g iIBB gaKlBBMatUIUtMKKBHSSUhtmmtmmtmwiniKIIKIM TO li5 J IP i i A SCHOOL LEADERS MANUAL program of educational development For Georgia PART III Issued by EDUCATION PANEL AGRICULTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT BOARD Athens GeorgiaAGRICULTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT BOARD of GEORGIA ci OM Name of Member Ivan Allen T P Abercrombie Charles L Bowden W N Banks Cason J Callaway M D Collins Ryburn G Clay Mrs Prank C David Judge Blanton Portson Charles B Gramllng Robert W Groves Alfred W Jones Tom Linder Wiley L Moore Walter R McDonald Henry Mclntosh W H McNaughton J L Pilcher Robert Strickland M King Tucker Wilson Williams Address Atlanta Georgia Atlanta Georgia Macon Georgia Grantville Georgia Hamilton Georgia Atlanta Georgia Atlanta Georgia Columbus Georgia Athens Georgia Atlanta Georgia Savannah Georgia Sea Island Georgia Atlanta Georgia Atlanta Georgia Atlanta Georgia Albany Georgia Cartersville Georgia Meigs Georgia Atlanta Georgia Waynesboro Georgia Atlanta Georgia Officers of Board 6 i Blanton Portson Chairman L Vaughn Howard Executive Director Education Panel Bulletin No 1 October 1944 LIB RARY iEOEDUCATION PANEL Members M D Collins Chairman Mrs Frank C David Wilson Williams 0 C Aderhold Director Athens Georgia Address Atlanta Georgia Columbus Georgia Atlanta Georgia Written in Collaboration by 3 0 C Aderhold Paul Carroll Sam demons Johnnie V Cox Charles Hudgins J E Greene Claude Purcell R D Pulliam T E Smith W A Stumpf R H Tolbert Nell Winn 1 The members of the Workshop of School Leaders held at the University of Georgia during the summer of 1944 The membership of the workshop was made up largely of principals and teachers from the sixteen selected counties This group worked with the staff for a period of approximately six weeks in developing a point of view and procedures to be used in county and local planning 2 The supervisory staff of the State Department of Education worked hand in hand with the Panel staff during the workshop period and certain members of this staff have given advice and assistance throughout the process of writing the manual 3 The staff of the University of Georgia assisted during the workshop period and certain individuals have been called upon to make specific contributions to the development of this publication Many others have assisted either directly or indirectly The State Health Department the Panel on Business and Commerce and the Public Works Panel of the Agricultural and Industrial Development Board along with many writers in the field of education The Panel staff has endeavored to give due credit to authorities in education where they have drawn upon them for information in published form iiaftjaato rJiassShikr TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Preface PAPT III PLANNING THE PROGRAM OF COUNTYAND LOCAL SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION Chapter IX Planning an Administrative Organization on County and Local Levels Unit 1 What Administrative Unit Should Be Set Up to Serve This County 5 Unit 2 What Administrative Organization Should Be Set Up Within the Local School System 36 Unit 3 What Should Be the Size of the Attendance Units in the System57 Chapter X Planning the Physical Plant to Provide for the School Program 66 Section 1 What Building Facilities Should Be Provided to Meet the Needs of a Community70 Section 2 What1Sort of School Grounds do We Wish for the School Program 85 Section 3 What Steps Should We Take to Make Possible the Physical Facilities We Want to House the School Program and Who Should Take These Steps95 Chapter XI Planning a Program for Pupil Transportation 102inr PART III PLANNING THE PROGRAM OF COUNTY AND LOCAL SCHOOL ADMINISTRATIONPART III PLANNING THE PROGRAM OF COUNTY AND LOCAL SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION Introduction Administration broadly speaking is the art of getting things done It comprises determining what must be accomplished planning hour oo do It doing it and after an appropriate time evaluating the results Applied to education administration is the means by which the educational program the staff the necessary business operations and the school plant are effectively coordinated and operated to bring about the educational development of the pupils Educational administration in common with all administration is a service At all levels it should exist solely as a means to effectuate the primary purpose of the school Though administration is a service its importance should not be minimized Education not only influences directly the lives of a great majority of the inhabitants of a community but it also is one of the largest of the business enterprises in every community Because of these important social and economic implications education and its instrument the school must be well managed It is axiomaticthat intelligent planning which includes a study of all known factors that may affect an administrative decision underlies sound administration In the field of school buildings for example the failure to take into account the trends of population increase or decrease the results of eroded farm lands the industrialization of communities and the like has resulted in under or overbuilding To be specific a certain community in Georgia is about to abandon a highschool building erected no more than seven years ago because the trend of emigration from the community and the factors causing it apparently had not been studied when the structure was built On the other hand numerous examples exist of comparatively new buildings that are already overcrowded because increases in population that were predictable upon the basis of available data evidently were not considered when the buildings were planned The tendency to build for permanence has excluded the obvious fact that school programs change and that buildings so constructed cannot be remodeled to care for new needs without considerable expense that could have been avoided by the use of less substantial partitions and the like Similarly the average cost of pupil transportation varies among the counties of Georgia because in part at least the policies of some counties have been established upon the basis of more careful planning than was done in others If careful administrative planning is essential in these material aspects it is obviously of equal or greater importance in planning suitable organizations in financing in personal relationships and in enlisting the continuing support of the community Certain other selfevident principles which are especially important in the management of education pervade all administration The foremost is that administration continuously involves delicate human relationships Unless the personalities and selfesteem of all concerned with or affected by administration are considered and safeguarded longterm effectiveness rarely can be achieved Another axiom is that common sense must be applied to the solution of all administrative problems If this rule is not observed decisions appropriate under the immediate circumstances can hardly be made It seems clear that administrative problems can be solved only if sound theory proven experience and an intimate knowledge of human nature are effectively blended Thus the approach to the solution of an adqgSfvgJproblem nust be psychological as well as logical A V I LIBRARY 1jggggggjgjgggggggggggggggggggggil 3 Historically local administration of public education has grown to be a part of the democratic tradition in the United States which the people and their local leaders have jealously guarded No direot mention of education is contained in the Federal Constitution The Tenth Amendment ratified in 1791 with the first nine amendments as what is commonly called the Bill of Rights reserved to the states or the people the powers not delegated to the United States nor pro Soited to the statesV the Constitution By interpretations of these amendmante and subsequent acts of the states with respect to education Put0icCS taken on the character of a legal function of the several states This function generally but not wholly has been delegated to local administrative s operating through some type of board of control which is usually recogjized by the courts as an agent of the state unless there is a specific state statute to the contrary In the South particularly however the trend ward centalization of administration in large units and in state departments of education has more or less broken down the tradition of administration by small local units Educational administration has three principal functions Poj execution of the policies and evaluation of the results Pg from these functions concern organization financing Pers0elelnlns supervision business plant and transportation operations and P10 These problems are not mutually exclusive Organization for ef ly related to financing supervision and personnel programs among ff f ing is an important part of building and transportation programs not to mention the basic program of the school and public relations must considered in connection with each of the others It should be understood a he proJ8 listed here could be divided into more detailed studies in each problemfield The purpose of Part III is to provide county leaders not only with applica tions to SdXistration of the method of attack already familiar to them in con nection with other problems but also with fairly recent examples of Jse problems have been met elsewhere and with the solutions propose J recogn ized authorities on school administration County leaders who wishto provide them selves with a standard textbook in school administration or to recommend such a volume to local leaders will find any of the following useful Reeder Ward G The Fundamentals of Public School Administration New Yorkt The Macmillan Company 1941 Pp xv 798 Moehlman Arthur B School Administration New York Houghton Mifflin Company 1940 Pp xvii 929 Engelhardt Fred Public School Organisation and Administration New York Ginn and Company 1931 Pp xvi 595 Reeders Text is perhaps the easiest to read and is especially recommended if time is at a premium The chapters following consider what are believed to ad8tr tive problems including building and transportation that the Pfgjroup will suggest It is not likely that eachJ bfraXd the form or phraseology used in this manual but that the Pem w through a reference to some perhaps minor detail In addition to thehaslc problems presented the county leaders may wish to devePetfSd enable he reactions of the planning group The references and other data should enaoie them to do so without undue inconvenienceiKr aauux1 tdnaBHnBnBHnBnHBBBna K i i r r nJ i f jJ 111 vCHAPTER IX PLANNING AN ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION ON COUNTY AND LOCAL LEVELS The administrative organization of the schools at any level state county or local is the arrangement of their mutually dependent parts and functions into one whole The resulting organization is simply the structure through which the purposes of public education are attained and not an end in itself Careful planning is necessary to establish an administrative organization that will operate efficiently and economically without losing sight of the primary aim of the school the development of the pupils The planning rather naturally divides into two principal subdivisions l For the unit of administration and 2 for the internal organization of any unit of administration Although there is some overlapping the first emphasizes primarily the external relationships and the second the internal relationships Terminology is of some importance in order to avoid confusion The following definitions and comments are intended to explain what may seem to be inconsistencies in the material that follows and in the quoted literature 1 Fiscal unit the unit concerned primarily with financial affairs Thus the state is the fiscal unit in Georgia as far as teachers1 basic salaries are concerned but not for other fiscal matters Administrative unit the unit concerned primarily with operations Attendance unit the unit or area from which the pupils of a specific school are drawn The inhabitants of the attendance area may be consider ed the constituency of a specific school Local level as used in the literature on school administration this generally means the level below the state As used in Georgia it may mean the foregoing or it may refer to a school or system in a particular community under or independent of the county system The context may have to be relied on to determine which of these two meanings is intended The fiscal unit and the administrative unit are often coterminous or they may refer to the same unit in some matters and not in others as explained above The attendance unit ordinarily is not the same as either the fiscal or the adminis trative unit unless there is but one school drawing support to itself in the ad ministrative unit Planning the unit of administration that will best serve a specific county is treated in Unit 1 of the present chapter Though some variation of the county unit seems to be accepted by leading Georgia administrators as the best for the State at least under present circumstances it should not necessarily be accepted as the ultimate plan Unit 2 What Administrative Organization 3hould Be Set Up in the Local School System emphasizes the internal organization The general principles of internal organization which will be derived from the study of this unit may be applied with equal appropriateness to county and state administrative organizations The subjectmatter of Unit 3 What Should Be the Size of Attendance Units in the System is evident from the title It is related to both the organization and the financing of the schools The material following should be considered as basic but not necessarily complete as substantial portions of the textbooks on administration are devoted to these topics 4 use i r i 1 HUnit 1 What Administrative Unit Should Be Set Up To Serve This County I Preliminary arrangements A Leaders objectives 1 To discover the problems of administrative organization in the county 2 To think through these problems reflectively 3 To arrive at conclusions 4 To formulate a plan for an effective administrative unit for the county 5 To put the plan into operation B Members of the planning group 1 Primary a County superintendent b County board of education c State supervisor in the area of which the county xs a part d Local boards of trustees e Principals f County supervisors g Representatives from other groups program of the schools school buildings transportation instructional and busxness staffs 2 Secondary a Local faculty groups b Local business employees c Lay groups d Members of county andor city legislative groups county commissioners city councilmen etc C Informational services required 1 Map showing the locations of the several school districts and schools by type elementary secondary etc with tne active enrollments of each 2 Chart showing the relationships of the various boards and fials of the administrative unit in which the discussion is bexng held 3 Bar graphs showing perpupil costs based on data in the county superintendents reports 4 Tables in Part IV of this Manual 5 JV 6 5 Books and pamphlets a Georgia School laws 1942 Atlanta Georgiat State Department of Education b Supplement to Georgia School Laws 1943 Atlanta Georgia State Department of Education c Seventieth and Seventyfirst Annual Reports of the Department of Education to the General Assembly of the State of Georgia for the Biennium Ending June 30 1942 Atlanta Georgia State Department of Education d County superintendents annual reports e General source material on school administration f National census and local school census reports II Getting the planning group into the problem A The problem of planning a satisfactory unit of administration probably will be more evident and of greater importance to the professional members of the group than to the lay participants who understandably enough may take the present administrative unit as a matter of course because they have had no occasion to give any thought to it That the school laws of Georgia apparently authorize four variations of the county unit in addition to the independent systems may evoke only such a comment as Yhat of it It is the leaders task to answer this searching question with it is hoped the help of the following materials Such questions as those below may help the lay participants to see that the problem of establishing a suitable administrative unit is of soeb importance and perhaps may stimulate the professional member of the group to new thinking on the matter 1 What schools do we have where are they located and what are their respective enrollments 2 Who are entrusted with the management of these schools State department county board county superintendent local boards of trustees if any county commissioners for taxlevying purposes principals 3 What do these persons or groups do 4 How are their respective activities related to one another 5 Are there any factors inthe foregoing duties and relationships which might or do cause friction and so prevent us from having the kind of school program we want 6 Do the children in the rural and city areas have the opportunity to associate with one another in the schools at least at high school level iij v i r o ta 9 10 7 7 Do the rural pupils have educational advantages similar to those of the urban areas of the county vice versa 8 What does the loss of 1300 Heard County Table IV Part IV inhabitants in the last four years mean in the management of the schools of Heard county The leader obviously must adapt these and the following questions to the county in which he is working Is the population of this county sufficient to provide enough pupils to make a school system possible See Table XXXIV Part IV for data on Heard County as to population by age groups Calhoun County with an area of 284 square miles and a school en rollment of 821 pupils in 1941 Annual Report 1942 of the State Department had a taxable wealthfH872000 Heard County with an area of 261 square miles and 1816 pupils had a taxable wealth of 698700 What does this mean in the management of our Heara County schools 11 Are any of the pupils attending the schools of this county members of communities that really are parts of adjoining counties B Comments from members of the planning group may be sought by the leader prior to the meeting During these conversations individuals may express themselves rather freely concerning problems having to do with the administrative unit Its size underlying wealth points oi friction etc Permission should be requested to use such comments as the basis for discussion during the meeting although it is generally not important that they be identified with an individual when they are brought into the discussion 1 A trustee may have said that the county board rarely follows the recommendations of the local board in the matter of advancing the interests of the local school 2 A principal may comment that his teachers are not so well qualified as those of another district which supplements their salaries 3 The county superintendent may call attention to progress made in schools that are the result of consolidation and to lack of it where consolidation has been opposed Examples of overconsolida tion also may be cited 4 A lay person may call attention to the fact that some pupils are transported a considerable distance when by attending the schools of an adjoining county the riding distance would be shortened appreciably 5 A county board member may complain that the powers given the local boards of trustees sometimes get in the way of real progress in the countyC The relation of costs to administration may be shown 1 III In counties in which no independent system exists bar graphs may be used to show perpupil cost ADA among the various schools which should not be identified County superintendents report 2 In counties with independent systems comparisons may be made of perpupil costs between the independent systems and the county system Annual Report of the State Department of Education 3 In either l or 2 the leader should present the data in such a way as to arouse curiosity as to why the differences existed Such questions as the following may be helpful a Do the bare figures tell the difference b If not what other elements must be considered Better program better teachers effect of consolidation etc c Is the method of equalization within the county satisfactory in aiding the areas needing the most financial help d How might perpupil costs be reduced or at least not in creased at the same time that educational opportunities are increased on a systemwide basis Procedure for the solution of the problem What administrative unit should be set up to serve this county A What administrative unit will best serve this county 1 The leader should encourage each member of the planning group to give his ooinion as to what would constitute the best administra tive unit for the particular county These opinions may be listed on the blackboard and discussed 2 The leader should encourage those making suggestions to give their reasons therefor but the proposals should not be pursued to the point that the individual feels he must defend his suggestions B What administrative unit now serves this county 1 It is suggested that the leader confer with the county superinten dent in advance to ascertain the various relationships among the several boards and the principal school officials The informa tion sought here may and probably should be extended to include that needed in Unit 2 II B below It is suggested that the leader ask for a copy of any organization charts that the county superintendent may have prepared although he may find that in common with the administrative heads of other organizations the superintendent has made no such chart If none is found the leader should prepare a chart that the county superintendent will approve The relationships should be checked wxth members of the county board local trustees principals and teachers to deter mine the accuracy of the superintendents statements This is no p reflection on the county superintendent those heading an organization not infrequently believe that relationships exist which are different from the views held by their associates or subordinates The virtue of a chart is that it shows more clearly than words can describe what the actual relationships are The chart may be used by leaders as a guide in the discussion with the group or it may be exhibited at the end of the discussion of the means of comparison between what the group believes the relationships to be and what they presumably are In drawing a chart the leader is advised to follow the plan of using unbroken horizontal and vertical lines not diagonal to show the administrative relationships and broken lines to show advisory relationships Following is a chart for a simple organization which may be found to exist in counties in which the subdistricts levy a tax for educational purposes CHART I BASIC ADMINISTRATIVE RELATIONSHIPS IN X COUNTY 1 County board j 1 i Boards of trustees j County superintendentj i i i 1 1 Principals i 2 The leader may find the following questions helpful in drawing upon the knowledge of members of the planning group concerning what they believe the administrative unit in the county to be and concerning its limitations a What authority does the State Board of Education exercise with respect to this county b What are the powers and duties of the county board of educa tion c What are the powers and duties of the local boards of trustees d What are the powers and duties of independent boards of education if there are any in the county e What are the relationships between the State Board of Educa tion and the county board f What are the relationships between the State Board and the dounty superintendent g What are the relationships between the county boards and the local boards of trustees h What are the relationships between the county boards and the independent boards if there are any in the county 1 v i v V i 10 3 The following sunnary of powers and duties is important at this point in determining some of the relationships referred to in the foregoing questions Ordinarily powers and duties apply more appropriately to the internal organization of an administrative unit Unit 2 of this chapter but because it is necessary to arrive at a definition of the kind of administrative unit serving the county this analysis of the school law is placed here Source Georgia School Laws published by the State Department of Education 1942 Atlanta Georgia and the supplement ereto published in June 1943 The figures in parentheses following the statements refer to sections of the law Leaders should have copies of the school laws and the supplement perhaps annotated with marginal notes a State board of Education 1 To provide rules and regulations for the supervision of all public schools of this State Georgia Laws 1937 pp 864869 Sec 3 2 To provide a course of study for all common arid high schools receiving state aid and to approve if they xvish additional courses of study set up by local units of administration ibid 3 To provide for curriculum revisions ibid 4 To provide for the classification and certification of teachers ibid 5 To make rules and regulations for the administration of the common school fund ibid 6 To have appellate jurisdiction in all school ters which may be appealed from any county or city board of education and its decisions in all such matters shal be final and conclusive Georgia Laws 1937 PP awt 869 Sec 6 7 To prescribe by regulation the text books f UJ f the various grades in the public schools of this State to provide multiple listings of the same and if it wishes to authorize the county superintendent or the superintendent of an independent school system to exer cise a choice as between books so listed or adopted for any particular grade Georgia Laws 1937 pp 8969U1 Sec 1 8 To provide for purchasing covering repairing and furnishing such free textbooks for use by the pupils in all of the elementary and highschool grades in the public schools of this State Georgia Laws 1957 pp 896901 Sec 4ov C U VjV r vM UT 11 9 To equalize educational opportunities for all of the children of school age in this State Georgia Laws 1937 pp 882892 Sec l 10 To divide the various local units of administration into five groups on the basis of the nost recent United States Census and to regroup as early as practicable after each Census Georgia Laws 1957 pp 882892 Sec 4 11 To determine annually with such variation as nay be necessary the number of teachers to be employed for the nininun tern of seven months prescribed in Section 1 of the socalled Equalization Act upon the basis of average daily attendance for the preceding year Georgia Laws 1937 pp 882892 Sec 5 12 To fix annually a schedule of minimum salaries which shall be paid to the teachers of the various classes said payment to be out of the public school funds of the State and said schedule to be uniform for each of the classes of teachers fixed by the State Board of Education and to provide variations from such schedules when necessary Georgia Laws 1937 pp 882892 Sec 8 13 To pay from common school funds and other appropriations the salaries of all teachers for not less than seven months in accordance with the salary schedule set up to pay the salaries of county school superintendents as now provided by law and to pay each local unit of administration for certain other purposes a sum sufficient when added to the total amount which may be raised by such local unit of administration by a local tax levy of five mills to equal onethird of the amount allotted to such local unit of administration for salaries Georgia Laws 1957 pp 882892 Sec 9 14 To aoprove the budgets of local units provided at least threefourths of the total amount for expenditure be for teachers salaries Georgia Laws 1937 pp 882892 Sec 12 b State School Superintendent 1 To administer the school laws and to have general superin tendence of the business relating to the common schools of the State 32501 2 To instruct subordinate school officers in the faithful and efficient execution of the school laws 32501 3 To suspend a county superintendent of schools for incompetency willful neglect of duty misconduct im morality or the commission of crime involving moral turpitude subject to appeal to the State Board of Education 32505 4 To visit the several counties to examine into the administration of the school law to counsel with school officers and to inspect school operations 32506 x I i 12 5 To require of county superintendents such reports as he nay prescribe 32515 6 To require of presidents of boards of education or the chief executive officers of public school organizations operating under special law the detailed report mentioned in section 32508 32515 c County board of education 1 With the county superintendent to make rules to govern the county schools 32912 2 To establish high schools and junior high schools 32933 3 To establish evening and parttine schools subject to regulations of the State Board of Education 32932 4 To organize manual labor schools on such a plan as may be selfsustaining subject to the approval of the State Board of Education 32931 5 To open and annex a department of industrial education procure necessary equipment and pay the necessary teach ers 32934 6 To carry on additional work for the promotion of the extension work in agriculture and home economics under certain Acts of Congress 32944 7 To employ teachers 32913 8 To suspend teachers for certain reasons 32912 9 To suspend the county superintendent for certain reasons 32912 10 To constitute a tribunal for hearing and determining any matter of local controversy in reference to the construc tion or administration of the school law and to make decisions binding upon both parties but subject to appeal to the State School Superintendent 32910j 11 To make regulations to insure the vaccination of pupils 32911 ftp to consolidate two or more schools or districts under certain conditions 32915 and 32917 13 To separate or divide districts and to provide for the election of trustees for each of the new districts 32916 14 To alter districts under certain conditions 32917 r a j o MS i il ic Jiitif Or M ir rt 0 rjj l i I VI 15 15 To grant permission to children to attend the common school in another district 32938 16 To lay off school districts without regard to county lines under certain conditions 321102 17 To refuse to confirm the election of local trustees the county board considers unqualified or to remove them under certain condxtxons 321104 18 To require statements of school population attendance etc of local boards of trustees 321119 19 To provide local funds for educational advantages in addition to those prescribed by the State Board provided such advantages are not in con flict with regulations of the State Board Georgia Laws 1937 pp 882892 Sec 6 20 To operate the schools for a longer period than seven months to supplement the State schedule of salaries to employ additional teachers not provided in the Equalization Acts and to opiate kindergartens and grades above the eleventh The last two must be operated solely from local funds Georgia Laws 1937 pp BB2i Sec 10 21 To recommend to the proper county authority the levying of a tax from one to five mills on all taxable property in the county outside of independent school systems fogorgia Constitution Art T Sec 4 Chap 269 par l 22 To recommend to the proper county authority the levying of a tax in excess of five mills in accordance with the wishes of the voters as expressed at a special election 321106 23 To borrow money to pay for the operation of the schools under speci fied conditions 32921 24 To contract with municipalities for the joint building and nain tenance of highschool buildings located within f the joint use of children living in such municipalities and those living in the county outside 321404 and to issue bonds therefor under prescribed conditions 321406 25 To judge the amount and sufficiency of the bond of the treasurer receiving local tax collections for the public schools 321120 and to decide the amount of the bond of the county superintendent 321005 26 To receive moneys raised by local taxation for school purposes in case the treasurer of local districts fails to make bond 321121 27 To make all arrangements necessary to the efficient operation of the schools 32909 28 To purchase lease or rent school sites under certain conditions 32909 29 To build repair or rent school houses 32909 30 To purchase maps globes and school furniture 52909 V i Jfc Lc J i iiiife ii i 14 31 52 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 To provide for the building of school houses by labor on the part of citizens in the subdistricts or by a tax on their property under certain conditions 32909 To be invested with the title care and custody of all school houses and other property belonging to subdistricts with power of control thereof 32909 To receive any gifts etc for the use of the public schools within their counties 32909 To sell school sites 32909 1403 To approve buildings and equipment but not the sites 321401 of schools of local districts which levy taxes for educational purposes 321113 To provide transportation for pupils and teachers 32919 To enploy competent persons to take the school census 321602 To judge the sufficiency of the reasons for excusing children from attendance as prescribed by law 322101 To be governed in the discharge of their official duties by the instructions of the State School Superintendent 32501 To meet at least monthly 32908 To make arrangements for the instruction of the children of both white and colored races 32909 To provide as far as practicable the same facilities for both white and colored races in respect to the attainments and abilities of teachers for a sevenmonth term 32909 and Georgia Laws 1937 pp 882892 Sec 2 To segregate instruction by white and colored races 32909 To provide written contracts in duplicate for the services of teachers 32913 To lay off the county into school districts 321101 To cause the election of trustees in school districts 321104 To arrange for the operation of independent school districts absorbed into the county system 321202 To permit children from an adjoining county to attend a local school under specified conditions 32938 To pay to local districts levying taxes for school purposes their snare of the public school funds apportioned to the dxstrxct by the county board 321113 To make no contracts in excess of the total appropriations for the current fiscal year 32928 I c J i 15 51 To exercise supervision over the local tax districts as well as other districts under its supervision and to distribute and apportionthe public or common school fund to the different school distrxcts of the county 321118 52 To receive quarterly reports fronlocal boards of trustees with respect to disbursements receipts cash on hand 321119 53 To fix the amount denomination interest rate due date etc of 1 bonds and to call an election when voters of the ef S prescribed by law and to attend to other duties resulting from an approval by the voters of a bond issue 321403 54 To pass a resolution authorizing the borrowing of money under specified conditions 32922 55 To borrow at as low an interest rate as possible 32924 56 To pay to boards of trustees moneys received by the county from local taxation in the event that the treasurer fails to make bond 321121 57 To investigate the attendance or nonattendc t8P scribed by law and to institute prosecutions against violators 322102 58 To employ an attendance officer 322103 59 To take a census of children five to eighteen years of age every five years 321601 60 To pay out no funds for the maintenance of l26 equipped with fire escapes as prescribed by law 322002 61 To see that certain days are observed 321503 d County superintendent of schools 1 To act as the medium of communication between the State School Superin tendent and subordinate school officers 321009 2 To act as the agent of the county board in procuring school supplies and equipment 321009 3 To receive a salary as fixed by law and supplemented by the county board 321006 4 To employ clerical help if authorized to do so by the county board 321006 5 To receive annually the records of local treasurers for audit by the state auditor 321123 6 To receive a full report on specified matters from all teachers in the county with such statistics as he may requxre 32907 7 To suspend any teacher for specified SeSn the teacher to the county board the State Scnoox supe the State Board of Education 321010f i J 16 8 To revoke licenses to teachers granted by him or his predecessors for specified reasons subject to appeal to the county board 321019 9 To administer oaths necessary for transacting school business or conducting investigations 321015 10 To be governed in the discharge of his official duties by the instructions of the State School Superintendent 32501 11 To perform all clerical duties formerly required of the county school commissioner 321004 12 To give bond with an apprpved surety company in an amount to be decided by the county board 321005 13 To take and subscribe to the same oath required of other officers of this state 521007 14 To serve as secretary exofficio of the county board 32907 15 To serve as the medium of communication between the State School Superintendent and subordinate school officers 321009 16 To serve as the agent of the county board in buying school supplies and equipment 321009 17 To see that none but the prescribed textbooks are used by the pupils 321009 18 To audit all accounts before an application is made to the county board for payment 321009 19 To keep a written record of his official acts which with other papers he shall turn over to his successor 321009 20 To enforce all regulations rules and instructions of the State Superintendent of Schools 321009 21 To enforce all regulations etc of the county board of education not in conflict with state laws 321009 22 To superintend with the state supervisor the county normal schools and institutes for teachers of his county 321009 23 To visit every school white and colored within his school district that receives state aid at least once every sixty days to familiarize himself with the studies taught to see that advancement 1b being made by the pupils to advise with teachers and otherwise to aid and assist in the advancement of education 321009 24 To supervise examinations of all teachers in his county as provided by law 321010 25 To place the seal of the county board on all teachers licenses issued in the county 321011 26 To receive an annual report from each teacher before making the final payment to the teacher for his services for the period 321020 V V 17 27 To make an annual report to the grand jury and place before them his books for examination 521014 and to include therewith a report on the amount of noney borrowed during the preceding year rated interest and dates when the noney was borrowed and paid back 32925 2Q To certify to ccunty taxing authorities and the comptrollergeneral of the state the tax rate fixed for each school district in the county 521113 29 To aid local trustees in ascertaining the total value of property in the district and in levying local school taxes 321113 30 To furnish corporations naking their tax returns to the conptroller general of the state information concerning the boundaries of each school district 321117 independent systems in general the powers and duties of the boards for independent systems are authorized in their respective charters 1 To submit the question of a local tax for public schools to the U qualified voters of the municipality if it is not already specifi cally authorized to hold such an election 52liuy 2 To operate the schools for a longer period than seven months to supplement the State schedule of salaries to employ additional teachers not provided in the Equalization Act n and to operate kindergartens and grades above the eleventh The last two must be operated solely from local funds Georgia Laws 1931 pp 882892 Sec 10 3 To contract with counties for the joint building and maintenance of highchool buildings located within municipalities for the joint use o children living insuch municipalities and those living in the county outSe 321404 and to issue bonds for their proportion of the cost of such buildings 321406 0 rp0ula 4 To continue to function under local laws tn oTschos tions until the county board arranges for the operation of schools formerly in the independent system in case of a merger 321202 5 To take a census of children five to eighteen years of age every five years and to employ competent persons therefor 321601 1602 f Local boards of trustees 1 To be governed in the discharge of their official duties by the instructions of the State School Superintendent 32501 2 To inspect the work done in the schools 321105 3 To make recommendations to the ccunty board for the advancement of school interests 321105 4 To recomuend to the county superintendent to tc board desirable applicants for teaching positions and principalships 321105 and Georgia Laws 1937 pp 882892 Sec 3 5 To aid county educational authorities in keeping f with fuel water and sanitary necessities and m Keeping grounds and buildings in good condition and equipped for good work 321105rl ii a J I i 18 6 To operate the schools for a longer period than seven months to supplement the State schedule of salaries to employ additional teachers not provided in the Equalization Act and to operate kinder gartens and grades above the eleventh The last two must be operated solely from local funds Georgia Laws 1937 pp 882892 Sec 10 7 To make a written annual report or oftener to the county board 321105 8 To report annually through their treasurer to the county superinten dent and state auditor on receipts and disbursements 321105 9 In districts levying a local tax for educational purposes a To make all rules and regulations to govern the schools 321113 b To build and equip schoolhouses subject to the approval of the county board 321113 c Tc use school houses and properties or permit then to used for educational purposes provided their use does not conflict with the public schools of the district 321113 d To fix the rate of tuition for nonresident pupils 321113 e To fix the salaries of teachers 321113 subject to provisions of Georgia Laws 1957 pp 882892 Sec 1 f To receive from the county board public school funds apportioned to the district by the county board 321113 g To determine the amount to be raised by local tax on property of the district 321113 h To levy with the aid of the county superintendent local school taxes 321113 i To receive through their secretary taxes collected monthly by the tax collector and the comptrollergeneral of the state 321114 j To compel through their secretary tax returns from citizens the value of whose property it was impossible to determine 321115 k To borrow an amount not to exceed the local school tax collected on property within the district during any current year these unds o be used only for paying teachers for the and not for a longer period than twelve months 1321152 1 To pass a resolution authorizing the borrowing of money the reso lution including certain details to record it in the minute book and to send a copy to the county superintendent 62H35J a To pay back borrowed money from the local district tax receipts 321135 10 With respect to bond issues a To determine the required number of petitioners for an election on a bond issue for buildings 321401 19 b To fix denominations rate of interest due date etc and to call an election on a bond issue for buildings under specified conditions 321401 c To determine the details of an election on a bond issue give due notice thereof and act as election managers 321401 d To determine the site of buildings authorized for construc tion under a bond issue 321401 e To receive the proceeds from the issuance of bonds and hold them in trust 321402 f To remove sell or otherwise dispose of XU6 J gound ad add the sumrealized to the proceed from the sale of bonds 321402 g To recommend to county taxing authorities a addition to the general tax for schools in the territory for the purpose of providing a sinking fund for the retirement of bonds 321402 g Legal relationship of the local boards of trustees to the county board and others h m mt resoects the local boards of trustees are subordinate to S county board of education Local boards have only recom mfndSrpewer with respect TidXTounty advancement of educational interests They may a offlaerE authorities in suppling fuel water etc ey their oiix must make certain reports to the JJ JfpJT 4 Tholr channel of communication to the State tsoaru uj Sucafion eee S officially through the county authorities 2 But in local dlatricts levying a local tax for eteatlonal pur h Legal relationships to other governmental and organized social agancies 1 School officials are evidently gLrs municipal boards of health as a section of the school laws v iSrn eives the health authorities full power to adopt V32loUi gxves one w le3 and regulations enact establish and maintain CJ0ttinhe health 5s thoy nay doc njcoasaiy and proper for protectius of their respective counties or municipalities C Countschool authorities jtf or all public schools of this State SSSK ifflSL pp 86869 Sec 3 to provide a course of study for all Pcon and high sohools1 curriculum revisions to provide lor xne operation certification of teachers to make rules for e operation of the common schools and the administration JKJ school fund etc The State Board has appellate jurisdiction 20 in all school natters which nay be appealed from any county or city board of education and its decision are final Textbooks are prescribed by the State Board for the various grades in the public schools The State Board is also empowered by law to equalize educational opportunities throughout the State as far as possible The county or city superintendent nay be required to nake such reports as the State Superintendent prescrxbes 3 County and local boards do not levy taxes but recommend to tax ingauthorities that levies be nade according to the various provisions of the law cited heretofore If the provisions of the law are complied with the taxing authorities apparently have no choice but to follow the recommendations of the ooara 321106 Tax receipts collected for both tne county and local districts in case the latter recommend levies and taxes are subsequently collected must be turned over to the proper school authorities by the tax collectors 321106 and 321114 C What units of administrative organization are authorized by the laws of Georgia 1 The leader nay suggest that some aeriber of the planning group prefera X Sy a lawyer familiar with school legislation lead thescussxon on thU nortion of the problem If the leader chooses to handle this part lesloTZe it is suggested that the J1 fron the law be duplicated and copies placed in the hands of menhers the planning group 2 Georgia School Laws published by the State Departnent of Education Atlanta Georgia 1942 v 901 School districts Each and every county in the State shall Inpe onfooTdlitrTct and shall be confided to the control andManagement of a county board of educatxon Acts 1919 p 320 Page 33 321101 School districts for taxing purposes It shall be the o7 the4outyrTof education of each J lay off the county into school districts the lines of which shall ofclearly and positively defined by boundaries school district thus marted out shall contain an area of not less tnan fixteen square niles provided that the board of efn may Save the Sight to establish districts with areas less n sixteen square miles where there are natural causes of local conditions Eat make it necessary to do soLocal conditns whxoh will permit the creation of small districts must be determined by the board of education Acts 1919 p 533 Page 49 321102 Local tax districts across county lines By concurrent inSl anic bSardsf SffiSation of two or more ad joining counties may lay off and define hool districts without regardto countv lines Provided that the board gjledupatio S which the schpljouj which territory has been cut shall collect the school tax levies by the trustees of the school district thus formed in the territory cut from his county and shall pay the ne when collected to the authorized officer of the board And provided further if either b c 21 county votes countywide local taxation for schools thus auto aatically absorbing existing local tax districts into the county wide system that in such cases that part of any existing local tax district lying outside of the county so voting the countywide local school tax shall be also automatically included forurposes of h 11TT mnrtFnnn in the county so voting the county wide local school tax so as not to interfere with existing local school conditions Acts 1919 p 334 Pp 49 50 d 32111 Local school systems Authority is given by the constitu tiblTto muMcTpaTities to establish and maintain public or common schools in their respective limits by local taxation It is not in accordance with the law of this state to incorporate a school district and mark off a town inside of it the town to exercise all the municipal functions and the school district none It shall not be legal to establish the form of a municipal corporation in a rural district with practically no other powers nor purposes than tne local control and management of the schools of that territory Acts 1919 p 340 Page 54 At present fiftyseven of these independ ent systems exist in Georgia e 321112 School systems in cities and towns Nothing in this chap ffVLl bTlocofeleds to prevent any city with a PopuLn greater than two thousand inhabitants or any county or town from organizing under the authority of the General Assembly of this state a public school system independent ofbhiBjaS55 prevent said organization from drawing its pro rata share of all educational funds raised by the State Provided the chief executive officer of such independent organization shall make the same regular reports to the State School Superintendent as are required from county superintendents by this chapter Nothing con tained in this chapter shall be construed to annul or repeal any local law now of force in any city or county in this state Pding for the organization and maintenance of the common or public schools in such city or county Acts 1919 p 340 Pp 54 55 f 321201 Municipality or independent school district authorized to Sp8pec75hllwie etc Whenever the citizens SiSfeltydepTndenTb districts fff to establish and maintain a system of schools by local taxation in whole or in part and which is operating a system of public schools independent of the countyschool system wish to annul their special school law and become a part of the countyschool system they shall present and file with the mayor or chief executive officer of the city a petition signed by onefourth of the qualified voters of their territory and said mayor or chief executive officer shall then within not less than twenty days and not more than sixty days thereafter call an election majority of those voting shall be necessary to ar faction Only qualified voters residing within the municipality or dtrict for six months prior to the election shall vote AVr ltht not be held tT the same purpose oftener than every twelve months Acts 1926 Executive Session p 40 Pp W b2u r tvl l i tJ 1 JJ Til g h 3 4 Territory formerly included constitutes schooldlstrlcfr When any local or independent system is repealed the rr SS formerly iln such independent ytem ahall beco and constitute a school district of the county in which it is located and shall enjoy the same privileges and shall Be f v same laws as other school districts in said county including the authority to levy local taxes for school purposes provided that he rlteyfor sue taxation shall not exceed the rate allowed by law to sSiLr school districts Acts 1926 Executive Session p 40 Page 62 Section 3 Units of Administration For the purposes of this BnhAnrSyrtSJ established by lawhailjethelool units of ad iinlitrlfeon In the local unitsTada5itratlon the several teachers and principals shall be elected by the beards of education on the recommendation of the respective superintendents f that principals and teachers in local tax districts of trustees as independent systems shall recommended by the board of trustees of such school district and by the county superintendent Pro vided further that those counties in which the public hools are operated under special Acts recognized and continued by the Conetl uSon of 1877 shall be governed by the provisions of this Act except where the same is in conflict with any such special Act Georgia Laws 1937 Pp 882892 Page 26 Under the present 1944 school laws of Georgia five types of adminis IrtZTle possible The Allowing including ejgBS were verified by J I Allman of the State Department of Education a The pure county unit The county board rt all schools of the county both rural and city and has no subor dinate Sal boards of trustees Bibb Chatham Glynn and Rich mond counties are examples unit especially in the rural counties ere village anctown SJSii5SS SSSrSSSrSSSSiS Hart and Rabun counties The county unit for all schools of efB1I districts but with subordinate local boards oftrustees include Floyd Walton and Morgan counties The county unit for all schools outside of fjlT with NO local boards of trustees Fulton County is an e a p e The independent systems of which fiftyseven still exist Atlanta Columbus and Moultrie are examples A sixth type of administrative organistion un extralegally a county unit In which tvpe seems to have is operated as a part of the county system This type no legal basis strictly speaking Exwf 8 ere Puls which Hawkinsville is legally PfgulS1 In which 194445 through the county system and Bulloch County Statesboro is being similarly operated b dax JO n j i ji i a 0 i iil JJLJ20 T i 23 The administrative organization unit in Georgia is difficult to designate with strint accuracy Under the Laws of 1937 the State Board of Education exercises considerable administrative influence over local situations For example the size of the teaching unit number of pupils per teacher is strictly defined Obviously this may determine to a large extant the teacher pupil ratio in the local schools Further the local unit must submit its budget to the State Board for approval the prin cipal proviso for such approval being the requirement that expenditures for teachers salaries must amount to at least seventyfive percent of the total amount available to the local unit exclusive of the principal and interest on bonded indebted ness Thus in the matter of basic salaries for teachers the State apparently is the fiscal unit and through its scrutiny of the budget has the power to determine other matters of local administration In most matters of local administration such as the hiring and discharge of teachers supervision of instruction buildings and equipment establishing schools consolidating schools or school districts supplementing salaries and others the county or the independent district is the administrative unit The local boards of trustees in districts levying a tax for educational purposes apparently have certain powers that may be of importance in specific instances All local boards of trustees have the right to aid in providing fuel water and sanitary facilities to help keep the buildings and grounds in good condition and equipped for good work to inspect the work done in the schools and to recommend applicants for teaching positions and matters that will advance the work of the schools Most authorities in school administration classify Georgia ajnong the states having the county unit of administrative organiza tion plus independent systems Nevertheless the power exer cised by the State Board of Education over finances affects other phases of administration and the trend has been toward centering larger powers over the local schools in the state school administration The powers of the local boards of trustees are with specific important exceptions relatively minor For practical purposes the county may be assumed to be the unit of administration except for the fortyseven remain ing independent districts but it should be emphasized that the restrictions operating in financing the schools distinctly limit the power of the county boards of education D What types of administrative organization units are used elsewhere 1 The leader should encourage members of the planning group to suggest as many types of administrative organization units as possible in cluding tyes not found in Georgia These should be listed on the blackboard The principal general types including thoae used In Georgia are as followsv 2 24 a District unit Illinois is an example having about 12000 units varying in size from the city of Chicago to small oneroom rural districts and in type from a system extending from the nursery school through the Junior college to nonhigh school districts which are organized as a means to pay the tuition of pupils who must attend high schools in other districts because there is none in the nonhigh school district b County units 1 The pure county unit Examples are Bibb and Richmond counties 2 The county unit plus local boards of trustees Examples are Heard Jones Atkinson Decatur Calhoun Hart and Rabun counties 3 The county unit plus local boards of trustees and with inde pendent systems Examples are Floyd Walton and Morgan counties 4 The county unit with one or more independent systems but with no local trustees Fulton County is an example 5 The county unit with local advisory groups instead of boards of trustees with more or less administrative authority In Virginia the county board is authorized to appoint local school committees to advise the members of the board with re ference to matters pertaining to the local school and to co operate with the board in the provisions for the care of the school property and for the successful operation of the school Virginia School Laws Richmondi Division of Purchase and Printing 1940 P 36 State unit Delaware less the city of Wilmington and certain other areas is an example Economiccommunity units The community highschool district of Illinois is an example Such a district embraces a sommunxty and its surrounding territory without regard to the boundary lines of political subdivisions such as the township or county After the foregoing types of units of administrative organization and perhaps others that members of the planning group may suggest nave been listed and their principal features discussed they should be evaluated Below are some of the advantages and disadvantages ol each c d a District unit l Advantages a Keeps the administration of the schools close to the local community and its people b Obviates the necessity for transporting primaryage children o 25 2 Disadvantages a Typical commonschool districts 1 Limited program 2 One or two teachers often with minimum training 3 Inadequate supervision of instruction 4 One building with one or two classrooms only 5 Hygienic facilities frequently primitive 6 Excessively expensive even for a minimum program b Town township and urban districts 1 Programs planned largely for urban children 2 Transportation of primaryage children sometimes necessary c Secondaryschool districts 1 Friction caused in taxraising by overlapping elementary districts 2 Articulation between the elementary and secondary pro grams often bad d General objections r 1 Educational opportunities not equalized throughout the State because of wide disparities in wealth 2 Tax burden unevenly distributed because xn urban areas personal property can be hidden whereas in rural areas farm properties in the district easily assessed at proper valuations if assessing officials wish to do so b The pure county unit l Advantages a Both rural and urban areas are included b Rural participation in secondary education xs possible o Greater equalization of educational opportunity is possible because income may be used where it xs needed d An adequate program including health and other services can be maintained because of the larger area and greater wealth available nvw e The school term can be equalized throughout a comparatively f Thegexpensive toosmall school with its other handicaps can be eliminated r Greater equalization of tax burden is possible h Better supervision and administration are possible because of the greater financial resources and because of the possibilities for centralized planning etc i Possibilities of friction with local boards of trustees are removed rt a I 26 2 Disadvantages a Counties may be too large or too small for efficient administrative units b Counties vary greatly in wealth ihlc to c County boundary lines have no necessary relationship to W Sural community areas causing odd attendance areas If d fhfclfserofiatn of the local community with the ad ministration of its schools is likely to be impaxred if e untsslSdance areas are carefully Panned the trans portation of children may become a serious problem f Primaryage children must be transported c The county unit plus local boards of trustees 1 Advantages a These are the same as for the pure county units except b Some local participation in school affairs is retained 2 Disadvantages a These are the same as for the pure county unit except b Ifowers granted to local boards of trustees impinge uponlhose of the county board serious confusion and friction may result d The county unit plus local boards of trustees plus independent systems 1 Advantages a These are the saee as for the pure county unit with the b SesSbfisnea afninistrative units are retained 2 Disadvantages a These are the same as for the pure county unit except d b If Powers granted local boards of trustees impinge on those of the county board confusion and friction may c Thalutary social influence of ruralL encI urban children attending the same schools particularly at highscnool level is removed rural d Equalization of educational opportunities if the rural Seas are relatively impoverished may be impaired r Li Xi i i j 5jjLrirtoo t fl t 27 2 The county unit plus independent systems but with no local trustees 1 Advantages a These are the same as for the pure county unit with the exception of a b Wellestablished administrative units are retained 2 Disadvantages These are the same as for the pure county unit b The sXLry social influence of rural and urban children attending the same schools particularly at highschool level is removed i c Equalization of educational opportunities if the rural areas are relatively impoverished may be impaired f The county unit plus local advisory groups instead of local boards of trustees 1 Advantages a These are the same as for the pure county unit b A measure of local influence on school affairs is retained 2 Disadvantages a These are the same as for the pure county unit with the b SHlS Relation of the local community with the ad ministration of its schools may be impaired If the sug gestions of the advisory groups are consistently disre garded g State unit 1 Advantages fa The advantages cited for the pure county unit are Ippliclble to the state unit but intensified because of the larper area and greater wealth involved b The efficiencies of centralization can be carried almost to the ultimate 2 Disadvantages a The extreme centralization of authority possible in a state urit abrogates the democratic tradition of local administration of schools and opens the way f tion of the schools for partisan or other selfish purposes b Most states are either too large geograph00 varied in the character and interests of theorinhabitants to constitute a satisfactory administrative unitJr 1 i E 28 h Economiccommunity unit l Advantages a Rural suburban and urban populations of similar social economic and educational interests nay be merged for purposes of school administration b Adult programs of education may be developed around interests already established through local social and economic interdependence c Actual equality of educational progress for rural children is more easily assured d The boundaries of the economiccommunity unit are not dependent upon established civil and political units e The size of such units will vary with the needs of the community with geographical conditions and oasxc land use 2 Disadvantages a Because the economiccommunity adnlnlBt1rar generally would include parts of several governmental units the collection of taxes would constitute a difficult problem b Cooperation with other governmental ft traffic control and the like might be difficult because of overlapping c in predominantly rural areas the economiccomity unit might be too large to be practicable necessitating arbitrary divisions of it d in Georgia an economicconrmnity unit might not include sufficient wealth to be feasible hat plans of adninistrative organization ore reoonnended by recognised authorities 1 General comments on administrative units a Ward G Reader e danentals of Jublioool New Yorkt The Macmillan Company 1941 pp to and otherwise from other governmental activities ilr tlij i ii HB i V 29 separation is still favored by practically all Profflctical educators But the separation is vigorously opposed Poetical lv all authorities in political science they believe that the separation is in the long run unwholesome both for the schools and for the other phases of government The tendency in both theory and practice is toward a larger unit for school administration especially for the rural schools This tendency has been accelerated recently by the large increase in state aid for schools In general the size of the administrative unit should meet the following criteria n The unit should be sufficiently large to Ph1 al schools 2 It should be sufficiently large to make provision for an adequate administrative and supervisory personnel 3 It should not be so large that the people would lose interest in the schools b Arthur B Moehlman School administration Houghton Mifflin Company 1940 p 182 cepts of size numbers and financial aDin b nust adjust to the more important social needs Piabody College for Teachers 1934 p 2 The minimum size of a satisfactory lf f s administration has been found to Jto and 46 teaching units it has also been services by one avoid the performance of two or more JJJ x adrlinistra individual the size of SShSng units tion should be approximately 9800 pupils ana a Note to leader A teaching XTTftrTXlsZ as 40 pupils in elementary schools and SO f divided 46 teaching units mentioned in the quota ion are equal y between elementary and highschool teaching units0 UiXA c Iri fd tj 0 jt t iiif4 50 d Fred Engelhardt Public School Organization and Administration New Yorki Ginn and Company 1931 pp 22 26 It does seem obvious that if a state is to insure equal school faciSies to all the children of school age then the corporate unit in which educational services can be most satisfactorily supplied both economically and professionally should be the one tot considered There is but one way in which thxs problem can be properly solved and that is through an assxduou study of all the factors involved A survey as y as Sis should be will necessitate a number of years for its completion Time will then be needed to f regarding the proposals It would seem a much better policy devote a number of years to a careful study of the Pms concerned in developing the desirable Saccept purposes than to accept a tenporry expedient whih after ac ep ance may be found to be only a maKesmn JUD unsatisfactory conditions 2 District units of administration a Moehlman op cit p 181 The district system was the product of the frontier and served its purpose reasonably well It isecono oo smll except for the cities and too poor m resources and childrenTomaintain a good program or to equalize education al conditions 3 Independent city districts a Ibid p 179 180 city corporations will gradually dominate the schools 4 County administrative units ciation 1934 pp 4850 m a county system of schools it is possible to locate schools is borne by all alike It is a unified system and the county board of education mch help as the teachers in the large schools that have supervis ing principals fu i i i j Vt fc 1 V 31 It also is possibleto provide other services not now availa ble to many districts Types of schools not usually possi ble can be organized at certain points in the county In brief the county unit plan tends to equalize educational opportunities within the county because the children In the poorer school districts have the sane opportunities as those in the wealthier districts ttThe county unit plan is more economical in several ways Recommendations looking toward the county unit or toward strengthening the county system in operation have been made by uoXof the state school survey commissions Among these commis sions were those that reported on the schools of Alabama Arizona Irkansasrcolorado Florida Indiana Kentucky Maryland Missis sippi Oklahoma South Dakota Virginia West Virgtola and Wisconsin In California the education commission of thetax pavers league on several occasions has recommended a county unit system on the grounds that such a system would be much more efficient and more economical b Moehlman op cit p 181 H The county does not make a necessarily good school LtriT Itoo is a very artificial unit and its strict Se creates peculiar attendance areas on county borders Natural areas donorfollow arbitrary political or civil boundaries c Bngelhardt op cit p 22 rrt mav be politically expedient to accept the county school unit faTorwarSooking measure and the next most sirable step in the division of the state for school purposes To propose any other plan in many states would no doubt complicate natters In cases in which such a plan is adopted it should riot be done Sth the Sought that the final step in school organization has been taken nif the county units mat be accepted then flexible boundaries for educational purposes should be maintained kIin boundaries for school purposes should not be too rigidly tained 5 The state as an administrative unit a William C Reavis and Charles H Judd The Teacher gnd Educational Administration New York Houghton Mifflin Company 1942 PP 31215 Although a major part of the educational eJ taining to educational administration suggests that the county constitutes the best possible unit at present there is no ssrjsr ssrsrsiars rasa of school unitscv cr OD JXri c Co A common argument is that the problem of equalizing educa tional opportunity would be solved if the state comprised a single unit of school support and control There are tendencies toward making the state the unit of school sup port if not the unit of administration The state is Readily assuming a more important role in the financing of education b Educational Policies Commission Tte tructure and Education in American Democracy Washington National Education Associationof the United States 1938 pp 79 86 titi Centralization in the control administration and financing of education is very apt to lead to a mediocre school system lack of progressive development in the program of public education Wrtn welldeveloped local units for the administration of spools it certain that some communities will develop leadership which will be effective in improving education The state authority should be zeroised with respect to certain minimum requirements dealing with the external affairs of the schools The state should not enter a situation Jff tails of the curriculum or the methods to be employed in the class room In the internal affairs of the school system the local admin istrative and supervisory officers and professional workers should be given full responsibility 6 Economiccommunity units Moehlman op cit pp 180181 If present attitudes are capable of translation the domi district unit will be the natural communityexpress ed as a relation of social economic and ecational invests varying in size with geographical conditions and basvusf While the basic factors determining the community unit are tnt its size will tend to be extremely variable School IZllZllsT the eounity will also vary with density of population and topographical condi tions rrhP organization with the natural community as a basis of S d SinKedinescapable values Strong social and economic interests have already been established in these areas xhey offer a means for the gradual harmonization of the traditional urban suSan and rufal conflicts and thus make for greater social unity if Z Sssible for the schools to develop adult programs of educa llonCetly around interests already eetablltteouaal social and economic interdependence They furnish the most gicai Sanf of securing actual equality of educational Pjw f the rural children and are sufficiently large in child population zo Sfer reasonable numbers of children to make enriched progress possible at a relatively small economic outlay I33 7 Local boards of trustees a Report of the Committee on Local Responsibility for the Organization SgffirsIS SUthfn SatVnrin thfsouthen School Administrative Problems Improving Education in ge gff States Bulletin L 1943 pp 22 23 Tallahassee Florida Southern States WorkConference It is obvious that the existence of one policy forming board for an administrative unit and of fSad forming functions for certain parts of the unxt might readxly lead to confusion In the states in which there are subordinate taxing dist riJj the trustees for the taxing district should not exercise any funda mental fiscal function if there is to be an xntegrated fiscal polxqy for the local school administrative unit The only way of avoiding confusion therefore would apparently be to make the f dof cation ofthe administrative unit clearly responsible f all fxscal policies in that case trustees for the subtaxxng districts as sucn apparently would not be necessary rrhere seems to be more justification for the selection of trustees for individual schools in rural areas provided t ftsofhe trustees are clearly defined so that there can be o conflict with the duties of the board of education for the adminxstratxve unit It is obvious they might serve a very real function in helping to keep the schools close to the people Their positxve functions would bet tn To exercise general custodial supervision over the school building ZTto Srlc with the principal and superintendent xn deter gingbuSding needs and seeing that the building is properly cared for Z To keep in touch with the principal and the community in order to be informed concerning local school needs and X2evL prepared to support the principals recomuendatxons to the superin tendent 8 To consider teachers recommended by the J ent for the school but to have authority to reject only for good reason any teacher who is recommended 4 To help to interpret the school program and needs to the people of the community It should be clearly understood that trustees should not do any of the followingj a Should not attempt to interfere with the operation of the school or advice the principal or any of the teachers with reference to the instructional work 2 Should not attempt to initiate appointment of teachers but should consider only recommendations submitted by the principal and superin tendent rts Should not attempt to retain a school which is too small to be SfiSent or to develop a high school at a center where only elemen tary facilities should be providedM i 54 F What type of administrative unit is best for this county 1 A committee of the planning group may be named to organize J n reached When these have been agreed upon by the oup the plan with reasons therefor may be written up in some detail and later Saving nitted to the entire group for approval It is possible tJpiannSjlg group may suggest one type of unit as the immediate goal and another requiring new state legislation as an ultimate plan 2 Comments concerning a practical unit for Georgia a Although the economicsociocommunity unit of admf to be the dominant new local district unit it is yet too early to cite a trend toward it It is also probably s it vigorously for Georgia because of the strength of those forces that regard the county as a fixed and permanent unit in the civil setup of the State Nevertheless the economicsociocomunity unit is in accord with the thinking of planners and it would seem to bfthe laical ultimate plan if the philosophy of community partici pation and planning in the administration of the schools is en more than lip service It is suggested therefore that the leaders discuss it with their planning groups as at least a possible future step b The pure county unit without independent systems but withlocal advisory groups established to retain some measure of local ence in schoolIdrlnistration and with safeguards to TTreoo of county lines when the population of a county or its wealth are too small oits geography unsuitable for a satisfactory administrative unit would be practicable in Georgia c Because of the existence of the present indePende cing probable that until a still better method of equaltltTnelhotTf is adopted and it should be observed that the present method at equalization in Georgia is far in advance of many of the states the county unit plus independent systems but fTTolrd trustees exercising administrative authority is the next forward step that can be taken with any likelihood of success d These statements are not intended as an answer to the Pe are merely suggestions that may logically be peotedto J during the discussions of the planning group It shd ed by the leader it seems that merely to cre J administrative unit does not necessarily assure a TfJ tem Any change must include better organization and adequate fi nmcial suDnort Nor should the size of the unit De aeeraiiieu sSeiyupoHhe basis of business efficiency and economy which are byproducts of a good organization but not the primary basis G What are some of the criteria that may be used in evaluating an administrative unit 1 The administrative unit should he based XS Ifstoundarr It Lull SSSS he SuiLily to educational cialand economic needs rather than to arbitrary concepts of size nunbers financial ability or existing boundaries of other govunoentai subdivisions1 i 35 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 The administrative unit should be centrally controlled by a lay board which under state laws should have final determination of all Pcles and their application throughout the unit operating through a chiel executive officer the superintendent of schools No boards subordinate to that of the administrative unit should have the legal power to make final decisions Local initiative should be protected by appropriate means such as local advisory councils with recommending power on any matter of concern in tne Immediate situation Although the evidence is not conclusive it is believed by most authori ties in school administration that the administrative unit should be fiscally independent of other governmental subdivisions An administrative unit should embrace an area in which the common educa tional interests of rural and urban territory can be harmonized and combined The boundaries of the unit should coincide as far as possible with those of natural communities which it should be observed under modern transportation conditions extend well beyond what were previously believed to be community boundaries The size of the administrative unit should be variable but with excep tions to care for special situations it should be fglity in terms of the number of children to be served and the financial ability to meet local tax needs to permit the organization of a complete system o elementary and secondary schools with provision for an adequate ad ministrative and supervisory personnel For large centers provision is recommended for junior colleges and trade schools Flexible boundaries should be maintained to facilitate adjustments to shifts in population andor wealth The administrative unit should not be so large f terest in the schools or that homeschool cPerionsnefed cause of the remoteness of the central administration from actual operating situations The administrative unit should be so planned geographically that schools cS be locftel conveniently and transportation where ssary can be easily arranged without requiring long routes in any attendance area 0 Unit 2 What Administrative Organization Should Be Set Up in the Local School System I P reliminaries A Leaders objective 1 To discover the problems of administrative organization in a local school system 2 To think through these problems reflectively 5 To arrive at conclusions administrative organization 4 To formulate a plan for an effective local aamiu 5 To put the plan into operation B Members of the planning group l bounty perintendent mberof the local board 3 representatives of C0Jepresentatives of 5 local school faculty unty supervi of county or city the ParentTeacher Association and V rePsei etc legislative groups county commissioners city councilmen 0 Informational services required 1 Tables Table II Data Concerning County Boards of Education County a Table I jrlntandent8 and Local Boards of trustees b Table lit 2 Charts A Comparison of the Principal Known Ooonvfof VhitePPersons in Heard County Georgia Withthe Occu pations of Members of the County Board of Education and With Those of Members of Local Boards of Trustees a Chart I Tynes of Local School Business Classified According to a Chart iyp Appropriate Sphere of Authority b Chart II Areas of Administrative Responsibility in the Manage ment of Local School problems c Chart III The Administrative Organization in U County d Chart I of Unit 1 JXW RelatinShlPS 3 Books pamphlets etc u i t ATantn Georgia State Department of a Georgia School Laws Atlanta ueorid Education 1942 b Supplement to Georgia School Lgs Enactments of the General AliembiyTl943 Session Atlanta Georgia otaTe u v Education June 1943 36 ii i r i ili J i J aloorr tfj SJYJ37 c Proposals for Public Education in Postwar America Research Bulletin ofThe National Education Association XXII April 1944 d Educational Policies Commission Learning the Bag Democracy Washington National Education Association 1940 e Reeder Ward G The Fundamentals of Public School Admini tratlon New York The MacMillan Conpany 1941 f Moehlman Arthur B School AdmJtratipn Boston Houghton Mifflin Company 1940 g Southern States WorkOonferenoe on School Administrative Problems Report of the Committee on Local Responsibility fthe pggl tio indAdminlstration of Education Tallahassee Florida SotariTstates WorkConference on School Administrative Problems 1943 Bulletin No 1 II Getting the group into the problem A The leader nay raise with the group some questions which will indicate the types of relationships which exist between The local board and the county board Theprincipal and his local board The teachers and the principal The custodian and the principal The bus drivers and the principal The parents and the teacher or the principal The extralegal groups and the principal or board 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 in order to present this material for critical evaLuatan Ohart may be constructed As a given type of problem or item of ol business is stated it nay be classified and placed in the appropriate column I J h Ic nOX rjZO l v A j cr iCOC 10 ZiiXQjifiquOO ij if ig site rvi Ovil iC CiTJf i i 0 vii7L L J tiUiLik r 0CHART I TYPES OF LOCAL SCHOOL BUSINESS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THE APPROPRIATE SPHERE OF AUTHORITY Authority Appropriate types of school business Local board and county board Principal and local board Teachers and prin cipal Custodian and prin cipal Bus driver and principal Parents and teacher Parents and prin cipal Extralegal groups and the principal Extralegal groups and the local board B ly deal with or delegate the responsibility A partxal list of proDXen areas would include the followingt 1 Financing the school 2 Employment of personnel 3 Maintenance of transportation facilities 4 Administering the program x 5 Maintenance of the school plant 6 Maintaining relations with the conmunity 7 Administering pupil personnel 8 Providing for the physical welfare of pupils 9 Administering records and reports r f f Vil A f ISQtiiCtiO bi Lj j j JrXUlX1CI iiivitipc iV i y In order to prorate thinking and critical selection a chart similar tS Chart II nay be constructed on the board for recording the suggestions offered by the group CHART II AREAS OF ADMINISTRATIVE RESPONSIBILITY IN THE MANAGEMENT OF LOCAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS III Problem areas Financing the school Employment of personnel Appropriate authorities Maintenance of transportation facilities Administering the school program Maintenance of the school plant Maintaining public relations Administering pupil personnel providing for the physical wel fare of the pupils Administering records and reports 4He of incline the group to recognize The point of the above procedure is that of lg required to make the extent and nature of administrative relatxonshxpsrequxre ses the machinery of a hoolunC00ctatSd crScal thinking and exist for this purpose only and that carefusion and friction planning in this matter is Jjf to SSce the leader The introductory steps may ffjf administration and is that the group is aware of problems in xocax bvww ready to do something to solve them Procedure for the solution of the oroblen What adninistrative organization should be set up in the local school system A What administrative organization should be set up in the local school system Obtain the opinions of neuters of ZlVZXT members of the group to give their reasons for eachB 40 What administrative organization now serves this school systen 1 The leader nay prepare for this portion of the discussion by conferring withtte county superintendent in advance with respect to the various relationships and lines of authority several boards officials staff and employees Th f atin obviously nay be obtained when the leader axscusses the basic relationships concerning the adninistratiye unit as suggested in Unit 1 III B 1 above If no organization chart is avanable theleader probably will find it nelpful tcconstruct one subnitting it to the superintendent for nxs approval Thxs chart should be separate fron that suggested in Unxt 1 ine relationships and lines of authority should be checked for accuracy with others particularly with subordinates Again fhTs l7no reflection on the veracity of he superintendent as those heading an organization not infrequentlybelJve tnat relationships exist which are different from what the actual relationships are The chart nay be used by f guide in the discussion with the group or xt aab eXd at the end of the discussion as a means fwhlfthe what the group believes the relationships to be and wnat they presumably are The following chart is suggestxvel J i I Legendt CHART III THE ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION IN U COUNTY Channel of authority Advisory channel Direction of flow State Educational Administration Grand jury 1 State Supervisor County Board of Education ion I i Citizsas of School Dlatriot i l I County l i T5 iSuperintendent J Local Boards of Trustees iI I Countywide Supervisors Directors and Special Services 3T i Principals Head Teachers j 3 1 Custodians Bus Drivers j Teachers Pupils 41 V i ii i 0 x iLi J iji ff f i M V i SiJivi Si 42 3 ThP leader nay find that filling in the following blank table will 2 be heW Rawing upon the knowledge of nenbers f the planning group If sufficient blackboard space is not available the subject naltlv of tne table may be obtained through appropriate questions TABLE I DATA CONCERNING COUNTY BOARDS OF EDUCATION COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS AND LOCAL BOARDS OF TRUSTEES It ens i Nunber of Ineubers How j Tarn Chosen hualifii Conpen Remov al j UclLXX AI cations sation County board of education Filling Organi vacan zation cies General powers County superin tendent Local boards of trustees For specific powers and duties see the enuneration in Unit 1 Part III 3 In addition to the foregoing the following questions nay be helpful in ascertaining further information concerning the organization a toy an entirely new county board take office at one tine or are terns of office overlapping b What occupations are represented on the county board and on the local boards of trustees and how do these conpare with the occupations of the white population of the a J1 adapted fron Table XXVII Part IV shows the data for Heard County9 T Tc TABLE II I COMPARISON OF THE PRINCIPAL KNOW a OCCUPATIONS OF WHITE P30N3 I0 S geLgLhe occupations of ambers of the county board OF EDUCATION AND WITH THOSE OF MEMBERS OF LOCAL BOARDS OF TRUSTEE Occupations Total population iNumber Percentage College student Forestry Miscellaneous Business and repairs Honemaking Governmental services Professions Personal services Wholesale and retail trade Transportation and coninunication Manufacturing Agriculture 4 3 42 85 1049 50 46 46 53 147 335 041 1 1 15 29 364 17 16 16 11 51 116 363 County bcZOoardsptrutees Number Percentage Nunber To be filled in Percentage TotalsJ2879a 1000 1000 1000 a Of the total ite population of Heard County 4 776 no data or no occupy school or of less than school age c How are principals and teachers chosen d How are bus drivers chosen e How are custodians chosen f What voice do the pupils have in the government of their respective schools g What is the relationships of the oounty board to the j oara education and the State Departs 3 County superintendent 4 Business manager for the system if any 5 Boards of independent systems within the county it an 6 Local boards of trustees 7 Principals and teachers 8 Bus drivers 9 Custodians 10 County comnissioners 11 Health authorities 12 Other governmental or organized agenciest 43 IC 44 h What is the relationship of the county superintendent to thei 1 Citizens of the county 2 State Departaent of Education 3 State area supervisor 4 County board 5 Business manager for the systea if any 6 Boards of independent systems within the county if any 7 Countywide supervisors and directors 8 Principals 9 Teachers 10 Bus drivers 11 Custodians i What is the relationship of the local boards of trustees to thel 1 Citizens of the local district 2 County board of education 3 County superintendent 4 Countywide supervisors or directors 5 Principals 6 Teachers 7 Bus drivers 8 Custodians j What is the relationship of the countywide supervisors etc to thei 1 County board of education 2 County superintendent 3 Local boards of trustees 4 Principals 5 Teachers k What is the relationship of the principals to thai 1 County board of education 2 County superintendent 3 Local boards of trustees 4 County business nanager if any 5 Countywide supervisors 6 Teachers 7 8 Bus drivers Custodians 1 What is the relationship of the teachers to the 1 County board of education 2 County superintendent 3 Local boards of trustees 4 Countywide supervisors 5 Principals 6 Custodians 7 Childrenii jjv i i4ii i j ti Ju jii Jvi 1 i otb ui iUouJ i ail e Si w U F 1 v v u lO llxiVii rJT 1 7 V i J r r tfayp J nfj 45 a What is the relationships of the bus drivers to thei 1 County board of education 2 County superintendent 3 Local boards of trustees 4 Principals 5 Teachers 6 Custodians 7 Children n What is the relationship of the custodian to thei 1 County board of education 2 County superintendent 3 Countysystem business manager if any 4 Local boards of trustees 5 Principals 6 Teachers 7 Bus drivers 8 Children 4 The followinF summary is based on Georgia School Laws published by 4 th StSe Dartnenof Educationland the Supfent thereto published in 1943 It refers specifically VthKads Table I It is furnished here for the convenience of the leaders a County board of education l Membership a Five freeholders selected by the grand jury from time 1 to time 32902 apportioned as far as practicable over the county with no two from the same militia district or locality 32903 b No member from a portion of the county embraced by a local school system 32902 c No appointee also a member of the grand jury in session at the time of his appointment 32903 d No member financially interested in the sale of school books 32902 or in the transportation of pupils 32919 2 Termfour years or until their successors are elected and qualified 32902 5 Qualifications a Good moral character 32903 piish b Fair knowledge of elementary branches of an English education 32903 c Favorable to the common school system 2yuo 4 Compensationnot to exceed five dollars for eacdays actual service This does not apply to counties with a population exceeding 80000 32904 i I HH J J i i V s 46 5 Removal by the judge of the superior court of the county non the address of twothirds of the grand jury for ineffi ciency incapacity general neglect of duty or malfeasance or corruption in office after opportunity to answer charges 32905 6 Filling of vacanciesinterim appointments to fill vacancies are male by the judge of the superior court of the county the appointment running until the next session of the grand jury 32905 7 Organization of the board a Presidentchosen by members of the board from their number to serve during the term he was chosen as a member of the board 32907 b Secretarycounty superintendent of schools exofflcio 32907 c Quoruma majority of the board 32907 b County superintendent of schools h Electionby the qualified voters of the county except the voters n an Independent school district within the county The election is set for the Tuesday after the first Monday in November 321002 Termfour years beginning the first day of January following Senate othe election and continuing until a successor is elected and qualified 321002 3 Compensation a year plus 150 af K the county from state funds plus such additional copensa tion as the county board may allow 32luubj 4 Removalby a majority vote of the board or inefficiency incapacity neglect of duty malfeasance or corruption in S3 with right of appeal to the State school Superintend ent and the State Board of Education 32lOOd 5 Filling vacanciesby election by the county board of education for the unexpired term 321006 6 Qualifications a Three years practical experience in teaching 321004 b Holding a firstgrade highschool license or in lieu b TheJeo a diploo from a literary college ornormal school or five years experience in the actual super vision of schools or standing an approved examination before the State Board of Education Tobecone a candidate for election the person must file a certifi cate of qualification under one of these hods with the State Department of Education 321004 c Good moral character and never convicted of any crimeJvxancf rl r czayxx CSfKSl fi v u i 47 c Local boards of trustees 1 Electionthree trustees to be elected as prescribed by 1 fhTcounty board of education in dlBtrlote mtrf incorporated towns there nay be five trustees 321104 2 Tern three years 321104 3 Compensationnone 4 Qualifications a Intelligent citizens of good moral character 32T1104 b nown to be earnest supporters of public education 321104 5 Organization a Presidentelected from their own number 321104 b Secretary and treasurerelected from their own number 321104 6 Removalby the county beard of education upon a written 1 complaint from a majority of the voters of district for conduct unbecoming the dignity of a school trustee Object to the right of the trustee toreeeive a copy of the complaint and a hearing thereon 32HU4 4 in helping the planning group to fSSS organization operates within the system the following questions may be useful a Is any executive in the system coordinate in authority with the superintendent b c d e f How much time do the principals devote to supervising the instruction given in their schools To what extent may principals vary the programfJ f f ols to serve the educational needs of the constituency of their respective schools and bus drivers Is the advice of supervisors principals teachers bus drivers pupSs and parents sought before administrative policies affect ing them are put into effect To net extent is ggttTXd system Are responsibility ana auonori equal sees h person taow to he U k and for whet and jU ft at s duties and each person been specifically imoruea limits of authority are 1 lV fJO jJ i i 0j f rfiKIf loi V r 48 h Ts nnvone placed in the channel f authority in such a way that S St beboth an assistant to and a critic of his adninistrative superior i Is there a known channel of appeal from the decisions of administrative superior to the next higher adninistrative authori ty open to subordinates without prejudice i What authority have the countywide supervisors and directors with respect to principals and teachers C That adninistrative organizations are found in other school systens 1 The leader should stimulate nenbers of the planning group to cite SiiisSative organizations that are found fShSh independent systens in Georgia and also any elsewhere with wmcn they nay be familiar 2 Below are additional suggestions which nay be ed on the blackboard or duplicated and furnxshed to the planning group a The following relationships were reported in V county 1 in general the relationships are similar to those illustrated in Chart II 2 Custodians are responsible in part directly to local boards of trustees and in part to building principals or head teachers M tocp PirentTeacher Associations have been organized for 3 all six schools of the county with advisory relationships to the respective principals and head teachers b The following relationships were reported in W county 1 No local boards of trustees exist I qonenenbers of the board exercise actual adninistrative 2 felationSs with principals shortcircuiting the superin tendent These relationships are wholly eaXegal rxot hMn authorized in the rules and regulatxons of the D0a but Ire none the as evident as though they were authoriz ed M ntodiins are responsible to the board through a supervisor Tf butSits The supervisor of buildings has only advisory relationships with the superintendent Custodians are also responsible for following the wishes of the principals on thebasis of general policies established by the supervisor of buildings and approved by the board 4 Countywide supervisors have adninistrative as well as advisory relationships with principals and teachers by custon rather than by board rule 3 Is 1LK xx V r riv f Ajii si XOXJLi iVlTT f T i ft 01C IS r fii ClfSffi r fif vjJr Vrt 49 5 ParentTeacher Associations have the usual advisory relation ships with principals c The following relationships were reported in a city system 1 Tne business manager is responsible directly to the board 2 Principals are responsible to the business manager in business natters such as the preparation of absence records of tfacherl accounting for funds collected in extracurricular activities requisitioning of supplies and the like 3 A supervisor of buildings is responsible to the business manager 4 Custodians are pririly responsible to the supervisor of building and secondarily to the principals who exercise sucn authority over their respective plants as is mitted by the policies administered by the supervisor of builaings 5 Relationships on the educational side are t0fSS approved in generalthat is supervisors directors and special services operate in an advisory capacity d The following relationships were reported in a city system 1 The business manager is responsible to the superintendent who is the sole executive of the board 2 A supervisor of buildings is responsible to the business nanager 3 Policies concerning building operations are established with the cooperation of principals 4 Custodians are responsible to the fPef jf f for carrying out policies established as cited in 3 and to the building principals in immediate matters o S tto custodial staff the latter through the supervisor of buildings 6 Supervisors directors and special services have advisory relationships with the principals and teachers 7 Local parentteacher groups advise with the VPJ citywide parentteacher council advises with the superintend ent 8 The board of education is elected by fequalified voters of the city which constitutes the school district ab far as boundaries are concerneditr i j cvjj C70 irilO IInr j jru2 i7 J J i J sjn Xi i 2U iC 1C8J lIli q lSlVli IXrIi 70 J RVJ fi 50 D What plans of administrative organization for local school systems are recommended by recognized authorities 1 Underlying policies a Proposals for Public Education 122 Reaearch BulletinoFThe National Education Association XXII Upru 1944 53 54 Every school system and every school should be operated accord ing to democratic principles and ideals Pupils staff members ant Symen should cooperate in the development of sound educa Sonaf policies This does not naan that everyone regardless of his position or his relationship to the school system should share as if by vote in making final 1 levels of school operation Centralization f responsibility and delegation of authority are characteristic of efficient democracy Administrative districts should set P rigorous jde of personnel selection aoSe staff members en a nonpolitical merit basis im professional staff should be persons of high ability ell Cnled SucaUon specialized training balanced personality sound health and good character b Educational Policies Commission Learni JgS Washington D CI National Education Association of the United States 1940 pp 331 332 12 Educational policy is determined by the people through the exercise of the franchise The PPands place the authority to control educational policy in the hands of a lay board is The lay board selects a chief executive officer and holds 2 responsible for resenting policies and programs to the Sard or discussion and approval and for carrying out these policies and programs after the board has approved 4 Educational policies should be froctsf capitat professional staff through a eooperative PeBB JgltaL Ling the intellectual resoles o the whole staff J participation should not be thought of as aa by the administration but ratner as a rigat and Aftpr policies have been developed by the staif they snouia te submitted to the board of education for final review and approval 6 The superintendent will require that broad PeB carried out throughout the school system but he will ffe SVS JESSE 12tT J J kfiflZI r of j r f I vJt7 d i i S3Mntr jf j I J X iXJC AVf av s fii iCl y i J EL for common objectives while encouraging resourcefulness and ingenuity on the part of all 8 Back of the professional JeeSLatlonl rifrirLSr Sd stiff will eoek the cooperation of parents and other citizens in developing the educational program The persons who control theschool budget g school policy Therefore the fthe policies namely the hands of the sane persons who control the poxxcxes the board of education 2 The board of education a Proposals for Public Education xPotw Anica op cit p 4S tISxcept as indicated in the ZggT lls oZ lay board of education so selected as to c high degree of competence and minimize Vamerk political influence xn school affairs finances inde of state law the board should manage own ces jm pendently of all other local agenciJffl and qualified superintendent and should rexy p nis staff for information and guidance H fa except perhaps adequate fxnancxal support To lie development of a firsWrate JToZ of intelligent wellinformed and civicminded local ooara education b Reeder op cit pp 72 81 8584 The following tendencies are noted l gg election on a nonpartisan ticket 12 W of office for example from three to s md taMi smaller number of members for example between live anM4 no salary except perhaps a small per diem Most students of school administration agree that school board members should be elected X partisan election P to express themselves directly definite feeling of responsibility to tbe electo ate APP aent of school board members by mayors JJTJ domination is frowned upon because of the ifiitty to the electorate ambers by mayors cour an because of the dan by selfinterestpolitical or otherwise agencies 0 CTf VsS 1 V lln i rcfj X or J J r lrsi j 0j 1 In every community steps should be taken to assure that the highest type of citizens become candidates for and are elected to school boardmembership The superintendent and other school employees have not only a right but an obligation to urge wellqualified persons to become candidates for the board provided their motive is to advance the interests of education In trying to secure the election of competent board members the publicspirited elements of the community must be practical politicians and they can always use fair means in being such boards of education have been delegated the functicm of seeing that the schools of the community are properly adminis tered This does not mean that persons who happen to constitute the school board of the community own the schools and can run them irrespective of the wishes and orders of their constituents School board members are merely public servants who have been selected to carry out the wishes and the orders of their constituents in accordance with the laws of the State 3 Unit vs multiple organization a Ward G Reeder The Fundamentals of Public School Administration New Yorkt The Macmillan Company 1941 p 93 94 In the unit type of organization one individualthe superintendentalninisters in person or directs the aumrnis tration of the whole organization all employees are subordinate to the superintendent In the multiple type certain functions are administered by one or more execu tives who are coordinate with the superintendent of schools t The tendency everywhere in both theory and practice is toward the adoption of the unit type and away from the multiple type It provides for centralized control and such control is considered to be at least in all other fields of endeavor a first principle of efficient management It tends to prevent the development of friction It guards against the waste resulting from duplication of effort 4 The superintendent a Proposals for Public Education in Postwar America op cit p 53 In every local administrative district a specially trained well qualified superintendent should be responsible to the schoolboard for successful operation of public schools in the V iZ Ml 7 I i lVi a i v j rivii fC 53 district His peculiar function is to see the entire school system in its varied relationships and thus be in a position to advise and guide the board of education and the school staff toward the coordination of desirable activities in a smoothworking efficient democratic organization b Resir op cit pp 22 23 72 n The tendency everywhere is toward requiring at least three years of teaching experience plus at least one year of graduate work with emphasis on school administration for all types of positions in school administration When the importance and the difficulty of the work of the school superintendent are considered it oan be justly urged that he have a minimum of three years of graduate study Both graduate and undergraduate programs should keep in mind cultural as well as professional studies The superintendent should be well grounded in such areas as public finance sociology economics and political science He needs also a wellrounded preparation in child psychology and hygiene and in the whole field of professional education he especially needs preparation in school administration With the exception of county superintendents which are still frequently elected on a political basis the tendency everywhere is to elect superintendents on the basis of their administrative and technical competence 5 School principals a Proposals for Public Education in Postwar America op cit p 53 Specially trained wellqualified principals should be responsible for administering and supervising the individual schools The principals chief duty is to guide and direct the school staff in providing a school environment and a program of education well suited to the allround needs of the local school community The principal should have had classroom teaching experience as well as special training in administration and supervision at the school level where he is to serve 6 Teachers counselors librarians nurses a Ibid pp 53 54 Specially trained wellqualified staff members devoting their time appropriately to classroom teaching pupil counsel ing and school library service should be provided as a rule in a ratio of at least one for every 25 pupils enrolled V I I 4 0 1 is iajxafv jo 3 di I V V oxori isI 4 f nlTjj IsoI J 3 if ifa oj rj 0 iVOfj 54 nAt least one fulltine graduate nurse should be employed for every 1000 children aged 3 through ri 5 every 1500 pupils aged 6 through 11 and every 2000 pupils aged 12 through 19 Smaller schools should share the services of such a nurse b Reeder op cit pp 115 117 118 The teacher primarily determines whether the school will be efficient or inefficient Compared with teachers such things as buildings equipment and supplies though they should never be neglected are of a secondary inpor tance competent teachers should be employed because they are more selfreliant than the incompetent They do not need as much direction and supervision Under a competent teaching staff a school or a school system practically runs itself 7 Specialists a Proposals for Public Education in Postwar America op cit p 54 Every local administrative district of adequate size should habits own staff of suitably trained 11qualxfxed specialists operating from the central office Smaller districts should employ such specialistscooperatively if economy and efficiency of operation require it The stall should include ideally technical supervisors in the field of curriculum and instruction as well as guidance offleers in general charge of school attendance psychological service psychiatric social work medical and dental services and educational and vocational counseling b Report of the Committee on Local Responsibility for g Organi itfer alTdinlstTation of Education Southern States ork CfeTenc olTscloT Administrative Problems gprng gua tion in the Southern States Bulletin No 1 1943 pp 202 Certain services are essential in every administrative unit if the needs of the pupils are to be satisfactorily net Even in the smaller systems having more than one chooi S superintendent has difficulty binding enough time to give proper attention to the development of the curriculum and the improvement of instruction In addition to a director of instructional services supervisors attendance assistants cuCesirable cialists and other assistants may oe aesirauxe tTe number and type of assistants depending largely on the size of the school system il lLf CtCiJ seal xttcLt MtfCiis feiTX v iSda 3SM r f 4 on Tbiu j OiW yYfsi xv Oi o lacic ftix wV XiVI Icj7 f CVl g iflJJ Ji f r txin i5 cliiLVOjc v sol vice vrawo 55 E F What plan of administrative organization is best for the school system 1 A committee of the planning group may be named to organize the conclusions reached When these have been agreed upon by the group the plans proposed with reasons therefor may be written up in some detail and later submitted to the entire group for approval 2 The plan finally approved as best may not be possible under the present school laws of Georgia For example where local rds of trustees exist they introduce certain elements of the multiple type organization Under these circumstances an alternate plan may be approved that would be considered best within the present framework of school law What are some of the criteria that may be used in evaluating an adminis trative organization of a school system 1 The administrative organization should provide for the participation of laymen pupils custodians bus drivers and the professional staf in the formulation of policies that will affect the several groups on the assumption that in a democracy the people are the ultimate determiners of policy 2 The authority to control policies and evaluate their results in the name of the people should be in the hands of Vfid to board so selected as to insure a high degree of competence and to minimize political and other partisan influences 3 Members of the lay board should be chosen on the basis of their intelligence civicmindedness and favorable interest in public education rather than on formal educational qualification They should serve for overlapping terms of three to f ive years and should receive no compensation other than a small per diem to cover their expenses 4 The administration of the policies approved by the lay board should delegated to an official by custom called the superintendent of schools who should be selected by the board on the basis of his Professional competence and who should be the sole executive ofkcef responsible directly to the board The board should rely on him and his staff for information and guidance 5 The administration of the individual schools shf b ged t0 wellqualified principals whose duty it should be to guide ana SrecHhe school staff in providing a school environment and pro gram suited to the allround needs of the community 6 The entire staff professional and Be the recommendation of the superintendent solely on V their competence broadly viewed to perform the r f w they are employed Such matters as religion residence xnjr out of the community marital status political affiliation andthe like should be given no consideration in the selection of a candl dateie p x k 6 1 r t rjnvi si 07 v r 77 J 3iiXF 7777 77f7 7 7 fat i XJ Ml icn SOW 7 1 iO vriLV i0 VA rw uiXfCio V saselosr 777 rvi I S i 7J yr Lc rrr r 7 7 DVJ j i fVnJj faiii co JiiUv ij n 77 iO 7717 17 i Jo I Li f i i tJ or VXXH zk C nxiJ 77 j iioo a shit n i n no YI J J r i HJiov i oii bxvus Cijrscr vivrij lBQi7jXoq J 56 7 A staff of wellqualified specialists should operate from the central office as helpers and advisers to the principals and teachers but not as administrative superiors to then If economy requires it these specialists may be employed cooperatively by two or more administrative units 8 Business custodial and maintenance operations should be considered as activities to service the educational program and should be so administered 9 In addition to the foregoing criteria a sound administrative organi zation requires that provision be made for the following prxnciples of general administration a The objectives of the school system and those of its principal segments must be known to and understood by all concerned b Delegated authority and responsibility must be equal The amount of delegation depends upon the size and complexity of the school system c A smoothforking organization that accomplishes the objectives of the school system is dependent upon personalities hence duties must be assigned partly on the basis of personality as well as upon technical proficiency This criterion applies particularly to principals and the advisory staff d As far as possible like or similar duties should be grouped under one head or heads responsible to a common superior in order to coordinate activities to conserve skills and to achieve centralization of authority and reasonable simplicity in organi zation e The general limits of authority and clear definitions of duties should be stated to all concerned in order to minimize over lapping of effort Changes in authority or in assigned duties should be brought to the attention of all concerned f Each officer and employee should know to whom he is responsible and for what and who is responsible to him and for what The established channel should be respected by all concerned g No one should be placed in the line of authority in such a way that he must act both as an assistant to and a critic of his administrative superior h A channel of appeal to higher authority from the decisions of an administrative superior should be open to subordinates without prejudice i Tne organization should be charted to show the basic relation ships among functions and officials A welldrawn chart aids in systematizing the thinking of the principal administrators as well as in enabling the staff to visualize and understand better their respective positions in the organization An organization that cannot be successfully charted probably is in need of revisionic e U aLicct x r K j va j iriii i tiJo J 1 VUv j r iJ I ifUS H jwc Xri iruo J jfrj lc ifvirrTr vfj vllzdOtiX sj Hi j v MCiJ rfwVrj I ri J v x i W i 4 t J i l atftiftjacssc orp J vll i Unit 3 What Should Be the Size of the Attendance Units in This System I Preliminaries A Leaders objective To lead the planning group to determine the size ol attendance units that will best serve this school system to think through the problem reflectively to arrive at conclusions and to formulate and put into action a plan for dealing with the problem of size of attendance units B lumbers of the planning group 1 County superintendent fe members of the county board 3 county supervise rustees 5 principal 6 teachers 7 PT A members 8 trustees neighboring districts and 9 otheradults 0 Definitions 1 Size of attendance units as considered in this Unit refers to the number of pupils and instructional staff Geographical size attendance units will be considered in the chapter relating to trans portation 2 attendance unit as used in this Unit is defined in accordance with the explanation given in the introduction to Chapter s h be recalled to the planning group in order to avoxd confusion wii administrative unit D Informational services required 1 Tables a See Table XXXIV Part IV Composition of Average White and Non white Households Heard County Georgia 1944 b Table Ii Attendance Units in C County System Georgia in b Table I Atten classified According to Number of Teachers c Table II Examples of Attendance Units in C County System c Table m 194344 Having various Enrollments and Number of Teachers d Table III SecondarySchool Attendance Units in W County Georgia in 194445 e Table IV Schools in the State of Georgia in 194142 Classi fied According to Number of Teachers f Table V Total County Schools County Enrollment and Average Enrollment per School in Georgia 19411942 2 Charts a Chart I Types of Problems Encountered in Establishing Atten dance Units b Chart II Steps of Procedure in Establishing School Attendance b Chart II Steps Techniques for Carrying Out Each Step 57 l I e ill I J3 58 Map Physical and Other Factors in Vicinity of Proposed School Site of X County Georgia 4 Books pamphlets etc a Seventieth and Seventyfirst Annual Report of the gartpent o EdatioTtoThe General Assembly of the State of Georgxa Atlan ta Georgia Department of Education 1941 b Southern States WorkConference on Jf Report of the Committee on Local Rensibxlxty gr th gR fnrAdiniitiiti of Education TalJJeoble sSuthiFn States WorkConference on School Admxnxstrative Frooxe Bulletin No 1 1943 Company Inc 1938 d ProOsals for Public Education in P2S 2 gS litXXiriAiHi 1944 Washxngton D 0 t The National Education Association II Getting the group into the problem A The leader should recall and aid in analog the definition of attendance unit from the introduction to Chapter IX mvQ TTrt or area from which the pupils of fSaSdSU 2S iSiAhabitants of the attendance area may be considered the constituency of a specxfxc school The leader av raise with his group problems that tl establishing an attendance unit A problem chart such as may be drawn up to facilitate the lxstxng of various types anticipated Chart I Types of Problems Encountered in Establishing Attendance Units Problems anticipated within the proposed attendanceunit Problems anticipated xn re lation with adjacent unxts 59 It may be emphasized that in considering any change in the boundaries of an attendance unit adjacent units will be involved and those concerned with the management of these units must neeessarily be agree ment with the changes It may be pointed out that because of the adjust ments to be made it is practically never possible for a given school organization to have a free hand in determining all the changes to be made The problem is more difficult if county boundaries are also involved B The leader nay raise a question as to the Pdures to be fcajJJ planning the development of a proposed attendance unxt Possible proce dures may be listed for consideration among which are the following suggested plans 1 To work out jointly with the neighboring districts and county school l authorities a close approximation of the boundaries which the new attendance unit will have subject to minor modifications as physical factors transportation and other condxtions may dictate o To work out several alternative arrangements to be submitted to the 2 Tountyide a neighboring district authorities for consxderatxon and approval C The leader should use an enlarged mapJandSfidLcesthe physical features ads centers of population and resxae leneral neighborhoodof the school sxte Thxs map prepa of the meeting should indicate distances t do s0 a map passable roads in every direction If it is P Ub by of the county should be prepared showing thflar device age groups using differently colored pins or a similar devxee ch a map would help to raise JIorich S LI fhoullTeepred Element them with questions of his own such as the following X What area should be Included to provide an average size school 2 What are see dangers to be avoided In choosing an attendance area that is too small Too large 5 What effect would such an extension of the attendance unit have upon other school districts in the county opi rpla tionships with larger colleges 7 What would be the advantages and disadvantages of such a unit 80 8 How would an attendance unit of this size meet future requirements when trends in population and industrial activity are taken into account 9 Would an attendance unit of this size continuously furnish the number of pupils necessary for variety of personnel and program offerings D The leader nay help his group to analyze the population of the proposed attendance unit in terms of various age groups which the school proposes to reach As a basis for such an analysis reference may be made to Table XXXIV Part IV showing number of people by age groups in Heard OountyTGeorgL Ananalysis of this table will show the number of persons of various age groups for whom the school may be concerned It will also indicate the approximate number of persons to be reached in the future by advancing the lower age groups by a given interval of time F The leader may help the group to consider the steps to be taken in the E procedure orLterminingtheattendance unit For this Pae a chart may be constructed on which my be listed the steps which em logical for the particular community to follow in determining its attendance area In another column of the chart some suggestive techniques may be worked out for completing the work of each given step Chart II Steps of Procedure in Establishing a School Attendance Unit With Techniques for Carrying Out Each Step Steps to be taken in de veloping attendance unit 1 Become acquainted with all legal requirements 2 Prepare a spot map showing where children of dif ferent ages live 3 On the same map show types of roads bridges etc in proposed area together with distances from school site 4 Analyze the area in terms of natural community boundaries 5 Develop coordinative policies with adjacent attendance units Suggested techniques for carrying out each step 6 Outline transportation routes required to serve present school population of new attendance areauO tlilj nir i i Sic ivvf c C3X t fjn nor wfiTj 1 f j iii M I I 11 III 61 Procedure for the solution of the problem What should be the size of the attendance units in this system A What should be the size of attendance units to serve this school system 1 Members of the planning group should be asked for JXiie what they believe the minima optimum and maximum s fat tendance units should be for children in various age groups At be called to the fact that in sparsely populated areas the g standard obviously must be relaxed in order to prevent children from spending too much time on busses The maxima standard is of impor tance principally in congested areas usually in cities In deter mining the tnree standards the welfare of the cheQUate instructional standpoint and the economical operation of an adequate School program should be the principal elements for f on ranked in the order given Two or more attendance un3 nay be housed in one building r that is an elementary and secondary unit may occupy the same school plant 2 Age groups to be considered 3 5 years nursery school kindergarten J It IZl tL Junior high senior high traie schoois early junior college 19 24 years late junior college and beyond B What attendance unitsnow serve this system 1 The leader should prepare in advance a nap showingi The active enrollment and number of instructional staff for each attendance unit in the system from superintendents records fhelerndeis office should be compared with the active enrollments of attendance units reasons the superintendents records C What size are the attendance units elsewhere 1 Data are difficult to find concerning both number of PtfUjj number of teachers in a coordinated re cord Leaders Jf murtrfttlonB useful to apply the data they compile f necaan y find it necessary in other counties in which they work They may a to exchange data with other leaders The following examples admittedly incomplete and not necessarily typical nevertheless these data are the best available at present a Number of teachers in various schools of G County Bee Table IIC niv viJ r V1 i I i TABLE I ATTENDANCE UNITS IN C COUNTY SYSTEM OOERGIA IN 194344 CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO NUMBER OF TEACHERS Number of teachers White Negro Total One teacher Two teachers Three teachers Four teachers Five teachers Six teachers Seven teachers More than seven teachers Totals 7 2 2 8 2 2 3 11 17 b In 0 county the following specific examples were reportsd See Table II TABLE II EXAMPLES OF ATTENDANCE UNITS IN 0 COUNTY SYSTEM GEORGIA IN 194344 BXAUPLab Wiij VARI0TJS ENR0LLMENT3 AKD NUMBER OF TEACHERS Schools Enrollment Average daily total attendance White elementary Number One Number Two Number Three Number Four White secondary Number One Number Two Negro elementary Number One Number Two Number Three Number Four 237 190 119 64 143 127 126 68 33 17 158 126 82 41 Number of teachers 7 7 4 3 99 57 26 14 6 6 3 2 1 1 Includes one teacher of vocational agriculture and one of vocational home economics c In W county the following secondary units were found 62 TABLE III SECONDARYSCHOOL ATTENDANCE UNITS IN W COUNTY GEORGIA IN 194445 Enrollnent Number of Units total teachers V7ts 15i a Number One g b Number Two fJ 5 b Number Three 1 1 a Number Four j n a Number Five J Ix c Number Six 51 2 a Includes one fulltime and one halftime vocational teacher b Includes two full tine vocational teachers c Inoludes one halftime vocational teacher 2 The following data are from the annual report of the State Department of Educationt TABLE IV SCHOOLS IN THE STATE OF GEORGIA IN 194142 CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO NUMBER OF TEACHERS Number of teachersWhite Negro Total n 262 1953 2215 One teacherf x 028 Two teachers 5 301 Three teachers j 90 274 Four teachers 6 186 Five teachers 55 159 Six teachers x9 32 129 Seven teachers 155 939 More than seven teachers 12 Totals2016 525 5221 Adapted from Seventieth and Seventyfirst Annual Report of the Department of Education to the General Assembly of the State of Georgia p 275 3 The mean size of county schools for 194142 in orgia according to the report of the State Department of Education was as ated below It should be noted that the mean is for schools not for attendance units TABLE V TOTAL COUNTY SCHOOLS COUNTY ENROLLMENTS AND AVERAGE ENROLLMENT PER SCHOOL IN GEORGIA 1941 1942 Number It e ms 1782 Total county schools 50 523 Total enrollment county schools Mean enrollment approximate 63 64 D What sizes of attendance units are reconnended by recognized authorities 1 Report of the Committee on Local Responsibility for the Organization and Adnlnistration of Education Southern States WorkConference on School Administrative Problems Iaproving Education in the Southern States Bulletin No 1 1943 p 10 Many schools which a few years ago were sufficiently isolated that they had to be continued even though they were small and expensive to operate are no longer isolated Schools of course should not be discontinued merely because they are small but only when better facili ties can be provided as a result of reorganization or when equivalent facilities can be provided at a lower cost In most states the small school is still protected by law to the extent that reorganization is a slow and complicated process There are many small high schools in particular throughout the South which may be expected to be reorganized during coming years with benefit not only to pupils but also to the taxpayers 2 Grace A G and G A Moe State Aid and School Costs Report of the Regents Inquiry into the Character and Cost of Public Education in the State of New York New Yorkt The McGrawHill Book Company Inc 1938 Pp 122 123 4 Except in isolated regions or in areas in which undue hard ships to pupils would result no school having an average daily at tendance of less than 20 pupils should be continued 5 In going to elementary schools children should not be required to walk in excess of one mile In going to high school they should not have to walk in excess of two miles Regulations should be sufficient ly flexible however that local adjustments may be made 6 Attendance areas should be so located that no pupil in grades 1 to 6 would be forced to ride on a school bus for more than one hour per trip or more than one and onehalf hours per trip in grades 7 to 12 7 The attendance area should be so located with reference to the gen eral population that it may become the center of community activities including adult education recreation or other community programs 3 Proposals for Public Education in Postwar America Research Bulletin mjrrISSBxorrZi The National Education Association tr7here the conditions of population and transportation will Pe each school unit of attendance should be large enough to make possible a ribandVaried school experience at reasonable building and operat ing costs for pupils attending school therein On the other hand uie unit should be small enough to encourage friendly fl1 community living in the school and make it unnecessary for any pupil to ndymire than two hours each day in traveling between hone and school An elementary school serving children of ages 6 through years approximately might well have at least seven persons engagea appropriately in teaching counseling and library service and a minimum of about 175 pupils A secondary school fl ag 12 through 17 years approximately might well have at least twelve 65 persons engaged in teaching counseling and library service and a minimum of about 300 pupils Larger schools than these are greatly to be preferred under favorable conditions but it is doubtful whether an elementary school should enroll more than 1000 pupils or a secondary school oore than 1500 except where high density of population and scarcity of available school sites make it imperative In some areas the sparseness of population or difficulties of transportation may necessitate the operation of schools even sualler than the minlmums just mentioned especially for the younger children E What should be the size of attendance units in this school system 1 A committee of the planning group may be naned to organize the statis tical data that presumably will be presented during the study oi attendance units and to draw tentative conclusions therefrom These should be submitted to the group for its approval 2 The conclusions obviously should recognize the fact that the size of attendance units is in part dependent upon existing laws hence tta conclusions may be organized on the basis of what is best under immediate circumstances and what is feasible if appropriate legisla tion were obtained F What are the criteria that may be used in evaluating the size of attendance units 1 The number of pupils and teachers in an attendance units should be large enough to provide an adequate school program at reasonable building and operating costs except in isolated or sparsely settled areas 5 The attendance unit should not encompass a geographic area so large as to discourse a community feeling for the schools bearing in mind that nodetnmodel of transportation hive enlarged natural community areas 3 The attendance unit except in densely populated areas or where avail able school sites are scarce should have a maximum as well as a mini urn limit in size the like 7 Exists schools should be used Zf52 ST ed educationally and altered physically t P Je P HEKSrS SSS3S the use 0 younger age groups adhered to ivn IS JCHAPTER X PLANNING THE PHYSICAL PLANT TO PROVIDE FOR THE SCHOOL PROGRAM Introduction The function of the school plant is to accommodate the school progray with due consideration for basic hygienic requirements of the human body e school program changes the school plant needs to vary Since the school program should be determined in terms of community needs providing the school plant should be a part of the community planning program School plant costs are exceeded only by instructional expenditures in the educational program To provide needed physical facilities usually requires a larger investment of funds than does any other single community enterprise The type of grounds buildings and equipment which a community provides determines whether the physical surroundings of the school population during more than one third of its waking hours is conducive to good health A schoolplant planning program should be undertaken with due regard for the effect upon those whom It is designed to serve and with due consideration of the magnitude of the task as a community enterprise and the program to be housed Once provided the school plant is not readily and easily altered and must continue for a number of years to implement or restrict the school program to pro vide healthy or unhealthy environmental conditions and to meet or fail to meet the needs of the community The extent to which the school plant contributes to the desirable ends is determined largely by the care and intelligence used in planning The knowledge and judgment of a given community are superior those of any individual or a small group of that community Successful schoolplant planning consists of utilizing to the fullest extent tne combined knowledge and Jntof the community supplemented and if necessary adjusted by the knowledge and judg ment of other communities and educational leaders Following is a suggested method of utilizing community knowledge and judgment and adjusting these to the experiences of others in planning certain problems associated with providing the physical plant Many other problems such as financ ing the school plant maintenance of the plant operation and maintenance of mechanical equipment development of school grounds and planning the Retails of the school building may be similarly treated The problems selected for develop ment are those which are necessary preliminary steps in the planning of any schoolbuilding program Group action on committee recommendations is anticipated merely as a means of conserving the time of the larger group It is possible Safin some instances the entire group would prefer to think through all of the problems connected with actually providing the school plant In such caseslt is suggested that cambers of the field staff freely draw upon available assistance in developing with the group the more technical phases of the Pgm such planning the details of the building selecting and purchasing equipment finane ing the Duilding program selecting the architect awarding the contract etc Generally speaking however considerable time might be saved by assigning most ofthfteohnLsllid detailed responsibilities to smaller committees charged wtth the responsibility of making intensive studies performuig necessary details ana prepSiS sundry reports and recommendations for group consideration and action 66I preliminaries A Leaders objective To lead a provide for problems involved in qcquiring the physical falitlLlv Pto arrive he school program to think through these problems r81 at conclusions to formulate a plan and to put the plan into B Groups to be reached l County ijSj8bere county board of education 3 local trustees 4 principal W b 6 elected hihschool pupils county supervisor 8 PT A and y other adults C Informational services required county planning group 2 A copy of the policies set up by the countywide planning group 3 Such publications as a Collins M D Qgorg School Laj Atlanta Georgia State Department of Education 1942 b English OSnsida School Code Tallahassee Florida Depart ment of Education c Engelhardt L and N L Engelhardt Planning the Community School New York American Book Company 1940 d Devine Harry J Vallejo Builds School Houses for Wartime Peace American School Board Journal p 35 January 1944 e Evans Frank 0 Building for the Small Elementary School American School Board Journal p lb January 1942 f Perkins Lawrence B ton Teachers and Janitors Build Schools ISriclA School Board Journal p 33 September 1942 g The Millbrae Elementary School Millbrae California American School Board Journal p 40 October 1942 h Tismein S B A Community Plans Its School American School and University p 28 1941 i Heutra Richard J The Postwar School in Its Neighborhood Context The Hations Schools p 34 January 1942 J Wan E A Sixteen Ways of Daylighting Classrooms Architectural Record p38 May 1944 k Gromme C F The Ross School The New Pencil Points p 77 June 1942 671 Hamlin T F The New Schools The New Pencil Points p 83 June 1942 m y ft B Social interpretation New Yorki D Appleton Century Company 1958 n Studebaker J S Our Schools in the Postwar World Leaflet No 71 Washington D Ci Government Printing Office o Wank R A Culture Recreation and Commerce HandinHand Cultural Centers New Yorkt F W Dodge Corporation p Wank R A Rural Activities Center Architectural Forum April 1944 q School Building Check ListAgricultural and Industrial Develop ment Board of Georgia Education Panel 4 Photographs of modern buildings within the State and out of the State 5 Motion picture showing modern buildings T V A picture of Wilson Dam School 6 Consultation service a State specialist b State library consultant c State lunchroom supervisor d Director of guidance e Supervisor of vocational education f Supervisor of home economics g State area general supervisors h Educational Panel consultant 7 County level specialists a County health officers b Home denonstration agent c Vocational teachers d Lunchroom supervisors e County librarian f Director of physical education g County supervisor 8 Tables Section one a Table I Phases of the School Program To Be Provided for in Each Age Group b Table III Facilities Needed for Housing the School Program c Table Sill Population To Be Served d Table IV Present Facilities of X School 68Tables Section two a Table Vi The Site Desired To Accomodate the School Program b Table VII Present School Ground Facilities c Table VIIt Location of the School Site d Table VIIIt Suitability of the Site Tables Section three a Table IX Making the School Plant Possible b Table Xt Plan for Making the Desired School Plant Possible c Table XIi Organizing the Community for Providing the School Plant II Getting the group into the problem A The leader should raise questions concerning the adequacy of the present building facilities in providing for the kind of school program we want 1 Does the school program determine the kind of building we need Permit the groupto discuss this question Various points of ew will probably be expressed and each individual should be encouraged to develop his point of view 2 What are some of the activities carried on in school which we have not made provisions to house List the activities as named 3 What are some of the activities wewould like to carry on because of lack of physical faculties This list should be placed upon the board 4 What are some of the mistakes that have been made in building construc tion in the past sanitation drainage lighting size of playground space safety etc B Have certain individuals to express their judgments in r for building facilities which we Bust have to take care of our present or proposed scnool program These expressions should come from those mdivi duals who are respected by other members of the group C Show what progress this community has made in planning and utilizing its buildings in terms of a changing school program Example 1 Call on older citizens to recall the progress that has been made in the past few years in providing physical facilities Example 2 Discuss the use of the physical plant by groups in the community such as Mothers Clubs Boy Scouts etc Example 3 Lead the group to bring out additions and ff have been made such as lunch rooms gymnasium cannery library etc 69III D Show what other communities have done to provide adequate housing for their schools in terns of school programs they have Example 1 Photographs of the buildings provided for such school as the Norri s Daa School Example 2 Photograph of Community Center Greenhills Cincinatti Ohio Example 3 Photographs of other buildings as found in issues of American School Board Journal The Nations Schools and American School and University cited in preceding pages Example 4 Motion pictures of the modern school buildings as will be seen in the T V A motion picture of the Wilson Dam School Procedure for the solution of the problemi Planning the school plant to provide for the school program A Section One What building facilities do you think we should provide to meet the needs of our community Each person should be encouraged to suggest facilities which he thinks should be provided The following are among some of the suggestions whtch might be given New grammar school building lunch room shop a remodeled high school etc As the different opinions are expressed they should be listed on the blackboard without the names of the individuals giving hem The lea should however try to remember the particular opinions given by each person After all opinions are expressed each individual houldbe encouraged to give reasons for his opinion The reasons given ehde letf leader to build up a list of factors or guides which should be used Dy members of the group in evaluating the opinlons r Jf lejf yzing These may also be used as guides in securing organizing andanalyzing information and testing opinions given by members of the group It is suggested that discussion of the site and building costs be deferred until Tiller meeting The leader should so direct the sion d lead the group into consideration of the following factors These snouxa be listed on the board for further consideration 1 What phases of the school program shall we make provisions for 2 What will be the probable number to be provided for in each age group 3 What wiJLl be the probable number to be provided for in each phase of the program by age groups The leader should then ask the group to think through each of these three problems or factors and arrive at answers to each question aid the group the following tables are suggested 70TABLE I PHASES OF THE SCHOOL PROGRAM TO BE PROVIDED FOR IN EACH AGE GROUP Phases of the school program 36 1613 Health The tools of learning Creative expression Vocational guidance Primary social relation ships Secondary social relation ships Economic relationships Age groups to be provided for 1418 1825 X Adult Table I should be checked as the group agrees upon the special provision to be made for each age group in each phase of the school program Table II is suggested as a device for summarizing all discussions in the unit To assist in more completely appraising existing facilities as well as in determining those needed it is suggested that the phases of the school program be further broken down somewhat as is indicated in column a of Table II When and how this breakdown should be developed will vary with groups This breakdown is solely for the purpose of dealing with the problem of school plant planning It has no significance so far as the program of the school is concerned As specific phases of the school program to be offered are agreed upon they should be added to column a of Table II Table II may remain on the board throughout the discussion of the unit and be filled out as the discussion progresses and as conclusions are reached 71TABLE II FACILITIES HEEDED FOE HOUSING THE SCHOOL jBOGRAM ft What phases cf the school I h program do we wish our li building to house What mllding faci ties flo we now have for housing this pro gram What legal require rents nrust he com ply with in plan ning our physical facilities What facilities o other commu nities provide for housing the program cf the school What faci lities do educational leaders re commend for housing the program of the school What facili ties do we want to house our programs Secondary social relationsnjps Social studies Economic relationships Agriculture Commercial Shops What will be the probable number to be provided for in each age group In preparation for this question the leader should place on the board census data for the area to be served Table III containing population data from Heard County is illustrative If the school unit under consideration is smaller than the county the leader should anticipate in advance the need for population data so as to have the facts available fron oensus cards for the area under consideration TABLE III POPULATION TO BE SERVED POPULATION BY AGE GROUPS HEARD COUNTY r6 i 614 1418 J 825 Adults Problem M 136 F 105 241 M 408 F I T 588 796 M 249 F 195 T 444 M 240 F 227 T 467 M 1258 F 1581 T 2519 Health The tools of learning Creative exDression T Primary social rplftt ionshios j 1 Secondary social ipl fit ionaHiDS Economic Totals 1 By referring to Table I already agreed upon the group should be led to make a careful estimate of the probable number in each age group the school program will reach As agreements are arrived at the numbers should be recorded in the appropriate columns By approDriate questions the leader should bring out and evaluate the factors affecting the number which will participate in each phase of the school program These factors vary with groups Questions must be framed accordingly For illustrative purposes only let us assume we are attempting to estimate the number of adults the program of the Ichool will serve directly in that phase of the program dealingwitn economic relationships with particular reference to food Preserva tion Such questions as the following may lead to a fair estimate a How many people in the community need facilities for preserving foods b How many people are near enough to the school to use school facili ties for this purpose 7374 c What has been the experience in neighboring communities with reference to the percentage of people who preserve food in the school plant d Will this percentage increase or decrease in the future e In the light of these factors how many people of the community can the school reasonably expect to provide for f Kow many must the school plan to serve at one tine 3 Similarly the approximate numbers to be served in each of the age groups and in each phase of the school program should be agreed upon and recorded B What facilities do we now have for housing the school program 1 In reparation for this discussion the leader should con duct a tour over the existing building or buildings Dur ing the progress of this excursion he should direct the observation so as to lead the group to appraise each space and to decide whether such snace is usable for some phase of the school program Such spaces as are considered un suitable for use should be noted with reasons for unusabi lity If minor remodeling could make spaces satisfactory for use the group should agree upon what remodeling is necessary All spaces should be so designated thateach member of the group will know the area referred to in en suing discussions The school building check sheet could be used for this purpose Upon completion of the tour the leader will pla oe upon the black board the opinionsof the group Table IV is suggested as a form TABLE IV PRESENT FACILITIES OF SCHOOL Spaces Soace Ho 1 Space No 2 Snace Ho 4 Snace Ho 7 Satisfactory Snace Ho 3 S Space Ho 5 Space Ho 6 Proposed use Art Science Unsatisfactory but capable of I Use being remo deled V Clinic Agr Un usable V Reason Dark and damp Fire hazard JLack of sventila tionAs conclusions are reached all spaces which are usable or may be made usable should be recorded in Table II column b Unusable spaces should not be transferred to Table II C What kinds of buildings are authorized by the state building code 1 The State of Georgia has recently adopted a comprehensive school building code In addition the school laws contain certain references to school buildings and the 1945 session of the General Assembly passed an act dealing specifically with school buildings a Chapter 32 Section 14 Building School Houses in Local Tax Districts b Chapter 32 Section 909 School Property c Chapter 32 Section 915 Consolidation d Chapter 32 Section 932 Evening Schools e Chapter 32 Section 933 High Schools f Chapter 32 Section 934 Industrial Education g Chapter 32 Section 940 Failure to Arrange for School 2 The University Workshop 1944 made the following recommenda tion on building standards That an enabling act be passed empowering the State Board of Education to set up building regulations which may be exercised in the establishment and en forcement of building standards which will assure economy safety and usability of the school plant 3 Some of the significant features of the new code follow a Use of the school building for any legitimate educa tional puipose for activities during outofschool hours and vacation is granted provided buildings and grounds are left in good condition b The State Board of Education is authorized to inspect any public school building and to notify local boards of education in writing of any unsafe or unhealthful conditions revealed with specific suggestions for cor recting such conditions c The responsibility for keeping all public school build ings except those in independent districts is placed upon the 6ounty board of education76 electrical wiring etc d The school plant designed for any school community shall conform in size and cost to plans projected by a countywido survey q School sites must be unencumbered adequate in size and free fron any locally obnoxious influences f Hew buildings nust meet minimum standards stated in nore detail under specifications for safety usa bility and adequacy for the services to be carried on lighting heating ventilation toilet facili ties floor areas playground space equipment etc g Usually code requirements make specific the procedures to be followed in sketches drawings specifications awarding contracts supervision inspection and man ner of paynents h Familiarity with code regulations is inplied as a pre liminary step in planning the building 4 What countywide policies if any have been set up by the planning group From the countywide planning group we nay have the follow ing statement of building policies a In general a policy of substantial serviceable buildings with shorter life and at less cost are preferable to the permanent structures which must remain in use after they have become obsolete b A school building is a means to an end Capital out lay expenditures can be evaluated only in terms of the contribution which such expenditures make to the educational program School buildings should be planned in terms of the age level to be reached and the services to be ren dered The number of pupils should be large enough to assure adequate teaching personnel and physical facilities to meet the needs of the group without incurring excessive costs The school building should be planned for an area which has standing as a legal unit The boundaries should be established in such manner that the area to be served has legal responsibility for the build ing e Building needs should never be allowed to come into conflict with other essential school services such as teachers salaries If allowed to become a question of one or the other teachers nay feel that d77 the building has been erected at their expense f Where space is available the onestory structure of building is referable This makes possible the construc tion from combustible materials without undue fire hazard and is less expensive K In planning a school building for a community all school age pupils should be provided for regardless of previous attendance h School communities having fewer prospective pupils ofan age than the number required to meet accrediting require ments in the division of the school which they represent should be thoroughly acquainted with the nature of pro blems involved Usin the principles set up by the countyplanning group as a check list features of the building under consideration should be carefully evaluated by referring back to Tables II and IV D What kind of facilities do other communities provide to house the program of the school 1 A special committee may be appointed to make a report on school buildings in other communities It is desirable that the commitee visit the schools before the report is made A check list similar to Table IV used in determining the facilities in the local school will aid the committee in finding out how well the schools visited are providing for school and community needs The committee would need to check all buildings and all types of rooms in a building such as primary class rooms elementary classrooms elementary library high school classrooms music rooms science laboratory shop homeeconomics room agriculture room highschool library lunch room supply room canning plants gymnasium assembly room boys toilets girls toilets rooms for community meetings teachers rest roone principals office corri dors book room and freezer lockers This information should probably be presented to the local planning group by the use of plans and pictures Usually plans may be borrowed from the school visited or the archi tect who planned the building 2 Below is a brief description of some facilities which other communities are using to house the school program a In this record book ElaaniM the Community School New York American Book Co 1940 pp 149151 Englehardt and Englehardt describes the physical facilities in use by78 Ashwood Plantations at Bishopville South Carolina At the Ashwood Plantations the school buildings and the community center building occupy the sane site Though the school buildings have been designed for the use of the children and the community center building for a dults they all are available for the use of both groups The Community Center Building The Community Center is a long low onestory building of southern colonial architecture provided vrith a long covered porch ideal for community visiting on warn evenings The building contains a recreation room wiich is used by adults for social re creation discussion and community dining It is used by children both as play space in inclement weather and as a lunch room The eonnunity kitchen in which hot lunches are prepared for boys and girls is also used for instruction in hone arts During the summer the women of this area use the kitchen for cooperative canning and throughout the year it is used in the preparation and serving of community surpers The ranges burn oil woodand coal the materials normally available to these people in their homes A smaller room serves as a conference room for the recrea tional director but is alao used as a mailer recreation or hobby room Kere were found aquariums stamp collec tions aeroplane models and small tables for games a small browsing library with easy chairs as well as a dis play of instructional posters Health Building The medical building houses an emergency room health room and a dental clinic The health room is a diet laboratory as well as the center of Instruction in eating bathing and general health habits Medical treatment and prenatal care are provided in this unit Cooperative Store and Shops The cooperative store is eommodioua and well stocked and is a general center of interest The cooperative feed mill was erected in the effort to divert attention from the singlecrop cotton to stock and poultry raising The agricultural shops easily accessible from the highway are designed for re pairing machinery and providing instruction and guidance in general farming Community Library The community library connects the ele mentary and secondary school buildings and may be entered from either unit The main entrances however open from the park which is the center of the site The library space is sufficiently large to accommodate at all tines the adults who mav wish to use it as well as the children who use it for normal school purposes The broad windows of the library79 face the park upon whose greens such community activities as folk festivals of song and dance are held Recreation Center At one end of the main axis of the project is the recreation center This comprises an audi toriumgymnasium picnic grounds with stone fireplaces and a swimming pool The dressing rooms and showers of the gymnasium are easily accessible to the outdoor facili ties The pool is an artificial pond filled with artesian well water and drained into a small creek The auditoriumgymnasium has a deep stage with a broad pros cenium arch a flyloft with gridiron and a lighting sys tem controlled by a master switchboard Both the stage floor and the main floor are used as shops for making stage scenery and properties The auditorium will seat 500 peo ple on movable chairs which are stored in a space planned for this purpose This building is used for folk dancing square and round dancing basketball and general recrea tion involving physical activity b Other examples are described in the following publica tions 1 Community Center Green Hiills Cincinnati Ohio Cultural Centers P 79 W Dodge Corpora tion 119 W 40th Street New York Hew York 3 3 American School 3oard Journal January 1944 p 35 Vallejo Builds Schoolhouses for Wartime and Peace by Harry J Devine American School Board Journal January1942 p 15 ff Building for the Small Elementary School by Frank 0 Evans 4 American School Board journal September 1942 p 33 ff When Teachers and Janitors Build Schools Lawrence B Perkins 5 American School Board Journal October 1942 p 40 The Millbrae Elementary School Millbrae Cal 6 American School and University 1941 p 28 ff A Community Plans Its Schools S 3 Tisnein 7 The Nations Schools March 1944 p 36 The Postwar School in its Neighborhood Context Richard J Neutra 8 The Nations Schools January 1942 p 34 ff Cottage Grove Union High School Cottage Grove Oregon H3 Terrin80 o Other illustrations such as the following nay be used 1 Photographs of the buildings provided for such schools as the Norris Dan School 2 Motion pictures of the more nodern buildings sch as will be in the TVA movie of the Wilson Dan School 3 Cultural Centers reprint from architectural record Obtainable from Portland Cement Association 4 Photographs of buildings in copies of AmericaSchool Board Journal She Nations Schools and American School and University E What kind of facilities do educational leaders recommend to house the school program 1 2 3 Sone tine in advance of the meeting the leader should designate suitable reole to review the literature dealing with modern school structures and fron these sources nade a report using previously rreoared sketches when necessary Illustrative material contained in these sources should be prepared in a form convenient to exhibit to the group The Georgia school leaders workshop recommended the follow ing The school should be closely integrated with the public ser vices of the community The school should be in the very heart of the community A Community center is the place to which more and more people go for more and more reasons The school should be at the community center Buildings should be so constructed as to take advantage of climatic conditions Provision should be made to bring the schoolroom and the outdoors together in a physical working unit This is especially desirable in planning kindergarten primary and elementary schools Some of the essentials which the community school should have as given by the educational leaders are as follows a Kindergarten and primary departments b Schoolcommunity library art and music center c Communityschool administrative offices d Gymnasiumauditoriuns for school community uses e Schoolcommunity shops and agricultural demonstration activitiee f Printing shop capable of getting out a paper81 g Common cafeteria open to the public h Honeeconomics suite with kitchen and other honemaking facilities open to the public i Health unit j Food preservation facilities 4 Some sources of helpful information in preparation of such re ports would include Schools Awake A cooperative Community Program in Van Buren County Michigan Rural Activities Center place of the school building Eo land A Wank 16 Ways of Daylighting Classrooms in Architectural Record May 1944 Cultural Centers A Buildings Types Study a Reprint from Architectural Record F W Dodd Corporation 119 W 40th Street New York The Ross School Carl F Gromme in The Hew Pencil Points June 1942 p 77 The New Schools Talbot F Hamlin in Tjhe New Pencil Points p 83 June 1942 Caorillo Hones Community Building The New Pencil Points February 1944 p 35 Smith Creek Community Centers The New Pencil Points February 1944 p 44 Recent Numbers of The American School Board Journal and The Nations Schools 5 The leader should discuss with the person designated to make the report such special aspects of builiing planning as might be applicable to the kind of building being considered for the community 6 The views of workshop specialists on the type of building re quired to serve the community in its educational program may be obtained in advance Some of their views would emphasize the following 82 a 7 b c They call attention to the danger of following tradi tion We should constantly overhaul our thinking and find new problems that are arising The school is a potent factor in helping to adapt and readapt to the continually changing patterns of life The school in all aspects should comprehend the adaptations needed and reflect the willingness to make modifica tions The school should assist in readapting skills that have been superseded Returning veterans having lost their place in the peacetime vocational skills must fix retrained Education should continue during the entire life of the citizen Because of the rapidity of change buildings become obsolete in a few years Building construction should be planned as far in advance as possible and raafce provisions for alterations to care for unforeseen needs In his recent book Social Interpretation the author advises Since school buildings are merely a physical agency through which public education of ff w 8erve carried on they are finally important only as the serve this purpose The school building should be ultimately considered as an agency for stimulating and improving both mass ana Sdtvidual contacts with the school as a social insti tution in eneralnuch nore attention mustbe given to the building as an interpretation agency in the future Sit il to neet its possibilities as a construe tive agency2 The building provides means for generalized or nass con tacts through attendance at school programs of Jiou tvnes Since initial interest centers in the child the first generalized contact will be at those programs which the children themselves prepare and present including iefdrauatics athletics and exhibitions The second roup of generalized contacts are those arising out of Parent education programs If this interest engendered through home contacts and these generalized school con tacts is successful the outcone should be a constant ignriiBl Interpretation Mochlnan A B Hew York D AppletonCentury Company 1938 P 428 2Ibld P 42483 increase in individual meetings between parent and school through which increased understanding of and cooperation with the institution is possible 8 Engelhardt and Bngelhardt suggest Care should he exercised in designing the gilding to provide adequate and comfortable space for iaUTitaftl jr snail group meetings Facilities that are capable of dual chiU and cmmunit use such as auditorium shops cafeterias libraries and clinics must he planned to nee adult as well as child requirements Each build ine should provide for at least one parents reception room where inferences may he held under pleasant surround ings It is apparent that the design of units of a school plant must he conceived in terms of the sumtotal of the life activities of the people in a community The units must be so planned that they are adaptable to as many of these ao tivlties as possible regardless of any preconceived notions of where education begins or ends Furthermore these units must be designed in terms of VTSXwtST nent to assure that the facilities blend well with the ordinary tempo of life of the people who use them By hese simple planning procedures it may be expected that a maximum of utility will be assured the school plant The modern school architecture if it is to be an honeet expression of the place of the school in presentday en vironment must accept as its theme participation by all members of the community It is important that the plant be blended with community and home life Some indication of the trend in the design of community schools is to be found in the wide acceptance of the carpus plan This plan calls for small separate units connected by arcades or passageways attractively groupea This type of arrangement is quite flexible and eliminates much ofthe institutional atmosphere of the large compact structure Economy may be attained oj less fireresistivt construction in the small onestory units of the campus plan than is required in the large two three and foar story buildings There is much merit in this tyno of plan if it is designed functionally i5 9 Commissioner Studebaker says There are four important questions that every citizen Slbid p 444445 Snglehardt and Englehardt Planning the Community School1 American Book Company 1940 p 14 5Ibid p 137139F should ask hinself afcout the school gildings in his com aualtyi First are they safe and sanitary free fron fire hazards well ventilated well heated and clean Second do they meet the needs of the program planned for all the people children young people and adults Are there for example facilities for a health program with space and equipment for clinical services Are there indoor and outdoor recreational facilities for both youth and adults Does the building offer flexibility of arrangement and equipment for the experience children and adults are to have in it with provisions for school lunch room library auditorium and other types of extra classroom activities Third is the school plant attractive This does not mean that the building be ornate in architecture or design but the place where children youth and adults go to school should by all means be a pleasant place in which they will like to go Fourth does the district of which the school is a part cover a large enough territory to insure 5 the type of building and program you visualize What kind of facilities do we want for housing our educa tional program 1 In the light of our program to be housed our present facilities legal requirements what other communi ties are doing and what educational leaders recommend what specific facilities do we wish to provide 2 For what number of individuals do wo wish each facility to provide In connection with this point it is suggested that the problem of the size of attendance units considered in Chapter IV be reviewed 3 Column f of Table II is suggested as a means of record ing the final decisions of the group This column should be filled out in terras of the activities to be provided for Government Printing Office Washington D C Our Schools in the Postwar World Leaflet No 71 84grain and the number of individuals in each activity Here may be recorded the group opiaion on desirable com binations of areas SECTION TWO What sort of school grounds do we wish for the school pro A How should we select the school site 1 The leader should guide the group to name as many factors as possible which should enter into a consideration of the school site These should be listed as naned After all factors have been listed they can probably be grouped under three or four classficiations Some such classifi cation as the following is suggested a What area will we need to provide for the school progran b What factors should we consider in selecting a loca tion for the school site c What physical characteristics as to topography type of soil etc do we want the site to possess It is suggested that a table similar to Table V be placed on the board to remain throughout the discussion on sites and that as conclusions are reached they be placed in the appropriate columns The four factors nay be entered as problems in Column a of Table I These problems nay be further analyzed and conclusions may be reached with reference to each of these A possi ble procedure is given below 2 The leader nay ask the group a What area will we need to provide for the school progran 1 For what programs do the present grounds provide 2 How well would the present site provide for the program which we plan 85TABLE V What kind of site should we provide to house the school program a 1 Acre What do we now have 2 Location 3 Physical characteristics THE SITE BESIBED TO ACCOMMODATE THE SCHOOL tHOCHAM What provisions are made by law e Elementary schools 2 acres for 1 teacher school acre addi tional for each addi tional teacher High school 10 to 30 acres Most economical and practical location Before a site may he purchased for school purposes it must he approved in writing by the authorized agent of the State De partment of Education Insofar as practicable the school site shall not adjoin a right of way of any railroad or any through highway and shall he free of noise odors or other disturbances What kind of sites do other communities provide a What do educational leaders recommend e What kind of site do we want to provide for the school program O Use data from Elementary schools 2 check sheet on acres for 1 teacher a desirable site school h acre addi preferahly of a tional for each addi school in the tional teacher High county school 10 to 30acres Well drained reason ably free of mud end the soil shall he well adapted to landscaping as well as to playground purposes Hear geographic and population centers easily accessihle free from traffic social or health hazards Fertile well drained free of contagious drainage rectangular shape native trees not toe steep to per mit use as playground87 In preparation for this discussion the leader may havf f irc ss aj s 5sSI Sir the site is large or the arrangement complex it nay be necessary ior Soup and Ladef actually to inspect the site and appraise lJ6 faction in either e Tahle V is suggest as a rvishto ifehylLsLfrL it s indu W Local conditions should he considered and the content f 1 I ncluding accordingly There may he an advantage to he gained howeverhy to Jhe Tnloln l a comprehensive list JSS nossibilities of an adequate site particularly sinco n71nion of quire a snail site is quite COnnon It is s3Sf fj nStially the group be summarized in some sucn terminology as ajegate Paa adequate or inadequate and that the opinion be listed in lj ofTable II with a brief statement of the reasons of the group for the tern applied to the site under consideration 3 What provisions are made by law for the size 4 The Georgia school law provides Each new site selected shall be adequate in size to meet the needs of the school to be served As far as practicable any present sites whicn are not adequate shall be increased to conform to minimum standards for new sites Each scnool site shall contain a minimum of two acres for a one teacher school At least one acre shall be addea to this minimum size of the site for each fifty pupils enrolled in the school after the first fifty pupils and until the enrollment reaches five hundred pupilsg What size sites do other communities provide Prior to the meeting the leader should arrange to have a member of the group state what size sites are prodded in other communities of the State Those communities which have provided and are utilizing adequate sites should be selected The case of Anericus may be furnished as an exampleTABLE 711I SUITABILITY OF THE SITE CD I 3 IT It lit 12 13 iS7 15 i Physical characteristics of the site Is the sitesoil suitable for the program in net weather Is the sitesoil suitable for the program in dry weather Is the sitesoil fertile for growing lawns and shrubbery Is there natural drainage Is there likelihood cf erosion Is the topography such as to permit building without ex cess i vewallcosts Is the subsoil such as to permit building without exces sive footing costs g Is the subsoil of such nature as to reduce to a minimun Jthe necessity of watering shrubbery and lawns 9 Are lawns and shrubbery appropriately planted and maintained 10 Is the shape such as to permit logical and economical provision of show utility play and recreation 8r6S Does the site permit proper orientation of the building Are classrooms darkened by surrounding trees or buildings Is the entire site capable of full utilization Are play and recreation needs of school and community provided for Does the site furnish proper settings and spaces for buildings Are provisions made for parking automobiles and busses without approaching areas frequented by children Satisfactory 17 Is the site sufficiently removed from areas which may breed mosquitoes Unsatisfactory EeasonI vAmericus Georgia Combines High School and Recreation Center In 1936 when Americus people began a movement to secure a highschool building to house the secondary school program for the city and Sumter Coun ty consideration was given to various aspects of the program particularly the recreational facilities needed for the entire community In choosing the site it was decided to obtain an area large enough to take care of the immediately projected needs and leave room for further developments as they were planned at later dates With this in mind a tract of about 30 acres was obtained In projecting the program certain recreational activities then lo cated elsewhere in the city were transferred to the community center These included a baseball park and football field where the Americus Cardi nals played several games per week during season and where the highschool football garnet were played In planning the new baseball and football grounds provision was made for night games A practice field for highschool use in football baseball soccer and other field sports was provided immed iately adjacent to the highschool building A quartermile cinder track and other facilities for field and track events were constructed as well as a projected halfmile course for horse racing Space was reserved for coun ty fairs using the practice football field and adjacent ground At one ex tremity of the site barns and pens were erected for exhibit of livestock and farm products to be used in conjunction with the county fair and the vo cational agricultural program One wing of the school building houses the shops and vocational and trades work of the school This part of the build ing is accessible to the main street and is open for use at night as well as daring the day another completed feature of the center is a recreation building This building is open to the county for all purposes recommending its use including basketball dancing fairs addresses etc It was the first building erected and has been in use for eight years It is used an aver age of six times per week and is now regarded as an indispensable feature of the community activities Projected plans for the center contemplate a cannery a swimming pool a more complete shop installation and a small plot for growing and testing plants As indicated the program is not complete but certain parts have been in operation long enough to demonstrate their value in terms of theuses madeof them by the people As has been pointed cut every effort has been made to make each feature serve as many purposes as possible The community center including the school is a place to which more people are coming for more and more reasons 8990 B What location do we wish the school site to have V 82 The leader should direct his question in terms of criteria evaluating the present site and for selecting the future sites It is generally advisable at this stage to avoid discussion of any specific prospective site How well does the present location serve the needs of the school program In preparation for this discussion it is suggested that the groun be requested to evaluate the present site in terms of the location by the use of some such checklist as Table VII What provisions are made by law for locating the school site a b Authority to construct a school building must be ob tained from county school authorities and the State Department of Education1 The GaEgia School Law provides That the County Board shall authorize the county superintendent to make a careful study to determine the school needs which shall be met in any particular situation and to determine the most economical and practical loca tion so that the maximum number of children can walk to school and so that school busses can be routed most efficiently for the remainder of the children It further describes the kind of site required 4 What location do educational leaders recommend a The national Council on Schoolhouse Construction in its Twentieth Annual Report on page 57 recommends That the site be selected only in the light of a comprehensive educational and physical survey there by basing the selection on principles rather than price that the site be readily accessible to all concerned and unusual travel distances minimized and that it be near the school population center it is ultimately to Serve that the site be located so as to be removed from such objectionable features as noise odors dust railroads main or heavily traveled highways or streets or areas of dense traf fic that the site have such physical characteris tics as to permit proper architectural setting orientation and landscaping as well as an economical use of the space as a whole that the site be free from any sanitary hazards be properly drained and 1eorgia School Laws Atlanta Gorgia Department of Education 1942 P 36 TABLE 11 EVALUATION OE THE LOCATION OE THE SCHOOL SITE i Location of the school site Satisfactory 1 Centrally located as to present and future population g Sn Touted as to require a minimum of travel and transportation 3 Accessihle to general public U Remote from noise odors dust railroads main or heavily traveled highways or streets of dense traffic 5 Freedom from traffic hazards such as hlind curvesin highways 6 Located in favorahle social environment 7 Trees and shruhhery on grounds and vicinity desirahle g Freedom from health hazards eg mosquito breeding areas 9 Have physical characteristics permitting proper setting orientation and landscaping 10 Located with due consideration for present and ultimate cost1 Unsatisfactory Reason6 not adjacent to areas which may give rise to unsani tary conditions b Concerning the location Reeder has this to say It should he within easy or feasible walking or trans portation distance of the pupils whom it is designed I to serveThe direction in which the community is growing should be kept in mind as well as the lo cation of the present population Spot maps locat ing the present enrollment and others locating the prospective enrollments should be constructed The site should be located in desirable relation to the other schools of the community should be locat ed with reference to the convenience and community interests of the people in mind It should be located in an environment which would be wholesome for conducting a school It should be free from all moral and physical hazards unsanitary conditions and other undesirable influences Nearness to such things as railroads most factories danger ous bodies of water highways with much traffic noise and dust bad odors stone quarries stock yards cliffs and forests which are likely to have ravaging fires should be avoided3 5 What location do we wish for the local school site In the light of the above discussion the group should be led to fill out column f of Table I as to location What physical characteristics do we want the school site to possess a The leader may begin the discussion by asking the group to name qualities of topography soil etc that they think are desirable for a school site The resulting listing will probably include 1 type of soil 2 drainage 3 presence or absence of native trees 4 fertility of soil and 5 nearness to public utility services etc b What physical characteristics does the present site have The group may be asked to evaluate the present site in Proceedings National Council on School house Construction J L Graham State Department of Education Tallahassee Florida 1942 p 57 w J Reeder Public School Admija istration New York The McMillan Co 1941 Pp 26366 92 1 r1 J93 terme of a check sheet Table VIII is suggested c What are the physical characteristics of sites provided by other communities for their school program The leader should have the group describe other sites with which they are familiar The discussion nay in clude undesirable as well as desirable features If desirable features are mentioned the disadvantages should be pointed out For example should it be mentioned that X community has a sandyvtop soil and subsoil it may be pointed out that maintenance of shrubbery and lawns become a difficult problem and that footings for buildings must be wide and expen sive under such conditions If someone suggests that school Y provided a steep hillside it night be brought out that foundation walls become expen sive under such conditions that erosion might become troublesome and that drainage night come from unsani tary spaces above d What does the law provide with reference to physical characteristics of school site There are no statutory requirements in the Greorif school laws regarding physical characteristics of school sites e What do educational leaders consider desirable fea tures of a school site 1 The National Council on Schoolhouse Construction recommends That the site have such physical characteristics as to permit proper architectural setting orientation and landscaping as well as an economical use of the space as a whole that the site be free from any sanitary hazards be pro perly drained and not adjacent to areas which may give rise to unsanitary conditions 2 Bnglehardt advises that sites should be a Suitable for proper drainage throughout at reason able cost and b the referred orientation for each type of room should be possible c Desir able relationship of buildings to one another and to play fields and service units should be attain able d The shape should be approximately rectan gular in order to eliminate unusable spaee but with length not too long for width e Maximum capitalization of the aesthetic from a distance and at close range should be sought f A portion of the area should be available at a reasonable preparation cost for athletic fields and playgroundsg A portion of sits sufficient for a commanding location of building is essential and h position of soil rocks water and sand should be such as to insure ease in putting in foundations and in making athletic fieldsand playgrounds i Should be suit able for landscaping and gardening2 f What physical characteristics do we wish the school site to have to provide for the school program The group should now be in position to complete Table V column f 2N L Engelhardt Score Card to be Used in the Selec tion of School Building Sites Hew York Teachors College Columbia University 94mSbd Hi Section Three What steps should we take to nake possible the physical facilities we want to house the school progran and who should do it A B What steps are necessary 1 The leader should begin this discussion by asking those present to name the activities necessary in order to get a taiUiflft P gran under way Such answers as obtaining funds selecting the de termining the plans and determining the costwill pro bably be given These nay be listed in a table similar to Table IX It is suggested that Table IX remain on the board throughout the discussion in order to guide the cussion and test group decisions The table should be altered if group decisions indicate that changes should be made Table X 1b suggested as a convenient means of recocding the decisions of thegroup in each step of the discussion 2 Table X should be filled out as decisions are reached At the close of the discussion Table X should be coupletely filled out and put in permanent forn for future reference What has been done in other communities to make possible the physi cal facilities needejd to carry on the school program and who has done it 1 Members of the group should be led to describe how a school building program was initiated in other communities with which they are familiar An effort should be made to have a large number of the group participate in this part of the discussion In this discussion emphasis should be placed upon what was done how it was done and who did it The discussion should be spe cific and detailed 2 In the October 1924 issue of American School Board Journal Superintendent B 0 Skinner described as follows the manner by which a school building program was nade possible for the Marietta Ohio Schools On alternate days for three suc cessive weeks prior to the bond election newspapers carried half page advertisements discussing such points as Do we need a high school Can we afford it Is the city in debt Is the tax rate high Is Marietta extravagant1 The cost of these advertisements was paid by local industrial plant b Permission was obtained from seventyfive advertisers to run a line in their advertisements Moving picture theaters cooper ated by showing slides calling attention to the need for school buildings On every possible occasion school board members talked to assemblies on the need for buildings Pastors gave 95 III TABLE IX SERVICES AVAILABLE KB MAKIHG THE SCHOOL PLANT POSSIBLE County Agencies and groups fe County Board of Education Local DoardpfJrustges flmmty supervisor Principal Teachers Services to be rendered p T A memoers Other adults Selected pupils Trai Inard of Health Other groups State Bepprtment of Education Panel field staff Attorney TABLE X PLAH FOR MAKING THE DESIRED SCHOOL PLANT POSSIBLE What steps should we take to make possible the physical facilities we need to house the school program What can we do Who can help What has been done Who has helped in other communities What does the state law pro vide as to what tc do and as to whc shall to it Refer to C 3 a t c d e f and g page of this paper for listing of duties and powers of state counties and districts What do auth orities recom mend as to what to do and who shall do it What s hall we do and who shall do it Refer to D 1 page of this paperc tenminute talks on the subject The highschool paper devoted an issue to the problem The ParentTeacher Associations prepared and delivered booklets to every home Automobiles carried appropriate posters School children held a parade carrying banners pointing out the needs Local service clubs and societies endorsed the program What provisions does the law make for contributions by the mem bers of the various local county and state groups or agencies 1 Prior to this meeting the leader should ask individuals or committees to examine Georgia School Laws 1942 and be prepared to supply the information necessary for this dis cussion a Following are some of the duties and responsibilities as stated in Georgia School Laws 1942 edition as ap plied to certain groups On page 36 is found the fol lowing quotation The construction of all public school buildings must be approved by the superintendent and board of education and must be according to plans furnished by the county school authorities and the State Department of Education Under the authority contained on page 16 They the Board of Education shall have general supervision of the State Department of Education and shall employ and dismiss upon the recommendation of the State Superintendent of Schools such clerical employees supervisors administrators and other employees as may be necessary for the efficient operation of the common school system The services of the Division of School Buildings and general and special super visors are available to assist local and county educa tion authorities in planning the school building pro blems b The act creating the Agricultural and Development Board authorized employment of personnel to carry on the work of this body Acting on the authority thus granted the Education Panel of this board has employ ed field staff members and consultants in school ad ministration and school buildings Their duties include assisting local communities and counties upon request with their administration and building problems c As stated on page 70 in Georgia School Laws 1942 county and municipal boards of health are given broad powers for the protection of healths They shall have full power and authority to adopt enact establish and maintain all such rules and regulations as they may deem necessary and proper for protecting the 98d 6 f health of their respective counties or municipalities In counties where there is no countyvide levy for school purposes the county hoard of education has au thority tol consolidate or divide school districts p 37 2 locate schools in consolidated districts p 37 and 3 locate school sites on appeal i p 64 In counties where there is a countywide tax for school purposes the county board of education has authority to 1 fix the amount of bonds the rate of levy for retirement and call elections for issuing boads p 65 2 locate and purchase rent or lease school sites p64 3 ouild repair or rent schoolhouses and equipment p 64 4 sell unnecessary or inconven ient sites o 64 and 5 receive gifts p 64 In counties having no countywide levy for school pur poses local boards of trustees have authority to 1 fix the amount of bonds fix the rate of levy for their retirement and call elections for issuing bonds p 65 2 locate and purchase rent or lease school sites p 64 3 build repair or rent schoolhouses and equipment p 64 4 sell unnec essary or inconvenient sites p 64 and 5 receive gifts p 65 66 In all counties it is the duty of patrons to l circu late and present a petition calling for elections to issue bonds p 63 2 vote for schoolhouses or against schoolhouses and 3 in case the board of trustees fail to act as manager of an election for issuing bonds to qualify and act p 64 D Vhat do educational leadars recommend 1 On page 3 of Planning Schools for Tomorrow Commissioner Studebaker has this to say Social planning must be recognized and assumed as a respon sibility of each and every person both individually and collectively It is the duty of leaders to propose to explain and to interpret what seems to them to be impera tive needs for improvement in the cultural program It is the function of the citizenship as a whole to consider review refuse or adopt and put into effect the proposal of the leaders E What shall we do to make the physical facilities we need pos sible And who will do it 1 To begin this discussion the leader nay ask the group to name each step involved in making the building possible 99I V X2 100 As each step is agreed upon it should be listed on the board Some such listing as the following nay result a Determine the amount of money needed b Determine how such funds nay be provided and take such steps as are necessary to provide these funds c Circulate a petition requesting an election d Order and hold the election declare results and market bonds e Inform the community so as to prepare them to vote intelli gently on the election f Call such meetings of the entire group as conditions re quire 3 Finally the leader may ask Who will take the leadership in performing each of the necessary steps The group should be led to agree whether responsibility for each step will be taken by committees or by individuals and determine how the commit tees or individuals will be selected The selection should be made at this meeting Table XI is suggested as a convenient means of organizing this discussion TABLE XI ORGANIZING THE COMMUNITY FOR PROVIDING THE SCHOOL PLAINT Who will be Duty responsible S ources of help 1 State Dept of Educa 1 Determine the amount of money needed Entire group 2 3 tion Panel staff Local builders 1 State Deot of Educa 2 Determine how such funds may be pro tion vided Entire group 2 3 4 Panel Staff County Supt Local Edu Auth 3 Circulate petitions requesting bond elections School chil dren PTA Attorney 4 Order and hold the election de Local educa clare results and market bonds tional auth Attorney 5 Inform the Community so as to prepare tit School em 1 Newspapers them to vote intelligently at ployees 2 Civic community club the election 2 Sch children a 3 Business groups 3 P T A 4 Posters 4 Special com 5 Churches mittee 6 Call such meetings of committees or 1 General the entire roup as conditions roquir E chai man Entire roua 1 i Table XI should be kept for future use of comnittees or the group as a whole 4 The leader should encourage group discussion of desirable procedures to be followed by each group designated In Table XI This discussion should include such questions as how the comnittees will work how long it will require for then to cormlete their undertaking and when would probably be a good tine for the entire group to meet to consider progress evaluate results and determine future courses of action 101 LIBRARY102 CHAPTER XI PLAN SETTING UP THE TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM I Preliminaries A Leaders objective To lead the group to discover the trans portation problems as they relate to the program of the school to think reflectively through these problems to ar rive at conclusions to formulate plans and to put the plans into action 3 The Groups to be Reached 1 Primary a Superintendent of county schools b County board of Education c Local boards of trustees d Principals e Supervisor of transportation 2 Secondary a Bus drivers b Mechanics c School Boy Patrol d Teachers e Lay citizens f Parents of pupils transported C Materials and Equipment Needed 1 A map showing the distribution of school population for elementary and high schools 2 County maps one for each race to indicate the fol lowing a Using standard symbols location of each school and show whether elementary junior high school or senior high school b School district or attendance area boundaries c Origin and termination of each bus route accord ing to trips and the direction the bus travels d Bus routes numbered consecutively for entire county e Bus trips lettered a b c etc103 3 Charts showing a Number of children transported per bus attending elementary and high schools b The mileage of the routes according to type of road c Cost of operation in 1942 per mile by type of owner ship in 1 Publicly owned 105 2 Privately owned 123 3 Jointly owned 127 4 Other states Alabama 115 d Cost per pupil per year 1942 school term by types of ownership in 1 Publicly owned 1324 2 Privately owned 1546 3 Jointly owned 1568 4 Other states Alabama 962 c Population trends according to the school census 4 Books pamphlets reports statistical data etc a State Department of Education Georgia School Laws b State Department of Education Recent Annual Reports qf the Department of Education to the Genera Assembly of Georgia c State Department of Education Reports of the Educational Census d Yale University WorkConference School Transportation in Wartime Washington D C Traffic Engineering and Safety Department American Automobile Asso ciation 1942 e Meadows Austin R Safety and Economy in School Bus Transportation Wetumpka Alabama The Wetumpka Printing Company f Southern States WorkConference Pupil Transpprtation for the Southern States Tallahassee Florida State Department of Education 1940 g Southern States WorkConference School Transportation Bulletin Ho 2 Tallahassee Elorida State Department of Education 1941 h Education Panel A Study of School Transportation i Georgia Education Panel University of Georgia Athens Georgia 1945104 II Getting the Group into the Probleu A The leader may raise an overall question to introduce the study and to lead the planning group into thinking of the transportation problem 1 Such a question nay be Is our present system of school transportation meeting our needs What are the satisfactory and unsatisfac tory features 2 In order that the group may keep the problem before it the leader may use a table similar to the one given below for listing suggestions from the group The lead er may supplement from his own information and from some of the comments which he has heard several of the uembers of the group give prior to the meeting Exam ples of such comments may be a b One of the lay citizens present complained that his sixyear old daughter has to board the school bus at 7 oclock in the morning and gets home at 5 oclock in the afternoon The school opens at nine and closes at three A principal has commented that the buses used in an adjoining county were equipped with several safety devices which Here not used on the buses in thiscounty TJlSLE XII 2 Kind of equipment 3 Condition of e quipment Satisfactory Unsatisfactory Problem or Feature I Number of 1 Adequate for two 1 Inadequate for six schools bussesschools in the county in the county 2 Steel bodies 3 One school has buses in good condition 2 Wood bodies 3 Seven Schools have buses which are in bad condition 4r EtcHgggggggsEmmBmamm wnrc 105 B Use naps and charts to show how our present systen nay be in proved to 1 Save the tine of the children This involves such fac tors as nuuber of buses nunber of children trans ported length of routes number of stops etc which are shown on the transportation nap of the county See I Cl and 2 3 Reduce the transportation cost See I C3 c and d C To introduce the relation of transportation to the progran of the school 1 The leader nay place before the group such questions as a How would any reorganization of our school systen or expansion of our school progran affect our transportation problen 2 b Do changes in population within the districts have any bearing on our planning for transportation c Have there been any narked changes in school popu lation within the past several years As the group calls for info mation dealing with the above questions the leader should present charts giving these data HI Procedure A What kind of transportation systen should our school systen provide 1 What are the transportation problems with which our school systen should deal a The leader should get opinions fron the group The nenbers will probably give a conparatively long list of specific problens These opinions which nay be sinilar to the ones given below should be listed on the blackboard 1 What are we going to do to increase the nun ber of buses 2 What are we going to do to get buses 3 Who should own our buses 4 Who should operate our buses 5 What are we going to do in order that our chil dren on buses nay be closely supervised106 6 What is the best kind of routing 7 What are we going to do about improving the condition of our roads 8 What can we do to shorten the time our children are on the buses 9 What kind of drivers should we have 10 What can we do to keep transportation from costing us too much 11 What can we do to keep our buses in good condition 12 What can vie do to make buses more safe 13 What plan of purchase of equipment should be set up 14 What authority does our local principal have 15 Whycant we use our buses for pomething other than for school be These specific problems may be grouped into some such classification 1 What minimum specifications for school buses should be set up and by whom should they be set up 2 What provisions are made for the most economical purchase of equipment 3 What localsystem policies should be made for safe and eco nomic operation of our school transportation a What maintenance program should be adopted b What transportation hazards now exist and how may they be eliminated 1 As to equipment 2 As to practices c A table similar to the one below may be prepared and kept before the group throughout the study The three problem areas should be listed in the first column 4 What kind of school transportation do we now have a Before the meeting the leader may ask the superin tendent to prepare a report on the present trans portation system to be given to the entire planning group The leader may suggest a checksheet simi lar to the one given below for the tabulation of what is now being done The second column will107 b indicate the extent to which the problem is now being met As the superintendent makes the report on present transportation system this information should be listed in second column of Table XIII 5 What legal provisions are made for school transporta tion a Section 32919 of the Georgia School Laws is Whenever the county board of education or local district trustees deem it for the best interest of the school they shall have the right to pro vide means for the transportation of pupils and teachers to and from said school No school trustee teacher or county superintendent of schools shall be financially interested in the transportation of pupils b A State Committee on School Transportation has suggested the reworking of the law to read Whenever the County Board of Education deems it for the best interest of the schools it shall have the right to provide means for the transportation of pupils and school employees under such poli cies and regulations as the State Board of Education may adopt to guarantee safe and economical trans portation No county superintendent of schools or member of the County Board of Education no member of the State Board of Education or employee of the State Department of Education shall be financially in terested in the transportation of pupils What programs of transportation are other school systems providing The members of the planning group should be en couraged to tell about school systems that are now providing safe and economic transportation The following table describes what some of these systems are providingTABLE XIII WHAT KIND OF TRANSPORTATION SHOULD OUR SCHOOL SYSTEM 1ROVIDE What kind of transportation do we think we need 1 What minimum standard speci fications as to equipment are set up on a systemwide basis What kind of transportation do we now have 2 Busses must he distinctly mark ed School Bus on hoth front rear and sides School bus dri vers shall stop school buses on right hand side of the road or street as close to the curb or edge of said road or street as is practica ble Every motor vehi cle must stop when approaching a school bus which is stopped and engaged in taking on or dis charging school children Violators of any oi What legal provi sions are made for school transportation 3 County hoard or local district trus tees have the right to provide means for the transporta tion of pupils when they deem it for the best interest of the school What programs of transportation are other schools providing North Carolina The state owns all buses except the initial unit for eah route purchases all equipment routes all buses adopts and en forces safety and operationsl re gulations and in sures all buses and children Dri vers are selected by local authori ties West Virginia County Board to provide at public expense adequate means of transpor tation State Board to make all rules and regulations The State Board to pay transportation costs State prepares speci fications and re What program of transportation do experts re commend 5 8ee National 3us Standards 1939 by Cyr pnd others Interna tional Textbook Co Scranton Pa What kind of school trans portation will wj put into operatij 6 National School Bus Standards i M O oo Ir QX 8QITABLE XIII What kind of trans portation do we think we need Ul 2 What provisions are made for the most econo mical purchase of equipment WHAT KIND OF TRANSPORTATION SHOULD OUR SCHOOL SYSTEM PROVIDE What kind of transportation do we now have 2 the above laws shall be pun ished as for a misdemeanor All purchases handled by local school author ities 3 What local system poli cies should be made for safe and economic op eration of our school transportation What legal provi sions are made for school trans portation 3 What programs of trans portation are other schools providing H Ho school trus tee teacher or county sup erintendent of schools shall be financially in terested in the transportation of pupils ceives bids for equip ment County operates maintenance program Qualifications of drivers defined by statute What program of trans portation do experts recommend L What kind of school trans portation will we put into operation 6 Meadows says State laws should provide financial plans whereby local units may own and operate school buses for transporting pupils to and from public school and for con structing and main taining school bus shops See attached See State Board Rules and Regula tions P l627 Pupil Transporta tion for Southern States 190 State Department of Education Tallahassee o ID t County owner ship and oper tion County maintenance program Group purchas ing of equip ment and sup plies If 20 or more buses are in the county a maintenance man en staff of the county Board of Edu cation Florida110 I 1 On the basis of past records and present analyses of school bus costs public ownership of school buses is found to afford greater safety to the pupils and more economical operation than any other type of owner ship with a possible exception of transiflines in suburban and urban areas 2 The economical advantages of public ownership of school buses are duo largely to ability of the county Board of Education to purchase school bus equipment at quantity prices as an agent of the state to pur chase equipment and motor fuel without having to pay Federal excise taxes and through elimination of high carrying charges and interest rates and to the fact that public ownership is not operated for profit 3 It is hot reasonable to expect to secure adequate inspection in all rural areas through private autouobile repair shops The county Board of Education should maintain the fulltine or parttime services of skilled autouobile mechanics to inspect service and repair school buses 4 The school bus should have a thorough inspection periodically preferably each month and the driver should be required to secure an approved inspection certificate from the inspecting mechanic after each inspection before being allowed to transport pupils 5 In general school boards as governmental agencies are exempt from tort liability except where state laws grant them the rignt to assume such liability There is a tendency on the part of the public to demand that school boards assume liability for injury and property damages caus ed by their negligent acts and this tendency applies to school bus trans portation In order to assure proper medical treatment and care of trans ported pupils injured enroute tp and from school and in order to relieve undue burdens on parents whose children have been fatally injured tne state should provide compensation to parents for actual expenses mcurreu dv injury of pupils who are transported to and from public schools at public expense State insurance should be provided to cover losses from school bus property damages to publicly owned school buses Personal injury and property damages to others caused by U gent operation of publicly owned school buses place a moral responsibility on school boards and it seems that this responsibility should be met through a plan of state compensation and insurance However it seems equally reasonable to require the general public to be responsiole for injury to pupils and for damages to school bus property through negligence through some plan of insurance or compensation 6 One of the serious safety problems in school bus transporta tion is that of safeguarding the pupil in crossing the highway after leav ing the school bus Pupils should be required to cross in front of the school bus at the direction of the driver Each bus should have a pupil patrol selected by the principal of the school in cooperation with tne bus driver to assist the driver in maintaining proper order on the school bus Pupils should not be allowed to extend parts of their bodies out of the windows except in case of emergency exit Pupils snould not interfere with the bus driver and should not damage or abuse the scnooi I5Sffrvwawa Ill bus equipment They should cooperate with the driver in his attempt to safe ly transport the children to and from school 7 The state through legislative enactment requires any approach ing motorist to stop for a school bus which is stopped to load or unload pupils The bus driver should exercise due care in not detaining general traffic at such stops any longer than necessary 8 The state should set up minimum standards for school bus trans portation and should provide consultants in the state education department to assist local school officials in the development and maintenance of safe and economical school bus transportation 9 State aid for transportation should make possible adequate safe and economical operation of school bus transportation 10 The state should furnish uniform accounting forms to county Boards of Education School bua accidents should be reported by the school bus driver or by the principal of the main school served by the bus if the bus driver is incapacitated and the superintendent of the county should make a report to the State superintendent of education on a form provided by the state board of education within ten days after the accident 11 County boards of education and superintendents should be en couraged to improve upon minimum state standards where possible and practi cable1L v Ji A U ifCTBBBBB MMBBMBBBi 112 CHECK SHEETFOR THE STUDY OF THE PRESENT TRANSPORTATION PROGRAMS PROBLEM WHAT IS BEING DONE NOW 1 Buses a Number b Condition c Sizes d Utilization Type or Types of Ownership a Public b Private c Joint Bus Routes How determined a How are the following determined 1 Walking distances 2 Schedules 3 Stops b Road Conditions 1 Miles of unimproved road over which buses travel 2 Miles paved road over which buses travel 3 location and kinds of schools in relation to density of school popu lation 4 Mumber of Children transported a Elementary school b High school 5 Records a Gas mileage b Cost of operation per mile c Cost of operation per pupil d Pupils transportedrtcacOTrfrCTJVni M t9 113 Check Sheet for the Study of the Present Transportation Program PROBLEM WHAT IS BEING DOHE HOW 6 Drivers a Sow selected b Qualifications 1 Age 2 Character 3 Physical fitness 4 Driving skill 7 Maintenance and supplies a How are repair parts and supplies purchased b Storage c Distribution d Provision for repairs 8 Safety a Buses b Drivers c Pupils d General 9 Policy of extrause of equipment 10 Liability and property damage insurance legality t 11 Purchase of equipment a Specifications b Method used 1 Bids 2 Other iixtirr MBBB BBMMBB 114 What program of transportation do experts recommend that we set up for our school system Southern States WorkConference on School Administrative Pro blems Pupil Transportation for the Southern States Talla hassee Florida State Department of Education 1940 The establishment and maintenance of transportation ser vice on a level comparable with other educational ser vices is the responsibility of both state and local school administrators More attention needs to be given to the opportunities for correlating the transportation program with the instructional program Pupils are definitely and permanently influenced by the type and quality of transportation with which they are provided during the years they attend school Overcrowded ramshackle buses irregular schedules illiterate drivers and other con ditions resulting from poor planning and management make a negative contribution to the education of children Good health habits courtesy and desirable civic atti tudes are thwarted by inferior service p 5 Among the more frequent criticisms directed at contracts with individual operators for pupil transportation are 1 that the school administrative unit pays for the contractors equipment usually over the contract period but title does not revert to the board 2 that it is difficult to change routes and schedules after they have been established and 3 that optimumTABLE XIV OUR PROGRAM OF TRANSPORTATION Problems of school transportation which are to he considered in our plan Procedure to he used in dealing with the prohlems 1 The School Bus Mechanism a The need for safer school buses b The school bus body c The school bus chassis d Etc Group discussion 2 The School Bus Driver a Driver responsibility for school bus accidents b Age of driver c Physical examination of driver d Education of driver e Characteristics and habits of driver f Etc Group discussion School bus routes and schedules a Road condition accident hazards b 3us schedule a time schedule c Location of bus stops d Route signs Group discussion Management of School 3us Transportation a Ownership of school buses b School bus specification and bids c School bus inspection d Student behavior e Accident and Compensation Insurance f Local and state responsibility g Etc Group discussion Reference to literature Meadows Austin Safety and Economy in School Bus Transportation Evaluation of the results 1 All steel body 2 Adequate size 3 Forward facing seats U Equipped with heater etc 5 Chassis adapted to the length of the body 6 County maintenance program planned 1 2 Inservice training program planned Sight and hearing tests provided VJ1 1 Buses routed so as to reduce ex cessive distances relieve over crowding and provide waiting stations 1 County cwnetfship planned 2 Monthly inspections provided 3 Rules and regulations dealing with 1 Pupils 2 Drivers 3 Safety worked out and agreed upon State approval of bus routes and maintenance program obtained acCiX1 STKWt BMHBJ 116 use of the physical equipment is limited by the contract agreement It is the concensus of the committee that private contract has very little on the positive side to recommend it The more valid arguments for continuation of private contract may be summarized as follows 1 The local school administrative unit knows in advance what its transportation is to cost 2 Theoretically only necessary mileage over the bus route is paid for 3 Responsibilities incident to operation and main tenance can be shifted from the school adminis tration to contractor 4 Bus service in isolated sections may be provided without unjustified administrative and supervisory costs pp 910 Perhaps the least acceptable form is ownership of the chassis by the contractor and the body by the school administrative unit This type of ownership and operation has the bad fea tures of both private contract and public school ownership with practically none of the virtues of either pp 1011 There is a growing conviction among school administrators and the public that a service so intimately related to the instruc tional program should be under the direct ownership supervi sion and management of the school authorities Among the motivating factors in this trend may be listed the following arguments for public ownership 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Greater control over the type of equipment in use is possible Elimination of competitive bidding for bus routes permits a wider range of selection of bus drivers Ownership operation insures the opportunity for close and adequate supervision which should provide a guarantee of safety comfort convenience adequacy flexibility and other vital needs of the service The local school administrative unit may be more certain of the safety of its buses by insistence upon proper inspection repair and maintenance Routes and schedules can be more easily adjusted to needs A wider use of buses is possible Definite studies in Alabama Arkansas Florida Ohio North Carolina Oklahoma Texas Utah and in other states furnish conclusive evidence that public school ownership is more economical than private contract In some states the cost is fifty percent more toiHBBBi 117 operate buses privately than publicly There have been instances in which school boards have pur chased buses for half the price paid by individuals for the sane type bus Sone of the possible areas of saving under public school ownership are as follows The profit normally earned by the contractor nay be saved the board nay effect savings on both body and chassis through fleet purchases through reduction of interest or carrying charges through elimination of Federal taxes on buses accessories gasoline and oil Possibilities for savings also exist through wise provision for centralized naintenance and re pair pp 1112 Austin Meadows in his Safety and Economy in School Bus Transporta tion sets up the following criteria 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 School bus transportation should contribute to equalization of educational opportunity Standards should either contribute to safety or be con sistent with safe operation of school bus transportation Each standard should contribute to econouy insofar as econony does not interfere with safety in school bus operation Standards should specify results desired and uethods of achieving the results insofar as is necessary for en forceuent of standards States should adopt uniforn standards where such stand ards will serve to increase Safety and economy in school bus operationT State nininun regulations should pernit adaptation to local needs where such adaptations do not jeopardize safety of pupils Feasibility State regulations nust be possible to achieve What kind of transportation program will we set up for our school system a The leader should now direct the attention of the planning group to filling in the last column in Table XV The best practices found in other schools the legal provisions recommendations of experts and prevailing local conditions should be the factors to guide the group into the setting up of the transportation programTABLE XV WHAT SOME SCHOOL SYSTEMS ABE DOIHG IN SCHOOL TFANSPOBTATIOH School System Tift County Aims Procedure used in working toward aims 1 To provide the safest and most economical school transportation 1 The superintendent and hoard memhers thought that transportation was costing too much 2 A transportation study was made under the direction of a specialist 3 Purchase of transportation equipment by county hoard of education h Higid driver qualifications set up for employment of bus driver 1 Ho accidents and no injury to any persons 2 Cost of transportation dropped forty percent f