School leaders manual: program of educational development for Georgia, part III [Oct. 1944]

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A SCHOOL LEADERS MANUAL
program of educational development
For Georgia
PART III
Issued by
EDUCATION PANEL
AGRICULTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT BOARD
Athens GeorgiaAGRICULTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL
DEVELOPMENT BOARD
of
GEORGIA
ci
OM

Name of Member
Ivan Allen
T P Abercrombie
Charles L Bowden
W N Banks
Cason J Callaway
M D Collins
Ryburn G Clay
Mrs Prank C David
Judge Blanton Portson
Charles B Gramllng
Robert W Groves
Alfred W Jones
Tom Linder
Wiley L Moore
Walter R McDonald
Henry Mclntosh
W H McNaughton
J L Pilcher
Robert Strickland
M King Tucker
Wilson Williams
Address
Atlanta Georgia
Atlanta Georgia
Macon Georgia
Grantville Georgia
Hamilton Georgia
Atlanta Georgia
Atlanta Georgia
Columbus Georgia
Athens Georgia
Atlanta Georgia
Savannah Georgia
Sea Island Georgia
Atlanta Georgia
Atlanta Georgia
Atlanta Georgia
Albany Georgia
Cartersville Georgia
Meigs Georgia
Atlanta Georgia
Waynesboro Georgia
Atlanta Georgia
Officers of Board
6
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Blanton Portson Chairman
L Vaughn Howard Executive Director
Education Panel Bulletin No 1
October 1944
LIB
RARY
iEOEDUCATION PANEL
Members
M D Collins Chairman
Mrs Frank C David
Wilson Williams
0 C Aderhold Director
Athens Georgia
Address
Atlanta Georgia
Columbus Georgia
Atlanta Georgia
Written in Collaboration
by

3
0 C Aderhold
Paul Carroll
Sam demons
Johnnie V Cox
Charles Hudgins
J E Greene
Claude Purcell
R D Pulliam
T E Smith
W A Stumpf
R H Tolbert
Nell Winn
1 The members of the Workshop of School Leaders held at the University of
Georgia during the summer of 1944
The membership of the workshop was made up largely of principals and teachers
from the sixteen selected counties This group worked with the staff for a period
of approximately six weeks in developing a point of view and procedures to be used
in county and local planning
2 The supervisory staff of the State Department of Education worked hand in
hand with the Panel staff during the workshop period and certain members of this
staff have given advice and assistance throughout the process of writing the manual
3 The staff of the University of Georgia assisted during the workshop period
and certain individuals have been called upon to make specific contributions to the
development of this publication
Many others have assisted either directly or indirectly The State Health
Department the Panel on Business and Commerce and the Public Works Panel of the
Agricultural and Industrial Development Board along with many writers in the field
of education The Panel staff has endeavored to give due credit to authorities in
education where they have drawn upon them for information in published form
iiaftjaato
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Preface
PAPT III
PLANNING THE PROGRAM OF COUNTYAND LOCAL SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION
Chapter IX Planning an Administrative Organization on County and Local
Levels
Unit 1 What Administrative Unit Should Be Set Up to Serve This
County 5
Unit 2 What Administrative Organization Should Be Set Up Within
the Local School System 36
Unit 3 What Should Be the Size of the Attendance Units in the
System57
Chapter X Planning the Physical Plant to Provide for the School
Program 66
Section 1 What Building Facilities Should Be Provided to Meet
the Needs of a Community70
Section 2 What1Sort of School Grounds do We Wish for the
School Program 85
Section 3 What Steps Should We Take to Make Possible the
Physical Facilities We Want to House the School
Program and Who Should Take These Steps95
Chapter XI Planning a Program for Pupil Transportation 102inr
PART III
PLANNING THE PROGRAM OF COUNTY
AND
LOCAL SCHOOL ADMINISTRATIONPART III
PLANNING THE PROGRAM OF COUNTY AND LOCAL SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION
Introduction
Administration broadly speaking is the art of getting things done It
comprises determining what must be accomplished planning hour oo do It doing it
and after an appropriate time evaluating the results Applied to education
administration is the means by which the educational program the staff the
necessary business operations and the school plant are effectively coordinated
and operated to bring about the educational development of the pupils
Educational administration in common with all administration is a service
At all levels it should exist solely as a means to effectuate the primary purpose
of the school Though administration is a service its importance should not
be minimized Education not only influences directly the lives of a great majority
of the inhabitants of a community but it also is one of the largest of the business
enterprises in every community Because of these important social and economic
implications education and its instrument the school must be well managed
It is axiomaticthat intelligent planning which includes a study of all
known factors that may affect an administrative decision underlies sound
administration In the field of school buildings for example the failure to
take into account the trends of population increase or decrease the results of
eroded farm lands the industrialization of communities and the like has
resulted in under or overbuilding To be specific a certain community in Georgia
is about to abandon a highschool building erected no more than seven years ago
because the trend of emigration from the community and the factors causing it
apparently had not been studied when the structure was built On the other
hand numerous examples exist of comparatively new buildings that are already
overcrowded because increases in population that were predictable upon the basis
of available data evidently were not considered when the buildings were planned
The tendency to build for permanence has excluded the obvious fact that school
programs change and that buildings so constructed cannot be remodeled to care
for new needs without considerable expense that could have been avoided by the
use of less substantial partitions and the like
Similarly the average cost of pupil transportation varies among the counties
of Georgia because in part at least the policies of some counties have been
established upon the basis of more careful planning than was done in others If
careful administrative planning is essential in these material aspects it is
obviously of equal or greater importance in planning suitable organizations in
financing in personal relationships and in enlisting the continuing support
of the community
Certain other selfevident principles which are especially important in the
management of education pervade all administration The foremost is that
administration continuously involves delicate human relationships Unless the
personalities and selfesteem of all concerned with or affected by administration
are considered and safeguarded longterm effectiveness rarely can be achieved
Another axiom is that common sense must be applied to the solution of all
administrative problems If this rule is not observed decisions appropriate
under the immediate circumstances can hardly be made It seems clear that
administrative problems can be solved only if sound theory proven experience
and an intimate knowledge of human nature are effectively blended Thus the
approach to the solution of an adqgSfvgJproblem nust be psychological
as well as logical A V
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3
Historically local administration of public education has grown to be a
part of the democratic tradition in the United States which the people and their
local leaders have jealously guarded No direot mention of education is contained
in the Federal Constitution The Tenth Amendment ratified in 1791 with the
first nine amendments as what is commonly called the Bill of Rights reserved to
the states or the people the powers not delegated to the United States nor pro
Soited to the statesV the Constitution By interpretations of these amendmante
and subsequent acts of the states with respect to education Put0icCS
taken on the character of a legal function of the several states This function
generally but not wholly has been delegated to local administrative s
operating through some type of board of control which is usually recogjized by
the courts as an agent of the state unless there is a specific state statute to
the contrary In the South particularly however the trend ward centalization
of administration in large units and in state departments of education has more or
less broken down the tradition of administration by small local units
Educational administration has three principal functions Poj
execution of the policies and evaluation of the results Pg
from these functions concern organization financing Pers0elelnlns
supervision business plant and transportation operations and P10
These problems are not mutually exclusive Organization for ef
ly related to financing supervision and personnel programs among ff f
ing is an important part of building and transportation programs not to mention
the basic program of the school and public relations must considered in
connection with each of the others It should be understood a he proJ8
listed here could be divided into more detailed studies in each problemfield
The purpose of Part III is to provide county leaders not only with applica
tions to SdXistration of the method of attack already familiar to them in con
nection with other problems but also with fairly recent examples of Jse
problems have been met elsewhere and with the solutions propose J recogn ized
authorities on school administration County leaders who wishto provide them
selves with a standard textbook in school administration or to recommend such
a volume to local leaders will find any of the following useful
Reeder Ward G The Fundamentals of Public School Administration New
Yorkt The Macmillan Company 1941 Pp xv 798
Moehlman Arthur B School Administration New York Houghton Mifflin
Company 1940 Pp xvii 929
Engelhardt Fred Public School Organisation and Administration New
York Ginn and Company 1931 Pp xvi 595
Reeders Text is perhaps the easiest to read and is especially recommended
if time is at a premium
The chapters following consider what are believed to ad8tr
tive problems including building and transportation that the Pfgjroup
will suggest It is not likely that eachJ bfraXd
the form or phraseology used in this manual but that the Pem w
through a reference to some perhaps minor detail In addition to thehaslc
problems presented the county leaders may wish to devePetfSd enable
he reactions of the planning group The references and other data should enaoie
them to do so without undue inconvenienceiKr aauux1

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111 vCHAPTER IX
PLANNING AN ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION ON COUNTY AND LOCAL LEVELS
The administrative organization of the schools at any level state county
or local is the arrangement of their mutually dependent parts and functions into
one whole The resulting organization is simply the structure through which the
purposes of public education are attained and not an end in itself
Careful planning is necessary to establish an administrative organization
that will operate efficiently and economically without losing sight of the primary
aim of the school the development of the pupils The planning rather naturally
divides into two principal subdivisions l For the unit of administration and
2 for the internal organization of any unit of administration Although there
is some overlapping the first emphasizes primarily the external relationships
and the second the internal relationships
Terminology is of some importance in order to avoid confusion The following
definitions and comments are intended to explain what may seem to be inconsistencies
in the material that follows and in the quoted literature 1
Fiscal unit the unit concerned primarily with financial affairs Thus
the state is the fiscal unit in Georgia as far as teachers1 basic
salaries are concerned but not for other fiscal matters
Administrative unit the unit concerned primarily with operations
Attendance unit the unit or area from which the pupils of a specific
school are drawn The inhabitants of the attendance area may be consider
ed the constituency of a specific school
Local level as used in the literature on school administration this
generally means the level below the state As used in Georgia it may
mean the foregoing or it may refer to a school or system in a particular
community under or independent of the county system The context may
have to be relied on to determine which of these two meanings is intended
The fiscal unit and the administrative unit are often coterminous or they
may refer to the same unit in some matters and not in others as explained above
The attendance unit ordinarily is not the same as either the fiscal or the adminis
trative unit unless there is but one school drawing support to itself in the ad
ministrative unit
Planning the unit of administration that will best serve a specific county is
treated in Unit 1 of the present chapter Though some variation of the county
unit seems to be accepted by leading Georgia administrators as the best for the
State at least under present circumstances it should not necessarily be accepted
as the ultimate plan Unit 2 What Administrative Organization 3hould Be Set Up
in the Local School System emphasizes the internal organization The general
principles of internal organization which will be derived from the study of this
unit may be applied with equal appropriateness to county and state administrative
organizations The subjectmatter of Unit 3 What Should Be the Size of Attendance
Units in the System is evident from the title It is related to both the
organization and the financing of the schools The material following should be
considered as basic but not necessarily complete as substantial portions of the
textbooks on administration are devoted to these topics
4 use
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HUnit 1
What Administrative Unit Should Be Set Up To Serve This County
I Preliminary arrangements
A Leaders objectives
1 To discover the problems of administrative organization in the
county
2 To think through these problems reflectively
3 To arrive at conclusions
4 To formulate a plan for an effective administrative unit for
the county
5 To put the plan into operation
B Members of the planning group
1 Primary
a County superintendent
b County board of education
c State supervisor in the area of which the county xs a part
d Local boards of trustees
e Principals
f County supervisors
g Representatives from other groups program of the schools
school buildings transportation instructional and busxness
staffs
2 Secondary
a Local faculty groups
b Local business employees
c Lay groups
d Members of county andor city legislative groups county
commissioners city councilmen etc
C Informational services required
1 Map showing the locations of the several school districts and
schools by type elementary secondary etc with tne
active enrollments of each
2 Chart showing the relationships of the various boards and fials
of the administrative unit in which the discussion is bexng held
3 Bar graphs showing perpupil costs based on data in the county
superintendents reports
4 Tables in Part IV of this Manual
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5 Books and pamphlets
a Georgia School laws 1942 Atlanta Georgiat State Department
of Education
b Supplement to Georgia School Laws 1943 Atlanta Georgia
State Department of Education
c Seventieth and Seventyfirst Annual Reports of the Department
of Education to the General Assembly of the State of Georgia
for the Biennium Ending June 30 1942 Atlanta Georgia
State Department of Education
d County superintendents annual reports
e General source material on school administration
f National census and local school census reports
II Getting the planning group into the problem
A The problem of planning a satisfactory unit of administration probably
will be more evident and of greater importance to the professional
members of the group than to the lay participants who understandably
enough may take the present administrative unit as a matter of course
because they have had no occasion to give any thought to it That the
school laws of Georgia apparently authorize four variations of the
county unit in addition to the independent systems may evoke only
such a comment as Yhat of it
It is the leaders task to answer this searching question with it
is hoped the help of the following materials Such questions as
those below may help the lay participants to see that the problem
of establishing a suitable administrative unit is of soeb importance
and perhaps may stimulate the professional member of the group to
new thinking on the matter
1 What schools do we have where are they located and what are
their respective enrollments
2 Who are entrusted with the management of these schools
State department county board county superintendent local
boards of trustees if any county commissioners for taxlevying
purposes principals
3 What do these persons or groups do
4 How are their respective activities related to one another
5 Are there any factors inthe foregoing duties and relationships
which might or do cause friction and so prevent us from having
the kind of school program we want
6 Do the children in the rural and city areas have the opportunity
to associate with one another in the schools at least at high
school level iij v
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7 Do the rural pupils have educational advantages similar to those
of the urban areas of the county vice versa
8 What does the loss of 1300 Heard County Table IV Part IV
inhabitants in the last four years mean in the management of the
schools of Heard county The leader obviously must adapt
these and the following questions to the county in which he is
working
Is the population of this county sufficient to provide enough
pupils to make a school system possible See Table XXXIV Part
IV for data on Heard County as to population by age groups
Calhoun County with an area of 284 square miles and a school en
rollment of 821 pupils in 1941 Annual Report 1942 of the State
Department had a taxable wealthfH872000 Heard County with
an area of 261 square miles and 1816 pupils had a taxable wealth
of 698700 What does this mean in the management of our Heara
County schools
11 Are any of the pupils attending the schools of this county members
of communities that really are parts of adjoining counties
B Comments from members of the planning group may be sought by the leader
prior to the meeting During these conversations individuals may
express themselves rather freely concerning problems having to do with
the administrative unit Its size underlying wealth points oi
friction etc Permission should be requested to use such comments
as the basis for discussion during the meeting although it is generally
not important that they be identified with an individual when they
are brought into the discussion
1 A trustee may have said that the county board rarely follows the
recommendations of the local board in the matter of advancing the
interests of the local school
2 A principal may comment that his teachers are not so well qualified
as those of another district which supplements their salaries
3 The county superintendent may call attention to progress made in
schools that are the result of consolidation and to lack of it
where consolidation has been opposed Examples of overconsolida
tion also may be cited
4 A lay person may call attention to the fact that some pupils are
transported a considerable distance when by attending the schools
of an adjoining county the riding distance would be shortened
appreciably
5 A county board member may complain that the powers given the
local boards of trustees sometimes get in the way of real progress
in the countyC The relation of costs to administration may be shown
1
III
In counties in which no independent system exists bar graphs
may be used to show perpupil cost ADA among the various
schools which should not be identified County superintendents
report
2 In counties with independent systems comparisons may be made of
perpupil costs between the independent systems and the county
system Annual Report of the State Department of Education
3 In either l or 2 the leader should present the data in such
a way as to arouse curiosity as to why the differences existed
Such questions as the following may be helpful
a Do the bare figures tell the difference
b If not what other elements must be considered Better
program better teachers effect of consolidation etc
c Is the method of equalization within the county satisfactory
in aiding the areas needing the most financial help
d How might perpupil costs be reduced or at least not in
creased at the same time that educational opportunities
are increased on a systemwide basis
Procedure for the solution of the problem What administrative unit
should be set up to serve this county
A What administrative unit will best serve this county
1 The leader should encourage each member of the planning group to
give his ooinion as to what would constitute the best administra
tive unit for the particular county These opinions may be
listed on the blackboard and discussed
2 The leader should encourage those making suggestions to give
their reasons therefor but the proposals should not be pursued
to the point that the individual feels he must defend his
suggestions
B What administrative unit now serves this county
1 It is suggested that the leader confer with the county superinten
dent in advance to ascertain the various relationships among the
several boards and the principal school officials The informa
tion sought here may and probably should be extended to include
that needed in Unit 2 II B below It is suggested that the
leader ask for a copy of any organization charts that the county
superintendent may have prepared although he may find that in
common with the administrative heads of other organizations the
superintendent has made no such chart If none is found the
leader should prepare a chart that the county superintendent will
approve The relationships should be checked wxth members of the
county board local trustees principals and teachers to deter
mine the accuracy of the superintendents statements This is no p
reflection on the county superintendent those heading an
organization not infrequently believe that relationships exist
which are different from the views held by their associates or
subordinates The virtue of a chart is that it shows more clearly
than words can describe what the actual relationships are The
chart may be used by leaders as a guide in the discussion with
the group or it may be exhibited at the end of the discussion of
the means of comparison between what the group believes the
relationships to be and what they presumably are
In drawing a chart the leader is advised to follow the plan of
using unbroken horizontal and vertical lines not diagonal to
show the administrative relationships and broken lines to show
advisory relationships Following is a chart for a simple
organization which may be found to exist in counties in which
the subdistricts levy a tax for educational purposes
CHART I
BASIC ADMINISTRATIVE RELATIONSHIPS IN X COUNTY
1 County board j
1 i
Boards of trustees j County superintendentj
i i i 1 1

Principals i
2 The leader may find the following questions helpful in drawing
upon the knowledge of members of the planning group concerning
what they believe the administrative unit in the county to be
and concerning its limitations
a What authority does the State Board of Education exercise with
respect to this county
b What are the powers and duties of the county board of educa
tion
c What are the powers and duties of the local boards of trustees
d What are the powers and duties of independent boards of
education if there are any in the county
e What are the relationships between the State Board of Educa
tion and the county board
f What are the relationships between the State Board and the
dounty superintendent
g What are the relationships between the county boards and the
local boards of trustees
h What are the relationships between the county boards and the
independent boards if there are any in the county 1
v i
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3 The following sunnary of powers and duties is important at this
point in determining some of the relationships referred to in
the foregoing questions Ordinarily powers and duties apply more
appropriately to the internal organization of an administrative
unit Unit 2 of this chapter but because it is necessary to
arrive at a definition of the kind of administrative unit serving
the county this analysis of the school law is placed here
Source Georgia School Laws published by the State Department of
Education 1942 Atlanta Georgia and the supplement ereto
published in June 1943 The figures in parentheses following
the statements refer to sections of the law Leaders should
have copies of the school laws and the supplement perhaps
annotated with marginal notes
a State board of Education
1 To provide rules and regulations for the supervision of
all public schools of this State Georgia Laws 1937
pp 864869 Sec 3
2 To provide a course of study for all common arid high
schools receiving state aid and to approve if they
xvish additional courses of study set up by local units
of administration ibid
3 To provide for curriculum revisions ibid
4 To provide for the classification and certification of
teachers ibid
5 To make rules and regulations for the administration of
the common school fund ibid
6 To have appellate jurisdiction in all school ters
which may be appealed from any county or city board of
education and its decisions in all such matters shal
be final and conclusive Georgia Laws 1937 PP awt
869 Sec 6
7 To prescribe by regulation the text books f UJ f
the various grades in the public schools of this State
to provide multiple listings of the same and if it
wishes to authorize the county superintendent or the
superintendent of an independent school system to exer
cise a choice as between books so listed or adopted for
any particular grade Georgia Laws 1937 pp 8969U1
Sec 1
8 To provide for purchasing covering repairing and
furnishing such free textbooks for use by the pupils in
all of the elementary and highschool grades in the
public schools of this State Georgia Laws 1957
pp 896901 Sec 4ov
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9 To equalize educational opportunities for all of the
children of school age in this State Georgia Laws 1937
pp 882892 Sec l
10 To divide the various local units of administration into
five groups on the basis of the nost recent United
States Census and to regroup as early as practicable
after each Census Georgia Laws 1957 pp 882892
Sec 4
11 To determine annually with such variation as nay be
necessary the number of teachers to be employed for
the nininun tern of seven months prescribed in Section 1
of the socalled Equalization Act upon the basis of
average daily attendance for the preceding year Georgia
Laws 1937 pp 882892 Sec 5
12 To fix annually a schedule of minimum salaries which
shall be paid to the teachers of the various classes
said payment to be out of the public school funds of the
State and said schedule to be uniform for each of the
classes of teachers fixed by the State Board of Education
and to provide variations from such schedules when
necessary Georgia Laws 1937 pp 882892 Sec 8
13 To pay from common school funds and other appropriations
the salaries of all teachers for not less than seven
months in accordance with the salary schedule set up
to pay the salaries of county school superintendents
as now provided by law and to pay each local unit of
administration for certain other purposes a sum
sufficient when added to the total amount which may be
raised by such local unit of administration by a local
tax levy of five mills to equal onethird of the amount
allotted to such local unit of administration for
salaries Georgia Laws 1957 pp 882892 Sec 9
14 To aoprove the budgets of local units provided at least
threefourths of the total amount for expenditure be
for teachers salaries Georgia Laws 1937 pp 882892
Sec 12
b State School Superintendent
1 To administer the school laws and to have general superin
tendence of the business relating to the common schools
of the State 32501
2 To instruct subordinate school officers in the faithful
and efficient execution of the school laws 32501
3 To suspend a county superintendent of schools for
incompetency willful neglect of duty misconduct im
morality or the commission of crime involving moral
turpitude subject to appeal to the State Board of
Education 32505
4 To visit the several counties to examine into the
administration of the school law to counsel with school
officers and to inspect school operations 32506 x

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5 To require of county superintendents such reports as he
nay prescribe 32515
6 To require of presidents of boards of education or the
chief executive officers of public school organizations
operating under special law the detailed report mentioned
in section 32508 32515
c County board of education
1 With the county superintendent to make rules to govern
the county schools 32912
2 To establish high schools and junior high schools 32933
3 To establish evening and parttine schools subject to
regulations of the State Board of Education 32932
4 To organize manual labor schools on such a plan as may
be selfsustaining subject to the approval of the
State Board of Education 32931
5 To open and annex a department of industrial education
procure necessary equipment and pay the necessary teach
ers 32934
6 To carry on additional work for the promotion of the
extension work in agriculture and home economics under
certain Acts of Congress 32944
7 To employ teachers 32913
8 To suspend teachers for certain reasons 32912
9 To suspend the county superintendent for certain reasons
32912
10 To constitute a tribunal for hearing and determining any
matter of local controversy in reference to the construc
tion or administration of the school law and to make
decisions binding upon both parties but subject to
appeal to the State School Superintendent 32910j
11 To make regulations to insure the vaccination of pupils
32911
ftp to consolidate two or more schools or districts under
certain conditions 32915 and 32917
13 To separate or divide districts and to provide for the
election of trustees for each of the new districts
32916
14 To alter districts under certain conditions 32917 r
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15 To grant permission to children to attend the common school in
another district 32938
16 To lay off school districts without regard to county lines under
certain conditions 321102
17 To refuse to confirm the election of local trustees the county board
considers unqualified or to remove them under certain condxtxons
321104
18 To require statements of school population attendance etc of
local boards of trustees 321119
19 To provide local funds for educational advantages in addition to those
prescribed by the State Board provided such advantages are not in con
flict with regulations of the State Board Georgia Laws 1937 pp
882892 Sec 6
20 To operate the schools for a longer period than seven months to
supplement the State schedule of salaries to employ additional
teachers not provided in the Equalization Acts and to opiate
kindergartens and grades above the eleventh The last two must be
operated solely from local funds Georgia Laws 1937 pp BB2i
Sec 10
21 To recommend to the proper county authority the levying of a tax from
one to five mills on all taxable property in the county outside of
independent school systems fogorgia Constitution Art T Sec 4
Chap 269 par l
22 To recommend to the proper county authority the levying of a tax in
excess of five mills in accordance with the wishes of the voters as
expressed at a special election 321106
23 To borrow money to pay for the operation of the schools under speci
fied conditions 32921
24 To contract with municipalities for the joint building and nain
tenance of highschool buildings located within f
the joint use of children living in such municipalities and those
living in the county outside 321404 and to issue bonds therefor
under prescribed conditions 321406
25 To judge the amount and sufficiency of the bond of the treasurer
receiving local tax collections for the public schools 321120
and to decide the amount of the bond of the county superintendent
321005
26 To receive moneys raised by local taxation for school purposes in
case the treasurer of local districts fails to make bond 321121
27 To make all arrangements necessary to the efficient operation of the
schools 32909
28 To purchase lease or rent school sites under certain conditions
32909
29 To build repair or rent school houses 32909
30 To purchase maps globes and school furniture 52909

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52
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34
35
36
37
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39
40
41
42
43
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45
46
47
48
49
50
To provide for the building of school houses by labor on the part of
citizens in the subdistricts or by a tax on their property under
certain conditions 32909
To be invested with the title care and custody of all school houses
and other property belonging to subdistricts with power of control
thereof 32909
To receive any gifts etc for the use of the public schools within
their counties 32909
To sell school sites 32909 1403
To approve buildings and equipment but not the sites 321401 of
schools of local districts which levy taxes for educational purposes
321113
To provide transportation for pupils and teachers 32919
To enploy competent persons to take the school census 321602
To judge the sufficiency of the reasons for excusing children from
attendance as prescribed by law 322101
To be governed in the discharge of their official duties by the
instructions of the State School Superintendent 32501
To meet at least monthly 32908
To make arrangements for the instruction of the children of both
white and colored races 32909

To provide as far as practicable the same facilities for both white
and colored races in respect to the attainments and abilities of
teachers for a sevenmonth term 32909 and Georgia Laws 1937
pp 882892 Sec 2
To segregate instruction by white and colored races 32909
To provide written contracts in duplicate for the services of
teachers 32913
To lay off the county into school districts 321101
To cause the election of trustees in school districts
321104
To arrange for the operation of independent school districts absorbed
into the county system 321202
To permit children from an adjoining county to attend a local school
under specified conditions 32938
To pay to local districts levying taxes for school purposes their
snare of the public school funds apportioned to the dxstrxct by the
county board 321113
To make no contracts in excess of the total appropriations for the
current fiscal year 32928
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51 To exercise supervision over the local tax districts as well as other
districts under its supervision and to distribute and apportionthe
public or common school fund to the different school distrxcts of the
county 321118
52 To receive quarterly reports fronlocal boards of trustees with respect
to disbursements receipts cash on hand 321119
53 To fix the amount denomination interest rate due date etc of
1 bonds and to call an election when voters of the ef S
prescribed by law and to attend to other duties resulting from an
approval by the voters of a bond issue 321403
54 To pass a resolution authorizing the borrowing of money under
specified conditions 32922
55 To borrow at as low an interest rate as possible 32924
56 To pay to boards of trustees moneys received by the county from local
taxation in the event that the treasurer fails to make bond 321121
57 To investigate the attendance or nonattendc t8P
scribed by law and to institute prosecutions against violators
322102
58 To employ an attendance officer 322103
59 To take a census of children five to eighteen years of age every
five years 321601
60 To pay out no funds for the maintenance of l26
equipped with fire escapes as prescribed by law 322002
61 To see that certain days are observed 321503
d County superintendent of schools
1 To act as the medium of communication between the State School Superin
tendent and subordinate school officers 321009
2 To act as the agent of the county board in procuring school supplies
and equipment 321009
3 To receive a salary as fixed by law and supplemented by the county
board 321006
4 To employ clerical help if authorized to do so by the county board
321006
5 To receive annually the records of local treasurers for audit by the
state auditor 321123
6 To receive a full report on specified matters from all teachers in
the county with such statistics as he may requxre 32907
7 To suspend any teacher for specified SeSn
the teacher to the county board the State Scnoox supe
the State Board of Education 321010f
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8 To revoke licenses to teachers granted by him or his predecessors for
specified reasons subject to appeal to the county board 321019
9 To administer oaths necessary for transacting school business or
conducting investigations 321015
10 To be governed in the discharge of his official duties by the
instructions of the State School Superintendent 32501
11 To perform all clerical duties formerly required of the county school
commissioner 321004
12 To give bond with an apprpved surety company in an amount to be
decided by the county board 321005
13 To take and subscribe to the same oath required of other officers
of this state 521007
14 To serve as secretary exofficio of the county board 32907
15 To serve as the medium of communication between the State School
Superintendent and subordinate school officers 321009
16 To serve as the agent of the county board in buying school supplies
and equipment 321009
17 To see that none but the prescribed textbooks are used by the
pupils 321009
18 To audit all accounts before an application is made to the county
board for payment 321009
19 To keep a written record of his official acts which with other papers
he shall turn over to his successor 321009
20 To enforce all regulations rules and instructions of the State
Superintendent of Schools 321009
21 To enforce all regulations etc of the county board of education
not in conflict with state laws 321009
22 To superintend with the state supervisor the county normal schools
and institutes for teachers of his county 321009
23 To visit every school white and colored within his school district
that receives state aid at least once every sixty days to familiarize
himself with the studies taught to see that advancement 1b being made
by the pupils to advise with teachers and otherwise to aid and assist
in the advancement of education 321009
24 To supervise examinations of all teachers in his county as provided
by law 321010
25 To place the seal of the county board on all teachers licenses issued
in the county 321011
26 To receive an annual report from each teacher before making the final
payment to the teacher for his services for the period 321020 V V 17
27 To make an annual report to the grand jury and place before them his
books for examination 521014 and to include therewith a report on
the amount of noney borrowed during the preceding year rated
interest and dates when the noney was borrowed and paid back 32925
2Q To certify to ccunty taxing authorities and the comptrollergeneral of
the state the tax rate fixed for each school district in the county
521113
29 To aid local trustees in ascertaining the total value of property in
the district and in levying local school taxes 321113
30 To furnish corporations naking their tax returns to the conptroller
general of the state information concerning the boundaries of each
school district 321117
independent systems in general the powers and duties of the boards for
independent systems are authorized in their respective charters
1 To submit the question of a local tax for public schools to the
U qualified voters of the municipality if it is not already specifi
cally authorized to hold such an election 52liuy
2 To operate the schools for a longer period than seven months to
supplement the State schedule of salaries to employ additional
teachers not provided in the Equalization Act n and to operate
kindergartens and grades above the eleventh The last two must
be operated solely from local funds Georgia Laws 1931 pp 882892
Sec 10
3 To contract with counties for the joint building and maintenance of
highchool buildings located within municipalities for the joint use o
children living insuch municipalities and those living in the county
outSe 321404 and to issue bonds for their proportion of the cost
of such buildings 321406 0 rp0ula
4 To continue to function under local laws tn oTschos
tions until the county board arranges for the operation of schools
formerly in the independent system in case of a merger 321202
5 To take a census of children five to eighteen years of age every
five years and to employ competent persons therefor 321601 1602
f Local boards of trustees
1 To be governed in the discharge of their official duties by the
instructions of the State School Superintendent 32501
2 To inspect the work done in the schools 321105
3 To make recommendations to the ccunty board for the advancement of
school interests 321105
4 To recomuend to the county superintendent to tc board
desirable applicants for teaching positions and principalships
321105 and Georgia Laws 1937 pp 882892 Sec 3
5 To aid county educational authorities in keeping f
with fuel water and sanitary necessities and m Keeping
grounds and buildings in good condition and equipped for good work
321105rl
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6 To operate the schools for a longer period than seven months to
supplement the State schedule of salaries to employ additional
teachers not provided in the Equalization Act and to operate kinder
gartens and grades above the eleventh The last two must be operated
solely from local funds Georgia Laws 1937 pp 882892 Sec 10
7 To make a written annual report or oftener to the county board
321105
8 To report annually through their treasurer to the county superinten
dent and state auditor on receipts and disbursements 321105
9 In districts levying a local tax for educational purposes
a To make all rules and regulations to govern the schools 321113
b To build and equip schoolhouses subject to the approval of the
county board 321113
c Tc use school houses and properties or permit then to used
for educational purposes provided their use does not conflict with
the public schools of the district 321113
d To fix the rate of tuition for nonresident pupils 321113
e To fix the salaries of teachers 321113 subject to provisions
of Georgia Laws 1957 pp 882892 Sec 1
f To receive from the county board public school funds apportioned
to the district by the county board 321113
g To determine the amount to be raised by local tax on property of
the district 321113
h To levy with the aid of the county superintendent local school
taxes 321113
i To receive through their secretary taxes collected monthly by
the tax collector and the comptrollergeneral of the state 321114
j To compel through their secretary tax returns from citizens the
value of whose property it was impossible to determine 321115
k To borrow an amount not to exceed the local school tax collected
on property within the district during any current year these
unds o be used only for paying teachers for the
and not for a longer period than twelve months 1321152
1 To pass a resolution authorizing the borrowing of money the reso
lution including certain details to record it in the minute book
and to send a copy to the county superintendent 62H35J
a To pay back borrowed money from the local district tax receipts
321135
10 With respect to bond issues
a To determine the required number of petitioners for an election
on a bond issue for buildings 321401
19
b To fix denominations rate of interest due date etc and
to call an election on a bond issue for buildings under
specified conditions 321401
c To determine the details of an election on a bond issue give
due notice thereof and act as election managers 321401
d To determine the site of buildings authorized for construc
tion under a bond issue 321401
e To receive the proceeds from the issuance of bonds and hold
them in trust 321402
f To remove sell or otherwise dispose of XU6 J gound
ad add the sumrealized to the proceed from the sale of
bonds 321402
g To recommend to county taxing authorities a
addition to the general tax for schools in the territory for
the purpose of providing a sinking fund for the retirement
of bonds 321402
g Legal relationship of the local boards of trustees to the county
board and others
h m mt resoects the local boards of trustees are subordinate to
S county board of education Local boards have only recom
mfndSrpewer with respect TidXTounty
advancement of educational interests They may a offlaerE
authorities in suppling fuel water etc ey their oiix
must make certain reports to the JJ JfpJT
4 Tholr channel of communication to the State tsoaru uj
Sucafion eee S officially through the county authorities
2 But in local dlatricts levying a local tax for eteatlonal pur
h Legal relationships to other governmental and organized social
agancies
1 School officials are evidently gLrs
municipal boards of health as a section of the school laws
v iSrn eives the health authorities full power to adopt
V32loUi gxves one w le3 and regulations
enact establish and maintain CJ0ttinhe health
5s thoy nay doc njcoasaiy and proper for protectius
of their respective counties or municipalities
C Countschool authorities jtf
or all public schools of this State SSSK ifflSL
pp 86869 Sec 3 to provide a course of study for all
Pcon and high sohools1
curriculum revisions to provide lor xne operation
certification of teachers to make rules for e operation
of the common schools and the administration JKJ
school fund etc The State Board has appellate jurisdiction 20
in all school natters which nay be appealed from any county or
city board of education and its decision are final Textbooks
are prescribed by the State Board for the various grades in the
public schools The State Board is also empowered by law to
equalize educational opportunities throughout the State as far
as possible The county or city superintendent nay be required
to nake such reports as the State Superintendent prescrxbes
3 County and local boards do not levy taxes but recommend to tax
ingauthorities that levies be nade according to the various
provisions of the law cited heretofore If the provisions of the
law are complied with the taxing authorities apparently have
no choice but to follow the recommendations of the ooara
321106 Tax receipts collected for both tne county and local
districts in case the latter recommend levies and taxes are
subsequently collected must be turned over to the proper school
authorities by the tax collectors 321106 and 321114
C What units of administrative organization are authorized by the laws of
Georgia
1 The leader nay suggest that some aeriber of the planning group prefera
X Sy a lawyer familiar with school legislation lead thescussxon on
thU nortion of the problem If the leader chooses to handle this part
lesloTZe it is suggested that the J1
fron the law be duplicated and copies placed in the hands of menhers
the planning group
2 Georgia School Laws published by the State Departnent of Education
Atlanta Georgia 1942
v 901 School districts Each and every county in the State shall
Inpe onfooTdlitrTct and shall be confided to the control
andManagement of a county board of educatxon Acts 1919 p 320
Page 33
321101 School districts for taxing purposes It shall be the
o7 the4outyrTof education of each J
lay off the county into school districts the lines of which shall
ofclearly and positively defined by boundaries school
district thus marted out shall contain an area of not less tnan
fixteen square niles provided that the board of efn may
Save the Sight to establish districts with areas less n sixteen
square miles where there are natural causes of local conditions
Eat make it necessary to do soLocal conditns whxoh will
permit the creation of small districts must be determined by the
board of education Acts 1919 p 533 Page 49
321102 Local tax districts across county lines By concurrent
inSl anic bSardsf SffiSation of two or more ad joining
counties may lay off and define hool districts without regardto
countv lines Provided that the board gjledupatio
S which the schpljouj
which territory has been cut shall collect the school tax levies
by the trustees of the school district thus formed in the territory
cut from his county and shall pay the ne when collected to the
authorized officer of the board And provided further if either
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county votes countywide local taxation for schools thus auto
aatically absorbing existing local tax districts into the county
wide system that in such cases that part of any existing local tax
district lying outside of the county so voting the countywide local
school tax shall be also automatically included forurposes of
h 11TT mnrtFnnn in the county so voting the county
wide local school tax so as not to interfere with existing local
school conditions Acts 1919 p 334 Pp 49 50
d 32111 Local school systems Authority is given by the constitu
tiblTto muMcTpaTities to establish and maintain public or common
schools in their respective limits by local taxation It is not
in accordance with the law of this state to incorporate a school
district and mark off a town inside of it the town to exercise all
the municipal functions and the school district none It shall not
be legal to establish the form of a municipal corporation in a rural
district with practically no other powers nor purposes than tne
local control and management of the schools of that territory Acts
1919 p 340 Page 54 At present fiftyseven of these independ
ent systems exist in Georgia
e 321112 School systems in cities and towns Nothing in this chap
ffVLl bTlocofeleds to prevent any city with a PopuLn
greater than two thousand inhabitants or any county or town from
organizing under the authority of the General Assembly of this
state a public school system independent ofbhiBjaS55
prevent said organization from drawing its pro rata share of all
educational funds raised by the State Provided the chief
executive officer of such independent organization shall make the
same regular reports to the State School Superintendent as are
required from county superintendents by this chapter Nothing con
tained in this chapter shall be construed to annul or repeal any
local law now of force in any city or county in this state Pding
for the organization and maintenance of the common or public schools
in such city or county Acts 1919 p 340 Pp 54 55
f 321201 Municipality or independent school district authorized to
Sp8pec75hllwie etc Whenever the citizens
SiSfeltydepTndenTb districts fff
to establish and maintain a system of schools by local taxation
in whole or in part and which is operating a system of public
schools independent of the countyschool system wish to annul
their special school law and become a part of the countyschool
system they shall present and file with the mayor or chief
executive officer of the city a petition signed by onefourth of
the qualified voters of their territory and said mayor or chief
executive officer shall then within not less than twenty days and
not more than sixty days thereafter call an election
majority of those voting shall be necessary to ar faction
Only qualified voters residing within the municipality or dtrict
for six months prior to the election shall vote AVr ltht
not be held tT the same purpose oftener than every twelve months
Acts 1926 Executive Session p 40 Pp W b2u
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Territory formerly included constitutes schooldlstrlcfr
When any local or independent system is repealed the rr
SS formerly iln such independent ytem ahall beco and
constitute a school district of the county in which it is located
and shall enjoy the same privileges and shall Be f v
same laws as other school districts in said county including the
authority to levy local taxes for school purposes provided that
he rlteyfor sue taxation shall not exceed the rate allowed by law
to sSiLr school districts Acts 1926 Executive Session p 40
Page 62
Section 3 Units of Administration For the purposes of this
BnhAnrSyrtSJ established by lawhailjethelool units of ad
iinlitrlfeon In the local unitsTada5itratlon the several
teachers and principals shall be elected by the beards of education
on the recommendation of the respective superintendents f
that principals and teachers in local tax districts of trustees
as independent systems shall recommended by the board of trustees
of such school district and by the county superintendent Pro
vided further that those counties in which the public hools are
operated under special Acts recognized and continued by the Conetl
uSon of 1877 shall be governed by the provisions of this Act
except where the same is in conflict with any such special Act
Georgia Laws 1937 Pp 882892 Page 26
Under the present 1944 school laws of Georgia five types of adminis
IrtZTle possible The Allowing including ejgBS
were verified by J I Allman of the State Department of Education
a The pure county unit The county board rt
all schools of the county both rural and city and has no subor
dinate Sal boards of trustees Bibb Chatham Glynn and Rich
mond counties are examples
unit especially in the rural counties ere village anctown
SJSii5SS SSSrSSSrSSSSiS Hart
and Rabun counties
The county unit for all schools of efB1I
districts but with subordinate local boards oftrustees
include Floyd Walton and Morgan counties
The county unit for all schools outside of fjlT
with NO local boards of trustees Fulton County is an e a p
e The independent systems of which fiftyseven still exist
Atlanta Columbus and Moultrie are examples
A sixth type of administrative organistion un
extralegally a county unit In which tvpe seems to have
is operated as a part of the county system This type
no legal basis strictly speaking Exwf 8 ere Puls
which Hawkinsville is legally PfgulS1 In which
194445 through the county system and Bulloch County
Statesboro is being similarly operated
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The administrative organization unit in Georgia is difficult to
designate with strint accuracy Under the Laws of 1937 the
State Board of Education exercises considerable administrative
influence over local situations For example the size of the
teaching unit number of pupils per teacher is strictly defined
Obviously this may determine to a large extant the teacher
pupil ratio in the local schools Further the local unit must
submit its budget to the State Board for approval the prin
cipal proviso for such approval being the requirement that
expenditures for teachers salaries must amount to at least
seventyfive percent of the total amount available to the local
unit exclusive of the principal and interest on bonded indebted
ness Thus in the matter of basic salaries for teachers the
State apparently is the fiscal unit and through its scrutiny
of the budget has the power to determine other matters of
local administration
In most matters of local administration such as the hiring and
discharge of teachers supervision of instruction buildings
and equipment establishing schools consolidating schools or
school districts supplementing salaries and others the county
or the independent district is the administrative unit
The local boards of trustees in districts levying a tax for
educational purposes apparently have certain powers that may
be of importance in specific instances All local boards of
trustees have the right to aid in providing fuel water and
sanitary facilities to help keep the buildings and grounds in
good condition and equipped for good work to inspect the work
done in the schools and to recommend applicants for teaching
positions and matters that will advance the work of the schools
Most authorities in school administration classify Georgia ajnong
the states having the county unit of administrative organiza
tion plus independent systems Nevertheless the power exer
cised by the State Board of Education over finances affects
other phases of administration and the trend has been toward
centering larger powers over the local schools in the state
school administration The powers of the local boards of
trustees are with specific important exceptions relatively
minor For practical purposes the county may be assumed to
be the unit of administration except for the fortyseven remain
ing independent districts but it should be emphasized that
the restrictions operating in financing the schools distinctly
limit the power of the county boards of education
D What types of administrative organization units are used elsewhere
1
The leader should encourage members of the planning group to suggest
as many types of administrative organization units as possible in
cluding tyes not found in Georgia These should be listed on the
blackboard The principal general types including thoae used In
Georgia are as followsv 2
24
a District unit Illinois is an example having about 12000 units
varying in size from the city of Chicago to small oneroom rural
districts and in type from a system extending from the nursery
school through the Junior college to nonhigh school districts
which are organized as a means to pay the tuition of pupils who
must attend high schools in other districts because there is none
in the nonhigh school district
b County units
1 The pure county unit Examples are Bibb and Richmond
counties
2 The county unit plus local boards of trustees Examples are
Heard Jones Atkinson Decatur Calhoun Hart and Rabun
counties
3 The county unit plus local boards of trustees and with inde
pendent systems Examples are Floyd Walton and Morgan
counties
4 The county unit with one or more independent systems but
with no local trustees Fulton County is an example
5 The county unit with local advisory groups instead of boards
of trustees with more or less administrative authority In
Virginia the county board is authorized to appoint local
school committees to advise the members of the board with re
ference to matters pertaining to the local school and to co
operate with the board in the provisions for the care of the
school property and for the successful operation of the
school Virginia School Laws Richmondi Division of
Purchase and Printing 1940 P 36
State unit Delaware less the city of Wilmington and certain
other areas is an example
Economiccommunity units The community highschool district of
Illinois is an example Such a district embraces a sommunxty and
its surrounding territory without regard to the boundary lines
of political subdivisions such as the township or county
After the foregoing types of units of administrative organization and
perhaps others that members of the planning group may suggest nave
been listed and their principal features discussed they should be
evaluated Below are some of the advantages and disadvantages ol
each
c
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a District unit
l Advantages
a Keeps the administration of the schools close to the local
community and its people
b Obviates the necessity for transporting primaryage
children o 25
2 Disadvantages
a Typical commonschool districts
1 Limited program
2 One or two teachers often with minimum training
3 Inadequate supervision of instruction
4 One building with one or two classrooms only
5 Hygienic facilities frequently primitive
6 Excessively expensive even for a minimum program
b Town township and urban districts
1 Programs planned largely for urban children
2 Transportation of primaryage children sometimes
necessary
c Secondaryschool districts
1 Friction caused in taxraising by overlapping elementary
districts
2 Articulation between the elementary and secondary pro
grams often bad
d General objections
r
1 Educational opportunities not equalized throughout the
State because of wide disparities in wealth
2 Tax burden unevenly distributed because xn urban areas
personal property can be hidden whereas in rural
areas farm properties in the district easily assessed at
proper valuations if assessing officials wish to do so
b The pure county unit
l Advantages
a Both rural and urban areas are included
b Rural participation in secondary education xs possible
o Greater equalization of educational opportunity is possible
because income may be used where it xs needed
d An adequate program including health and other services
can be maintained because of the larger area and greater
wealth available nvw
e The school term can be equalized throughout a comparatively
f Thegexpensive toosmall school with its other handicaps
can be eliminated
r Greater equalization of tax burden is possible
h Better supervision and administration are possible because
of the greater financial resources and because of the
possibilities for centralized planning etc
i Possibilities of friction with local boards of trustees are
removed rt
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2 Disadvantages
a Counties may be too large or too small for efficient
administrative units
b Counties vary greatly in wealth ihlc to
c County boundary lines have no necessary relationship to
W Sural community areas causing odd attendance areas If
d fhfclfserofiatn of the local community with the ad
ministration of its schools is likely to be impaxred if
e untsslSdance areas are carefully Panned the trans
portation of children may become a serious problem
f Primaryage children must be transported
c The county unit plus local boards of trustees
1 Advantages
a These are the same as for the pure county units except
b Some local participation in school affairs is retained
2 Disadvantages
a These are the same as for the pure county unit except
b Ifowers granted to local boards of trustees impinge
uponlhose of the county board serious confusion and
friction may result
d The county unit plus local boards of trustees plus independent
systems
1 Advantages
a These are the saee as for the pure county unit with the
b SesSbfisnea afninistrative units are retained
2 Disadvantages
a These are the same as for the pure county unit except d
b If Powers granted local boards of trustees impinge on
those of the county board confusion and friction may
c Thalutary social influence of ruralL encI urban children
attending the same schools particularly at highscnool
level is removed rural
d Equalization of educational opportunities if the rural
Seas are relatively impoverished may be impaired

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2 The county unit plus independent systems but with no local
trustees
1 Advantages
a These are the same as for the pure county unit with
the exception of a
b Wellestablished administrative units are retained
2 Disadvantages
These are the same as for the pure county unit
b The sXLry social influence of rural and urban children
attending the same schools particularly at highschool
level is removed i
c Equalization of educational opportunities if the rural
areas are relatively impoverished may be impaired
f The county unit plus local advisory groups instead of local
boards of trustees
1 Advantages
a These are the same as for the pure county unit
b A measure of local influence on school affairs is retained
2 Disadvantages
a These are the same as for the pure county unit with the
b SHlS Relation of the local community with the ad
ministration of its schools may be impaired If the sug
gestions of the advisory groups are consistently disre
garded
g State unit
1 Advantages
fa The advantages cited for the pure county unit are
Ippliclble to the state unit but intensified because of
the larper area and greater wealth involved
b The efficiencies of centralization can be carried almost
to the ultimate
2 Disadvantages
a The extreme centralization of authority possible in a
state urit abrogates the democratic tradition of local
administration of schools and opens the way f
tion of the schools for partisan or other selfish purposes
b Most states are either too large geograph00
varied in the character and interests of theorinhabitants
to constitute a satisfactory administrative unitJr

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h Economiccommunity unit
l Advantages
a Rural suburban and urban populations of similar social
economic and educational interests nay be merged for
purposes of school administration
b Adult programs of education may be developed around
interests already established through local social and
economic interdependence
c Actual equality of educational progress for rural children
is more easily assured
d The boundaries of the economiccommunity unit are not
dependent upon established civil and political units
e The size of such units will vary with the needs of the
community with geographical conditions and oasxc land
use
2 Disadvantages
a Because the economiccommunity adnlnlBt1rar
generally would include parts of several governmental
units the collection of taxes would constitute a difficult
problem
b Cooperation with other governmental ft
traffic control and the like might be difficult because
of overlapping
c in predominantly rural areas the economiccomity unit
might be too large to be practicable necessitating
arbitrary divisions of it
d in Georgia an economicconrmnity unit might not include
sufficient wealth to be feasible
hat plans of adninistrative organization ore reoonnended by recognised
authorities
1 General comments on administrative units
a Ward G Reader e danentals of Jublioool
New Yorkt The Macmillan Company 1941 pp to
and otherwise from other governmental activities ilr
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separation is still favored by practically all Profflctical
educators But the separation is vigorously opposed Poetical
lv all authorities in political science they believe that the
separation is in the long run unwholesome both for the schools
and for the other phases of government
The tendency in both theory and practice is toward a larger unit
for school administration especially for the rural schools
This tendency has been accelerated recently by the large increase
in state aid for schools
In general the size of the administrative unit should meet
the following criteria
n The unit should be sufficiently large to Ph1
al schools
2 It should be sufficiently large to make provision for an
adequate administrative and supervisory personnel
3 It should not be so large that the people would lose
interest in the schools
b Arthur B Moehlman School administration Houghton Mifflin
Company 1940 p 182
cepts of size numbers and financial aDin b
nust adjust to the more important social needs
Piabody College for Teachers 1934 p 2
The minimum size of a satisfactory lf f s
administration has been found to Jto
and 46 teaching units it has also been services by one
avoid the performance of two or more JJJ x adrlinistra
individual the size of SShSng units
tion should be approximately 9800 pupils ana a
Note to leader A teaching XTTftrTXlsZ
as 40 pupils in elementary schools and SO f divided
46 teaching units mentioned in the quota ion are equal y
between elementary and highschool teaching units0
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d Fred Engelhardt Public School Organization and Administration
New Yorki Ginn and Company 1931 pp 22 26
It does seem obvious that if a state is to insure equal school
faciSies to all the children of school age then the corporate
unit in which educational services can be most satisfactorily
supplied both economically and professionally should be the one
tot considered There is but one way in which thxs problem can
be properly solved and that is through an assxduou
study of all the factors involved A survey as y
as Sis should be will necessitate a number of years for its
completion Time will then be needed to f
regarding the proposals It would seem a much better policy
devote a number of years to a careful study of the Pms
concerned in developing the desirable Saccept
purposes than to accept a tenporry expedient whih after ac ep
ance may be found to be only a maKesmn JUD
unsatisfactory conditions
2 District units of administration
a Moehlman op cit p 181
The district system was the product of the frontier and
served its purpose reasonably well It isecono
oo smll except for the cities and too poor m resources
and childrenTomaintain a good program or to equalize education
al conditions
3 Independent city districts
a Ibid p 179 180
city corporations will gradually dominate the schools
4 County administrative units
ciation 1934 pp 4850
m a county system of schools it is possible to locate
schools is borne by all alike
It is a unified system and the county board of education
mch help as the teachers in the large schools that have supervis
ing principals

fu
i i i j
Vt fc
1 V
31
It also is possibleto provide other services not now availa
ble to many districts Types of schools not usually possi
ble can be organized at certain points in the county
In brief the county unit plan tends to equalize educational
opportunities within the county because the children In the
poorer school districts have the sane opportunities as those in
the wealthier districts
ttThe county unit plan is more economical in several ways
Recommendations looking toward the county unit or toward
strengthening the county system in operation have been made by
uoXof the state school survey commissions Among these commis
sions were those that reported on the schools of Alabama Arizona
Irkansasrcolorado Florida Indiana Kentucky Maryland Missis
sippi Oklahoma South Dakota Virginia West Virgtola and
Wisconsin In California the education commission of thetax
pavers league on several occasions has recommended a county unit
system on the grounds that such a system would be much more
efficient and more economical
b Moehlman op cit p 181
H The county does not make a necessarily good school
LtriT Itoo is a very artificial unit and its strict Se
creates peculiar attendance areas on county borders Natural
areas donorfollow arbitrary political or civil boundaries
c Bngelhardt op cit p 22
rrt mav be politically expedient to accept the county school unit
faTorwarSooking measure and the next most sirable step in
the division of the state for school purposes To propose any
other plan in many states would no doubt complicate natters
In cases in which such a plan is adopted it should riot be done
Sth the Sought that the final step in school organization has
been taken
nif the county units mat be accepted then flexible boundaries
for educational purposes should be maintained kIin
boundaries for school purposes should not be too rigidly
tained
5 The state as an administrative unit
a William C Reavis and Charles H Judd The Teacher gnd Educational
Administration New York Houghton Mifflin Company 1942 PP
31215
Although a major part of the educational eJ
taining to educational administration suggests that the county
constitutes the best possible unit at present there is no
ssrjsr ssrsrsiars rasa
of school unitscv cr
OD
JXri

c
Co A common argument is that the problem of equalizing educa
tional opportunity would be solved if the state comprised a single
unit of school support and control
There are tendencies toward making the state the unit of school sup
port if not the unit of administration The state is Readily
assuming a more important role in the financing of education
b Educational Policies Commission Tte tructure and
Education in American Democracy Washington National Education
Associationof the United States 1938 pp 79 86 titi
Centralization in the control administration and financing of
education is very apt to lead to a mediocre school system
lack of progressive development in the program of public education
Wrtn welldeveloped local units for the administration of spools it
certain that some communities will develop leadership which will
be effective in improving education
The state authority should be zeroised with respect to certain
minimum requirements dealing with the external affairs of the
schools
The state should not enter a situation Jff
tails of the curriculum or the methods to be employed in the class
room In the internal affairs of the school system the local admin
istrative and supervisory officers and professional workers should
be given full responsibility
6 Economiccommunity units
Moehlman op cit pp 180181
If present attitudes are capable of translation the domi
district unit will be the natural communityexpress
ed as a relation of social economic and ecational invests
varying in size with geographical conditions and basvusf
While the basic factors determining the community unit are
tnt its size will tend to be extremely variable School
IZllZllsT the eounity will
also vary with density of population and topographical condi
tions
rrhP organization with the natural community as a basis of
S d SinKedinescapable values Strong social and economic
interests have already been established in these areas xhey offer
a means for the gradual harmonization of the traditional urban
suSan and rufal conflicts and thus make for greater social unity
if Z Sssible for the schools to develop adult programs of educa
llonCetly around interests already eetablltteouaal
social and economic interdependence They furnish the most gicai
Sanf of securing actual equality of educational Pjw f the
rural children and are sufficiently large in child population zo
Sfer reasonable numbers of children to make enriched progress
possible at a relatively small economic outlay I33
7 Local boards of trustees
a Report of the Committee on Local Responsibility for the Organization
SgffirsIS SUthfn SatVnrin thfsouthen
School Administrative Problems Improving Education in ge gff
States Bulletin L 1943 pp 22 23 Tallahassee Florida Southern
States WorkConference
It is obvious that the existence of one policy forming board
for an administrative unit and of fSad
forming functions for certain parts of the unxt might readxly lead
to confusion
In the states in which there are subordinate taxing dist riJj
the trustees for the taxing district should not exercise any funda
mental fiscal function if there is to be an xntegrated fiscal polxqy
for the local school administrative unit The only way of avoiding
confusion therefore would apparently be to make the f dof
cation ofthe administrative unit clearly responsible f all fxscal
policies in that case trustees for the subtaxxng districts as sucn
apparently would not be necessary
rrhere seems to be more justification for the selection of trustees
for individual schools in rural areas provided t ftsofhe
trustees are clearly defined so that there can be o conflict with
the duties of the board of education for the adminxstratxve
unit It is obvious they might serve a very real function in
helping to keep the schools close to the people Their positxve
functions would bet
tn To exercise general custodial supervision over the school
building ZTto Srlc with the principal and superintendent xn deter
gingbuSding needs and seeing that the building is properly cared
for
Z To keep in touch with the principal and the community in order to
be informed concerning local school needs and X2evL
prepared to support the principals recomuendatxons to the superin
tendent
8 To consider teachers recommended by the J
ent for the school but to have authority to reject only for good
reason any teacher who is recommended
4 To help to interpret the school program and needs to the people of
the community
It should be clearly understood that trustees should not do any of
the followingj
a Should not attempt to interfere with the operation of the school
or advice the principal or any of the teachers with reference to the
instructional work
2 Should not attempt to initiate appointment of teachers but should
consider only recommendations submitted by the principal and superin
tendent
rts Should not attempt to retain a school which is too small to be
SfiSent or to develop a high school at a center where only elemen
tary facilities should be providedM i
54
F What type of administrative unit is best for this county
1 A committee of the planning group may be named to organize J n
reached When these have been agreed upon by the oup the plan
with reasons therefor may be written up in some detail and later Saving
nitted to the entire group for approval It is possible tJpiannSjlg
group may suggest one type of unit as the immediate goal and another
requiring new state legislation as an ultimate plan
2 Comments concerning a practical unit for Georgia
a Although the economicsociocommunity unit of admf
to be the dominant new local district unit it is yet too early to
cite a trend toward it It is also probably s
it vigorously for Georgia because of the strength of those forces
that regard the county as a fixed and permanent unit in the civil
setup of the State Nevertheless the economicsociocomunity
unit is in accord with the thinking of planners and it would seem to
bfthe laical ultimate plan if the philosophy of community partici
pation and planning in the administration of the schools is en
more than lip service It is suggested therefore that the leaders
discuss it with their planning groups as at least a possible future
step
b The pure county unit without independent systems but withlocal
advisory groups established to retain some measure of local ence
in schoolIdrlnistration and with safeguards to TTreoo
of county lines when the population of a county or its wealth are too
small oits geography unsuitable for a satisfactory administrative
unit would be practicable in Georgia
c Because of the existence of the present indePende cing
probable that until a still better method of equaltltTnelhotTf
is adopted and it should be observed that the present method at
equalization in Georgia is far in advance of many of the states
the county unit plus independent systems but fTTolrd
trustees exercising administrative authority is the next forward
step that can be taken with any likelihood of success
d These statements are not intended as an answer to the Pe
are merely suggestions that may logically be peotedto J
during the discussions of the planning group It shd
ed by the leader it seems that merely to cre J
administrative unit does not necessarily assure a TfJ
tem Any change must include better organization and adequate fi
nmcial suDnort Nor should the size of the unit De aeeraiiieu
sSeiyupoHhe basis of business efficiency and economy which are
byproducts of a good organization but not the primary basis
G What are some of the criteria that may be used in evaluating an administrative
unit
1 The administrative unit should he based XS
Ifstoundarr It Lull SSSS he SuiLily to educational
cialand economic needs rather than to arbitrary concepts of size
nunbers financial ability or existing boundaries of other govunoentai
subdivisions1

i 35
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
The administrative unit should be centrally controlled by a lay board
which under state laws should have final determination of all Pcles
and their application throughout the unit operating through a chiel
executive officer the superintendent of schools
No boards subordinate to that of the administrative unit should have the
legal power to make final decisions
Local initiative should be protected by appropriate means such as local
advisory councils with recommending power on any matter of concern in tne
Immediate situation
Although the evidence is not conclusive it is believed by most authori
ties in school administration that the administrative unit should be
fiscally independent of other governmental subdivisions
An administrative unit should embrace an area in which the common educa
tional interests of rural and urban territory can be harmonized and
combined
The boundaries of the unit should coincide as far as possible with those
of natural communities which it should be observed under modern
transportation conditions extend well beyond what were previously
believed to be community boundaries
The size of the administrative unit should be variable but with excep
tions to care for special situations it should be fglity
in terms of the number of children to be served and the financial ability
to meet local tax needs to permit the organization of a complete system
o elementary and secondary schools with provision for an adequate ad
ministrative and supervisory personnel For large centers provision
is recommended for junior colleges and trade schools
Flexible boundaries should be maintained to facilitate adjustments to
shifts in population andor wealth
The administrative unit should not be so large f
terest in the schools or that homeschool cPerionsnefed
cause of the remoteness of the central administration from actual
operating situations
The administrative unit should be so planned geographically that schools
cS be locftel conveniently and transportation where ssary can be
easily arranged without requiring long routes in any attendance area
0 Unit 2
What Administrative Organization Should Be Set Up in the
Local School System
I P reliminaries
A Leaders objective
1 To discover the problems of administrative organization in a local
school system
2 To think through these problems reflectively
5 To arrive at conclusions administrative organization
4 To formulate a plan for an effective local aamiu
5 To put the plan into operation
B Members of the planning group l bounty perintendent mberof
the local board 3 representatives of C0Jepresentatives of
5 local school faculty unty supervi of county or city
the ParentTeacher Association and V rePsei etc
legislative groups county commissioners city councilmen
0 Informational services required
1 Tables
Table II Data Concerning County Boards of Education County
a Table I jrlntandent8 and Local Boards of trustees
b Table lit
2 Charts
A Comparison of the Principal Known Ooonvfof
VhitePPersons in Heard County Georgia Withthe Occu
pations of Members of the County Board of Education
and With Those of Members of Local Boards of Trustees
a Chart I Tynes of Local School Business Classified According to
a Chart iyp Appropriate Sphere of Authority
b Chart II Areas of Administrative Responsibility in the Manage
ment of Local School problems
c Chart III The Administrative Organization in U County
d Chart I of Unit 1 JXW RelatinShlPS
3 Books pamphlets etc
u i t ATantn Georgia State Department of
a Georgia School Laws Atlanta ueorid
Education 1942
b Supplement to Georgia School Lgs Enactments of the General
AliembiyTl943 Session Atlanta Georgia otaTe u v
Education June 1943
36 ii i
r
i

ili

J
i

J

aloorr
tfj SJYJ37
c Proposals for Public Education in Postwar America Research
Bulletin ofThe National Education Association XXII April
1944
d Educational Policies Commission Learning the Bag
Democracy Washington National Education Association 1940
e Reeder Ward G The Fundamentals of Public School Admini
tratlon New York The MacMillan Conpany 1941
f Moehlman Arthur B School AdmJtratipn Boston Houghton
Mifflin Company 1940
g Southern States WorkOonferenoe on School Administrative Problems
Report of the Committee on Local Responsibility fthe pggl
tio indAdminlstration of Education Tallahassee Florida
SotariTstates WorkConference on School Administrative Problems
1943 Bulletin No 1
II Getting the group into the problem
A The leader nay raise with the group some questions which will indicate
the types of relationships which exist between
The local board and the county board
Theprincipal and his local board
The teachers and the principal
The custodian and the principal
The bus drivers and the principal
The parents and the teacher or the principal
The extralegal groups and the principal or board
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
in order to present this material for critical evaLuatan Ohart
may be constructed As a given type of problem or item of ol
business is stated it nay be classified and placed in the appropriate
column
I J h
Ic
nOX
rjZO
l v A
j cr

iCOC
10 ZiiXQjifiquOO
ij
if

ig site

rvi
Ovil iC CiTJf
i i 0 vii7L
L J
tiUiLik

r
0CHART I
TYPES OF LOCAL SCHOOL BUSINESS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO
THE APPROPRIATE SPHERE OF AUTHORITY
Authority
Appropriate types of school business
Local board and
county board
Principal and local
board
Teachers and prin
cipal
Custodian and prin
cipal
Bus driver and
principal
Parents and
teacher
Parents and prin
cipal
Extralegal groups
and the principal
Extralegal groups and
the local board
B
ly deal with or delegate the responsibility A partxal list of proDXen
areas would include the followingt

1 Financing the school
2 Employment of personnel
3 Maintenance of transportation facilities
4 Administering the program x
5 Maintenance of the school plant
6 Maintaining relations with the conmunity
7 Administering pupil personnel
8 Providing for the physical welfare of pupils
9 Administering records and reports
r f
f
Vil A f

ISQtiiCtiO bi Lj j j
JrXUlX1CI
iiivitipc
iV i y
In order to prorate thinking and critical selection a chart similar
tS Chart II nay be constructed on the board for recording the suggestions
offered by the group
CHART II
AREAS OF ADMINISTRATIVE RESPONSIBILITY IN THE MANAGEMENT
OF LOCAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS
III
Problem areas
Financing the school
Employment of personnel
Appropriate authorities
Maintenance of transportation
facilities
Administering the school program
Maintenance of the school plant
Maintaining public relations
Administering pupil personnel
providing for the physical wel
fare of the pupils
Administering records and reports
4He of incline the group to recognize
The point of the above procedure is that of lg required to make
the extent and nature of administrative relatxonshxpsrequxre ses
the machinery of a hoolunC00ctatSd crScal thinking and
exist for this purpose only and that carefusion and friction
planning in this matter is Jjf to SSce the leader
The introductory steps may ffjf administration and is
that the group is aware of problems in xocax bvww
ready to do something to solve them
Procedure for the solution of the oroblen What adninistrative organization
should be set up in the local school system
A What administrative organization should be set up in the local school
system
Obtain the opinions of neuters of ZlVZXT
members of the group to give their reasons for eachB
40
What administrative organization now serves this school systen
1 The leader nay prepare for this portion of the discussion by
conferring withtte county superintendent in advance with respect
to the various relationships and lines of authority
several boards officials staff and employees Th f atin
obviously nay be obtained when the leader axscusses the basic
relationships concerning the adninistratiye unit as suggested
in Unit 1 III B 1 above If no organization chart is
avanable theleader probably will find it nelpful tcconstruct
one subnitting it to the superintendent for nxs approval Thxs
chart should be separate fron that suggested in Unxt 1 ine
relationships and lines of authority should be checked for
accuracy with others particularly with subordinates Again
fhTs l7no reflection on the veracity of he superintendent as
those heading an organization not infrequentlybelJve tnat
relationships exist which are different from what the actual
relationships are The chart nay be used by f
guide in the discussion with the group or xt aab eXd
at the end of the discussion as a means fwhlfthe
what the group believes the relationships to be and wnat they
presumably are The following chart is suggestxvel

J i

I Legendt
CHART III
THE ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION IN U COUNTY
Channel of authority
Advisory channel
Direction of flow
State
Educational Administration
Grand jury
1
State
Supervisor
County
Board of Education
ion I
i
Citizsas of
School Dlatriot

i
l
I
County l
i T5 iSuperintendent
J
Local
Boards of Trustees
iI
I
Countywide
Supervisors Directors
and Special Services
3T
i
Principals
Head Teachers j
3
1
Custodians
Bus Drivers j
Teachers
Pupils
41
V i
ii i 0
x
iLi J iji
ff
f i

M V
i SiJivi Si 42
3 ThP leader nay find that filling in the following blank table will
2 be heW Rawing upon the knowledge of nenbers f the planning
group If sufficient blackboard space is not available the subject
naltlv of tne table may be obtained through appropriate questions
TABLE I
DATA CONCERNING COUNTY BOARDS OF EDUCATION COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS
AND LOCAL BOARDS OF TRUSTEES
It ens
i Nunber
of
Ineubers
How j Tarn
Chosen
hualifii Conpen Remov
al
j UclLXX AI
cations sation
County board of
education
Filling Organi
vacan zation
cies
General
powers
County superin
tendent
Local boards of
trustees
For specific powers and duties see the enuneration in Unit 1 Part III
3 In addition to the foregoing the following questions nay be
helpful in ascertaining further information concerning the
organization
a toy an entirely new county board take office at one tine or are
terns of office overlapping
b What occupations are represented on the county board and on the
local boards of trustees and how do these conpare with the
occupations of the white population of the a J1
adapted fron Table XXVII Part IV shows the data for Heard
County9 T Tc
TABLE II
I COMPARISON OF THE PRINCIPAL KNOW a OCCUPATIONS OF WHITE P30N3 I0
S geLgLhe occupations of ambers of the county board OF
EDUCATION AND WITH THOSE OF MEMBERS OF LOCAL BOARDS OF TRUSTEE
Occupations
Total population
iNumber Percentage
College student
Forestry
Miscellaneous
Business and repairs
Honemaking
Governmental services
Professions
Personal services
Wholesale and retail
trade
Transportation and
coninunication
Manufacturing
Agriculture
4
3
42
85
1049
50
46
46
53
147
335
041
1
1
15
29
364
17
16
16
11
51
116
363
County bcZOoardsptrutees
Number
Percentage Nunber
To be filled in
Percentage
TotalsJ2879a
1000
1000
1000
a Of the total ite population of Heard County 4 776 no data or no occupy
school or of less than school age
c How are principals and teachers chosen
d How are bus drivers chosen
e How are custodians chosen
f What voice do the pupils have in the government of their
respective schools
g What is the relationships of the oounty board to the
j oara education and the State Departs
3 County superintendent
4 Business manager for the system if any
5 Boards of independent systems within the county it an
6 Local boards of trustees
7 Principals and teachers
8 Bus drivers
9 Custodians
10 County comnissioners
11 Health authorities
12 Other governmental or organized agenciest
43 IC 44
h What is the relationship of the county superintendent to thei
1 Citizens of the county
2 State Departaent of Education
3 State area supervisor
4 County board
5 Business manager for the systea if any
6 Boards of independent systems within the county if any
7 Countywide supervisors and directors
8 Principals
9 Teachers
10 Bus drivers
11 Custodians
i What is the relationship of the local boards of trustees to thel
1 Citizens of the local district
2 County board of education
3 County superintendent
4 Countywide supervisors or directors
5 Principals
6 Teachers
7 Bus drivers
8 Custodians
j What is the relationship of the countywide supervisors etc
to thei
1 County board of education
2 County superintendent
3 Local boards of trustees
4 Principals
5 Teachers
k What is the relationship of the principals to thai
1 County board of education
2 County superintendent
3 Local boards of trustees
4 County business nanager if any
5 Countywide supervisors
6 Teachers
7
8
Bus drivers
Custodians
1 What is the relationship of the teachers to the
1 County board of education
2 County superintendent
3 Local boards of trustees
4 Countywide supervisors
5 Principals
6 Custodians
7 Childrenii jjv i i4ii i j ti Ju jii Jvi

1

i otb ui iUouJ i ail
e

Si w U
F 1
v v u
lO llxiVii rJT 1
7

V i J r r
tfayp J

nfj
45
a What is the relationships of the bus drivers to thei
1 County board of education
2 County superintendent
3 Local boards of trustees
4 Principals
5 Teachers
6 Custodians
7 Children
n What is the relationship of the custodian to thei
1 County board of education
2 County superintendent
3 Countysystem business manager if any
4 Local boards of trustees
5 Principals
6 Teachers
7 Bus drivers
8 Children
4 The followinF summary is based on Georgia School Laws published by
4 th StSe Dartnenof Educationland the Supfent thereto
published in 1943 It refers specifically VthKads
Table I It is furnished here for the convenience of the leaders
a County board of education
l Membership
a Five freeholders selected by the grand jury from time
1 to time 32902 apportioned as far as practicable
over the county with no two from the same militia
district or locality 32903
b No member from a portion of the county embraced by a
local school system 32902
c No appointee also a member of the grand jury in session
at the time of his appointment 32903
d No member financially interested in the sale of school
books 32902 or in the transportation of pupils
32919
2 Termfour years or until their successors are elected and
qualified 32902
5 Qualifications
a Good moral character 32903 piish
b Fair knowledge of elementary branches of an English
education 32903
c Favorable to the common school system 2yuo
4 Compensationnot to exceed five dollars for eacdays
actual service This does not apply to counties with a
population exceeding 80000 32904 i
I

HH J
J i
i V s 46
5 Removal by the judge of the superior court of the county
non the address of twothirds of the grand jury for ineffi
ciency incapacity general neglect of duty or malfeasance
or corruption in office after opportunity to answer charges
32905
6 Filling of vacanciesinterim appointments to fill vacancies
are male by the judge of the superior court of the county the
appointment running until the next session of the grand jury
32905
7 Organization of the board
a Presidentchosen by members of the board from their
number to serve during the term he was chosen as a
member of the board 32907
b Secretarycounty superintendent of schools exofflcio
32907
c Quoruma majority of the board 32907
b County superintendent of schools
h Electionby the qualified voters of the county except the
voters n an Independent school district within the county
The election is set for the Tuesday after the first Monday
in November 321002
Termfour years beginning the first day of January following
Senate othe election and continuing until a successor
is elected and qualified 321002
3 Compensation a year plus 150 af
K the county from state funds plus such additional copensa
tion as the county board may allow 32luubj
4 Removalby a majority vote of the board or inefficiency
incapacity neglect of duty malfeasance or corruption in
S3 with right of appeal to the State school Superintend
ent and the State Board of Education 32lOOd
5 Filling vacanciesby election by the county board of
education for the unexpired term 321006
6 Qualifications
a Three years practical experience in teaching 321004
b Holding a firstgrade highschool license or in lieu
b TheJeo a diploo from a literary college ornormal
school or five years experience in the actual super
vision of schools or standing an approved examination
before the State Board of Education Tobecone a
candidate for election the person must file a certifi
cate of qualification under one of these hods
with the State Department of Education 321004
c Good moral character and never convicted of any crimeJvxancf
rl r
czayxx
CSfKSl
fi

v u

i

47
c Local boards of trustees
1 Electionthree trustees to be elected as prescribed by
1 fhTcounty board of education in dlBtrlote mtrf
incorporated towns there nay be five trustees 321104
2 Tern three years 321104
3 Compensationnone
4 Qualifications
a Intelligent citizens of good moral character 32T1104
b nown to be earnest supporters of public education
321104
5 Organization
a Presidentelected from their own number 321104
b Secretary and treasurerelected from their own number
321104
6 Removalby the county beard of education upon a written
1 complaint from a majority of the voters of district
for conduct unbecoming the dignity of a school trustee
Object to the right of the trustee toreeeive a copy of
the complaint and a hearing thereon 32HU4
4 in helping the planning group to fSSS
organization operates within the system the following questions
may be useful
a Is any executive in the system coordinate in authority with the
superintendent
b
c
d
e
f
How much time do the principals devote to supervising the
instruction given in their schools
To what extent may principals vary the programfJ f f ols
to serve the educational needs of the constituency of their
respective schools
and bus drivers
Is the advice of supervisors principals teachers bus drivers
pupSs and parents sought before administrative policies affect
ing them are put into effect
To net extent is ggttTXd
system Are responsibility ana auonori
equal
sees h person taow to he U k
and for whet and jU ft at s duties and
each person been specifically imoruea
limits of authority are 1
lV
fJO
jJ i i
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f
rfiKIf loi
V r 48
h Ts nnvone placed in the channel f authority in such a way that
S St beboth an assistant to and a critic of his adninistrative
superior
i Is there a known channel of appeal from the decisions of
administrative superior to the next higher adninistrative authori
ty open to subordinates without prejudice
i What authority have the countywide supervisors and directors
with respect to principals and teachers
C That adninistrative organizations are found in other school systens
1 The leader should stimulate nenbers of the planning group to cite
SiiisSative organizations that are found fShSh
independent systens in Georgia and also any elsewhere with wmcn
they nay be familiar
2 Below are additional suggestions which nay be
ed on the blackboard or duplicated and furnxshed to the planning
group
a The following relationships were reported in V county
1 in general the relationships are similar to those illustrated
in Chart II
2 Custodians are responsible in part directly to local boards
of trustees and in part to building principals or head
teachers
M tocp PirentTeacher Associations have been organized for
3 all six schools of the county with advisory relationships
to the respective principals and head teachers
b The following relationships were reported in W county
1 No local boards of trustees exist
I qonenenbers of the board exercise actual adninistrative
2 felationSs with principals shortcircuiting the superin
tendent These relationships are wholly eaXegal rxot
hMn authorized in the rules and regulatxons of the D0a
but Ire none the as evident as though they were authoriz
ed
M ntodiins are responsible to the board through a supervisor
Tf butSits The supervisor of buildings has only advisory
relationships with the superintendent Custodians are also
responsible for following the wishes of the principals on
thebasis of general policies established by the supervisor
of buildings and approved by the board
4 Countywide supervisors have adninistrative as well as
advisory relationships with principals and teachers by custon
rather than by board rule
3 Is

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5 ParentTeacher Associations have the usual advisory relation
ships with principals
c The following relationships were reported in a city system
1 Tne business manager is responsible directly to the board
2 Principals are responsible to the business manager in business
natters such as the preparation of absence records of
tfacherl accounting for funds collected in extracurricular
activities requisitioning of supplies and the like
3 A supervisor of buildings is responsible to the business
manager
4 Custodians are pririly responsible to the supervisor of
building and secondarily to the principals who exercise sucn
authority over their respective plants as is mitted by
the policies administered by the supervisor of builaings
5 Relationships on the educational side are t0fSS
approved in generalthat is supervisors directors and
special services operate in an advisory capacity
d The following relationships were reported in a city system
1 The business manager is responsible to the superintendent
who is the sole executive of the board
2 A supervisor of buildings is responsible to the business
nanager
3 Policies concerning building operations are established with
the cooperation of principals
4 Custodians are responsible to the fPef jf f
for carrying out policies established as cited in 3 and
to the building principals in immediate matters
o S tto custodial staff the latter through the supervisor
of buildings
6 Supervisors directors and special services have advisory
relationships with the principals and teachers
7 Local parentteacher groups advise with the VPJ
citywide parentteacher council advises with the superintend
ent
8 The board of education is elected by fequalified voters of
the city which constitutes the school district ab far as
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D What plans of administrative organization for local school systems
are recommended by recognized authorities
1 Underlying policies
a Proposals for Public Education 122 Reaearch
BulletinoFThe National Education Association XXII Upru
1944 53 54
Every school system and every school should be operated accord
ing to democratic principles and ideals Pupils staff members
ant Symen should cooperate in the development of sound educa
Sonaf policies This does not naan that everyone regardless
of his position or his relationship to the school system
should share as if by vote in making final 1
levels of school operation Centralization f responsibility
and delegation of authority are characteristic of
efficient democracy
Administrative districts should set P rigorous jde of
personnel selection aoSe
staff members en a nonpolitical merit basis im
professional staff should be persons of high ability ell
Cnled SucaUon specialized training balanced personality
sound health and good character
b Educational Policies Commission Learni JgS
Washington D CI National Education Association of the
United States 1940 pp 331 332
12 Educational policy is determined by the people
through the exercise of the franchise The PPands
place the authority to control educational policy in the hands
of a lay board
is The lay board selects a chief executive officer and holds
2 responsible for resenting policies and programs to the
Sard or discussion and approval and for carrying out these
policies and programs after the board has approved
4 Educational policies should be froctsf capitat
professional staff through a eooperative PeBB JgltaL
Ling the intellectual resoles o the whole staff J
participation should not be thought of as aa
by the administration but ratner as a rigat and
Aftpr policies have been developed by the staif they snouia
te submitted to the board of education for final review and
approval
6 The superintendent will require that broad PeB
carried out throughout the school system but he will ffe
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for common objectives while encouraging resourcefulness and
ingenuity on the part of all
8 Back of the professional JeeSLatlonl
rifrirLSr
Sd stiff will eoek the cooperation of parents and other
citizens in developing the educational program
The persons who control theschool budget g
school policy Therefore the fthe policies namely
the hands of the sane persons who control the poxxcxes
the board of education
2 The board of education
a Proposals for Public Education xPotw Anica op cit
p 4S
tISxcept as indicated in the ZggT
lls oZ lay board of education so selected as to c
high degree of competence and minimize Vamerk
political influence xn school affairs finances inde
of state law the board should manage own ces jm
pendently of all other local agenciJffl and
qualified superintendent and should rexy p
nis staff for information and guidance H fa
except perhaps adequate fxnancxal support
To lie development of a firsWrate JToZ of
intelligent wellinformed and civicminded local ooara
education
b
Reeder op cit pp 72 81 8584
The following tendencies are noted l gg
election on a nonpartisan ticket 12 W
of office for example from three to s md taMi
smaller number of members for example between live
anM4 no salary except perhaps a small per diem
Most students of school administration agree that school
board members should be elected X
partisan election P to express themselves directly
definite feeling of responsibility to tbe electo ate APP
aent of school board members by mayors JJTJ domination
is frowned upon because of the
ifiitty to the electorate
ambers by mayors cour
an because of the dan
by selfinterestpolitical or otherwise
agencies 0
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In every community steps should be taken to assure that
the highest type of citizens become candidates for and are
elected to school boardmembership The superintendent
and other school employees have not only a right but an
obligation to urge wellqualified persons to become candidates
for the board provided their motive is to advance the interests
of education
In trying to secure the election of competent board members
the publicspirited elements of the community must be practical
politicians and they can always use fair means in being
such
boards of education have been delegated the functicm of
seeing that the schools of the community are properly adminis
tered This does not mean that persons who happen to
constitute the school board of the community own the schools
and can run them irrespective of the wishes and orders of their
constituents School board members are merely public servants
who have been selected to carry out the wishes and the orders
of their constituents in accordance with the laws of the
State
3 Unit vs multiple organization
a Ward G Reeder The Fundamentals of Public School Administration
New Yorkt The Macmillan Company 1941 p 93 94
In the unit type of organization one individualthe
superintendentalninisters in person or directs the aumrnis
tration of the whole organization all employees
are subordinate to the superintendent In the multiple type
certain functions are administered by one or more execu
tives who are coordinate with the superintendent of schools

t The tendency everywhere in both theory and practice is
toward the adoption of the unit type and away from the multiple
type
It provides for centralized control and such control
is considered to be at least in all other fields of endeavor
a first principle of efficient management
It tends to prevent the development of friction
It guards against the waste resulting from duplication
of effort
4 The superintendent
a Proposals for Public Education in Postwar America op cit
p 53
In every local administrative district a specially trained
well qualified superintendent should be responsible to the
schoolboard for successful operation of public schools in the V
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district His peculiar function is to see the entire
school system in its varied relationships and thus be in a
position to advise and guide the board of education and the
school staff toward the coordination of desirable activities
in a smoothworking efficient democratic organization
b Resir op cit pp 22 23 72
n The tendency everywhere is toward requiring at least
three years of teaching experience plus at least one year of
graduate work with emphasis on school administration for
all types of positions in school administration
When the importance and the difficulty of the work of
the school superintendent are considered it oan be justly
urged that he have a minimum of three years of graduate
study Both graduate and undergraduate programs should
keep in mind cultural as well as professional studies The
superintendent should be well grounded in such areas as public
finance sociology economics and political science He
needs also a wellrounded preparation in child psychology and
hygiene and in the whole field of professional education he
especially needs preparation in school administration
With the exception of county superintendents which
are still frequently elected on a political basis the tendency
everywhere is to elect superintendents on the basis of their
administrative and technical competence
5 School principals
a Proposals for Public Education in Postwar America op cit
p 53
Specially trained wellqualified principals should be
responsible for administering and supervising the individual
schools The principals chief duty is to guide and
direct the school staff in providing a school environment and
a program of education well suited to the allround needs of
the local school community The principal should have
had classroom teaching experience as well as special training
in administration and supervision at the school level where he
is to serve
6 Teachers counselors librarians nurses
a Ibid pp 53 54
Specially trained wellqualified staff members devoting
their time appropriately to classroom teaching pupil counsel
ing and school library service should be provided as a rule
in a ratio of at least one for every 25 pupils enrolled V I I
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nAt least one fulltine graduate nurse should be employed
for every 1000 children aged 3 through ri 5 every 1500
pupils aged 6 through 11 and every 2000 pupils aged 12 through
19 Smaller schools should share the services of such a
nurse
b Reeder op cit pp 115 117 118
The teacher primarily determines whether the school
will be efficient or inefficient Compared with teachers
such things as buildings equipment and supplies though
they should never be neglected are of a secondary inpor
tance
competent teachers should be employed because they are
more selfreliant than the incompetent They do not need
as much direction and supervision Under a competent
teaching staff a school or a school system practically runs
itself
7 Specialists
a Proposals for Public Education in Postwar America op cit
p 54
Every local administrative district of adequate size
should habits own staff of suitably trained 11qualxfxed
specialists operating from the central office Smaller
districts should employ such specialistscooperatively if
economy and efficiency of operation require it The stall
should include ideally technical supervisors in the field of
curriculum and instruction as well as guidance offleers in
general charge of school attendance psychological service
psychiatric social work medical and dental services and
educational and vocational counseling
b Report of the Committee on Local Responsibility for g Organi
itfer alTdinlstTation of Education Southern States ork
CfeTenc olTscloT Administrative Problems gprng gua
tion in the Southern States Bulletin No 1 1943 pp 202
Certain services are essential in every administrative
unit if the needs of the pupils are to be satisfactorily
net
Even in the smaller systems having more than one
chooi S superintendent has difficulty binding enough time
to give proper attention to the development of the curriculum
and the improvement of instruction
In addition to a director of instructional services
supervisors attendance assistants cuCesirable
cialists and other assistants may oe aesirauxe
tTe number and type of assistants depending largely on the
size of the school system
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E
F
What plan of administrative organization is best for the school
system
1 A committee of the planning group may be named to organize the
conclusions reached When these have been agreed upon by the group
the plans proposed with reasons therefor may be written up in some
detail and later submitted to the entire group for approval
2 The plan finally approved as best may not be possible under the
present school laws of Georgia For example where local rds
of trustees exist they introduce certain elements of the multiple
type organization Under these circumstances an alternate plan
may be approved that would be considered best within the present
framework of school law
What are some of the criteria that may be used in evaluating an adminis
trative organization of a school system
1 The administrative organization should provide for the participation
of laymen pupils custodians bus drivers and the professional
staf in the formulation of policies that will affect the several
groups on the assumption that in a democracy the people are the
ultimate determiners of policy
2 The authority to control policies and evaluate their results in the
name of the people should be in the hands of Vfid to
board so selected as to insure a high degree of competence and to
minimize political and other partisan influences
3 Members of the lay board should be chosen on the basis of their
intelligence civicmindedness and favorable interest in public
education rather than on formal educational qualification They
should serve for overlapping terms of three to f ive years and
should receive no compensation other than a small per diem to
cover their expenses
4 The administration of the policies approved by the lay board should
delegated to an official by custom called the superintendent
of schools who should be selected by the board on the basis of
his Professional competence and who should be the sole executive
ofkcef responsible directly to the board The board should rely
on him and his staff for information and guidance
5 The administration of the individual schools shf b ged t0
wellqualified principals whose duty it should be to guide ana
SrecHhe school staff in providing a school environment and pro
gram suited to the allround needs of the community
6 The entire staff professional and Be
the recommendation of the superintendent solely on V
their competence broadly viewed to perform the r f w
they are employed Such matters as religion residence xnjr out
of the community marital status political affiliation andthe
like should be given no consideration in the selection of a candl
dateie
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7 A staff of wellqualified specialists should operate from the
central office as helpers and advisers to the principals and
teachers but not as administrative superiors to then If economy
requires it these specialists may be employed cooperatively by
two or more administrative units
8 Business custodial and maintenance operations should be considered
as activities to service the educational program and should be so
administered
9 In addition to the foregoing criteria a sound administrative organi
zation requires that provision be made for the following prxnciples
of general administration
a The objectives of the school system and those of its principal
segments must be known to and understood by all concerned
b Delegated authority and responsibility must be equal The amount
of delegation depends upon the size and complexity of the school
system
c A smoothforking organization that accomplishes the objectives
of the school system is dependent upon personalities hence
duties must be assigned partly on the basis of personality as
well as upon technical proficiency This criterion applies
particularly to principals and the advisory staff
d As far as possible like or similar duties should be grouped
under one head or heads responsible to a common superior in order
to coordinate activities to conserve skills and to achieve
centralization of authority and reasonable simplicity in organi
zation
e The general limits of authority and clear definitions of duties
should be stated to all concerned in order to minimize over
lapping of effort Changes in authority or in assigned duties
should be brought to the attention of all concerned
f Each officer and employee should know to whom he is responsible
and for what and who is responsible to him and for what The
established channel should be respected by all concerned
g No one should be placed in the line of authority in such a way
that he must act both as an assistant to and a critic of his
administrative superior
h A channel of appeal to higher authority from the decisions of
an administrative superior should be open to subordinates
without prejudice
i Tne organization should be charted to show the basic relation
ships among functions and officials A welldrawn chart aids
in systematizing the thinking of the principal administrators
as well as in enabling the staff to visualize and understand
better their respective positions in the organization An
organization that cannot be successfully charted probably is
in need of revisionic e

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Unit 3
What Should Be the Size of the Attendance Units in This System
I Preliminaries
A Leaders objective To lead the planning group to determine the size
ol attendance units that will best serve this school system to think
through the problem reflectively to arrive at conclusions and to
formulate and put into action a plan for dealing with the problem of
size of attendance units
B lumbers of the planning group 1 County superintendent fe
members of the county board 3 county supervise rustees
5 principal 6 teachers 7 PT A members 8 trustees
neighboring districts and 9 otheradults
0 Definitions
1 Size of attendance units as considered in this Unit refers to the
number of pupils and instructional staff Geographical size
attendance units will be considered in the chapter relating to trans
portation
2 attendance unit as used in this Unit is defined in accordance with
the explanation given in the introduction to Chapter s h
be recalled to the planning group in order to avoxd confusion wii
administrative unit
D Informational services required
1 Tables
a See Table XXXIV Part IV Composition of Average White and Non
white Households Heard County Georgia 1944
b Table Ii Attendance Units in C County System Georgia in
b Table I Atten classified According to Number of Teachers
c Table II Examples of Attendance Units in C County System
c Table m 194344 Having various Enrollments
and Number of Teachers
d Table III SecondarySchool Attendance Units in W County
Georgia in 194445
e Table IV Schools in the State of Georgia in 194142 Classi
fied According to Number of Teachers
f Table V Total County Schools County Enrollment and Average
Enrollment per School in Georgia 19411942
2 Charts
a Chart I Types of Problems Encountered in Establishing Atten
dance Units
b Chart II Steps of Procedure in Establishing School Attendance
b Chart II Steps Techniques for Carrying Out Each Step
57

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58
Map Physical and Other Factors in Vicinity of Proposed School Site
of X County Georgia
4 Books pamphlets etc
a Seventieth and Seventyfirst Annual Report of the gartpent o
EdatioTtoThe General Assembly of the State of Georgxa Atlan
ta Georgia Department of Education 1941
b Southern States WorkConference on Jf
Report of the Committee on Local Rensibxlxty gr th gR
fnrAdiniitiiti of Education TalJJeoble
sSuthiFn States WorkConference on School Admxnxstrative Frooxe
Bulletin No 1 1943
Company Inc 1938
d ProOsals for Public Education in P2S 2 gS
litXXiriAiHi 1944 Washxngton D 0 t The National
Education Association
II Getting the group into the problem
A The leader should recall and aid in analog the definition of attendance
unit from the introduction to Chapter IX
mvQ TTrt or area from which the pupils of
fSaSdSU 2S iSiAhabitants of the attendance
area may be considered the constituency of a specxfxc school
The leader av raise with his group problems that tl
establishing an attendance unit A problem chart such as
may be drawn up to facilitate the lxstxng of various types
anticipated
Chart I
Types of Problems Encountered in Establishing
Attendance Units
Problems anticipated within the
proposed attendanceunit
Problems anticipated xn re
lation with adjacent unxts 59
It may be emphasized that in considering any change in the boundaries
of an attendance unit adjacent units will be involved and those
concerned with the management of these units must neeessarily be agree
ment with the changes It may be pointed out that because of the adjust
ments to be made it is practically never possible for a given school
organization to have a free hand in determining all the changes to be
made The problem is more difficult if county boundaries are also
involved
B The leader nay raise a question as to the Pdures to be fcajJJ
planning the development of a proposed attendance unxt Possible proce
dures may be listed for consideration among which are the following
suggested plans
1 To work out jointly with the neighboring districts and county school
l authorities a close approximation of the boundaries which the new
attendance unit will have subject to minor modifications as physical
factors transportation and other condxtions may dictate
o To work out several alternative arrangements to be submitted to the
2 Tountyide a neighboring district authorities for consxderatxon
and approval
C The leader should use an enlarged mapJandSfidLcesthe
physical features ads centers of population and resxae
leneral neighborhoodof the school sxte Thxs map prepa
of the meeting should indicate distances t do s0 a map
passable roads in every direction If it is P Ub by
of the county should be prepared showing thflar device
age groups using differently colored pins or a similar devxee
ch a map would help to raise JIorich
S LI fhoullTeepred Element them with questions of his
own such as the following
X What area should be Included to provide an average size school
2 What are see dangers to be avoided In choosing an attendance area
that is too small Too large
5 What effect would such an extension of the attendance unit have upon
other school districts in the county
opi rpla tionships with larger
colleges
7 What would be the advantages and disadvantages of such a unit 80
8 How would an attendance unit of this size meet future requirements
when trends in population and industrial activity are taken into
account
9 Would an attendance unit of this size continuously furnish the number
of pupils necessary for variety of personnel and program offerings
D The leader nay help his group to analyze the population of the proposed
attendance unit in terms of various age groups which the school proposes
to reach As a basis for such an analysis reference may be made to
Table XXXIV Part IV showing number of people by age groups in Heard
OountyTGeorgL Ananalysis of this table will show the number of persons
of various age groups for whom the school may be concerned It will also
indicate the approximate number of persons to be reached in the future
by advancing the lower age groups by a given interval of time
F The leader may help the group to consider the steps to be taken in the
E procedure orLterminingtheattendance unit For this Pae a chart
may be constructed on which my be listed the steps which em logical
for the particular community to follow in determining its attendance area
In another column of the chart some suggestive techniques may be worked
out for completing the work of each given step
Chart II
Steps of Procedure in Establishing a School Attendance Unit With
Techniques for Carrying Out Each Step
Steps to be taken in de
veloping attendance unit
1 Become acquainted with
all legal requirements
2 Prepare a spot map showing
where children of dif
ferent ages live
3 On the same map show
types of roads bridges
etc in proposed area
together with distances
from school site
4 Analyze the area in terms of
natural community boundaries
5 Develop coordinative policies
with adjacent attendance units
Suggested techniques for carrying out
each step
6 Outline transportation routes
required to serve present school
population of new attendance
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III
61
Procedure for the solution of the problem What should be the size of the
attendance units in this system
A What should be the size of attendance units to serve this school system
1 Members of the planning group should be asked for JXiie
what they believe the minima optimum and maximum s fat tendance
units should be for children in various age groups At
be called to the fact that in sparsely populated areas the g
standard obviously must be relaxed in order to prevent children from
spending too much time on busses The maxima standard is of impor
tance principally in congested areas usually in cities In deter
mining the tnree standards the welfare of the cheQUate
instructional standpoint and the economical operation of an adequate
School program should be the principal elements for f on
ranked in the order given Two or more attendance un3 nay be
housed in one building r that is an elementary and secondary unit
may occupy the same school plant
2 Age groups to be considered
3 5 years nursery school kindergarten
J It IZl tL Junior high senior high traie schoois
early junior college
19 24 years late junior college and beyond
B What attendance unitsnow serve this system
1 The leader should prepare in advance a nap showingi
The active enrollment and number of instructional staff for
each attendance unit in the system from superintendents records
fhelerndeis office should be compared
with the active enrollments of attendance units
reasons
the superintendents records
C What size are the attendance units elsewhere
1 Data are difficult to find concerning both number of PtfUjj
number of teachers in a coordinated re cord Leaders Jf murtrfttlonB
useful to apply the data they compile f necaan y find it necessary
in other counties in which they work They may a
to exchange data with other leaders The following examples
admittedly incomplete and not necessarily typical nevertheless
these data are the best available at present
a Number of teachers in various schools of G County Bee
Table IIC
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ATTENDANCE UNITS IN C COUNTY SYSTEM OOERGIA IN 194344 CLASSIFIED
ACCORDING TO NUMBER OF TEACHERS
Number of teachers
White
Negro
Total
One teacher
Two teachers
Three teachers
Four teachers
Five teachers
Six teachers
Seven teachers
More than seven teachers
Totals
7
2
2
8
2
2
3
11
17
b In 0 county the following specific examples were reportsd
See Table II
TABLE II
EXAMPLES OF ATTENDANCE UNITS IN 0 COUNTY SYSTEM GEORGIA IN 194344
BXAUPLab Wiij VARI0TJS ENR0LLMENT3 AKD NUMBER OF TEACHERS
Schools
Enrollment Average daily
total attendance
White elementary
Number One
Number Two
Number Three
Number Four
White secondary
Number One
Number Two
Negro elementary
Number One
Number Two
Number Three
Number Four
237
190
119
64
143
127
126
68
33
17
158
126
82
41
Number of
teachers
7
7
4
3
99
57
26
14
6
6
3
2
1
1
Includes one teacher of vocational agriculture and one of vocational
home economics
c In W county the following secondary units were found
62 TABLE III
SECONDARYSCHOOL ATTENDANCE UNITS IN W COUNTY GEORGIA IN 194445
Enrollnent Number of
Units total teachers
V7ts 15i a
Number One g b
Number Two fJ 5 b
Number Three 1 1 a
Number Four j n a
Number Five J Ix c
Number Six 51 2
a Includes one fulltime and one halftime vocational teacher
b Includes two full tine vocational teachers
c Inoludes one halftime vocational teacher
2 The following data are from the annual report of the State Department
of Educationt
TABLE IV
SCHOOLS IN THE STATE OF GEORGIA IN 194142 CLASSIFIED
ACCORDING TO NUMBER OF TEACHERS
Number of teachersWhite Negro Total
n 262 1953 2215
One teacherf x 028
Two teachers 5 301
Three teachers j 90 274
Four teachers 6 186
Five teachers 55 159
Six teachers x9 32 129
Seven teachers 155 939
More than seven teachers 12
Totals2016 525 5221
Adapted from Seventieth and Seventyfirst Annual Report of the Department
of Education to the General Assembly of the State of Georgia p 275
3 The mean size of county schools for 194142 in orgia according to
the report of the State Department of Education was as ated
below It should be noted that the mean is for schools not for
attendance units
TABLE V
TOTAL COUNTY SCHOOLS COUNTY ENROLLMENTS AND AVERAGE ENROLLMENT
PER SCHOOL IN GEORGIA 1941 1942
Number
It e ms
1782
Total county schools 50 523
Total enrollment county schools
Mean enrollment approximate
63 64
D What sizes of attendance units are reconnended by recognized authorities
1 Report of the Committee on Local Responsibility for the Organization
and Adnlnistration of Education Southern States WorkConference on
School Administrative Problems Iaproving Education in the Southern
States Bulletin No 1 1943 p 10
Many schools which a few years ago were sufficiently isolated
that they had to be continued even though they were small and expensive
to operate are no longer isolated Schools of course should not be
discontinued merely because they are small but only when better facili
ties can be provided as a result of reorganization or when equivalent
facilities can be provided at a lower cost
In most states the small school is still protected by law to
the extent that reorganization is a slow and complicated process
There are many small high schools in particular throughout the South
which may be expected to be reorganized during coming years with
benefit not only to pupils but also to the taxpayers
2 Grace A G and G A Moe State Aid and School Costs Report of the
Regents Inquiry into the Character and Cost of Public Education in the
State of New York New Yorkt The McGrawHill Book Company Inc
1938 Pp 122 123
4 Except in isolated regions or in areas in which undue hard
ships to pupils would result no school having an average daily at
tendance of less than 20 pupils should be continued
5 In going to elementary schools children should not be required to
walk in excess of one mile In going to high school they should not
have to walk in excess of two miles Regulations should be sufficient
ly flexible however that local adjustments may be made
6 Attendance areas should be so located that no pupil in grades 1 to
6 would be forced to ride on a school bus for more than one hour per
trip or more than one and onehalf hours per trip in grades 7 to 12
7 The attendance area should be so located with reference to the gen
eral population that it may become the center of community activities
including adult education recreation or other community programs
3 Proposals for Public Education in Postwar America Research Bulletin
mjrrISSBxorrZi The National Education
Association
tr7here the conditions of population and transportation will Pe
each school unit of attendance should be large enough to make possible
a ribandVaried school experience at reasonable building and operat
ing costs for pupils attending school therein On the other hand uie
unit should be small enough to encourage friendly fl1
community living in the school and make it unnecessary for any pupil
to ndymire than two hours each day in traveling between hone and
school An elementary school serving children of ages 6 through
years approximately might well have at least seven persons engagea
appropriately in teaching counseling and library service and a
minimum of about 175 pupils A secondary school fl ag
12 through 17 years approximately might well have at least twelve 65
persons engaged in teaching counseling and library service and a
minimum of about 300 pupils Larger schools than these are greatly
to be preferred under favorable conditions but it is doubtful whether
an elementary school should enroll more than 1000 pupils or a secondary
school oore than 1500 except where high density of population and
scarcity of available school sites make it imperative In some areas
the sparseness of population or difficulties of transportation may
necessitate the operation of schools even sualler than the minlmums
just mentioned especially for the younger children
E What should be the size of attendance units in this school system
1 A committee of the planning group may be naned to organize the statis
tical data that presumably will be presented during the study oi
attendance units and to draw tentative conclusions therefrom These
should be submitted to the group for its approval
2 The conclusions obviously should recognize the fact that the size of
attendance units is in part dependent upon existing laws hence tta
conclusions may be organized on the basis of what is best under
immediate circumstances and what is feasible if appropriate legisla
tion were obtained
F What are the criteria that may be used in evaluating the size of attendance
units
1 The number of pupils and teachers in an attendance units should be
large enough to provide an adequate school program at reasonable
building and operating costs except in isolated or sparsely settled
areas
5 The attendance unit should not encompass a geographic area so large as
to discourse a community feeling for the schools bearing in mind that
nodetnmodel of transportation hive enlarged natural community areas
3 The attendance unit except in densely populated areas or where avail
able school sites are scarce should have a maximum as well as a mini
urn limit in size
the like
7 Exists schools should be used Zf52 ST
ed educationally and altered physically t P Je P
HEKSrS SSS3S the use 0
younger age groups
adhered to ivn

IS

JCHAPTER X
PLANNING THE PHYSICAL PLANT TO PROVIDE
FOR THE SCHOOL PROGRAM
Introduction
The function of the school plant is to accommodate the school progray with
due consideration for basic hygienic requirements of the human body e
school program changes the school plant needs to vary Since the school program
should be determined in terms of community needs providing the school plant
should be a part of the community planning program
School plant costs are exceeded only by instructional expenditures in the
educational program To provide needed physical facilities usually requires a
larger investment of funds than does any other single community enterprise The
type of grounds buildings and equipment which a community provides determines
whether the physical surroundings of the school population during more than one
third of its waking hours is conducive to good health A schoolplant planning
program should be undertaken with due regard for the effect upon those whom It is
designed to serve and with due consideration of the magnitude of the task as a
community enterprise and the program to be housed
Once provided the school plant is not readily and easily altered and must
continue for a number of years to implement or restrict the school program to pro
vide healthy or unhealthy environmental conditions and to meet or fail to meet
the needs of the community The extent to which the school plant contributes to
the desirable ends is determined largely by the care and intelligence used in
planning
The knowledge and judgment of a given community are superior those of any
individual or a small group of that community Successful schoolplant planning
consists of utilizing to the fullest extent tne combined knowledge and Jntof
the community supplemented and if necessary adjusted by the knowledge and judg
ment of other communities and educational leaders
Following is a suggested method of utilizing community knowledge and judgment
and adjusting these to the experiences of others in planning certain problems
associated with providing the physical plant Many other problems such as financ
ing the school plant maintenance of the plant operation and maintenance of
mechanical equipment development of school grounds and planning the Retails of
the school building may be similarly treated The problems selected for develop
ment are those which are necessary preliminary steps in the planning of any
schoolbuilding program Group action on committee recommendations is anticipated
merely as a means of conserving the time of the larger group It is possible
Safin some instances the entire group would prefer to think through all of the
problems connected with actually providing the school plant In such caseslt
is suggested that cambers of the field staff freely draw upon available assistance
in developing with the group the more technical phases of the Pgm such
planning the details of the building selecting and purchasing equipment finane
ing the Duilding program selecting the architect awarding the contract etc
Generally speaking however considerable time might be saved by assigning most
ofthfteohnLsllid detailed responsibilities to smaller committees charged wtth
the responsibility of making intensive studies performuig necessary details ana
prepSiS sundry reports and recommendations for group consideration and action
66I preliminaries
A Leaders objective To lead a provide for
problems involved in qcquiring the physical falitlLlv Pto arrive
he school program to think through these problems r81
at conclusions to formulate a plan and to put the plan into
B Groups to be reached l County ijSj8bere
county board of education 3 local trustees 4 principal W b
6 elected hihschool pupils county supervisor 8 PT A
and y other adults
C Informational services required
county planning group
2 A copy of the policies set up by the countywide planning group
3 Such publications as
a Collins M D Qgorg School Laj Atlanta Georgia State
Department of Education 1942
b English OSnsida School Code Tallahassee Florida Depart
ment of Education
c Engelhardt L and N L Engelhardt Planning the Community
School New York American Book Company 1940
d Devine Harry J Vallejo Builds School Houses for Wartime Peace
American School Board Journal p 35 January 1944
e Evans Frank 0 Building for the Small Elementary School
American School Board Journal p lb January 1942
f Perkins Lawrence B ton Teachers and Janitors Build Schools
ISriclA School Board Journal p 33 September 1942
g
The Millbrae Elementary School Millbrae California American
School Board Journal p 40 October 1942
h Tismein S B A Community Plans Its School American School and
University p 28 1941
i Heutra Richard J The Postwar School in Its Neighborhood Context
The Hations Schools p 34 January 1942
J Wan E A Sixteen Ways of Daylighting Classrooms Architectural
Record p38 May 1944
k Gromme C F The Ross School The New Pencil Points p 77
June 1942
671 Hamlin T F The New Schools The New Pencil Points p 83
June 1942
m y ft B Social interpretation New Yorki D Appleton
Century Company 1958
n Studebaker J S Our Schools in the Postwar World Leaflet
No 71 Washington D Ci Government Printing Office
o Wank R A Culture Recreation and Commerce HandinHand
Cultural Centers New Yorkt F W Dodge Corporation
p Wank R A Rural Activities Center Architectural Forum
April 1944
q School Building Check ListAgricultural and Industrial Develop
ment Board of Georgia Education Panel
4 Photographs of modern buildings within the State and out of the
State
5 Motion picture showing modern buildings T V A picture of Wilson
Dam School
6 Consultation service
a State specialist
b State library consultant
c State lunchroom supervisor
d Director of guidance
e Supervisor of vocational education
f Supervisor of home economics
g State area general supervisors
h Educational Panel consultant
7 County level specialists
a County health officers
b Home denonstration agent
c Vocational teachers
d Lunchroom supervisors
e County librarian
f Director of physical education
g County supervisor
8 Tables Section one
a Table I Phases of the School Program To Be Provided for in
Each Age Group
b Table III Facilities Needed for Housing the School Program
c Table Sill Population To Be Served
d Table IV Present Facilities of X School
68Tables Section two
a Table Vi The Site Desired To Accomodate the School Program
b Table VII Present School Ground Facilities
c Table VIIt Location of the School Site
d Table VIIIt Suitability of the Site
Tables Section three
a Table IX Making the School Plant Possible
b Table Xt Plan for Making the Desired School Plant Possible
c Table XIi Organizing the Community for Providing the School Plant
II Getting the group into the problem
A The leader should raise questions concerning the adequacy of the present
building facilities in providing for the kind of school program we want
1 Does the school program determine the kind of building we need
Permit the groupto discuss this question Various points of ew
will probably be expressed and each individual should be encouraged to
develop his point of view
2 What are some of the activities carried on in school which we have not
made provisions to house List the activities as named
3 What are some of the activities wewould like to carry on
because of lack of physical faculties This list should be placed
upon the board
4 What are some of the mistakes that have been made in building construc
tion in the past sanitation drainage lighting size of playground
space safety etc
B Have certain individuals to express their judgments in r
for building facilities which we Bust have to take care of our present or
proposed scnool program These expressions should come from those mdivi
duals who are respected by other members of the group
C Show what progress this community has made in planning and utilizing its
buildings in terms of a changing school program
Example 1 Call on older citizens to recall the progress that has
been made in the past few years in providing physical
facilities
Example 2 Discuss the use of the physical plant by groups in the
community such as Mothers Clubs Boy Scouts etc
Example 3 Lead the group to bring out additions and ff
have been made such as lunch rooms gymnasium cannery
library etc
69III
D Show what other communities have done to provide adequate housing for
their schools in terns of school programs they have
Example 1 Photographs of the buildings provided for such school as the
Norri s Daa School
Example 2 Photograph of Community Center Greenhills Cincinatti Ohio
Example 3 Photographs of other buildings as found in issues of American
School Board Journal The Nations Schools and American School
and University cited in preceding pages
Example 4 Motion pictures of the modern school buildings as will be seen
in the T V A motion picture of the Wilson Dam School
Procedure for the solution of the problemi Planning the school plant to provide
for the school program
A
Section One
What building facilities do you think we should provide to meet the needs
of our community
Each person should be encouraged to suggest facilities which he thinks
should be provided The following are among some of the suggestions
whtch might be given New grammar school building lunch room shop
a remodeled high school etc
As the different opinions are expressed they should be listed on the
blackboard without the names of the individuals giving hem The lea
should however try to remember the particular opinions given by each
person
After all opinions are expressed each individual houldbe encouraged
to give reasons for his opinion The reasons given ehde letf
leader to build up a list of factors or guides which should be used Dy
members of the group in evaluating the opinlons r Jf lejf yzing
These may also be used as guides in securing organizing andanalyzing
information and testing opinions given by members of the group
It is suggested that discussion of the site and building costs be deferred
until Tiller meeting The leader should so direct the sion d
lead the group into consideration of the following factors These snouxa
be listed on the board for further consideration
1 What phases of the school program shall we make provisions for
2 What will be the probable number to be provided for in each age
group
3 What wiJLl be the probable number to be provided for in each phase of
the program by age groups
The leader should then ask the group to think through each of these
three problems or factors and arrive at answers to each question
aid the group the following tables are suggested
70TABLE I
PHASES OF THE SCHOOL PROGRAM TO BE
PROVIDED FOR IN EACH AGE GROUP
Phases of the
school program
36 1613
Health
The tools of learning
Creative expression
Vocational guidance
Primary social relation
ships
Secondary social relation
ships
Economic relationships
Age groups to be provided for
1418
1825
X
Adult
Table I should be checked as the group agrees upon the special
provision to be made for each age group in each phase of the school
program
Table II is suggested as a device for summarizing all discussions in
the unit To assist in more completely appraising existing facilities
as well as in determining those needed it is suggested that the
phases of the school program be further broken down somewhat as is
indicated in column a of Table II When and how this breakdown
should be developed will vary with groups This breakdown is solely
for the purpose of dealing with the problem of school plant planning
It has no significance so far as the program of the school is concerned
As specific phases of the school program to be offered are agreed upon
they should be added to column a of Table II Table II may remain on
the board throughout the discussion of the unit and be filled out as the
discussion progresses and as conclusions are reached
71TABLE II
FACILITIES HEEDED FOE HOUSING THE SCHOOL jBOGRAM
ft

What phases cf the school I h
program do we wish our li
building to house
What mllding faci
ties flo we now have
for housing this pro
gram
What legal require
rents nrust he com
ply with in plan
ning our physical
facilities
What facilities
o other commu
nities provide
for housing the
program cf the
school
What faci
lities do
educational
leaders re
commend for
housing the
program of
the school
What facili
ties do we
want to
house our
programs
Secondary social relationsnjps
Social studies
Economic relationships
Agriculture
Commercial
Shops What will be the probable number to be provided for in each age
group
In preparation for this question the leader should place on the
board census data for the area to be served Table III containing
population data from Heard County is illustrative If the school
unit under consideration is smaller than the county the leader
should anticipate in advance the need for population data so as to
have the facts available fron oensus cards for the area under
consideration
TABLE III POPULATION TO BE SERVED
POPULATION BY AGE GROUPS HEARD COUNTY
r6 i 614 1418 J 825 Adults
Problem M 136 F 105 241 M 408 F I T 588 796 M 249 F 195 T 444 M 240 F 227 T 467 M 1258 F 1581 T 2519
Health
The tools of learning
Creative exDression T
Primary social rplftt ionshios j 1
Secondary social ipl fit ionaHiDS
Economic
Totals 1
By referring to Table I already agreed upon the group should be
led to make a careful estimate of the probable number in each age
group the school program will reach As agreements are arrived at
the numbers should be recorded in the appropriate columns
By approDriate questions the leader should bring out and evaluate the
factors affecting the number which will participate in each phase of
the school program These factors vary with groups Questions must
be framed accordingly For illustrative purposes only let us assume
we are attempting to estimate the number of adults the program of the
Ichool will serve directly in that phase of the program dealingwitn
economic relationships with particular reference to food Preserva
tion Such questions as the following may lead to a fair estimate
a How many people in the community need facilities for preserving
foods
b How many people are near enough to the school to use school facili
ties for this purpose
7374
c What has been the experience in neighboring communities
with reference to the percentage of people who preserve
food in the school plant
d Will this percentage increase or decrease in the future
e In the light of these factors how many people of the
community can the school reasonably expect to provide for
f Kow many must the school plan to serve at one tine
3 Similarly the approximate numbers to be served in each of
the age groups and in each phase of the school program
should be agreed upon and recorded
B What facilities do we now have for housing the school program
1 In reparation for this discussion the leader should con
duct a tour over the existing building or buildings Dur
ing the progress of this excursion he should direct the
observation so as to lead the group to appraise each space
and to decide whether such snace is usable for some phase
of the school program Such spaces as are considered un
suitable for use should be noted with reasons for unusabi
lity If minor remodeling could make spaces satisfactory
for use the group should agree upon what remodeling is
necessary All spaces should be so designated thateach
member of the group will know the area referred to in en
suing discussions The school building check sheet could
be used for this purpose
Upon completion of the tour the leader will pla oe upon the black
board the opinionsof the group Table IV is suggested as a form
TABLE IV
PRESENT FACILITIES OF SCHOOL
Spaces
Soace Ho 1
Space No 2
Snace Ho 4
Snace Ho 7
Satisfactory
Snace Ho 3 S
Space Ho 5
Space Ho 6
Proposed
use
Art
Science
Unsatisfactory
but capable of I Use
being remo deled
V
Clinic
Agr
Un
usable
V
Reason
Dark and
damp
Fire
hazard
JLack of
sventila
tionAs conclusions are reached all spaces which are usable or
may be made usable should be recorded in Table II column
b Unusable spaces should not be transferred to Table II
C What kinds of buildings are authorized by the state building code
1 The State of Georgia has recently adopted a comprehensive
school building code In addition the school laws contain
certain references to school buildings and the 1945 session
of the General Assembly passed an act dealing specifically
with school buildings
a Chapter 32 Section 14 Building School Houses in Local
Tax Districts
b Chapter 32 Section 909 School Property
c Chapter 32 Section 915 Consolidation
d Chapter 32 Section 932 Evening Schools
e Chapter 32 Section 933 High Schools
f Chapter 32 Section 934 Industrial Education
g Chapter 32 Section 940 Failure to Arrange for School
2 The University Workshop 1944 made the following recommenda
tion on building standards
That an enabling act be passed empowering the State
Board of Education to set up building regulations
which may be exercised in the establishment and en
forcement of building standards which will assure
economy safety and usability of the school plant
3 Some of the significant features of the new code follow
a Use of the school building for any legitimate educa
tional puipose for activities during outofschool
hours and vacation is granted provided buildings
and grounds are left in good condition
b The State Board of Education is authorized to inspect
any public school building and to notify local boards
of education in writing of any unsafe or unhealthful
conditions revealed with specific suggestions for cor
recting such conditions
c The responsibility for keeping all public school build
ings except those in independent districts is placed
upon the 6ounty board of education76
electrical wiring etc
d The school plant designed for any school community
shall conform in size and cost to plans projected
by a countywido survey
q School sites must be unencumbered adequate in size
and free fron any locally obnoxious influences
f Hew buildings nust meet minimum standards stated
in nore detail under specifications for safety usa
bility and adequacy for the services to be carried
on lighting heating ventilation toilet facili
ties floor areas playground space equipment etc
g Usually code requirements make specific the procedures
to be followed in sketches drawings specifications
awarding contracts supervision inspection and man
ner of paynents
h Familiarity with code regulations is inplied as a pre
liminary step in planning the building
4 What countywide policies if any have been set up by the
planning group
From the countywide planning group we nay have the follow
ing statement of building policies
a In general a policy of substantial serviceable
buildings with shorter life and at less cost are
preferable to the permanent structures which must
remain in use after they have become obsolete
b
A school building is a means to an end Capital out
lay expenditures can be evaluated only in terms of the
contribution which such expenditures make to the
educational program
School buildings should be planned in terms of the
age level to be reached and the services to be ren
dered The number of pupils should be large enough
to assure adequate teaching personnel and physical
facilities to meet the needs of the group without
incurring excessive costs
The school building should be planned for an area
which has standing as a legal unit The boundaries
should be established in such manner that the area
to be served has legal responsibility for the build
ing
e Building needs should never be allowed to come into
conflict with other essential school services such
as teachers salaries If allowed to become a
question of one or the other teachers nay feel that
d77
the building has been erected at their expense
f Where space is available the onestory structure of
building is referable This makes possible the construc
tion from combustible materials without undue fire hazard
and is less expensive
K In planning a school building for a community all school
age pupils should be provided for regardless of previous
attendance
h School communities having fewer prospective pupils ofan
age than the number required to meet accrediting require
ments in the division of the school which they represent
should be thoroughly acquainted with the nature of pro
blems involved
Usin the principles set up by the countyplanning group as
a check list features of the building under consideration
should be carefully evaluated by referring back to Tables
II and IV
D What kind of facilities do other communities provide to house the
program of the school
1 A special committee may be appointed to make a report on
school buildings in other communities It is desirable that
the commitee visit the schools before the report is made
A check list similar to Table IV used in determining
the facilities in the local school will aid the committee
in finding out how well the schools visited are providing
for school and community needs
The committee would need to check all buildings and all
types of rooms in a building such as primary class
rooms elementary classrooms elementary library high
school classrooms music rooms science laboratory shop
homeeconomics room agriculture room highschool library
lunch room supply room canning plants gymnasium assembly
room boys toilets girls toilets rooms for community
meetings teachers rest roone principals office corri
dors book room and freezer lockers
This information should probably be presented to the local
planning group by the use of plans and pictures Usually
plans may be borrowed from the school visited or the archi
tect who planned the building
2 Below is a brief description of some facilities which other
communities are using to house the school program
a In this record book ElaaniM the Community School New
York American Book Co 1940 pp 149151 Englehardt and
Englehardt describes the physical facilities in use by78
Ashwood Plantations at Bishopville South Carolina
At the Ashwood Plantations the school buildings and the
community center building occupy the sane site Though
the school buildings have been designed for the use of
the children and the community center building for a
dults they all are available for the use of both groups
The Community Center Building The Community Center
is a long low onestory building of southern colonial
architecture provided vrith a long covered porch ideal for
community visiting on warn evenings The building contains
a recreation room wiich is used by adults for social re
creation discussion and community dining It is used
by children both as play space in inclement weather and
as a lunch room
The eonnunity kitchen in which hot lunches are prepared
for boys and girls is also used for instruction in hone
arts During the summer the women of this area use the
kitchen for cooperative canning and throughout the year
it is used in the preparation and serving of community
surpers The ranges burn oil woodand coal the materials
normally available to these people in their homes
A smaller room serves as a conference room for the recrea
tional director but is alao used as a mailer recreation
or hobby room Kere were found aquariums stamp collec
tions aeroplane models and small tables for games a
small browsing library with easy chairs as well as a dis
play of instructional posters
Health Building The medical building houses an emergency
room health room and a dental clinic The health room
is a diet laboratory as well as the center of Instruction
in eating bathing and general health habits Medical
treatment and prenatal care are provided in this unit
Cooperative Store and Shops The cooperative store is
eommodioua and well stocked and is a general center of
interest The cooperative feed mill was erected in the
effort to divert attention from the singlecrop cotton
to stock and poultry raising The agricultural shops
easily accessible from the highway are designed for re
pairing machinery and providing instruction and guidance
in general farming
Community Library The community library connects the ele
mentary and secondary school buildings and may be entered
from either unit The main entrances however open from
the park which is the center of the site The library space
is sufficiently large to accommodate at all tines the adults
who mav wish to use it as well as the children who use it
for normal school purposes The broad windows of the library79
face the park upon whose greens such community activities
as folk festivals of song and dance are held
Recreation Center At one end of the main axis of the
project is the recreation center This comprises an audi
toriumgymnasium picnic grounds with stone fireplaces
and a swimming pool The dressing rooms and showers of
the gymnasium are easily accessible to the outdoor facili
ties The pool is an artificial pond filled with artesian
well water and drained into a small creek
The auditoriumgymnasium has a deep stage with a broad pros
cenium arch a flyloft with gridiron and a lighting sys
tem controlled by a master switchboard Both the stage
floor and the main floor are used as shops for making stage
scenery and properties The auditorium will seat 500 peo
ple on movable chairs which are stored in a space planned
for this purpose This building is used for folk dancing
square and round dancing basketball and general recrea
tion involving physical activity
b
Other examples are described in the following publica
tions
1 Community Center Green Hiills Cincinnati Ohio
Cultural Centers P 79 W Dodge Corpora
tion 119 W 40th Street New York Hew York
3
3
American School 3oard Journal January 1944 p 35
Vallejo Builds Schoolhouses for Wartime and Peace
by Harry J Devine
American School Board Journal January1942 p 15
ff Building for the Small Elementary School
by Frank 0 Evans
4 American School Board journal September 1942
p 33 ff When Teachers and Janitors Build
Schools Lawrence B Perkins
5 American School Board Journal October 1942 p 40
The Millbrae Elementary School Millbrae Cal
6 American School and University 1941 p 28 ff
A Community Plans Its Schools S 3 Tisnein
7 The Nations Schools March 1944 p 36 The
Postwar School in its Neighborhood Context
Richard J Neutra
8 The Nations Schools January 1942 p 34 ff
Cottage Grove Union High School Cottage Grove
Oregon H3 Terrin80
o
Other illustrations such as the following nay be used
1 Photographs of the buildings provided for such
schools as the Norris Dan School
2 Motion pictures of the more nodern buildings sch as
will be in the TVA movie of the Wilson Dan School
3 Cultural Centers reprint from architectural record
Obtainable from Portland Cement Association
4 Photographs of buildings in copies of AmericaSchool
Board Journal She Nations Schools and American
School and University
E What kind of facilities do educational leaders recommend to house
the school program
1
2
3
Sone tine in advance of the meeting the leader should designate
suitable reole to review the literature dealing with modern
school structures and fron these sources nade a report using
previously rreoared sketches when necessary Illustrative
material contained in these sources should be prepared in a
form convenient to exhibit to the group
The Georgia school leaders workshop recommended the follow
ing
The school should be closely integrated with the public ser
vices of the community The school should be in the very
heart of the community A Community center is the place to
which more and more people go for more and more reasons The
school should be at the community center
Buildings should be so constructed as to take advantage of
climatic conditions Provision should be made to bring the
schoolroom and the outdoors together in a physical working
unit This is especially desirable in planning kindergarten
primary and elementary schools
Some of the essentials which the community school should have
as given by the educational leaders are as follows
a Kindergarten and primary departments
b Schoolcommunity library art and music center
c Communityschool administrative offices
d Gymnasiumauditoriuns for school community uses
e Schoolcommunity shops and agricultural demonstration
activitiee
f Printing shop capable of getting out a paper81
g Common cafeteria open to the public
h Honeeconomics suite with kitchen and other honemaking
facilities open to the public
i Health unit
j Food preservation facilities
4 Some sources of helpful information in preparation of such re
ports would include
Schools Awake A cooperative Community Program in Van Buren
County Michigan
Rural Activities Center place of the school building Eo
land A Wank
16 Ways of Daylighting Classrooms in Architectural Record
May 1944
Cultural Centers A Buildings Types Study a Reprint from
Architectural Record F W Dodd Corporation 119 W 40th
Street New York
The Ross School Carl F Gromme in The Hew Pencil Points
June 1942 p 77
The New Schools Talbot F Hamlin in Tjhe New Pencil Points
p 83 June 1942
Caorillo Hones Community Building The New Pencil Points
February 1944 p 35
Smith Creek Community Centers The New Pencil Points
February 1944 p 44
Recent Numbers of The American School Board Journal and The
Nations Schools
5 The leader should discuss with the person designated to make
the report such special aspects of builiing planning as
might be applicable to the kind of building being considered
for the community
6 The views of workshop specialists on the type of building re
quired to serve the community in its educational program may
be obtained in advance Some of their views would emphasize
the following
82
a
7
b
c
They call attention to the danger of following tradi
tion We should constantly overhaul our thinking and
find new problems that are arising The school is a
potent factor in helping to adapt and readapt to the
continually changing patterns of life The school
in all aspects should comprehend the adaptations
needed and reflect the willingness to make modifica
tions
The school should assist in readapting skills that have
been superseded Returning veterans having lost
their place in the peacetime vocational skills must fix
retrained Education should continue during the entire
life of the citizen
Because of the rapidity of change buildings become
obsolete in a few years Building construction should
be planned as far in advance as possible and raafce
provisions for alterations to care for unforeseen
needs
In his recent book Social Interpretation the author
advises
Since school buildings are merely a physical agency
through which public education of ff w 8erve
carried on they are finally important only as the serve
this purpose
The school building should be ultimately considered as
an agency for stimulating and improving both mass ana
Sdtvidual contacts with the school as a social insti
tution in eneralnuch nore attention mustbe given
to the building as an interpretation agency in the
future Sit il to neet its possibilities as a construe
tive agency2
The building provides means for generalized or nass con
tacts through attendance at school programs of Jiou
tvnes Since initial interest centers in the child the
first generalized contact will be at those programs which
the children themselves prepare and present including
iefdrauatics athletics and exhibitions The second
roup of generalized contacts are those arising out of
Parent education programs If this interest engendered
through home contacts and these generalized school con
tacts is successful the outcone should be a constant
ignriiBl Interpretation Mochlnan A B Hew York
D AppletonCentury Company 1938 P 428
2Ibld P 42483
increase in individual meetings between parent and school
through which increased understanding of and cooperation
with the institution is possible
8 Engelhardt and Bngelhardt suggest
Care should he exercised in designing the gilding to
provide adequate and comfortable space for iaUTitaftl jr
snail group meetings Facilities that are capable of dual
chiU and cmmunit use such as auditorium
shops cafeterias libraries and clinics must he planned
to nee adult as well as child requirements Each build
ine should provide for at least one parents reception
room where inferences may he held under pleasant surround
ings
It is apparent that the design of units of a school plant
must he conceived in terms of the sumtotal of the life
activities of the people in a community The units must be
so planned that they are adaptable to as many of these ao
tivlties as possible regardless of any preconceived notions
of where education begins or ends Furthermore these
units must be designed in terms of VTSXwtST
nent to assure that the facilities blend well with the
ordinary tempo of life of the people who use them By
hese simple planning procedures it may be expected that a
maximum of utility will be assured the school plant
The modern school architecture if it is to be an honeet
expression of the place of the school in presentday en
vironment must accept as its theme participation by all
members of the community It is important that the
plant be blended with community and home life
Some indication of the trend in the design of community
schools is to be found in the wide acceptance of the
carpus plan This plan calls for small separate units
connected by arcades or passageways attractively groupea
This type of arrangement is quite flexible and eliminates
much ofthe institutional atmosphere of the large compact
structure Economy may be attained oj less fireresistivt
construction in the small onestory units of the campus
plan than is required in the large two three and foar
story buildings There is much merit in this tyno of
plan if it is designed functionally
i5
9 Commissioner Studebaker says
There are four important questions that every citizen
Slbid p 444445
Snglehardt and Englehardt Planning the Community School1
American Book Company 1940 p 14
5Ibid p 137139F
should ask hinself afcout the school gildings in his com
aualtyi
First are they safe and sanitary free fron
fire hazards well ventilated well heated
and clean
Second do they meet the needs of the program
planned for all the people children young
people and adults Are there for example
facilities for a health program with space
and equipment for clinical services Are
there indoor and outdoor recreational facilities
for both youth and adults Does the building
offer flexibility of arrangement and equipment
for the experience children and adults are to
have in it with provisions for school lunch
room library auditorium and other types
of extra classroom activities
Third is the school plant attractive This
does not mean that the building be ornate in
architecture or design but the place where
children youth and adults go to school should
by all means be a pleasant place in which they
will like to go
Fourth does the district of which the school is
a part cover a large enough territory to insure 5
the type of building and program you visualize
What kind of facilities do we want for housing our educa
tional program
1 In the light of our program to be housed our present
facilities legal requirements what other communi
ties are doing and what educational leaders recommend
what specific facilities do we wish to provide
2 For what number of individuals do wo wish each facility
to provide In connection with this point it is suggested
that the problem of the size of attendance units considered
in Chapter IV be reviewed
3 Column f of Table II is suggested as a means of record
ing the final decisions of the group This column should
be filled out in terras of the activities to be provided for
Government Printing Office Washington D C Our
Schools in the Postwar World Leaflet No 71
84grain
and the number of individuals in each activity Here
may be recorded the group opiaion on desirable com
binations of areas
SECTION TWO
What sort of school grounds do we wish for the school pro
A How should we select the school site
1 The leader should guide the group to name as many factors
as possible which should enter into a consideration of
the school site These should be listed as naned After
all factors have been listed they can probably be grouped
under three or four classficiations Some such classifi
cation as the following is suggested
a What area will we need to provide for the school
progran
b What factors should we consider in selecting a loca
tion for the school site
c What physical characteristics as to topography type
of soil etc do we want the site to possess
It is suggested that a table similar to Table V be placed
on the board to remain throughout the discussion on sites
and that as conclusions are reached they be placed in the
appropriate columns The four factors nay be entered as
problems in Column a of Table I
These problems nay be further analyzed and conclusions
may be reached with reference to each of these A possi
ble procedure is given below
2 The leader nay ask the group
a What area will we need to provide for the school
progran
1 For what programs do the present grounds provide
2 How well would the present site provide for the
program which we plan
85TABLE V
What kind of site
should we provide
to house the
school program
a
1 Acre
What do we
now have

2 Location
3 Physical
characteristics
THE SITE BESIBED TO ACCOMMODATE THE SCHOOL tHOCHAM
What provisions
are made by law
e
Elementary schools 2
acres for 1 teacher
school acre addi
tional for each addi
tional teacher High
school 10 to 30 acres
Most economical and
practical location
Before a site may he
purchased for school
purposes it must he
approved in writing
by the authorized
agent of the State De
partment of Education
Insofar as practicable
the school site shall
not adjoin a right of
way of any railroad or
any through highway
and shall he free of
noise odors or
other disturbances
What kind of
sites do other
communities
provide
a
What do educational
leaders recommend
e
What kind of site
do we want to
provide for the
school program
O
Use data from Elementary schools 2
check sheet on acres for 1 teacher
a desirable site school h acre addi
preferahly of a tional for each addi
school in the tional teacher High
county school 10 to 30acres
Well drained reason
ably free of mud end
the soil shall he well
adapted to landscaping
as well as to playground
purposes
Hear geographic and
population centers
easily accessihle
free from traffic
social or health
hazards
Fertile well drained
free of contagious
drainage rectangular
shape native trees
not toe steep to per
mit use as playground87
In preparation for this discussion the leader may havf f
irc ss aj s 5sSI Sir
the site is large or the arrangement complex it nay be necessary ior
Soup and Ladef actually to inspect the site and appraise lJ6
faction in either e Tahle V is suggest as a
rvishto ifehylLsLfrL it s indu W
Local conditions should he considered and the content f 1 I ncluding
accordingly There may he an advantage to he gained howeverhy to Jhe
Tnloln l a comprehensive list JSS
nossibilities of an adequate site particularly sinco n71nion of
quire a snail site is quite COnnon It is s3Sf fj nStially
the group be summarized in some sucn terminology as ajegate Paa
adequate or inadequate and that the opinion be listed in lj
ofTable II with a brief statement of the reasons of the group for the tern
applied to the site under consideration
3
What provisions are made by law for the size
4
The Georgia school law provides
Each new site selected shall be adequate in size
to meet the needs of the school to be served
As far as practicable any present sites whicn
are not adequate shall be increased to conform
to minimum standards for new sites Each scnool
site shall contain a minimum of two acres for a one
teacher school At least one acre shall be addea
to this minimum size of the site for each fifty
pupils enrolled in the school after the first fifty
pupils and until the enrollment reaches five hundred
pupilsg
What size sites do other communities provide
Prior to the meeting the leader should arrange to have a
member of the group state what size sites are prodded
in other communities of the State Those communities which
have provided and are utilizing adequate sites should be
selected
The case of Anericus may be furnished as an exampleTABLE 711I
SUITABILITY OF THE SITE
CD
I
3
IT
It
lit
12
13
iS7
15
i
Physical characteristics of the site
Is the sitesoil suitable for the program in net weather
Is the sitesoil suitable for the program in dry weather
Is the sitesoil fertile for growing lawns and shrubbery
Is there natural drainage
Is there likelihood cf erosion
Is the topography such as to permit building without ex
cess i vewallcosts
Is the subsoil such as to permit building without exces
sive footing costs
g Is the subsoil of such nature as to reduce to a minimun
Jthe necessity of watering shrubbery and lawns
9 Are lawns and shrubbery appropriately planted and
maintained
10 Is the shape such as to permit logical and economical
provision of show utility play and recreation
8r6S
Does the site permit proper orientation of the building
Are classrooms darkened by surrounding trees or
buildings
Is the entire site capable of full utilization
Are play and recreation needs of school and community
provided for
Does the site furnish proper settings and spaces for
buildings
Are provisions made for parking automobiles and busses
without approaching areas frequented by children
Satisfactory
17 Is the site sufficiently removed from areas which may breed
mosquitoes
Unsatisfactory
EeasonI vAmericus Georgia Combines High School and Recreation Center
In 1936 when Americus people began a movement to secure a highschool
building to house the secondary school program for the city and Sumter Coun
ty consideration was given to various aspects of the program particularly
the recreational facilities needed for the entire community
In choosing the site it was decided to obtain an area large enough
to take care of the immediately projected needs and leave room for further
developments as they were planned at later dates With this in mind a tract
of about 30 acres was obtained
In projecting the program certain recreational activities then lo
cated elsewhere in the city were transferred to the community center
These included a baseball park and football field where the Americus Cardi
nals played several games per week during season and where the highschool
football garnet were played In planning the new baseball and football
grounds provision was made for night games A practice field for highschool
use in football baseball soccer and other field sports was provided immed
iately adjacent to the highschool building A quartermile cinder track
and other facilities for field and track events were constructed as well as
a projected halfmile course for horse racing Space was reserved for coun
ty fairs using the practice football field and adjacent ground At one ex
tremity of the site barns and pens were erected for exhibit of livestock
and farm products to be used in conjunction with the county fair and the vo
cational agricultural program One wing of the school building houses the
shops and vocational and trades work of the school This part of the build
ing is accessible to the main street and is open for use at night as well as
daring the day
another completed feature of the center is a recreation building
This building is open to the county for all purposes recommending its use
including basketball dancing fairs addresses etc It was the first
building erected and has been in use for eight years It is used an aver
age of six times per week and is now regarded as an indispensable feature
of the community activities
Projected plans for the center contemplate a cannery a swimming pool
a more complete shop installation and a small plot for growing and testing
plants
As indicated the program is not complete but certain parts have been
in operation long enough to demonstrate their value in terms of theuses
madeof them by the people As has been pointed cut every effort has been
made to make each feature serve as many purposes as possible The community
center including the school is a place to which more people are coming
for more and more reasons
8990
B What location do we wish the school site to have
V
82
The leader should direct his question in terms of criteria
evaluating the present site and for selecting the future
sites It is generally advisable at this stage to avoid
discussion of any specific prospective site
How well does the present location serve the needs of the
school program
In preparation for this discussion it is suggested that
the groun be requested to evaluate the present site in
terms of the location by the use of some such checklist
as Table VII
What provisions are made by law for locating the school
site
a
b
Authority to construct a school building must be ob
tained from county school authorities and the State
Department of Education1
The GaEgia School Law provides That the County
Board shall authorize the county superintendent to
make a careful study to determine the school needs
which shall be met in any particular situation and
to determine the most economical and practical loca
tion so that the maximum number of children can walk
to school and so that school busses can be routed
most efficiently for the remainder of the children
It further describes the kind of site required
4 What location do educational leaders recommend
a
The national Council on Schoolhouse Construction in
its Twentieth Annual Report on page 57 recommends
That the site be selected only in the light of a
comprehensive educational and physical survey there
by basing the selection on principles rather than
price that the site be readily accessible to all
concerned and unusual travel distances minimized
and that it be near the school population center
it is ultimately to Serve that the site be located
so as to be removed from such objectionable features
as noise odors dust railroads main or heavily
traveled highways or streets or areas of dense traf
fic that the site have such physical characteris
tics as to permit proper architectural setting
orientation and landscaping as well as an economical
use of the space as a whole that the site be free
from any sanitary hazards be properly drained and
1eorgia School Laws Atlanta Gorgia Department of
Education 1942 P 36 TABLE 11
EVALUATION OE THE LOCATION OE THE SCHOOL SITE
i
Location of the school site
Satisfactory
1 Centrally located as to present and future population
g Sn Touted as to require a minimum of travel and transportation
3 Accessihle to general public
U Remote from noise odors dust railroads main or heavily
traveled highways or streets of dense traffic
5 Freedom from traffic hazards such as hlind curvesin highways
6 Located in favorahle social environment
7 Trees and shruhhery on grounds and vicinity desirahle
g Freedom from health hazards eg mosquito breeding areas
9 Have physical characteristics permitting proper setting
orientation and landscaping
10 Located with due consideration for present and ultimate cost1
Unsatisfactory
Reason6
not adjacent to areas which may give rise to unsani
tary conditions
b Concerning the location Reeder has this to say It
should he within easy or feasible walking or trans
portation distance of the pupils whom it is designed I
to serveThe direction in which the community
is growing should be kept in mind as well as the lo
cation of the present population Spot maps locat
ing the present enrollment and others locating the
prospective enrollments should be constructed
The site should be located in desirable relation to
the other schools of the community should be locat
ed with reference to the convenience and community
interests of the people in mind
It should be located in an environment which would
be wholesome for conducting a school It should be
free from all moral and physical hazards unsanitary
conditions and other undesirable influences Nearness
to such things as railroads most factories danger
ous bodies of water highways with much traffic
noise and dust bad odors stone quarries stock
yards cliffs and forests which are likely to have
ravaging fires should be avoided3
5 What location do we wish for the local school site
In the light of the above discussion the group should be
led to fill out column f of Table I as to location
What physical characteristics do we want the school site to
possess
a The leader may begin the discussion by asking the group
to name qualities of topography soil etc that they
think are desirable for a school site The resulting
listing will probably include 1 type of soil 2
drainage 3 presence or absence of native trees
4 fertility of soil and 5 nearness to public utility
services etc
b What physical characteristics does the present site have
The group may be asked to evaluate the present site in
Proceedings National Council on School house Construction
J L Graham State Department of Education Tallahassee
Florida 1942 p 57 w J Reeder Public School Admija
istration New York The McMillan Co 1941 Pp 26366
92 1 r1
J93
terme of a check sheet Table VIII is suggested
c What are the physical characteristics of sites provided
by other communities for their school program
The leader should have the group describe other sites
with which they are familiar The discussion nay in
clude undesirable as well as desirable features If
desirable features are mentioned the disadvantages
should be pointed out For example should it be
mentioned that X community has a sandyvtop soil and
subsoil it may be pointed out that maintenance of
shrubbery and lawns become a difficult problem and
that footings for buildings must be wide and expen
sive under such conditions If someone suggests
that school Y provided a steep hillside it night
be brought out that foundation walls become expen
sive under such conditions that erosion might become
troublesome and that drainage night come from unsani
tary spaces above
d What does the law provide with reference to physical
characteristics of school site
There are no statutory requirements in the Greorif
school laws regarding physical characteristics of
school sites
e What do educational leaders consider desirable fea
tures of a school site
1 The National Council on Schoolhouse Construction
recommends That the site have such physical
characteristics as to permit proper architectural
setting orientation and landscaping as well as an
economical use of the space as a whole that the
site be free from any sanitary hazards be pro
perly drained and not adjacent to areas which
may give rise to unsanitary conditions
2 Bnglehardt advises that sites should be a
Suitable for proper drainage throughout at reason
able cost and b the referred orientation for
each type of room should be possible c Desir
able relationship of buildings to one another and
to play fields and service units should be attain
able d The shape should be approximately rectan
gular in order to eliminate unusable spaee but
with length not too long for width e Maximum
capitalization of the aesthetic from a distance
and at close range should be sought f A portion
of the area should be available at a reasonable
preparation cost for athletic fields and playgroundsg A portion of sits sufficient for a commanding
location of building is essential and h position
of soil rocks water and sand should be such as to
insure ease in putting in foundations and in making
athletic fieldsand playgrounds i Should be suit
able for landscaping and gardening2
f What physical characteristics do we wish the school
site to have to provide for the school program
The group should now be in position to complete Table
V column f
2N L Engelhardt Score Card to be Used in the Selec
tion of School Building Sites Hew York Teachors
College Columbia University
94mSbd
Hi
Section Three
What steps should we take to nake possible the physical facilities
we want to house the school progran and who should do it
A
B
What steps are necessary
1 The leader should begin this discussion by asking those present
to name the activities necessary in order to get a taiUiflft P
gran under way
Such answers as obtaining funds selecting the de
termining the plans and determining the costwill pro
bably be given These nay be listed in a table similar to
Table IX It is suggested that Table IX remain on the board
throughout the discussion in order to guide the cussion
and test group decisions The table should be altered if
group decisions indicate that changes should be made Table X
1b suggested as a convenient means of recocding the decisions
of thegroup in each step of the discussion
2 Table X should be filled out as decisions are reached At the
close of the discussion Table X should be coupletely filled
out and put in permanent forn for future reference
What has been done in other communities to make possible the physi
cal facilities needejd to carry on the school program and who has
done it
1 Members of the group should be led to describe how a school
building program was initiated in other communities with which
they are familiar An effort should be made to have a large
number of the group participate in this part of the discussion
In this discussion emphasis should be placed upon what was done
how it was done and who did it The discussion should be spe
cific and detailed
2 In the October 1924 issue of American School Board Journal
Superintendent B 0 Skinner described as follows the manner
by which a school building program was nade possible for the
Marietta Ohio Schools On alternate days for three suc
cessive weeks prior to the bond election newspapers carried
half page advertisements discussing such points as Do we
need a high school Can we afford it Is the city in
debt Is the tax rate high Is Marietta extravagant1
The cost of these advertisements was paid by local industrial
plant b
Permission was obtained from seventyfive advertisers to run a
line in their advertisements Moving picture theaters cooper
ated by showing slides calling attention to the need for school
buildings On every possible occasion school board members
talked to assemblies on the need for buildings Pastors gave
95 III
TABLE IX
SERVICES AVAILABLE KB MAKIHG THE SCHOOL PLANT POSSIBLE
County Agencies and groups
fe
County Board of Education
Local DoardpfJrustges
flmmty supervisor
Principal
Teachers
Services to be rendered
p T A memoers
Other adults
Selected pupils
Trai Inard of Health
Other groups
State Bepprtment of Education
Panel field staff
Attorney TABLE X
PLAH FOR MAKING THE DESIRED SCHOOL PLANT POSSIBLE
What steps should we
take to make possible
the physical facilities
we need to house the
school program
What can we do
Who can help

What has been done
Who has helped in
other communities
What does the
state law pro
vide as to what
tc do and as to
whc shall to it
Refer to C
3 a t c
d e f and
g page
of this paper
for listing
of duties and
powers of
state counties
and districts
What do auth
orities recom
mend as to what
to do and who
shall do it
What s hall we
do and who
shall do
it
Refer to D
1 page
of this paperc
tenminute talks on the subject The highschool paper
devoted an issue to the problem The ParentTeacher
Associations prepared and delivered booklets to every
home Automobiles carried appropriate posters School
children held a parade carrying banners pointing out
the needs Local service clubs and societies endorsed the
program
What provisions does the law make for contributions by the mem
bers of the various local county and state groups or agencies
1 Prior to this meeting the leader should ask individuals or
committees to examine Georgia School Laws 1942 and be
prepared to supply the information necessary for this dis
cussion
a Following are some of the duties and responsibilities
as stated in Georgia School Laws 1942 edition as ap
plied to certain groups On page 36 is found the fol
lowing quotation The construction of all public
school buildings must be approved by the superintendent
and board of education and must be according to plans
furnished by the county school authorities and the
State Department of Education
Under the authority contained on page 16 They the
Board of Education shall have general supervision of
the State Department of Education and shall employ
and dismiss upon the recommendation of the State
Superintendent of Schools such clerical employees
supervisors administrators and other employees as
may be necessary for the efficient operation of the
common school system The services of the Division
of School Buildings and general and special super
visors are available to assist local and county educa
tion authorities in planning the school building pro
blems
b The act creating the Agricultural and Development
Board authorized employment of personnel to carry on
the work of this body Acting on the authority thus
granted the Education Panel of this board has employ
ed field staff members and consultants in school ad
ministration and school buildings Their duties include
assisting local communities and counties upon request
with their administration and building problems
c As stated on page 70 in Georgia School Laws 1942
county and municipal boards of health are given broad
powers for the protection of healths They shall have
full power and authority to adopt enact establish
and maintain all such rules and regulations as
they may deem necessary and proper for protecting the
98d
6
f
health of their respective counties or municipalities
In counties where there is no countyvide levy for
school purposes the county hoard of education has au
thority tol consolidate or divide school districts
p 37 2 locate schools in consolidated districts
p 37 and 3 locate school sites on appeal i p 64
In counties where there is a countywide tax for school
purposes the county board of education has authority
to 1 fix the amount of bonds the rate of levy for
retirement and call elections for issuing boads p 65
2 locate and purchase rent or lease school sites
p64 3 ouild repair or rent schoolhouses and
equipment p 64 4 sell unnecessary or inconven
ient sites o 64 and 5 receive gifts p 64
In counties having no countywide levy for school pur
poses local boards of trustees have authority to 1
fix the amount of bonds fix the rate of levy for
their retirement and call elections for issuing bonds
p 65 2 locate and purchase rent or lease
school sites p 64 3 build repair or rent
schoolhouses and equipment p 64 4 sell unnec
essary or inconvenient sites p 64 and 5 receive
gifts p 65 66
In all counties it is the duty of patrons to l circu
late and present a petition calling for elections to
issue bonds p 63 2 vote for schoolhouses or
against schoolhouses and 3 in case the board of
trustees fail to act as manager of an election for
issuing bonds to qualify and act p 64
D Vhat do educational leadars recommend
1 On page 3 of Planning Schools for Tomorrow Commissioner
Studebaker has this to say
Social planning must be recognized and assumed as a respon
sibility of each and every person both individually and
collectively It is the duty of leaders to propose
to explain and to interpret what seems to them to be impera
tive needs for improvement in the cultural program It is
the function of the citizenship as a whole to consider
review refuse or adopt and put into effect the proposal
of the leaders

E What shall we do to make the physical facilities we need pos
sible And who will do it
1
To begin this discussion the leader nay ask the group to name
each step involved in making the building possible
99I V X2
100
As each step is agreed upon it should be listed on the board
Some such listing as the following nay result
a Determine the amount of money needed
b Determine how such funds nay be provided and take such
steps as are necessary to provide these funds
c Circulate a petition requesting an election
d Order and hold the election declare results and market
bonds
e Inform the community so as to prepare them to vote intelli
gently on the election
f Call such meetings of the entire group as conditions re
quire
3 Finally the leader may ask Who will take the leadership in
performing each of the necessary steps The group should be
led to agree whether responsibility for each step will be taken
by committees or by individuals and determine how the commit
tees or individuals will be selected The selection should be
made at this meeting Table XI is suggested as a convenient
means of organizing this discussion
TABLE XI
ORGANIZING THE COMMUNITY FOR PROVIDING THE SCHOOL PLAINT
Who will be
Duty responsible S ources of help
1 State Dept of Educa
1 Determine the amount of money needed Entire group 2 3 tion Panel staff Local builders
1 State Deot of Educa
2 Determine how such funds may be pro tion
vided Entire group 2 3 4 Panel Staff County Supt Local Edu Auth
3 Circulate petitions requesting bond elections School chil dren PTA Attorney
4 Order and hold the election de Local educa
clare results and market bonds tional auth Attorney
5 Inform the Community so as to prepare tit School em 1 Newspapers
them to vote intelligently at ployees 2 Civic community club
the election 2 Sch children a 3 Business groups
3 P T A 4 Posters
4 Special com 5 Churches
mittee
6 Call such meetings of committees or 1 General
the entire roup as conditions roquir E chai man Entire roua
1
i
Table XI should be kept for future use of comnittees or the
group as a whole
4 The leader should encourage group discussion of desirable
procedures to be followed by each group designated In
Table XI This discussion should include such questions as
how the comnittees will work how long it will require for
then to cormlete their undertaking and when would probably
be a good tine for the entire group to meet to consider
progress evaluate results and determine future courses
of action
101
LIBRARY102
CHAPTER XI
PLAN SETTING UP THE TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM
I Preliminaries
A Leaders objective To lead the group to discover the trans
portation problems as they relate to the program of the
school to think reflectively through these problems to ar
rive at conclusions to formulate plans and to put the plans
into action
3 The Groups to be Reached
1 Primary
a Superintendent of county schools
b County board of Education
c Local boards of trustees
d Principals
e Supervisor of transportation
2 Secondary
a Bus drivers
b Mechanics
c School Boy Patrol
d Teachers
e Lay citizens
f Parents of pupils transported
C Materials and Equipment Needed
1 A map showing the distribution of school population
for elementary and high schools
2 County maps one for each race to indicate the fol
lowing
a Using standard symbols location of each school
and show whether elementary junior high school or
senior high school
b School district or attendance area boundaries
c Origin and termination of each bus route accord
ing to trips and the direction the bus travels
d Bus routes numbered consecutively for entire county
e Bus trips lettered a b c etc103
3 Charts showing
a Number of children transported per bus attending
elementary and high schools
b The mileage of the routes according to type of road
c Cost of operation in 1942 per mile by type of owner
ship in
1 Publicly owned 105
2 Privately owned 123
3 Jointly owned 127
4 Other states Alabama 115
d Cost per pupil per year 1942 school term by types
of ownership in
1 Publicly owned 1324
2 Privately owned 1546
3 Jointly owned 1568
4 Other states Alabama 962
c Population trends according to the school census
4 Books pamphlets reports statistical data etc
a State Department of Education Georgia School Laws
b State Department of Education Recent Annual Reports
qf the Department of Education to the Genera
Assembly of Georgia
c State Department of Education Reports of the Educational
Census
d Yale University WorkConference School Transportation in
Wartime Washington D C Traffic Engineering
and Safety Department American Automobile Asso
ciation 1942
e Meadows Austin R Safety and Economy in School Bus
Transportation Wetumpka Alabama The Wetumpka
Printing Company
f Southern States WorkConference Pupil Transpprtation
for the Southern States Tallahassee Florida
State Department of Education 1940
g Southern States WorkConference School Transportation
Bulletin Ho 2 Tallahassee Elorida State
Department of Education 1941
h Education Panel A Study of School Transportation i
Georgia Education Panel University of Georgia
Athens Georgia 1945104
II Getting the Group into the Probleu
A The leader may raise an overall question to introduce the
study and to lead the planning group into thinking of the
transportation problem
1 Such a question nay be
Is our present system of school transportation meeting
our needs What are the satisfactory and unsatisfac
tory features
2 In order that the group may keep the problem before it
the leader may use a table similar to the one given
below for listing suggestions from the group The lead
er may supplement from his own information and from
some of the comments which he has heard several of the
uembers of the group give prior to the meeting Exam
ples of such comments may be
a
b
One of the lay citizens present complained that
his sixyear old daughter has to board the school
bus at 7 oclock in the morning and gets home at
5 oclock in the afternoon The school opens at
nine and closes at three
A principal has commented that the buses used in
an adjoining county were equipped with several
safety devices which Here not used on the buses
in thiscounty
TJlSLE XII
2 Kind of
equipment
3 Condition of
e quipment
Satisfactory
Unsatisfactory
Problem or
Feature
I Number of 1 Adequate for two 1 Inadequate for six schools
bussesschools in the county in the county
2 Steel bodies
3 One school has buses
in good condition
2 Wood bodies
3 Seven Schools have
buses which are in
bad condition
4r EtcHgggggggsEmmBmamm
wnrc
105
B Use naps and charts to show how our present systen nay be in
proved to
1 Save the tine of the children This involves such fac
tors as nuuber of buses nunber of children trans
ported length of routes number of stops etc which
are shown on the transportation nap of the county
See I Cl and 2
3 Reduce the transportation cost See I C3 c and d
C To introduce the relation of transportation to the progran of
the school
1
The leader nay place before the group such questions as
a
How would any reorganization of our school systen
or expansion of our school progran affect our
transportation problen
2
b Do changes in population within the districts have
any bearing on our planning for transportation
c Have there been any narked changes in school popu
lation within the past several years
As the group calls for info mation dealing with the above
questions the leader should present charts giving these
data
HI Procedure
A What kind of transportation systen should our school
systen provide
1 What are the transportation problems with which
our school systen should deal
a The leader should get opinions fron the group
The nenbers will probably give a conparatively long
list of specific problens These opinions which
nay be sinilar to the ones given below should be
listed on the blackboard
1 What are we going to do to increase the nun
ber of buses
2 What are we going to do to get buses
3 Who should own our buses
4 Who should operate our buses
5 What are we going to do in order that our chil
dren on buses nay be closely supervised106
6 What is the best kind of routing
7 What are we going to do about improving
the condition of our roads
8 What can we do to shorten the time our
children are on the buses
9 What kind of drivers should we have
10 What can we do to keep transportation from
costing us too much
11 What can we do to keep our buses in good
condition
12 What can vie do to make buses more safe
13 What plan of purchase of equipment should be
set up
14 What authority does our local principal have
15 Whycant we use our buses for pomething other
than for school
be These specific problems may be grouped into some such
classification
1 What minimum specifications for school buses
should be set up and by whom should they be set
up
2 What provisions are made for the most economical
purchase of equipment
3 What localsystem policies should be made for safe and eco
nomic operation of our school transportation
a What maintenance program should be adopted
b What transportation hazards now exist and how may
they be eliminated
1 As to equipment
2 As to practices
c A table similar to the one below may be prepared
and kept before the group throughout the study The
three problem areas should be listed in the first
column
4 What kind of school transportation do we now have
a Before the meeting the leader may ask the superin
tendent to prepare a report on the present trans
portation system to be given to the entire planning
group The leader may suggest a checksheet simi
lar to the one given below for the tabulation of
what is now being done The second column will107
b
indicate the extent to which the problem is now
being met
As the superintendent makes the report on present
transportation system this information should
be listed in second column of Table XIII
5 What legal provisions are made for school transporta
tion
a Section 32919 of the Georgia School Laws is
Whenever the county board of education or local
district trustees deem it for the best interest
of the school they shall have the right to pro
vide means for the transportation of pupils and
teachers to and from said school No school
trustee teacher or county superintendent of
schools shall be financially interested in the
transportation of pupils
b A State Committee on School Transportation has
suggested the reworking of the law to read
Whenever the County Board of Education deems it
for the best interest of the schools it shall have
the right to provide means for the transportation
of pupils and school employees under such poli
cies and regulations as the State Board of Education
may adopt to guarantee safe and economical trans
portation
No county superintendent of schools or member of
the County Board of Education no member of the
State Board of Education or employee of the State
Department of Education shall be financially in
terested in the transportation of pupils
What programs of transportation are other school
systems providing
The members of the planning group should be en
couraged to tell about school systems that
are now providing safe and economic transportation
The following table describes what some of these
systems are providingTABLE XIII
WHAT KIND OF TRANSPORTATION SHOULD OUR SCHOOL SYSTEM 1ROVIDE
What kind of
transportation do
we think we need
1
What minimum
standard speci
fications as to
equipment are
set up on a
systemwide
basis
What kind of
transportation do
we now have
2
Busses must he
distinctly mark
ed School Bus
on hoth front
rear and
sides
School bus dri
vers shall stop
school buses on
right hand side
of the road or
street as close
to the curb or
edge of said
road or street
as is practica
ble
Every motor vehi
cle must stop
when approaching
a school bus
which is stopped
and engaged in
taking on or dis
charging school
children
Violators of any oi
What legal provi
sions are made for
school transportation
3
County hoard or
local district trus
tees have the right
to provide means
for the transporta
tion of pupils when
they deem it for the
best interest of the
school
What programs of
transportation are
other schools
providing
North Carolina
The state owns
all buses except
the initial unit
for eah route
purchases all
equipment
routes all buses
adopts and en
forces safety and
operationsl re
gulations and in
sures all buses
and children Dri
vers are selected
by local authori
ties
West Virginia
County Board to
provide at public
expense adequate
means of transpor
tation State Board
to make all rules
and regulations The
State Board to pay
transportation costs
State prepares speci
fications and re
What program of
transportation
do experts re
commend
5
8ee National
3us Standards
1939 by Cyr pnd
others Interna
tional Textbook
Co Scranton
Pa
What kind of
school trans
portation will wj
put into operatij
6
National School
Bus Standards
i
M
O
oo
Ir
QX
8QITABLE XIII
What kind of trans
portation do we
think we need
Ul
2 What provisions
are made for
the most econo
mical purchase
of equipment
WHAT KIND OF TRANSPORTATION SHOULD OUR SCHOOL SYSTEM PROVIDE
What kind of
transportation do
we now have
2
the above laws
shall be pun
ished as for a
misdemeanor
All purchases
handled by local
school author
ities
3 What local
system poli
cies should
be made for
safe and
economic op
eration of our
school transportation
What legal provi
sions are made
for school trans
portation
3
What programs of trans
portation are other
schools providing
H
Ho school trus
tee teacher
or county sup
erintendent of
schools shall be
financially in
terested in the
transportation
of pupils
ceives bids for equip
ment County operates
maintenance program
Qualifications of
drivers defined by
statute
What program of trans
portation do experts
recommend
L
What kind of
school trans
portation will
we put into
operation
6
Meadows says State
laws should provide
financial plans
whereby local units
may own and operate
school buses for
transporting pupils
to and from public
school and for con
structing and main
taining school bus
shops
See attached
See State Board
Rules and Regula
tions P l627
Pupil Transporta
tion for Southern
States 190
State Department of
Education Tallahassee
o
ID
t
County owner
ship and oper
tion County
maintenance
program
Group purchas
ing of equip
ment and sup
plies If 20
or more buses
are in the
county a
maintenance
man en staff
of the county
Board of Edu
cation
Florida110
I
1 On the basis of past records and present analyses of school bus
costs public ownership of school buses is found to afford greater safety
to the pupils and more economical operation than any other type of owner
ship with a possible exception of transiflines in suburban and urban
areas
2 The economical advantages of public ownership of school buses
are duo largely to ability of the county Board of Education to purchase
school bus equipment at quantity prices as an agent of the state to pur
chase equipment and motor fuel without having to pay Federal excise taxes
and through elimination of high carrying charges and interest rates and to
the fact that public ownership is not operated for profit
3 It is hot reasonable to expect to secure adequate inspection
in all rural areas through private autouobile repair shops The county
Board of Education should maintain the fulltine or parttime services of
skilled autouobile mechanics to inspect service and repair school buses
4 The school bus should have a thorough inspection periodically
preferably each month and the driver should be required to secure an
approved inspection certificate from the inspecting mechanic after each
inspection before being allowed to transport pupils
5 In general school boards as governmental agencies are exempt
from tort liability except where state laws grant them the rignt to assume
such liability There is a tendency on the part of the public to demand
that school boards assume liability for injury and property damages caus
ed by their negligent acts and this tendency applies to school bus trans
portation In order to assure proper medical treatment and care of trans
ported pupils injured enroute tp and from school and in order to relieve
undue burdens on parents whose children have been fatally injured tne
state should provide compensation to parents for actual expenses mcurreu
dv injury of pupils who are transported to and from public schools at
public expense State insurance should be provided to cover losses from
school bus property damages to publicly owned school buses
Personal injury and property damages to others caused by U
gent operation of publicly owned school buses place a moral responsibility
on school boards and it seems that this responsibility should be met
through a plan of state compensation and insurance However it seems
equally reasonable to require the general public to be responsiole for
injury to pupils and for damages to school bus property through negligence
through some plan of insurance or compensation
6 One of the serious safety problems in school bus transporta
tion is that of safeguarding the pupil in crossing the highway after leav
ing the school bus Pupils should be required to cross in front of the
school bus at the direction of the driver Each bus should have a pupil
patrol selected by the principal of the school in cooperation with tne
bus driver to assist the driver in maintaining proper order on the
school bus Pupils should not be allowed to extend parts of their bodies
out of the windows except in case of emergency exit Pupils snould not
interfere with the bus driver and should not damage or abuse the scnooi I5Sffrvwawa
Ill
bus equipment They should cooperate with the driver in his attempt to safe
ly transport the children to and from school
7 The state through legislative enactment requires any approach
ing motorist to stop for a school bus which is stopped to load or unload
pupils The bus driver should exercise due care in not detaining general
traffic at such stops any longer than necessary
8 The state should set up minimum standards for school bus trans
portation and should provide consultants in the state education department
to assist local school officials in the development and maintenance of safe
and economical school bus transportation
9 State aid for transportation should make possible adequate safe
and economical operation of school bus transportation
10 The state should furnish uniform accounting forms to county
Boards of Education School bua accidents should be reported by the school
bus driver or by the principal of the main school served by the bus if
the bus driver is incapacitated and the superintendent of the county should
make a report to the State superintendent of education on a form provided
by the state board of education within ten days after the accident
11 County boards of education and superintendents should be en
couraged to improve upon minimum state standards where possible and practi
cable1L
v Ji
A
U
ifCTBBBBB MMBBMBBBi
112
CHECK SHEETFOR THE STUDY OF THE PRESENT TRANSPORTATION PROGRAMS
PROBLEM
WHAT IS BEING DONE NOW
1 Buses
a Number
b Condition
c Sizes
d Utilization
Type or Types of Ownership
a Public
b Private
c Joint
Bus Routes How determined
a How are the following
determined
1 Walking distances
2 Schedules
3 Stops
b Road Conditions
1 Miles of unimproved
road over which buses
travel
2 Miles paved road over
which buses travel
3 location and kinds of
schools in relation to
density of school popu
lation
4 Mumber of Children transported
a Elementary school
b High school
5 Records
a Gas mileage
b Cost of operation per mile
c Cost of operation per pupil
d Pupils transportedrtcacOTrfrCTJVni M
t9
113
Check Sheet for the Study of the Present Transportation Program
PROBLEM WHAT IS BEING DOHE HOW
6 Drivers a Sow selected b Qualifications 1 Age 2 Character 3 Physical fitness 4 Driving skill
7 Maintenance and supplies a How are repair parts and supplies purchased b Storage c Distribution d Provision for repairs
8 Safety a Buses b Drivers c Pupils d General
9 Policy of extrause of equipment
10 Liability and property damage insurance legality t
11 Purchase of equipment a Specifications b Method used 1 Bids 2 Other

iixtirr MBBB BBMMBB
114
What program of transportation do experts recommend that we set up
for our school system
Southern States WorkConference on School Administrative Pro
blems Pupil Transportation for the Southern States Talla
hassee Florida State Department of Education 1940
The establishment and maintenance of transportation ser
vice on a level comparable with other educational ser
vices is the responsibility of both state and local school
administrators More attention needs to be given to the
opportunities for correlating the transportation program
with the instructional program Pupils are definitely
and permanently influenced by the type and quality of
transportation with which they are provided during the
years they attend school Overcrowded ramshackle buses
irregular schedules illiterate drivers and other con
ditions resulting from poor planning and management make
a negative contribution to the education of children
Good health habits courtesy and desirable civic atti
tudes are thwarted by inferior service p 5
Among the more frequent criticisms directed at contracts
with individual operators for pupil transportation are
1 that the school administrative unit pays for the
contractors equipment usually over the contract
period but title does not revert to the board 2
that it is difficult to change routes and schedules
after they have been established and 3 that optimumTABLE XIV
OUR PROGRAM OF TRANSPORTATION
Problems of school transportation which
are to he considered in our plan
Procedure to he used in
dealing with the prohlems
1 The School Bus Mechanism
a The need for safer school buses
b The school bus body
c The school bus chassis
d Etc
Group discussion
2 The School Bus Driver
a Driver responsibility for school
bus accidents
b Age of driver
c Physical examination of driver
d Education of driver
e Characteristics and habits of
driver
f Etc
Group discussion
School bus routes and schedules
a Road condition accident hazards
b 3us schedule a time schedule
c Location of bus stops
d Route signs
Group discussion
Management of School 3us Transportation
a Ownership of school buses
b School bus specification and bids
c School bus inspection
d Student behavior
e Accident and Compensation Insurance
f Local and state responsibility
g Etc
Group discussion
Reference to literature
Meadows Austin Safety and Economy in School Bus Transportation
Evaluation of the
results
1 All steel body
2 Adequate size
3 Forward facing seats
U Equipped with heater etc
5 Chassis adapted to the length
of the body
6 County maintenance program planned
1
2
Inservice training program planned
Sight and hearing tests provided
VJ1
1 Buses routed so as to reduce ex
cessive distances relieve over
crowding and provide waiting
stations
1 County cwnetfship planned
2 Monthly inspections provided
3 Rules and regulations dealing with
1 Pupils
2 Drivers
3 Safety worked out and
agreed upon
State approval of bus routes and
maintenance program obtained

acCiX1 STKWt BMHBJ
116
use of the physical equipment is limited by the contract
agreement It is the concensus of the committee that private
contract has very little on the positive side to recommend it
The more valid arguments for continuation of private contract
may be summarized as follows
1 The local school administrative unit knows in
advance what its transportation is to cost
2 Theoretically only necessary mileage over the
bus route is paid for
3 Responsibilities incident to operation and main
tenance can be shifted from the school adminis
tration to contractor
4 Bus service in isolated sections may be provided
without unjustified administrative and supervisory
costs pp 910
Perhaps the least acceptable form is ownership of the chassis
by the contractor and the body by the school administrative
unit This type of ownership and operation has the bad fea
tures of both private contract and public school ownership
with practically none of the virtues of either pp 1011
There is a growing conviction among school administrators and
the public that a service so intimately related to the instruc
tional program should be under the direct ownership supervi
sion and management of the school authorities
Among the motivating factors in this trend may be listed the
following arguments for public ownership
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Greater control over the type of equipment in use is
possible
Elimination of competitive bidding for bus routes
permits a wider range of selection of bus drivers
Ownership operation insures the opportunity for
close and adequate supervision which should provide
a guarantee of safety comfort convenience adequacy
flexibility and other vital needs of the service
The local school administrative unit may be more certain
of the safety of its buses by insistence upon proper
inspection repair and maintenance
Routes and schedules can be more easily adjusted to
needs
A wider use of buses is possible
Definite studies in Alabama Arkansas Florida Ohio
North Carolina Oklahoma Texas Utah and in other
states furnish conclusive evidence that public school
ownership is more economical than private contract
In some states the cost is fifty percent more toiHBBBi
117
operate buses privately than publicly There have
been instances in which school boards have pur
chased buses for half the price paid by individuals
for the sane type bus Sone of the possible areas of
saving under public school ownership are as follows
The profit normally earned by the contractor nay be
saved the board nay effect savings on both body
and chassis through fleet purchases through reduction
of interest or carrying charges through elimination
of Federal taxes on buses accessories gasoline and
oil Possibilities for savings also exist through
wise provision for centralized naintenance and re
pair pp 1112
Austin Meadows in his Safety and Economy in School Bus Transporta
tion sets up the following criteria
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
School bus transportation should contribute to
equalization of educational opportunity
Standards should either contribute to safety or be con
sistent with safe operation of school bus transportation
Each standard should contribute to econouy insofar as
econony does not interfere with safety in school bus
operation
Standards should specify results desired and uethods of
achieving the results insofar as is necessary for en
forceuent of standards
States should adopt uniforn standards where such stand
ards will serve to increase Safety and economy in
school bus operationT
State nininun regulations should pernit adaptation to
local needs where such adaptations do not jeopardize
safety of pupils
Feasibility State regulations nust be possible to
achieve
What kind of transportation program will we set up for our school
system
a
The leader should now direct the attention of the
planning group to filling in the last column in
Table XV The best practices found in other
schools the legal provisions recommendations of
experts and prevailing local conditions should
be the factors to guide the group into the setting
up of the transportation programTABLE XV
WHAT SOME SCHOOL SYSTEMS ABE DOIHG IN SCHOOL TFANSPOBTATIOH
School System
Tift County
Aims
Procedure used in working
toward aims
1 To provide the
safest and most
economical school
transportation
1 The superintendent and hoard memhers
thought that transportation was
costing too much
2 A transportation study was made under
the direction of a specialist
3 Purchase of transportation equipment
by county hoard of education
h Higid driver qualifications set
up for employment of bus driver
1 Ho accidents and no injury
to any persons
2 Cost of transportation
dropped forty percent
f