be encouraged to write journal entries about each meeting. Outside peer observers should be used frequently. and the teacher should also conduct periodic unobtrusive observations.
G. F..... hbHc 5...1&1
J _ G.,.., Pr0ce48re.. For many of our
students an assignment to give a speech engenders more fear and loathing than a week of detentions. This reaction is due to a basic misapprehension about the nature of public speaking. Many of our students. who otherwise may be

competent talkers. fail miserably in preHnting speeches. Often this is due to their attempting to conform to some distorted stereotype of oration. Formal public sswaking is simply an area on the same dimension as interpersonal communication. albeit closer to the poie of formality. In fact. a speech is sometimes characterized as extended conversation. Formal speeches are planned. but they do involve improvisation. They are structured. out so are interviews. They allow Bmited audio ence interaction. Discourse is sustained. but audiences do provide meaningful feedback through nonverbal channels. Thus. public speaking builds upon interpersonai skills and. above all. it is an act of authentic communication. person to persons. Especially in the lower grades public speaking need not require students to stand before the audience nor to conform to rigid organizational patterns. Helpful evaluation of formal speeches shares some characteristics with writing eval uation. It should accentuate the positive. go beyond mere ratings or letter grades to include detailed comments justifying reactions. include more description than evaluation. and be reo turned to students soon after the speech for maximum reinforcement. Evaluating speeches requires great concentration and is among the more exhausting pastimes known to education. Peer evaluation is critical to help legitimize the larger audience for the speaker and also to emphasize the responsibility of listeners. Many teachers will stop after every few speeches to soliCit audience comments. Students must learn that they are not a wolf pack intent on tearing apart their peers. that they are a team working together to improve speaking skills. Speakers should also receive written feedback. from both teacher and peers. to which they may refer in preparing their next presentation. On peer feedback forms. you should identify the topic as specifically as you can. such as one area that most impressed me. one area to think about next time and how the presentation affected me. Teachers must develop feedback forms that are workable for them personally. The more specific and concrete the feedback. the more helpful it is. Example I presents a teacher feedback form which combines rating scales with open-ended comments. When possible. written feedback should be discussed in conferences. (Conferences are also important in the planning stages.)
2. Public Speaking Eualuation Criteria. Public speaking encompasses the entire realm of

Example G

This Is how the group operated.
1. We felt comfortable in the group. 2. We were interested in accomplishing the
task. 3. We encouraged everyone to participate. 4. We welcomed all ideas. 5. We all participated equally. 6. We listened carefully and made sure we
understood each persons ideas. 7. We had an acknowledged group leader. 8. We were satisfied with the way in which we
accomplished the task. 9. We were satisfied with the feeling of friendli-
ness between members. 10. We accomplished this task more success-
fully as a group than we could have as individuals.
This is how I operated within the poup. 1. I felt comfortable in the group. 2. I was interested in accomplishing the task. 3. I participated as much as the others. 4. I was the acknowledged leader. 5. I was satisfied with the group's leader. 6. I was better off working with a group on this task than I would have been had I worked alone.

A g r

DI...gr.. SUO.lIly! DI. . . . .e !

Example H
Adaptation of Bales Interaction Proc... ~

Rate each member as follow I-never. 2--sometimes. 3-usuaiJy

,

,

, M.........

>

>

,

,

rhetoric. Aristotle's five Canons an stlD serviceable. Invention includes discovering, researching and selecting ideas. An imponant part of speech Instruction Is educating students In methods of elaborating and supporting their ideas. Arrangement refers to organization skills. Often public speaking is the place where students learn how to prepare outlines, but it is most important to stress the function of outlines rather than their form. Style is a tool for effectiveness and also a means for establishing a personal relationship with an audience. Delivery focuses on the specific linguistic and nonverbal devices used to express the message. Delivery should be natural and consistent with the student's personality. the occasion and the purpose of the speech. Non"erbal signs - hand gestures, facial expression. voice intonation. loudness. rate. posture and eye contact - should not be histrionic but should reinforce and emphasize the message. "Memoria." the fifth Canon. does not translate easily but generally refers to the speaker's control over the entire presentation. In situations other than ora torical contests students should be discouraged &oom memorizing their speeches (or composing a written text). Still. the speaker must be familiar with the sequence of ideas, with the types of support he or she can draw upon. The student should have more information available than he or she plans to use. information which can be spontaneously inserted in response to the audience's nonverbal feedback. Some more specific criteria are listed in Example J. Students may even have a hand in developing the points of evaluation they consider important. "Appropriateness to audiI ence" relates to the speaker's attempts to interest and involve listeners and to use information and appeals meaningful to the audience. A pre-

sentatlon is "applapI'" to purpose" if It c0n-
forms to the assitt. . . . (persuasive, demonstra-
tion. visual aids). Slays within reasonable time limits. and maintains proper focus (topic and point of view are wen defined). "Progression of ideas" shOUld ,,~ !ogical and is most effective! organizational cues like transition statements and internal summaries are used. in persuasive speeches. students should include a sei.:1ion in which they anticipate and refute reservations to their arguments. (This is a worthwhile goal for the elementary grades.} "Support" is an area which troubles many students. After maKing an assertion. they have difficulty knowing what else to say; it is not obviOUS to many that their audiences need elaboration. illustration. explanation.
As discussed in the previous section on "Language Appropriateness". standards for judging "language effectiveness" in speech are different from those in writing. In fact. students may be penalized for using written texts. While notes are essential. manuscript reading is an advanced art. Manuscripts hinder spontaneity, relation to audience. and generally reduce sincerity conveyed by spoken delivery. This is equally true of memorized texts. True. students feel more secure with written or memorized texts. In fact. though. there is no substitute for thorough preparation and .familiarity with material. for if a speaker loses his or her place in a memorized speech, it is very difficult to recover. The final criterion in Example I. "projection of personality:' emphasizes to students that they must establish a personal bond or tone with the audience. reinforces the notion that public speaking is not some artificial form but a genuine act of communication.

Example I

Speech Feedback

Rat. the spe.ch on a scale of 1 to 5. (l = you forgot this and 5

.. 1 2 3

5

Appropriateness to audience Appropriateness to purpose i I

\

I

I

I

Jnuodoedo.

Conclu.ion
I
Progression of idea.

Support

Languag. eftectiveness

Voic. rat.

Voic.vol. . .

Voic. inton.do.

EV. contact

Gturend movt

Projection of p....on.lity

you did this superbly)

One CUlpect to tlainlr about especially for tlae next pre.entation

One . .pect tlaa' pecially impreed rn. durin" tItis pre....,."on

Grad.

_

Appendix
Standard. for Sa.ic Skills Writing Progn

The following standards were developed by a
specially selected committee ot teachers. super-
visors. and writing specialists for use by states and school districts establishing comprehensive literacy plans. The National Council of Teachers of English urges study of these standards as a means of determining that plans attend not only to effective practice within the classroom but also to the environment of support for writing instruction throughout the school and the community. If effective instruction in writing is to be achieved. all the standards need to be studied and provided for in shaping comprehensive literacy plans.
At a time of growing concern for the quality of writing in the society. it is important to take the most effective approaches to quality in school writing programs. These standards will help states and school districts assure that efforts to be undertaken will indeed lead to improvement.
Planners must begin with an adequate conception of what writing is. To serve this purpose. we offer the following:
Operational Definition of Writing
Writing is the process of selecting. combining. arranging and developing ideas in effective sentences. paragraphs. and. often. longer units of discourse. The process requires the writer to cope with a number of variables: method of development (narrating. explaining. describing. reporting and persuading); tone (from very personal to quite formal); form (from a limerick to a formal letter to a long research report); purpose (from discovering and expressing personal feelings and values to conducting the impersonal "business" of everyday life); possible audiences (oneself. c:laamates. a teacher. "the world). Learning to write and to write increasingly well involves developing increasing skill and sensitivity in selecting from and combining these variables to shape particular messages. It also involves learning to conform to conventions of the printed language. appropriate to the age of the writer and to the form. purpose and tone of the message.

Beyond the pragmatic purpose of shaping messages to others. writing can be a means of selfdiscovery. of finding out what we believe. know. and cannot find words or circumstances to say to others. Writing can be a deeply personal act of shaping our perception of the world and our reiationships to people and things in that world. Thus. writing serves both public and personal needs oi stu jents. and it warrants the full. generous and continuing effort of all teachers.
Characteristics of an Effective Basic Skills Program in Writing
Teaching and Learning
1. There is evidence that knowledge of current theory and research in writing has been sought and applied in developing the writing program.
2. Writing instruction is a substantial and clearly identified part of an integrated English language arts curriculum.
3. Writing is called for in other subject matters across the curriculum.
4. The subject matter of writing has its richest source in the students' personal. social and academic interests and experiences.
5. Students write in many forms (e.g .. essays. notes. summaries. poems. letters. stories. reports. scripts. journals.).
6. Students write for a variety of audiences (e.g.. self. classmates. the community. the teacher) to learn that approaches vary as audiences vary.
7. Students write for a wide range of purpose (e.g. to inform. to persuade. to express the self. to explore. to clarify thinking).
8. Class time is devoted to all aspects of the writing process: generating ideas. drafting. revising and editing.
9. All students receive instruction in both (a) developing and expressing ideas and (b) using the conventions of edited American English.

10. Control of the conventions of edited American English (supporting skills such as speWng. handwriting. punctuation and grammattc:al usage) is developed primarily during the writing process and secondarily through related exercises.
11. Students receive constructive responses from the teacher and from others - at various stages in the writing process.
12. Evaluation of individual writing growth
is based on complete prices of writing;
reflects informed judgments. first. about clarity and content and then about conventions of spelling. mechanics and usage:
includes regular responses to individual pieces of student writing as well as periodic assessment measuring growth over a period of time.
Support
13. Teachers with major responsibility for writing instruction receive continuing education reflecting current knowledge about the teaching of writing.
14. Teachers of other subjects receive information and training in WiJYs to make u. of and respond to writing in their c1as.s.
15. Parent and community groups are informed about the writing program and about ways in which they can support it.
16. School and class schedules provide sufficient time to assure that the writing process is thoroughly pursued.
17. Teachers and students have access to and make regular u. of a wide range of resources (e.g.. library services. media. teaching materials, duplicating facilities. supplies) for support of the writing program.
Prosarn Eua'uation
18. Evaluation of the writing program focuses on pre- and post-program sampling of complete pieces of writing. utilizing a recognized procedure (e.g.. ets holistic rating. the Diederich scale. primary trait scoring) to arrive at reliable judgments about the quality of the program.

19. Evaluation 01_ ......... might also include aneslln , . 01 a sample of student attitudes: _ _. . of pertinent quantative data (e.g.. &equency of student writing. time devoted 10 writing activities); and observational data (evidence of prewritlng activities. class anthologies. writing folders and student writing displays).
Committee on Writing Standards
Gary Tate. Chair Department of English Texas Christian University Martha L King Department of Elementary Education Ohio State University Barbara Leib-8rilhart Speech Communication Association Richard Gebhardt English Department Findlay College Betty Murray Language Arts Program Manager Lexington Schools. Massachusetts Lee Odell Department of English State University of New York. Albany Marjorie Farmer Director. English and Reading The School District of Philadelphia Eileen Tway Department of Elementary Education Miami University Charles Suhor Deputy Executive Director National Council of Teachers of English (formerly Supervisor of English. New Orleans Schools)

R........ed ..... .,......... - National Council of Teachers of English. 1111 Kenvon Road. Urbana. Illinois 61801. March. 1979.

Appendis

Adequate oral communication frequentJy determines an individual's educational. social and vocational success. Yet. American education has typically neglected formal instruction in the basic skills of speaking and listening. It is important that state and local education agencies implement the most effective oral communication programs possible.
The following standards for oral communication were developed by representatives of the Speech Communication Association and the American Speech-language-Hearing Association.
If effective oral communication programs are going to be developed. all components of the recommended standards must be considered. Implementation of these standards will facilitate development of adequate and appropriate oral communication necessary for educational. social and vocational success.
Definition
Oral Communication: the process of interacting through heard and spoken messages in a variety of situations.
Effec:tJve oral communication is a learned behavior. involving the following processes.
1. Speaking in a variety of educational and social situations. Speaking involves. but is not limited to. arranging and producing messages through the use of voice. articulation. vocabulary. snytax and nonverbal cues (e.g.. gesture. facial expression. vocal cues) appropriate to the speaker and listeners.
2. Listening in a variety of educational and social situations. Listening involves. but is nol limited to. hearing. perceiving. discriminating. interpreting. synthesizing. evaluating. organizing and remembering information from verbal and nonverbal messages.
1. Oral communication behaviors of students can be improved through direct instruction.

2. Oral communication instruction emphasizes the interactive nature of speaking and listening.
3. Ora' communication instruction addresses the everyday communication needs of students and includes emphasis on the classroom as a practical communication environment.
4. There is a wide range of communication competence among speakers of the same language.
5. Communication competence Is not dependent upon use of a particular form of language.
6. A primary goal of oral communication instruction is to increase the students' repertoire and use of effective speaking and listening behaviors.
7. Oral communication programs provide instruction based on a coordinated developmental continuum of skills. pre-school through adult.
8. Oral communication skills can be enhanced by using parents. supportive personnel and appropriate instructional technology.
Cha..acteristiu of a. Effective eo ani-
cation P..ogra.
Teaching/La.mag
1. The oral communication program is based on current theory and research in speech and language development. psycholinguistics. rhetorical and communication theory. communication disorders. speech science and related fields of study.
2. Oral communication instruction is a clearly identifiable part of the curriculum.
3. Oral communication instruction is systematically related to reading and writing Instruction and to instruction in the various content areas.
4. The relevant academic. personal and social experiences of students provide core subject matter for the oral communication program.

..

5. Oral communication instruction provides a wide range ofspeaking and Ustemng experi.nce.
in order to develop effective appropriate communication skills.
a. a range of situations: e.g. informal to formal. interpersonal to mass communication.
b. a range ofpurposes: e.g. infonning. learning. persuading. evaluating messages. faCilitating social interaction. sharing feelings. imaginative and crealive expression.
c. a range of audiences: e.g.. classmates. teachers. peers. employers. family. community.
d. a range of communication forms; e.g. conversation. group discussion. interview. drama. debate. public speaking. oral interpretation.
e. a range of speaking styles; impromptu. extemporaneous and reading from manu' script.
6. The oral communication program provides class time for systematic instruction in oral communication skills; e.g critical listening. selecting. arranging and presenting messages. giving and receiving constructive feedback. nonverbal communication. etc.
7. The oral communication program includes development of adequate and appropriate language. articulation. voice. fluency and listening skills necessary for success in educa tional. career and social situations through regular classroom instruction. cocurricular activities and speech-language pathology and audiology services.
8. Oral communication program instruction en courages and provides appropriate opportuni ties for the reticent student (e.g one who Is excessively fearful in speaking situations); to participate more effectively in oral com munication.
s."...,.,
1. Oral communication instruction Is provided by individuals adequately trained in oral com munication andlor communication disorders. as evidenced by appropriate certification.
2. Individuals responsible for oral communication instruction receive continuing education

on theories. research and instruction relevant to communieatton.
3. Individuals responsible for oral communtea-
ticn instruction participate actively in conventions. meetings. publications and other activities of communication professionais.
4. The oral communication program includes a system for training classroom teachers to identify and refer students. who do not have adequate listening and speaking skills or are reticent. to those qualified individuals who can best meet the needs of the student through further assessment and,or instruction.
5. Teachers in all curriculum areas receive Information on appropriate methods for a) using oral communication to facilitate instruction and b) using the subject matter to improve students' oral communication skills.
6. Parent and community groups are informed about and provided with appropriate materi als for effective involvement in the orai communication program.
7. The oral communication program is facilitated by availability and use of appropriate instructional materials. equipment and fadllties.
A.as n' Clnd Eualuadon
1. The oral communication program is based on a schoolwide assessment of the speaking and listening needs of students.
2. Speaking and listening needs of students will be determined by qualified personnel utiliZing appropriate evaluation tools for the skills to be assessed and educational levels of students being assessed.
3. Evaluation of student progress in oral commu. nication is based upon a variety of data including observations. self-evaluations. lis teners' responses to messages and formal tests.
4. Evaluation of students' oral communication encourages. r8therthan cHacourages, students' desires to communicate by emphasizing those behaviors which students can improve. thus enhancing their ability to do so.
5. Evaluation of the total oral communication program is based on achievement of accept able levels of oral communication skill deter

178
..

mined by continuous monitoring of student progress in speaking and listening. .... of standardized and criterion referenced tests.

audIence-baed reting scala and other appr0priate instruments.

Repria.ecI ..... p IJ_ - American ~. Hearing Association and Speech Communication Association.

. Urn'L~UC"l\njIlagrt"a:~~lllY
Oral and Written Communication
Adams. Harlen and Thomas Pollock. Speak Up! New York: Macmillan. 1964. Allen. Layman E.. et al. Queries 'n Theories. New Haven: Wiffn Proof Publishers. 1970. Allen. R. R.. et al. Communication: Interacting Through Speech. Columbus. Ohio: Charles E. Merrill. 1974. Allen. R. R. and Kenneth Brown. Developing Communication Competence in Children. Skokie. Ulinois.:
N'ltional Textbook Company. 1976. Allen. Robert W. and lome Green. The Propaganda Game. New Haven: AIM Publishers. 1969. Altick. Richard O. Preface to Critical Reading. New York: Holt. Rinehart and Winston. 1962. Anastasiow. Nicholas. Oral Language: Expression of Thought. Neward. Delaware: International Reading
Association. 1971. Applegate. Maureen. Freeing Children to Write. New York: Harper and Row Publishers. 1963. Bales. R. F. Interaction Process Analysis. Reading. Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley. 1951. Bechtel. louise S. Boola in Search of Children. london: The Macmillan Company. 1960. Berger. Allen and Blanche Hope Smith. eds. Measure for Measure. Urbana. Illinois: National Council of
Teachers of English. 1973. Bergman. Floyd. The English Teacher's Activities Handbook: An Ideabook for Middie and Secondary
Schools. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Inc.. 1976. Bradley. Buff. Growing From Word Play into Poetry. Palo Alto. California: learning Handbooks. 1976. Britton. James. et al. The Development of Writing Abilities (11-18). london: Macmillan Education Ud.. 1975. Brown. Robert and Gilman A. Brown. "The Pronouns of Power ana Solidarity" in Style in Language.
Ed. T. Sebeck. Cambridge: MIT Press. 1960. Burrows. Alving Truet. They All Want to Write: Written English in the Elementary School. New York:
Holt. Rinehart and Winston. 1964. Clapp. Ouida. ed. On Righting Writing. Urbana. Illinois: The National Council of Teachers of English. 1977.
Cooper. Charles R. and lee OOeli. Research on Composing: Points of DepartlJre. Urbana. illinoiS: National Council of Teachers of English. 1978.
Corbin. Richard and Jonathan Corbin. eds. Research Papers? A Guided Writing Experience for Senior High School Students. Rochester. New York: New York State English Council. 1978.
Convert. Anita and Gordon L Tho...... Communication Games and Simulations. Urbana. Illinois: ERIC Oearlnghouse on Reading and Communication Skills. 1978.
Dodd. Anne Wescott. Write Now! New York: learning Trends. 1973. Dymond. R. F. "A Scale for the Measurement of Empathic Ability" in Journal of Consulting Psychology.
1949. p. 13. Ellingsworth. Hubert W.. et al. A Learning Center Approach to Basic Communication Courses. Urbana.
Illinois: ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication Skills. 1977. Emig. Janet. The Composing Proeeu of 12th Groders. Urbana. Illinois: National Council of Teachers of
English. 1971.

Ervin-Tripp. Susan. "On SoctoIlngllltlc Rules: Alternetion . . Co-oc:cuI Igtics. Eels John Gimperz and Dell Hymes. New York: Holt R

Ofredorta in SodoIIngWinIIon. 1972-

aor. Edwin. Individualized Language Arts. Weehawken. New Jersey: Weehawken Board of Education. 1974.

Fagan. WiDiam T. Charles R. Cooper. and Julie M. J........ Mea.uraJor Research and Evaluation in the English Language Arts. Urbana. illinois: National Council of Teachers of English and ERIC Clearing-
house on Reading and Communication Skills. 1975.

Aetcher. James E. and Stuart H. Surlin. Mass Communication Instruction in Secondary School. Urbana. Illinois: ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication Skills. 1978.

fotheringham. Wallace C. Perspectives on Persuasion. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Inc. 1966.

Friedman. Paul. Interpersonal Communication (nnouafions in Instruction. Washington. D.C.: National Ed ucation Association. 1978.

Galvin. Kathleen and Cassandra Book. Person to Person: An Introduction to Speech Communication. Skokie. Illinois: National Textbook Company. 1978.
Gamble. Teri and Michael Gamble. Oral Interpretation: The Meeting ojSelf and Literature. Skokie. Illinois: National Textbook Company. 1976.
Gray. John and Richard Rea. Parliamentary Procedure: A Programmed Introduction. Glenview. Illinois: Scott Foresman. 1973.
Gunther. Deborah. Writing: A Sourcebook oj Exercises and Assignments. Menlo Park. California: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. 1978.
Irmscher. William F. Teaching Expository Writing. New York: Holt. Rinehart and Winston. 1979.
Jones. Anthony and Jeremy Mulford. Children Using Language. London: Oxford University Press 1971.
Judy. Stephen. Explorations in the Teaching of English: A Sourcebook Jor Experimental Teaching. New York: Dodd. Mead and Company. Inc. 1974.
Judy. Stephen and Susan Judy. The English Teacher's Handbook. Cambridge. Massachusetts: Winthrop Publishers. Inc. 1979.
Kasden. Lawrence N. and Daniel R. Hoeber eds. Basic Writing: Essays for Teachers. Researchers. and Administrators. Urbana. Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English. 1980.
Kean. John M. and Carl Personke. The Language Arts. New York: St. Martin's Press. 1976.
Kirby. Dan and Tom Liner. Inside Out: Developmental Strategies Jor Teaching Writing Montelair. New Jersey: Boynton Cook. 1982.
Kitzhaber. Albert. et al. Persuasion and Pattern. New York: Holt. Rinehart and Winston. 1974.
Koch. Carl and James M. Brazil. Strategies for Teaching and Composition Process. Urbana. illinois: National Council of Teachers of English. 1978.
Koch. Kenneth. Wishes. Lies. and Dreams. New York: Random House. 1970.
Kraus. W. Keith. Murder. Mischief and Mayhem: A ProcessJor Creative Research Papers. Urbana. Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English. 1978.
Labov. William. Language in the Inner City. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. 1973.

Larson. Carl. et a/. Assessing Fuetional Communications. Urbana. illinois: ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading ~nd Communication Skills. 1978.
Larson. Richard L. ed. Children and Writing in the Elementary School. New York: Oxford University Press. 1975.

Leavitt. Hart Day and David A. Sohn. Step. Look and Write. New York: Bantam BooIcs. Inc.. 1964.
Leavitt. Hert Day. An Eye For Peaple: A Writer's Guide to Character. New York: Bantam Books. Inc. 1970.
Leavitt. Hart Day. The Writer's Eye. New York: Bantam Books. Inc. 1970.
Long. Littleton. Writing Exercises from "Exercise Exchange". Urbana. lllinois: National Council of Teachers of English. 1976.
Macrorie. Ken. Telling Writing. Rochelle Park. New Jersey: Hayden Book Co.. Inc. 1970.
Macrorie. Ken. Uptaught. New York: Hayden Book Company. Inc.. 1970.
Macrorie. Ken. Writing to be Read. New York: Hayden Book Company. Inc.. 1968.
Martin. Nancy. et aJ. Writing and Learning Across the Curriculum. New York: Hayden Book Company. Inc. 1979.
Maxell. Rhoda J. and Stephen Judy. Composing. The Michigan Coundl of Teachers of English. 1978-79.
McCroskey. J .. et al. "Teacher Communication Orientations and the Development of Communication Orientations Among Elementary School Children." Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association. Philadelphia. May 1979.
Miller. James E. Jr. Word. Self. Reality: The Rhetoric of Imagination. New York: Dodd. Mead and Co. Inc.. 1972.
Minnich. Wayne C. The Art of Persuasion. New York: Houghton-Mifflin Company. 1957.
Moffett. James. A Student-Centered Language Arts Curriculum. Grades K13: A Handbookfor Teachers. New York: Houghton Mifflin. 1968.
Moffett. James and Betty Jean Wagener. Student-Centered Language Arts and Reading. K-13: A Handbook for Teachers. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. 1976.

Moffett. James. Teaching the Universe of Discourse. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 1968.

Morgan. Fred. Here and Now II: An Approach to Writing Through Preception. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Inc.. 1972.

Morrow. James and Murray Suid. Media and Kids: Real World Learning in the Schools. Rochelle Park. New Jersey: Hayden Book Company. Inc. 1977.

Neman. Beth. Teaching Students to Write. Columbus. Ohio: Charles Merrill Publishing Co.. 1980.

Newmark. Eileen and Molefi K. Asante./ntercultural Communication. Urbana. Illinois: ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication Skills. 1976.

NofSinger. Robert. "The Demand Ticket: A Conversational Device for Getting the Floor" in Speech Mono-

graphs. 42 (March. 1975). 1-9.

-

Purvis. Alan. eel. How Porcupines Make Love. Lexington. Massachusetts: Xerox College Publishing. 1972.

Pederson. Lee. linguistic Atlas of the Southeast. Atlanta: Emory University. 1973.

Ratliffe. Sharon A. and M. Herman Deldee. Adventures in the Lookfng-Glau: Experiencing Communication with Yourself and Other.. SkokieiWinois: National Textbook Company. 1974.
Robert. Henry M. Robert's Rules otOrder NftDly R~ised. Glenview. Blinois: Scott Foresman. 1970.

Robinson. H. Alan and Truet Burrows Tmcher EJfectiueness In ElerMntary Lan~ AtU: AProgras Report. Urbana. Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English. 1974.

Ruben. B. D. and R. W. Budd. Human Communication Handbook: Simulations and Games. Rochelle Park. New Jersey: Hayden. 1975.

Shrank. Jeffrey. Deption Ddtif?n: An Educator'. Guide to tIwArt 0/IMight. Boston: Beacon Press. 1975.
Shrank. Jeffrey. Teaching Humon Being Boston: Beacon Press. 1972-
Sohn, David A. Pfctura For Writing. New York: Bantam Books. Inc.. 1969.
Squire. James. ed. The Teaching of English. Chicago: The National Society for the Study of Education. 1977.
Stacy. Clement S. Write: Finding Things to Say and Saying Them. Glenview. Illinois: Scott. Foreman and Company, 1974.
Stanford. Gene. ed. How to Handle the Paper Load. Urbana. Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English. 1979.
Stewig. John W. Children and Literature. Chicago: Rand McNally Publishing Company. 1980.
Sutherland. Zena. ed. The Arbuthnot Anthology of Children's Literature. Glenview. Illinois: Scott. Foresman. and Company. 1976.
Synthetics. Inc. Making It ~trange: A New Design for Creatiue Thinking and Writing. New York: Harper & Row. Publishers. 1968.
Tuttle. Frederick B. Composition: A Media Approach. Washington. D.C.: National Education Association. 1978.
Vergason. E. L "Be Your Own Boswell." They Really Taught Us How to Write. Urbana. Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English. 1974.
Wakefield. Beverly. Perception and Communication. Urbana. Illinois: ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication Skills and from Falls Church. Virginia: Speech Communication Association. 1976.
Weber. Philip ed. New Approaches to Writing: An Ideabook for Teachers and Students. New York: Bantam Books. Inc.. 1973.
Weiss, M. Jerry ed. From Writers to Studen": The Pleasures and Pains 0/ Writing. Newark. Delaware: The
Intemational Reading Association, lCJ19.
Weiman. Mary and John Weiman. Nonuerbal Communication in the Elementary Classroom. Falls Church. Virginia: Speech Communication Association. 1978.
Wilkinson. Charles A. Speaking of . .. Communication. Glenview. Illinois: Scott. Foresman and Company. 1975.
Wood. Barbara. Children and Communication: Verbal and Non-Verbal Language Deuelopment. Englewood Cliffs. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. 1976.
Wood Barbara. Deueloping of Functional Communication Competencies: Grades K6. Falls Church. Virginia: Speech Communication Association. 1976.
Report of the Commission on English. Freedom and Discipline in English. New York: College Entrance Examination Board. 1965.