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WEST GEORGIA COLLEGE

REVIEW

1

ay, 1979

Published By

WEST GEORGIA COLLEGE

A Division of the University System of Georgia

CARROLLTON, GEORGIA

Published By
WEST GEORGIA COLLEGE

Maurice K. Townsend, President
John T. Lewis III, Vice President and Dean of Faculties

Learning Resources Committee
Chairman, Edwin M. Blue

Mary E. Baxter Lenise E. Mason

Charles Beard Edith H. Maxwel

Thonnas A. Bryson III Jerome T. Mock

Louis Carri Huey A. Owings

Timothy Chowns Jo Ann Sanders

Joseph Doldan Carole E. Scott
George C. Mann

Jimmy C. Stokes, Editor

Martha Saunders, Associate Editor

Betty S. Jobson, Assistant Editor

The purpose of this publication is to provide encouragement for faculty
research and to make available results of such activity. The Review, published
annually, accepts original scholarly work and creative writing. West Georgia
College assumes no responsibility for contributors' views. The style guide is
Kate L. Turabian. A l\/lanual for Writers. Although the Review is primarily a
medium for the faculty of West Georgia College, other sources are invited.

An annual bibliography includes doctoral dissertations, major recitals
and major art exhibits. Theses and articles in progress or accepted are not
listed. A faculty member's initial listing is comprehensive and appears in the
issue of the year of his employment. The abstracts of all master's theses and
educational specialist's projects written at West Georgia College are included
as they are awarded.

WEST GEORGIA COLLEGE

REVIEW

Volume XI May, 1979

TABLE

of

CONTENTS

Metapsychiatry David J. Higgins 1

Sincere Stylization: Byron and the Heroes of Childe Harold's

Pilgrimage Mary Ferguson 1

Calculation of Atmospheric Gas

Lifetimes for Various Bodies in the Solar System Ben deMayo 19

The Concept and Trend of Social Stratification Lee-jan Jan 26

Par-A-Dise and Science Frank Sadler 38

Abstracts of Master's Theses and Specialist in

Education Projects 44

Annual Bibliography of West Georgia College

Faculty as of January 1, 1979 65

Copyright1979, West Georgia College
Printed in U.S.A.

METAPSYCHIATRY
by David J. Higgins*

Metapsychiatry is a method of therapy which goes beyond what has
hitherto been the limit of the psychiatric discipline. It not only makes use of
but also advocates a philosophic position and a religious faith. The philosophy,
a phenomenological method resulting in a scheme reminiscent of the Seven-
teenth Century Spinoza, and the religious faith, a somewhat depersonalized
Christianity, invite a critique which is unconcerned with the effectiveness of
the therapy.

Apparently the fruit of many years of practice as a psychiatrist, two books
were published by Thomas Hora in 1977 as an elucidation of his appraoch.
The first. Existential Metapsychiatry, is expository; the second, Dialogues in
Metapsychiatry, reports conversations among the devotees with Hora the
main protagonist.! This paper will critique three themes from this rather ex-
tensive matrix: the distinction between useful and invalid questions; the
distinction between interpersonal action and omniaction; the meaning of
person as it refers to God. The first theme is important for philosophy, the
second for psychology and the third for religion.

AN OyEHy\E\N, IN ABSTRACTO, OF METAPSYCHIATRY

Metapsychiatry is a therapy which defines health as the realization of the
good of God which is immediately present; all our problems are of our own
making most of them the result of self-confirmatory ideation and of dualistic
and horizontal thinking. Realization is contrasted with mere experience:
". . .we cannot experience reality, we only experience our thoughts about
reality." (Metapsychiatry, p. 24) Experience is subjective, unreliable, sensory,
emotional and intellectual. Realizations are spiritual. Realizations cannot be
expressed as mere statements about the truth, such as "God is good." Rather,
realizations are recognized when we reach the PAGL point, characterized by
peace, assurance, gratitude and love and by harmony, wisdom, joy, health
and benevolence. (Metapsychiatry, p.p. 25, 175; Dialogues, p. 93)

Realizing the good of God which is immediately present we become bene-
ficial presences (not curious, influencing trespassers) manifesting spiritual love,
which is a nonpersonal, unconditional benevolence. (Metapsychiatry, p. 17)

'Associate Professor of Philosophy, West Georgia College

^ Thomas Hora, Existent/a/ Metapsychiatry (New York: The Seabury Press,
1977); Dialogues in Metapsychiatry (New York: The Seabury Press, 1977).

Self-confirmatory ideation is exemplified in the religious fanatic, who is
committed to his own ego and not to the quest for truth; in the natural man,
who identifies with his body and its pleasures and pains; in a self-indulgent
emphasis on how one feels; in a belief in personal ownership; in seeking to
blame; in asking what to do about problems and how to do it (as if self were
in control and not God); and in fear - a mental preoccupation verbalized as,
"lam afraid." (Metapsychiatry, pp. 15, 110, 1 16; Dialogues, pp. 182, 184)

Metapsychiatry shares with the stories of Zen and the abstractions of vari-
ous idealisms a moderate success in forging a language which will communicate
that which is beyond the horizontal and dualistic thinking which pervades
culture and ordinary language. The dualism of self-other, of egoistic-altruistic
- in general, the dualism of all forms of interaction is transcended by omni-
action. Explanations in terms of cause-effect are replaced by realizations. A
therapist is neither passive nor active, but reverent. Being arrogant-being a
doormat is transcended in humility. Transcending the dualism of victim-
victimizer is "the secret place of the most High." The combination of good-
evil which appears in all material things is transcended in the good of God
which is spiritual, unified and total. Freedom is neither dependent nor in-
dependent As a final example, good students neither agree, nor disagree, nor
daydream - they understand. (Dialogues, pp. 208, 164, 93, 192; Meta-
psychiatry, pp. 27, 61, 122)

USEFUL AND INVALID QUESTIONS

Unenlightened man traps himself in fruitless activity by asking questions
which are invalid; they are futile and they foil God since they do not let God
do His work in our lives. The following are examples: What's wrong? How do
you feel? Who is to blame? What should I do? How should I do it? Why?
Why is he this way?

The question about who is to blame for what happened is personalistic.
"Nobody is really to blame. There is neither cause nor culprit."

What should I do? and How should I do it? are invalid because man is not
really an operator, nor is there any process of repair involved, nor is there an
operation of fixing.

The main difficulty with the question. Why? is that it derives from cause-
effect thinking - a dualistic search after explanations - which interferes with
realization. Further, to ask why is to seek for someone to blame, to seek the
historical cause of the problem; even if we find it we still have the problem
and furthermore may experience anger at the cause, say, at the parents of a
troubled child, and that anger will prevent the peace and harmony of reali-
zation. (Metapsychiatry, pp. 39, 81, 91, 197)

Hora's use of the question Why? and its relation to cause-effect are typical
of current usage. These meanings gained currency beginning about the time of
Galileo with the rise of scientific method. But there is a more ancient signif-
icance to Why?, deriving from the Greeks, especially Aristotle who regarded it
as a seeking for the middle term in a demonstration. This usage pervaded the

\/liddle Ages. Dante, for example, regarded questions as the initial impulse
eading us to Truth like a fox seeing its den from a distance we are led on
ay wonder, as expressed in the question Why? until we reach the Truth be-
/ond which no truth hath range. 2

About any demonstration we can ask, "Why is the conclusion true?" The
answer is, "because of the middle term. " If we continue the process in
iuch wise as "Why should the middle term be accepted?" we engage in a
leries of successive questions which finds its ultimate cause, or ground, in the
jrst cause which is the source of all truth, usually named God.

That moderns are alienated from this process of development from an in-
tial wonder to an ultimate knowledge of a first cause is apparent from the
itrangeness which we experience when confronted with such deductive master-
pieces as the Summa Theologica. In a sense Hora and Aquinas come to reali-
sations virtually identical: an intelligent, loving source the modern by deny-
ng the relevance of the question Why?, the ancient by affirming it.

Midway between Aquinas and Hora, Spinoza developed a system of geo-
Tietrically rigid definitions and theorems beginning with the premise of a God
vho is one, who emanates in two modes, body and idea, and who ultimately
ecaptures human reality when it achieves the intellectual love of that orig-
nary God. 3 The parallels with Hora are many, if unacknowledged. Their
ihilosophical methods are definitely different.

Hora's method is an outgrowth of the phenomenological tradition, espec-
ally as it appears in Heidegger, to whom the debt is acknowledged. In accord
with this method the two meaningful questions are. What is the meaning of
:hat which appears to be? and What is that which really is?

By means of the first question the person with a problem gets away from
the level of phenomena and appearances with its imaginings and its errors of
thinking and onto a level of understanding. For example, a couple had a
Jog with a prolapse of the rectum which would disappear when the couple
;eased fighting. To ask. Why does this happen? is fruitless. To ask. What is the
Tieaning of what seems to be going on here? yields the answer that there seems
to be discord in the house. Then "to the second intelligent question What
s really going on here? the answer is love and harmony and peace and
Tiutual regard, because in divine reality that is the status quo: peace, harmony,
assurance, gratitude, and love. As the couple began to see their situation in
the context of jointly participating in the good of God, the fights disappeared,
the discord disappeared, and the dog was healed, (metapsychiatry, p. 133)

INTERPERSONAL ACTION AND OMNIACTION

Interpersonal action and reaction cause humans their most frequent and
ntense problems. Countless methods have been proposed for alleviating these

-Dante, La Divina Commedia (Milano: Ulrico Hoepli, 1955), Par. IV, 123-131.
^Spinoza Selections, ed. John Wild (New York: Chirles Scribner's Sons), Ethic.

distresses all to no avail because they are all based on the faulty daalism
that the self is distinct from others, and because they seek to heal by analysis
in the dualistic terms of cause-effect. What is needed is the phenomenological
method of asking the right questions and permitting the answer to realize itself.

What we come to realize is that each of us shares in life as the leaves of the
maple tree share in its life. Apart from the tree is death. Interaction between
leaves as between humans is an illusion. Uniquely sharing in the life of the
tree, uniquely sharing in the loving understanding of divine reality, each,
whether leaf or human, realizes omniaction.

Using another metaphor, unenlightened people interact like intertwining
fingers; omniaction is represented by fingers pointed skyward approaching
ever so close but not entangled. Control, dominance, influence, jealousy, am-
bition and competition are all the consequences of error in thought. Inter-
action appears to be; omniaction really is. (Metapsychiatry, p. 192; Dialogues,
p. 211)

What then about the apparent interaction of one ego with another: "Man
has no ego either; God, Mind is his ego. Once we realize that there is no inter-
action, then it becomes clear that infinite Mind is the ego of everyone; God is
the 'I AM' of all of us, just as God is the same vital force pressing for mani-
festation in every flower, plant, or other life form everywhere in the universe."
Mora thus interprets the description God gave to Moses: "I am who am"
translates as God is the only one who can say "I am." Whenever humans say
it they are slipping into the error of self-confirmatory thinking, the beginning
of the problems they set up for themselves. "Personhood is just an idea. If
people have personal problems, then they have invented them." (Dialogues, p
p. 211, 103)

Inconsistency creeps into Hora's approach: whereas ego, personhood and
self-confirmatory thinking are eschewed, yet a concept of self, of authentic
self-hood, is made use of: "Existential psychotherapy endeavors to help man
liberate himself from the confines of his social pretensions so that he may be-
come what he truly is and what he always was not another person but an-
other self." (Metapsychiatry, pp. 54, 77, 102)

If personhood is a social pretension and not real, then every person is a
liar and a lie at the same time. Interpersonal relationships consist of two ficti-
tious characters trying to interact with each other. "We can sit in amazement
contemplating the multitudes of pepple investing time and energy using inter-
personal transaction for therapeutic purposes. . . .Interpersonal relationships
can only improve the pretense, not the health of the persons."
(Metapsychiatry, pp: 90, 101)

It is impossible here to illustrate the numerous cases presented in the texts.
Generally speaking, the asking of the two meaningful questions leads to reali-
zation which takes the place of the interpersonal problem. For example, "In
a transference relationship, whether it is beneficial or harmful, there is only
self and other, patient and therapist. . . .But in real life there is much more,
there is also the dimension of the spirit, the transcendent, the third party call-
ed GOD. That third party is present." (Metapsychiatry, p. 54)

Before turning to the third section on the personality of God, it might be
relevant to suggest that Hora could resolve the ambiguity about the self by
asserting its fictional status either on an empirical basis as did Hume, or as a
corollary to a system of rational thinking as did Spinoza.

NONPERSONALGOD

Although Hora's metapsychiatry is sprinkled with quotations from the
Bible, and although he grounds his existential realizations in Biblical truth,
he claims that what he is doing is not strictly speaking religious. When a stu-
dent asks if ail these religious statements have to be accepted, Hora answers
that they are interested only in reality.

What then about the God who is the third party in every apparent relation-
ship? In many passages the nonpersonal character is posited. Since we are
manifestations of Love-Intelligence, which is God, we are all capable of mani-
festing spiritual love which is nonpersonal, unconditional benevolence. "God
is not a person. What is God? God is an is." Again, this is Hora's interpre-
tation of the napne, "I am who am," given to Moses. Humans are to trans-
cend personalities: ". . .when we see each other, we are seeing individual
manifestations of the great 'I AM."' And most ramifying, ". . .existence is a
synonym for God." (Metapsychiatry, pp. 17, 85; Dialogues, pp. 17, 183)

But consistency is obviated. On the one hand, Hora suggests that our con-
cept of God may be either,!' a personal one or an impersonal one: so long as
intelligence is seen as the source of evertthing that is being done right. And
again, Jesus "was neither human nor God. He was just at an advanced state of
spiritual consciousness. Being God is not real for man, being human is also
not real. But being a spiritual consciousness that's real. And that's what
he was." (Metapsychiatry, p. 145; Dialogues, p. Ill)

On the other hand Hora can ask, "Who is this person called Love-Intelli-
gence?" This is quite ambiguous when juxtaposed with a passage referring to
Jesus at the point in his life when he achieved at-one-ment with the source
saying," "I and my Father are one' (John 10:30). 'I am in the Father, and the
Father in me' (John 14:11). His personal sense of self has disappeared and
from then on he lives an an emanation of Love-Intelligence. Those are the
very passages referred to by those who like Athanasius believe in a distinction
of persons within one God. (Metapsychiatry, pp. 58, 121)

It would be impossible to fault the claim that God is unconditionally lov-
ing intelligence; these attributes are as common in the traditional discussions
as are those of pure act, supreme being or power. But to say that God is non-
personal flaunts at least six centuries of early Christian attempts to delineate
the three persons, Father, Son and Holy Spirit. The fact that different faiths
and/or heresies define in different ways and either fight for or die for their re-
spective claims would indicate that the persons are of considerable significance
to those humans interested in transcendence. Perhaps psychological health can
be achieved by realizing an impersonal loving intelligence, but if religious faith
yields any truth which it certainly does then interest in the one truth
would seem to require practitioners of metapsychiatry to recapitulate the

early Christian discussions. Here again the parallels with the Jewish Spinoza
continue - but Christian living which shares in the mysteries of Trinity and
Incarnation is also realization.

SINCERE STYLIZATION: BYRON AND THE HEROES

OF CHILDE HAROLD'S PILGRIMAGE

by Mary Ferguson*

No other English poet is so neglected and pursued as George Gordon, sixth
Lord Byron. Neglected in terms of his poetry, he is yet pursued relentlessly '
as a poet, as one whose life intermingles inextricably with his work. In both
the nineteenth and the twentieth centuries few critics and fewer casual readers
have expressed abiding interest in the stylistic material of Byronic poetry;
however, almost everyone has been intrigued by the sweeping force of the
Byronic personality. It is flatly impossible to imagine the work without the
man. Diffused throughout the strained rhythms of his imperfect Romantic
poetry, Byron and the multiple Byronic reflections of himself provide a seem-
ingly inexhaustible source of interest to the rest of mankind.

This particular interest in Byron has existed from the publication of his
first real success, Childe Harold's Pilgrimage. Thrust with the Childe into fame,
he appeared to the public as the perfect conception of a Romantic poet, stalk-
ing the ideal along melancholy paths. This public notion of Byron as the ab-
solute Romantic persisted throughout the nineteenth century, so that he eas-
ily towered above Wordsworth, Shelley, Keats, and Coleridge in society's
imagination. Typically, William Makepeace Thackeray noted in 1846 that
Byron was still considered a "public god."1 Dislodging a god is difficult, and
when Matthew Arnold perceived Wordsworth to be a finer poet than Byron,
he placed the author of The Prelude above the author of Childe Harold only
after giving "the second ranking poet" markedly high praise. High praise
seemed a small enough tribute to one thought to be the epitome of Romant-
icism.

Avid critical and public admiration of Byron did not disappear in the
twentieth century, but its focus, while still remaining on the man and his
shadows, shifted to the poet in Don Juan rather than in Childe Harold. Grad-
ually, it was realized that Byron did not epitomize Romanticism; rather, he
epitomized its problems. In 1924 G.R. Elliott noted of Byron that the other
Romantics "were penetrated by the Romantic mood, and he was cloaked in
it."2 Foreshadowing the Weitschmerz and mal du siecle of Continental writ-
ers in the next generation, Byron could not reconcile the real and ideal. No

*lnstructor of English, West Georgia College

^William Makepeace Thackery, quoted in Peter L.Thorsley, M., The Byronic
Hero, (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1962) p. 15.

2g.R. Elliott, "Bron and the Comic Spirit", /'MZ./A 39 (1924), 900.

profound thinker, he yet knew and admitted the "toughness of facts" in real-
ity. 3 Of all the problems associated with Romanticism, this admission of hard
fact was perhaps the most difficult for the majority of Romantics to accept.
For Byron, that acceptance ultimately meant that he had to live outside him-
self as well as within.

Within and without, his personality pervades his poetry, but often in num-
erous disguises. The poetry itself, including Childe Harold, is often distressing
in quality compared to its quantity. There is some truth in T.S. Eliot's sup-
position that apparently Byron "never destroyed anything. "4 To destroy
work so obviously containing parts of the self, however, would have been
tantamount to destroying the self. Often flawed in the casing, the fragments
of Byron nonetheless appeal to the reader in their own paradoxical vitality.

That vitality issues from Byron the man, one who is many in his bits of
comedy and tragedy, inertia and action, real and ideal. It is totally character-
istic of Byron the man to joke about the anguish which produced the magni-
ficence of Canto III in Childe Harold: "\ should, many a good day, have
blown my brains out, but for the recollection that it would have given pleasure
to my mother-in-law; and even then , if I could have been certain to haunt her
but I won't dwell upon these trifling family matters. "5 Of course, Byron
meant his letters for publication. It must be realized, however, that the witty,
public Byron is no more or less a pose than the private man.

Yet it is equally characteristic of Byron to write in a thoroughly tragic
style about the creation of the same canto:

I am a lover of Nature and an admirer of Beauty.
I can bear fatigue and welcome privation, and have
seen some of the noblest views in the world. But
in ail this the recollections of bitterness, and
more especially of recent and more home desolation,
which must accompany me through life, have preyed
the crashing of the Avalanche, nor the torrent, the
mountain, the Glacier, the Forest, nor the Cloud,
have for one moment lightened the weight upon my
heart, nor enabled me to lose my own wretched
identity in the majesty, and the power, and the
Glory, around, above, and beneath me. 6

^Hoxie N. Fairchild, The Romantic Quest (Mew York: Columbia University
Press, 1931), pp. 362-363. Elsewhere in his book Fairchild makes a brilliant
assessment of the essential Byron: "Too idealistic to refrain from blowing
bubbles, and too realistic to refrain from pricking them" (p. 370).
4t.S. Eliot, On Poetry and Poets (New York: Farrar, Straus, & Cudahy, 1957),
p. 224.

^George Gordon, Lord Byron, Works: Letters and Journals, ed. Rowland E.
Prothero (London: John Murray, 1898-1901), IV, 49. Hereinafter cited as
Letters and Journals.
6Byron, Letters and Journals, III, 364.

8

Written to his sister Augusta, this private passage suggests the maiancholy
inherent in the poet, but it does not belie the epistolary humor. Rather, its
elaborate style merely implies the breadth and variety of the verbal gestures
to come from the mind of Byron. He was a psychological paradox, and so, a
poetical mystery.

To examine the paradox which is Byron, it is useful to examine the Byronic
personalities in Childe Harold, originally published in three separate parts,
Cantos i-ii (1812), III (1817), and IV (1818). Written between the crucial
years of 1809 and 1817, the poem conveys much vital information about the
boy poet maturing into the man. Jerome IVIcGann has suggested that "Byron
composed the poem as a running record of his own life and thought in that
period. "7 McGann's supposition is surely correct, but the implications of
what lies behind the written record are vastly more important.

Behind the melancholy and the struggle of Childe Harold \% the process of
sincere stylization, a process unleashed by the poet's unconscious to bring
forth his passive guilt into active sin. 8 The final, mature, moderate affirmation
of the poem represents the success of this process: unconscious, passive guilt
can only be used creatively in a limited fashion simply because it is not known;
factual, active guilt can be used as a viable part of the creative process, and
ultimately, of life itself. Indeed for the mature Byron, such conscious, active
guilt has become not only viable but essential to both his art and his life.

Sincere stylization is the process by which Byron's unconscious guilt sur-
faces and becomes a part of his art. This process consists of the psychological
pressures from childhood events which lead the poet to commit incest with his
sister, to enter into a disastrous marriage, and finally, to exile himself from
England. In the poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage, which is the record of
Byron's feelings as well as his travels during the years of this psychological
process, sincere stylization appears as the pivot around which a Byronic myth
becomes a Byronic fact. Harold, the hero of the first two cantos of the poem,
is a myth, a stylized personality who has consciously suffered what the real
Byron has only unconsciously experienced: the guilt of active sin. Thus, the

7 Jerome J. l\/IcGann,F/ery Dusf (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968),
p. viii.

8 In the context of this article, the terms"unconscious" and "passive" are
inextricably linked as attributes of Byron's guilt before the process of sincere
stylization occurs. Byron's Oedipal conflicts and sexual encounters with May
Gray are prime causes of his unconscious guilt; however, he is unquestion-
ably the passive figure in these childhood encounters. As sincere stylization
occurs and Byron's guilt becomes conscious, he must break from this passivity
and become an active figure in guilt. He does so by actively initiating the in-
cest with Augusta. Thus, Byron's guilt as he writes Cantos I and II is both
unconscious and passive, and is opposed to his conscious, active guilt in
Cantos III and IV, written after the process of sincere stylization has
occurred.

hero of the first cantos is a stylization, but because the poet is actually suffer-
ing deep guilt subconsciously, the hero is also, paradoxically, sincere. By the
time Byron composes the last cantos of the poem, however, his own guilt has
surfaced through psychological pressure and has emerged in the form of the
incest. Therefore, Byron-Harold, the hero of the last cantos, is clearly sincere
in his conscious suffering, clearly a product of the completed psychological
process. The myth of the suffering sinner has become reality.

That myth originated in Byron's infancy and childhood, which, remark-
ably enough, could be studied as a textbook case for neurotic and Oedipal
conflicts. Born into a family known for violence and insanity, Byron inherited
his title from the "Wicked Lord" and was the scion of "Mad Jack." John
Byron, an attractive wastrel, abandoned his wife and son when the baby was
two and died when the boy was three. Even before the abandonment, John
Byron had had as little as possible to do with son George, but somehow he
had always retained the affection of his wife. Thus, Byron's earliest years fit
perfectly into an Oedipal pattern, as the boy had virtually no father to imitate
and yet did have a standing rival for his mother.

That mother, Catherine Gordon Byron, alternated between spoiling her son
and berating him for a physical deformity, a club foot which had afflicted him
from birth. Aggressive and rather vulgar, she casually passed from fits of irri-
tation to waves of affection. Byron recalled that when enraged with him, she
would either mock his lame foot or shout, "Ah, you little dog, you are a Byron
all over; you are as bad as your father!"9 Apparently, however, it was this
likeness to his father which frequently caused his mother to follow her tan-
trums with endearments, so that the emotional pattern of the boy's life was
haphazard indeed. Gradually, perhaps in self-defense, he became narcissistic,
in love with an image of himself, and eventually, in love with the person most
reminiscent of himself his only sister.

Beyond the narcissism, however, beyond the Oedipal conflict, Byron's
psyche was already turned toward the uncommon crime he would later com-
mit and already bent into the unconscious and passive guilt which lay directly
beneath sincere stylization. Long before the boy entered Harrow and adole-
scence, he had already experienced a sexual affair which was markedly un-
usual, almost as distinctive as incest. At the age of nine and perhaps before,
Byron had been frequently sexually assaulted by his Calvinist nurse. May
Gray. Recalling his childhood, the mature Byron noted, "My passions were
developed very early so early, that few people would believe me, if I were
to state the period, and the facts which accompanied it."^0 Undoubtedly,
this oblique reference is to May Gray, who was finally dismissed after the
family lawyer discovered her actions.

9 Byron on his mother, quoted in Leslie A. Marchand, Byron: A Biography
(New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1957), I. 29.

^0 Byron, Letters and Journals, V, 450.

10

The importance of this relationship between Byron and his nurse cannot
be overestimated. The ages of five and twelve bracket the latent stage in a
child's psychological growth, but for Byron there was, in effect, little or no
sexual latency. It was almost as if he were held prey to all the neurotic and
Oedipal conflicts which should have lain dormant during a part of his boy-
hood. Sexually, he was caught in the throes of the rivalry with his father for
his mother's affection and in the midst of the narcissism which led him to an
unnatural interest in his sister. Finally, he was suspended in a state of un-
conscious guilt over his passive sexual involvement with May Gray. It was
just this guilt, abetted by the other conflicts, which Byron had to bring to
the surface in his life and in his peotry. It was just this guilt which led him to
create the myth of Harold and to turn that myth into the reality of Byron.

As an adult, Byron plunged into this process of change. In doing so, he ex-
hibited a number of neurotic traits. Sexual seductiveness is probably his most
noted, if not his most notable, characteristic. Between 1812 and 1815 the
strikingly handsome lord committed incest with Augusta Leigh and had af-
fairs with Caroline Lamb, Lady Oxford, and a rather large number of unident-
ified admirers. At the same time he managed a platonic romance with Lady
Webster and an erratic courtship of Annabella Milbanke. Yet this is the same
Byron who, after marring Annabella, told her "with every appearance of
aversion" how he hated sleeping in the same bed with a woman. 11 Clearly,
Byron's sexual behavior included aberrations stemming from his childhood.

Simultaneously, Byron displayed style in dress in his role as a Regency
gentleman, and energy and forcefulness in his athletic feats, including his
famous swim across the Hellespont. Compensating for his club foot with his
elegant appearance and athletic demeanor, Byron conveyed a sense of hyper-
masculinity to his public and quite possibly, to himself. That image of hyper-
masculinity undoubtedly aided him in his romantic affairs, but it did not fully
disguise his neuroses.

During the year of Byron's marriage, traits of high emotionality, aggress-
iveness, and narcissism dominated his personality. According to Abraham
Zaieznik and David Moment, such traits force an individual "to move toward
the source of instinctual danger, in counterphobic sense, instead of withdraw-
ing. "12 They drive him, in other words, to the kind of seemingly senseless
tragedy Byron sought in incest and a loveless marriage. The year 1815 was
thus a crucial period for the poet, as it both directly followed his affair with
Augusta and immediately preceded his self-imposed exile from England. In-
deed, 1815 marked the beginning of Byron's conscious awareness of his own
active guilt. Reacting from this new knowledge, he verbally abused both
Augusta and Annabella in frequent drunken rages. His emotionality and ag-

11 Edith Colburn Mayne, The Life and Letters of Anne Isabella, Lady Noel
Byron, 2nd ed. (London: Constable, 1929), p. 161.

12 Abraham Zaieznik and David Moment, Tfie Dynamics of Interpersonal
Behavior (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1964), p. 228.

11

gressiveness tended, however, to proceed in particular against his wife. More
and more, this emotionality was linked to Byron's narcissism, a self-love
which far exceeded an appreciation of his own beauty. At its worst, this nar-
cissism verged on the psychotic, so that the poet was totally unable to apprec-
iate the value of other people.

This combination of high emotionality and extreme narcissism produced a
bizarre incident one night in this year. Byron lay in bed with his wife, who
recalled the episode this way:

Once between three and four A.M. he fancied a step on
the stairs, and lay afraid to stir, suffering so much
that I said I would get up and see. He let me, though
I was within three or four months of my confinement
but I am convinced it was because he thought himself
the only one against whom harm was intended. ^ 3
The danger, of course, existed only within Byron's mind. Yet his treatment of
his wife, like his habit of sleeping with a loaded pistol by his side, visibly indi-
cated his paranoia as he struggled with conscious self-awareness.

Myth had become reality for Lord Byron, but he had already publicized
the myth in the highly stylized title character of Cantos I and II of the 1811
Childe Harold's Pilgrimage. As the hero in a poem, Harold can be called sin-
cere in one overt sense, in his obvious similarities to his creator; however, it
has long been a critical moot point as to whether or not Harold is sincere as an
expression of his creator's real feelings. Melancholy and guiltridden, the early
Harold is a black portrait of despair:

And now Childe Harold was sore sick at heart.
And from his fellow Bacchanals would flee;
'Tis said, at times the sullen tear would start
But Pride congealed the drop within his ee:
Apart he stalked in joyless reverie.
And from his native land resolved to go.
And visit scorching climes beyond the sea;
With pleasure drugged, he almost longed for woe.
And e'en for change of scene would seek the shades below. (I, 6)14.
As a young aristocrat on his first Grand Tour, Byron, for all his poses, simply
had not led such a wasted life not in 1809, when he started these verses
merely for recreation. Consciously, actively, he had not sinned against him-
self or others.

Despite this conscious innocence, however, the Harold of l-II is sincere as a
metaphor for Byron's guilt. Welling from the unconscious, the guilt is passive,
the result of his having been sexually sinned against. Its presence in the un-

13 Lady Byron, quoted in Mayne, p. 190.

14 George Gordon, Lord Byron, Childe Harold's Pilgrimage, in Works: Poetry,
ed. Earnest Hartley Coleridge, rev. ed. (London: John Murray, 1898-1904),
II, 18-19. All further canto and stanza citations refer to volume II In this
edition.

12

conscious forces Byron to create Harold as a myth of black guilt, but a myth
which is ultimately sincere. Harold is the worst part of Byron, a part the rat-
ional man cannot effectively use because he cannot rationally grasp it. He has
not sinned, but he is guilty.

With Byron as his narrator, Harold appears later in Canto I as a figure of
Cain, a cursed sinner destined to wander without hope of comfort:

Yet to the beauteous form he was not blind,

Though now it moved him as it moves the wise?

Not that Philosophy on such a mind

E'er deigned to bend her chastely-awful eyes:

But Passion raves herself to rest, or flies;

And Vice, that digs her own voluptuous tomb.

Had buried long his hopes, no more to rise:

Pleasure's palled Victim! life-abhorring Gloom

Wrote on his faded brow curst Cain's unresting doom. (I, 83)
Here the connection between Harold and Byron grows somewhat stronger.
The wanderer cursed with "Cain's unresting doom" is especially pertinent to
Byron. May Gray had lectured him on the strict tenets of Calvinism, with its
theory of pre-destination, during his childhood. With that upbringing and the
remembrance of the passive sexual acts of that time, the emotional Byron
could only have believed himself a kind of Cain, damned before he was born.
Thus, he instinctively imbued Harold with that same damnation, a condem-
nation the rational Byron would later set out to earn.

While the reference to Cain in stanza 83 marks a definite link between the
two Byronic heroes of Childe Harold, it does not, by any means, permanently
solidify their relationship. Harold is still and will always be bound to the
guilt of his own making, to the vice which has "buried long his hopes, no
more to rise." Byron still remains consciously free of such vice. Just as im-
portantly, he remains free to develop, while Harold is fixed in despair. Fasci-
nated with the idea of Harold, Byron had to create him. No amount of fasci-
nation, however, can save Harold from ultimately being what Kenneth Bruffee
bluntly calls a "melodramatic showpiece. "15 His reputation as "Pleasure's
called Victim" is simply too much to believe. It cannot long satisfy his creator.
Even as early as Canto II, Byron has a tendency to forget Harold, and then
remember him with a start:

But where is Harold? shall I then forget

To urge the gtoomy Wanderer O'er the wave?

Little recked he of all that Men regret;

No loved-one now in feigned lament could rave;

No friend the parting hand extended gave,

Ere the cold Stranger passed to other climes:

But Harold felt not as in other times

And left without a sigh the land of War and Crimes. (II, 16)

15 Kenneth Bruffee, "The Synthetic Hero and the Narrative Structure of
Childe Harold \\\, " Studies in English Literature, 6, (19661, 670.

13

By admitting that he has almost forgotten the title personage of his poem,
Byron vividly depicts the gulf between his creation and himself. They are
subliminally linked inextricably, but on the surface they are only connected
by similarities of appearance and their common resemblance to Cain. While
both are young aristocrats traveling through war-torn Europe, there is not real,
conscious relationship between poet and character. Andrew Rutherford has
suggested that in these first cantos Byron and Harold "co-exist but do not in-
teract. "16 Only mutual guilt will cause the two heroes to interact, and only
through interaction will Byron be able to move past his childhood neuroses
into new creativity.

It is worth noting that the almost-forgotten Harold is precisely the same af-
fected misanthrope who appeared in Canto I. Thus, it is appropriate that he
be reintroduced with the words, "Little recked he of all that Men regret." Just
as Harold recked little but sinful pleasure in the opening stanzas of Canto I, so
now he counts on even less than that. Presumably, all that is left to him by
now are his guilty memories, the specific details of which the reader never
learns. This vagueness of detail accounts for the lack of dramatic tension in
these cantos, which are, perhaps, finally best labelled as description. 17
Harold's mysterious stagnation prevents them from being anything else.

Nonetheless, the poem was a tremendous success. Having published it
after returning to England in 181 1, Byron found his public in almost the en-
tire country. Varying from restrained admiration to hysterical adulation, the
public reaction lifted the young lord to his godlike status. Edward Bostetter
has noted that the poem made its creator "overnight the expression of the
English libido, so long repressed by religion, government, and war. "18 As the
mythical expression of public desire, Childe Harold gave the jaded aristocracy
a new glamor and meaning, gave the masses an escape from humdrum routine,
and gave the Puritan middle class an evil (Meaning Byron) to be vicariously
enjoyed and yet reformed.

Temporarily delighting in this success, Byron raced through society, but
the psychological guilt which was the basis of his melancholy revived within
him and returned him to the process of sincere stylization. Having made his
myth, Byron proceeded to live it out in truth. He committed incest with
Augusta, entered into a catastrophic marriage with Annabella, and found him-
self in a public disgrace which led to a permanent exile. Following these
events was Canto III of Childe Harold, composed on Lake Geneva under
Shelley's influence in 1816. Canto IV, with Byron himself as its sole source,
followed in 1817.

16 Andrew Rutherford, Byron: A Critical Study (Stanford: Stanford Uni-
versity Press, 1961), p. 33.

17 William H. Marshall, The Structure of Byron's Major Poems (Philadelphia:
University of Pennsylvania Press, 1962), p. 39.

18 Edward E. Bostetter, The Romantic Ventriloquists (Seattle: University of
Washington Press, 1963), P. 275.

14

By the events leading to his exile fronn England, Byron is able to be with
Harold as a figure of deserved guilt and anguish in Canto III.

Yet must I think less wildly: I have thought

Too long and darkly, till my brain became.

In its own eddy boiling and o'erwrought,

A whirling gulf of phantasy and flame:

And thus, untaught in youth my heart to tame,

My springs of life were poisoned. Tis too late!

Yet am I changed; though still enough the same

In strength to bear what Time can not abate.

And feed on bitter fruits without accusing Fate. (Ill, 7)
The incestuous affair has justified Byron's guilt and completed his unconscious
quest for an Oedipal relationship. The psychological trap sprung on him by
his parents and May Gray has closed out any possibility of his being a good
man in any accepted social sense; now he has made himself worthy of that
trap. Bertrand Russell has observed this Byronic sense of worthiness in evil,
of the pride of a man who fits himself into "the romantic style of Ghibelline
Chiefs, cursed by God and Man as they trampled their way to splendid down-
fall. "19 For Byron romantic evil is even more satisfying. Perfected in sin, he
can now reach across his deliberate experience to create a fine quilt in Cantos
III and IV.

As he discovers this new knowledge of his own Romantic personality, Byron
comes to realize that Harold has become a superfluous personage in what pur-
ports to be his poem. With Byron consciously able to assume his burden of
guilt, Harold has ceased to function as a figure of sublimation. Moreover, be-
cause the sated Harold cannot effectively develop in any direction, he cannot
come to serve Byron in some other capacity. Instead, he must be absorbed
into the poet, who is ready to become the sole hero of the work.

In the last stanza in which Harold is mentioned by name, he is a figure al-
ready being absorbed into the greater personality of the poet;

Thus Harold inly said, and passed along.

Yet not insensible to all which here

Awoke the jocund birds to early song

In glens which might have made even exile dear:

Though on his brow were graven lines austere.

And tranquil sterness, which had ta'en the place

Of feelings fierier far but less severe

Joy was not always absent from his face.

But o'er it in such scenes would steal with transient trace. (Ill, 52)

This "Harold" who experiences, however briefly, a kind of tranquility and

joy is obviously not the stagnant and melancholy Harold of the first cantos.

19 Bertrand Russell, "Byron," A History of Western Philosophy (New York:
Simon and Schuster, 1945), rpt. in Paul West, ed., Byron: A Collection of
Critical Essays (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1963), p. 153.

15

Rather, what the poet here calls "Harold" is clearly a description of the mat-
ture Byron himself, a man "not insensible to all which here/Awoke the jocund
birds to early song." It is impossible to conceive of the original Harold as being
sensitive to the jocund songs of birds. The character, in everything but name,
has become absorbed into the creator.

Further proof of this absorption appears in the next several stanzas, ending
with a reference to the dearest of "Harold's" loves, a love "Which unto his
was bound by stronger ties/Than the church links withal" (III, 55). This re-
ference to ties beyond those of marriage suggests the bonds of blood, the
bonds between Byron and Augusta. At the time Canto III was being written,
Byron still considered Augusta his dearest love, and so the Byron-Harold of
stanza 55 does everything but mention her by name. Following this stanza,
there is a break in the action of the poem in the form of a song about the
Rhine. Following that song, there is no further mention of Childe Harold by
name in the poem. In every way, poet and pilgrim are one.

Finally knowing his guilt, Byron is able to live with it in Canto IV, if not
to absolve it in any peom. Similarly, he learns to live without a reconciliation
between the real and the ideal. .Essentially, this process of living, of endur-
ing becomes a value in itself, an affirmation out of negation. 20 jhe effort of
the pilgrimage itself is a positive fact in both senses of the adjective. The ef-
fort is difficult, but in his new conscious honesty, Byron will admit no easy
answers in a world of fact.

Early in this last canto, he squarely admits his responsibility for his actions:

My name from out the temple where the dead

Are honoured by the Nations let it be

And light the Laurels on a loftier head!

And be the Spartan's epitaph on me

"Sparta hath many a worthier son than he."

Meantime I seek no sympathies, nor need

The thorns which I have reaped are of the tree

I planted, they have torn me, and I bleed:

I should have known what fruit would spring from such a seed. (IV, 10)
Actually, Byron is not as responsible for his sins as he declares himself to be.
Quite possibly, he should have known "what fruit would spring from such a
seed," but the planting of that incestuous seed was at least partially caused
by psychological pressures of which he consciously knew nothing. The pro-
cess of sincere stylization hinges on that unconsciousness. Nevertheless, it is
encouraging that Byron can now bear his guilt without flinching. It Is a sign
of his full maturity.

In this maturity Byron slowly realizes the factual values for which he is
searching. One of these values is endurance, the ability to live life as what Mc-
Gann calls a string of "consecutive vital particularities"'21 Byron learns this
value by observing the harsh reality of nature (a part of nature not often seen
by Romantics):

20 McGann, p. 38.

21 McGann, p. 38.

16

Existence may be borne, and the deep root

Of life and sufferance make its firm abode

In bare and desolated bosoms: mute

The camel labours with the heaviest load,

And the wolf dies in silence, not bestowed

In vain should such example be; if they.

Things of ignoble or of savage mood.

Endure and shrink not, we of nobler clay

May temper it to bear, it is but for a day. (IV, 21)
As the camel and the wolf bear their burdens, so man, the creation of "nobler
clay," must bear his. Most of existence will be thus burdensome, but at times
there will be those vital particularities, moments of personal energy, and these
are life. Made worthy by the effort of endurance, such particularities flashed
before Byron in occasional moments with Augusta at their family home in
Newstead, with his later love Teresa Guiccioli in Italy, and even with his best
friend John Cam Hobhouse in Greece. Those moments could not be taken
away.

The other value which Byron finds in this canto is the ability to reason. At
this time, Byron is alone. Left to himself and to his personal, now rational
responsibility for his sins, he yet finds a moderate optimism in this respon-
sibility of reason:

Yet let us ponder boldly 'tis a base

Abandonment of reason to resign

Our right of thought our last and only place

Of refuge; this, at least, shall still be mine:

Though from our birth the Faculty divine

Is chained and tortured cabined, cribbed, confined.

And bred in darkness, lest the Truth should shine

Too brightly on the unprepared mind.

The beam pours in for Time and Skill will couch the blind. (IV, 127)
It is as if in disillusionment, Byron has found self-confidence. 22 The right of
reason and understanding is his now as it never was in the earlier cantos. "The
beam pours in," and he can reason his way to ever increasing knowledge of
himself and his world. With this sureness of increasing knowledge and the
ability to endure the sorrow as well as the joy in life, Byron is now possessed
of two worthwhile values, neither of which conflicts with the reality of facts.
Endurance is real, and so is the ability to reason. Together, they have given
Byron a sense of restrained optimism.

That sense of optimism is, as McGann suggests, celebrated in the address to
the ocean in the closing stanzas of the poem. 23 Byron has loved the ocean,
and on its waves he has experienced some of those energetic moments which

22 Bostetter, p. 277.

23 McGann, p. 136.

24 Thorslev, p. 16.

17

are life. Moreover, he now regards the ocean as the epitome of endurance, as
something which persists through good and evil alike:

Roll on, thou deep and dark blue Ocean roll!

Ten thousand fleets sweep over thee in vain;

Man marks the earth with ruin his control

Stops with the shore; upon the watery plain

The wrecks are all thy deed, nor doth remain

A shadow of man's ravage, save his own,

When, for a moment, like a drop of rain,

He sinks into thy depths with bubbling groan

Without a grave unknelled, uncoffined, and unknown. (IV, 179)
If Byron murmurs, "The wrecks are all thy deed" in stanza 179, he also cries,
"And I have loved thee, Ocean" in 184. His point is that the sea, the "deep
and dark blue Ocean," will endure, whatever its momentary traits may be. At
times it appears as ruinous to man; at times it seems delightful to him. Always,
however, it persists, and in the very fact of persistence is Byron's reason for
celebration. Like the waves of the ocean, he, too, may keep moving. From
the open, poetical anguish of Childe Harold he will move to open, poetical
comedy in Don Juan, so that the end here is also a beginning.

The Romantic age was the last great age of heroes, of Washington, Welling-
ton, Nelson, and Napoleon, of men who became myths while they yet lived. 24
Lord Byron was one of those heroes, a man who worked legends of himself
into his poetry and so became inextricable from his art. Childe Harold con-
tarns a number of these poetic legends, Byronic heroes revolving about the
process of sincere stylization, myths and facts intermingling in a slow straight-
ening of confusion into order. Separately and even together, these Byronic
personalities provided the poet with no panacea for his psychological and art-
istic problems, but they did appear to him as pieces of endurance in a world
of hard fact. By frequently extending and refining these reflections of him-
self, Byron was able to continue his pilgrimage in life with some affirmation
long after he realized he would find no final answer to existence. That he en-
dured at all with such knowledge was a real and uplifting triumph. The tri-
umph was small but it was real, and to Byron, reality was ever most important.

18

CALCULATION OF ATMOSPHERIC GAS LIFETIMES FOR

VARIOUS BODIES IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM

by Ben deMayo*

INTRODUCTION In our solar system, one can find a wide range of atmos-
pheres surrounding the planets and their satellites. The formation, develop-
ment, and stability of these atmospheres is of great interest to astronomers,
meterologists, atmospheric physicists, and biologists. In this study, a simple
model was used to investigate the effects on the atmospheres of real and hy-
pothetical celestial objects of the mass of particular gas molecules and of the
object's mass, radius and solar distance.

METHOD Several factors affect the retention of a gas molecule by a planet
or satellite. The effectiveness of this retention can be characterized by a time
t necessary for 1/e or 36.8% of the gas to escape from the atmosphere of the
planet. Unless there is a large replenishing source on the planet, t must be
greater than several hundred thousand years for the gas to be a stable con-
stituent of the planet's atmosphere.

Dole! gives an expression for the escape time t, after Jeans^ and Jones3, as

t= [v/2g2R] exp (3gRv2)

Where v is the rms speed of the gas molecule, g is the acceleration of gravity on
the planet, and R is the planetary radius. Note that

g=GM/R2

where G is the universal gravitation constant and M is the planet's mass. Let
us assume as f first approximation and v is related to the temperature as
v= [SkT/m]'/^

where k is Boltzmann's constant, T is the absolute temperature of the gas, and
m is the mass of the gas molecule. Note that the illuminance reaching the
planet is4

EC<= L/r2

where L is the luminosity of the planet's star and r is the distance between the
planet and star; from the sun, L - 1. If we assume that I is proportional to

*Associate Professor of Physics, West Georgia College

1 Dole, S. H., Habitable Planets for Man, 2nd ed. American Elsevier Press,
New York, 1979, p. 34.

2 Jeans, J.H., The Dynamical Theory of Gases. Cambridge University Press,
London, 1916.

3 Jones, J.E., Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 22, 535
(1925).

4 Dole, op. cit. p. 64.

19

E, and that T for the Earth's upper atmosphere is around 2000ok5, we can
combine these to obtain a reasonably accurate expression for t in terms of the
planet's mass, solar distance, and radius, and the molecule-^ mass:

t=[288.223[- [R/r\/m[3 [1/m2[ exp (3.755Mr2/m/R) - 17.273

25)Y (1)

where r is given in A.U., M and R are in terms of the Earth's mass and rad-
ius, and m is in amu.

The expression for t can now be used to do the following:
1) for several gases of interest, evaluate t for the planets and satellites of the
solar system, 2) "Move" the Earth about in the solar system to determine the
effect on t of distance from the sun, and 3) find the limits on planetary radius
and mass at different distances from the sun for a "habitable atmosphere".
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION - First, let us see what the expression (1) for
the escape time t yields for the present situation for planets and satellites.
Table 1 and Figure 1 show these results for the planets Mercury, Venus, Earth,
and Mars; the moon; the Galilean satellites of Jupiter and Titan, which is a
satellite of Saturn. For the Jovian planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and
Neptune), the values for t are greater than 10^00 years for all gases. The
planetary parameters of Pluto are too uncertain for a meaningful calculatioa
Note the following: 1) Both the moon and Mercury have little or no at-
mosphere, for different reasons Mercury because of its closeness to the sun
and the moon because of its small mass. 2) The gases of Mars' and Venus' at-
mospheres are shown to have similar escape times, even though we know that
the atmospheres are vastly different. This emphasizes that other factors be-
sides those given in expression (1) are important in the escape of a gas from a
planet's atmosphere. One of these factors is the condensation of the gas on
the planet; a low surface temperature is the primary factor here. Mars' sur-
face temperature is cold enough to condense not only H2O, but also C02-
Venus, on the other hand, has a surface temperature of over 700 F due to its
runaway greenhouse effect. 3) Venus and Earth have very different escape
times, even though their similarity of mass, radius, and distance from the sun
might at first glance suggest otherwise. 4) The high escape times of the Gali-
lean satellites and Titan may be misleading because of condensation effects.
However, it is known that Titan has an atmosphere denser than that of Mars6.
Furthermore, Ganymded and lo are also thought to possess atmospheres. 7 5)

5 Dole, op. cit. p. 36.

6 Hunten, D.M., "Titan's Atmosphere and Surface", CM. Ponnamperuma,
ed. In Chemical Evolution of the Giant Planets. Academic Press, New York,
1976, pp. 27-45.

7 Carlson, R.W., 1976. "Atmospheres of Outer Planet Satellites". E.W.
Greenstadt, M. Dryer, and D.S. Intriligator, eds. In Exploration of the Outer
Solar System. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, New York,
1976, pp. 85-112.

20

The large t values for the Jovian planets reflect their large masses. A snow-
ball effect could initially have led to this as the giant planets accumulated hy-
drogen, became more massive, and accumulated more hydrogen. 6) More de-
tailed calculations have been reported^ that take into consideration such
things as the nature of the atmosphere, charge exchange, and solar wind, when
these are adequately known. Nevertheless the present models, agrees fairly
well with them and is more useful in situations where all of the necessary
imput factors are not well known.

One question that can be investigated easily with the present model is,
"What would be the effect on Earth's atmosphere if it were located at a diff-
erent distance from the sun than it is now?" Figure 2 shows the results of
such a calculation. We can see that Earth would have a denser atmosphere
than Mercury, Venus, or Mars if it were located at their positions, mainly be-
cause of its larger mass.

Another question that can be investigated is one of the minimum mass of
an object necessary to hold appreciable amounts of water ( and thus be
"habitable"). Let us take a value of t = 1022y for H2O, which is close to the
value of t = 2.7 X 1022y for H2O on Earth. Also let us choose the density
range of the planet to be between 0.6 g/cm3 (the lowest of any celestial ob-
ject is the 0.7 g/cm^ of Saturn) and 7 g/cm^ (the density of pure iron is 7.8
g/cm3). For comparison. Earth's density is 5.5 g/cm^. Figure 3 shows that
the Galilean satellites. Titan, and Earth all have the potential of accumulat-
ing "habitable" amounts of water in their atmospheres; Callisto, Europa, and
lo all havemust densities above 0.6 g/cm3 to do so. An object of Earth's mass
could be located up to 1.4 A.U. or as close as 0.95 A.U. from the sun for the
minimum or maximum densities, respectively, and still have t = 1022y. At
0.5 A.U., the maximum density object would be 7 times Earth's mass; the
minimum density object would be 23 times Earth's mass. For 5 A.U., on the
other hand, the object would be 0.006 times Earth's mass and 0.02 times
Earth's mass for the maximum and minimum density cases.
SUMMARY An expression for the escape time of a gas from a planet or
satellite has been derived and used to investigate 1) present planetary at-
mospheres, 2) the atmosphere of an earthsized planet at various distances
from the sun, and 3) the mass limits of objects in the solar system with
possible water retaining atmospheres.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT - The author would like to thank Herman W. Boyd
and Eric V. Eslinger for critically reviewing the manuscript. This study was
done as part of the author's participation in a short-course entitled "Origins of
Life", directed by Dr. CM. Ponnamperuma, and sponsored by the National
Science Foundation and the American Association for the Advancement of
Science.

8 Papagiannis, M.D., Space Physics and Space Astronomy. Gordon and Breach,
New York, 1972, p. 14.

Hunten, D.M. and Donahue, T.M., Annual Review of Earth and Planetary
Science 4, 265-292 (1976).

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25

THE CONCEPT AND TREND OF
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

by Lee-jan Jan*

I. DEFINITION

Stratification, one of the universal social phenomena, has been defined in
various ways by many sociologists. A review of some of the definitions will
help us gain an understanding of stratification. Stratification, as viewed by
Parsons, is "the ranking of units in a social system in accordance with the
standards of the common value system. "1 Bernard Barber thinks that strati-
fication is the differentiated structure and dynamic system of human society,
in which differentiated activities and roles are valued in different degrees. The
existence of this phenomenon is based on two conditions: first, men try to
achieve their goals in society and in the search find that each man is a means
to other men's ends; they value each other as agents of their goals. Second,
men, for integrative purposes, agree on a common value. 2 Smelser thinks that
stratification refers simply to the differential distribution of sanctions in a set
of social structures, and the units can be roles, organizations, individual per-
sons and classes. 3 Tumin thinks that for practical purposes, stratification and
inequality are synonymous, and stratification essentially refers to the arrange
ment of social groups or society into a hierarchy of positions that are un-
equal with regard to power, property, social evaluation, or psychic satis-
faction. 4 Tumin also pointed out five important attributes of stratification:
they are social, ancient, ubiquitous, diverse in form, and consequential. For
Sorokin, stratification means the differentiation of a given population into
hierarchically superposed classes. Its basis and very essence consists of an
unequal distribution of rights and privileges, duties, and responsibilities, soc-
ial values and privations, and social power and influence among the members

^Assistant Professor of Sociology, West Georgia College

1 Lewis Coser and Bernard Rosenberg, eds., Sociological Theory: A Book of
Readings (New York: Macillan Company, 1969), p. 427

2 Bernard Barber, Social Stratification: A Comparative Analysis of Structure
and Progress (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1957), pp.1-2.

3 Neil J. Smelser and Seymour Martin Lipset, Social Structure and Mobility
in Economic Development (Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company, 1968), pp.
6-7.

^ Melvin M. Tumin, Social Stratification: The Forms and Functions of til-
equality (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1967), p. 12.

26

of a society. St atification is a permanent characteristic of any organized soc-
ial group, but its concrete forms are different and numerous. 5

From reviewing the different definitions, we may summarize and say that
stratification is an ancient, ubiquitous, consequential phenomenon. It is a
hierarchical arrangement of different social positions in a social structure;
the different positions are evaluated, and the sanctions are distributed ac-
cording to a common value system in a particular society at a particular time.

By this we mean that although the phenomenon of social stratification is
ancient and ubiquitous, the concrete forms of this hierarchical arrangement,
the common value system, the criteria people use to evaluate the different
positions, may vary from time to time and also from society to society. To-
day we can see that the trend of modernization is to bring all the different
originally isolated societies together and form a world community. This trend
may decrease the differences of the criteria which are used among different
societies. And there is a possibility of forming a common value system ona
common value system on a world scope.

We need to note here that although we agree with Tumin that inequality
and stratification in their practical use may be synonymous, for analytic pur-
poses the term inequality has a hint of moral judgment, and the term strati-
fication is more value free. We would also look at stratification as consequent-
ial rather than, as Barber indicated, serving a function for people to achieve
their goals, because we feel his statement is too functionally tinted, and is in-
appropriate for a definition.

11 DEBATE

The definition of stratification gives us a rough outline of what it is, but
leaves us many problems for further examination. To be examined in this
section are its antiquity and ubiquity areas. What are its various forms; what
are those criteria that have been used in stratifying people of a society; what
are their implications and consequences?

Lenski traced society in its various forms from early primitive, such as a
hunting and gathering society, to a simple horticultural society, through the
advanced horticultural societies, agrarian society to industrial societies. He
pointed out that the fact of inequality (stratification) is as old as the human
species, and there was no known society which had ever had a completely
egalitarian system. Since the phenomenon is that old, the thought and dis-
cussion concerning it must not be a new subject either. Therefore tracing
back to its early emergence may shed some light for the present develop-
ment.

The earliest record we can find are those Hebrew prophets around 800 B.
C, such as Amos and Micah, who in their writings denounced the rich and
and powerful. Hindu priests around 200 B.C. wrote to support the existing

5 Pitirim Sorokin, Social and Cultural Mobility /'Glencoe, III.: Free Press,
1959), p. 11.

27

inequality in their society. According to Lenski, the different ideas concern-
ing stratification can be grouped into two categories: one is those who sup-
port the status quo, viewing the existing distribution of rewards as just and
inevitable, and the other is those who denounce and criticize the existing un-
equal distribution of rewards and think the system is unjust and unnecessary.
The former, as represented by those Hindu priests, Lenski refers to as an ex-
ample of the conservative thesis; and the latter, as represented by the Hebrew
prophets, Lenski refers to as the radical antithesis. 6 Although there have
been many variations, these two main currents flow from the very ancient age
down to the present. Not until recently do we begin to see a tendency of
these two currents to flow into each other and become one.

In the Greek era Aristotle stood on the conservative side and defended the
basic institutions which undergirded the social stratification, and he claimed
that some men are by nature free, and some others by nature slaves. There-
fore slavery is both expedient and right. At the same time Phaleas and Plato,
on the other side, attacked the existing social stratification. Phaleas advocated
the redistribution of land on an egalitarian basis, and Plato proposed his idea
for communal ownership of all forms of property in The Republic J But
clearly we can see that their main concern of equality was only material pos-
sessions. So the criterion they thought was unjust for stratification was only
economic factors, precisely property. Philosophers in the Greek era did not
consider people being stratified by power, honor or prestige as unjust, or they
just did not see it, because they were so indocrinated by the institutions of
that time. Another criticism of both the conservative thesis and the radical
antithesis is the philosophers saw the stratification system in a society either
as just or unjust, and defended or attacked it, but they did not go further to
analyze it to see the causes, consequences or implications of it.

Early Christianity was not really concerned about inequality per se. How-
ever, the work of John of Salisbury, an English bishop of the twelfth century,
made a great step forward in the conservative thesis. John developed, in great
detail, the organismic analogy. He thought that society was like the human
body, each part of which has its own function in maintaining the whole sy-
stem. Although the parts are functionally differentiated, they are united by
ties of mutual dependence. 8 The theory began to probe into the causes, con-
sequences, and implications of stratification.

Machiavelli, at the time of the Renaissance, asked who is fit to rule. He
proposed an open society notion because he considered that one of the con-
sequences of a closed stratified society could be the loss of talent by not giv-

6 Gerhard E. Lensk], Power and Privilege: A Theory of Social Stratification
(New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966), pp. 3-5.
1 1bid., p. 6
8 Ibid., p. 8

m 28

ing people an)pportunity. But he thought that inequality in a society should
be considered legitimate and desirable, as long as there has been equality of op-
portunity to become unequal. This notion of equality of opportunity is
commonly advocated today. 9

Thomas Hobbes, on the other side, advocated a fundamental equality a-
mong all men. The thought that the equality must take the place of inequality
in the new criteria of power and privilege. Hobbes introduced the new crit-
eria in stratification and his thought has influenced the 17th and 18th century
radical egalitarianism.10

Since the English revolution of 1648, radical egalitarianists have made tre-
mendous advances as they directed their attention toward political equality,
and achieved a degree of intellectual sophistication, maturity and respecta-
bility comparable to that achieved earlier by the conservative thesis. The
most prominent ones were Locke and Rousseau as they popularized the the-
ory that sovereignty ultimately resides in the people as a whole, not the
king.1 1

In the 19th century Karl Marx declared that the history of all hitherto ex-
isting societies is the history of class struggle. Marx saw the classes developed
on the basis of the different positions or roles which individuals fulfill in the
productive scheme of society. Marx categorized them mainly as the owner of
the means of production, the bourgeois, and the workers. For Marx, the con-
flict between the bourgeois and the workers was mainly over the economic
factors. 12

Weber, although he followed Marx and recognized the significance of the
economic aspects of stratification, added to the economic dimension of strat-
ification two other dimensions, power and prestige. Weber saw property,
power and prestige as three separate but interacting bases on which hierarchies
are created in a society. 1 3

Before we turn to the contemporary theories, there are still two conser-
vative theorists in this period whom we need to mention, William Graham
Sumner and Gaetano Mosca. Sumner was a Social Darwinist. He described
the class system of society as being essentially a measure of the social worth
of men, which in turn was basically a measure of native ability. Although he
admitted that some inequality in a stratification system may have resulted
from chance or luck, he thought those occurences were not significant.
Mosca's argument for the existing system is that human societies can never
function without political organization and political organization necessarily

9 Tumin, Social Stratification, p. 3
^Q/bid, p. 3.

1 1 Lenski, Power and Privilege, P. 11 .

12 Tumin, Social Stratification, pp. 4-7.
'i^lbid.

29

involves inequalities in power, so that there are ruler and ruled, and inequality
is inevitableJ4

In contennporary sociology, a big step was made by American sociologists
as they launched the empirical study of stratification. An example can be
seen in Robert Lynd's study of Middletown. Lynd analyzed a typical Ameri-
can community, in terms of the impact of economic power on the political,
social, educational, and religious institutions of the community J 5

W. Lloyd Warner's study of Yankee City is a series of studies of the social
structure and function of a northeastern community. Warner's emphasis in
the study of stratification is on reputation and prestige. He relied more on
subjective criteria, to see how the members of a community view their sit-
uation, than on the objective differences between them, such as income.
Warner also tried to develop a standard index of status characteristics based
on such criteria as education, residence, income, and family background. 16

C. Wright Mills in The Power Elite argued that power is the key concept
in social relations and that effective power, at least in American society, de-
rives from advantageous economic positions. Mills thought that the economic
elite, military eleite, and power elites make a special privileged elite group who
see themselves differently from the other social classes, and the power elites
exert influences on policy making. ^^

In this era we think the main progress in the study of stratification includes,
first, in methodology, the beginnings of empirical research; second, the broad-
ening of stratification criteria. The theorists no longer rely on only one of the
measures, such as the objective indices of income and education, or the sub-
jective indices as imputed honor or prestige, but adopt both measures. Third,
a beginning of notice of the issue of mobility was made and concern expressed
about it be inquiry as to whether America is still a land of opportunity.

Except for the progress the sociologists made in methodology and practical
issues, on the conceptual level we may say the study of stratification still
follows the two main streams, the conservative thesis and the radical antithesis.
Functional theory, which follows the conservative thesis, sees society as an
organism; stratification as a functional necessity in maintaining the society;
and stability and order as normal, conflict and disorder as deviant phenomena.
It is represented by W. Lloyd Warner, Talcott Parsons, and Kingsley Davis.
Conflict theory, which follows the radical antithesis, sees stratification as a
major source of continuing conflict in a society, and conflict as inherent,
natural and predicatable in social organization. It is represented by Robert
Lynd, C. Wright Mills, Lewis Coser, and Rolf Dahrendorf.

Parsons thinks that there is a consensus on a set of common values in every

14 Lensk\, Power and Privilege, p. 13
"5 Tumin, Soc/a/ Stratification, p. 8.
16/6/d

^7 /bid, p. 9.

30

society, although in different societies they may weigh the values differently.
There is also a functional differentiation of roles. The system of stratification
in a society is an expression of the value system of that society. The differ-
ential distribution of rewards depends upon the society's set of common val-
ues, which serves as a standard measurement, and the person's qualities, per-
formance and possessions, or the functional importance of his position. Since
men are different in qualities, performance, and possessions and the roles or
different in importance, stratification is therefore natural and inequality is ine-
vitable. ^ 8

Davis \nSome Principles of Stratification states that stratification is a funct-
ional necessity of a society. For the benefit of the whole society, it is necess-
ary to motivate the proper persons to the proper positions. Therefore for the
more capable persons, to take the positions which have the greatest import-
ance for the society and require the greatest training or talent, and to per-
form their duties, the rewards have to be different. 19

The conflict theorists do not agree with the functional analysis of strati-
fication. Lewis Coser argues that the social conflict by itself is a function in
helping to establish unity or to reestablish unity and cohesion. Tumin criti-
cises Davis as attempting to defend the status quo. David Lockwood criticises
Parsons' equilibrium model by pointing out that first, the existence of a nor-
mative order mirrors the continual potentiality of conflict; second, there are
varying degrees of acceptance of, or alienation from the dominant values;
third, there is a division of interest resulting from differential access to scare
resources; fourth, the stability and instability mean the success or failure of
the normative order in regulating conflict of interest; fifth, to understand why
behavior patterns persist or change, we need to understand not only the nor-
mative structuring of motive but also structuring in substratum. 20

Ralph Dahrendorf's criticism says functional framework lost the problem-
consciousness, which is not only a means to avoid ideological biases, but also
an indispensable condition of progress in any discipline of human inquiry.
He thinks that functional analysis is an Utopian approach because: first, in
functionalists' analysis of society the change is absent, and they take the soc-
iety as in its final state. They did not recognize the unending flow of the
historical process. Second, functionalists believe in the existence of universal
consensus on prevailing values and institutional arrangements; everything has
a function to preserve the society, and the structure is perfect for its function.

18 Alvin Boskoff, Theory in American Sociology: Major Sources and Appli-
cations (New York: Thomas Crowell Company, 1969), p. 220 Lenski, Power
and Privilege, p. 16.

19 Reinhard Bendix and Seymour Martin Lipset, eds.. Class, Status, and
Power: Social Stratification in Comparative Perspective (New York: The
Free Press, 1966), pp. 47-48

20 D. Lockwood, "Some Remarks on the Social System," British Journal of
Sociology, 7:134-146, June, 1956.

31

They neglected the structurally generated conflict. Third, all the processes go-
ing on in Utopian societies follow recurrent patterns and occur within and as
part of the design of the whole. They affirm and sustain status quo. Even the
moving equilibrium is still the organism type, while what is going on is only
metabolism. There will be no change of the society as a whole. Fourth, the
approach can be applied only to a self-sufficient, internally consistent society
which is isolated from other communities. 21

Dahrendorf presents a conflict approach to the analysis of society in which:
first, the society is constantly changing. Second, social conflict is ubiquitous;
it may be unpleasant and disturbing, but it is indispensable to our understand-
ing or social problems. Third, societies are held together not by consensus but
by constraints, not only by agreement but by coercion, and values are en-
forced. Constraints generate conflict, and conflict generates change. 22

The main criticism conflict theorists give to functional theorists fs that
they did not take change and conflict into consideration. However, we know
the harmony and the stability of social structure is one side of the fact, and
the conflict and change of social structure is the other side of the fact; stabi-
lity is necessary to the social structure; change is also necessary to the social
structure. We may say both theories are correct, but both theories are imcon>
plete; as Dahrendorf pointed out, society is Janus-headed and the two faces
have to be described by different theories. The two theories are actually com-
plementary, not contradictory. The two theories each have their crucial fun-
ction for the society. As we can see, the conflict theory is more idealistic; it
is critical of the existing system and leads to change. The functional theory is
more pragmatic, emphasizing the preservation of order and leading to stabi-
lity. So we can assume that without the conflict theory, human society will
tend toward anarchy or chaos.

The two theories of stratification have gone a long way, and both in the
course of history have gained maturity. Their concepts have come from a
simple notion of the phenomenon of inequality to the inquiry of its causes,
consequences, and the development of systematic theories to explain the
phenomenon. The criteria the theorists used to measure the inequality or an-
alyze the stratification have been broadened from only objective indices, such
property, to the use of both objective and subjective indices. They also im-
proved in their methodology by using empirical research methods. Although
we see that both theories have gained maturity, that does not mean that we
think that they are perfect, nor do we think they explain the whole fact. As
society changes, they still fall short in explaining the new phenomena. As
John A. Jackson pointed out, they are inappropirate for the analysis of the
competing interests of power elites in a situation where access to power is not
necessarily dependent upon either the ownership of property or the value of

21 Coserand Rosenberg, Socio/ogica/ Theory, p. 222.

22 /bid.

32

the performance of needed tasks for the society. 23 There are still other pro-
blems such as the measurement of mobility which need further development,
as well as speculation on the indications of which direction we are going, in-
creasing or decreasing equality.

The biggest weakness in both theories, as Lenski pointed out, is their tend-
ency to make social analysis subservient to moral judgment, thus often leading
to the formulation of hypotheses which do not lend themselves to empirical
proof or disproof. Besides, we think this moral judgment concerning the
question of justice should be considered irrevelent to a scientific analysis of
the social fact.

III. SYNTHESIS
After we have examined both the strengths and weaknesses of these two
theories, it is natural to search for an alternative which will combine the
strength of both theories and eliminate their weaknesses. Actually, we can see
a trend of synthesis is already emerging. Bernard Barber pointed out that
functional theory, although it looks at stratification from a functional point
of view, functional theory does not mean that it has to be conservative, de-
fensive of the status quo, or against change. If just describes one aspect of
stratification. 24

Sorokin's work Social Mobility is considered by Lenski probably the first
extensive and systematic treatment of social stratification in a synthetic man-
ner, because Sorokin combined and blended elements of both traditions. 25

Stanislaw Ossowski, in his treatment of class structure, sought to demon-
strate that both theories are fundamentally correct, and human societies are
far more complex than either theory can deal with fully. 26

Pierre L. Van Den Berghe also spelled out that the time has named for the
conflict theory to criticize the functional theory as not taking change into
account, and that societies are never perfectly integrated, or not every ele-
ment of a social system is functional or essential. Now is the time to move
toward a synthesis. 27

Lenski is the most enthusiastic sociologist in the development of a syn-
thetic theory. He thought that the movement of synthesis has been more by
drift than design and a design will help to speed the process. He pointed out

23 J. A. Jackson, e6., Social Stratification (Cambridge: University Press, 1968),
p. 3.

24- Bernard Earner, "Structural-Functional Analysis: Some Problems and Mis-
understandings, "American Sociological Review, 21:129-135, April 1956.
25 \_ensk\, Power and Privilege, p. 18.
26/6/cy., p. 19.

27 Pierre L. Vanden Berghe, "Dialectic and Functionalism: Toward a Syn-
thesis," in Demerath and Peterson, System, Change and Conflict (New York:
Free Press, 1967).

33

that in the process of synthesis, there are two ways to involve the reform-
ulation of problems and concepts. The first is the technique of transforming
categorical concepts into variable concepts. Categorical concepts limit one to
think in what degree a given phenomenon is present. The second technique is
to break down compound concepts into their constituent elements. Because
many traditional concepts used to describe systems of stratification subsume
a variety of loosely related variables, he believes that by using these two tech-
niques there will be an increase in agreement in areas of controversy. 28

Lenski postulated eight controversies between conflict and functional the-
ories. They are the controversies over the nature of man, the nature of society,
the degree to which systems of inequality are maintained by coercion, the de-
gree to which inequality generates conflict, the means by which rights and
privileges are acquired, the regarding of inequality as inevitable, the nature of
the state and of law, and the regarding of the concept of class as essentially a
heuristic device calling attention to aggregations of people with certain com-
mon characteristics. Lenski analyzed his theory according to the above eight
controversial areas and claimed his theory is "an extremely complex mixture
of elements from these two older traditions, yet at the same time unique and
different. "29

Lenski's theory mainly stems from his principles of the distribution of
goods and services. The two principles are: first, in primitive or technologi-
cally lagging societies, there are no surplus goods or services; the distribution
is according to need. Second, in more advanced societies there are surplus
goods and services, the distribution of these surplus goods and services de-
pends upon power. Privileges are the possession or control of the surplus
goods and services. Thus classes emerge mainly because of surplus goods and
services.

Although there are theorists who are very optimistic with regard to the dir-
ection of a synthesis, such as Lenski, there are doubts among other theorists.
For example, Dahrendorf thinks that the society is Janus-headed; the two
faces have to be described by two theories, and since the two theories are
complementary, a synthesis is not necessary. 30 Erik Allardt wonders whether
a synthesis is possible. He thinks it mainly depends upon what interpretations
one has for a theory. He distinguishes theories into two categories. One is
the propositional theory, and the other is the dimensionalistic theory. He
thinks a synthesis is possible for the propositional theory, but not for the di-
mensionalistic theory. Lenski belongs to the former and Dahrendorf belongs
to the latter.31

Regardless of the doubts about the necessity and possibility for a syn-
thetic theory, we are glad to see, for the first time in the history of stratifi-

28 Lenski, Power and Privilege, p. 20.
"^^ Ibid., pp. 441-443.

30 Coser and Rosenberg, Sociological Theory, p. 222.

31 Jackson, Social Stratification, p. 15.

34

cation study, a new dimension is introduced. We believe the pursuit of the
truth is not limited to one way or the other. The more directions from which
we approach the truth, the faster we will get to the core. At the same time
the more ways we look at a fact, the more comprehensive we gain about it,
the less biased we will be.

IV. HYPOTHESIS

As we have reviewed the theories, the debate on whether stratification is
just or unjust, is necessary or unneccessary, is functional or disfunctional,
stabilized the society or prevented it from progressing, we feel the debate is
too morally loaded. A synthesis theory has emerged and an attempt made to
get away from this debate, by looking at the fact as it is, wjth an analytical
approach (i.e. Lenski). We agree with this approach and want to supplement
it with some hypotheses which we derived in the process of reviewing the de-
bate.

We are curious about which direction we are going, whether we are moving
toward a society with increasing or decreasing equality. As history shows, we
are moving from a stratification system of caste, to estate, then to class. Class
allows more vertical mobility, which means that we are moving toward a soc-
iety with more equality. We can also prove that movement by pointing out
that slavery no longer exists in our society. But another question is how far
we have gone. As we know there are still societies with caste residuals in some
nations, and there are still queens, kings, and nobility.

The ultimate question will be whether we will ever reach complete equal-
ity. The question can be answered only by separating subjective and objective
criteria, following Lenski's second technique of breaking down the component
concepts.

We think by objective criteria we are moving toward more equality; the op-
portunity for education, and for higher income, is increasingly available to the
whole population. But by subjective criteria, such as power, prestige, and
privilege, we are not getting any closer to equality, in fact, perhaps farther
from it. As we can see jn a leader of one of the bigger nations, the honor,
privilege, and power he enjoys, and the number of people he influences, is far
above the leaders in the history of any known society, while at the same time
an ordinary person remains the same in this respect. We may look at the soc-
ieties another way. The general living standard of the whole society has been
brought up, even the lower class enjoys some luxuries which many years ago
only the upper class could enjoy. But the social distance between classes re-
mains or increases.

To get equality we may assume that there must be some conditions. First,
every man must be self-sufficient; no one would need any one else, then no
one person could have any authority over any other; no one would have to
submit to any one else for any reason. Therefore there would be complete
equality. This type of society could happen only before history, but we would
not call it society. Second, for every man to be self-sufficient, the technology
must be very simple, or none. Otherwise one just cannot be self-sufficient. If

35

the society is more technologically advanced, thus the less chance for a per-
son to be self-sufficient, and the nnore highly it is differentiated, the nnore
elaborate stratification it needs. That is the direction our society is going. We
can try to view all the differentiation of objective criteria among different
professions. But as long as we cannot completely coordinate horizontally be-
tween professions, we cannot break down the hierarchy; then the difference
of subjective criteria among different people will still remain.

IVIodern societies, as we mentioned in our first section, through advanced
techniques of transportation and communication, is in the trend of forming a
great community of world scope. As we see in history, society changes, and
the criteria for stratification also change. Different societies have different
emphases on stratification, and as these societies unite to form larger societies,
first will come the absorption, adaptation and integration of different value
systems. A new value system will be generated, and new criteria will emerge.
Even if we gain equality for what criteria we have today, when the new crit-
eria evolve, there will still be more equality for us to pursue. If the world be-
comes one society with uniform common values, competition will become
even stiff er, for everyone will be competing for the same goals. Once that
goal is achieved, greater prestige and power will be associated with it, and this
will widen the social distance, and create more inequality. The increasing dis-
crepancy between subjective and objective criteria will increase the tension of
status inconsistency.

In the following, we want to introduce two models to explain our hy-
pothesis. As we indicated, inequality can be explained only by separating ob-
jective and subjective criteria. Here we want to adopt the concept from funct-
ional theory that structure does persist, and the concept from conflict theory
that structure of society does change.

If we consider individual and stratum mobility, assume the effect is a posi-
tive upward movement, and use objective criteria, then we can say the soci-
ety will move upward as a whole. If we use subjective criteria, however, the
relative distinctions between the classes remain. They exhibit no change of
class proportion. See Chart I for illustration. This observation applies only
to short-term societal movement. By this we mean the structure or the shape
of the society remains the same.

If we assume the human effort in seeking equality does have influence on
the evolution of the society over a long period of time, we should see not
only the simple upward movement as indicated in Chart I, but also a change in
the structure and shape of the whole society, as indicated in Chart II. We sup-
pose that "a" is pre-history, in which there was not much interaction be-
tween people, and everybody was nearly self-sufficient; there was no stratifi-
cation, and people were living on the same level, and the society was two-
dimensional Area, "b" symoblizes the period after interaction has taken place,
and some people from organizations, and hierarchy results. The lower class is
the largest, and the society has a pyramid shape. The process of reforming their
society, and helping the people in the lower class, results in a diamond-shaped
society, "c"; the middle class is the largest. Efforts to eliminate the lower

36

CHART I SHORT TERM DEVELOPMENT

Level of
Standard
of Living

U

M

U

M

L

L

b

a

Past

Time

>

Future

Note: U=upper class; M=middle class; L=lower class

CHART II LONG TERM EVALUATION

evels of

ocial

valuation

Past

Time

-> Future

Note: the pyramid and diamond shapes should be viewed as three dimentional.
The line should be viewed as two dimentional.

class results in another pyramid shape, "d", but this lowest class is a level
higher than "b"'s lowest class. We can see that the evolution takes place re-
sulting in alternations between the pyramid and diamond shapes ("e",and
"f"), with the lowest class of each new group still higher than the last time the
society had that shape. "G"can happen only if all professions are made equal,
with everyone on the horizontal level, with no vertical distinctions. But the
direction of the development of society is toward more and more stratification,
and unless we can break down this process, "g"remaines only an unachievable
goal.

According to the hypothesis we proposed, someday we may get equality
in objective criteria, but for subjective criteria, equality will serve as a stimulus
for us to strive forward, but will remain an unattainable goal.

37

PAR-A-DISE AND SCIENCE
by Frank Sadler*

One of the more interesting and, perhaps, significant details of Kurt
Vonnegut, Jr.'s "book of lies," Cat's Cradle, is its structural use of the prin-
ciple of the "liar's paradox" "Nothing in this book is true. "1 This prin-
ciple has its source in logic and its solution in modern mathematics. John
Somer in his article "Geodesic Vonnegut; Or, If Buckminster Fuller Wrote
Novels" argues "Vonnegut's singular response to modern science required him
to introduce revolutionary techniques into the spatial-form tradition" of the
novel in order to defend himself from the "terrors that post-Einsteinian
science has created. "2 No one would seriously question Vonnegut's fiction
for a lack of revolutionary character or technique. However, Somer's dis-
cussion of Vonnegut's Cat's Cradle and Slaughterhouse-Five in terms of the
structural principles of Buckminster Fuller's geodesic dome may be mislead-
ing and inappropriate. Instead, the significance of Vonnegut's Cat's Craaie
may be better understood in light of a pair of dice and the "liar's paradox."

In Cat's Cradle the prefatory statement "Nothing in this book is true" is
known in logic as the "liar's paradox" and was first formulated by the ancient
Greeks, though no one seems to have been able to resolve this paradox until
the end of the last century when a fundamental re-examination of the found-
ations of logic and mathematics began. Howard DeLong is an essay in the
March 1971 issue of Scientific American on "Unsolved Problems In Arith-
metic" points out "There are arithmetic problems that a child of ten can
understand but that have nevertheless remained unsolved for tens, hundreds
and even thousands of years. "3 Likewise, in literature there exists a set of
problems we all seem to understand but for which no apparent solution has
been found. Nevertheless, a solution to the "liar's paradox" does exist, and a
solution to Vonnegut's literary paradox is possible.

In logic the "liar's paradox" belongs to the theory of types or to that area
of mathematics known as set theory. Anatol Rapoport is an essay on "What
Is Semantics" explains in The Use and Misuse of Language that if we draw a

^Department of English, Austin Peay State University, Clarksville, Tennessee.

1 Kurt Vonnegut, Jr. Cat's Cradle (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston,
1963).

2 John Somer, "Geodesic Vonnegut: Or, If Buckminster Fuller Wrote Novels,"
in The Vonnegut Statement, ed. Jerome Linkowitz and John Somer (New
York: Del Publishing Co., Inc.) p. 237.

3 Howard DeLong, "Unsolved Problems in Arithmetic," in Scientific Ameri-
can (March, 1971), p. 50.

38

square and write within it "Every statement in this square is false," then, we
have a paradox.^ Rapoport continues, "Suppose the statement is true. Then,
since it is the only statement in the square, it must be false. On the other
hand, suppose it is false. Then, there must be true statements in the square.
But again it is the only one; so it must be true" (p. 19). The same line
of argument may be advanced for Vonnegut's Cat's Cradle since the statement
"Nothing in this book is true," and others like it in the novel, is contained
by the novel. Rapoport observes, in discussing the "liar's paradox," that
"Since progress in mathematics depends on its complete internal consistency,
it was necessary to re-examine the logical foundations of mathematics. One
of the results of this re-examination is the theory of types. The theory rests
on the principle that 'a class cannot be a member of itself.' That is, if you
make a statement about all statements (and isn't that what Vonnegut has
done?) of a certain class, the statement you have made cannot be considered
to be in that class. This was the principle violated in the paradox just de-
scribed" (p. 19i. And this is the principle violated in Cats Cradle.

It would be easy to discuss Cats Cradle as a type of sophisticated "liar's
paradox," if it only contained one statement like Rapoport's example. But,
Cat's Cradle contains not one but thousands of sentences "within the square"
which comprise a class or set we call the novel. Further, all fiction, from one
point of view, presents a set of lies, that is, untruths which are imaginatively
invented or fabricated for the purpose of presenting reality. H. Bruce Franklin
in Future Perfect: American Science Fiction of the Nineteenth Century sug-
gests that science fiction "seeks to describe present reality in terms of a cred-
ible hypothetical invention past, present, or, most usually, future extra-
polated from that reality. "5 To this we may add that science fiction, because
it attempts to "describe present reality in terms of a credible hypothetical in-
vention. . .extrapolated from that reality," is a more demanding fiction than
that of the mainstream novel. It is a more demanding fiction since it purports
to abstract its principles from science itself and not the world of reality as the
philosopher perceives it, the world of "light and color, of blue skies and green
leaves, of sighing wind. . .the world in which finite man is incarcerated by his
essential nature. "6 In identifying the "four theoretical modes" of fiction
(the other three are "realistic fiction," "historical fiction," and "fantasy"),
Franklin assumes that the purpose of fiction is to "describe present reality"
(pp. 3-4). In The Rhetoric of Fiction, Wayne C. Booth writes "A dialectical
history of modern criticism could be written in terms of the warfare between

4 Anatol Rapoport, "What is Semantics?" in The Use and Misuse of Language,
ed. S. 1. Hayakawa (Greenwich, Conn.: Fawcett Publications, lnc.,1962), p. 19.

5 H. Bruce Franklin, Future Perfect: American Science Fiction of the Nine-
teenth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1968), p. 3.

6 Lincoln Barnett, The Universe and Dr. Einstein (New York: Bantam Books,
1973), p. 114.

39

those who think of fiction as something that must be above all real. , .and
those who asl< that it be pure even if the search for artistic purity should
lead to unreality and a "dehumanization of art."7 Booth's formulation of the
conflict between what is "real" and what is "pure," however, is dependent in
the final analysis on how we perceive and understand our relation to nature.
In the view of modern science, and the incorporation of that view into the
structure of the modern novel, this problem between what is "real" and what
is "pure" becomes entirely academic and, depending upon one's point of view,
may disappear entirely. Science fiction and, specifically. Cat's Crad/e.tio not
lend themselves to a representational theory of art. The reason for this is
simple enough. Science fiction makes the claim to treat a non-existent reality,
an imaginative reality which may have its origins in our own reality but which
because it extrapolates a future not yet existent cannot represent our reality
but only its own. In other words, to borrow a phrase from Alain Robbe-
Grillet, the novel "constitutes reality" and what "it explores is itself."8 And,
this is exactly what Cat's Cradle does since it attempts to describe present
reality in terms of what is implicit in the "liar's paradox." Reality, as such,
in modern science and the novel ceases to be a meaningful concept in such
works as Cats Cradle since the structure of the novel is no longer based on
the world of the senses but rather resides in the principles of logic and math-
ematics. And the world of mathematics exists in terms of nothing more than
a set of abstract principles, in a word, conventions. These principles or con-
cepts are empty, that is, they contain nothing and are contained by nothing.
The title to the novel itself, Cat's Cradle, suggests that this is the case since
a "cat's cradle" is nothing more than a children's game in which two players
alternatively stretch a looped string over their fingers in order to produce dif-
ferent designs. The emphasis is on design and not substance for there is no
substance other than the delightful design formed by the game. Somer's com-
parison of the structure of Cat's Cradle and Slaughterhouse-Five to the struct-
ural principles of Fuller's geodesic dome unfortunately give rise to the twin
concepts of "interiority" and containment," that is, the space a geodesic
dome spans becomes confused with the principles which give rise to it. For
polygons are plane figures which have several angles and sides. They contain
nothing and their interlocking relationship is entirely dependent upon the
function of their angles. In the particular case of Cat's Cradle the arrange-
ment, for instance, of chapters, is not a result of space, though initially their
order conveys that impression, but rather on the relationship of one principle
or concept to another in an interlocking pattern (design) of reciprocal functions.

The solution, therefore, to Vonnegut's literary paradox resides in recognizing
that the basic supposition of Cat's Cradle is radically different from those of

7 Wayne C. Booth, The Rhetoric of Fiction (Chicago: The University of
Chicago Press, 1967), p. 38.

8 Alain Robbe-Grillet, For a New Novel: Essays on Fiction, Trans. Richard
Howard (New York: Grove Press, 1965), p. 161.

40

the traditional novel with its emphasis on the "human" rather than the
"scientific" element in man. What is being suggested is that a fundamental
shift has occurred in the art of the science-fiction novel and Vonnegut's Cat's
Cradle is but one expression of that shift. Werner Heisenberg in "The Repre-
sentation of Nature in Contemporary Physics" comments that "The problems
of modern art, so frequently and passionately discussed in our time, force us
to examine those foundations which form the presupposition for every devel-
opment of art, foundations which at other times are taken as self-evident. In-
deed , the question has been raised whether the relation of modern man to-
ward nature differs so fundamentally from that of former times that this dif-
ference alone is responsible for a completely different point of departure for
the fine arts in contemporary culture. Certainly, the relation of our period to-
ward nature hardly finds its expression, as it did in earlier centuries, in a
developed natural philosophy; rather, it is determined mainly by modern
science and technology. "9 In Cats Cradle, Vonnegut hints at the idea that
the relation of our period toward nature has changed. About midway through
the novel, our narrator John (or Johah), quotes a "Calypso" from The Books
of Bokonon contained in young Phillip Castle's San Lorenzo: The Land, the
People given him by the American Ambassador to the Republic of San
Lorenzo, Horlick Minton. We learn that Bokonon

. . .wanted all things

To seem to make some sense.

So we all could be happy, yes,

Instead of tense.

And I made up lies

So that they all fit nice.

And I made this sad world

A par-a-dise. (p. 109)

What is significant about Bokonon's "Calypso" is the idea that Bokonon
has remade "this sad world" in the image of a set of "lies" in order to create
a new "par-a-dise." Bokonon's paradise, however, is not Milton's or God's
since it introduces into itself the mathematical concepts of chance and prob-
ability through the image of a "pair-of-dice." Vonnegut's hyphenation of the
work "par-a-dise" is significant. It is significant because it suggests clearly
that Vonnegut's view of the world has been fundamentally altered by modern
science and technology. As George Brecht in "Chance-Imagery" suggests
"The conjuncture of statistical theory with mathematical physics, which oc-
curred about 1860, resulted ultimately in a reformulation of our concept of
the workings of nature; the requirements of strict causality, which classical
philosophy had regarded as an a priori principle underlying the mechanics of

9 Werner Heisenberg, "The Representation of Nature in Contemporary Phy-
sics," in The Discontinuous Universe, ed. Sallie Sears and Georgianna W. Lord
(New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1972), p. 122.

41

the universe, were replaced by a measure of probability. "10 The "predomin-
ance of cause thus gave way," as Brecht points out, "to the predominance of
chance" and "chance became an underlying principle of our world view"
(pp. 84,86). Vonnegut, like Bokonon, no longer believes in a "developed nat-
ural philosophy." In its place, Vonnegut, in a very real sense, is offering us a
choice between two radically different ways of looking at things. We may em-
brace either a traditional "natural philosophy" with its accompanying picture
of the universe as a stable and coherent, ordered world fashioned after God's
image the world of nature presented to us in our fiction by our senses, the
world of metaphor or, we may embrace the world of modern science and
technology a world of probabilities and chance, of uncertainty and increas-
ingly abstract principle. Heisenberg's analysis of the realtion of modern man
to nature is correct and it forces us to re-examine those foundations which
"form the presupposition for every development of art" (p. 122).

One such presupposition has been the function of metafihor in art. For
centuries the mark of the great literary artist has been, in some measure, his
use of metaphor and we know that the function of metaphor in literature is
to present us with a picture of nature. Yet as modern science has shown us
nature is a far more complex thing than we had previously imagined. For
with each advance of science has come a set of abstract principles taken from
modern science which, after their own fashion, form models. These models
in turn present us with a picture of our relation to nature instead of a picture
of nature. And, of course, our realtion to nature in Cat s Cradle is created by
the novel's principles which ultimatley have their source in modern science.
Metaphor, like reality, ceases to be a meaningful concept in this type of liter-
ature. Yet those very principles which have replaced metaphor are empty of
content. Lincoln Barnett in The Universe and Dr. Einstein comments that
"In trying to distinguish appearance from reality and lay bare the fundamental
structure of the universe, science has had to transcend the 'rabble of the
senses.' But its highest edifices, Einstein has pointed out, have been 'purchased
at the price of emptiness of content.' A theoretical concept is emptied of con-
tent to the very degree that it is divorced from sensory experience. "1 1 Von-
negut's "par-a-dise" is at best an uncertain world, if not an empty one. For
at the end of Cat's Crac//e, our narrator, John, finally catches up with Bokonon
and Bokonon hands him a piece of paper on which is written:
If I (Bokonon) were a younger man, I would write a
history of human stupidity; and I would climb to the
top of Mount McCabe and lie down on my back with my
history for a pillow; and I would take from the ground

10 George Brecht, "Chance-Imagery," in The Discontinuous Universe, ed.
Sallie Sears and Georgianna W. Lord (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1972), p.
122.

11 Barnett.

42

some of the blue-white poison that makes statues of men;
and I would make a statue of myself, lying on my back,
grinning horribly, and thumbing my nose at You Know Who. (p. 231).
And that is exactly what Cat's Cradle has been, a history of human stupid-
ity. However, it is an incomplete history since the novel ends with Bokonon's
note. The world may be frozen, but our narrator, John, is not. After all,
John has told us that "Nothing in this book is true." Though it is interesting
to note that "the blue-white poison," ice-nine, is in actual fact a theoretical
possibility, it has not yet been created in the laboratory. Nevertheless,
Vonnegut's message, by implication, is clear. The world of science will lead to
a "dehumanization" of our art. The choice is there. However, whatever we
choose it will involve a chance, in a word, a "pair-of-dice."

43

ABSTRACTS

of

MASTER'S THESES

and

SPECIALIST IN EDUCATION PROJECTS

Bartlett, Montine C, (Specialist in Education, August, 1978)

A RESOURCE GUIDE FOR TEACHING
LOCAL HISTORY IN ROME, GEORGIA

The purpose of this project was to provide a resource guide for social studies
teachers in the Ronne City School System. The guide is intended to be used
in the teaching of local history.

Following a research of the literature dealing with the teaching of local
history, an effort was made to identify historical sites, resource persons, and
techniques in the collection and writing of local history.

Conclusions reached as a result of this study indicated: (1) social studies
teachers should emphasize the use of local primary resources to teach local
history, (2) the use of oral history should be encouraged, and (3) the Rome
City School Systems should adopt this resource guide for use by interested
teachers in the school system.

Baxter, Kay Greeson, (Specialist in Education, June, 1978)

A PROGRAM FOR GIFTED STUDENTS,
GRADES K-8, IN A SMALL SCHOOL SYSTEM

The problem of this study was the designing of a program for gifted
students, grades K-8, in a small school system. The study included the back-
ground, significance and limitations of the study. The program was limited in
that it was designed for intellectually gifted only, does not include discussion
of teacher education, selection or in-service.

The review of the literature includes the historical background of education
of the gifted, definitions of giftedness and methods of identification, charact-
eristics of gifted children, program goals, curricular interventions, administ-
ration of a program and program evaluation.

The study was a guide and procedures for setting up a gifted program bas-
ed on current research. It included a plan for public involvement. The pro-
gram was based on a definition of gifted which states, "The gifted are those
children who, by reason of their intellectual superiority, are identified by pro-
fessionally qualified persons and palced in specially designed educational pro-
grams." Identification procedures were spelled out in detail.

Administrative details described in the study included placement proced-
ures, acceleration, individual program planning, progress reporting, a mentor
system, a counseling program, record-keeping and withdrawal procedures.
Organization details included scheduling, student/teacher ratio, the classroom

44

setting, equipping the center, and transportation. A cost estimate for setting
up a 2-teacher/140-pupil center was given.

Four program assumptions and 27 goals are outlined.

A grade by grade curriculum was then described.The curriculum gave at-
tention to both content and process. Teaching methodology was suggested.

Procedures for program evaluation were included. Appendices included
various questionnaires and forms designed for the program.

Brewer, Frankie G., (Specialist in Education, August, 1978)

AN ASSESSMENT OF VOCATIONAL INTEREST
OF A SELECT GROUP OF HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS

An assessment of a group of selected high school students' vocational inter-
est was carried out at the Governor's Honors Program, located at North Georgia
College, Dahlonega, Georgia. Twenty-five students volunteered to participate
in the interest surveys. They were asked to list all the occupations of which
they were aware. They were then administered the Kuder General Interest
Survey and the Kuder Preference Record Vocational Interest Form. There
was no significant agreement between the Kuder Vocational Inventory, the
Kuder General Interest Survey, and the students' list.

Buess, Lynn M., (Specialist in Education, December, 1978)

DIGITAL SYMBOLISM AS AN ADJUNCT
TO THE COUNSELING SESSION
This is an in depth examination investigating an age old theory that teaches
there is a relationship between a person's name, date of birth, and certain per-
sonality traits and behavior patterns. This investigative study has been design-
ed to explore the possibility thatthere may be potential psychological merit to
such theories. The methods of research employed will include experiental ac-
cumulation of date, a detailed case study, and empirical data. If any corre-
lation exists between the system under scrutiny and traditional methods of
attaining psychological date, the numerical method could be used as an adjust
to the professional counselor as a time saver which allows the counselor to
conduct therapy with more effectiveness and savings in cost to the client.

Byers, Stephen Walter, (MA, Psychology, August, 1978)

PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
The effectiveness of a consciousness raising program versus an integrated
mind-body program at producing both mental and physical fitness was eval-
uated. In addition, an on-going physical education program was evaluated for
effectiveness in both of these experimental dimensions. Experimental and
control groups were randomly constituted from a pool of junior and senior
level high school volunteers. A total of twelve classes (fifty-five minutes in

45

length each) was conducted with each experimental group. The subjects conn-
pleted a self-esteem scale, an authority orientation scale, a self-disclosure
scale, a cardiovascular efficiency test, a flexibility test, and the personal ori-
entation inventory both before and after the experimental experience was
presented. Results indicated that an integrated mmd-body approach was mar-
ginally superior to either a strict mind or body approach employed separately
in producing both mental and physical fitness, although no results were statis-
tically significant.

Cochran, Charlotte, W., (Specialist in Education, August, 1978)

USING THE LANGUAGE EXPERIENCE APPROACH TO
TEACHING READING AS A MEANS OF IMPROVING
READING ACHIEVEMENT IN THE THIRD GRADE

This experimental research design was undertaken to determine if the
teaching of the Language Experience Approach to Reading would increase the
reading achievement of a specific group of third grade students.

For the purposes of the study, all third grade students at Tolbert School
were tested and subjects were chosen for inclusion in the study on the basis of
test scores on the Metropolitan Achievement Test, Primary II, Form G. Only
those students whose scores on total reading were no greater than 3.0 and no
less than 1.6 grade equivalent were considered for inclusion in this study.
Subjects selected were twenty experimental group and twenty control group,
third grade students matched on the basis of age, sex, I.Q., race, reading achi-
evement test scores, and socioeconomic level. These subjects represented a
low-medium range for third grade with extreme low and medium to high
scores being eliminated from the study.

Groups received parallel instruction in all respects except that the experi-
mental group received thirty minutes instruction three days each week using
the Language Experience Approach in Reading.

A significance level of .05 was established as indicating a statistically signi-
ficant event which could not be attributed to the probability of chance. Re-
sults for the total group showed no significant difference at the t value of .61
between the two groups in the area of word knowledge. There was no signi-
ficant difference at the t value of .36 between the two groups in the area of
Reading. There was no significant difference at the t value of 1.46 between
the two groups in the area of Total Reading.

It was concluded that while there was no significant difference in the areas
tested those subjects in the experimental group did make more gain than did
those subjects in the control group. The Language Experience Approach is
still a useful tool in the teaching of reading because of the motivation gener-
ated and because of the value as an effective reinforcer.

46

Crowder, Lynnda Bernard, {Specialist in Education, August, 1978)

AN EVALUATION OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL PRACTICES
OF COBB COUNTY
WHEN COMPARED TO MIDDLE SCHOOLS
DISTINGUISHED BY A GRADE ASSEMBLAGE ONLY

Schools for middle-aged children nnust take into consideration the nature,
characteristics and needs of the children for whom they provide. The old
junior high school arrangement seems to have lost its enchantment, and the
trend of the emerging middle school has finally arived.

This study presents a review of studies dealing with the change from the
junior high school to the middle school program.

Philosophical and historical literature has been discussed in direct relation
to middle schools in Cobb County, Georgia. An examination of the data
gathered from this study indicates that the Cobb County middle schools, hav-
ing "emerged", are practicing effectively their own philosophy and that phil-
osophy characteristic of the national middle school concept.

Davis, Jane Thomas, (Specialist in Education, June, 1978)

THE PREDICTABILITY OF ACHIEVEMENT BASED ON
RESULTS OF FIRST GRADE SCREENING
TO DETERMINE DEVELOPMENTAL READINESS

The data provided in this study was collected over a three year period in
the Bremen City Schools, Bremen, Georgia. Each spring all in-coming first
graders were screened to determine their developmental readiness for formal
learning. The results were tabulated and conferencing was done with parents
of children who were identified as not ready for first grade. It was suggest-
ed to those parents that their children might benefit by another year of devel-
opment before being placed in the public school setting.

A group of ten children who were advised to wait one year and did so was
compared to a group of ten children who entered first grade in spite of the
indications that they were not ready for school.

There seemed to be a significant difference in the success level of the two
groups at the end of first grade.

Edwards, Melvin Reville, (Specialist in Education, August, 1978)

VALUE DEVELOPMENT AND CLARIFICATION THROUGH THE

IMPLEMENTATION OF THE OPEN CLASSROOM CONCEPT

The project was written as an attempt to find a solution to the problem of

developing values in our public schools. After many years of experience as a

teacher and an administrator in Catoosa County, it became very obvious that

the students were unable to make value judgemnts and that something should

47

be done to guide these students in making their own decisions.

In order to gain insight into possible solutions to the problenn, an extensive
review and research of literature was undertaken. In addition to the periodi-
cals and books which dealt with the development of value systems, tapes were
available that presented guidelines that might be followed.

Literature which dealt with the subject of values was varied and included
studies by many educators. One study by Allport, Vernen and Gardner was
used because it is based on its ability to measure relative prominence in six
basic areas of personality. These areas include: theoretical, economic,
aesthetic, social, political and religious. Also, the studies presented and litera-
ture reviewed were summarized so that the reader might see what solutions
might be available through the open classroom concept as opposed to the
traditional classroom.

Chapter three dealt with the program development. This program develo-
ment was done for the Catoosa County School System. This chapter discussed
the need for the program along with the objectives. The steps for setting up
the program were also included.

Many educators are still debating the pros and cons of open classroom and
traditional classroom methods. In this study the educators presented the
open classroom as an effective way to help students develop and clarify values.

Galloway, Ronald Dean, (Specialist in Education, August, 1978)

IMPLEMENTING AN INTRODUCTORY COURSE

IN COMPUTER APPLICATIONS TO EDUCATION FOR

ADMINISTRATORS AND SUPERVISORS AT WEST GEORGIA COLLEGE:

A FEASIBILITY STUDY

In 1970, onlythirteen percentof more than 23,000 secondary schools were
using computers for educational purposes. DeRodeff reported that lack of
high level administrative commitemnt was the reason for education's lagging
behind in the use of electronic data processing. Even though innovations tend
to complicate the life of the administrator, many schools have turned to the
computer for relief from the increased demands-for information handling and
processing. One of the greatest aids that the computer gives to the administrator
is the scheduling of classes. Perhaps one of the best known scheduling pro-
grams is the Generalized Academic Simulation Program developed by Robert
Holz at Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Newness of automated data processing means re-education for many admin-
istrators. Hawkins and Ney pointed out that there is a discrepancy in the
training of administrators between laboratory experience and the actual de-
mands of the job. If Hansen and Kalssen's prediction is accurate, given the
current growth rate, computers will be used by every school district in the
country within the next decade. \r\ this "real world" which James Cook re-
ferred to, the administrator will be concerned with implementing available
techniques and devices for improving education.

48

School administrators must be provided with the skills necessary to direct
the educational program in a technological setting. It is, therefore, the re-
commendation of this writer that West Georgia College, which serves many
school systems in Northwest Georgia, offer to its graduate students in admini-
stration/supervision an introductory course in computer applications to
education.

Handley, Mary Alice, (Specialist in Eduation, August, 1978)

STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP OF THE INTELLIGENCE BIORHYTHM

AND SIXTH GRADE STUDENTS' VOCABULARY AND

READING COMPREHENSION SCORES

Since the beginning of the education process, educators have constantly
sought new concepts to aid in the understanding of the learning process.

One educator wondered why the intellectual capability of students seemed
to vary from time to time. The educator discovered that an exact pattern
could be established. He concluded that the students' high and low peaks of
performances fluctuated in a definite 33-day cycle. This 33-day cycle is in-
cluded in the group of cycles known as biorhythms. The word biorhythm is a
compound of two Greek terms. One is bios for like and the other is rhythimor
which means a regulated beat.

This study investigated the relationship of the intelligence biorhythm cycle
and the scores on vacabulary and reading comprehension tests of 62 sixth
grade students. The tests were administered at a 7-day interval to compare the
different points in the intelligence biorhythm cycle.

The hypotheses were tested with t-tests for dependent means at the .05
level of significance. The scores on the tests administered on the peak days
of the intelligence cycle were not significantly different from the scores ad-
ministered on the zero days of the intelligence cycle.

Harris, Lucian, (Specialist in Education, June, 1978)

IMPROVING PUBLIC RELATIONS
AT MARIETTA JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL
It was thought important to develop a professional guide on public relations
for the faculty and administrative staff at Marietta Junior High School. The
problem was to examine the following relationships between the home and the
school as they relate to the progress of the student:
I.The student as a reporter of his school.

2. Homework as a public relations tool.

3. Parent-teacher conferences.

4. Telephone contacts with the home.

5. The involvement of administrators in explaning the policies and pract-
ices of the school.

49

These relationships were examined through large and small group discussions,
with the faculty and administrative staff. From these discussions, a question-
naire was designed and distributed to the faculty and administrative staff. The
results were compiled and analyzed. They provided the basis for the small
group discussions and recommendations from the faculty and administrative
staff as to ways of improving public relations at Marietta Junior High School.

Henry, Charlie, (Specialist in Education, December, 1978)

A STUDY OF THE EFFECT OF THE TRIADIC METHOD

OF TEACHING UPON ACHIEVEMENT
IN AND ATTITUDE TOWARD UNITED STATES HISTORY
AMONG STUDENTS AT CALHOUN HIGH SCHOOL
This study attempted to determine if the use of the triadic method of
teaching would result in a significant gain in achievement in or attitude toward
United States history when compared to a traditional approach of teaching.
The experimental group consisted of an intact class of thirty students. The
control group consisted of an intact class of thirty students. Null hypotheses
were used.

Both groups were given form A of the Cooperative Social Studies: Amer-
ican History as an achievement pretest and form A of Remmers Any School
Subjcet Survey as an attitude pretest. Form Am of the Otis Quick-Scoring
Mental Ability Gamma Test was given to determine(l) if the two groups were
of equal mental ability and (2) placement in the triad groups. For all three
tests, the t-test for the difference between means were computed; and no
significant differences were found in either mental ability, achievement, or
attitude.

The experimental period lasted for one school quarter or twelve weeks.
At the end of the treatment, form B of the Cooperative Social Studies Tests:
American History and form B of the Remmers Any School Subject Survey
were given as posttests. Mean gains in achievement and attitude, as demon-
strated by scores on the pretests and the posttests, were calculated. The t-test
for independent samples found no significant difference in achievement or
attitude gains at the .05 level. Both hypotheses were accepted.

Hughes, Susan J., (Specialist in Education, August, 1978)

THE INFLUENCE OF PARENT INVOLVEMENT IN
PRIMARY EDUCATION ON THE ATTITUDES
OF PARENTS AND THE PERSONALITY
OF CHILDREN
This study was designed to determine the effects of a planned parent-in-
volvement program in the primary grades on the attitudes of parents and on
the personality of children.

50

Students and their parents from the first, second, and third year classes at
Chapman Elementary School in Cherokee County, Georgia were involved in
the study. The control groups consisted of first, second, and third year stud-
ents and their parents who were involved in a planned parent-involvement pro-
gram. The treatment parent-involvement program covered an eight month
period and involved scheduled meetings, scheduled conferences, working in
the classroom, telephone communications, and note writing.

Five null hypotheses were tested to determine if significant differences ex-
isted in attitudes of parents and personality of students between the two
groups. The teachers recorded parent participations, the parents were given
pretests and posttests of attitudes, and the children were given the Early School
Personality Questionnaire as a pretest and posttest. After analyzing the par-
ent participations and statistically testing the pretest and posttest scores of
parents and students using the t-test, the Pearson correlation coefficient, and
the analysis of variance, it was found that the mean frequency of participations
in the experimental groups was greater but that there were no bases for re-
jection of the hypotheses at the .05 level of confidence, except in one of the
personality factors tested for children. The experimental groups scored signi-
ficantly higher on the factor which measured guiltprone, apprehensive, and in-
secure personality traits.

Jackson, Clara Jemigan, Specialist in Education, August, 1978)

A CORRELATION OF READING ACHIEVEMENT AND I.Q. OF

SIXTH GRADE STUDENTS AT SPALDING DRIVE

SCHOOL IN ATLANTA, GEORGIA

The purpose of this study was to determine if there was any difference be-
tween the reading achievement and sex of the student, any relationship be-
tween reading achievement and I.O., reading achievement and attitude. The
study included only 74 of the 98 six grade students. Test scores were not a-
vailable for students who were not enrolled in school all year, did not take the
complete battery of tests or whose records had been sent to private schools.

The evaluative instruments were the Otis Lennon Mental Ability Test Form
J and the Iowa Tests of Basic Skills. These are given in October of each year
and recorded in the permanent records of each student. The scale used for
measuring attitude towards reading was developed by Thomas H. Estes and
published in Journal of Reading (October, 1971). ANOCOVA was used to
test the first null hypothesis. The Pearson Product Moment Coefficient was
employed to test the second and third null hypotheses.

The study found that there was a significant difference in reading achieve-
ment and sex of the student, a significant relationship between reading achieve-
ment and I.Q., reading achievement and attitude.

51

Jones, Louise T., (Specialist In Education, December, 1978)

ASTUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF THE EARLY CHILDHOOD GRADUATE

EDUCATION PROGRAM AT WEST GEORGIA COLLEGE ON

GRADUATES AFTER RE-ENTERING THE

TEACHING PROFESSION

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of the early child-
hood masters education program at West Georgia College on one hundred and
twelve graduates after re-entering the teaching profession.

The hypothesis stated in Chapter I was supported by the results shown in
Tables I, II, and III. There were positive evaluations reflected in the question-
naire results concerning the early childhood education program at West Georgia
College on graduates after re-entering the teaching profession with validation
by their supervisors. Not only the comparative raw scores (Table 1), and per-
centages (Table II) support the hypothesis, but so did the mean scores (Table
II) and the correlation coefficients (Table III) on the matched pairs of teachers
and supervisors.

Knox, Joyce Morgan, (Specialist in Education, August, 1978)

A 1978 STUDY OF THE IMPACT OF HOUSE 671
ON REGULAR CLASSROOM TEACHERS IN GEORGIA
AS MEASURED BY THE KNOWLEDGE ACOUIRED

In 1975 the Georgia General Assembly passed an amendment to the 1974
Adequate Program for Education in Georgia House Bill 671. The bill re-
quired all teachers, principals, and guidance counselors seeking certification or
recertification after July 1, 1976, to complete a 50 clock hours course in the
identification and education of students with special needs. The purpose of
the requirement was to see that regular educators became more knowledge-
able of the needs of the exceptional child.

Concurrent federal legislation, particularly Public Law 94-142, enacted in
1974, also endorsed the education of the regular classroom teacher about the
needs of special education students.

To determine if the completion of the mandated requirement of House
Bill 671 had made a significant difference in knowledge of those who had
made a significant difference in knowledge of those who had completed the
course, a fifty item questionnaire was devised. Distribution was made to 26
schools within seven school systems in the West Georgia Cooperative Services
Agency District. Responses were received from 352 educators.

Utilizing a Northwestern University computer package, the West Georgia
College computer service and the t test for probability, a significant difference
at the 1% level was statistically proven when teachers who had completed the
course were compared with teachers who had not completed the course.

In addition to the statistical data, profiles of age, years of teaching, origin

52

of course, year course was taken, payor of course, and knowledge item anal-
yses were made.

Krieger, A/an Pheris, (Specialist in Education, June, 1978)

A COMPARISON OF READING ACHIEVEMENT RATES

OF SLOW READERS IN SMALL AND LARGE CLASS

INSTRUCTION AT CENTRAL PRIMARY SCHOOL IN 1977-1978

This investigation was designed to determine the effect of class size on the
rate of reading achievement of below average readers in the third and fourth
grades. Two different studies were implemented for this purpose.

The first study involved a comparison of reading achievement over a five
month period. All of the third and fourth grade students at the test school
with below grade level basel reading levels were used. Each grade had two
five student experimental classes. The third grade control class consisted of
21 students. The fourth grade had a control class of 23 students.

The second study was conducted to determine the effect of class size on\
fifteen minute instructional period. Forty-two fourth grade students were used
in this study. They were randomly divided into two experimental classes of
five students and one control class of 32 students.

There were three hypotheses used to determine the significance of this
study. The hypotheses are as follows:

FIRST HYPOTHESIS

At the end of this study, the third grade small experimental classes will not
show a significantly greater rate of achievement in reading than the third grade
large control class over a five month instructional period.

SECOND HYPOTHESIS

At the end of this study, the fourth grade small experimental classes will
not show a significantly greater rate of achievement in reading than the fourth
grade large control class over a five month instructional period.

THIRD HYPOTHESIS

At the end of this study, the fourth grade small experimental groups will
not show a significantly greater proficiency in a specific reading skill than the
fourth grade large control group after one fifteen minute instructional period.

A pretest treatment post test control group design was used for all of
the experiments. Because of differences in reading ability, an analysis of cov-
ariance was used to treat the data with pretest scores as the covariate. The re-
sults of the first hypothesis approached significance, but was not significant
at the .05 level of significance. The second and third hypotheses did not ap-
proach significance. Therefore, class size was not shown to be a significant
factor in the rate of reading achievement of below average readers in the third
and fourth grades.

53

Lane, Ronald Erskine, (Specialist in Education, August, 1978)

A STUDY OF COMPARATIVE STUDENT EVALUATIONS

OF THE ELEMENTARY EDUCATION PROGRAM

FOR THE SPECIALISTS DEGREE

AT WEST GEORGIA COLLEGE

JUNE, 1972- JUNE, 1978

The purpose of this study was to tabulate, compare and assess student eval-
uations of the elementary education graduate program for those students
completing both the masters and the specialists degree at West Georgia College
from the inception of the specialists degree in 1971 until June, 1978.

The data to be presented were a tabulation of the questionnaire and eval-
uation form from approximately fifty students taken during the spring of
1978.

The results showed that the responding students have a positive attitude
toward both degree programs and also have definite opinions regarding the
differentiation of courses for each program.

Lippert, Pamela Ann, (MA, English, August, 1978)

FROM LEGAND TO ART:
THE CHRISTIANIZING OF SIR GAWAIN AND THE GREEN KNIGHT

Three elements in the Middle English poem Sir Gawain and the Green
Knight the Beheading Game, the Temptation episode, and the character of
the Green Knight Bercilak have been more discussed by source scholars
than any other elements. The source scholars have traced these elements from
folklore to their inclusion in the sources and analogues of Gawain. However,
few source scholars seem interested in using their studies as a tool for under-
standing the Gawain poet's artistry; they seem more interested in the arch--
types repeated throughout folklore than in the poem itself.

Even those scholars who have discussed the theme and structure of the
poem have failed to show what the Gawain poet's unique contribution to the
legend is. Most archetypal critics see Gawain as a seasonal folk-myth, depict-
ing the battle between summer and winter. Other critics see the poem as a
myth of Gawain's r/tes de passage from spiritual ignorance to self-knowledge.
Even thematic critics have failed to demonstrate that the Gawain poet depart-
ed from his sources in theme or structure of plot.

Actually, the Gawain poet has selected elements of plot and character
from pagan sources and blended them into a Christian poem of such unity
that no element can any longer be isolated from the rest of the poem. The
poet has achieved this unity by his construction of a Christian plot, his re-
creation of Gawain and the Green Knight as Christian characters, and his
Christian style of narration. What emerges from the old legends is thus a
completely Christian poem of great brilliance and clarity. The very Christ-

54

ianity of Gawain is the poet's contribution to the legend, and it shows his art-
istry in remaking the old stories into something new.

Lunsford, Linda Ganelle, (Specialist in Education, August, 1978)

THE EFFECT OF A FREE READING PROGRAM
ON ATTITUDES TOWARD READING

The main purpose of this study was to determine whether students in-
volved in a free reading program develop more positive attitudes toward read-
ing than those students who have no designated classroom opportunity for
free reading. Attitude changes were also analyzed on the basis of the sex of
the student as well as the interaction effect between the free reading program
and the sex of the subject.

The subjects for the study were 93 students enrolled in four tenth-grade
Basic Composition classes taught by the researcher. Periods one and three
constituted the control groups; periods two and five made up the experimental
groups.

An attitude-scale pretest was administered to all four classes during the
first week in October. The experimental classes then began using one day per
week during which they were free to read any material of their own choosing.
Occasional suggestions were made by the teacher, but, in general, X\\e choice
of material was left entirely to the student. The same attitude scale was given
as a posttest during the first week in May.

An analysis of variance computed for the data indicated that changes in
attitude were not significantly affected by the free reading program.

Miller, Debroah Ann, (Specialist in Education, August, 1978)

I AN EVALUATION OF THE 1974 PHI DELATA KAPPA STUDY

OF PUBLIC ATTITUDES TOWARD EDUCATION IN
THE WEST GEORGIA AREA
The purpose of this survey was to compile and compare the attitudes of
Carroll County residents in the survey conducted by the West Georgia Phi
Delta Kappa Educational Fraternity in Carroll County.

A total of one hundred and seventy-eight questionnaire results were tabu-
lated. The purpose of this study was to compile and evaluate the responses of
a selected group of people and their opinions of their public schools in Carroll
County. Selected findings were compared with the National responses and
opinions for that particular study.

55

Miller, Ellen, (Specialist in Education, August, 1978)

A STUDY IN THE EFFECTIVENESS OF READING TUTORIAL

PROGRAMS AS COMPARED TO A TRADITIONAL APPROACH

TO READING INSTRUCTION

This study was directed toward evaluating reading achievement and to
determine the effectiveness of the Ginn Tutorial Program and the Scott Fore-
sman Tutorial Program as compared with the traditional approach to reading
instruction. The thirty students involved in the study were from Belwood
School, Gordon County System, Calhoun, Georgia.

Experimental group 1 was tutored in the Scott Foresman Tutorial Program.
Experimental group 2 was tutored in the Ginn Tutorial Program. The control
group received no supplemental tutoring.

Pre and posttest scores were acquired through the administration of the
Metropolitan Reading Test and the Slosson Oral Reading Test.

A statistical comparison of the mean scores of the experimental and con-
trol groups in reading achievement was made. The results of the statistical
analysis indicated that the students in the experimental groups did not show
a statistically significant gain in reading achievement on the Metropolitan
Reading Test or on the Slosson Oral Reading Test.

Mitchell, George Clark, (MS, Biology, August, 1978)

HOME RANGE, MOVEMENT, AND HABITAT UTILIZATION
OF LARGEMOUTH BASS, Micropterus salmoides,
IN LAKE CARROLL, CARROLL COUNTY, GEORGIA
AS DETERMINED BY ULTRASONIC TELEMETRY
Fifteen largemouth bass, Micropterus salmoides (Lacepede), were tracked
in Lake Carroll, Carroll County, Georiga, using ultrasonic telemetry techniques.
Recorded data was used to determine home range, day and night movement,
and habitat utilization. Lake Carroll largemouth bass seem to be of two be-
haviorally different types, those that utilize small, well defined home ranges,
and those that utilize large portions of the lake. Of the 15 bass tracked, eight
occupied small, well defined home ranges, six utilized large portions of the
lake, and no conclusion could be made on one. For all seasons (spring,
summer, fall) the majority of fish moved more during the day than at night.
When day and night movement for all fish were compared, there was signi-
ficantly more day movement. Habitat utilization was determined by com-
paring the measured physical parameters (water temperature, light penetration,
degree of cloud cover, barometric pressure, and dissolved oxygen) with three
aspects of fish location (distance from shore, depth of water and dock util-
ization). A statistically significant relationship was found between light pene-
tration and water depth selected. Fish were located in deeper water when
Secchi disc measurements were high and shallower water when Secchi disc
measurements were low. Surface water temperature showed an apparent, but

56

not statistically significant relationship with fish location. The bass seemed
to show a preference for water depths of less than 1 .5 m when surface temper-
ature was less than 23 C and depths greater than 1.5 m when surface water
temperature was greater than 23 C. No other relationships were found be-
tween fish location and physical parameters.

Neighbors, Linda, (Specialist in Education, August, 1978)

A COMPARISON STUDY OF A MAP AND GLOBE SKILLS
PROGRAM TAUGHT TO FIFTH YEAR STUDENTS
COMPARED TO A GROUP THAT RECEIVED
NO SPECIFIC INSTRUCTION
This study was designed to determine if the instruction of map and globe
skills would be beneficial to fifth year students. Seventy-five fifth year stud-
ents from Richard B. Russell Elementary School were divided into three
heterogeneous groups of twenty-five. Experimental group A was taught speci-
fic map and globe skills using an individualized approach, experimental group
B was taught the same specific map and globe skills as a whole group, and
comparison group C was taught map and globe skills only in the context of
their normal social studies program.

Pretest, posttest, and delayed posttest scores were gathered from all three
groups, and a statistical analysis using the Analysis of Covariance and Duncan's
Multiple Range Test was made. The level of significance was established as
.05. Using this criteria, null hypotheses two, three, five, and six were rejected,
and null hypotheses one and four were not rejected. This study indicated the
need for map and globe skills instruction in the elementary school social
studies program.

O'Keefe, Audrey Carol, (Specialist in Education, August, 1978)

AN AWARENESS, ATTITUDES AND METHODOLOGY
STUDY IN SEX EDUCATION FOR SEVENTH
GRADE STUDENTS AT LAUREL HILLS
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL IN COLLEGE PARK, GEORGIA
This study was undertaken, because of a concerned need or a greater
awareness, a favorable attitude and improved understanding in sex education
for the seventh grade students at Laurel Hills Elementary School in this day in
time.

The study involved approximately ninety-two students, both male and
female, Caucasian, Negroid and Monogoloid. The student's ages ranged from
eleven to fourteen and the majority of their IQ's were average.

The study involved preparation, gathering of information, creating a com-
fortable atmosphere, presentation of the education unit and evaluation of its
values to students of age.

57

The constituents used to serve as guidelines and materials;

Parent involvement and cooperation. A continuous unit which was pro-
ceeded by a science unit on the human body systems functions.

The use of booklets, teacher's outline, state published information, films,
diagrams, newspaper articles, magazines, commercial T.V.

The study concluded that there was a need for sex education at this grade
level with a positive acceptance by both parents and parents of this commun-
ity.

These findings lead to the recommendation that a sex education unit be-
come a supplement to the seventh grade science curriculum at Laurel Hills.

O Malley, Judy Narmore, (Specialist in Education, August, 1978)

A COMPARISON OF THE READING ACHIEVEMENT
BETWEEN HIGH RISK FIRST GRADE
STUDENTS IN A DEVELOPMENTAL CLASSROOM AND
HIGH RISK FIRST GRADE STUDENTS IN
CONVENTIONAL CLASSROOMS IN CARROLL COUNTY, GEORGIA
The purpose of this study was to follow the progress of nineteen high risk
first grade children who had been placed in an experimental first grade pro-
gram during the 1977-78 school year. The study followed the non-random-
ized control group pretest and post test design. Students involved in the study
were part of a special prearranged placement at the beginning of the year.
The researcher looked at two different class placements of high risk first grade
children to compare their reading achievement as measured by the Clymer
Barrett and Cognitive Abilities Tests. To determine if one group performed
significantly higher than the other, tests were run on the means of the control
and experimental groups using the pretest and post test data. Analysis of this
data indicated that the experimental group showed a significant gain in the
mean over the control group. Therefore, the null hypothesis that there would
be no significant difference between reading achievement of high risk first
grade children in a special developmental classroom and high risk children in
conventional first grade classrooms was rejected at the .05 level of confidence.

Palmer, Gabriel Franciso,(M/\, Psychology, August, 1978)

MEMORY: A PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY
In recent years a number of very provocative works have appeared chall-
enging the basic assumptions of psychology as a natural science. The issue
these critiques present is the inappropriateness of natural scientific methods
to the study of psychological phenomena. The intention of this report is to
show this "inappropriateness" and to discover a way for psychology to treat
experience in a human and liberating way.

58

The psychology here developed begins by considering human experience
as the point of departure for psychological understanding and elaborates the
idea of a human science by developing a method based on speech and immed-
iate experience. Then, the experience of memory is approached through this
method, the results presented and a further study suggested.

Ponsell,Juanda, (Specialist in Education, August, 1978)

A COMPARISON OF EMOTIONALLY DISTURBED
BEHAVIORALLY DISORDERED CHILDREN'S PROGRESS
RELATIVE TO THE DEPTH OF PARENT INVOLVEMENT
This study examined the significance of parent involvement as it effects the
progress of emotionally disturbed children. Subjects were sixty identified
children whose files were available at the Burwel! Psychoeducational Center,
Carrollton, Georgia. A Rating Objective Form was used to determine progress
for each child, and parent involvement was determined by a minimum of three
contacts monthly with staff members. The data was analyzed using the Chi-
square test for two independent samples and the results did not prove signi-
ficant at the .05 level.

Price, Clay Louis, III, (MA, Psychology, March, 1978)

A SURVEY OF SOUTHERN BAPTIST ATTITUDES TOWARD
THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN CHURCH AND SOCIETY

As effects of the Women's Liberation Movement spread to religious de-
nominations. Southern Baptist churches have faced questions about women
in the ministry. This paper examined Southern Baptist attitudes on accept-
ance of women in the pastorate, ordination of women to the ministry, the
role of women in church-related work, and the role of women in business and
politics. It was hypothesized attitudes would not differ significantly with re-
spect to leadership status, age and sex, education, region of the country or
support for women's rights.

A sample of 668 Southern Baptist pastors, Sunday School teachers,
Woman's Missionary Union directors, and lay members were mailed a twenty-
four item questionnaire designed to record dichotomous responses. The re-
sults of the 389 respondents were analyzed using chi square to determine
significant relationships.

Overall, the respondents were supportive of women's roles in business,
politics, and non-pastoral ministries. Less than 20 per cent of the total re-
spondents were supportive of women in pastoral roles. Pastors were signifi-
cantly less open to women in non-pastoral roles (religious education, youth
work, and social ministries) than church members. Significant differences be-
tween the responses of persons with less than a high school education and per-
sons with more than a high school education were observed on eighteen of the

59

twenty-four items. Persons with more education tended to be more support-
ive of women's roles outside the home.

Region of the country was associated with items on women's understand-
ing of and vocal participation in politics and with an item that attitude change
will occur in the future. Support for women's rights was associated with
support for women in the ministry.

Two-thirds of the respondents expected attitudes toward women in the
ministry to change within the next twenty-five years. If women continue to
enter the ministry and if current trends in education, labor force participation
and family patterns continue, it is likely that attitudes will indeed change to a
more open acceptance of women in expanding roles.

Roquemore, Aaron l/V. (Specialist in Education, June, 1978)

A CONTRAST BETWEEN OFFENDERS AND NON-OFFENDERS
IN THEIR FAMILY PERCEPTIONS

This research compared the family environment perceptions be.tween in-
dividuals who are incarcerated in a penal institution and those individuals who
comprised the normative sample of the Family Environment Scale. One ex-
perimenter, a Counselor at the Georgia Diagnostic and Classification Center,
Jackson, Georgia tested eighty-three criminal offenders utilizing the Family
Environment Scale, during a two week period. After that time, the program
was discontinued.

The mean, standard deviation, and t-test for each of the two groups was
computed. Analyzed difference between existing normative data developed
by Rudolf H. Moos and that data developed by this investigator produced
significant results at or beyond .05 level.

Scoff, Charles Wesley, (Specialist in Education, June, 1978)

THE IOWA TEST OF BASIC SKILLS
AS A NORM-REFERENCED MEASURE
IN PREDICTING READING ACHIEVEMENT ON THE GEORGIA
CRITERION-REFERENCED TEST
The problem was to determine whether there was a positive correlation be-
tween the Iowa Test of Basic Skills in language arts, including vocabulary,
word analysis, reading and spelling, at the third grade level and the Georgia
Criterion-Referenced Test in reading at the fourth grade level.

Information was gathered to determine whether the Iowa Test of Basic
Skills, level 7, form 6, used with third grade students at Compton Elementary
School in Powder Springs, Georgia was a predictor of the Georgia CRT read-
ing scores obtained by testing the same pupils as fourth grade students in the
Spring of the following year.

Positive correlations at the .001 level of significance were shown by using
the Pearson Product-Moment Correlation. Correlations of .61, .52, .54 and

60

.74 were shown respectively between the vocabulary, word analysis, reading
and spelling subtests of the ITBS and the Georgia CRT in reading.

The ITBS in language arts at the third grade level can be considered as a
significant predictor of achievement on the fourth grade Georgia CRT in
reading.

Overall the data would not suggest that the Georgia CRT be used to sup-
plant the ITBS. However, as the different purposes of the two tests are con-
sidered, perhaps recognition of the significant correlations between the ITBS
subtests and the Georgia CRT could help teachers approach the Georgia CRT
with some confidence as they plan instructional strategies and interpret the
test results to parents.

Seymour, Donald W., (Specialist in Education, August, 1978)

AN APPRAISAL

OF

THE READING PROGRAM

AT

UNITY SCHOOL

OF THE

LAGRANGE CITY SCHOOL SYSTEM

The purpose of this study was to compare two different approaches to the
teaching of reading. RID (Reading Is Developmental), an approach developed
and adopted by the LaGrange School System, was compared to the previous
approach, LEIR (Language Experience In Reading) plus a basal reader, in an
attempt to determine if there had been a significant improvement in reading
achievement test scores under the new program. Third grade students of Unity
School were used in this study. One group (1974-1975 group) had been
taught under the previous program. The other group (1977-1978) had been
taught under the RID program for approximately three years. The t-test indi-
cated that the RID program had enhanced the reading scores.

Swantic, Frances McCormick, (Specialist in Education, August, 1978)

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE

TEACHERS' RETIREMENT SYSTEM AND

THE EMPLOYEES' RETIREMENT SYSTEM OF GEORGIA

This study was concerned with the comparison, of benefits and provisions,

of the Teachers' Retirement System with the Employees' Retirement System

in the State of Georgia. To accomplish this, relevant literature and laws were

reviewed and provisions were compared. The comparison consisted of the

following areas: (a) membership eligibility, (b) administration, (c) creditable

service, (d) employee and employer contributions, (e) retirement benefit

formulas, (f) benefits and options, (g) vesting, (h) inflation protection, (i) dis-

61

ability benefits, (j) early retirement benefits, and (k) death benefits. The
study concluded that disparities and inequities existed Ibetween the systenris.
Proposals were listed to correct imbalances found.

I/Vaits, Thurman Donald, (Specialist in Education, August, 1978)

A COMPARISON OF PUP! L ACHIEVEMENT
FROM ONE-PARENT AND TWO-PARENT FAMILIES

This study was conducted during June, 1978, at Garden Lakes Elementary
School in Floyd County, Georgia. The intent of the study was to gain a great-
er insight regarding the number of students from single-parent families and
the resultant effects of the divorce, separation, or death as measured by the
students' achievement. Stated as the null hypothesis, there is no significant
difference in pupil achievement from one-parent and two-parent families. A
better understanding of the magnitude and the nature of the single-parent
families was desired by the administration and staff in order to provide more
effective guidance and counseling. This information was important in regard .
to considerations for future planning.

Grades 3, 5, and 7 were used in the study. In each class the Experimental
Group was identified by reviewing comulative records and using subjects from
families with one parent because of divorce, separation, or death. For this
population all subjects lived with their mothers. A Control Group was then
matched with the Experimental Group using subjects from homes with both
natural parents. For the purpose of this study, subjects with step-parents were
omitted. If information from the permanent records was incomplete subjects
were omitted. Using the matched pairs, in grades three, five, and seven, the N
(Number) was 14, 12, and 20, respectively.

Subjects were matched using grade level, sex, age (within six months), and
I.Q. (within five points). All students within the school are white, excluding
race as a variable. Because of the size of the homes and the incomes, the
neighborhood is identified as a middle-income community. As part of the
countywide testing program all students took the Comprehensive Tests of
Basic Skills and the Short Form of the Academic Aptitude appropriate for
their grade level in May, 1978.

Using the matched pairs, the null hypothesis was employed in testing the
significance using the 't' test at the .01 level of significance. The results of the
study accepts the null hypothesis that there is no significant difference in
pupil achievement of children from one-parent and two-parent families. Based
on the implications of the study, the researcher concluded that children are
extremely adaptable and achievement is not necessarily effected by being
from the one-parent family. Schools should follow the trend of not "label-
ing" the single-parent family as "different." Because of the continual increas-
ing number of children living in single-parent families there is a tremendous
need for more research.

62

Wilson, Hugh K. (Specialist in Education, August, 1978)

A STUDY OF THE READABILITY LEVELS
OF THE STATE ADOPTED SIXTH AND SEVENTH GRADE
SOCIAL STUDIES TEXTBOOKS
Major investigations have shown that most social studies textbooks are
written above the readability levels of the students for whom they were writ-
ten. The purpose of this study was to assess the readability level of all state-
adopted sixth and seventh grade social studies textbooks. The readability
data collected were used as the major criteria in the selection of sixth and
seventh grade social studies textbooks for adoption in Cobb County. The
thirty-three textbooks were divided by grades into three categories: history,
interdisciplinary textbooks, and geography. Two instruments, the Fry Read-
ability Graph and the SMOG Grading Formula, were applied in assessing the
readability of the textbooks. According to the results produced by the Fry
Graph, eight of the textbooks were above grade level. The SMOG Grading
Formula, however, placed one textbook on grade level and the other thirty-
two textbooks above the designated grade level. Twenty-one of the text-
books showed internal readability level ranges of three to six grade levels. It
was recommended that textbooks be carefully examined for readability
level before adoption.

Yates, Delores Free/and, (Specialist in Education, June, 1978)

A STUDY OF THE CORRELATION BETWEEN SELF-CONCEPT
AND READING ACHIEVEMENT OF BLACK CHILDREN
OF LOW SOCIO-ECONOMIC BACKGROUNDS IN THE
MIDDLE GRADES AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL OF A
LARGE BLACK METROPOLITAN HIGH SCHOOL
The purpose of this study was to investigate and determine whether a pos-
itive relationship exists among black students between reading achievement
and self-concept at the middle grades and senior high level. It was intended
that the information derived from this study would produce valuable inform-
ation for teachers and parents with respect to this widely discussed and highly
significant problem.

The study involved students from the Samuel Howard Archer High School.
At the outset of the study, permanent record folders and other available data
of all eighth and tenth graders were examined to give the researcher a working
knowledge of the background of the population. A group of fifty students at
each grade level was selected to participate in the study. Near the end of the
school year, an instrument which measures self-concept was administered to
these one hundred students. At the same time a reading achievement test was
also administered. An analysis was made of scores on both tests to determine
if there is any correlation between reading and self-concept at the middle
grades and at the senior high level.

63

Only 12 of the 29 variables yielded by the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale
were used for correlation with the total raw score of the Traxler Silent Read-
ing Test. Variable number one, Total Conflict, appeared to be the only one
to yield a substantially high positive correlation.

ANNUAL FACULTY BIBLIOGRAPHY

Claxton, Robert

"Investigating Past Weather Patterns: The Case of Guatennaia," Paper pre-
sented April 29, 1977, Georgia Academy of Science, Emory (Atlanta).

Review of El pensamiento vivo de Sandino by Sergio Ramirez (EDUCA,
1976), in Hispanic American Historical Review, 57 (November, 1977):
797-798.

Volume Editor, "Dependency Unbends: Case Studies in Inter-American
Relations," West Georgia College Studies in the Social Sciences, 17 (June,
n. 1978).

t;; with Alan Hecht, "Climatic and Human History in Europe and Latin
I. America: an opportunity for comparative study," Climatic Change, 1
f. (1978): 195-203.

[v Review of La iglesia catolica y el estado en Guatemala, 1871-1885 by
:'' Hubert J. Miller (Universidad de San Carlos, 1976), in Catholic Historical
Review (forthcoming)

Review of El pensamiento liberal de Guatemala, by Jorge Mario Garcfia
Laguardia (EDUCA, 1977), in Hispanic American Historical Review
^forthcoming)

Review of The United States and the Development of South America,
1945-1975 by Samuel Baily (New Viewpoints, 1976), in The New Scholar
(forthcoming).

"Social Responsibility in Guatemala in Times of Drought," paper presented
October 20, 1978, Pacific Coast Council on Latin American Studies, Cali-
fornia State University/Fullerton.

DeVillier,J. Lincoln

I' "Examine Loan Rates," The Financial Planner, Vol. 7, No. 1 (January,
1978), page 28.

"Lesson of Algamish," The Financial Planner, Vol. 7, No. 6 (June, 1978),
p. 32.

"Spender vs Planner," The Financial Planner, Vol. 7, No. 9 (September,
1978), p. 76.

"College Professor Says Term Life Article Erroneous," Times Free-Press
(Carrollton, Georgia), October 31, 1978, p. 8 b.

Co-authored with Mary Anne G. DeVillier: "Organization Behavior and
Three Faces' of Adam," The Royal Air Forces Quarterly (London),
Winter, 1978.

65

Farmer, Gerald J.

Articles

"Clarinet Multiphonics". The Instrumentalist, Oct. 1978, Vol 33, No. 3, p.
48-53.

"Competency-Based Education and Music Teacher Certification in Georgia."
Georgia Music News, (November, 1978), Vol. 39, No. 2, p. 30-31.

Television Programs

(Wrote the script, directed performing groups, and performed on Clarinet

and saxophone)

"Woodwind Instruments" CATV; Oct. 19, 1978

"Variety In Music." CATV; Oct. 26, 1978

Paper Readings

"New Techniques for Clarinet." Paper read at Research Session at Georgia
Music Educators Association, Atlanta, January 27, 1978.

"Careers in Music Education." Paper read at Student Chapter Music Edu-
cators National Conference, Atlanta, January 28, 1978.

Musical Performances

Faculty recital - Woodwind Music, January 24, 1978, Cashen Hall, WGC
Senior Composition Recital of Dan Piatt Cashen Hall, WGC, January 12,

1978
Woodwind Quintet, Directed by G. Farmer February 2, 1978, Cashen

Hall, WGC
Student Convocation Recital,clarinet and flute duet, Cashen Hall, February

2, 1978
"A Little Night Music" 5 performances, clarinet and flute, February 21-25,
WGC Auditorium, Woodwind Quintet, Director G. Farmer, West
Georgia Arts Council Concert, Lomason Regional Library, March 2, 1978.
Senior Composition Recital of Jeff McClendon Cashen Hall, WGC, April

4, 1978
Woodwind Ensemble Recital, G. Farmer, Director, March 9, 1978, Cashen

Hall, WGC
Woodwind Quintet Concert "Woodwind Instruments of the Orchestra"

Villa Rica Middle Schook, January 14, 1978
Woodwind Quintet Concert "Woodwind Instruments of the Orchestra"

Centralhatchee School, October 10, 1978
Woodwind Quintet Concert "Woodwind Instruments of the Orchestra"

South Douglas Elementary School, October 24, 1978
Faculty Excahnge Concert, Clayton Junior College, November 8, 1978
Faculty Exchange Concert, DeKalb Community College South Campus

November 15, 1978
Student Convocation Recital, Cashen Recital Hall, WGC, September 16,

1978
Windwind Quintet Concert, Cashen Hall, WGC, November 16, 1978

66

Hilt, Douglas R.

Articles

"Germany Revisited" The Canadian Modern Language Review, October
1962, pp. 4-6.

"Jose Camilo Cela, La Colmena." (Book review) Hispania, September
1967, pp. 626-27.

"A New Look at Ph.D. Language Requirements." California Western Uni-
versity Doctoral Society Journal, June 1968, pp. 14-16.

"Manuel Godoy: Prince of the Peace." History Today, December 1971,
pp. 833-41.

"Mr. Bonaparte of Bordentown: Napoleon's Brother in America."
Mankind, July 1972, pp. 50-55.

"Madame de Stael: Emotion and Enthusiasm." History Today,
December 1972, pp. 833-42.

"A. W. Schlegel as Patriot and Politician." History Today, April 1973,

pp. 239-46.

"Goya: Turmoils of a Patriot." History Today, August 1973, pp. 536-45.

"Chateaubriand and Napoleon." History Today, ZPecember 1973, pp. 831-

-38.

"August Wilhelm Schlegel - Master Translator." The Canadian Modern

Language Review, January 1974, pp. 134-36.

"Galdos: The Novelist as Historian." History Today, May 1974, pp. 315-
25.

"Joseph Fouche, Policeman par excellence." Mankind, February 1975,
pp. 38-45.

"Compassionate Kins and Rebellious Pnnces." History Today, February
1975, pp. 79-88.

"Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos." History Today, June 1975, pp. 428-35.

"Querido Manuel: Rise and Fall of a Fa\jor\te." Mankind, February 1976,
pp. 46-51.

"Pablo de Olavide: Spirit of an Age." Accepted by History Today.

Books

Ten Against Napoleon. Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1975.

A study of the literary, artistic, religious, and political opposition to
Napoleon, with emphasis on the cross-cultural influences of the period.

In preparation: A full-length biography of Manuel Godoy (1767-1851),
royal favorite and effective ruler of Spain from 1792-1808. Emphasis will
be placed on Godoy's relationship to Melendez Valdes, Moratin, hijo,
Jovellanos, and Quintana, and his role as Goya's sponsor.

67

Mann, George

October 8, 1974 - Recital; North Georgia College, Dahlonega

October 15, 1974 - Recital; West Georgia College

October 25, 1974 Recital for American Liszt Society Festival; Buffalo,

New York
April 2, 1975 Recital; Clayton Junior College; Morrow
April 15, 1975- Recital; West Georgia College
April 25, 1975 - Recital; West Georgia College (Language Day)
May 28, 1975 - Recital with Marianna Detrino, cellist; West Georgia College
January 20, 1976 - Recital; Georgia College, Milledgeville
January 27, 1976 Recital with James and Stephanie Isaacson, violinists;

West Georgia College
February 2, 1976 - Lecture-Recital for Decatur Music Teachers Association
February 10, 1976 Recital; Jacksonville State University, Alabama
March 28, 1976 - Recital; Cedartown Junior Music Club
April 13, 1976- Recital; West Georgia College
October 6, 1976 Recital; Clayton Junior College, Morrow
October 7, 1976 - Recital; Valdosta State College
February 1, 1977 Recital with Betty Sue Tolbert, painist; West Georgia

College
March 19, 1977 - Recital; Clearwater, Florida

April 4, 1977 Recital; Presbyterian College, Clinton, South Carolina
April 19, 1977 - Recital; West Georgia College
May 22, 1977 - Recital, Georgia State University, Atlanta
June, 1977 Recital with Janet Stewart, Soprano, for National Assoc-
iation of Teachers of Singing Regional Meeting, West Georgia College
November 1, 1977 Recital with Janet Stewart, West Georgia College
November 18, 1977 Recital with Janet Stewart, Columbus, Georgia
February 7, 1978 Performance with West Georgia College Woodwind

Quinter, West Georgia College
March 2, 1978 Performance with West Georgia College Woodwind

Quinter, Neva Lomason Library
March 7, 1978 Recital; Central Wesleyan College, South Carolina
March 8, 1978 - Recital; Anderson College, South Carolina
March 20, 1978 - Recital; Winthrop College, Rock Hill, South Carolina
April 6, 1978 - Recital; Columbus College
April 12, 1978 - Recital; DeKalb Community College, South Campus,

Decatur
April 17, 1978- Recital; West Georgia College
April 28, 1978 - Recital; Brunswick Junior College
May 15, 1978 - Soloist in Beethovan Concert No. 1 with Rome, Georgia

Symphony Orchestra
June 20, 1978 - Recital; West Georgia College
June 21, 1978 - Recital; Emory University, Atlanta

68

October 20, 1978 - Recital; Kennesaw College

November 16, 1978 - Recital; Floyd Junior College, Rome

November 30, 1978 - Recital; Valdosta State College

Romanovicz, Dwight k.

ARTICLES

Brown, R.M. Jr., W.W. Franke, W. Herth, and K.K. Romanovicz. "The
Role of the Golgi Apparatus in the Biogenesis and Secretion of a Cellulosic
Glycoprotein in Pleurochrysis: A model system for the synthesis of struct-
ural polysaccharides." pp. 207-257. In F. Loewus (ed.) Biogenesis of Plant
Cell Wall Polysaccharides. Academic Press, N.Y., 1973.

Hanker, J.S., L.P. Thornburg, P.E. Yates, and D.K. Romanovicz. "The De-
monstration of Arylsulfatases with 4-nitro-1, 2-benzenediol mono (hy-
drogen sulfate) by the Formation of Osmium Blacks at the Sites of Copper
Capture." Histocheniistry ^\: 207-225,1975.

Romanovicz, D.K. and J.S. Hanker. "Embedding Technique to Facilitate
Speciman Selection for Electron Hicroscopy." Data Sheet 1 88, Po//sc/e/7ces,
Inc., Warrington, PA.

Brown, R.M. Jr., and D.K, Romanovicz. "Biogensis and Structure of Golgi-
derived Cellulosic Scales in Pleurochrysis. I. Role of the Endomembrane
System in Scale Assembly and Exocytosis." Appl. Polym. Symp. 28: 537-
585.

Hanker, J.S., D.K, Romanovica, and H.A. Padykula. "Tissue Fixation and
Osmium Black Formation with Nonvolatile Octavalent Osmium Compounds.
Histochemistry 49: 263-292.

Hanker, J.S. , K.A. Carson, and D.K. Romanovicz, "Innovations in Osmium
Black Cytochemistry." 6th European Congress on Electron Microscopy.
Jerusalem: TAL International Publishing Company

Romanovicz, D.K. and J.S. Hanker. "Wafer Embedding: Specimen Sel-
ection in Electron Microscopic Cytochemistry with Osmiophilic Polymers."
Histochem. J., 9: 317-327.

Hanker, J.S. , J. W. Preece, E. J., Burkes, Jr., and D.K. Romanovicz. "Catalase
in Salivary Gland Striated and Excretory Duct Cells. I. The Distribution
of Cytoplasmic and Particulate Catalase and the Presence of Catalase-
positive Rods." Histochem. J., 9: 711-728.

Hanker, J.S., M.S. Silverman, and D.K. Romanovicz. Catalase in Salivary
Gland Striated and Excretory Duct Cells. II. ^ body: an Ellipsoidal Perox-
isomal Organelle with Crystalloid Axial Projections." A//sfoc/7em. 7., 9: 729
-744.

Hanker, J.S. and D.K. Romanovicz. o bodies: Transformed Peroxisomes
Which Produce Crystalloid Cellular inclusions. Science, 197: 895-898.

ABSTRACTS

Romanovicz, D.K. and R.M., Jr. "A Complex, Cellulosic Wall Component
Synthesized and Transported via the Golgi Apparatus." Proc. Southeast
Electron Microscopy Soc, Athens, Georgia.

Hanker, J.S., J. P. Goulson, D. Romanovicz, L.P. Thornburg, and J.W.
Preece. "Microbodies in Salivary Gland Ducts: Possible Relationship to
Subcellular Tubles." J. Dent. Res. (Suppl.) 53: 142.

Romanovicz, D.K. and R.M. Brown, Jr. "Cytochemical Localization of
Enzymes Involved in Scale Biogensis." 32nd Ann. Proc. Electron Micros-
copy Soc. Amer., Claitor's Publ. Div., Baton Rouge.

Hanker, J.S., L.P. Thornburg, and D,K. Romanovicz. "Recent Trends and
Advances in Catalytic Osmiophilic Polymer Generation by Transition Metal
Compounds in Ultrastructural Cytochemistry." 32ncl Ann. Poc. Electron
Microscopy Soc. Amer., Claitor's Publ, Div., Baton Rouge.

Romanovicz, D.K. Cytochemical Evidence for Sulfotransferace Activity
in the Golgi Apparatus of a Marine Alga." Proc. Southeast Electron
Microscopy Soc, Chapel Hill, N.C.

Romanovicz, D.K., E.J. Burkes, Jr., and J. S. Hanker. Continuities Between
Peroxisomes in Salivary Gland Duct Cells and Their Possible Relationship
to Catalase Positive Rods." Proc. Southeast Electron Microscopy Soc,
Chapel Hill, N.C.

Hanker, J.S., D.K. Romanovica, and H.L. Moore, III. "Peroxisomes in
Satellite, Schwann, and Laminar cells Associated with Trigeminal Sensory
Neurons." 7. Cell Biol. 63: 131a.

Romanovicz, D.K. and R.M. Brown, Jr. "Cellulose Produced in the Golgi
Apparatus." J. Cell Biol. 63: 287a.

Hanker, J.S., K.A. Carson, and D.K. Romanovicz. An Osmic Methanamine
Complex as a Substitute for Os04 in Cytochemistry." J. Histochem.
Cytochem. 23: 231.

Hanker, J.S., J.W. Preece, E.J. Burkes, and D.K. Romanovicz. The Nature
of Particulate Catalase in Mouse Salivary Gland Ducts." J. Histochem.
Cytochem. 23: 320.

Hanker, J.S., D.K. Romanovicz, and M.A. Crenshaw. "Nonvolatile Oct-
avalent Osmium Compounds as Sources of Os04 for Electron Micro-
scopic Cytochemistry." 33rd Ann. Proc. Electron Microscopy Soc. Amer.,
Claitor's Publ. Div., Baton Rouge.

Hanker, J.S., P.E. Yates, and D.K. Romanovicz. "Peroxisome Content of
Tissues of Germ-free Mice." J. Cell Biol. 67: 155a.

Romanovicz, D.K., W.W. Ambrose, and J.S. Hanker. Stepwise Specimen
Selection in Cytochemistry with Osmiophilic Polymers." J. Cell Biol. 67:369a

70

Romanovicz, D.K. and J.S. Hanker. Wafer Embedment to Facilitate Light
iVIicroscopic Selection of Specimens for Uitrathin Sectioning." 34th Ann.
Proc. Electron Microscopy Soc. Amer,. Claitor's Publ. Div., Baton Rouge.

Romanovicz, D.K. and J.S. Hanker,. "Biogenesis of Catalase-positive Rods
in Excretory Duct Cells of Salivary Glands." 34th Ann. Proc. Electron
Microscopy Soc. Amer., Claitor's Publ. Div., Baton Rouge.

Hanker, J.S., E.J. Burkes, Jr., M.S. Silverman, and D.K. Romanovicz.
"Distribution and Significance of Crystalline and Cytoplasmic Catalase and
Microbodies in Salivary Gland Ducts." First International Congress on Cell
Biology, Boston, Mass.

Hanker, J.S., K.A. Carson, R.J. Chandross, and D,K. Romanovicz.
"Schwann cell Glycolytic Activity and Proliferation in Sensory Neuro-
pathy." J. Dent. Res. 55:265.

Hanker, J.S., P.E. Yates, and D.K. Romanovicz. "Demonstration of Car-
bonic Anhydrase by Catalytic Osmiophilic Polymer Generation J
Histochem. Cytochem. 24:614-615,

Hanker, J.S. and D.K. Romanovicz. "Phi bodies: Transformed Peroxi-
somes that Produce Crystalloidal Cellular Inclusions." I J Histochem
Cytochem. 25:253.

Hanker, J.S., R.A. Coleman, D.K. Romanovicz, W.W. Ambrose, and K.A.
Carson. "I. Osmiophilic Reagents in the Histocytochemical Localization
of Oxidoreductases Relative to Cellular Metabolism and Function." Pro-
ceedings of the Fifth International School of Electron Microscopy. Erice,
Sicily.

Hanker, J.S., P.E. Yates, W.W. Ambrose, D.K. Romanovicz, and L.F.
Gonzalez. "II. The Subcellular Localization of Hydrolytic Enzymes in Cells
and Tissues of Developing and Diseased Animals." Proceedings of the Fifth
International School of Electron Microscopy. Erice, Sicily.

Romanovicz, D.K. and J.S. Hanker,. Acetylcholinesterase-positive Para-
receptor Cells in the Palatal Dermis." J. Dent Res. 56: 163.

Hanker, J.S., D.K. Romanovicz, J. Laszio, and J. Moore. "Formation of
Auer Rods from Phi Bodies in Non-lymphocytic Leukemias " Blood 50-
149.

Gonzalez, L.F., D.K. Romanovicz, and J.S. Hanker. "Histocytochemistry
of Glycolytic Dehydrogenases in Human Gingiva." J. Dent. Res. 57:140.
Moore, J., J. Laszio, D.K. Romanovicz, and J.S. Hanker. "Catalase Staining
of Leukocytes: An Adjunctive Clinical Test for the Classification of
Leukemias." Clin. Res. 26:353a.

71

Scoff, Carole

Book, Your Financial Plan, A Consumers Guide, Harper and Row, January,
1979.

Shank, W. A.

SOLO APPEARANCES

Copland: The Quiet City: Syracuse University Synnphony Orchestra - 1961
Vivaldi: Concerto in C Major for two trunnpets and orchestra

Syracuse University Symphony Orchestra - 1962

Quebec Symphony Orchestra- Feb. 21, 1967 and Feb. 29, 1967
Haydn: Concerto for Trumpet and Orchestra

Syracuse University Symphonic Band - Summer of 1962

Virginia State Symphony Orchestra - 1966

New York State Symphony Orchestra - 1966
Morrissey: Concertino for two trumpets, trombone and band

Syracuse University Symphonic Band - 1963
Morrissey: Soliloquy for Trumpet: Utica Municipal Band - 1963
Anderson: Trumpeter's Lullaby: Utica Municipal Band - 1963
Hummel: Concerto for Trumpet and Orchestra

Quebec Symphony Orchestra - Jan. 20, 1968, Jan. 30, 1968 and Feb.

6, 1968 ^ ..

CBC Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio Orchestra- Recordmg

on March 1, 1968
Jackson Symphony Orchestra - January 16, 1972

Arban/Clarke: The Carnival of Venice: The University of Tennessee at

Martin Concert Band - 1970
Arutunian: Concerto for Trumpet and Orchestra

Louisiana State University Symphony Orchestra - April 19, 1974
Mendez: The Bullfighter's Song: Hudson Falls H.S. Band-Jan. 13, 1977

PUBLIC RECITALS

Syracuse University - December 8, 1961 - Solo Recital May 19, 1963 -

Solo Recital
Eastman School of Music - August 4, 1965 - Solo Recital
The University of Tennessee at Martin -April 9, 1970, January 18, 1971,

May 4, 1972, and April 12, 1973
Louisana State University - July 6, 1972 - Solo Recital, August 1, 1973-

Lecture Recital, February 4, 1974 - Chamber Music Recital, July 29,

1974 -Solo Recital, March 21, 1975 -Solo Recital

72

Radford College February 5, 1975 Lecture Demonstration of Ancient
and Modern Trunnpet Types

Bryan College February 6, 1975 Lecture Dennonstration of Ancient
and Modern Trumpet Types

Federationof Music Clubs, Martin, Tennessee January 9, 1976 Trumpet
and organ recital Adirondack Community College May 5, 1977

MUSIC REVIEWER

National Association of College Wind and Percussion Instructors Journal
1974

RESEARCH AND PUBLICATIONS

An Essay Concerning the Understanding of Torelli's S//7fo/7/s co^ Tromba.
Rochester: Eastman School of Music, 1965.

Hunting Horns and Trumpets (1600-1750) A Comparative Study. Baton
Rouge: Louisiana State University, 1973.

A Comparison of Prototype Eighteenth Century Musical Instruments:
Jager-trompete, Barock-trompete, and Zink with their Modern Counter-
Parts. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University, 1973.

An Annotated Listing of Music for Wind Ensemble, composed in America
during the period from Early Nationhood until the Civil War. Baton Rouge:
Louisiana State University, 1974.

An Annotated Listing of Solo and Small Chamber Ensemble Music for the
Cornetto (1570-1670). Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University, 1973.

A Historical Study and Transcription of the Concerto for the Kent Bugle or
Klappenflugel by Anthony Philip Heinrich. Baton Rouge: Louisiana
State University, 1975.

MUSIC COMPOSITIONS

Short'n Sweet, for piano solo.

Variations on a Theme for Wall<ing. for trumpet, Clarinet and Saxophone.

Short Invention for two trumpets.

Life for four part chorus. Words by Anna Laetitia Barbauld.

The Moon in the Heavens, for Medium voice and piano.

Stokes, Jimmy C.

"ACS Cooperative Examination in Qualitative Analysis Form 1976."
Examinations Committee of the Division of Chemical Education of the
American Chemical Society, Spring 1977.

73

"ACS Cooperative Examination in General Chemistry Form 1977."
Examinations Committee of the Division of Chemical Education of the
American Chemical Society, Spring 1977.

"Non-Laboratory Activities for Chemistry." Georgia Journal of Science,
35 (1977), 114. (Abstract)

"Meeting Attendance Too Costly." Chemical and Engineering News, 55
(33), August 15, 1977, pg. 2. (letter to editor)

Worf<bool< for Theoretical Chemistry, West Georgia College Press, 1977.
(with L.M. Barnes)

"Pie in the Sky." Chemistry, January/February, 1978, pg. 31.

"A Technical Writing Program for High School Students." Georgia Journal
of Science, 36 (1978), 112. (Abstract)

"Basic Liquid Chromatography (Review)." Journal of College Science
Teaching, VII: 5 (1978), 324.

"ACS Cooperative Examination in General Chemistry Form 1977S."
Examinations Committee of the Division of Chemical Education of the
American Chemical Society, August 1978.

Panelist, Georgia Section, American Chemical Society's Conference on the
Drop/Fail- Rate in General Chemistry, October 14, 1978.

"Where Has All the Sulfuric Acid Gone?" Chemistry, 51 (October, 1978),
10.

"Basic Mass Spectrometry (Review)." Journal of College Science Teaching,
Vlll:2(1978), 124.

Review of Chemistry (Bailar, Moeller, Kleinburg, Guss, Castellion, and
Metz). Academic Press, December, 1978.

"An Evaluation of Three Self-Paced Programs in General Chemistry."
Paper presented at 27th Annual Convention of the National Science
Teachers Association, March 23, 1979,

Tolbert, Betty Sue

January 19, 1979 West Georgia College; Piano and Clarinet; Rhapsody
in Blue by George Gershwin.

December 17, 18, 1978 - Tabernacle Baptist Church, Carrollton; Played
Piano in performance in "Amahl and The Night Visitors" by Menotti.

December 3, 1978 - Tabernacle Baptist Church, Carrollton; Played harps-
ichord in performance of the Christmas portion of "Messiah" by Handel.

October 12, 1978 - Lit-Mu Club Evening Musicale at First Baptist Church,
Carrollton; Fantasie in d minor by Mozart, solo piano.

September 14, 1978 - Fine Arts Faculty Recital, West Georgia College;
Piano and Violin; Nocturne, Op. 9, No. 2 by Chopin; Playera, Op. 23, No. 1
by Sarasati; Mazurka, Op. 19 (The Village Fiddler) by Wieniawski.

74

May 16, 1977 - West Georgia College, Piano and Violin; Sonata in A Major,
Op. 47 "Kreutzer" by Beethoven; Concerto in G Major For Three Violins
and Concerto by Telennann; Scottish Fantasy for Violin and Piano by Max
Bruch.

May 8, 1977 West Georgia College; Piano Quintet in c minor by
Dohnanyi; Betty Tolbert, piano with American Pro-Art String Quartet.

May 5, 1977 University of Georgia; Piano and Violin and Piano and
String Quartet; Sonata in A Major, Op. 47 "Kreutzer" by Beethoven and
Quintet in c minor by Dohnanyi; Betty Tolbert, piano, with American Pro-
Art String Quartet.

February 1, 1977 - West Georgia College; Duo Piano Recital, Betty Tolbert
and George Mann, Pianists; Jesu, Joy of Man's Desiring by J.S. Bach-Hess,
Sonata in G Major by J.C. Bach, Aria and Toccata by Dello Joio, Variat-
ions on a Theme of Haydn by Brahms, Suite for Two Pianos by Arensky
and Scaramouche by Milhaud.

September 18, 1976 - Cartersville High School, Cartersville, Georgia.
Piano and Violin; Sonata in C minor. Op. 45 by Grieg; Melodie by Gluck;
Schoen Rosmarin by Kreisler; Nigun by Ernest Bloch; Scherzo-Tarentelle,
Op. 16 by Wieniawski.

September 27, 1976 West Georgia College; Piano and Violin; Sonata in
c minor. Op. 45 by Grieg, Nigun by Bloch; Scherzo-Tarentelle, Op. 16 by
Wieniawski.

July 13, 1976 Wesleyan College, Macon, Georgia, Georgia Governor's
Honors Program; Piano and Viblin; Sonata in c minor. Op. 45 by Grieg,
Nigun by Bloch; Scherzo-Tarentelle, Op. 16 by Wieniawski.

July 13, 1976 Wesleyan College, Macon, Georgia, Governor's Honors
Program, Solo Piano Program (Mini Concert). ProgramJesu, Joy of Man's
Desiring by J.S. Bach-Myra Hess; Preludes in c minor and g minor by
Chopin; Waltz in A^ Major by Chopin; Preludes for Piano by Gershwin.

May 30, 1976 Tabernacle Baptist Church, Carrollton, Concert of secular
and sacred music; Scherzo in B Flat Minor by Chopin; Jesu, Joy of Man's
Desiring by J.S. Bach-Hess; The Lord's Prayer by Malotte; Numerous other
sacred arrangements.

May 30, 1976 Performance for Phi Kappa Phi initiation at West Georgia
College; Three Preludes for Piano by Gershwin.

May 23, 1976 - Accompanied West Georgia College Concert Choir in per-
formance of Psalms by Lukas Foss (Two piano accompaniment with my
student, Tisha Clark, at the second piano).

April 20, 1976 - "Mini Concert" for Carrollton Rotary Club; Scherzo in B
flat minor by Chopin and Three Preludes for Piano by Gershwin.

75

May 27, 1975 - Accompanied West Georgia College Concert Choir in per-
formance of Neve Liebeslieder,Op. 65 by J. Brahma (Piano duet accompan-
iment with George Mann playing the secondo).

November 4, 1974 - University of Georgia, Graduate solo recital, Des pas

sur la Neige, Debussy; Fantasia in D Minor, Mozart; Sonata in F Minor,

Op. 57, Beethoven; Waltz in A Flat Major, Op. 69, No. 1, Waltz in G

Flat Major, Op. 70, No. 1, Nocturne in C Sharp Minor, Op. 27, No. 1,

Scherzo in B Flat Minor - all by Chopin.

November 1, 1974 - Gainesville Junior College, Guest performer; Des pas

sur la Neige, Debussy; Fantasia in D Minor, Mozart; Sonata in F.Minor,

Op. 57, Beethoven; Waltz in A Flat Major, Op. 69, No. 1, Walta in G Flat

Major, Op. 70, No. 1, Nocturne in C Sharp Minor, Op. 27, No. 1 Scherzo

in B Flat Minor - all by Chopin.,

October 29, 1974 - West Georgia College, Faculty Recital, Des pas sur la

Neige, Debussy; Fantasia in D Minor, Mozart; Sonata in F Minor, Op. 57,

Beethoven; Waltz in A Flat Major, Op. 69, No. 1, Waltz in G Flat Major,

Op. 70, No. 1. Nocturne in C Sharp Minor, Op. 27, No. 1, Scherzo in B

Flat Minor - all by Chopin.

October 21, 1974 - Georgia Southern College, Statesboro, Georgia, Guest

Performer; Des pas sur la Neige, Debussy; Fantasia in D Minor, Mazart;

Sonata in F Minor, Op. 57, Beethoven; Waltz in A Flat Major, Op. 69, No.

1, Waltz in G Flat Major, Op. 70, No. 1, Nocturne in C Sharp Minor, Op.

27, No. 1, Scherzo in B Flat Minor - all by Chopin.

October 17, 1974 - Berry College, Rome, Georgia, Guest Performer, Des

pas sur la Neige, Debussy; Fantasia in D Minor, Mozart; Sonata in F Minor,

Op. 57, Beethoven; Waltz in A Flat Major, Op. 69, No. 1, Waltz in G Flat

Major, Op. 70, No. 1, Nocturne in C Sharp Minor, Op. 27, No. 1, Scherzo

in B Flat Minor - all by Chopin.

October 6, 1974 - Young Harris College, Guest Performer, Des pas sur la

Neige, Debussy; Fantasia in D Minor, Mozart; Sonata in F.Minor, Op. 57,

Beethoven; Waltz in A Flat Major, Op. 69, No. 1, Waltz in G Flat Major,

Op. 70, No. 1, Nocturne in C Sharpe Minor, Op. 27, No. 1, Scherzo in B

Flat Minor - all by Chopin.

October 26, 1972 - West Georgia College, Faculty Recital; Sonata in f

minor by Brahms.

May 19, 1970 - West Georgia College Faculty Recital; Lyric Pieces Op.

43 by Grieg and Trois Pieces by Poulenc.

March 13, 1969 - West Georgia College Faculty Recital; Sonata in B flat

Major, K.' 570 by Mozart; Three Preludes for Piano by Gershwin and

Faschingsswank aus Wien by Schumann.

March 9, 1969 - Hawkinsville, Georgia; Sonata in B flat Major, K, 570 by

Mozart; Three Preludes for Piano by Gershwin and Faschingsswank aus

Wien by Schumann.

76

April 11, 1972 West Georgia College, Accompanist for faculty voice
concert given by Bruce Borton, Baritone. Works performed: Die Post, Das
Wirtshaus, Heidenroslein, Du Bist Die Rue, Aufenthalt all by Schubert;
Trois Ballades de Villon by Debussy; General William Booth Enters
Into Heaven, Serenity, At the River, The Greatest Man, The Children's
Hour, Charley Rutiedge all by Charles Ives.

April 3, 1973 West Georgia College, Faculty concert of works for Violin
and Piano. Program: Sonata in D Major, Op. 5 by Corelli; Sonata in D
Major, Op. 12, No. 1 by Beethoven and Sonata No. 1 in G Major, Op. 78
by Brahms.

October 27, 1971 -West Georgia College, Faculty Chamber Music concert;
Suite for Violin, Clarinet and Piano by Darius Milhaud.

May 13, 1971 West Georgia College, Faculty Chamber Music concert;
Suite for Violin, Clarinet, and Piano by Darius Milhaud.

December, 1969 West Georgia College, Harpsichordist in West Georgia
College Concert Choir performance of "Magnificat".

May 15, 1969 West Georgia College, Faculty Chamber Music Concert;
Concerto in A Minor, Op. 3, No. 8 for Violin, Viola, and Piano by Vivaldi;
Concerto in D Minor for two Violins and Piano by J.S. Bach.

May 14, 1969 West Georgia College, Faculty Chamber Music Concert;
Music of Mourning (I Slowly, II Moderately, III Fast, Iv Very Slowly) by
Paul Hindemith.

Ulrich, Walter

Ulrich, Walter. "Recent Changes in the Nature of Inherency." Paper pre-
sented at the April, 1976 Convention of the Central States Speech Assoc-
iation, Chicago, Illinois.

"Toward a Justification of Inherency." Paper presented at the April, 1976
Convention of the Kansas State Speech Association, Wichita, Kansas.

"On Debating Inherency." \v\ Perspectives on Criminal Justice: Penal Re-
form. Pretrial Proceedure, Gun Control. Edited by Charles Kaufman, Robin
Rowland, and Frank Cross. Lawrence, Kansas: University of Kansas De-
bate Squad, 1976.

"A Theoretical Discussion of the Counterplan." in Health Care in America:
Perspectives and Issues. Edited by Randy Lake, Robin Rowland, and Frank
Cross. Lawrence, Kansas: Division of Continuing Education, 1977.

"The Construction of the Affirmative Plan." In Energy Independence:
Perspectives and Issues. Edited by Randy Lake, Robin Rowland, and Frank
Rowland. Lawrence, Kansas: Division of Continuing Education, 1978.

"A Process View of Argument." Journal of Human Interaction, I (Summer,
1978), 38-43.

77

"Tabula Rasa as an Approach to the Judging of Debates." Peper presented
at the November, 1978 Gbnvention of the Speech Comnnunication Assoc-
iation, Minneapolis, Minnesota.

Wagner, Donald R.

Review of The Totalitarian Temptation by Jean-Francois Revel. Georgia
Political Science Association Journal, VI, No. 1 (Spring, 1978), 138-140.

"Facts, Values, and the Sense of Sensory Experience." Paper read at Amer-
ican Political Science Association, New York, New York, September, 1978.

"Human Nature and Politics." Panel chairmen at Georgia Political Science
Association, Savannah, Georgia, February, 1979.

78

I

WEST GEORGIA COLLEGE/l^j

REVIEW /u

Vol XII

May, 1980

Published by

WEST GEORGIA COLLEGE
Division of the University System of Georgia

CARROLLTON, GEORGIA

WEST GEORGIA COL

REVIEW

Volume XII

TABLE/Cu

of /Or

CONTENTS

Mysticism as Everyday Life: The Recurring
Mystical Moment James B. Klee ....

Too Few for the Status Quo: Some Enrollment
Issues for the Future John C. Upchurch . ,

The Local Community and Global Awareness:

The Case for the West Georgia Area Paul E. Masters, Jr 12

Reflections on Iran's Islamic Republic and
The Origins of Public Authority:
The Political Role of Charismatic
Nation-Building Daniel Brantley 21

Are We Here for a Fair Exchange? A Review
and Critique of George Homans'
Exchange Theory Lee-jan Jan 28

Abstracts of Master's Theses and Specilist in

Education Projects 35

Annual Bibliography of West Georgia College

Faculty as of January 1, 1980 69

Copyright c 1980, West Georgia College
Printed in U.S.A.

Published by
WEST GEORGIA COLLEGE

Maurice K. Townsend, President
John T. Lewis III, Vice President and Dean of Faculties

Learning Resources Comrrfittee
Chairman, Timothy M. Chowns

Mary E. Baxter Joseph Doldan

Charles Beard George C. Mann

Edwin M. Blue Jerome T. Mock

Herman Boyd J. Earl Perry

Thomas A. Bryson III Jo Ann Sanders

Dexter Byrd Carole E. Scott
Richard Coffeen

Jimmy C. Stokes, Editor
Martha A. Saunders, Associate Editor
Mark J. LaFountain, Assistant Editor

The purpose of this publication is to provide encouragement for faculty
research and to make available results of such activity. The Review,
published annully, accepts original scholarly work and creative writing.
West Georgia College assumes no responsibility for contributors' views.
The style guide is Kate L. Turabian. A Manual for Writers. Although the
Review is primarily a medium for the faculty of West Georgia College,
other sources are invited.

An annual bibliography includes doctoral dissertations, major recitals
and major art exhibits. Theses and articles in progress or accepted are not
listed. A faculty member's initial listing is comprehensive and appears in
the issue of the year of his employment. The abstracts of all master's theses
and educational specialist's projects written at West Georgia College are
included as they are awarded.

MYSTICISM AS EVERYDAY LIFE:
THE RECURRING MYSTICAL MOMENT

by James B. Klee*

Zen is your everyday life.

Nirvana and Samsara are one.

Before I studied Zen, mountains were mountains, trees were trees.
Then as I began to study Zen the mountains and trees were no longer just
mountains and trees. After I experienced satori, the mountains were
mountains, the trees trees.

A rose is a rose is a rose.

The above paraphrased expressions relect one of my recently realized
notions in fact convictions that the mystical experience is ordinary; that
it is an everyday thread-of-life aspect of experience which is the continuous
thread of karma, in maya, and atman, and which is the subject-object
continuum. William James called it the stream of consciousness. F.S.C.
Northrop called it the "immediately apprehended differentiated (or
undifferented in the core at atman) aesthetic continuum." Aldous Huxley
called it the perennial philosophy. A. H. Maslow recognized it as "peak
experience." Yet it is only as the last that the mystical experience is mostly
conceived, a rare mysterious occasional event which happens at best but
rarely and then only to a very select few. And many of these very few, at
least in the West, have tended to identify it with some "super" divine
"millenial" consciousness which as the "holy" has turned the experience
into an object of an end game that ignored all its "ecological"
manifestations. (The distinction is Thomas Merton's.) As Harvey Wheeler
recently pointed out, the end result has been the total desanctification of all
life experience except some impossibly rare moment that left all else pale
and insignificant and ignoble and ignorable and exploitable, dross for
misues. Witness not only the destruction of the environment in the name of
man's alleded dominion over the earth, waters, and living forms, but also
of man by man in the name of God and of man's body by himself in the
same alledged cause. Now, though this has been especially true of the West,
the pursuit of austerities has also been a dominant motif in the major part
of the East as well. Indeed it appears for the nonce to have been a universal
human trait. No wonder then desire even of "the holy" is so roundly
witnessed as the root of man's misery by those few individuals who like the
Buddha were able to see beyond such narrow conceptions of the holy-(w)
holy.

*Professor of Psychology, West Georgia College

The resanctification of the whole and all its parts is a necessity if we are
not to continue the ruthless destruction of not only the ecological
surround, but of man by man, and of self by self. But obviously this can not
be legislated or forced beyond a few defensive or protective measures. It
can truly come only by the direct experience of the holy in each part or
fraction of the whole that man is capable of experiencing, each in its turn.
For this the traditional analytic pursuit of the holy as only one part
separable from the whole prepares us but poorly. Traditionally when any
one fraction appeared as divine in and of itself it was expected to be so
forever. It -wo.?, permanently enshrined and turned into an idol. No wonder
the concept of maya grew. All such moments regarded without reference to
their temporal condition, their momentariness, could only in the context
of permanentness appear as illusionary. Any such "good" regarded as
absolute without recognition of temporal relativity could only be
deceptive. The momentariness of any "good", that is its own being in iteslf,
its suchness, indeed the very possibility and fact of continuance, was
scorned because permanence was sought instead of the eternity of change
acc&pted. In the context of permanence any moment can be only a
disappointment. Its continuity into fading staleness as best could warn
only against any kind of attachment. Yet in the context of eternity each
moment is the realization of all that is (w) holy but each moment must be
relinguished before the glory of the next moment and its own self-
realization. In other words, it is not the temporality of the moment which is
illusory but the attempt to arrest it, to make it essentially non-temporal, to
try to hold on to it and use it in other contexts or dimensions of analysis,
especially those that are formal and/ or qualitative and the quantitative
and/or evaluative. Indeed is this not why man falls? Should he try to know
as permanently good andevil that which was only the wealth of the
moment, he could be led only into ignorance of the next moment's own
particular virtue. Is man's fall only the punishment of an act of
misinterpretation of the divine order in the sense of its pattern?

The temptation to arrest and hold the moment past its momentariness
is one that to a large degree our species has circumvented even if individual
members or groups have succumbed to such temptation. And, of course,
such "sin" has its temporary successes if defined primarily in a defensive
way. Those creatures who have so sinned are among the most numerous
and "successful on the earth. Witness the insects and other body armored
creaturs, or those who wear a mantle of glory on a special basis, as mane of
lion, plumage of bird, crown of antlers of stag and ram. Man too
temporarily seems fair for permanence with his uniforms, surplices,
feather headdresses, or his pyramids, superdreadnaughts, palaces,
churches, or temples, and nations. Yet as we look back upon the temporary
permanences of the past, it is to the tourist in us that they most appeal.

Today children wear the once-honored warbonnet in play, our hippies now
outbead the rosary, outgrow the sacred earlock but as a game, and even
make the distinctions of sexual dress no longer special and permanent. We
seem as a species on verge of breaking over from the insectoidal exosketetal
protective armor of culture affected by traditional societies to a freer and
endoskeletal or vertebrate, i.e., with "backbone", more relativistic cultural
style. As Ortega has repeatedly suggested, we are moving from the ideal of
"invertebrate" Spain to an appreciation of the existential life. We are
"shipwrecked" as he termed it. Curiously this we share with all vertebrates,
indeed even chordates, but only recently have we begun to use culture in a
way appropriate to the daring choices we had already made on the
evolutionary voyage as animals.But what does a "vertebrate" life mean for
our pruposes vw a vis the mystical experiences temporally conceived?

James found the answer so obvious that in the end he was mystified
that it could be other. In the flow, the karmic ongoingness, one goes from
one event or happening to another. Truth had the pragmatic finality of the
moment, of a now never to be repeated. Life, mind, experience or
consciousness was essentially phenomenological; the subject and object
were at best hypothetical divisions made of the unitary experience. Each
event sacred and unalterable in its momentary suchness made a pluralistic
conception absolutely essential, not that there might not be an
overweaning wholeness which could be misleadingly called "one". Yet in
that whole the sanctity of the suchness was maintained. A story related by
Maurice Friedman about D.T. Suzuki might express this. Suzuki was
being entertained at Sarah Lawrence College in connection with a lecture
and conversation developed with a Hindu lady about basic monism. She
had implied that a variety of events, such as a shoe, cough, god, all had an
underlying monistic substrate and solicited Suzuki's agreement with this
position. He disagreed, asserting each was entirely its own. Yet each was an
aspect of the whole. Each was itself as such. Each was its own mystery. And
Uke each haiku, each work of art, each was a moment or short series of
moments in itself.

Why do we accept this when pointed out yet so soon forget? The most
obvious answer is our relation to and understanding of what we conceive
of as repetition of similarity and identity. To create a mathematics of
repetition of identical elements, though useful in a large but limited sense,
and then to apply such a calculus to living events without regard to the
uniqueness of both the moment and individual event is a great temptation
to say the least. Repeatedly we fail to resist such an overwhelming
temptation. Despite our protestations as to the limited intent of census or
statistics, we succumb to the almost irresistable lure of reduction of events
to the qualitative or the quantitative. And of course it does work for a
while. After all, events rarely differ that much. If there were not an almost
essential repetition there could not be an organism, a body, a word or

3

symbol, a culture, indeed evolution. That some event "recur" more often
than not, more often that other events enables us to develop a sense of
continuity. But if we only sense the recurrence and not the continued
miracle of its creation and recreation, we lose the sense of vitality of the
renewed moment to that of boredom. We come to expect its recurrence.
We act as if the golden age were ever past or ever still ahead instead of ever
present. And of course we begin to desire occurrence or recurrence and
suffer the miseries of frustration, of unfulfilled desire and longing. The
more we desire a repetition or the thoughtfully conceived ideal, the less
sacred each moment becomes and the more we ignore the mystery of the
moment. The more we act in beHef in repetition of past and future, the less
faith we have in the actual essential partial recurrence of the ecological-
organism unity without which life ceases to exist. Even though such
repetition is seldom exact and enormous flexibility is required even to
recognize relevant recurrences, yet on the whole it has been largely
sufficient enough to have brought the current species to their present
vitality. And unless man intervenes to an exaggerated degree there is little
reason not to expect its somewhat fitful continuance. Sufficient at least to
retain a vaguely justifiable faith. For if it ever altogether ceased as it
threatens to in a major earthquake, drought, or flood, fire or storm, then
that would be that, period. Yet so far death has never ceased. Is this death,
the ultimate fear that makes us fiercely want exact repetition? My dog on
Easter Sunday lost to death his best friend and most constant companion,
my other dog. Although obviously disrupted by non-recurrence of his
constant companion, yet the rest of his life seems not to have lost its zestful
vitality. Is he the less for his failure to grieve? Has not the human animal
also but temporarily strayed from such wonderful vitality albeit for several
tens of thousands of years? The temptation to arm himself against his
awareness of death by means of the new possibilities of symbol, tool, and
culture so recently created was and is great. But we are possibly on the
verge of a new sense of consciousness based on the recurrent divinity of the
moment of the continued sacredness of each event of the (w)holiness of
eternity. Perhaps as we realize this we will be able to give up the defensive
and armored attempt to make permanent any one particular revelation in
history. (Incidentally, perhaps such inspiration is relegated to "history" to
reduce the obligatory sense of relevance each such event inspires.)

The reorientation of consciousness from a concentrated desire-ordered
pursuit of a seemingly monistically conceived goal (so effective in creating
our current cultural achievements and also in creating the crises now
apparent as the result of such an effort) to a more flexible pluralistic
orientation which acknowledges the sacredness of each concurrent event
not to mention their recurrence calls for a life style for which we have little
or at best vague preparation. That a continuous creative and recreative

effort has to be made is obvious. Yet a continuously creative and recreative
milieu is also given even though it can not be expected in any exact way. A
pluralistic orientation also implies the possibility of rhythmic alternations
of experience more complex than the monoemphatic patterns to which the
West has accustomed itself, the oom-pah-pah of waltz, rhumba, foxtrot or
big beat rock. I would suggest instead the polyrhythms of Indian or
African music with their emphases on complex occurrences and
recurrences rather than the thematic repetitions of melody and harmony so
long the standby of the analytical monistic, monothematic and
monotheisitc West.

This unexpected recurrence of the sacred is what to me C.S. Lewis
means when he speaks of being "surprised by joy." Rather than seeking
pleasure the "doing good" of traditional religious observance (the pleasure
principle, the expected payoff) or postponing gratification while more
clever means to the goal are devised, "doing better" (the reality principle of
the scientific West), a third way is potentially emergin, a "doing best." But
this would be not merely the perfectionistic continuation of good and
better so much as a turn toward relevance. The first two are warned against
by Adam's fall from grace, by eating of the tree of knowledge of good and
evil. The third way involves a comparison of values on a qualitative as well
as quantitative dimension and especially is cogniscent of presence, of
temporality which takes full advantage of what is being given in all
polyrhythmical dimensions. In this sense each event is passed through and
released in turn, not grasped, held, accumulated, imprisoned, arrested and
ultimately fossilized. The rhythmical conception of breathing in and
exhaling again, inhaling and breathing out so typical of Eastern
meditation and yoga seems the better physiological analogy than the peak
experience of sexuality and/ or success achievement (salvation?) so typical
of Western emphases. For ultimately the acceptance of relinquishment of
sacred experience makes the experience of divine presence far more
possible and probable than the holding on to as if permanent like a
mounted fish or head trophy on the wall. For the latter works only by
exclusion, the fish lasts longest when all forms of vitality especially those
useful forms of decomposition (which make possible the recycling of the
fish and hence its resurrection and reexperience) are most excluded. By
purifying (purification always excludes other aspects), by excluding life
and death we make the mounted fish permanently ours but all of us are just
a bit more dead in consequence. Better to have "thrown it back" and fished
again another day. (Is not the latter closer to the true meaning of the
resurrection? Are not the dead to bury the dead?) In this sense the ecstacy
of the peak experience is the more regressive than the potentially cyclical,
albeit irregular and seldom extreme analogy of breathing, indeed of the
life-death cycle itself. Growing to, passing through, and letting go only to
grow again would seem the more authentic way of realizing the ever-

5

present nature of the divine than to try to grasp and mount it on wall or
altar. True, it is more mundane more "temporal", less ecstatic, or more
ordinary; but that is where I started. Zen is our everyday life. But then
today is the first day of the rest of our Hves, and in the rest we could realize
the ever recurrent divinity inherent in all aspects of the continuous stream
of consciousness. This ever present sacredness we now often ignore and
ignoble by our desire for an ultimate and exlcusively "divine" god-boject
permanently enshrined and isolated from the whole by being made the one
and only. For this exclusive "god" we are recurrently tempted to trade the
continual sacredness of eternity. How many more tens of thousands of
years will our species go before we have broken out of these attempts to
freeze into permanence a few revelations when we could have continuous
access to each and every moment? But then how courageous we would
have to be. To be! Dare we risk it? But then could we even possibly lose, for
isn't it all sacred all of the time?

TOO FEW FOR THE STATUS QUO:
SOME ENROLLMENT ISSUES FOR THE FUTURE

John C. Upchurch*

Demographic data recently formulated by the Bureau of the Census
indicate a substantial shrinkage of the 18-22 year-old population cohortfor
the period 1975-1992. The extent of the skrinkage can be determined by
the following statistics: in 1975 there were 4.2 million 18-year-olds in the
United States. A decade later, in 1985, the total population of this age
group will decline to 3.6 million, and in 1992, to 3.2 million. Expressed in
percentages, the decline between 1975 and 1985 will reach 15 and between
1975 and 1990, approximately 24. It is well to keep in mind that these
statistics are not based upon theoretical projections but on persons
already born, with due consideration having been given to actuarial
projections of mortality.'

Since the 18-22 year-old cohort represents the traditional college-age
student, the anticipated decline in absolute numbers suggests a potential
threat to the status quo in many institutions of higher education. Not only
will colleges and universities be forced to adapt to a diminishing
enroUment pool of 18-22 year-olds during the next decade or so, they also
will encounter increasing competition for students from other
postsecondary educational institutions such as vocational and technical
schools, proprietary schools, and industry-associated institutes, colleges,
and universities.

Another element of competition, one often neglected by those
contemplating the ramifications of a decline in the number of 18-22 year-
olds, is that of military requirements. Assuming that the nation chooses to
maintain an active military force of 2.1 million persons during the 1980-
1992 period, and that women continue to join the armed forces at today's
annual rate of 40,000, the military must recruit (or perhaps conscript) up
to one of three male 18-year-olds each year through 1992.-

Fewer traditional-age students and increased competition are not the
only factors likely to negatively affect enrollment in colleges and

Professor of Georgraphy, West Georgia College

'The census data are reported in Cathy Henderson, Changes in Enrollment by 1985
(Washington: American Council on Education, 1977), pp. 12, 15. See also Leon F. Bouview,
U.S. Population in 2,000 Zero Growth or Not, vol. 30, no. 5 (Washington; Population
Reference Bureau), pp. 18-20.

^Thomas W. Carr, "Education in the Military: A Look into the Future," mimeographed
(Washington; Department of Defense, 1977), p. 1.

universities in the near future. Of increasing concern is cost. Put simply,
attending an institution of higher education is expensive, and it will be
more so in the years to come. Even at a public institution, expenses
currently can exceed $3,000 per year. Add to this the effects of inflation on
family budgets and the fact that little financial aid is available for part-time
students and those who come from middle income families. Related to the
cost factor is the increasing realization by parents, existing students, and
potential students that the economic value of a college degree has slipped
badly in the marketplace.

The gradual emergence of a poor-benefit ratio is a study in complexity
well beyond the scope of this essay; however, two interrelated factors
should be mentioned because they seem to be directly related to the
problem. The first of these had its beginnings in the post-World War II
period and the educational opportunities granted veterans by a grateful
nation. The doors of higher education were opened to many individuals
who otherwise never would have had the opportunity to enter college.
This egalitarian thrust was especially prominent during the 1960s when
the nation's economy was expanding rapidly. It resulted in open door
admissions policies, the creation of hundreds of new postsecondary
institutions (especially junior colleges), and in the rapid growth of most
pre-existing colleges and universities.

In opening its doors to all during the 1960s and 1970s, the academy
admitted a considerable number of students who were ill-equipped to do
passing work in the context of traditional standards. Remediation
programs were developed to help prepare the unprepared to meet the
challenges of standard college work. Through dedication and intensive
study, some poorly prepared students succeeded, thus justifying open
admissions policies and remediation efforts. However, some damage may
have been done to academic standards.

To open door admission policies may be added the second factor: the
effects of the Vietnam War. Beginning in 1965, the federal government
began a policy of draft deferments for students enrolled in colleges and
universitites. For nearly a decade many students entered the academy to
escape the draft. ^ During this time, pressure was on faculty to aid these
students in maintaining a satisfactory grade point average; otherwise
students faced the prospects of fighting an unpopular war. Rather than

'According to President John R. Silber of Boston University, "Such deferments represented
class legislation that was a throwback to the days of the Civil War when the affluent could
hire substitutes to be drafted in their place." See "Standards Versus Opportunity: The
Unnecessary Conflict, "in Students and Their Institutions: A Changing Relationship, cds., S .
W. Peltason and Marcy V. Massengale (Washington: American Council on Education,
1978), p. 81.

8

placing the burden of performing at the traditional level of academic
respectability, many faculty loosened grading students.''

As a result of open door admissions policies, the Vietnam War, and
grade inflation, coUege and university degree holders are commonplace
today. Many graduates are underemployed or unemployed. Moreover,
employers too frequently have encountered graduates of accredited
institutions of higher education who have inadequate writing and
computational skills. The bottom line is that a college degree has lost its
mystique and too much of its meaning.

If, as suggedted above, the 1980s and early 1990s will be characterized
by (1) a shrinking enrollment pool of traditional college-age students, (2) a
smaller percentage of 18-22 year-olds choosing to attend college, and (3) a
diminished cost-benefit ratio, it is clear that the academy must face its
problems with vision and determination. To do otherwise is to risk
enforcement of stringent fiscal (and human) retrenchment measures
which may occur anyway despite our best efforts.

The basic premise of this essay is that the academy, especially the
smaller, undergraduate-oriented institutions, cannot maintain the status
quo in the years to come. Since the only constant in academe is change
itself, it is imperative that each institution, its faculty and administration,
meet the future with policies and strategies designed to maximize
opportunities. The remainder of this discussion relates to several steps
that should be considered as potential responses to impending change.

1. Carefully develop an institutional mission statement and goals that
reflect tomorrow's demands as well as today's reality. This should be
done with utmost care and tempered with the realization that no
college or university can be all things to all people. Gauge educational
effectiveness on the bais of the mission and goals.

2. Engage in a continuous process of short-and long-term planning.
Identify academic, fiscal, and facility priorities. Develop strategies for
taking advantage of changes in program demands. Undertake
longitudinal studies of student populations as well as follow-up studies
of graduates; in this way, an assessment program can be on-going and
thus play an important role in the planning process.

3. Attempt to maintain credit enrollment by making a concerted effort to
attract students that are both younger and older than those
represented by the 18-22 year-old group. Design programs and utilize
teaching strategies that will meet the needs of nontraditional-age
students.

4. Nationwide the average grade has moved from a C in 1965 to B-. At the same time this has
occurrred, evidence ind' cates that an increasing percentage of students are poorly prepared
for college work. Even distinguished institutions offer remedial work in grammer,
composition, and mathematics. See Silber, "Standards Versus Opportunity." p. 83.

9

4. Develop outreach programs, to be held on-and off-campus, to serve
the needs of persons living within the primary service area. In return,
the institution will gain newfriends, and the publicity value will be great.

5. Support the concept of life-long learning. It is here to stay and will help
academe in business in the years ahead.

6. Reaffirm the ideals of scholarship and excellence as realistic goals of
the college experience.

7. Work to develop means of providingfinancial aid to older and part-time
students. College scholarship applications are not designed for the
housewife, and student aid is seldom available for students carrying
less than a full academic load. Consequently, it is imperative that we
work toward the implementation of a tuition assistance program for all
students.

8. We have come too far in our commitment to universal higher
educational opportunities to turn back now, but we can develop a more
realistic balance between academic standards and student
performance. Be willing to say to some students that a vocational
program may be better for a job objective than a four-year or even a
graduate degree.

9. Do not overrate the economic value of a college degree. Instead, be
forceful in talking about the reasons for a college education that are not
at all related to employment.

10. Work to develop and implement effective student recruitment and
marketing strategies designed to appeal to each of the several publics
that the institution wishes to serve.

11. Remember that higher education must adjust to a world that will
demand new things of it. Be prepared to develop programs that will
add distinctiveness to the institution as well as meet societal and
student needs.

12. Always take advantage of opportunities to speak in positive terms
about the institution, its students, faculty, programs, etc., especially
when talking with persons outside of the academic community.

13. Develop an active public relations program so that pertinent
information is fully reported in a timely manner to those who should
be informed.

14. Use every appropriate avenue to insure even-handed funding policies
which will permit the institution to compete effectively for students
and maintain its integrity.

The steps listed above are an incomplete compilation of activities in
which faculty and administrators should be engaged in view of the
impending enrollment difiiculties. They are intended merely to provoke
thought, discussion, and action. Some may well consider these steps to be
impractical or even unworkable. Perhaps this is true. However, the basic

10

premise that the academy soon will experience the full efifects of an
enrollment pool shrinkage of traditional-age students is beyond debate.
The question is "Can we discern opportunities in adversity and, if so, will
we be prepared to react to events in a well-planned, rational manner?"

li

THE LOCAL COMMUNITY AND GLOBAL AWARENESS:
THE CASE FOR THE WEST GEORIGA AREA

Paul E. Masters, Jr.*

A Conversation with a Lasting Effect

Student:

What courses in the pohtical science department do you teach?

Professor:

International relations and comparative politics. In terms of specific
geographical areas, I offer courses on Latin America, the Soviet Union
and Western Europe.

Student-
Oh, that's foreign stuff. I'm not interested in that; it's too distant, too far
away. Don't you teach about things closer to home, more local?

Professor:
No. Sorry, I can't help you.

The above dialogue occurred during my first year at West Georgia
College. In the three years since then it has returned to haunt me many
times. Most students perceive international studies to be esoteric,
complex, and not terribly relevant to their daily lives. This attitude is
reflected in the decreasing enrollment in international studies programs in
colleges and universities throughout the United States. Yet, at the same
time, we hear and read more and more about global interdependence and
the global village in which we all live. We are reminded of this situation
everyday as we drive our Japanese or German car to the gas station to fill
our tank with gasoline from Saudi Arabia or Nigeria so we can go to the
grocery store to buy Brazilian or Colombian coffee which we drink every
morning after our Swiss clock signals the beginning of another day.
Although we participate in such activities on a daily basis, few people
perceive them as international in character; they are seem simply as routine
activities with little significance beyond the local community.

Assistant Professor of Political Science, West Georgia College

12

The purpose of this paper is to set forth a proposal for a research-action
project that will enable both students and citizens of the West Georgia area
better to perceive the international activities in which they are engaged.'
The basic assumption of this project is that the local community can be
used as a learning laboratory in which to study world affairs. Local
communities provide the facilities and institutions through which many
international transactions take place: airports, banks, corporate
headquarters, churches, universities, travel agencies, importers and
exporters.2 These facilities and institutions link the local community to the
rest of the world. A vivid portrayal of the linkages between the West
Georgia area and the global system will increase the awareness students
and citizens have of the world in which they live. An inventory of these
international linkages will help people to see that such activities are not
distant and irrelevant but rather near and observable.

This project is labeled "research-action" because it is felt that the
research on these linkages will increase awareness of the world society
which, in turn, will lead to increased participation in foreign affairs on the
part of the local citizenry. This project goes beyond the confines of
academia to the various countries traditionally served by West Georgia
College; thus it is hoped it will have relevance to public policy.

The Difficulties in Perceiving the International Dimensions of Our

Lives

An analysis of local communities reveals that international activity
tends to take place in three broad sectors of community life. The economic
sector is the most obvious one. This sector includes banks with their
various transactions such as the transference of funds to their counterparts
in different countries; businesses, many of which have branches abroad;
and service industries such as insurance companies that insufe merchant
vessels. The second sector is the professional one. This sector includes
lawyers with clients that have business affairs in other countries; university
faculty doing research abroad; and foreign students who add a
cosmopolitan flavor to the local campus. The third sector has been labeled
mass activities. This sector includes the local churches which give money to
alleviate world hunger; various voluntary groups such as the League of
Women Voters that maintain an interest in international affairs; and

'This project is a replication of the Columbus in the World: The World in Columbus
Project directed by Chadwick F. Alger of the Mershon Center, Ohio State University.

^Chadwick F. Alger, Your Community in the World: The World in Your Community
(Columbus: Ohio State University, Mershon Center, 1974), p. 3.

13

cultural exchange groups which travel abroad to spread goodwill.^ The
reasons for these international activities are not greatly different from the
reasons for domestic ones. The local community establishes linkages with
the global society in order to exchange money, goods, people and
information/ Few people purposely engage in international activities; they
become involved simply as they go about their routine daily business. As
individual citizens make money, help people, acquire knowledge,
disseminate knowledge or seek pleasure, they become involved in
processes that spill across national boundaries. Community activities like
these on the part of millions of people establish the basic outline of
international relations.^

Everyday of our lives we are involved in the business, religious,
educational, and cultural institutions of our community, yet we fail to
perceive these activities as having an international dimension. Why does
this failure of perception exist? There seems to be two reasons for this: (1)
the socialization process through which we learn about the world, and (2)
the feeling that there exists very little opportunity for personal
participation in international affairs.^

When children are growing up they first see and touch those things
close to their home and neighborhood. Gradually they are introduced to
the wider community through visits to the city hall, the police station, and
the fire house. The next layer of experience is the state or region, followed
by the nation and finally the world. Thus children come to grips with their
environment through distinct layers of experience. The global society is
perceived as only accessible from the national border which is many layers
away from the local community. As a result of this socialization process,
international activities are thought of as "remote," "far away," and
controlled by people in "distant" cities like Washington and New York.'
Since world affairs are not felt to be part of the daily realm of experience,
no great interest is shown towards the global society.

This process of socialization imprints on our minds the traditional
perception in international relations that focuses almost exclusively on the
nation-state. The maps and globes used in our schools distinguish
countries with different colors and clearly marked national boundaries.
Americans often feel that foreign policy begins at the water's edge, some

^Karen A. Mingst, "Teaching Global Interdependence Using Local Data: Problems and
ViXiaWi," International Studies Notes. V (Winter, 1978), 12.

^Chadwick F. Alger, " 'Foreign' Policies of U.S. Publics," International Studies
Quarterly. XXI (June, 1977), 296-297.

^Ibid. , 302.

'Chadwick F. Alger, "Extending Responsible Public Participation in Internationa]
Affairs," Exchange. XIV (Summer, 1978), 17.

^Ibid

14

distance from their immediate surroundings. Many human activities that
we engage in are thought of in national terms vis-a-vis other nation-states
in the world. This image of the world is reinforced by our customs of data
collection. We can research how much the United States imports or
exports or even how much our state imports or exports, but it is virtually
impossible to find such data dealing with the local community. This is true
despite the fact that the national data are simply a summation of all the
activities that take place in local communities throughout the country.^
Such customs of data collection add to our inability to perceive the
international dimensions of our daily lives. This entire process of
socialization isolates people in the global society.

The second factor that blinds us to the international dimensions of our
lives is the feeling that the individual citizen has little opportunity for
personal participation in foreign affairs. The decision-making process is
thought to be very distant from most of us. We have been socialized to
believe that this type of policy-making is especially complex, esoteric and
should be left to those "experts" in Washington and New York who have
the necessary training and experience to cope with such difficulties. This
contributes to the wide-spread disinterest in international education
mentioned earlier in this paper. Why study world affairs? After all, the
"experts" will take care of everything. This attitude creates a self-fulfilling
prophecy: since people feel there is no room for their participation in
foreign affairs, they do not bother to acquire international education, and
thus never develop the necessary skills which will prepare them for such
participation.^

Both democratic and authoritarian governments have never expected
much citizen participation in international affairs. When the democratic
movements of the world overthrew the various royal families, citizen
participation was expected in domestic but not foreign affairs.
Constitutional provisions and practice provide heads of state with special
privileges in foreign policy. 'o Many point to political philosophers like
John Locke to support the idea that in terms of citizen participation there
is a very distinct division between domestic and foreign policy." Our
system of federaUsm tends to promote this belief. The division of powers

*Alger, " 'Foreign' Policies of U.S. Publics," 295.

'Alger, "Extending Responsible Public Participation in International Affairs," 18.

'"Chad wick F. Alger, A World of Cities or Good Foreign Policies Begin At Home
(Columbus: Ohio State University, Mershon Center. 1976), pp. 9-10.

"William O. Chittick, "Individuals, Local Publics, and World Affairs, "(Paper presented
at the 20th Annual Meeting of The International Studies Association, Toronto, Canada,
March 21-24, 1979), 3.

15

into national, state and local governments leads many individuals at the
local level to regard international affairs as rather remote, something
handled at the national level. '^ Citizens defer to the "experts" in
Washington and New York because they lack a feehng of efficacy in world
affairs; after all, in such matters even congressmen tend to defer to these
same "experts" in the executive branch. Because of this situation people
tend to gravitate more toward domestic issues where they feel greater
efficacy.'^

Professional political scientists have done little to alleviate this
situation. Most scholars continue to assert that foreign poHcy is different
from domestic policy because it is concerned with vital subjects like
national interest and national security. Thus foreign policy is more
important. The acceptance of this uniqueness has left the study of world
affairs in the hands of those political scientists who continue to focus
exclusively on the nation-state and its political and military activities.'"* It
is questionable whether such an approach is wise when we live in an
interdependent global society in which the line dividmg foreign and
domestic affairs is becoming increasingly blurred.

Chadwick Alger suggests replacing this system- of -nations perspective
with an international society-of-individuals perspective:

(Scholars should) look upon those persons from
whatever nation ... as a society of individuals. In this society
there are groups religious, professional, ethnic, national
etc. The importance of nation groups is a matter that must be
empirically verified since it will vary in different parts of the
society and change through time.''

This international society-of-individuals perspective is adopted in this
research-action project because it offers a fresh and challenging approach
to the study of international relations. Individuals interact as individuals
and in groups other than their national group such as religious,
professional, and ideological groups. Such a perspective does not deny the
importance of the nation-state in the international system but says it is more

^Ubid., 10-11.

"Alger, Your Community in the World: The World in Your Community, P. 64.
'<Alger, " 'Foreign' Policies of U.S. Publics, " 278.

"Chadwick F. Alger, "Comparision of Intranational and International Politics,'
American Political Science Review, LVII (June, 1963), 408.

16

fruitful to look at other interactions beside state interaction. This

paradigm can help individuals better to understand the role they play in the

world system. Political scientists must look at individual interactions and

various group interactions other than the state to gain new insights into

international politics.

Using the international society-of-individuals perspective, this paper is

a study of the politics of the world society and the individuals that compose

sucH a society. "The primary referents of this analysis are the planet Earth

and nature, along with man and his work upon that planet. "'* The basic

orientation is global, that is, a study of earth politics or geocentric

orientation is global, that is, that is a study ot eann pontics or geocentric

politics. The dictionary defines geocentric as viewing the earth as the center

of perspective.'^ The study of geocentric politics takes into account the

technological advances in the post-World War II era and the increasing

interdependence of the world produced by these advances. Such a study

recognizes that it is static and dangerous to continue to think of the world

as divided into action-states when the world is truly turning into a global or

world society. Robert Harper says throughout most of history"

. . . mankind did exist in separate, almost isolated cultural islands . . . now

most of humanity is a part of a single, world-wide system.'''^ This notion of

the world is well-summarized in the following observation by Barbara

Ward- , , ^ . ,

Most of the energies of our society tend toward unity the

energy of science and technological change, the energy of

curiosity and research, of self-interest and economics, the

energy in many ways the most violent of them all the

energy of potential aggression and destruction. We have

become neighbors in terms of inescapable physical proximity

and instant communication. We are neighbors in the risk of

total destruction. '9

As the world becomes increasingly interdependent, it moves closer to a

world society or single human community.

We are all part of this emerging world society whether we like it or not.

There is no need to ask individuals to become involved in world affairs;

global interdependence guarantees their involvement. The significance of

the international society-of-individuals perspective is that it can be used to

bring this involvement into focus and foster responsible participation.

Such a perspective is not one of idealism but rather one of realism; global

interdependence is reahty, to deny it is to deny reality. The job of the social

'George A. Modelski, Principles of World Politics (New York: the Free Press, 1972), p.
"Ibid., p. 15

"Robert Harper, "Georgraphy's Role in General Education," Journal of Geography,
LXV (April, 1966), 182.

"Barbara Ward, Spaceship Earth (New York: Columbia University Press, 1966), p. 14.

17

scientist is to provide students with analytical tools that describe and
explain the world in which they live. The international society-of-
individuals perspective and the local linkage approach are tools that will
help citizens in the West Georgia area understand the rapidly changing
world system.

West Georgia in the World: The World in West Georgia

Individuals in communities throughout the West Georgia area are part
of the emerging global society. This relationship can be brought into focus
by analyzing the local linkages of three basic sectors of community life:
economic, professional, and mass activities. The economic sector in the
West Georgia area has very obvious linkages. The telex in local banks
indicates what funds are being transferred to their counterparts in foregin
lands. Most likely West Georgia banks have arrangements for such
transfers through larger banks in the city of Atlanta, but this does not
reduce the importance of such activity. Elementary school teachers might
consider taking their students to such offices in the same way they visit the
city hall, the police station, and the fire house. Such encounters early in the
socialization process would help expose the falseness of the local-
international dichotomy.

Southwire, CBS Records, and various textile mills are examples of
businesses that are either multinational in scope or are involved in the
import-export business. An examination of their annual reports which are
available to the public should clearly reveal their international linkages.
Such an analysis would show what manufactured products are sold to
other countries and what ingredients in these finished products come from
abroad. In addition, one would find subsidiaries in other nations and
foreign nationals employed in their home countries or in the corporate
headquarters in this area. The vivid presentation of these data ought to
impress upon students the importance their community has to the world
system. Such corporations usually welcome visits by school and college
groups. A talk with the head of international sales at the Southwire
Company would be a positive learning experience.

The professional sector of the West Georgia communities also has
linkages. It is possible local lawyers have clients who need advice about
such matters as the licensing of patents and trademarks, anti-dumping
laws and regulations, or immigration and naturalization laws. Inquiries
directed to the local bar associations could produce such data.

A mail survey of the faculty at West Georgia College should reveal
significant research being done abroad. In the last few years faculty have
visited such places as India, Pakistan, Great Britain, Venezuela,
Columbia, and Mexico. Such a survey should also include foreign students.
Although the number of such students at the college is small, they do come

18

from a variety of different countries which adds some cosmopolitan flavor
to the campus. West Georgia College can play a more active role in the
community by having these faculty members and foreign students offer
presentations to local schools and civic groups. Such presentations can
show that the local communities in the West Georgia area have many
similarities in terms of needs, desires, and hopes for the future with local
communities in foreign lands.

The third and final sector of community life involves mass activities.
This is an especially fruitful sector to explore because it includes citizens
from all walks of life. A beginning point is the church. Throughout
American history the church as not only served as a spiritual and moral
guide but also as a community organization. A mail survey of local
congregations would most certainly involve a large cross-section of the
citizens of the West Georgia area. Many churches have been active in
teaching about and collecting money for world hunger. Others have
undertaken more specific projects such as aid to earthquake victims in
Nicaragua and Guatemala. Still others have established missionary
programs that link West Georgia to the global society.

Other mass activities include voluntary organizations that add so much
to community life. The League of Women voters has traditionally
maintained an active interest in world affairs. Other civic groups like the
Rotary International have done likewise. Many communities have local
volunteers that collect maney for UNICEF, Project HOPE and CARE. As
with a visit to the telex in the local bank, a presentation by those groups to
an elementary school class could go a long way to expose the arbitrary
separation of the local and the international.

If such survey efforts are successful and the data are vividly presented
in the international society-of-individuals perspective, they can promote
local-global integration. Students in international studies programs can
engage in such collection efforts and learn through their own participation.
The proximity and concreteness of these personal and local linkages
provide a means for understnding the world at large. 20 This approach can
show individuals the saliency of their everyday lives and their international
dimensions. All local communities are integrated into the world society.
This system is faced with problems that are global in scope. Pollution,
hunger, disease, inflation and the threat of nuclear holocaust do not
respect national boundaries but easily cross these artifical lines to affect all
individuals living in communities dotting the globe. The proposals set
forth in this research-action project will help increase the competence of
individuals to cope with the changing geographic scope of their lives.

^OAlger, A World of Cities or Good Policies Begin At Home, p. 15.

19

Conclusion: A Contribution to Democracy

The theoretical orientation of this paper is normative. It is based on a
very strong belief in participatory democracy. For too many years
American citizens, normally very active in domestic politics, have deferred
to the foreign policy "experts" in Washington. Such defernce may have
been appropriate in the past but in the world today and most certainly the
world in the future such behavior is very dangerous. The boundary
between domestic arid world affairs is becoming increasingly blurred and it
is no longer possible to separate the role that individuals play in one arena
from the other.^' Many people see no alternative to this deference d the
Washington "experts"; anything else is unthinkable. In an interdependent
global society what this attitude really means is that democratic
governance is unthinkable! 22

The proposals set forth in this paper can help people in the West
Georgia area, through participatory learning exercises, develop a feeling of
efficacy in world affairs that matches the feeling they have in the domestic
realm. It is hoped such a project can promote greater public involvement in
shaping foreign policy agendas. Foreign policies are developed by
poUtical, miUtary and economic elites who delimit such basic terms as
national interest and national security using their own definitions and
interests.23 The more we defer to these elites, the wider the latitude they
have to control foreign policy decisions. Recent events have shown these
decisions are not always consistent with the interests of the American
people. As public concern about foreign policy agendas develops in local
communities, the priorities of these politico-military elites will be
questioned. 2'* In an interdependent global society it is no longer possible to
ignore our responsibility for foreign policies. It is our right and our
obligation to be responsible citizens in the international realm just as it is in
the domestic realm.

2'ChiUick, "Individuals, Local Publics, and World Affairs," 3^

"Alger, A World of Cities or Good Foreign Policies Begin At Home p 21

"Ibid,, p. 1 6

"Alger," 'Foreign' Policies of U.S. Publics," 311.

20

REFLECTIONS ON IRAN'S ISLAMIC REPUBLIC
AND THE ORIGINS OF PUBLIC AUTHORITY:

by Daniel Brantley*

The subtitle of the essay is "The PoHtical Role of charismatic Nation-
Building."' The author, for years, has been impressed by the fact that
extraordinary personalities seemed to appear suddenly and set-up
governments. For example, there was V.I. Lenin in Russia, Benito
Mussolini in Italy, Adolf Hitler in Germany, Mao Tse-tung in China,
Fiedel Castro in Cuba. And, there is also the Ayatollah Ruhollah
Kromeini in Iran.^

To the author, these men are all charismatic; that is their power is (was)
the ability to command the obedience of other men based on their
extraordinary capacities and deeds. Such a leader's followers accept his
authority because they have faith in his person. More simply, it is
leadership resting upon the force of personality, in the process of
conceiving revolution, planning and devising a "new" type of community.
With these thoughts in mind, the author views the new Iranian
constitution, which provides for an Islamic Republic, as another example
of charismatic nation-making.

Assistant Professor of Political Science, West Georgia College

'This essay is the communication of some thoughts the author has relative to two topics:
the Ayatollah Khomeini's role in shaping the new Iranian government, and, a gap in the
literature on political or public authority. The writer is in the process systematizing his
notions about the two themes and when he has done so he plans to submit them for
publication. Therefore this essay may be seen as a note on, or a preliminary statement
regarding two of the author's research interests, which he is in the process of working on.

^Ayatollah Khomeini, the 79-year-old Iranian religious leader, came to power in February
1979, as a result of a revolution which combined nationalistic and religious elements.
Khomeini is a Moslem of the Shiite sect, which is the majority religious group in Iran, while
representing approximately 15% of Moslems world-wide. In Iran, the centers of political
power include Khomeini and the Revolutionary Council. The council consists of laymen as
well as Islamic clergy (the majority). The Revolutionary Council is officially headed by
Ayatollah Mohammed Beheshti, an Islamic clergyman. Khomeini himself gave power to the
Council. That is, in the early days of the revolution Iran's Khomeini, then the unquestioned
master of Iran's political affairs, told the Iranian peoplethat he had decided to bring a group
of laymen and shiite Muslim fundamentalists (clergymen) inta a government which he was
establishing on a provisional basis, until a new constitution could be drafted and voted on by
the people. The Iranian people voted for an Islamic Republic in December, 1979. In recent
months, the Iranian people have elected a president, Abdul Bani-Sadi. Iran will also have a
new parliament which will be elected in April-May, 1980.

21

The Shah was toppled February, 1979, becuase of a revolution, which
was led by a Shiite Muslim fundamentalist, Khomeini. Khomeini is an
"ayatollah" (a clergyman of Shiite Islamic sect); he is also called an "imam"
(or leader). To distinguish Khomeini from other religious leaders, the
followers of Khomeini now call him "The Imam": the leader. In December,
1979, the Iranians voted for a new constitution, which created an Islamic
Republic, making Iran the first country in history to have established an
Islamic Republic. While it is impossible to say how in the future this "new"
form of political community will operate, it is possible to comment on how
the Iranian authorities are operating. At present, the government
functions as a theocracy. That is, the clergy has effective political control
over the country. Theocracy is, by definition, "A political system wherein
the clergy exercises considerable political powers."^

On the one hand, theocracy is an old (perhaps the oldest) form of political
system. Some examples are "Geneva, Switzerland (in the time of John
Calvin), the nation of Tibet (in its pre-Communist period), and
Massachusettes Bay Colonly (in precolonial times). . . "" On the other
hand, there has never been a republican theocratic nation-state.
Theocracies, like monarchies, were once plentiful, but there are only a few
still in existence: there is, for example, Vatican City^. Iran's success or
failure with a theocracy will be closely watched by the Muslim world-
community, especially by those Muslim oil-rich feudal kingdoms, which
border on Iran. If Iran can demonstrate that an Islamic Republic can be a
viable political system, then one would expect to see through-out the Mid-
East a number of revolutions inspired by nationalistic and religious
elements. As we reflect, let us widen the frame of reference by trying to
understand the power the Ayatollah Khomeini has over the Iranian
people.

In trying to understand the Ayatollah Khomeini's power, the author
has found it helpful to think of Khomeini's role as that oi a legitimatizing
presence, for instance like emperors of Japan, who will be discussed in the
second part of the essay. If power is the ability to control others, a symbolic
leader a legitmatizing presence has a share of it. He can, by virtue of
his charismatic hold on the masses, appoint and dismiss officials of
government, approve or disapprove governmental policies, and, in
general, legitimate a group's actions (Iran's Revolutionary Council or the

^Robert E. Murphy, 77ie Style and Study of Political Science (Glenview, III.: Scott,
Foresman and Company, 1970), p. 122.

*Ibid.

'According to one score. The American Heritage Dictionary,\ aucan City is "A sovereign
papal state, established in 1929, in an enclave of about 108 acres in the city of Rome, Italy."
The American Heritage Dictionary (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1978), s.v.
"Vatican City," p. 1418. As a papal state, Vatican City qualifies as a theocracy.

22

group holding hostaged Americans in the Terheran embassy). Prior to the
December, 1979, adoption of the Islamic constitution, Khomeini's power
was extralegal, his followers adhering to his wishes in main because of his
charisma. That is to say, originally his power was not derived from office-
holding. The Iran situation has demonstrated the fact that a person may be
"officized" to act but lack the authority to make his action stick. Authority
per se is not power, but prestigious and influential individuals (such as
Khomeini) may hold power that is real. Clearly this was what we were
seeing on television screens when we saw the Iranian foreign minister make
a policy statement, prior to clearing it with Khomeini, and, later
"changing" his mind (in reality, Khomeini had ordered the foreign minister
to return the original policy, which Khomeini had formulated). And
finally, it is open to debate whether or not Khomeini (or any one person or
group) is in control of events in Iran, but there is no doubt that Khomeini is
the figure who legitimates all decisions: i.e., everything that is done, is
done, in the name of the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini.^

II

There is a gap in scholarship that this (the second part) of the essay
addresses and proposes to fill the lack of a critical and theoretical
understanding of the role charisma plays in the founding of political
authority. The gap will be presently highlighted by a brief examination of
the myth of origins.

The myth of origins has been a typical form of both rationalizing,
justifying, questioning, and condemning the established order, divine and
human, ethical and political. Genealogies of regimes often include
charismatic individuals. The theme of "divine ancestors" reveals nothing
more clearly than this. That is why genealogies can serve as readily to
destroy as to enhance claims to political supremacy. Professor Cutherson
draws our attention to the dual nature of myth: myth has a capacity for and
operates to either free people of oppressive political authority and
leadership or enslave them to the established socio-political order.
Cutherson explains, "Political myth is the mechanism of charisma, linking
the hero to the community." He continues:

Myth is a primary source for legitimizing and maintaining political

power. The derivation of myth is the beginning of power politics. Myth

custodians are powerholders. Myth establishes moral consensus in the

*An analogy may be made between Khomeini and Big Brother, a fictional character in
George Orwell's novel, 1984. In each case, a political system legitimates its actions on the basis
of a political leader, who symbolizes a successful revolution, which toppled a hated system,
and constructed in its place, a system which at its best is seen by its architects as a secular
Utopia, and, at its worst seen by the masses as offering little improvement, in a material way,
over the previous system.

23

community and is accompanied by social sanctions. Myth stabilized

the relationship of the individual to politics by restricting the purely

organic state with the element of the moral purposiveness.^

There are five myth categories of doing what Dr. Cutherston has

described. The five myth catergories, which are capable of revolutionary

function, are specifically examined by Cutherson, namely, messianic,

cultural, catastropic, community-forming (utopian), and iconoclastic

myth. Of these myths, the community-forming or myth of origin of

regimes will be the focus of this study.

Political theorists have noted that inquiries into the beginnings of
regimes may lead to a god or hero who engendered a royal house. Such
diverse thinkers as Thomas Hobbes and Edmound Burke entirely shared
Immanuel Kant's opinion that "The origin of the supreme authority is. .
.not open to scrutiny by the people who are subject to it. . ." Kant says
"that. . .the subjects should not be overly curious about its (the state's)
origins as though the right of obedience due it were open to doubt. . .these
are pointless questions that threaten the state with danger if they are asked
with too much sophistication."* In short, curiosity about the origins of
public authority, as with all history, is inevitably dangerous. As Dr.
Cutherston observed, "The deprivation of myth is the beginning of power
politics." Sophisticated critical appreciation and theoretical
understanding of the mythical basis of public authority on the part of the
citizenry is dangerous to the state or myth custodians. Hobbes too
recognized the destructive possibilities of the search for origins. It was his
belief that "there is scarcely a commonwealth in the world, whose
beginnings can in conscience be justified," and that curiosity about the
origins of political authority and leadership is the "most effectual sees of
death to any state."'

The main use of the community-forming (uptopian) myth in the
modern era has been polemical. 'o One may well ask whether it has been
effective. It has been and still is. As people derive their sense of their own

'Giberston Cutherson, Political Myth and Epic (EastLansing: Michigan State University
Press, 1975), p. 156.

^Immanuel Kant, The Metaphysical Elements of Justice, trans. John Ladd
k(lndianapolis: bobbs-Merriell, 1965), p. 84.

'Thomas Hobbes, Levj'ar/jaa editor Michael Oakeshott(Oxford: Blackwell, 1946), p. 463.
For Edmound Burke's view, see "A Vindication of Nature Society,"in ^Vorks (Boston; Little
Brown, 1869), I. 9-10.

'"Even with its traditional religious foundations destroyed, the myth of the perfect
community continues to reappear in new forms. It may be argued that belief in "perfect order"
then is a universal phenomenon, because all people seem to wish to make the world perfect or
to move to a perfect world when they die. Politically, the theme of the "world to come" is
exemplified in, for example, the third state of Auguste Comte and communism as the highest
state of human development of Karl Marx.

24

worth to some degree from that of their families, the same is true of
regimes. Therefore, states are vulnerable to attacks on their pedigrees,
whether moral or social. By analogy, the origins of institutions, national
character, and political authority will also remain sensitive to such
scrutiny. Tracing a man's character to its psychic roots or a social
institution to its founders may either effectively support or undermine
(destroy) its claim to honor.

To appreciate the importance of "divine ancestors" to secure sanction
for a polity, one has only to consider the role of the imperial family in
Japan's history as Professor H. Carroll Parish did. Since the beginning of
Japanese history the myth of the emperor as a link with the divine
ancestors of the nation has served as a constitution." In an article, "The
Role of the Imperial Family in Modern Japan," Dr. Parish argues that
"The emperor was the intermediary between the divine imperial ancestors
and the people."' 2 All "virtue", Parish notes, is derived from the imperial
family. Moreover, he says:

Traditionally, the emperor represented the continuity of the nation
and the repository of "virtue" which he developed as a result of his
studies of Confucian classics, Chinese literature, and Chinese and
Japanese history. . .When earthquake, fire, and pestlience struck
repeatedly during a certain reign, it was believed often that such
tragedies were due to a lack of virtue on the part of the sovereign. '^

Clearly the traditional emperor was a charistmatic figure. Japanese
emperors were in Japanese political theory all related to the gods.
Only their morality make them different from the divine ancestors. An
emperor, as befitted his unique position, remained aloof from the political
struggle that embroiled the actual rulers of Japan whose regime the
imperial institution legitimized. The emperor was the political progenitor
of civil order (or government) among his people. It was a political order
that was based on his omnipotence and omniscience. The emperor's
traditional role as a link between the people and the gods is illustrative of
Kant's and Hobbes' assertions.

We might quite aptly compare the Japanese imperial institution the
central figures in this system are the imperial family members with

"Emperors deified by the Japanese were not fabled figures, or merely beings of myth; they
were moral. It is difficult for us to imagine this deificiation of people who really lived; to do so
we must think in terms of the canonization of our own saints. Politically, the United States
put an end to emperor worship, with a Japanese (American imposed) constitution. As a result
of the American "democracization" of Japan, following the Second World War, a new
constitution was adopted (in January 1946) that rejected the "godhood" of the emperor.

'^H.C. Parish, "The Role of the Imperial Family in Modern Japan, "^ocia/Sc/ewce, 49, p.
75.

25

Machiavelli's prince. A Machiavellian prince, Romulus, for example, is
also the founder of a civil society, Rome.''* Such a leader too establishes a
secure political order and ensures his own power. His justification for
creating a polity is found in his special status (as a demigod) and his success
in the political arena. Specifically of Romulus, it may be observed that the
basis of the community be founded in his political success. There is an
important similarity in the two portraits. Going to the foundations of both
Japan and Rome, we find charismatic authority and leadership. While
Romulus represents an example of a Machiavellian ruler, not all
Machiavellian rulers (possibly not a majority) are charismatic. Because
Machiavelli most surely had a vision of political greatness that involved no
more than success acquired by all and any means, a Machiavellian leader
may or may not also be a charismatic one.'^

Japan and Italy are political systems in existence today. In marked
contrast to existent regimes, there is a body of literature, which is the
product of reUgious teachers, social philosphers, and visionaries, on the
origins and existence of communities which have never existed. The
generic name given such social orders is Utopia, which is an English work
derived from a Greek noun for "no place".

Commentators have written on the theme of perfect communities or
Utopias (also called paradises). An interesting as well as a revealing way to
examine the creative aspect of charismatic leadership the charismatic
leader as a founder of a community would be to study it as a theme in
religious and political literature, isolating fantasies about "another world"
as they found expression in sacred books (for examples the old and new

'^Tradition says Rome was founded by Romulus in 753 B. C. Tradition also tells of how
the early people of Rome worshiped Romulus as Quirinus. In Roman legend, Romulus and
his twin, Remus, were sons of the god Mars and Rhea Silvia, a princess. The two brothers
(demigods) Jointly founded the settlement, which later became Rome (named after Romulus).
Remus was slain by Romulus, whose reign lasted many years. But to assure the survival of his
new city Romulus made war on neighboring peoples, among them the Sabines, whose women
he caught in order to provide wives for his settlers. Furthermore, to stabilize his polity he
established a constitution. His end was no less miraculous than his beginning (viz., being
fathered by a god); he vanished in a thunderstorm and thereafter was worshiped as Quirinus.

'M brief statement is in order regarding Romulus' status as a Machiavellian prince.
Niccolo Machiavellian in the Discourses uses Romulus as an example of a ruler (probably a
fabled figure) who knew how to obtain and keep political power, and therefore, a model for
those who wish to study the methods by which power is obtained and kept. Thus, this essay's
identification of Romulus as a Machiavellian ruler.

26

Testaments and the Koran) and in commentaries upon them, and in
secular adaptation. '^ In the West (Euro- America), the myth of paradise (a
place of perfect order) has given sustenance to such great enterprises as the
propagation of Christianity, the Crusades against Islam, millenarian
revolts during the Reformation, the overseas explorations of the sixteenth
century, and the settlement of the American continent. Western man has
seen (it may be argued) paradise in terrestrial and celestial terms, and in his
visions of paradise he has disclosed his innermost desires, whether he
thrust their background into the past, projected them forward into the
future on earth, or raised them to the heavens. As expressed in this
literature, these "wishes" include the "garden eastward in Eden" of
Genesis, the "golden race" of Hesiod, the "philosopher-king" of Plato, the
"world to come" of Christ, the "city of the living God" of the Spistle of the
Hebrews, the "vision of man in a primitive state of nature" of Rousseau's
Discourse on Inequality, and "communism" of Marx's and Engels' works.

In the beginning paradise was a myth of the community-forming
type with all the ambiguities of myth. But later it became a religious
belief in Israel and eventually a theological doctrine in Judasism,
Christianity, and Islam. However, in popular usage paradise is a "golden
age" which has established itself as a separate entity. Utopia is the generic
name given to it in secular literature. In this literature there is, it should be
stressed, no one charismatic type founder of the perfect community, but a
spectrum from the hero to the wonder-working man to the son of God. At
intervals groups are seized with a desire to create an "ideal" social order
once and for all inspired by Messiahs, prophets, heroic leaders, the world-
historical personalities, who promised a heavenly kingdom on earth after
an apocalyptic combat with the incarnation of evil.

In conclusion, we need not look any further than the front page of the
newspaper or the television screen to find an example of the interplay of
charisma and the founding of a new political system. The example referred
to is Iran's new Islamic constitution and the part played by the Ayatollah
Ruhollah Khomeini in its establishment. In December, 1979, the Iranian
people, inspired by the religious leader Ayatollah Khomeini, voted to
transform the country into an Islamic Republic. The new constitution
gives Ayatollah Khomeini an official role in the political process, and,
under it,he will remain for life in effective political control over the political
affairs of the new Republic.

'*A detailed discussion of this literature is beyond the scope of the present essay. The
purpose of this section of the discussion is simply to suggest the existence of a relationship
between charisma and Utopian literature. For the readers who would like to read about the
writer's views on this topic, see the writer's doctoral dissertation, submitted to Howard
University, Department of Political Science, 1979.

27

ARE WE HERE FOR A FAIR EXCHANGE?

A REVIEW AND CRITIQUE OF
GEORGE HOMANS' EXCHANGE THEORY

by Lee-jan Jan*

I

The Theory 1

George Romans is one of the most prominant contemporary social |
psychologists. His greatest theoretical contribution is in the exchange j
perspective. Homans, originally a structural functionalist as evidenced in i
his book The Human Group, 1950, grew dissatisfied with the Parsonian |
conceptual framework and wanted to provide an alternative strategy for
theory building. This strategy, based on elementary economics and
behavioral psychology, was presented in his book Social Behavior: Its
Elementary Forms (1961, rvised 1974).

George Homans' exchange theory, according to him, is mainly an
attempt to explain what he called "elementary social behavior", and then
the use of elementary social behavior to explain social behavior in general.
By elementary social behavior, Homans means that 1) the behavior is
ordinary and everyday behavior; 2)it is social (two persons interact with
each other in a face to face contact, the activity one person emits must be
rewarded or punished by the other person immediately and directly); 3) it is
actual behavior, not how the person and the other ought to behave; 4) the
interactions are spontaneous, not under some kind of contract or one has
authority over the other; and 5) it is elementary, shared by all mankind and
is not any institutionalized behavior. Put in Homans' own terms,
elementary social behavior is mainly "an exchange of activity, tangible or
intangible, and more or less rewarding or costly, between at least two
persons."'

The setting for the study of elementary social behavior is the small
group. As Homans indicates that elementary social behavior is the face-to
face contact between individuals, in which the reward each gets from the
behavior of the others is relatively direct and immediate, then the study
needs close observation. It is difficult to observe a large number of persons
at one time, and therefore one can only study it in small groups, and make
inferences according to observation.

The underlying general propositions of the exchange theory used to
explain the elementary social behavior are behavioral psychology and

Assistant Professor of Sociology, West Georgia College

'George C. Homans, Social Behavior: lis Elementary Forms (New York: Harcourt, Brace
& World, Inc., 1961), 13.

28

;lementary economics. Since behavioral psychology is a set of
)ropositions derived from experimental studies of animals, usually in
lonsocial situtations, and elementary economics is a set of propositions
iescribing the behavior of men in exchanging material goods, they do not
lutomatically explain the human social behavior which includes exchange
)f intangible services. Therefore, Romans stretched these two sets of
)ropositions and meshed them together to form a set of propositions to
ixplain elementary social behavior as an exchange activity between

)ersons

The propositions are:
. If in the past the occurrence of a particular stimulus situation has been
he occasion on which a man's activity has been rewarded, then the more
imilar the present stimulus situation is to the past one, the more likely he is
o emit the activity, or some similar activity, now.

L The more often within a given period of time a man's activity rewards the
ictivity of another, the more often the other will emit the activity.
i. The more vaulable to a man a unit of the activity another gives him, the
nore often he will emit activity rewarded by the activity of the other.
i. The more often a man has in the recent past received a rewarding activity
rom another, the less valuable any further unit of that activity becomes to
lim.

. The more to a man's disadvantage the rule of distributive justice fails of
ealization, the more likely he is to display the emotional behavior we call
nger.

The main points of this theory and its underlying concepts can be
ummarized as follows: it begins with behavioral psychology and
lementary economics which assume that men are hedonistic and profit-
eeking; therefore in social contact the more a man is rewarded for an
ictivity he emits, the more likely he will emit that activity. When two
)ersons interact with each other, they will emit the kind of activity which
vill get them the activity valuable to them from the other person. The more
hey value each other's activity, the more they will interact. The more
)ersons interact with one another the more they like one another. When
)ersons interact with one another they expect that the rule of distributive
ustice be realized; that means each of them expects to get a profit from the
nteraction. The profit should be proportional according to their
nvestments and the cost they spent on it, profit defined by Homans as
eward less cost. Cost occurs when there is an alternative activity which
vill also gain reward for the person.

^Ibid.. 12-13.

29

If the rule of distributive justice is not realized, the person shows the
emotional behavior of anger. If the persons's activity is not rewarded by
others he will emit less and less of that activity. If two persons find
interaction with each other is not rewarding they will not continue to
interact with each other. Another condition when two persons will
decrease their exchange of activities when they feel satiated during the
exchange of activities. According to Homans this is just like the rule of
marginal utility: the value of each unit of activity decreases per unit of
exchange.

When explaining behavior in a group, Homans evaluates social
approval as a very important reward one gets from his group. Individuals
conform to the norm of their group mainly to get social approval. If the
individual values more the approval of a nonconformer of the group, the
less he will conform. The more a person conforms to the norms of his
group the more he will be rewarded by approval, thus the higher esteem he
will receive. But a person receives high esteem not only because he
conforms but also because he is able to provide more valuable and scarce
rewards to others. The ability to provide scarce and valuable activity to
other members in the group will lead to more interaction directed to those
with high esteem. The people who value the other's activity are more likely
to originate the interaction, since the people with low esteem are apt to
value the activity of the people with high esteem. This explains why the
interaction is more likely to flow from the low esteem people to the high
esteem people, and the high esteem people return them with valuable
services.

The people who control scarce and valuable services gain authority
over the rest of the members by rewarding or punishing them. The
members follow or obey the high esteem people's advice or suggestions ini
expectation of gaining reward or avoiding punishment. Homans defines
authority as an earned influence by a person over the other members in a
wide range of activities. This authority bestows leadership on the person.'
(Homans does not talk about authority acquired by appointment or
inheritance.) The leaders are few in number and tend to be loners.
Although we know the leaders are paid high esteem and more interaction is
directed to them, Homans also pointed out that the follows also feel
deprived by them, and the psychic cost of feeling inferior will create
ambivalence in the relationship between leaders and followers. Thus, people
tend to interact with their equals. The leaders may gain liking in the first
place, but lose it after they have established their leadership. What they
retain may be high esteem and respect.

From this breif summary we can see behavioral psychology and
elementary economics as a strain running through the explanation, as
Homans attempted to explain social behavior in its elementary form,

30

namely exchange behavior. Homans begins with explaining interaction
between individuals, later expanding to explain interaction in a group and
the emergence of authority and leaders. The leaders rise to their place with
a lot of liking but unfortunately end in a unavoidably lonely place with a
lot of cold respect.

II

The Criticisms

Kenneth E. Boulding thinks that the theory only explains the
interaction of persons at levels below that of strictly formal organization,
and in dealing with valued activities and reward did not explain how the
preference structures are learned.^ It is hard to agree with these criticisms
because Homans has explicitly indicated that the exchange theory was not
intended to explain formal organizational behavior, and that he has taken
many things as given, such as how the preference structure is learned, as
beyond the theory's scope.

Boulding further criticizes that the exchange system is not the only
system in human interaction; there are other systems such as threat system,
love system."* Although it can be argued that people interacting by threat of
love are also practicing exchange behavior (such as to emit a certain
behavior under threat to avoid a punishment, or the mother who gives her
love to her children in hope of maintaining her children's love or
attachment to her in return), these activities are better explained by threat
and love than exchange, because'human beings are motivated to act or
interact by some other factors than profit-seeking. Love can be a
motivation itself; it does not need to have anything in return, such as
mother sacrificing herself to protect her children in an emergency. At that
moment she does not do it for a reward; she does it intuitively, purely
motivated by love. It would be illogical to explain it by profit-seeking
because she may kill herself in the process; if this is the cost, it would be
very hard to find any reward to exceed it and leave some profit.

James A. Davis thinks that the exchange theory is a nonmathematical
reasoning; therefore it is not precise enough to determine the relationship
between cause and result, and he doubts that anyone except Homans could
draw these particular conclusions for his theory. ^ Although some of the

^Kenneth E. Boulding, "Two Critiques of Homans' Socail Behavior: Its Elementary
Forms, An Economists's View." American Journal of Sociology (bl: January 1962), 458-
460).

*Ibid., 460.

'James A. Davis, "Two Critiques of Homans' Soc/'a/ Behavior: Its Elementary Forms, A
Socialogist's V\ew"AmericanJournal of Sociology (67: January 1962), 454-458.

31

concepts such as value, profit, and distributive justice would be better if
they could be reasoned with a mathematical model, it is not the only
legitimate way of explaining the action; in human behavior there are many
aspects which nedd not and/ or cannot be explained by mathematical
reasoning, such as we mentioned before, people interact because of love.

Deutsch and Krauss think that the key terms in this theory are neither
conceptually nor operationally defined, such as unit of activity, value, or
reward. They can be understood in a sense of everyday language, but it is
very hard to test them and interpret them in a strictly scientific method.^

Deutsch and Krauss further indicate that the Homans' theory implies
that there is a common currency or a single dimension to which the value of
different experiences can be coordinated so that the value of a unit of one
such activity received can be compared with the value of another unit. But
this common currency and the method of unitizing activity have not been
identified. That is to say without some conceptual and empirical definition
of reinforcement, Homans is in the position of defining a value as that
which is valued, paralleling the Skinnerian circularity of a reinforcer as
that which reinforces.^ This is valid criticism because from the definition of
value summarized in the first part of this paper it can be seen that although
Homans tried to define and tell us how to measure value and quantity
independently, the measurement is still a vague idea and cannot be
operationalized.

Deutsch and Krauss further criticized that the lack of specification of a
common currency for the measurement of value creates serious problems
for such notions as profit, reward, cost, distributive justice, because these
notions imply an ability to compare, to add and substract, and to divide
value. Since value is not measurable then how can one determine how
valuable a reward or cost is? Ifone cannot determine the value of reward or
cost then how can one determine how great the profit is? If one cannot
determine the value of the profit, then how can one determine whether the
interaction is a fair exchange? How can one apply the rule of distributive
justice?

Another important defect Deutsch and Krauss pointed out is that the
exchange theory ignores psychological processes both as inner conflict and
ambivalence because it takes strictly the economic assumption that values
are additive for example, the formula Profit - Reward - Cost. But
besides the fact that one has no way to substract the cost from reward
objectively, to add a negative value or cost to a positive value or reward the
result is just not simply the smaller positiv value. Rather the person
experiences conflict and manifests symptons of stress.

'Morton Deutsch and Robert M. Krauss, Theories in Social Behavior (New York: Basic
Books, Inc., 1965), 112.
'Ibid., 115.

32

Besides the criticisms cited above, there are still some other questions:
1. Whether psychic profit is actually measurable objectively according to
the formula Profit - Reward - Cost. For example, If person A gives person
C help, it is because he thinks that the approval he gains is more valued
than the cost he expands to give C help. But suppose one has studied
person B's history and his recent activities and they are all equal to person
A's. However, person B would not give help to person C, according to the
formula, because person B does not value the approval reward more than
the cost he needs to spend to help person C. Since everything is equal, the
reason one can attribute to this is that they are of different personalities;
maybe person A is a nice guy. Then how can one calculate the personality
difference into the formula? As another example, say person A would give
help at one time but not at another time, and other things being equal,
besides the difference that when person A gave help he was in a good
mood, he does not give help when he is in a bad mood (not satiation).
Then the reason one can attribute is to emotion, and how is one going to
take account of emotion in that formula?

It has been documented in many studies that a person's emotion or
mood has a great influence on his interaction with another person,
especially in helping behavior. ^ Here, Homans' theory suffers, as
behavioristic reinforcement theory in general cannot explain altruistic
behavior. Such behavior usually involves a high cost to the person who
emits such an activity, but who expects nothing in return; for example, a
good Samaritan.

2. The assumption of profit-seeking as the origination of the
establishment of human interaction is questionable. According to the
theory, when people are thrown together before common norms have been
crystallized among them, the advantage to be gained through entering into
exchange relations furnishes incentives for social interaction. The
exchange process serves as a mechanism for regulating social interaction,
thus fostering the development of a network of social relations and
rudimentary group structure. Therefore the elementary social behavior
supplies the process of institutional behavior. Institutional behavior
differs only because the rewards are complex and the exchange indirect, so
that the process must be mediated through explicitly stated norms. The
norms continue to operate only so long as they are supported by the
workings of elementary behavior. Here the question is how people know
that entering into interaction will gain profit in the first place. If they just
blindly hit on it and are rewarded, then the first activity cannot be assumed
as profit seeking motivated to enter into interaction after norms,
regulations, and expectations have been established. Then their behavior

'Lawrence S. Wrightsman, Social Psychology (Monterey, California; Brooks/ Cole Co.
1977), 296-297).

33

may be assumed or interpreted as economically rational, because as this
time when a person emits an activity he has the norms or regulations to
follow and knows what to expect from it.

Levi-Strauss had argued strongly that unlike animals, humans possess
a cultural heritage of norms and values; not only is exchange behavior
guided by learned and regulations, it is also more than the results of
economic or psychological needs, even those needs that have been
acquired through socialization. Exchange cannot be understood solely on
terms of individual motives, because exchange relations are a reiieciiuii ui
patterns of social organization which exist as an entity, sui generis, to the
psychological dispositions of individuals.^

3. Since exchange behavior is mostly a learned behavior, and culturally
bound or biased, therefore it cannot be adequately generalized to a global
scope before it has been examined in other cultures. Homans indicated
himself that he thinks this exchange theory is universal but he based his
observations mainly on American experiments, thus making people
question the validity of these generalizations.

It is reasonable to criticize that Homans did not take social structure
into consideration in formulating his exchange theory, and based it solely
on the assumption of economically rational men. But it would be incorrect
to accuse Homean, as Poloma did, of psychological reductionism and that
psychological reductionism could render sociology obsolete. 'o It is up to
those sociologists who oppose psychological reductionism to demonstrate
the worth of sociology.

'Johathan H. Turner, The Structure of Sociological Theory (Homewood, Illinois: The
Dorsey Press, 1978), 210.

lOMargaret M. Poloma, Contemporary Sociological Theory (New York: Macmillan
Publishing Co., 1979), 45-46.

34

ABSTRACTS OF MASTER'S THESES AND
SPECIALIST IN EDUCATION PROJECTS

Albrecht. Marx Ann, (Specialist in Education, June, 1979)

AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE EFFECT OF

A STRUCTURAL-PHONETIC ANALYSIS

APPROACH UPON WORD RECOGNITION

This research study was designed to compare the achievement of
students who were taught word recognition skills by the structuralphonetic
analysis approach with students who were taught word recognition skills
by the regular phonic approach.

Word recognition skills were taught during three ten minute periods
each week over a four month period by a teacher and two instructional
aides to two groups of eighteen students. These skills were presented to the
students individually or in small groups. The experimental group was
taught using a structural-phonetic analysis approach, and the control
group was taught using the regular phonic approach.

Subjects in these groups were randomly selected from the students
assigned to the Title 1 language arts class at LaBelle Elementary School.
They were in their fourth, fifth, or sixth year of school.

Data were collected from the Durrell Analysis of Reading Difficulty,
Word Recognition and Word Analysis Test. These data were analyzed
through the use of the t test to determine significance. The null hypothesis
was not rejected because there was no significant difference at the .05 level.

It was concluded that there was no significant difference in
achievement in word recognition skills between the experimental group
and the control group which can be attributed to the two methods of
teaching word recognition skills.

Atkins, Kathy, (Specialist in Education, June, 1979)

A STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF THE EARLY

CHILDHOOD GRADUATE EDUCATION PROGRAM

AT WEST GEORGIA COLLEGE ON

GRADUATES AFTER RE-ENTERING THE

TEACHING PROFESSION

This study is aimed at determining the effects of the early childhood
graduate education at West Georgia College on one hundred and seventy-
seven graduates from January, 1976 to March, 1979, who have earned a
masters degree and have returned to teaching. A questionnaire developed
by the early childhood education department was filled out by the graduate
teachers and by their immediate supervisors. The positive results are

35

shown in the raw scores, percentages, mean scores, and the correlation
between the matched pairs of teachers and supervisors. These results of the
questionnaires show that the teacher graduates exhibit positive skills,
characteristics, and behaviors. The study concludes that the early
childhood fifth-year education program at West Georgia College has
positive effects upon teacher graduates.

Autry. Barbara Gail, (MA, June, 1979)

EXECUTIVE WOMEN:
THEIR SUCCESS AND CONFLICTS

This article deals with problems and conflicts faced by women in
management or executive positions. Historical developments are included
to provide the reader with a transistion from the past societal standards to
the current market of the executive female. Research is provided on age,
educational training, experience and marital status of interviewed subjects
with emphasis on salary ranges and conflicts of executive females.
Findings indicate, of those in executive positions, 44% of the females have
some college education. 64% of the males have bachelors degrees. Females
were found to have greater work experience than their male counterparts,
66% of the males had between five and 10 years of experience, 39% of the
females had more than 20 years experience before attaining management
positions. Fifty-five percent of the females surveyed were earning from
$15,000 to $20,000; of the majority of the males, 66%, had earnings in
excess of $40,000.

Battle, Joan Barnwell, (Specialist in Education, March, 1979)

SUSPENSIONS: A HUMANISTIC APPROACH

In January, 1978, a study was conducted to compare the inschool
suspension system with the traditional method of out-of-school
suspension to see if they differ significally at the .05 level. This would
enable school administrators to modify the behavior of students within the
school setting, yet, maintain state aid based on the average daily
attendance.

The subjects for this study were selected at random and assigned either
to a control or an experimental group, each containing twenty students.

The experimental group reflected a greater reduction in the number of
suspensions than the control group, the difference being significant
beyond the .05 level of significance.

36

It is recommended that similar studies be conducted to assess the effect
of in-school suspension (1) on academic achievement and (2) on other
criterion variables such as interest, motivation, and attitudes.

Bookhardt, Jesse, (Specialist in Education, August, 1979)

PEER AND ADULT INFLUENCE ON SELECTED
BELIEFS OF SIXTH AND EIGHTH GRADERS

The point of this study was to determine the extent of peer influence
and parent influence on the beliefs of sixth and eighth graders from a
suburban middle class Cobb County, Georgia sample.

It was hypothesized that there would be no significant differences
between sex or grade level relative to parent and peer influences. To test the
null hypotheses, 60 eighth grade subjects, and 60 sixth grade subjects
equally divided between sexes respectively were chosen. A modified
version of The Students Belief Opinionnaire was given as a pre-test.
Indicating their agreement or disagreement with stated opinions, the
subjects responded to the instrument on a seven point Likert scale.

Four weeks later the same instrument was given as a post-test and
included a Likert scale that had been treated with a written persuasive
communication indicating parent and peer agreement or disagreement
with items. The difference between subject responses on the pre-test and
post-test was calculated. These changes of opinions relative to peers and
parents formed the foundation of the statistical treatment and conclusions.

A t-test, an analysis of variance, and a Duncan procedure were applied
to the change of opinion scores of each sub-group. The findings revealed
that relative to selected opinion formation, eighth grade females were
significantly more peer directed than eighth grade males, and were
significantly more peer oriented than parent oriented. All other sub-
groups of sex and grade levels were not found to be significantly different
relative to parent or peer influence. All sub-groups as a whole were found
to be attracted by both peer and parent indicated opinions.

Therefore, based on the findings the most outstanding conclusions of
the study had to do with the strong peer orientation of eighth grade female
subjects and the finding that both parent and peer opinions attracted
rather than repelled subject responses.

It was recommended that similar studies be done to determine the
status of peer and parent influences at the seventh grade level; to determine
whether the subjects were atypical; to include a wider range of variables;
and to narrow the type of opinions involved to a single kind.

37

Brewer, Lawton Andrew, (MA, June, 1979)

AN EXPLICATION AND A CONSIDERATION

OF THE CRITICISM OF

"THE CITY OF DREADFUL NIGHT"

After giving a brief review of representative critical evaluations of "The
City of Dreadful Night," this paper attempts to deal with the major themes,
symbols and images of the poem. Most of the initial discussion involves the
poet's attitude toward religion and his treatment of the topic as revealed in
the symbolism and situations of the work. In addition, the paper traces the
nihilistic philosophy of the work in some of its major sections. A
significant amount of space is devoted to an explication of the reality-
illusion motif and its relationship to the poem's religious pessimisma.
Penultimately, other major symbolic devices, especially those of the City
and the river, receive some attention. Finally, the paper gives some
consideration to the poem's relationship to other literary work: the paper
suggests possible influences exerted upon the poem and points out the
affinities between "The City of Dreadful Night" and modern literature.

Cagle, Sara E., (Specialist in Education, August, 1979)

A COMPARISON OF BEHAVIORISTIC AND

HUMANISTIC STRATEGIES UTILIZED IN

TEACHING SIXTY SELECTED DOLCH SIGHT

WORDS TO SECOND GRADE

TITLE I READING STUDENTS

This study was designed to determine if children would learn sight
words significantly better if they were taught utilizing behavioristic
strategies or by utilizing humanistic strategies.

The subjects were forty Title I reading students from Douglas County,
Georgia. These students were randomly assigned to two experimental
groups. Thirty-six of the subjects studied sixty eight words from the Dolch
List that they were unable to recognize instantly. Since they recognized too
many words on the prestest, four of the subjects participated using shorter
word lists and were, therefore, not included in the analyses.

Experimental group A taught sight words utilizing behavioristic
strategies. Experimental group R was taught sight words utilizing

38

humanistic strategies. Both groups studied their word lists approximately
fifteen minutes each school day for six weeks.

The findings of this study suggested that there was significant
difference in sight word recognition achievement scores when comparing a
group taught utilizing behavioristic strategies with a group taught utilizing

humanistic strategies. In the group taught humanistically, the same results
were found when the groups were compared by sex.

Click, Joy C. (Specialist in Ecuation, August, 1979)

THE STUDY OF STUDENT EVALUATIONS

of

THE EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

GRADUATE PROGRAM

AT

WEST GEORGIA COLLEGE

FROM AUGUST, 1977 THROUGH AUGUST, 1979

The purpose of this study was to formally tabulate and assess all the
student evaluations of the Early Childhood Education Graduate Program
at West Georgia College from August, 1977 through August, 1979.

One hundred fifty-three questionnaire responses were tabulated. The
results indicate that the students had positive attitudes towards the Early
Ehildhood Education Graduate Program at West Georgia College.

Cooke, Wyvis M., (SpeciaUst in Education, August, 1979)

IS IN-SCHOOL SUSPENSION A WORTH-WHILE
INNOVATION AT CARROLLTON HIGH SCHOOL?

This study was an attempt to determine if in-school suspenison is a
worth-while innovation at Carrollton High School.

Several conclusions were drawn from this hmited study as a result of
the date collected:

1. Overall suspensions have decreased at Carrollton High School
during the last three years, even though student enrollment has been on the
increase.

2. Students assigned to in-school suspension have decreased since its
inauguration. -^

3. Repeaters to in-school suspension have decreased substantially at
Carrollton High School.

4. There has been a significant reduction in student drop-outs.

5. Eighty-three percent of the students surveyed would choose in-
school suspension rather than suspension.

6. Sixty-one percent of the students surveyed felt that in-school
suspension should be continued at Carrollton High School.

7. Fifty-seven percent of the students surveyed thought that in-school
suspension was an effective punishment.

8. Seventy-eight percent of the students surveyed felt that in-school
suspension was similar to being in jail.

9. The in-school suspension classroom should be totally nonpunitive
and should be staffed by a person who is an expert in guidance.

Cooper, Dale F., (SpeciaUst in Education, June, 1979)

THE EFFECT ON ACHIEVEMENT AND ATTITUDE OF

THE LANGUAGE EXPERIENCE APPROACH TO

TEACHING MATHEMATICS STORY PROBLEMS

TO FOURTH GRADE STUDENTS

This study was designed to determine the effect, if any, the language
experience approach to teaching mathematics story problems would have
on achievement and attitude.

Subjects used in this study were two heterogeneous groups of fourth-
grade children in Polk County, Georgia. During the six- week instructional
period, the experimental group was taught mathematics word problem
solving skills using the language experience approach, while the control
group was taught mathematics word problem solving skills using the
traditional method receiving no specialized instruction. Each treatment
period for the experimental group was 45 minutes, three days each week.
Subjects completing the experiment numbered twenty in the control group
and nineteen in the experimental group giving a total of thirty-nine
participants completing the experiment.

The Iowa Tests of Basic Skills, Level 10, Form 5 was used for the
pretest and Form 6 was used for the posttest for mathematics achievement.
The Dutton Scale (Straight's modification) was used for the pretest and
posttest for mathematics attitude. The testing for the experimental group
wat administered by the investigator, while the testing for the control
groap was administered by the control group teacher.

40

The Analysis of Covariance was used to analyze the data. The niill
hypotheses were tested using the .05 level of significance. The significance
of the F ratio in mathematics achievement indicated no significant
of the F ratio in mathematics attitude did indicate a significant difference.
Therefore, the first null hypothesis concerning mathematics achievement,
was not rejected at the .05 level of significance. The second null hypothesis
concerning mathematics attitude, however, was rejected at the .05 level of
significance, with the experimental group having a higher mean.

Davies, Pamela G., (Specialist in Education, June, 1979)

A COMPARISON STUDY OF FIRST YEAR STUDENTS

INSTRUCTED IN AN INTENSIVE PHONICS

PROGRAM AS COMPARED TO FIRST YEAR

STUDENTS INSTRUCTED IN A BASAL READER

AND GRADUAL PHONICS PROGRAM

This study was designed to compare results of reading achievement of
first year students using an intensive phonics program with first year
students using a basal reading series and occasional phonics program. The
subjects were students at Hollydale Elementary School and Austell
Elementary School. The subjects were matched socio-economically in two
groups of forty-four students. The length of the study was eight months.

Four subtests of the Stanford Achievement Test, Primary Battery I
were used. These subtests, word reading, paragraph meaning, vocabulary
and word study skills, along with the total raw scores, were covaried with
the Metropolitan Readiness Test, parental occupation and kindergarten.
The analysis of the covariance was used as the statistical analysis.

The results showed only one significant area of difference. This
difference was indicated at the .009 level of confidence in the analysis of the
data. The difference was found to favor the control group in the area of
vocabulary.

Davis, Mary Jack, (MA, March, 1979)

THE AUTONOMOUS EXPRESSION OF BEING: THE
POETRY OF HOPKINS, STEIN, YEATS, WILLIAMS

AND STEVENS

The poems of Gerard Manley Hopkins, W.B. Yeats, Gertrude Stein,
William Carlos Williams, and Wallace Stevens have been the subject of
varied and often contradictory interpretations. Their poems have in

41

common unusual linguistic structures which often make their poetic
meanings ambiguous and complex. Many times a poem's meaning will
seem to be nothing more than the linguistic structure itself. However, each
poet has an affinity with a philosophy of being, and this affinity is reflected
in his poetry. This thesis attempts to demonstrate that through a blending
of two polar theories, contextualism and romanticism, a common poetic
purpose does emerge from the poems of Hopkins, Yeats, Stein, Williams,
and Stevens.

In romantic theory the concept that poetic meaning is identified with
the imagination's power to coalesce with the essence of nature provides the
basis for interpreting the poems in light of a theory of continuity. However,
unlike the Romantic who stood in a position of preestablished harmony
between spirit and nature, Hopkins, Stein, Yeats, Stevens, and Williams
felt that they were in a position of dissonance with nature. They had to
search for that harmony which the romantics took for granted. The
language itself was the poet's greatest barrier to the experience of
continuity. In contextual theory the poem only exists in language, and
poetic meaning is identified with the system of linguistic relations in the
poem. Contextual thinking provides the basis for examining the linguistic
relations and identifing those relations with the imagination's power to
blend spirit with nature.

Dollar, Sue F., (Specialist in Education, June, 1979)

THE EFFECT OF THE FUNCTIONAL USE OF

DIRECTED READING TECHNIQUE ON

SPECIALIZED VOCABULARY IN SEVENTH GRADE

SOCIAL STUDIES

A study was conducted to compare the achievement of two groups in
specialized social studies vocabulary. Group One was taught social studies
by the teacher's traditional teaching method. Group Two was taught social
studies vocabulary by the directed reading technique.

The classes in Group One and Two were heterogeneously grouped.
They were considered equivalent because assignment to classes was a
random process. Two teachers were involved in this study. The researcher
was one of the teachers involved.

A sixty item vocabulary test was administered as a pretest and posttest
equivalent group design in the study. A one-way analysis of covarieance
was used in the data analysis with the pretest as a covariate. The results of

42

the comparison revealed that following the directed reading technique as
applied to specialized vocabulary in seventh grade social studies was more
effective than following the method of traditional teaching.

Edwards, Mary B., (Specialist in Education, June, 1979)

A COMPARISON STUDY OF SELF-CONCEPTS OF

STUDENTS IN A JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL

ENVIRONMENT WITH SELF-CONCEPTS OF

STUDENTS IN A SELF-CONTAINED ENVIRONMENT

This study was designed to compare the self-concepts of students in a
junior high school environment with the self-concepts of students in a self-
contained school environment. The variables of grade level, sex, and
school were analyzed as to their main and interactive effects of self-
concept. Seventh and eight-grade students from two schools were the
subjects.

A two-way Analysis of Covariance was the statistical technique
employed. Socio-economic status was the covariate. Program ANOVA
and Program Breakdown from the Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences were used. The results showed that the main effects of grade level,
sex, and school were not significant at the .05 level. The intereactions of
grade level with school, and the interaction of sex with school were also not
significant at the .05 level. However, the interaction of grade level with sex
was significant at the .05 level.

Gadd, Linda Patterson, (Specialist in Education, June, 1979)

A STUDY OF THE TRADITIONAL APPROACH

VERSUS A MANIPULATIVE ACTIVITY APPROACH

IN TEACHING MULTIPLICATION AT THE THIRD

GRADE LEVEL IN THE NORTH DALTON

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL - DALTON, GEORGIA

Mathematics has become an increasingly fascinating and important
study in recent, years. Many children are excited by the orderHness of
mathematics, by the sheer fun of manipulating numbers, by the scientific
achievements possible through the use of mathematics, by the discovery of

43

a surprise relationship, or by the solution of a puzzling problem.

The negative attitudes that children and adults hold about
mathematics were learned. Usually they could be traced to prior pressure
to learn something that was either incomprehensible or boring to both.
When children are frustrated for bored, changes need to be made.

The purpose of this study was to determine if a manipulative activity
approach to teaching multiplication had an equally positive effect on
multiplication achievement as did the traditional approach to teaching
multiplication.

The subjects for this study were two third-grade classes at North
Dalton Elementary School in Dalton, Georgia. The subjects were placed in
each classroom without regard to mental ability, academic achievement,
or socio-economic background.

The control group, a class of nineteen students, was taught
multiplication using the traditional approach. The experimental group, a
class of nineteen students, was taught multiplication using a manipulative
activity approach. A multiplication facts pretest was given at the beginning
of the study. The study lasted eight weeks, at the end of which time a
posttest was given over the multiplication facts. A delayed posttest was
given four weeks after instruction has ceased.

The gain from pretest to posttest was significant at .05 level, in favor of
the experimental group. The gain from pretest to delayed posttest was
significant at .05 level, in favor of the experimental group. Since there were
just two groups to compare, the t-test was employed on the data from each
of the comparisons: the results at the end of the treatment period and the
results at the time of the delayed posttest.

It is recommended that similar studies be conducted to assess the
effect of the manipulative activity method when subjects and teachers are
selected from different schools and different areas.

Corley, Robert Leon, (Specialist in Education, June, 1979)

A TWO-YEAR COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE
EFFECTIVENESS OF THE GROUPING IN READING
ACHIEVEMENT AT R.E. LEE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL

The study was an attempt to explore the effectiveness of the
homogeneous grouping of one hundred thirty-two seventh-grade students
in reading acheivement as measured by the Iowa Test of Basic Skills. A
comparative study of the significance of the difference between the two
correlated means was investigated over a nine-month period.

44

There was a significant difference in the low and top group at the
corresponding confidence level of .02 of 5.79 and 6.5 respectively. These
two groups improved a grade equivalent of eight months during this
period. The middle group did not show any statistical significance (2.4 1 ) at
the .02 level and the grade equivalent score improved only five months.

There was reason to believe, from the statistical analyses, that the
grouping method employed is effective with the low group and the top
group, but that it does not have any statistical significance on the middle
group in reading achievement.

Garrett, Carolyn, R., (Specialist in Education, March, 1979)

THE EFFECT OF HAND-HELD CALCULATORS

ON DECIMAL COMPUTATION AND PROBLEM

SOLVING SKILLS OF EIGHTH-GRADE STUDENTS

This study was designed to determine the effect, if any, the use of hand-
held calculators would have on the achievement of computation and
problem solving skills involving decimals.

Subjects used in this study were two sections of eighth-grade students
considered equivalent in terms of their progression in the Douglas County
Math Program. During the four-week period from October 18, 1978
through November 14, 1978, instructional treatment was the same for both
classes with the exception of the use of hand-held calculators by the
experimental group. Each treatment period was 55 minutes daily for the
four-week study. Subjects completing the experiment numbered 27 in the
control group and 29 in the experimental group giving a total of 56
participants completing the experiment.

A pre-test designed by the investigator after consultation with Dr.
Lamar Blanton, a professor of mathematics education at West Georgia
College, was administered by the investigator and the teacher performing
the experiment. A post-test similar in form to the pre-test was administered
at the end of the study.

The t-test for the differences between two means was used to analyze
the data. The null hypotheses were tested using the .05 level of significance.
The t-values associated with the means gains in computation and problem
solving skills indicated no significant differences; therefore, the null
hypotheses were not rejected at the .05 level of significance. This would
indicate that calculator usage within the purposes and limitations of this
study had no statistically significant effect in the acquisition of decimal

45

computation and problem solving skills.

Although results indicated no significant differences, the mean gain in
terms of computation was in favor of the control group whereas the mean
gain in problem solving favored the experimental group. It is
recommended that further studies be made in this area.

Goolsby, Roy Franklin, (Specialist in Education, August, 1979)

A COMPARATIVE STUDY

OF STUDENT PERFORMANCE UNDER

THE QUARTER SYSTEM AND

THE NINE-MONTH SYSTEM

The purpose of this study was to determine if there was any significant
difference in student performance under the quarter system and the nine-
month system.

After several years of operation on the quarter system in the two high
schools in Rome, serious concern had arisen about the value and
effectiveness of the quarter system.

West Rome High School was chosen for this study. The student
population there was much more stable than that at East Rome High
School, during the years selected for this study.

The West Rome High School Class of 1976, which attended school
four years under the quarter system, was compared to the West Rome
High School Class of 1972, which attended school four years under the
nine-month system. Student performance in four areas was compared.
Grades, attendance, drop-out rate, and retention rate of the Class of 1976
was compared to the same performance areas of the Class of 1976.

The Class of 1972 had a higher percent ofattendance, a lower drop-out
rate, and a lower retention rate, for a more favorable outcome in three of
the four areas of comparison. The Class of 1976 was superior to the Class
of 1972 only in the area of grades.

A statistical analysis of the data being compared indicated that only in
the area of attendance was there a significant difference.

A second component of this study was to obtain teacher opinion of the
quarter system at West Rome High School. An opinionnaire was devised,
and administered to the forty-one faculty members. Forty members
responded.

A majority of the West Rome High School faculty indicated that the
major weaknesses of the quarter system were (1) too many students
avoiding the more advanced courses, (2) the time and effort required in the

46

registration and scheduling process, (3) courses not haveing built-in
sequence and continuity, (4) too many lesson preparations during the year
for teachers.

The study does not indicate a significant difference in the overall
comparison of the quarter system and the nine-month system. It is
recommended that the two high schools in Rome remain on the quarter
system, with further study being given to changes that could improve the
quarter system, in light of the problems identified by the tea-; hers at West
Rome High School.

Hall, Patricia Phillips, (Specialist in Education, June, 1979)

PLANNING, IMPLEMENTING, AND EVALUATING

AN OPEN MEDIA PROGRAM FOR RICO

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

FULTON COUNTY, GEORGIA

The purpose of this study was to plan, implement, and evaluate an open
media program for Rico Elementary School. The entire school, grades one
through seven, participated in varying degrees in this study.

Planning for the study began in July, 1978, when questionnaires were
sent to in-field resource people. The responses received helped in the
formulation of an open media program developed to meet the unique
needs of Rico School. The plan designed included changing from a
scheduled to an unscheduled program, planning teacher-media specialist
conferences, extending the use of student-assistants, and beginning a
parent-volunteer program.

Implementation of the open media program necessitated involving the
Rico staff and training additional personnel. Student-assistants, safety
patrol helpers, and parent-volunteers were chosen and trained. Faculty
meetings were held concerning the program changes and written directions
were distributed. Schedules were made for teacher-media specialist
conferences, student workers, and parent-volunteers. The media speciaUst
instructed the student body in the program changes in December, 1978.

The sixth and seventh grade combination class was used as subjects for
the evaluative phase of this study. Library utilization and book circulation,
reference and Hbrary skills, and students' attitudes toward media center
utilization were evaluated.

Library utilization and book circulation records were kept by the
individual sixth and seventh grade students during a twenty-six week
period throughout the 1978-1979 school year. This time allotment was
divided into a nine-week base period and a seventeen-week experimental

47

period. The book circulation and library utilization data were evaluated by
comparing the means between the base and experimental periods. During
the experimental period library use increased considerably in the following
ways: ( 1 ) book circulation increased, and (2) the number of student visits to
the library to check out books increased. Library utilization increased
slightly in (1) the amount of time spent in research, (2) the actual minutes
students spent in the Ubrary, and (3) the number of students visits for the
purpose of reading. On the other hand, library utilization for browsing
decreased.

A reference and library skills test and an attitude survey toward media
center utilization were administered by the investigator. The gains in
achievement and attitude improvement were evaluated statistically using a
t-test to analyze the data. The null hypotheses were not rejected at the .05
level of significance since neither test showed a significant difference at this
level. However, the achievement scores were extremely close to being at a
level of significance.

The data analyzed in this study indicate that the open media program
did not produce significantly higher achievement than did the former
library program. However, the tendency of the data indicated an increase
in book circulation, library utilization and time spent in the library, and an
improvement in students' attitudes toward the media center.

Harden, Carol Miller, (Specialist in Education, June, 1979)

A COMPARISON OF TYPEWRITING CLASSES
AT NORTH CLAYTON SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

Problem

The purpose of this study was to compare the effectiveness of three
different methods of teaching production typewriting to fourth-quarter
typewriting classes at North Clayton Senior High School.

Procedure

Literature describing teaching methods for production typewriting was
researched. Three of these methods were chosen to be used in a study at
North Clayton Senior High School during the Fall 1978 quarter. The
methods chosen were production, production and drill, and a production,
drill, and self-paced activity combination.

The Production Only Students spent each entire class period typing
problems which were timed. These students participated in no drills;

48

however, new material was previewed. As students determined their
production rate, problems were reviewed.

The Production and Drill Students spent approximately 20 to 30
minutes of each class period typing timed problems. The remaining 15
to 20 minutes were spent in typing teacher-directed drills on problems
and straight-copy material. Except for drills, these students were treated
like the Production Only Students.

The Production, Drill, and Self-Paced Activity Students participated
in a modified self-paced instruction plan. For 15 to 20 minutes three
days each week, these students typed drills on problems and straight-
copy material. When these students completed a unit, they were given a
timed 30-minute production test. During the rest of the class time, these
students participates in self-paced activities which were comprised of
untimed problem typing.

A pretest consisting of a typewriting theory test, a five-minute
writing, and a 30-minute production test was admninistered during the
sixth and seventh class meetings. No theory was discussed, and no
problems were typed prior to the pretest. The first five class periods
were devoted to teacher-directed straight-copy drills and to short
timings.

At the end of the quarter a posttest was given. The posttest consisted
of the pretest typewriting theory test, a five-minute writing of equal
difficulty as the pretest timing, and a 30-minute production test similar
to the pretest.

A t-test was used to compare the posttest results with the pretest
results. An f-test was used to test the null hypotheses: There will be no
significant difference in the production achievement among the groups.

Conclusions

The conclusions drawn from the findings of this study were:

1. Students made progress in production typewriting regardless of
teaching method.

2. The Production Only Students learned about the same as the
Production and Drill Students.

3. The Production Only Students learned significantly more than the
Production, Drill, and Self-Paced Activity Students.

4. The Production and Drill Students learned significantly more
than the Production, Drill, and Self-Paced Activity Students.

49

Harris, Douglas Eugene, (Specialist in Education, June 1979)

A COMPARISION STUDY OF MATHEMATICS
ACHIEVEMENT GAIN BETWEEN: (1) STUDENTS

ENROLLED IN AN INDIVIDUALIZED
PROGRAM VERSUS STUDENTS ENROLLED IN A

TRADITIONAL PROGRAM; (2) STUDENTS

ENROLLED IN A TRANSITIONAL TRADITIONAL

PROGRAM VERSUS STUDENTS ENROLLED IN A

TRADITIONAL PROGRAM

The Primary purpose of this study was to determine whether there
was a signigficant difference in achievement gain made by students
enrolled in a traditional mathematics program as opposed to
achievement gain made by students enrolled in an individualized
mathematics program.

A secondary purpose of this study was to determine whether there
was a significant difference in achievement gain made by these study
groups when placed in the same traditional mathematics program.

The areas under comparision were mathematical concepts,
mathematical computation, mathematical applicastions and total
mathematic score. Achievement gain in these areas was measured by
correct student responeses on the Stanford Achievement Test,
Intermediate level II Forms A and B.

The student population of the study consisted of three sixth grade
classes at Emerson Elementary School (individualized mathematics
program) and four sixth grade classes at Adairsville Elementary School
(traditional mathematics program). Both of these schools are located in
Bartow County, Georgia. A total of 161 students were involved in the
initial pretesting of these classes, 161 students were involved in the
original posttesting of these classes which serves as the pretesting for the
secondary problem under consideration, and 125 students were involved
in the final posttesting.

Analysis of the data obtained showed no significant difference in
achievement gain between students enrolled in the individualized and
the traditional programs. Secondary data analysis indicate that there is
no significant difference in achievement gain between the same students
when enrolled in traditional programs.

50

Haverkampf, David O., (MA, August, 1979)
ESSAYS ON THE I CHING

This thesis consists of five (5) separate essays which discuss the great
3,000 year old ancient Chinese oracle, the / Ching.

There are two separate essays introducing the / Ching, an essay on the
sixty-four (64) hexagrams which comprise the / Ching, an essay dealing
with the / Ching and parascience, and an essay discussing the
relationship of the / Ching and acupuncture.

Both the philosopher-sage Confucius and the psychologist Dr. Carl
G. Jung used the / Ching as a mens of divination.

The thesis includes the written symbols of the sixty-four (64)
hexagrams drawn in the margins, as a means of clarification.

Hayes, Christine Y., (Specialist in Education, August, 1979)

A COMPARATIVE STUDY ON THE ACHIEVEMENT

OF SIXTH GRADE STUDENTS TAUGHT SCIENCE

USING AN INTEGRATED SCIENCE AND SOCIAL

STUDIES APPROACH

VS.

A DEPARTMENTALIZED APPROACH

A study was conducted in an attempt to determine any differences in
achievement and attitude between two groups of subjects who were
taught a science unit by two different methods. Group I, the control
group, was taught science using a departmentahzed approach which
included lecture, questions and answers and minimal experimentation.
Group II, the experimental group, was taught science using an
integrated science and social studies approach which included hands-on
activities, experimentation, large/ small group interaction.

The classes in Group I and II were heterogeneously grouped. They
were considered equivalent because assignment to classes was a random
process. The two teachers involved in the study taught each group for a
six week period of time.

A sixty-four item science achievement test as well as a sixteen item
science attitude test was administered as a pretest and posttest
equivalent group design in the study. A one-way analysis of covariance
was used in the data analysis with the pretest as a covariate. The results
of the comparison revealed that using an integrated science and social

51

studies approach to science instruction was not significantly more
effective than using a departmentalized approach. The results also
revealed that students had a more positive attitude toward science when
receiving science instruction with an integrated approach rather than a
departmentalized approach.

Herring, Jack R., (SpeciaHst in Education, June, 1979)

CAREER DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING:

A PLAN FOR IMPLEMENTATION IN A RURAL

COMPREHENSIVE HIGH SCHOOL

The Career Development and Planning Program as developed in this
paper provides for continuity and sequencing in education and makes
learning more relevant and meaningful for students who participate
fully in the program. An individual who has an awareness of self and
others; who has awareness of the basic skills and education required of
a variety of careers; who has been taught decision-making skills; and
who has developed positive attitudes toward work, and an
understanding of the work ethic imposed by society will be an active
and contributing member of society. Education, then, becomes more
meaningful in school and throughout life. The Career Development and
Planning Program then, is a means of achieving this goal.

Hooper, Judith H., (Specialist in Education, March, 1979)

A COMPARISON OF IQ AND THE LENGTH OF TIME
STUDENTS ARE ENROLLED IN A PSYCHO-
EDUCATIONAL CENTER

In July, 1978, fifty student from the terminated files of a
psychoeducational center were randomly selected to record IQ scores
and the length of time, in school months, that each had attended the
psychoeducational center. These students had been ascertained to have
emotional problems or behavior disorders.

This study was conducted to determine if there was any relationship
between IQ and number of school months that the student attended the
psychoeducational center. The IQ and number of school months for
each student were compared and the Spearman rank order correlation
coefficient was used to determine if there was any significant correlation
between IQ and number of months in attendance at the
psychoeducational center.

52

Huntley, Jane Jordan, (Specialist in Education, August, 1979)

A STUDY OF A NEED FOR A HUMAN SEXUALITY
PROGRAM IN THE ROME CITY SCHOOL SYSTEM

In 1978, the Georgia Department of Human Resources collected
statistics that revealed an alarming increase in the rate of teenage
illegimate births. The governor requested this survey. He advised local
communities and school superintendents to assess their local needs and
work together in developing a program of action.

The purpose of this study was to assess the need in the rome City
Schools for a human sexaulity program. To determine the need, a ten
item questionnaire was administered to Rome teachers and students.
Distribution was made to the two high schools and junior high schools
in the school district. One hundred and seven faculty members
completed the questionnaire at each location. Forty-seven eleventh
graders and sixty eighth graders were surveyed and the same number
completed.

Descriptive research was used in the study. Responses were tabulated
by dividing the data first, into teacher and student groups and secindly,
into male and female groups. Percentages were calculated on each
response. An item analysis was used to interpret the findings. Responses
which indicated differences, discrepancies, and likenesses when
tabluated were utilized in reporting the data.

Ninety percent of the students and teachers agreed that a human
sexuality program was needed. The findings of the study were presentes
to the Rome City Schools Superintendent. Further research was
recommended to determine the schools' role in executing a human
sexuality program.

Ivey, Deborah Dobson, (Specialist in Education, June, 1979)

THE INFLUENCE OF THE TEACHING OF

GENEALOGY ON ATTITUDE AND ACHIEVMENT IN

LOCAL HISTORY

This study attempted to determine if the study of genealogy would
result in a significant gain in (1) student attitude toward social studies or
(2) student achievement in knowledge of local history. The subjects of
this study were the six heterogeneous classes of seventh graders in social
studies at Bowdon Elementary School, Bowdon, Georgia. The control
group consisted of three randomly selected classes and the experimental
group consisted of the remaining three classes.

53

Since all students had been given the Nelson Reading Test, the mean
scores for the control group and the experimental group were
computed. The t-tests for the difference between the means determined
that there were no significant differences in the two groups in regard to
reading ability at the beginning of the study.

Remmers' Any School Subject Survey Form A was given as an
attitude pretest. A teacher-made pretest on local history was given as an
achievement measure.

The experimental periods lasted eight weeks for the control group and
nine weeks for the experimental group. A unit on Carroll County and
Georgia history was taught to the control group. The same unit was
tuaght to the experimental group, with the addition of instruction and
discussion in genealogy, historical research, and the incorporation of the
students' knowledge about their ancestors into the subject matter.

At the end of the experimental period Remmers' Any School Subject
Survey Form B and a teacher-made test on subject matter were given as
attitude and achievement tests. Mean gains in attitude and achievement,
as demonstrated by scores on the pretests and posttests were calculated.
The t-tests found that there were no significant differences in attitude
gains or achievement gains at the .05 level of significance.

The hypotheses were accepted. It was concluded that the teaching of
genealogy with local history does not produce a significant gain in
attitude or achievement.

Jackson, Barry N., (Specialist in Education, August, 1979)

A MULTI-MEDIA APPROACH TO TEACHING

LOCAL GOVERNMENT ON THE

SECONDARY LEVEL

High school students need to know and want to know about their
local government. The 26th Amendment which extended the voting
franchise to 18 year ols makes the need for local government studies
more crucial than ever. Studies show that the classroom lecture
approach, traditionally used in teaching government, has not met the
needs of today's students. Neither will such an approach succeed in
teaching students about local government. New ideas must be
introduced into the social studies classroom if students are to grasp the
complexities of local government services and if they are to realize the
need to participate in local politics. The multi-media approach to local
government studies is a means toward this end.

Locally collected materials such as newspapers, telephone books,
maps, floorplans, slides, and transparencies make it easier for high

54

school students to learn about local government. Special teaching
techniques which use sample documents, circuit board, computers,
visitations, and voter registration materials not only enhance the
traditional approach but also add realism. An adequate amount of class
time spent in preparing students to appreciate local government
increases the students' desires to understand their local government and
to become competent contributing factors in that government.

Laney, James A., Jr., (Specialist in Education, June, 1979)

A STUDY OF THE EXISTING USE OF SUBSTITUTE

TEACHERS IN THE FLOYD COUNTY SCHOOL

SYSTEM, GEORGIA

This study reports on 247 questionnaires dealing with the subject of
adequate training and employment procedures for substitute teachers in
Floyd County, Georgia, public schools.

Respondents were 144 substitutes, 87 classroom teachers, and 16
principals.

Findings revealed a lack of a unified, consistent policy at either the
county administrative level, or within the member schools.

Such policy as is formalized permits principals, teachers or school
secretaries to choose and notify substitutes. There is no procedural
check for notification as to duties, terms of employment, or evaluation
of performance.

Inasmuch as substitutes served 4,322 student days in 1978, the study
concludes with recommendations for selection criteria, in-service
training and evaluation procedures for an improved substitute teacher
program in Floyd County.

Lenney, Eleanor A., (Specialist in Education, June, 1979)

A SURVEY OF VOLUNTARY READING INTERESTS

OF SEVENTH-GRADE STUDENTS AT

OSBORNE MIDDLE SCHOOL

This study proposed to ascertain that the patterns of interests found
in earlier studies actually held true for the students at Osborne Middle
School. The purpose was to discover and tabulate the subject matter
about which the students voluntarily chose to read. In light of current
changes in attitudes toward women's rights, one objective of this
research was to discover whether boys' and girls' interests were as
differentiated as those of students in the past. Investigation was made of

55

the influences on their reading and where their books were obtained.
Previous studies indicated that abiUty was of no significance in
determining reading interests. To see if this held true, the relationship
between reading ability and reading interests was investigated.
The following hypotheses were tested:

1. There will be no significant difference between the patterns of
reading interests of boys and girls.

2. There will be no significant difference in the frequencies of fiction
and non-fiction chosen by boys and girls.

3. There will be no significant difference in the patterns of interests
shown by high-ability boys and low-ability boys, or by high-ability

girls and low-ability girls.

The subjects for the study were 134 seventh-graders at Osborne
Middle School, Cobb County, Georgia. Osborne serves a lower-to-
middle class surburban community of about 800 students in grades six,
seven and eight.

Informations was gathered in an interest survey given during the first
weeks of school and from records kept by students during the year.
Results were tabulated and analyzed by using chi square. The results
were considered significant at the .05 level.

The first hypothesis was rejected, as there was a great difference in the
reading patterns of boys and girls, significantly at the .001 level. The
third hypothesis was not rejected. There was little difference between the
high-ability groups and the low-ability groups.

An analysis was made on the reasons students choose books. The
difference between boys and girls was significant at the .001 level.

It appears that sex is still the major influence on reading at the
middle-school level.

Mahan, Gary Douglas, (Specialist in Education, June, 1979)

SPORTS LITERATURE AS A MEANS OF

INCREASING LITERARY SKILLS OF

RELUCTANT READERS

The purpose of this study was to determine whether students in a
sports literature program achieve significantly higher scores in literary
interpretation and understanding than do students in other literature
programs.

The subjects of the study were an experimental group of students in
two Sports Literature classes taught by the researcher and a control

56

group consisting of an American Novel class taught by another teacher
and an American Short Story class taught by a third teacher.

A pretest was given to all classes during the first week in September
by the researcher, and a posttest was given to all the four classes near
the end of November. Intelligence test scores were also collected for
each student.

An analysis of covariance computed for the data indicated that
students in sports literature classes do not achieve significantly higher
scores in literary understanding and interpretation than do students in
other literature classes.

Matthews, Margaret Williams, (Specialist in Education, June, 1979)

A STUDY TO DETERMINE THE EFFECTIVNESS OF

THE DEVELOPMENTAL LAB AT CARROLL COUNTY

AREA VOCATIONAL-TECHNICAL SCHOOL

This study was designed to determine the effectiveness of the
Developmental Lab at Carroll County Area Vocational-Technical
School. The purpose of the study was to determine if there is a
significant difference between students who attend the Developmental
Lab before entering the Licensed Practical Nursing program and
students who do not attend the Developmental Lab. Analysis of
Covariance was used to analyze the Data. Reading, language, and
mathematics grade equivalent scores from the pre-test Test of Adult
Basic Education were used to adjust the post-test grade point average
(GPA) and state board scores (SBS) of the two groups. The analysis of
the data revealed that no significant difference exists between the two
groups. The null hypothesis were accepted, therefore, we can assume the
lab is effective in upgrading basic skills in the area of reading, language,
and mathematics.

Nelson, Davis R., (Specialist in Education, June, 1979)

SEX EDUCATION GUIDE

Sex education in the public schools has, for many years, been
considered a taboo subject. The task of the school is to provide a well
rounded education program for its population. The lack of sexual
knowledge by students makes it imperative that the schools provide an
educational teaching program for their students.

57

The resource unit will serve the appropriate school personnel in their
task of making the student aware of the knowledge needed to cope with
his/her body.

The resource unit consists of the various areas of study that noted
authors and educators recommend to be included in a sex education
study for students. The subjects are placed in the order recommended to
be taught. Tests, student questions, help agencies, surveys, and terms
are provided to assist the instructor with the use of these materials.

Nevois, Leslie Ann, (Specialist in Education, June, 1979)

A PERSONALITY PROFILE OF THE JUNIOR HIGH

SCHOOL COUNSELORS IN GEORGIA AS

MEASURED BY THE SIXTEEN PERSONALITY

FACTOR QUESTIONNAIRE

This study was undertaken in an effort to determine the personality
characteristics of junior high school counselors (specifically grades 7
and 8) in the state of Georgia. The objective of this study were achieved
by analyzing individual personality profiles of junior high school
counselors. Research was limited to one group of respondents,
composed of forty school counselors at the seventh and eighth grade
level. The data was obtained from the Sixteen Personality Factor
Questionnaire (16 PF), an objectively scorable test designed to give
complete coverage of personality in a brief time.

Literature examined produced personality characteristics of
counselors not unlike those found upon analysis of the data for this
study. Reviewed literature and the subsequent findings of this study
agreed on the following: (1) certain personality characteristics are
particularly appropriate for counselors; (2) no significant dissimilarities
in personality characteristics exist between male and female counselors;
(3) certain personality characteristics influence the effectiveness
potential of counselors, and (4) counselors generally possess personality
characteristics which allow them to offer a high degree of unconditional
positive regard, empathy, warmth, and trust.

This study lends support to the theory that certain measured
personality characteristics can be predicators of potential counselor
effectiveness and that these characteristics typify the junior high school
counselors in Georgia.

58

Owens, Betty, (Specialist in Education, June, 1979)

A COMPARISON OF CRITERION-REFERENCED
TEST SCORES AT THE EIGHTH GRADE LEVEL

A comparison of the eighth grade Georgia Criterion-Referenced Test
scores for East Rome Junior High School was made in an effort to
determine whether any significant progress has been made in the areas
of reading, math, and career development over the past three years
(1976, 1977, 1978).

The results of the study indicated that there has not been a significant
increase in the scores.

Possible reason for this include: change in student population;
academic level of students; present curriculum not effective; more time
needed to show evidence of increase.

Phillips, Laura, (Specialist in Education, June, 1979)

THE EFFECTS OF CONCRETENESS AND IMAGERY

ON PAIRED-ASSOCIATE LEARNING AND RECALL

IN THE READING PROCESS

This study was conducted to determine the possible effects of
concreteness and imagery training in paired-associate learning and recall
in the reading process. The thirty-eight students involved in the study
were from Taylorsville School, Bartow County School System,
Taylorsville, Georgia.

Experimental Group a was trained to "image," or make up pictures in
their heads, of material read. Comparison Group B was instructed to
remember the material "for later," but received no special training.
Inherent in the study was the question of whether students learnes pairs
best when presented as pictures, concrete nouns, abstract nouns, or
verbs.

A paired-associate test was adapted from a study conducted by
Epstein, Rock, and Zuckerman (1960). Vocabulary and comprehension
pretest and posttest scores were acquired through the administration of
the Iowa Tests of Basic Skills.

A series of t-tests were used to analyze data collected in the paired-
associate tasks, and analyses of covariance were used ti analyze pretest
and posttest data from the Iowa Tests of Basic Skills.

The results of the statistical analyses indicated that the students in
Experimental Group A learned and recalled at the .001 level of

59

significance more pairs than Comparison Group B when pictures were
used as the means of presentation. Futhermore, Experimental Group A
showed a greater gain in reading comprehension which was significant
at the .005 level.

Phipps, Bonnie Louise Philpot, (Specilaist in Education, June, 1979)

A FOLLOW-UP STUDY OF THE 1973-1978

WEST GEORGIA COLLEGE BUSINESS

EDUCATION GRADUATES

A study was made of 41 West Georgia College Business Education
graduates to evaluate the undergraduate business education curriculum.
The following subproblems were analyzed:

1. The first subproblem is to determine if West Georgia College's
Business Education graduates are teaching.

2. The second subproblem is to determine what the graduates are
doing if they are not teaching.

3. The third subproblem is to determine the effectiveness of West
Georgia College's Business Education program in training business
teachers.

4. The fourth subproblem is to determine if the Business Education
certification curriculum needs to be modified to meet the needs of the
students.

5. The fifth subproblem is to determine the extent to which the skill
courses are being emphasized.

6. The sixth subproblem is to determine the extent to which the basic
business courses are being emphasized.

7. The se\enth subproblem is to determine if there are particular
areas in which additional training should be offered.

The following conclusion was drawn from this study:
West Georgia College has a well-rounded undergraduate curriculum
in the Department of Business Education.

Rakestraw, Tyre L., Jr., (Specialist in Education, March, 1979)

A STUDY OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE

PROGRAM OF EDUCATION AND CAREER

EXPLORATION ON THE STUDENT'S ABILITY

TO LEARN JOB INFORMATION

In March 1978, a study was begun, at Paulding County High School,
to determine if the Program of Education and Career Exploration,
P.E.C.E., was worthwhile and effective by comparing the amount of job

60

intonnation known by students before and after taking the P.E.C.E.

I he students for this study were randomly chosen from a total of one
hundred and five students enrolled in four classes of P.E.C.E. at
Pauldmg County High School located in Dallas, Georgia. A total of
twenty studentsd were selected and classified as the experimental group.
The research design employed in this study was the pretest posttest,
using the Job Knowledge Test as the measuring instrument.

The experimental group reflected a marked increase on the posttest
scores over the pretest scores, thus showing the difference to be
significant beyond the .05 level of significance.

It is recommended that similar studies be conducted on other school
systems to assess the effectiveness of their P.E.C.E. programs. This is to
insure that the students are receiveing the information concerning job
knowledge that will be so beneficial to them in the near future.

Rawls, Kathryn Hundley, (Specialist in Education, August, 1979)

SEX-ROLE STEREOTYPING IN SATURDAY
MORNING TELEVISION ADVERTISEMENTS

The main purpose of this study was to determme the existence of sex-
role stereotyping in Saturday morning television advertisements directed
toward children. This study was conducted between the hours of 8:00
a.m. and 12:00 noon on the following dates: July 28, 1979, August 4,
1979 and August 18, 1979. The three major networks were represented
in 186 commercials and six variables were analyzed.

The six variables under analysis were as follows: product
representation, occupations of adult characters, gender of the voice-
overs, total number of male and female characters, active or passive
roles of male and female characters, and settings which noted whether
the characters were shown indoors or outdoors.

To determine if significant differences existed, comparative
percentages were drawn in the areas of product representation and
occupations. The Chi Square statistic was applied to test for significant
differences the hypotheses related to voice-overs, total number of
characters, roles, and settings.

The research hypotheses were accepted at the .05 level of significance
and the study revealed that differences exist in the types of products
that males and females advertised or represented. Male characters
portrayed a greater variety of occupations as compared with female
characters. All of the voice-overs of the advertisements examined were
male. In a total count of characters, males outnumbered the females
significantly. Males were more often active in their roles while females

61

were more often passive. Males were shown in outdoor settings more
often then females who were more often shown indoors. Based on these
findings the study concluded that sex-role stereotyping existed in
Saturday moring advertisements.

Robinson, Sara R., (Specialist in Education, June, 1979)

THE EFFECT OF LEFT BRAIN-RIGHT BRAIN

STIMULATION INSTRUCTION ON THE READING

ACHIEVEMENT OF FIFTH AND SIXTH GRADE

REMEDIAL STUDENTS

This study was designed to determine what differnce in reading
achievement would be found between subjects taught by two different
methods. Fifty fifth and sixth year remedial reading students from West
Haralson Elementary School were divided into two heterogeneous
groups of twenty-five. Experimental group A was taught reading skills
through strategies designed to stimulate both brain hemispheres. The
comparison group B was taught the same skills as they occured in the
context of the regular remedial reading program.

Pretest, posttest, and delayed posttest scores were gathered from both
groups, and a statistical analysis using the Analysis of Covariance was
made. The covariates were age and I.Q. The level of significance was
established as .05.

This study provided a basis for support or rejection of the following
null hypotheses:

1. There will be no significant difference in gains from pretest to
posttest between the experimental group and the control group when
I.Q. and age are used as covariates.

2. There will be no significant difference in the gains from posttest to
delayed posttest between the experimental group and the control group
when age and I.Q. are used as covariates.

Null hypotheses one and two were not rejected. This study indicated
the need for further investigations about the relationship of the left and
right brain hemispheres to learning.

62

Summerfield. Rachel Ann. (MA, June, 1979)

THE AUTHENTIC INDIVIDUAL OR, HOW TO BE
A HERO: JOSEPH K. vs. PSYCHE

Now that the Human Potential movement has been around for a
number of years, we are all familiar with the terms "authenticity" and
"inauthenticity"; yet it is easy to get lost in the jardon and forget what
the words actually mean. In an attempt to look closely at what
authenticity is, two figures from literature are used as illustrations:
Joseph K., from The Trail by Franz Kafka and Psyche, form the myth
of Cupid and Psyche as told by Apuleius in The Golden Ass. Joseph K.
is an example of an inauthentic individual, while Psyche is an example
if an authentic one. Authenticity is synonymous with answering one's
call or fulfilling one's destiny; thus, being an authenic individual is being
a hero. The opportunity to be authenic is always present to us. The
theroetical basis for this essay is described as a synthesis of the
psychologies of Carl Jung and Ronald D. Laing.

Taylor, Linda M., (Specialist in Education, March, 1979)

AN ASSESSMENT OF IMPROVED COUNCELOR

EFFECTIVENESS AS A RESULT OF COUNSELOR

METHODS COURSES

The purpose of this study was to assess increased Counselor
effectiveness as a result of the Counseling Methods Course 888 at West
Georgia College.

The Personal Orientation Inventory was administered to 32
Counseling Methods students prior to their first class experience and
again upon completion of the course.

Time Competent and Inner-Directed ratio scores were computed and
correlated using the T-test formula. The Time Competent Ratio score
was found to be significant beyond the .05 level. The inner-Directed
Ratio score was found to be significant beyond the .05 level.

63

Thomas, Ann W.. (Specialist in Education, June, 1979)

A COMPARISON OF INDIVIDUALIZED AND
GROUP ENGLISH GRAMMAR INSTRUCTION

The problem involved in this study was to determine if there was a
significant difference in the progress made in English grammar
achievement by fify-seven eight grade students at Buchanan Junior High
School in Buchanan, Georgia under individualized instruction and group
instruction. Comparisons were made of the achievement progress
differences in two groups during two research time periods.

During the first time period, Group A was the experimental group
instructed through the individualized technique, and Group B was the
control group given group instruction. During the second research time
period, the groups' intructional techinques were reversed. Comparisons
were made between the two groups during both research time periods,
between the total groups' individualized and group techniques, and
between males' and females' progress under both techniques.

Achievement progress was determined by pretest and posttest scores on
text oriented tests designed by the textbook authors, and significance was
determined by the t-test for independent means.

Results indicated that there was a significant difference in favor of
individualized instruction for both research time periods and for the total
group comparison. There was no significant difference in the comparison
of males and females under either instructional technique.

Thompson, Terry, (MA, March, 1979)

BELLES AND DUMBBELLS:
SOUTHERN LITERARY STEREOTYPES

This thesis presents background information concerning Southern male
stereotypes which is essential to a full appreciation of Southern literature
and the various characters therein. The scholarly introduction gives a brief
synopsis of the three most famous Southern male stereotypes: the Good
or Boy, the Southern Gentleman, and the Unreconstructed
Rebel. Each is relate in terms of his mentality, his appearance, his violent
tendencies, and his treatment of women. It is hoped that this thesis will
allow the reader to enjoy Southern writing with a new and deeper
understanding of the Southern male in general and Southern male
stereotypes inparticular.

In the poems and short stories there is no conscious attempt to present
an example of a Good Ol' Boy, Or either of the other two stereotypes;
rather, the works are based upon unique experiences, most of them
firsthand, that serve to demonstate some of the traits, peculiarities, quirks,
and afflictions that characterize the creature called Southern man.

64

Wilburn, Nell, (Specialist in Education, August, 1979)

A STUDY OF THE RESULTS OF INFORMAL

READING INSTRUCTION IN KINDERGARTEN AS A

FACTOR IN THE READING ACHIEVEMENT OF

FIRST AND SECOND GRADERS IN THE SPRING

PLACE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL,

SPRING PLACE, GEORGIA

Teaching reading in the kindergarten is a highly controversial topic.
The purpose of this paper was to determine if those students who
received informal reading instruction in the kindergarten scored
significantly higher in reading at the end of the first grade and again at
the end of the second grade than those students who did not receive
informal reading instruction prior to entering the first grade.

The subjects in the study were a group of 109 children who attend the
first and second grades at Spring Place Elementary School in the Spring
Place, Georgia. The students were placed randomly in the various
classrooms.

Both groups of students were instructed in the readiness, pre-primer,
primer, and first readers in the same manner. At the end of grade one
and again at the end of grade two, the Iowa Test of Basic Skills was
administered to determine reading achievement.

The results of the tests at the end of each year showed a considerable
difference in the mean scores between the two groups, however, due to
the unusually large standard deviation the t-test did not reveal a
significant difference between the experimental and comparison groups.

It is recommended that similiar studies should be conducted with
students from different school to see if the results are similiar.

Vaughn, Karen L., (Specialist in Education, June, 1979)

A COMPARISON OF THE ACHIEVEMENT OF

ETOWAH HIGH SCHOOL DISTRIBUTIVE

EDUCATION STUDENTS WHO WERE TAUGHT

HUMAN RELATIONS BY IDECC LAPS WITH

STUDENTS WHO WERE TAUGHT HUMAN

RELATIONS BY TA

Problem

The problem of this study was to compare the achievement of high
school distributive education students who were taught human relations
by IDECC LAPs with students who were taught human relations by

TA. 65

Subproblems

The first subproblem was to determine whether students learn human
relations more effectively using IDECC LAPs or TA.

The second subproblem was to determine whether IDECC or TA is
more effective in developing the sociability level of a student.

The third subproblem was to determine whether IDECC or TA is
more effective in developing the social presence level of a student.

The fourth subproblem was to determine whether IDECC or TA is
more effective in developing the self-acceptance level of a student.

The fifth subproblem was to determine whether IDECC or TA is
more effective in developing the sense of well-being level of a student.

The sixth subproblem was to determine whether IDECC or TA is
more effective in developing the responsibihty level of a student.

The seventh subproblem was to determine whether IDECC or TA is
more effective in developing the socialization level of a student.

The eighth subproblem was to determine whether IDECC or TA is
more effective in developing the self-control level of a student.

The ninth subproblem was to determine whether IDECC or TA is
more effective in developing the tolerance level of a student.

The tenth subproblem was to determine whether IDECC or TA is
more effective in developing the good impression level of a student.

The eleventh subproblem was to determine whether IDECC or TA is
more effective in developing the communality level of a student.

Procedure

Two distributive education classes at Etowah High School
participated in this study for nine weeks during the first semester of the
1978-79 school year. These classes were assigned to one of two groups
IDECC control group, or Transactional Analysis experimental group.

The control group used the Human Relation Learning Activity
Packages (LAPs) developed by IDECC. The experimental group was
taught Human Relations skills through Transactional Analysis using
information and materials from Am I OK? written by Paul L. Phillips,
Ed. D., and Franklin D. Cordell, Ph.D.

Both groups spent eight weeks studying human relations. One week
was utilized for pretesting and posttesting.

Both groups were pretested and posttested on human relations using
the California Psychology Inventory.

66

West, Howard E.. Jr., (MS, June, 1979)

AN ASSESSMENT OF THE BLUEGILL, Lepomis

macrochirus, POPULATION IN LAKE CARROLL,

CARROLL COUNTY, GEORGIA

According to local fihermen, bluegill fishing in Lake Carroll has been
poor for the past several years. A bluegill of 6 inches (150 mm) or
longer is generally considered to be "keeping size" and few fish of this
size were being caught in Lake Carroll. A population study showed a
maximum of only 4% of the bluegill population to be 6 inches or longer
and only 0.1% to be 7 inches (178 mm) or longer. An age and growth
study showed only a slightly below average growth rate for the first two
growing seasons but marked decline after the second growing season.
Results also indicated an above average mortality rate for fish three
years and older, with few fish surviving to age four and almost none
surviving to age five. After determining that the Lake Carroll bluegill
population was abnormal in theses respects, other studies were initiated
to try and determine the factors responsible. Areas which were
investigates included population density of the bluegill and other fish
species, food availability and parasite burden. Results showed a high
density of bluegill (1,129/ ha) and a low density of macrozoobenthis
organisms (122/m2). The macrozoobenthis organisms serve as the main
source of food for the adult bluegill. The high population density and
poor food availability are believed to be the factors chiefly responsible
for both the poor growth rate and the high mortality rate. There is,
however, speculation that an unidentified parasitic nematode is also
contributing significantly to the high mortality rate.

Williams, Mary Sue, (Specialist in Education, June, 1979)

POSSIBLE COMPUTER APPLICATIONS FOR
INTERMEDIATE SERVICE AGENCIES

The purpose of this project was to study the feasibility of automatic
data processing on the intermediate service agency level. With the
proliferation of paper work required by federal, state, and local
bureaucracy school administrators and central office personnel are
searching for inexpensive and rapid ways of processing data.

Innovators in the field of education have proposed computer-based or
computer-assisted instruction as the most feasible means of providing
individualized programs of instruction.

67

The computer field has, since the advent of the fist commercially
available automatic data processor, continuously worked to lower the
cost and reduce the size of the computer. Computers are now in the
range of many school systems and intermediate service agencies.

In order to study the use of the computer in education and in the
intermediate service agency a general review of the literature was
conducted. It was evident through the literature that the computer had
many applications in the business management of the pubhc schools
and in the hige amount of record management, both student and
personnel. Computer-assisted instruction had been in evidence since the
early days of the computer when the computer companies used their
machines to train their employees.

To study the feasibility of computer appUcations in the state of
Georgia and to narrow the study down to the Northwest Georgia
Cooperative Service Agencies, two surveys were administered. All
directors of Georgia CESAs were mailed questionnairs, and all school
superintendents in the Northwest Georgia CESA district were mailed
questionnaires. The results of these questionnaires were tabulated,
compared and conclusions were drawn. A number of appHcations were
identified.

The date received from the CESAs and the superintendents was
compared with what is being done on the intermediate service level in
other areas of the United States.

It was concluded that certain data processing applications would be
feasible for intermediate service agencies.

68

ANNUAL FACULTY BIBLIOGRAPHY

Brantley, Daniel

Review of Ethnic Conflict in Internayional Relations by Astri Suhrke
and Lela Garner Noble, eds. Perspective, Volume 7, No. 4 (May 1978),

77.

Review of Studies in Socialist Pedalogy by Theodore Mills Norton and
Bertell Oilman, eds. Perspective, Volume 8, No. 1 (January/ February
1979), 12.

"The Charismatic Political Leader: A Study In Political Authority and
Leadership". Doctoral Dissertation submitted to Howard University,
May 1979.

Review of Toward a Marxist Theory of Nationalism by Horace B.
Davis. Perspective, Volume 8, No. 4 (May, 1979), 71.

Review of Marx's Method: Ideology, Science and Critique in Capital by
Derek Sayer. Perspective. Accepted for publication but as yet not
published.

Claxton, Robert H.

Review of La iglesia catolica y el estado en Guatemala, 1871-1885 by
Hubert J. Miller (Guatemala: Universidad de San Carlos, 1976) in The
Catholic Historical Review (April 1979), 65 (2): 291-292.

Review of El pensamiento liberal de Guatemala, edited by Jorge Mario
Garcia Laguardia (San Jose, Costa Rica: EDUCA) in Hispanic
American Historical Review (May 1979), 59 (2): 361-362.

"The Impact of Drought Upon Guatemalan Society, 1563-1925," Paper
presented in the International Conference on Chmate and History,
University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom, July 10, 1979.

Garmon, Gerald m.

Articles

"Edmond Hamilton," Dictionary of Literary Biography. Detroit: Gale

Research Company, 1979.

"A Note on Edgar Allen Poe's 'The Fall of the House of Usher,'" in

Studies in English and American Literature, ed. John L. Cutler and

Lawrence S. Thompson. Troy, N.Y.: The Whitston Publishing

Company, 1978.

"Tragic Realism in Sentimental Literature: 1720-1820."

Bulletin of Bibliography and Magazine Notes, 33, no. 3 (April-June,
1976), 131-134, 139, 148.

69

Paper Readings

"Teleology, Evolution and Science Fiction." Paper read at The Phililogical
Phililogical Association of the Carolinas, March 1979.

"Christian Virtues and The Lord of the Rings." Paper read at the First
International Conference on Fantasy in Literature, March 19, 1980.
Seminars

Chairman, Science Fiction and Fantasy Discussion Circle at the South
Atlantic Modern Language Association, Atlanta, November 3, 1979.

Books

John Reuben Thompson. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1979.

Editorships

General Editor, Monograph Series, Georgia-South Carolina College
English Association-Xerox Company

Kennedy, W. Benjamin

"The Irish Jacobins," Studia Hibernica (Dublin, 1976), 109-121.

Review of Naval Documents of the American Revolution. Vol. 7
American Theater: November 1, 1776- Dec. 1776. European Theater:
Oct. 6- Dec. 31. 1776. Georgia Historical Quarterly LXI (Spring, 1977),
99-100.

Review of Vincent J. Knapp, Europe in the Era of Social
Transformation. The History Teacher X (February, 1977), 319-320.

Review of R. Ben Jones, Napoleon: Man and Myth. The History
Teacher XI (February, 1978), 268-269.

Review of Peter N. Stearns, The Face of Europe. Teaching History, 3
(Fall, 1978), 82.

Review of Danton by Norman Hampson. The History Teacher XII
(August, 1979), 594-595.

Review of Aspects of European History, 1494-1789 by Stephen J. Lee.
The History Teacher, XIII (November, 1979), 125-126.

"Conspiracy Tinged with Blarney: Wolf Tone and other Irish Emissaries
to Revolutionary France." Proceedings of the Consortium on
Revolutionary Europe. (Athens, GA., 1978).

"Future Prospests for State Historical Associations of Professional
Historians." Paper read to the Community College Social Science
Association, Louisville, Kentucky, November, 1979.

"William Duckett," J.O. Baylen and N.J. Gossman, eds. Biographical
Dictionary of Modern British Radicals. (Sussex: harvester Press, 1979),
134-139.

70

"William Jackson." Ibid.. 254-259.
"Edward John Lewines." Ibid., 284-290.
"Henry Sheares." Ibid., 436-439.
"Matthew Tone." Ibid., 484-488.

Mann, George

February 8 Recital for Lit-Mu Club, Carrollton

February 12 Recital for Canterbury Court Retirement Home, Atlanta.

April 2 Recital, Liberty Baptist Church, Lynchburg, Virginia

April 17 Recital, Middle Tennessee State University, Murfreesboro,
Tennessee

May 10 Two Piano Performance with Betty Tolbert for Lit-Mu Club,
Carrollton.

May 12 Two-Piano Recital with Betty Tolbert for Sigma Alpha Iota
American Musicale, Carrollton

July 22 Two-Piano Recital with Betty Tolbert for West Georgia College
Piano Camp.

September 20 Recital at University of the South, Sewanee,Tennessee
(premiere of Sonata No. 3 by Robert Donahue)

October 21 Recital, Brunswick Junior College, Brunswick, Georgia

October 22 Recital for Mozart Society of Glynn County, Brunswick,
Georgia

October 26 Recital for Canterbury Court Retirement Home, Atlanta

November 10 Soloist in Beethoven's Choral Fantasy with Rome
Symphony Orchestra

November 26 Recital, Shorter College, Rome, Georgia

Scott, Carole E.

"Small Business in the South," in The Regional Environments for Small
Business Entrepreneurship , Small Business Adminstation, February,
1980.

"Kemp-Roth and Political Energy," The Collegiate Forum, Dow Jones
and Company, Winter, 1979/80.

Short. Verl M.

Editor, Georgia Association for Childhood Education Newsletter I,
1977.

71

Guiding Your Young Child Though School. Co-authored with Russell
Robbins. Atlanta: Southeast Educators Services, Incorporates, 1979.

Who Ever Said . . . an old lemon can 't have a new twist. Co-authored
with Priscilla M. Wade. Atlanta: Southeast Educators Services,
Incorporated, 1979,

Woods, Walter a.

"Implications of Adaptation-level, Arousal and Opponent-Process
Theories for Marketing," in D.K. Howe and R.D. Tamilia (eds.)
Developments in Marketing Science, Vol. I, 1978, p. 267.

"Routine and Persistant Problems in Decision Making," with D.A.
Osborne, in H.S. Gitlow and E.W. Wheatley, (eds.). Developments in
Marketing Science, Vol. II, 1979, pp. 311-316.

72

WEST GEORGIA C
REV

vi.. -^^

c

WEST GEORGIA COLLEGE

Volume XIII

May, 1981

Published By

WEST OEORGIA COLLEGE

A Division of the University System of Georgia

CARROLLTON, GEORGIA

WEST GEORGIA COLLEGE

REVIEW

Volume XIII May, 1981

TABLE

of

CONTENTS

Culture as an Aspect of Style in Fantasy William S. Doxey 1

An Alternative Approach to Cost Variance

Analysis Frank M. Boozer 8

Jeremiah Clemens: Unionist as Southerner

John M. Martin l^

The Social Destruction of Reality Deborah Offenbbacher

and Constance H. Poster 22

Coins as an Investment Medium Carole E. Scott .38

The Poet as Existential Surgeon Steven Tanner 45

A Study of Composition Teaching Methods for High School

Students Patricia W. Stokes and Jimmy C. Stokes 50

Abstracts of Master's Theses and Specialist in

Education Projects 56

Annual Bibliography of West Georgia College Faculty as

of January 1, 1981 84

Copyright c 1981, West Georgia College
Printed in U.S.A.

Published by

WEST GEORGIA COLLEGE

Maurice K. Townsend, President
John T. Lewis, III, Vice President and Dean of Faculties

Learning Resources Committee
Chairman. Timothy M. Chowns

Charles Beard
Herman Boyd
Dexter Byrd
Joseph Doldan
Lynn Holmes
Benjamin Kennedy
Jerome Mock

Earl Perry
Elizabeth Phillips
Constance Poster
JoAnn Sanders
Jane Smith
Lloyd Southern

Jimmy C. Stokes, Editor
Martha A. Saunders, Associate Editor
Mark J. LaFountain, Assistant Editor

The purpose of this publication is to provide encouragement for faculty
research and to make available results of such activity. The Review,
published annually, accepts original scholarly work and creative writing.
West Georgia College assumes no responsibility for contributors' views.
The style guide is Kate L. Turabian. A Manual for Writers. Although the
Review is primarily a medium for the faculty of West Georgia College,
other sources are invited.

An annual bibliography includes doctoral dissertations, major recitals
and major art exhibits. Theses and articles in progress or accepted are not
listed. A faculty member's initial listing is comprehensive and appears in
the issue of the year of his employment. The abstracts of all master's theses
and educational specialist's projects written at West Georgia College are
included as they are awarded.

CULTURE AS AN ASPECT OF STYLE IN FANTASY

by William S. Doxey*

1 became interested in culture as an aspect of style in the course of my
own writing both of and about science fiction and fantasy. It seemed to me
that authors had to take culture into consideration as they created
imaginary worlds and populated them with imaginary beings. My reason
for this conclusion was based upon the observation that culture, as an
aspect of style, served two useful purposes: it helped establish
verisimilitude and it served to create conflict.

These uses are of course evident in mainstream fiction, too. Take, for
example, the work of Sir Walter Scott. In his historical romances, he chose
a moment in history when two cultures were in conflict and the outcome
was in doubt (for instance, Norman vs. Saxon in Ivanhoe). Scott used
cultural details to establish life-like characters and scenes, and he also
employed cultural beliefs to develop conflict.

It seems to me that fantasy writers also make use of culture in these two
ways (whether consciously or not), and that, furthermore, if we were more
aware of culture as an aspect of style in fantasy, we might better
understand it and, therefore, enjoy it even more than we do. Towards that
end I will examine the stylistic uses of culture in three of the stories of Jorge
Borges and in Tolkien's long story, "Farmer Giles of Ham."

For the purpose of this discussion, 1 take culture to mean the customs,
arts, languages, religions, sciences and so on of a life form in a given
period. Style, that elusive term, I understand to be the writer's choice of
material and the use he puts it to as he develops his work for an audience.
Finally, fantasy means to me a freedom to operate unrestrained by the
standards of accepted reality, whether they be the laws of science or those
of society.

While Borges gives evidence in many of his stories of a keen interest in
culture, one story which depends for conflict upon the clash of two cultures
is "The South." Dahlmann, the main character, exists as a librarian in the
"real" world of Buenos Aires, but he seems to "live" in a romantic past of
his own conception, which is focused upon his maternal grandfather,
Francisco Flores, who long ago was killed by Indians. Dahlmann has
managed to perserve a small ranch in the s South once owned by the Flores
family; he aspires to live there one day.

To this point, Borges' story exhibits nothing of the fantastic. But then an
event occurs which the narrator introduces by saying, "Blind to all fault,
destiny can be ruthless at one's slightest distraction."' Distracted while

*l'rolessor ol English, West Georgia College

'Jorge Borges, "The South," trans, by Anthony Kerrigan, in f;ffo/7 (New York; Grove Press, 1962,),
p. 167; subsequent references in parentheses are to this source.

1

reading a volume of that collection of fantastic tales, The Thousand and
One Nights, as he climbs the stairs to his apartment, Dahlmann has a
strange accident; "something brushed by his forehead: a bat^ a bird?" (p.
168) But no, it is the edge of a door. He has sustained a serious injury which
leads to feverish sleep broken by nightmares inspired by The Thousand
and One Nights. Later, he is removed to a sanitarium, is x-rayer, and
undergoes brain surgery, after which he almost dies from "septicemia and
suffers terribly" (p. 168). We do not know how much time passes, but one
day the surgeon tells him that soon he will "go to his ranch for
convalescence" (p. 169).

His departure from the world of Buenos Aires from the culture of his
"real" existence is introduced by the narrator's cryptic statement that
"Reality favors symmetries and slight anachronisms" (p. 1 69). He boards a
train and reads from his Thousand and One Nights to pass the time, but
soon "the joy of life distracted him" another distraction from the world
of fantasy, and he "closed his book and allowed himself to live"(p. 170). At
this point, the world of Buenos Aires and that of the traveller come
together in his mind, and he views the passing sights "like dreams" because
"his actual knowledge ... was quite inferior to his nostalgic and literary
knowledge" (p. 170-171). He sleeps, or seems to, and his world appears to
change, so that even the railroad car is not the same.

At last Dahlmann leaves the train and goes to a country store to seek a
ride to his ranch. Now he is operating in a culture different from that of
Buenos Aires. Some "country louts" are drinking at a table, and an "old
man" who "seemed outside of time" squatted on the floor (p. 172). As
Dahlmann eats, one of the men tosses a "spit ball of breadcrumb" that
brushed"hghtly against his face"(p. 173). Dahlmann opens The Thousand
and One Nights "by way of suppressing reality" (p. 1 73). Another spit ball
lands, and a confrontation occurs between Dahlmann and one of the
drinkers, a man with "a Chinese look" who challenges him to a knife fight.
When the owner of the store protests that Dahlmann is unarmed, the
mysterious old man throws him "a naked dagger," and the narrator says,
"it was as if the South had resolved that Dahlmann should accept the duel"
(p. 1 74). Dahlmann feels that he will die and thinks, "They would not have
allowed such things to happen to me in the sanitarium" (p. 175, italics
Barges'). He prepares to fight "without hope" but also "without fear," for
he felt that had he been allowed to choose his fate in the sanitarium, "or to
dream his death, this would have been the death he would have chosen or
dreamed" (p. 176).

Borges uses culture stylistically in "The South" to establish a conflict in
Dahlmann's mind, one that concerns his escape into a romantic
conception of the past which becomes his present reality in the trip to the
Flores ranch. The story is fantasy rather than mainstream, because in
reality so to speak Dahlmann never leaves the sanitarium; his journey

South to fulfillment occurs in his imagination. That this is indeed the case
is indicated by Borges' nostalgic portrayal of cultural artifacts associated
with the South: houses that "timelessly" watched the passing trains (p.
170), "luminous clouds" (p. 170), the "transfigured" railroad car (p. 171).
the old man, a gaucho of the type "that no longer existed outside the
South" (p. 172), and, finally, the "Chinese look" of his adversary, an
oriental description remindful of the features of those Indians that killed
his ancestor so long ago in the same South (p. 173).

A cultural conflict is also empitiyed by Borges in his humorous story,
"Pierre Menard, Author of Don Quixote." Menard is said to have written
a picaresque novel titled Don Quixote which is identical to the Don
Quixote written by Cervantes in the seventeenth century, yet Menard's
book is not a copy of Cervantes'. Rather, he independently and with
much labor has brought forth Don Quixote as though for the first time.
This apparent absurdity becomes fantastic when the narrator explains its
significance in cultural terms: "To compose Don Quixote at the beginning
of the seventeenth century was a reasonable, necessary and perhaps
inevitable undertaking; at the beginning of the twentieth century it is
almost impossible, "2 because the cultural milieu of Cervantes' book is past
and that of Menard's is totally different. Therefore, when his lines are
interpreted in view of this difference, they take on a new meaning and
become, says the narrator, "almost infinitely richer. (More ambiguous, his
detractors will say; but ambiguity is a richness)" (p. 52).

As an example, the narrator cites the following passage from the Don
Quixote of Cervantes: "... truth, whose mother is history, who is the rival of
time, depository of deeds, witness of the past, example and lesson to the
present, and warning to the future ..." and compares it to Menard's: "...
truth, whose mother is history, who is the rival of time, depository of
deeds, witness of the past, example and lesson to the present, and warning
to the future" (p. 53). The narrator then declares, "History, mother of
truth; the idea is astounding. Menard, a contemporary of William James,
does not define history as an investigation of reality, but as its origin; it is
what we think took place" (p. 53).

The narrator also examines the styles of the two authors from a cultural
viewpoint and finds that "the archaic style of Menard in the last analysis
a foreigner suffers from a certain affectation. Not so that of his
precursor, who handles easily the Spanish of his time" (p. 53).

The conclusion of the story is best understood if the idea of cultural
contrast is in one's mind as he reads, "This technique would fill the dullest
books with adventure. Would not the attributing of The Imitation of

-Jorge Borges, "Pierre Menard. Author of Don Quixote," trans, by Anthony Kerrigan, in Ficciones
(New York; Grove Press, 1962), p. 51; subsequent references in parentheses are to this source.

Christ to Louis Ferdinand Celine or James Joyce be a sufficient renovation
of its tenuous spiritual counsels?" (p. 55)

The creation of an imaginary culture, rather than of a world or of a
people, is at the center of "The Babylonian Lottery." Having left Babylon,
the narrator is able to apprehend the strangeness of the culture of Babylon
because, now removed from it, he realizes by contrast that it is strikingly
different from the culture of the land in which he finds himself. He clearly
sees that "the lottery froms a principal part of the reality" of the cuUure of
Babylon.^

The story progresses through a history of the lottery a cultural artifact
which soon dominates the culture. It began when "barbers gave
rectangular bits of bone ... in exchange for copper coins," and the
"drawing" was held at noon; the winners "received ... silver minted coins"
(p. 66). Lotteries of this sort did not succeed, however, for "they did not
appeal to all faculties of men: only to their hope" (p. 66). As the lottery
changed and grew in complexity, the group running it became known as
"The Company" and attained an "all powerful position" replete with
"ecclesiastical, metaphysical strength"(p. 66). The prizes of the lottery now
influenced thinking to such an extent that when, for example, "a slave stole
a crimson ticket ... which carried the right to have his tongue burned in the
next drawing ... the criminal code fixed the same penalty for the theft of a
ticket" (p. 67).

Eventually, the people of Babylon force The Company to become
omnipotent. A system is establish whereby lots are drawn at intervals of
seventy nights that determine "every man's fate" until the next drawing(p.
68). To assure that "prizes" might not be thought to come purely by
"chance" though the implication is that such was the case The
Company let it be known that it operated through "spies" and
"astrologers" (p. 68). This revelation whether true or false led to a
"juridico-mathematical" "conjecture" that "if the lottery is an
intensification of chance, a periodic infusion of chaos into the cosmos,
would it not be desirable for chance to intervene at all stages of the lottery
and not merely in the drawing?" (p. 69)

Finally, the "customs" of Babylon have "become so thoroughly
impregnated with chance," due to the power of The Company, whose
agents are all secret, and whose existence is now denied, that scribes make
intentional errors, books are purposely printed with variants in each copy,
and "a buyer of a dozen amphora of Damascus wine will not be surprised if
one of them contains a talisman or a viper" (p. 71). The end result of the
lottery, says the narrator, is that "it is indifferently inconsequential to

^Jorge Borges, "The Babylonian Lottery," trans, by Anthony Bonner, in Ficciones (New York: Grove
Press, 1962), p. 65; subsequent references in parentheses are to this source.

affirm or deny the reality of the shadowy corporation, because Babylon is
nothing but an infinite game of chance" (p. 72).

By means of this carefully constructed culture based upon a "game of
chance," Borges causes the perceptive reader to contrast his own cultural
view with that of the Babylonians. In fact, he brings off a rather neat
fantastic satire directed at all cultures based upon the smug religious or
philosophical assumption that for every effect there is a cause; the lottery is
fate, whether it be understood as the Will of Allah, the Providence of
Jehovah, or, paradoxically, Randomness personified. The reader is also
compelled to stand in the same relationship to his culture as the
Babylonian removed from Babylon stands in respect to his at such a
distance, so to speak, that the total landscape is seen. A cultural shock is
experienced which causes one momentarily to reconsider his basic
assumptions.

Tolkien's use of culture in "Farmer Giles of Ham" is not easily seen
because it is so basic to the telling of the story.'* The tale concerns the
replacement of an historically dominant culture represented by the
King by a culture represented by Farmer Giles that has long been
subservient to it. The quest for the dragon is the mechanism which makes
this replacement possible and, in fact, desirable, for through his bravery
the farmer proves he is fit to be responsible for those gathered round him.

The story begins when a giant wanders into the neighborhood and
begins doing damage. Although his neighbors seem incapable of action,
Giles lets fly with his anachronistic blunderbuss. Deaf and weaksighted,
the giant thinks that the bullets are stinging flies and high-tails if for the
hills. When the king learns of Giles' exploits he sends him as a reward a
sword named Tailbiter, famed as a dragon killer, and so made that it comes
halfway out of its scabbard when there's a dragon in the vicinity. Of course,
the kmg no longer believes in worms; in fact, his traditional Christman Eve
dish of the tail of one of the beasts is now made of "cake and almond-paste"
(p. 23).

All goes well until the giant tells some dragons of his adventure in that
land of plenty whose perfection was spoiled only by stinging flies. Since he
says nothing of knights, some of the younger worms think that they are
"mythological," as they always supposed, while the older dragons think,
"At least they may be getting rare ... far and few and no longer to be feared"
(p. 25). A dragon named Chrysophylax Dives, "of an ancient and imperial
lineage, and very rich," who, though "not over bold," was "mortally
hungry," decides to try his luck in the territory of Ham (p. 25).

"J. R. R.Tolkien, "Farmer Giles of Ham," in The Tolkein Reader {New York: Ballantine Books, 1966);
subsequent references in parentheses are to this source,
ces in parentheses are to this source.

Chrysophylax has things his way for a time. The king is asked to send his
knights, but since it is the end of the year and they have many banquets to
attend and tourneys to manage they cannot get away. The situation
becomes so desperate that at last Giles allows his neighbors to convince
him that he, armed with Tailbiter, must face the dragon. When they meet,
Chrysophylax thinks to make short work of the farmer until he
recognizes the magic sword. He tries to excape, but Giles runs him down
and brings him to the village, where the good people would have killed
him, had not the dragon beguiled them with promise of great reward if only
they would set him free. Their greed aroused, they do just this, after
making him swear a great oath on his honor to return within a few days
with his treasure.

Of course. Chrysophylax has no intention of doing this. Meanwhile, the
King hears of what has happened and, since his treasury is almost depleted,
comes with his knights and claims all the dragon ransom for himself. As
the days pass. King and people slowly realize the dragon has played them
for fools. At last the king commands Giles to lead an expedition to make
the dragon pay up or else. Accompanied by knights who prove in their
aimless discussions of precedence their cultural remove from the reality of
knighthood, Giles come upon Chrysophylax and singlehandedly forces
him to make good on his promise and to transport the treasure on his scaly
back. In the meanwhile, the King believes that the knights have all been
killed, so he returns to his city; when hehearsof Giles'conquest, he sends a
note demanding that the treasure be handed over to him. Giles ignores this
message and those that follow. The King at last gathers what knights he
can find and marches to Ham to get what he feels is rightfully his.

During the intervening time, Chrysophylax has come to respect Giles.
He stays in the vicinity and his domination by the farmer is much admired
by the natives. Giles goes alone to confront the king. They meet on a bridge
and Giles informs his majesty that he has no intention of giving him any of
the treasurer. "Finding's keeping, and keeping's having," he says (p. 71).
And when the King, losing his royal composure, cries out,"'Give me my
sword!' ... forgetting his plural," Giles says, "'Give us your crown!' ... a
staggering remark, such as had never before been heard in all the days of
the Middle Kingdom"(p. 71 ). The King would attack, but the dragon, who
has been in the river under the bridge, rises up and scares all but the King
away. The King now offers to fight Giles in single combat, but the farmer
declines, saying he has no desire to harm him. Now powerless, the King
returns to his distant castle and Giles becomes the acknowledged ruler of
the territory.

Political revitalization seems to be the subject of this fantastic story. The

ulture represented by the King has ossified over the years and when put to

est is found to be ineffectual. Giles represents a new man, one who by

"e of his having been formed by a culture based upon facing anH

solving the day to day problems of life, is capable of restablishing a rule
that is at once firm yet fair, one that is enthusiastically received by its
subjects. Thus a new culture replaces the old, though the trappings of the
old remain.

A reader's understanding of a fantasy writer's stylistic use of culture to
create verisimilitude and develop plot should enable him to appreciate
more the subject that is being dealt with. By this 1 do not mean that that
certain mystification of fantasy, which is so pleasing, will be removed, but
rather that our pleasure will be increased by an aesthetic awareness. Such
has been the case for me in regards to the work of Borges and Tolkien.

AN ALTERNATIVE APPROACH TO
COST VARIANCE ANALYSIS

by Frank M. Boozer*

Many students in the undergraduate cost accounting course have an
unnecessary amount of difficulty in solving standard cost problems
involving variance analysis, especially CPA and CMA exam level
problems where incomplete information is presented. Conceptually and
computationally, variance analysis is not difficult but can become
complicated because of voluminous but incomplete data, relevant item
identification and algebraic manipulation requirements. The students who
have difficulties in computing variances concentrate on improving
computational deficiencies and frequently compound the learning
problem by failing to gain an understanding of critical underlying
concepts, journal entry requirements and related theory.

After struggling with numerous cost students through this area of
standard cost, I developed an analytical framework which has proven ideal
for solving the traditional four variance standard cost problem, which is a
favorite of professional exam writers. The model presented in this paper
has been developed for analyzing variable cost elements only and therefore
fixed cost and related variances will not be formally discussed. Student
response to the model had been very good, for it provides a simple
framework that the student can easily understand and use as a basic
reference point for extensions of cost variance analysis.

Essentially the model is a tabular grid with horizontal and vertical
headings. The headings are arranged in a particular format, and the known
data are placed in the grid with each item having a unique position.
Depending on what information is known, a particular combination of
computations can be made to supply the missing data quickly. In
illustrating the model, it is desirable to begin with a situation containing
complete information. This illustration will be carried out through an
analysis and discussion of direct labor with some general comments
concerning direct material and variable overhead.

Direct Labor: Analysis and Discussion

Information given:

Standard Direct Labor Rate $5.00

Actual Direct Labor Rate $5.10

Direct Labor Hours Allowed 6500 hours

Direct Labor Hours Incurred 6100 hours

Required: Compute direct labor price and quantity variances and
prepare the journal entry.

Basic Framework:

Price

Quantity

Amount

Actual

5.10

6100

31,110

Standard

5.00 -.*.,^

.^"'^''^ 6500

32,500

Difference

>> - 400

-1,390F

Variance

610U

-2000F

-1,390F

The product of price and quantity is the actual and standard
amounts respectively.

The arrows indicate multiplication with the products expressed
at the foot of the columns.

Journal Entry:

Work-In-Process 32,500
DLPV 610

DLQV 2,000

Wages Payable 31,110

At this point it is desirable to examine the model more closely, compare
it to the traditional equation approach, and discuss some pedagogical
extensions.

1. Obviously the difference in the price of labor has been the actual DL
hours to compute the DL price variance. The difference in DL hours
has been multiplied by the standard price to compute the DL quantit}'
variance. This is nothing more than the equation approach with the
components arranged in a different form. It is certainly important to
demonstrate and emphasize this relationship to the students.

Traditional Equations:
DLPV=(AP - SP) AQ
DLQV=(AQ - SQ) SP

2. By multiplying AP x AQ, we have computed the actual amount spent
on Direct Labor. By multiplying SP x SQ, we have computed the
amount that should have been spent on Direct Labor given the
standards and the level of output. It is important that students realize
that the information required for the journal entry is genreated within
the model. However, if journal entries are not required, the above
computations may not be necessary.

3. Students seem comfortable with the fact that the model is self-checking.
The difference in the actual amount spent and the standard amount
($1390) is equal to the sum of the variances ($1390). This not only
provides a mathematical check when the complete model is used but
visually emphasizes the fact that the variances are the differences
between actual and standard.

4. Students have little trouble in identifying variances as favorable or
unfavorable becaus of the common sense notion that actual cost greater
than standard is "not good" and vice versa; as a result signs can be
ignored. However, if algebraic signs are used in the model, favorable
variances will carry a negative sign and are journalized as credits.
U nfavorable variances are positive and are debits. This information can
be clearly conveyed through the model. The use of signs is optional.

5. Students quickly observe that the multiplication sequence is not
symmetrical (the change in price is multiplied by the AQ whereas the
change in quantity is multiplied by SP). This is an excellent lead into the
introduction of the joint variance and a discussion as to why the
quantity variance is usually kept pure and the joint variance is assigned
to the price variance.

Direct Material

Most standard cost problems require that the direct labor price variance
be computed at the time of purchase as opposed to the time of usage. The
model as described produces the price variance based on usage; however,
the model can be altered to produce either variance and certainly high-
lights the difference.

Variable Overhead

In analyzing variable overhead, it must be noted that the cost variances
computed under "P" and "Q" are spending and efficiency variances, not
price and quantity variances. This is a good time to emphasize to the
students why this is so and to emphasize the significance of these variances.

The real strength of the model lies in the fact that it provides a vehicle
which can be used to solve cost variance problems rapidly where incom-
plete data are presented. Mathematical manipulations that can be obscure
to students using the simultaneous equation approach become clear. This
analysis is illustrated with the following set of partial data.

Information Given (Direct Labor, Direct \laterial, and Variable
Overhead cost data):

Standard DL Rate per Hour $3.50

Standard VO/H Rate $1.75 per DLH

Actual VO/H $102,000

Standard DL Cost $220,500

Actual DL Hours 60,000

DL Price Variance $4,000 U

Standard Price Per Pound $6.10

Actual Price Per Pound $6.12

Actual Cost of Material Purchased and Used $122,400

375 Pounds of Material Were issued in Excess of Production Standards

10

Solution (After the initial learning period, the components of the model
can be abbreviated so as to shorten the solution time.):

DL:

P

Q

$

A

3.5667

60,000

214,000

S

3.50 ^^

'"''"^ 63,000

220,500

A

.0667^^"^

-^ 3,000

6,500F

V

4000U

10,500F

6,500F

DM:

A

6.12

, 20,000

122,400

S

6.10-~__,^

""^"^ 19,625

119,712

A

.02 P=^

^ +375

2,683U

V

400U

2,288U

2,688U

V/H

P

Q

S

A

1.70

60,000

102,000

S

1.75^^^^^

--' ^63,000

110,250

i.

.05 k^^"'^

> 3,000

8,250F

V

3000F

5,250F

8,250F

The utilization of the model discussed in this paper has proven to be
effective as a classroom instructional vehicle. More importantly, however,
the approach provides a powerful solution oriented framework for quickly
solving complex cost variance analysis problems, and is especially effective
when incomplete data are given. Cost accounting instructors will find it
useful to consider the model presented in this paper.

JEREMIAH CLEMENS: UNIONIST AS SOUTHERNER

by John M. Martin*

In his book, Mississippi: the Closed Society, James W. Silver noted that
there were parallels between the I850's and the 1950's. Because orthodox
views concerning state rights and race were so strongly held in the South,
he said, the "voice of reason" was stilled, and moderates who favored less
extreme positions either had to go along or be eliminated.' The career of
Jeremiah Clemens in the 1850's demonstrates the correctness of Silver's
viewpoint. As a supporter of the Compromise of 1850 and a critic of those
who favored resistance to it, he was driven from political life and
ostracized by the ruling element in Alabama.

Clemens, a cousin of Samuel Langhorne Clemens, was elected to the
United States Senate in November, 1849, just in time to participate in
debates over the issues that were settled by the Compromise of 1850.^ In
the early weeks of debate, he took an advanced position in defense of
southern rights and was hailed by the southern rights group as one of their
own. 3 Later, however, when it appeared that a reasonable compromise
could be arranged, he moved to a moderate position and supported the
exchange of Texas territory for $10,000,000 and creation of Utah and New
Mexico as territories without any guarantees for slavery."

In the meantime, opinion in Alabama had become polarized. Some, like
Clemens, favored a reasonable compromise. Another vocal group,
however, partly taking its cue from Robert Barnwell Rhett, a South
Carolina extremist, insisted that Alabamians take an uncompromising
stand. Reaction by this element to Clemens' position on the compromise
measures was immediate. A Montgomery group quickly drew up
resolutions denouncing the exchange of Texas territory for money and
demanding that the 3630' line be extended to the Pacific as a means of
settling the question of slavery in the territories. ^ The Montgomery
Advertiser & State Gazette immediately charged that Clemens had voted
for the "buying of slave territory to make it free" because an abolition
president had drawn the sword, and it hinted that Texas bonds had
motivated Clemens. The paper suggested, further, that Clemens had been
misled if he thought Utah and New Mexico would ever become slave
states.^ In public statements. Clemens vigorously denied that the

Professor of History, West Georgia College
iJames W. Silver, Mississippi: The Closed SocielyOiev. York: Harcourt. Brace, and World. 1966), 5-6
^Eufaula Democrat, December 4. 1849.
'Mobile Herald and Tribune, March 14. 1850.
^Montgomery Advertiser & Slaie Gazelle, September 4, 1850.
'Montgomery Advertiser & Stale Gazelle. September 1 1, 1850.
'Montgomery Advertiser & Slate Gazelle. August 21. 1850.

12

Montgomery resolutions represented the views of more than one-tenth of
the people of Alabama and insisted that the Texas settlement was sound.''
The Advertiser & State Gazette, nevertheless, refused to accept his
explanation and declared that it would be "miscreant" in its duty as a
member of a free press if it failed to condemn an action fraught with "such
mischief" for the country. It charged also that Clemens had insulted the
members of the Montgomery group by raising questions about the validity
of their resolutions. They had not meant for the resolutions to reflect
public opinion, only their own views. ^ Criticisms by the Advertiser & State
Gazette were echoed in the Montgomery Atlas, the Franklin Democrat
and the Huntsville Democrat. In language familiar to hunters, the
Florence Gazette noted in September that the "Disunionists, Tray,
Blanche, Sweetheart, little dogs and all" were after Clemens.^

In a letter dated September 16, Clemens explained his actions in the
recent Congress and defended his views concerning the Montgomery
resolutions. He complained that words such as "submissionist, ""coward,"
and "traitor" came too easily to the lips of his opponents and pleaded for
more tolerance, more kindness, and more forbearance."' A sympathetic
editor, in agreement with Clemens, suggested that fire-eaters were
"attacking as submissionists" any who had taken "a common-sense
position and saved the country from anarchy, civil war, bloodshed and
fraternal strife." Such men, said the editor, could have earned praise and
flattery if they had repudiated the Compromise."

After remaining silent for several weeks, Clemens made a speech on
November 4, 1850, defending his own actions, supporting the
Compromise, and denouncing what he called disunion schemes. In
response, the Huntsville Democrat charged that he had made an "eloquent
submission speech," that he had glorified an "oppressive union," and that
he had denounced loyal southern supporters as "agitators and
disunionists." Although the speech had been seductive, it had been full of
"errors and incnsistencies." It had been "crude, raw, and indigestible";
even the submissionists had made a face when they swallowed it.'^ Making
similar charges, other southern rights newspapers found fault with
Clemens'-^ Somewhat stoically, Clemens wrote a friend at the time that he

"'Washington Daily Union. September 4, 1850.

"Montgomery Advertiser & Siaie Gazette. September 4, 1 1, 1850.

'September 25, 1850
"'Tuskegee Macon Republican. October 10. 1850.
"Tuskegee, Macon Republican. October 3. 1850.
i-'November 7, 21. 28. 1850.
I'Mobile Daily Advertiser. January 14, 1851

13

had expected to be "unsparingly assailed and denounced in certain parts of
the state" because of his actions in Congress and his recent defense of
Compromise. In this expectation, he concluded, he had not been
disappointed."*

During the short 1850-51 session of Congress, Clemens spoke out in
favor of Compromise and incidentally commended President Millard
Fillmore for his support of southern interests, particularly as related to
enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Law. Commenting on the speech, the
Huntsville Democrat suggested that Fillmore had made only empty
promises and that Clemens was catering to the Whig Party. It also attacked
him for signing a pledge not to support candidates for office unless they
agreed to support the Compromise. The friendly Huntsville Southern
Advocate chided the Democrat for its "malignant enmity" toward
Clemens and speculated that the editors wanted to see him defeated in the
coming senate election. '^

Meanwhile, a new aUgnment of political parties had taken place in
Alabama resulting in a Southern Rights Party and a Union Party.
Concerned about re-election and about dangers of the "disunion"
movement, Clemens made a speaking tour of Alabama on behalf of the
Unionist cause during the summer of 1851. Following his speech at
Tuscumbia, in which he supported the Compromise and warned against
those who called secession a "right," an observer called the speech a
"complete failure" and attacked him for defending a northern point of view
and casting odium on supporters of real southern interests. The Huntsville
Democrat questioned whether Clemens had any "hngering attachment" to
state rights and charged that the "recreant" senator was trying to take
Alabama over to the Whigs.'* Following a Clemens speech at Talladega,
an observer alleged that he was trying to convince the people of Alabama
to accept a blind adoration of the word "union." He had harangued the
Talladega audience for two hours with a speech made up of "submission,
sophism, poetry, and some little candor."'"' Commenting about his speech
in Montgomery, the Montgomery Atlas called it an excellent "free soil
speech," more harmful to southern interests than thousands of speeches
made by free soilers. It included, said the /l//a5, a summary of all the "little
contemptible paragraphs" from the submission presses for the past six
months and was "especially abusive of South Carolina and the Southern
Rights cause." Overall, it was "trash, trash, trash."'* The Advertiser &

'^Montgomery Tri-Weekly Journal, December 23, 1850.
"Huntsville Democrat, March 20, April 3, 1850.
"Huntsville Democrat. June 26, 1851.
''Huntsville Democrat. August 7, 1851.
'Huntsville Democrat. July 31, 1851.

14

State Gazette charged that Clemens was "fully in the consolidationist
harness" and that acceptance of his views would threaten southern
property and the safety of southern firesides.'^ Subsequently, when
Clemens made a speech in Huntsville in which he denounced those who
were agitating against the Compromise settlement, the Democrat called
him the "prime mover" of agitation and said that he was guilty of "special
pleading, evasion, and the presentation of false issues. "-^

Despite the harsh criticism of Clemens and the Unionist movement, the
Unionists won a majority in the Alabama General Assembly in the August,
1851, election, thus giving Clemens reason to believe that he would be
reelected to the Senate in November. The opposition press, however,
redoubled its attack in an attempt to defeat him. One newspaper noted a
"vile stream of detraction" following the Unionist victory. Another
pointed out that the partisan press was attacking Clemens with unusual
"bitterness and rankness of malignancy and hatred." Clemens complained
in September that Southern Rights supporters were treating him as a
"personal enemy" rather than as a "political opponent." A "wretched
minority," he complained, assumed to have a monopoly on "all the talents
and decency in the state." Within this disunionist movement, however,
there existed an element of "envy, malice, meanness, and cowardice which
would damn any cause and drag down any party. "2' In a public letter dated
October 10, Clemens alleged that attacks on him had resulted from his
refusal to "take a seat at the council board of Disunion, "not because of his
support for a Whig President. After his refusal to join the Southern Rights
cause in 1850, this group had subjected him to "invective, abuse, and
systematical misrepresentation" without parallel in Alabama history. ^^
The Montgomery Daily Journal agreed that Clemens was under attack
because he had refused "to break up and resist the Compromise acts even
to secession" and had fought to save the Union. The rabid attack of the
secessionists, it predicted, could lead to Clemens' defeat for the Senate. In
similar language, the Talladega Republican said that Clemens was
suffering abuse because he had taken the side of his country and used his
influence "with telling effect upon the minions of disunion." True to
predictions. Southern Rights supporters were able to bring about
postponement of the senate election until 1853 and insure Clemens'
eventual defeat. Meanwhile, the Southern Rights group had secured the

I'.luly 16. 1851.

2Huntsville Democrat, July 31, 1851.

2'Huntsville Southern Advocate. September 27. 1851; Huntsville Democrat, October 2, 1851;
Montgomery Weekly Journal. October 31, 1851.

22Huntsville Democrat. October 23, 1851; Montgomery Advertiser and State Gazette, November 4,
1851.

15

support of a number of former U nionists and reorganized the Democratic
Party.23

Commenting about these developments in a public letter, Clemens
argued that the party had been reorganized under "secession auspices"and
that it was largely controlled by that group. In its statement of purposes,
moreover, the new party had ignored Andrew Jackson and had repudiated
his views. 2" The Democratic press attacked Clemens for reopening old
wounds and increasing division in the party. The Montgomery Advertiser
& State Gazette, for example, called him a shipwrecked Democrat, part of
a group of "prostitutes, renegades, and traitors. "^5 His defenders, on the
other hand, maintained that Clemens was under attack because of his
effort "to keep out of the democratic creed the disunion projects of the
Nashville Convention. "^^

In the meantime, Clemens became involved in a running verbal battle
with Robert Barnwell Rhett, overall leader of the Southern Rights faction
and recently elected senator from South Carolina. During debate over a
senate resolution approving the compromise measures as a definitive
settlement of the issues involved, Rhett spoke approvingly of such terms as
"disunion" and "secession." Later, Clemens criticized Rhett's speech in
language that was deliberately provocative, perhaps with the intent of
goading Rhett into a duel.-^

Instead, Rhett spent about two months consulting Clemens' enemies in
Alabama and preparing for a major assault on him. After issuing a special
invitation to the press to hear him, Rhett delivered an emotional speech in
which he charged that Clemens was a submissionist who had painted the
Compromise as a source of great blessings, called resisters traitors, and
sullied the honor of the South. Clemens, he said, had gone over to
submission "utter and entire" and had denounced others who did not bow
to "an ignominious surrender." Although Clemens answered with another
provocative speech, Rhett chose not to seek a duel because of his religious
views. 28 Writing in support of Clemens, the New York Commercial
Register noted that secessionists had made a target of him because he had
led the Unionist movement in Alabama. Clemens, said the Register,
represented southern feeling but with a national spirit; he was neither a

-'Montgomery Daily Journal. November 17,22, 1851; H\inls\\\\e Southern Advocate, Ocloberll, 1851
Huntsville Democrat. August 8, 1851.
^''Washington Daily Union. January 31, February 3, 1852.
^'February 10, 1852.

^''Mobile Daily Advertiser. February 12, 1851.
2'Huntsville Southern Advocate, January 21, 1852.
-"Montgomery Daily Journal. March 5, 1852; Huntsville Southern Advocate. March 17, 1852.

16

sectionalist not a factionist. The New York Advertiser agreed that Clemens
had "as much Southern feehng as any man in the South" but noted that this
feehng was "tempered with a patriotic and national spirit and a love of
peace." In Alabama, the Grove Hill Herald criticized the secessionists for
their attempt to ruin Clemens' "political reputation," "blast his private
character," and render him an "object of loathing and contempt," and the
Marshall Eagle charged that "Secession Jacobites" were trying to bring
about Clemens' "political ostracism. "^^

Although the newspaper attacks subsided during the latter part of 1852
and throughout 1853, Clemens' career was already ruined. Prior to the
senatorial election in 1853, a critic wrote that he was unhorsed
everywhere." This judgment proved true, for Clemens received only six
votes in the contest for the senate seat in the General Assembly. ^o

Following his defeat, Clemens never again held an elective office. On
one occasion, he ran for a seat in the state legislature but failed to secure
election. During the next seven years, he wrote three novels and edited a
newspaper. He wrote in 1860 that for ten years he had been widely
denounced throughout the southern states as a "Submissionist,"a regular
"Union-Saver." As a union man, he said, he had battled for its preservation
and had encountered "obloquy, reproach and the alienation of friends in
its defense."^'

Clemens emerged again in a significant political role when he
campaigned in 1860 in support of John Bell and Edward Everett. As
before, he tried to steer between the extremism of the Southern Rights
group and the position taken by the national Democratic Party. Following
Abraham Lincoln's victory, he opposed any "rash and desperate
experiment" by Alabama that would stampede other states into secession
and sought the calling of a convention of all southern states to consider
alternatives. "The Union men of Alabama," he wrote a fjiend in
November, "have a difficult and dangerous part to play... Our hands are in
the lion's mouth, and we must get them out as easily as may be."
Considering the existing state of emotions, he feared that "moderate
counsels" would go unheeded. ^^ He wrote another friend, "We have before

-"Huntsville Southern Advocate. March 24, April 21, 1852.

"Mohn Braggto Boiling Hall. Septembers. I85.t, Boiling Hall Papers, Alabama Department of Archive:
and History: Montgomery; Huntsville Democral. Decembers. 1853,

"Clemens to W. B. Wood, November 26, 1860, Huntsville Southern Advocate, December 5, I860.
'-Clemens to J. J. Crittenden, November 24. 1860. Crittenden Papers, Library of Congress.

17

us the double duty of preserving the Union, and of obtaining redress for
grievances which undeniably exist, and security against other agressions
we cannot fail to see are impending." Alabama, he said, must follow a
"determined spirit of resistance," not one of "unconditional submission."
Issues dividing the sections, he asserted, must be settled. ^^

Elected to the Alabama secessionist convention, Clemens led a minority
group which supported an unsuccessful effort for the calling of a southern
convention instead of immediate secession and for submission of the
secession ordinance to the people of Alabama. After both efforts failed, he
voted reluctantly for the Ordinance of Secession, explaining, correctly,
that he had earlier promised to go along with the state. ^^ Later, while
others celebrated adoption of the Ordinance, he took no part and
disconsolately wrote a friend about his feelings of sorrow when he saw the
"old banner" of the Union coming down.-'^ Nevertheless, he advised his
friends that they should do nothing to "divide the people" of the state.
Unfortunately, he said, failure of the North to offer concessions had left as
alternatives "Submission without terms, or death by the halter. "^^

In March, Clemens was appointed Major-general of Alabama forces, a
position he had earned because of earlier service in Texas and Mexico.
With the outbreak of war, however, Alabama forces were mostly
transferred to the Confederacy, and he was left with an empty honor. He
was snubbed by Jefferson Davis and Leroy Pope Walker, Confederate
Secretary of War. When he resigned his Alabama commission, they chose
not to offer him a Confederate commission, either for personal reasons or
his ill health."

Incensed by this treatment, the increased demands of the Confederate
government, and harassment and indignities suffered by Unionists,
Clemens began to have second thoughts about his loyalties in 1862. When
the Tennessee Valley was occupied by Union forces in the spring of that
year, he made no effort to escape and made overtures to the Union
commander to "learn unofficially in what way the existing controversy
might be ended." He sought also to present the cause of southern Unionists
m Washington but was denied permission on the grounds that he and other
Unionists could do more good for the United States if they remained in the

"Clemens to Wood, November 26. I860. Huntsville Southern Advocate. December 5. I860.

"William Russell Smith, The History and Debates of the Convention of the People of Alabama
(Spartanburg: Reprint Company, 1975). 28-29. 77-80, I 16-1 17.

"Clemens to G , January 1 1, 1861, Southern Advocate. January 16, 1861.

"Clemens to Blanton Duncan, n.d., Montgomery Weekly Mail. February 13, 1861.

"Montgomery Weekly Mad. January 18, March 15, 1861; Montgomery Daily Advertiser. March 20,
1861; Horace Greely, The American Conflict: a History of the Great Rebellion in the United States of
America (Hartford: Case and Company, 1865), I, 632; Montgomery Weekly Advertiser. April 13, 1864.

18

South. ^^ His return to Unionism subjected Clemens to public and physical
abuse. Noting that he had "gone over to the enemy," one Alabama
newspaper commented that nothing else could have been expected,
considering "his antecedents."^^ When Clemens was accused of suggesting
the incarceration of several ex-Confederates, another paper reported, an
opponent of "Yankeeing Southerners" beat him and left his face
"frightfully disfigured."'"' Still another paper charged that Clemens had
sounded the "depths of turpitude" and reported that he had been beaten
"within an inch of his life" by a Confederate sympathizer.'*'

While Federal forces occupied the Huntsville area, Clemens worked
with Union officers, entertained them in his home, and advised them about
policies. For such activities, he and other Unionists suffered when not
under direct protection of Federal forces. In his novel, Tobias Wilson,
which was based on his experiences, Clemens wrote that no union man's
property was safe two miles from an inhabited town, for Confederate
raiders were "thieves and murderers of the most inexcusable kind." He
had, he wrote, been threatened and had lost 35 mules, 4 horses, all his hogs,
sheep and cattle, and large quantities of corn and provisions.'*-

Because of Lincoln's generous offer of reconstruction in 1863 and
Alabamians' disillusionment with the Richmond government, restoration
to the Union seemed possible by early 1864. On March 5, Clemens presided
over a meeting in Huntsville called to demonstrate sentiment in favor of
reunion. When the meeting was not well attended, a second one was held
on March 13. One of the principal speakers, Clemens noted that the
purpose of the meeting was to encourage the Governor to take steps to
bring about repeal of the Ordinance of Secession. If he did not respond
favorably, the people could assemble and act for themselves. Alabama, he
said, had been taken out of the Union by falsehood, fraud, and crime. The
people had been promised sound money and protection for slaves, state
rights and personal liberty, but they had received none of these.
Conscription laws forced men with ten starving children to serve but
permitted those with twenty slaves to escape army service. "Thank God,"
he declared, the Confederacy would not succeed. ''^

^''The H ar of the Rebellion: a Compilalion ufihe Ofjuial Records ollhe inion and Confederate Armies
(Washington: (iovernmeni Printing Office, 1883). Scries 1. Vol. X. Pt.2.0. M. Mitchell to E. M.Stanton,
May 6. 1862, 167; Mitchell to Stanton. May 8, 1862. 174; P. H. Watson to Mitchell, May 8, 1862, 174-175.
Hereinafter cited as Olfuial Records.

^'Selma Reporter. June 27, 1862.

"^Clarke County Democrat. October M. 1862.

"Mobile Advertiser and Register. May 24. October 25, 1862.

^-Montgomery iVeekly Advertiser. April 13, 1864; .Icreniiah Clemens. Tobias Wilson, a Tale of the
Great /^fiSW/iVw (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1865), 303-304.

''Philadelphia Inquirer. March 24, 26, 1864.

19

Alabama newspapers questioned Clemens' views, his motives, and his
character. One newspaper said that he had gove over "body and breeches"
to the Yankees, that he had probably been iinhis"full normal condition of
inebrity" when he delivered the Huntsville speech.'*'* Another charged that
his senses had long since been blunted by "bad whiskey and low company. "
Perhaps, it suggested, Clemens was trying to get from Lincoln that
attention which Davis had denied him. Nobody was surprised by any
statements made by this "debauched and profligate politician," who had
been put forward to vilify his own people and start the process of reunion.
Clemens, said the paper, probably expected to be chosen reconstruction
governor by Lincoln. ''^ Summing up the feeling of many, a Confederate
commander in the field called Clemens "that Arch Traitor.""^

Later in 1864, Clemens left Alabama and went to Philadelphia.
Although he probably went there to secure treatment for his failing
eyesight and to supervise publication of Tobias Wilson, an Alabama editor
suggested that his change of residence was "no doubt owing to a conviction
on his part" that affairs in Alabama were such as to make his presence in
the state "rather uncomfortable."'*^

In September, Clemens wrote from Philadelphia that Southerners had
allowed themselves to be deceived by "selfish demagogues and
unprincipled political leaders." They had been "long enough hugging a
despotism to their bosoms and calling it independence." Their property
had been "seized by the confederate government"; their fields had been
"laid waste by a reckless soldiery," and their children had been "dragged
from their firesides and sacrificed in the hectacombs to the God of War."
Still, they had not protested because one murmur was sufficient to "excite
a suspicion of their patriotism" and bring with it "robbery, extortion,
insult and injury in every form."'**

In October, Clemens wrote a letter to a friend in Alabama which was
later published in bound form. Confederate leaders, he said, had led
Southerners "from the surrender of one right to another from
independence, prosperity, and happiness, to misery, humiliation, and
slavery." They had promised that the rights of states would be
"scrupulously regarded," individual liberty protected, and freedom of
speech and press guaranteed. Instead, they had trampled the rights of

"''Clarke County Journal, April 21, 1864.

"'Montgomery Weekly Advertiser, April 27. May 4, 1864.

^''Official Records, Series I, Vol. XXXll, Pt. 3, James H. Clanton to T. H. Watts, April 5, 1864, 750.

"'^Clarke County Journal, July 14, 1864.

"'Philadelphia Daily Evening Bulletin, September 13, 1864.

20

states underfoot and had seized property and persons without regard to
law. If Jefferson Davis wanted soldiers, Clemens declared, he sent "his own
minions to run down and catch hapless citizens." If he wanted provisions,
he sent out a press gang to "rob at will." No proprietor of a newspaper, said
he, dared publish sentiments favorable to reunion, and friends of the
Union spoke only in whispers or retired to back rooms. Neither states nor
individuals had rights "save at the will of the Dictator" who controlled the
Confederacy. Only the "blind and pliant tools of the Autocrat at
Richmond" had a hopeful future in the South. If the rebellion succeeded,
"instant robbery and merciless proscription of the old Union Men," would
follow. Already, he had suffered personally as a member of that
"proscribed class. "''^

Speaking in support of Abraham Lincoln in November, 1864, before a
Philadelphia audience, Clemens said that Jefferson Davis would not
accept peace without "independence for the South and humiliation of the
North." A supreme despotism controlled the South. Whatever
Southerners thought, they were "as powerless as a child in the grasp of a
giant." If southern editors were one-tenth as critical of Davis as the
northern press was critical of Lincoln, decared Clemens, they would regret
that "ever a type was manufactured." Northerners, he warned, should vote
for Lincoln and not run the risk of electing a peace candidate. 'o

Still concerned about the fate of Unionists, Clemens wrote President
Andrew Johnson in April, 1 865, only a few days defore his death, warning
the President not to put his faith in old Confederate leaders in Alabama.
When they were in power, he said, they had "heaped obloquy on Union
citizens" and denounced them as "traitors. "They had oppressed Unionists
"when treason was in the ascendant" and should not be allowed to hold
power now that "the Union cause" was triumphant. If he were asked to
serve in office, he did not want secessionists as his colleagues; if he were an
ordinary citizen, he did not want them as his masters. 5'

Clemens lived long enough to experience the Union victory, but he did
not live to take part in Reconstruction. He had suffered much: political
exile and ostracism in the pre-war period, and harassment, loss of
property, and exile during the war years.

*^ Letter from the Hon. Jere. Clemens (n. p., 1864), Clemens to October. 1X64, 3-15.

'"Philadelphia Daily Evening Bulletin, November 4, 1864.

s'Clemens to Andrew Johnson, April 21, 1865, Johnson Papers. library of Congress; Philadelphia
Daily Evening Bulletin, May 23, 1865.

21

THE SOCIAL DESTRUCTION OF REALITY

by Deborah I. Offenbacher* and Constance H. Poster**

Introduction

In The Reality of Ethnomethosology, Mehan and Wood ' take issue
with Alfred Schutz'^ analysis of "multiple realities", particularly with his
concept of the "paramount reality" of everyday life. Using the first person
singular for what, we presume, is their joint opinion, Mehan and Wood
observe:

Schutz argues that other realities exist, but that they derive
from the paramount reality . . . My view of reality is different. I
do not wish to call one or another reality paramount. It is my
contention that every reality is equally real.

In a previous paper (offenbacher, 1977)^ we have similarly argues that
alternate realities may be equally real. Yet this observation need not
contradict Schutz' position. What Schutz sought to explore was not the
nature of reality as it may be defined by philosophers or
ethnomethodologists, but reality as it is "taken for granted" by the
majority of people in modern society. Despite the recent interest in new
religious and quasi-religious movements, altered states of consciousness,
paranormal phenomena and the like, the reality of everyday life still
appears to be the paramount reality for most Americans. In fact, one of the
odd features of contemporary science fiction is the tendency to project a
mirror image of the reality onto the inhabitants of the far reaches of the
galaxies.

In the light of the above, we would suggest that the respective positions
of Schutz vs. Mehan and Wood do not represent mutually exclusive
alternatives but rather an interesting paradox. Though all realities are
equally real, most of our contemporaries appear to take if for granted that
the reality of everyday life is not only the paramount reality but the only
"real reality" there is. Whatever need for transcedence may exist in the face
of that paramount reality is, in the apt phase of Peter Berger' only "a
rumor of angels".

Department of Sociology, Brooklyn College, CUNY
'Assistant Professor of Sociology, West Georgia College

'Mehan, Hugh and Houstin Wood, 1975. The Reality of Ethomethodology. New York, John Wiley.

-Schutz, Alfred, 1962. Collected Papers Vol. I: The Problems of Social Reality The Hague, Martinus
Nijhoff.

'Offenbacher, D.I., 1977. "A Neglected Dimension of the Sociology of Knowledge: Perspectives on the
Non-Rational." Paper presented at the first annual meeting of the Association of Humanists Sociologists
New York, Spring 1977.

Berger, Peter I., 1969. A Rumor of Angels. Garden City, N.Y. Doubleday.

22

To explore some of the implications of that paradox, we turn to a basic
weakness in the treatment of reality in both Schutz and Mehan and Wood,
and, indeed, in sociology at large. Whatever the relative status of different
realities, no reality is simply a social contruct that arises ex nihilo in the
social process. As pointed out by Hannah Arendt^ (in a posthumously
published article) there is a "feeling of realness" which belongs to our
biological apparatus". Yet, as Dennis Wrong^ reminded us more than
fifteen years ago sociologists tend to forget that "in the beginning there is
the body." As a result, we tend to produce not only an oversocialized
conception of man", as Wrong asserts, but an oversocialized conception of
reality.

The Dialetic of Nature and Society

In The Social Construction of Reality, Berger and Luckmann refer to
the "organismic presuppositions and limitations" of the sociology of
knowledge which derive from the dialectic between nature and society":

This dialectic is given in the human condition and manifests
itself anew in each human individual . . . Externally, it is a
dialetic between the individual animal and the social world.
Internally, it is a dialectic between the individual's biological
substratum and his socially produced identity.^

While we fully concur with the above formulation (which reflects
Mead's distinction between the biological foundation and the "I" and the
social nature of the "Me") we would suggest that the internal dialetic of
nature and society is not only a matter of "the resistance of the biological
substratum to social moulding" (Berger and Luckmann 1966:167). The
process of socialization itself and the phenomena we summarize under the
heading particular characteristics of the human brain and of the central
nervous system. Indeed, the "world openess" of man, this uniquely human
dilemma which Gehlen sees as the foundation of instutionalization( Berger
and Kellner, 1965)^ may well be rooted in the number and connectivity of
the neurons in the association areas of the human brain (Rose 1973:144).^

There is thus a second dimension of the dialectic between nature and
society which is essential to the sociology of knowledge: the dialectic
between mental activities as they derive from the universal biological
properties of the human organism and the socio-cultural dimensions of

^Arendt, Hannah, 1977. "Reflections (Thinking Part 1)" The New Yorker, November 21, pp. 56-140.

Wrong, Dennis, 1962. "The Oversocialized Conception of Man in Modern Sociology". American
Sociological Review, 26:183-193.

'Berger, Peter I., and Thomas Luckmann, 1966. The Social Construction of Reality. GiLxdtnCAy ^fi ^ .,
Doubleday. pp. 165, pp. 167, pp. 24, pp.1.

*Berger, Peter I., and Hansfried Kellner, 1965. "Arnold Gehlen ans the Theory of Institutions". Social
Research. 32:110.

'Rose, Steven, 1973. The Conscious Brain. New York, Alfred Knoft. pp. 144.

23

human thought and experiences as they are mediated by language. The
psychologist Jerome R. Bruner observes:

Most of what has emerged from studies of Africans, Eskimos,

aborigines and other groups, shows that the same basic mental

functions are present in adults in any culture. What differs is

the development of these functions: what is considered as

appropriate strategy suited to the situation and task . . . The

investigation of many psychologists and anthropologists

confirm that there is little that is remarkably different about

underlying mental processes in different cultures. Differences

occur only in the way they are combined and used in thought, in

categorization and in handling language, (emphasis in

original.)'"

The neglect of the universal biological foundations of mental processes

as a vital organismic presupposition for the social construction of reality is

not surprising if one remembers how heavily the work of Berger and

Luckmann relies on the phenomenological perspective of Edmund

Husserl. In Husserl's writings, knowledge is treated as an achievement of

acts and operations of consciousness independent of their physiological

base. "The transcendental study of consciousness," notes Husserl, "does

not mean nature-research and may not presuppose this as a premise, since

from its transcendental standpoint Nature is in principle placed within the

brackets."" Yet if we deal with the sociology of knowledge in terms of a

dialectic between nature and society or between the biological and mental

dimensions of man(a position which derives not from Husserl but from the

ideas of Mead and Marx incorporated in the work of Berger and

Luckmann) the biological foundations of mental operations can no longer

be bracketed.

The problems arising from a failure to consider the biological
substratum of human knowledge become evident in the way in which
Berger and Luckmann deal with "finite provinces of meaning":

Compared to the reality of everyday life, other realities appear
as finite provinces of meaning, enclaves within the paramount
reality marked by circumscribed meanings and modes of
experience . . . This is evident from the illustrations already
given, as in the reality of dreams or that of theoretical thought.
Similar "communications" take place between the world of
everyday life and the world of play . . . The Theatre provides an
excellent illustration of such playing on the part of adults.^

'"Bruner, Jerome S., 1978. "Review of A.R. Lurie's Cognitive Development: Its Cultural and Social
Foundations", Human Nature, January, pp. 84-90.

"Husserl, Edmund, 1963. Ideas. New York, Collier Books, pp.141.

24

Seen from the perspective of everyday life, that is, from the world as
taken for granted in contemporary Western society, these observations are
valid. Yet from the perspective of the universal biological foundations of
mental activity, the analysis of Berger and Luckmann neglects an
important distinction. Compared to the reality of everyday life, finite
provinces of meaning are equally contingent, recognized as real only as
long as we are directly engaged in them. Yet they originate in different ways
and are not equally subject to modification by human intentionality and
purpose.

The theatre as a "finite province of meaning" is a sociocultural
phenomenon. It is a product of human intentionality and we could
conceivably eliminate it by declaring it illegal; placing sanctions on
playwrights, actors, audiences, etc. The memory of our dreams, on the
other hand, is rooted in spontaneous processes. We cannot interfere with
these biological rhythms without the use of means which in the long
run would de detrimental to the human organism. Similarly, while it is
possible to manipulate the content of dreams to some extent (Witkin:
1969)'% censorship of dreams would be a far more difficult undertaking
than the censorship of theatrical productions.

In other words, "multiple realities" or "finite provinces of meaning", as
suggested by Schutz or Berger or Luckmann, represent a mental
topography, a map of different regions of reality or meaning which we
inhabit at different times. However, when we approach the same
phenomenon from the perspective of the dialectic of nature and society,
this pluralistic structure gives way to an ongoing process of confrontation
between our biological sense of realness and the social construction of
reality.

Biology and Reality

According to the Thomas theorem, what people define as real will be
real in its consequences. Similarly, the reactions of non-human organisms
to their environment reflects a sense of biological realness, that is, an
awareness of something external to the organism to which that behavior is
a response. If we accept Berger and Luckmann's definition of reality as "a
quality appertaining to phenomena that we recognize as having a being
independent of our own volition" (Berger and Luckmann 1966:1)^ we
might extend the Thoman theorem to other forms of life by the proposition
that "those features of the environment to which an organism responds are
real for that organism."

A biological sense of realness is thus rooted in the physiological
equipment of all forms of life and no organism that depends for its survival

i-Witkin, Herman A.. 1969. "Influencing Dream Content", in Milton Kramer, ed.: Dream Psychology
abd the New Biology of Dreaming. Springfield, III. Charles C. Thomas.

25

on interaction with the environment can exist without it. To the amoeba,
exhibiting "avoidance behavior", the obstacle ehciting that response is as
real as is the stock market report to the investor rushing to the phone to
speak to his broker. However, since a biological sense of realness is
dependent on the nature of the sense organs and other anatomical
structures through which the relevant information is gathered and
processed (including the brain and central nervous system), the reality of
man is not the same as the reality of the amoeba. In fact, as the biologist
Jakob von Uexkull has pointed out, the anatomical variations from
species to species indicate that there may be as many realities as there are
species on this planet.* (quoted in Cassirer 1944:23-24)'3

Man's experience of reality reflects the complexity of his neurological
equipment and of the variety of mental operations of which it is capable. In
contrast to the amoeba, man confronts not only phenomena in the world
around him but the symbolic creations of his own mind. In fact, he can
externalize his own sensations or mental operations to the point where
they are experienced with a biological sense of realness as forces in the
world around him; a phenomenon which has led Julian Jaynes'"* to some
speculative but highly interesting theories about the nature of the ancient
gods. Moreover, due to man's capacity for symbolic thought, he can
postulate the existense of phenomena or entities which he considers to be
real (such as spirits or certain subatomic particles) even though they are
not presented to him through the evidence of his senses. In short, not only
the external environment but any conceivable product of human thought
or imagination can appear to have a being independent of our own volition
and thus become a phenomenon the reality of which may have to be
determined.

The complexity of such determinations is compounded by what Konrad
Lorenz has termed "a quantum jump in evolution": the emergence of
reflective consciousness. "Reflection, man's greatest discovery in the
history of the human mind," writes Lorenz, "was immediately followed by
his gravest mistakethat of doubting the reality of the external world. "'^
Hence, the fundamental difference between the reality of the amoeba and
reality as experienced by the philosopher Rene Descartes, is not that the
latter could conclude cogito ergo sum, but that he could doubt his own
existence in the first place. In that sense, while realness is an experience
grounded in the biological heritage of all living organisms, the possibility
of "unrealness" is most likely a unique product of the complexity of man's
central nervous system which makes reflective consciousness possible.

"Cassirer, Ernst, 1944. An Essay on Man. New Haven, Yale University Press, pp. 23-24.

'"Jaynes. Julian, 1977. The Origin of Consciousness In The Breakdown Of The Bicameral Mind. Boston,
Houghton Mifflin.

"Lorenz, Konrad, 1977. Behind the Mirror: Search For a Natural History of Human Knowledge. New
York, Harcourt Brace and Jovanovich. pp. 14.

26

The biological substratum of the social construction of reality thus
provides for a variety of mental operations which, in their juxtaposition,
constitute a quandary for the human knower that has no parallel in the
animal world:

1) the experience of biological realness, that is, the sheer giveness of
sensory experience which man shares with other forms of life;

2) man's capacity to externalize his own sensory or mental processes;

3) man's capacity to postulate the existence of phenomena which
cannot be verified by sensory experience and might even be contrary
to the evidence of his senses;

4) the capacity to redefine reality through attributing different
meanings to the same events by changing the meanings of symbols;

5) the capacity to reflect on all of the foregoing and to question their
reality, that is, to wonder whether any of these phenomena exist
anywhere independently of the human mind.

Just as the biological fact of man's "world openness" to which we
referred earlier, calls for the structuring and routinization of social life
through the process of institutionalization, so the complexity of the
biological substratum of human experience and thought calls for
adjudication through the social construction of reality and a socially
shared stock of reliable knowledge. In this process, social determinations
of fact and realitywhich are but products of the human mind are called
upon to pass judgment not only with respect to external reality but with
regard to the products of human thought as well. Hence, as noted earlier,
the social construction of reality, is not a creation ex nihilo, but a process
of adjudication in which the human brain produces both the prisoner in the
dock and the jurist on the bench.

Modes of Knowing

One of the basic departures of quantum physics from the classical model
of science derives from the proposition that we cannot know the world
independently of man the knower. If that is correct, then human
knowledge the end product of the encounter between the knower and the
known cannot be evaluated apart from the qualities which the human
subject brings to the engagement with the object of knowledge. These
qualities include not only a host of culturally-derived assumptions and
presuppositions but also the biological substratum of those mental
processes which make human knowledge possible.

The complexity of that substratum, which we tried to indicate above,
suggests that there must be not one, but a number of different ways of
knowing, Knowledge derived from a biological sense of realness, for
example, is not the same as knowledge derived from reflection or what the
philosopher, Ernst Cassirer, terms "the theoretical world view." Cassirer

27

notes:

Whatever we call existence or reality is given to us at the outset
in definite forms of pure experience... Though the theoretical
world view has in many ways modified this foundation and
overlaid it, so to speak, with formations of a different mode and
origin, it has by no means displaced them.'*

The relationship between these different levels or modes of experience is
not only one of modifications and overlays but often a temporal sequence
of contradictory modes of knowing. For example, in pure experience or
with a biological sense of realness, (as we have been using the term), I may
know that my grandfather is sitting in his accustomed chair near the
fireplace. Upon reflection, however, I will know that I have experienced a
hallucination since my grandfather died long ago. Similarly, in our
dreams, we may know that we are walking the streets of Paris. Upon
waking reflection, however, we will know with equal certainty that this
could not have been the case.

Philosophers have long pondered this question of the relationship
between what is given to awareness in a state of pure experience or a
biological sense of realness, and what we designate as knowledge in
ordinary language. Unfortunately, within the limits of this paper, we
cannot review the history of these philosophical speculations which have
involved such polarities as intuitive vs. derivative knowledge; immediate
vs. mediate knowledge; tacit vs. effective knowledge; subjective vs.
objective knowledge, etc. In the last analysis, a Merleau-Ponty has pointed
out the problem of knowledge is not a component of the act of knowing. It
is a judgment made by consciousness in its reflection upon itself.

For the philosopher, the reflective judgment which determines what
shall or shall not be termed knowledge relates to such universal questions
as the nature of consciousness and truth. Yet the sociologist has to face the
fact that what is considered knowledge in one society (on whatever
grounds) may not be so considered in another. We have, therefore, chosen
to use two terms which respectively reflect man's universal sense of
biological realness and the historical variability of intersubjectively
validated bodies of knowledge. We have termed the first "spontaneous
personal knowledge" and the second "socially validated knowledge."

The term socially validated knowledge refers to that body of shared
beliefs, assumptions or facts which are accepted as true by society at large or
by any of its subcultures. By spontaneous personal knowledge, on the other
hand, we refer to any recognition of distinct and meaningful patterns which
we take for granted on no other authority or evidence but the fact that they

"Cassirer, Ernst, 1957. The Philosophy of Symbolic Forms: Vol. 3. New Haven Yale University Press
pp. 62.

28

are clearly present to our awareness. Such patterns may be stimulated by
sense impressions such as the image of a tree or a familiar voice; or they may
be related to internalstimulisuchasdreamsorhallucinations. Ineithercase,
what concerns us here is not their origin, but the fact that these visual or
auditory patterns are meaningful and real while attended to.

In and of itself, spontaneous personal knowledge is neither true not
false, real or hallucinatory, rational or irrational, in the customary sense of
these terms. The concept of spontaneous personal knowledge claims no
more than that this perception, this idea, or this premonition is present to
our awareness and that it presents itself without any intention or reflection
on our part. It is non-rational not because it is not in accord with reason
(which it may or may not be depending on the individual case) but because
reason was not involved in its production. Hence, any state .nt
concerning what we experienced as spontaneous personal knowledge can
be false only if we ourselves misrepresent that experience. All other
standards of reality or truth are irrelevant in this context.

Once we reflect upon it or relate it to others, spontaneous personal
knowledge does, of course, become subject to social validation and to
tenets of socially constructed realities. Moreover, such standards of
validation may be internalized to the point where they act as gatekeepers,
that is, where they affect the probability that certain autonomous mental
processes or their manifestations will penetrate into consciousness. For
example, while from a physiological point of view, dreaming is a universal
human trait, the tendency to recall these nocturnal mentations seems
positively correlated with the value placed on dreams by a given culture or
subculture. Similarly, we would expect hallucinations to be more frequent
in societies which encourage communications with the supernatural. Yet
socially constructed realities and the tenets of social validation enter not
only in to the frequency with which certain phenomena are experienced
but into their content as well. Christian mystics are unlikely to have visions
of guardian spirits as we find them among certain Indian tribes and the
dream reports of patients tend, over time, to reflect the interpretative
scheme of the psychoanalyst.

The content of spontaneous personal knowledge is thus subject to
transformations and overlays derived from the social and historical
n of the knower. Yet its formal properties, what we might call its cognitive
style, is not a product of culture but of the universal biological substratum
of mental activity. This distinction between the content and form of
different types of mental operations is significant for our understanding of
the relationship between spontaneous personal knowledge and the social
construction of reality because it is often the cognitive style rather than the
content which makes for the difference between sanity and madness.
However, it is only with recent advances in neurobiology that these formal
stylistic properties of different types of mentations have been linked to
their physiological base. 29

The Languages of the Mind

In our common sense understanding of mental activity, we tend to view
mental operations as products of human intentionality. We conceive of
our minds as active while we are purposefully engaged in thought, and is
inactive while we are unaware of being so engaged. However, the current
literature in neurobiology and neurochemistry, the study of altered states
of consciousness, and the new biology of dreaming, suggests that we must
conceive of mental operations as a continuous process which oscillates
between different physiological configurations along a natural bio-
rhythm. "The brain is following its own laws," writes the philosopher
Suzanne K. Langer. "It is actively translating experiences into symbols in
fulfillment of a basic need to do so. It carries on a constant process of
mentation."'^ Similarly, the psychologist, Rosalind D. Cartwright
observes that mental activity "appears to be continuous throughout the
twenty-four hour day cycle although the language by which it is carried
forth differs in different states."'^

This perspective suggests that there is a continuous base line of
autonomous mental activity to which organisms return when not engaged
in scanning or acting upon their environment, or more generally, in that
state of focal awareness which we term thinking. Some of these
autonomous mental operations are available to retrospective review by
reflective consciousness through the memory of our fantasies, dreams,
hallucinations and the like. Others remain forever outside the reach of
reflection though their influence may occasionally become apparent in
intuition, slips of the tongue, a face or a tune we may suddenly recall
without any apparent reason, and similar phenomena. Yet irrespective of
what can be retrieved in reflection or seeps of its own accord through the
highly permeable boundaries between consciousness and the unconscious,
it appears that mental activity is continuous in one form or other and that
the shifting patterns of its formal properties or "languages" derive from
different physical configurations or "brain states." The latter, in turn, may
depend on such factors as degrees of alertness, sensory control,
overstimulation, sensory deprivation, the use of drugs, other chemical
imbalances or damages to brain structures, etc. In this context, conscious
thought may be seen as a kind of "override system" by which focal
attention takes command of the ongoing stream of mental activity and
subjects it to control of our intentions and purposes. However, conscious
and unconscious process need not be mutually exclusive. The mind's
capacity for "parallel processing" can accomodate more than one language

"Langer, Susan 1., 1957 Philosophy In a New Key. Cambridge, Mass., Harvard Liniversity Press, pp.
41-42.

'"Cartwright, Rosalind S., 1969. "Dreams As Compared lo Other Forms of Fantasies", in Milton
Kramer, ed.: Dream Psychology and the New Biology of Dreaming. Sprmgfield, 111. Charles C. Thomas.
pp. 369.

30

at a time through the different channels, and our fantasies may proceed
together with the task at hand.

What we term rational thought is thus only one of the different
"languages of the mind" and it, too, depends on a particular physiological
constellation. However, as noted earlier, the physiological substratum
determines only the form and not the content of our mental activities. To
illustrate this point, we offer the following summary from a paper by the
psychologist, Arthur J. Deikman'^ (with few points added from a related
paper by Julian Silverman)2o which contrasts two "languages of the mind":
the first, the equivalent to the mode of knowing which derives from
reflective consciousness and focal awareness; the second, more in line with
what we termed a biological sense of realness. In this latter case, however,
the mode of awareness which Deikman describes is achieved intentionally
rather than spontaneously and the resulting form or cognitive style
represents a rather exceptional type of "pure experience."

Reflective cnsciousness or the "active" mode of awareness is
characterized by such physiological traits as increased baseline muscle
tension; greater reliance on the striate muscle system; and a predominance
of beta waves in brain functioning. It is a state geared towards active
manipulation of the world and domination of the environment through
such characteristics as focal attention; object based logic; heightened
boundary perception; and the dominance of formal characteristics over
the sensory. In other words, mentations tend to be focused, rational,
analytic, engaged in discursive logic, more concerned with the specific than
the universal properties of phenomena, and more interested in their
meaning and usefulness than their sensory qualities. Thinking is structured
in terms of cause and effect relationships, and there is a sense of being in
control of one's mental processes and a readiness to shift from one object
or task to another as need arises.

In contrast, the "receptive" mode of awareness in which reality is
perceived in a state of meditation, is dominated by the sensory-perceptual
rather than the muscular system; baseline muscle tension in decreased'and
brain activity tends towards alpha waves. The cognitive style of this
modality of awareness is more diffusely attuned to the environment;
boundary lines between phenomena tend to be attenuated; and there is
often a sense of merging with a particular object of meditation or the
universe at large. Sensory impressions dominate over formal analytic
perceptions and there is little articulation of ego boundaries. Time, space,
causality and other categories of reflective consciousness lose their power

''Deikman. Arthur .1., 1973. "Biomodal Consciousness" and "Deautomation and the Mystic
Experience", in Robert E. Orenstein. ed ; The Nature of Human Consciousness. New York. Viking Press,
pp. 67-86 and 216-233.

-'"Silverman, Julian. I96X. "A Paradigm Eor The Study of Altered States of Consciousness", British
Journal of Psychiatry. 1 46; I 20 1 - 1 2 1 .

31

to structure the perception of reality. Incongruities and opposites may co-
exist without any logical conflict and there is a sense of losing or
relinquishing control, an attitude of "letting it" rather than "making it."
There is often a heightened barrier to ordinary stimuli and increased
responsiveness to stimuli previously blocked from awareness. Body images
may change and scanning of the environment becomes passive and
relational rather than active, analytic and segmental.

Homo sociologicus, as conceived by the sociologist, is conversant with
only one of the "languages of the mind": reflective consciousness, or what
Deikman terms the "active mode of awareness. "This is not surprising since
social action is central to the subject matter of sociology. Yet other idioms
of the mind as we find them reflected in fantasies, intuition, hallucinations,
or the memory of our dreams are also more than random firings of
activated neurons. They may be alien to the discursive structure of our
everyday thought and language because they originate in a different
physiological state; yet they are not a tale told by an idiot. In fact, many
artists and scientists have reported that after intense preoccupation with
certain problems, a solution was suggested by a dream or seemed to
present itself out of nowhere during a walk in the woods or a ride on a
trolley car.

Apparently, in these cases, a problem which had been temporarily
abandoned by reflective awareness continued to be processed in a different
"language."

It is an unfortunate aspect of Freud's brilliant heritage that he
devaluated what was his greatest gift to Western civilization: the
rediscovery of those alternative languages of the mind which he summed
up under the heading of "primary processes." Despite or because of his
pioneering work in the exploration of the unconscious (that dominion of
the mind least subject to rationality) Freud saw man's best hope in the
"dictatorship of reason." However, half a century later, the anthropologist
Gregory Bateson, observed:^'

In the cliche system of Anglo-Saxons, it is commonly assumed
that it would be somehow better if what is unconscious were
made conscious. Freud, even, is said to have said, "Where id
was, there ego shall be," as thought such an increase in
conscious knowledge and control would be both possible and,
of course, an improvement. This view is the product of an
almost totally distorted epistomology and a totally distorted
view of what sort of thing a man, or any other organism is.

In the context of this paper, the question is not whether the unconscious
should be made conscious, but what happens when it presents itself to

^'Bateson, Gregory, 1972. Steps Towards An Ecology of Mind. San Francisco. Chandler, pp. 136.

32

consciousness spontaneously through fantasies, intuition, the memory of
our dreams, hallucinations and the like. Though many Americans are
fascinated by such phenomena as ESP, UFO's, and "close encounters of
the third kind"22, and while "consciousness expansion" still remains
popular in some circles, the mainstream of American society prefers its
reality and knowledge to be legitimated by sound common sense,
pragmatism, and operational utility. For example, in the 1950's, there was
a movement of some educators to remove fairy tales from school reading
lists on the grounds that they would confuse children as to the nature of
"reality."

Like other civilizations before us, we search for answers among the stars
rather than in the mystery that man is to himself. Feeling lonely and
dwarfed among the galaxies, we direct our radiotelescopes to scan the
heavens for extraterrestial intelligence. But what about the extraordinary
intelligence that speaks to us with the "other languages of the mind"? "It
was only a dream," we may say; or "it was only a fantasy," as if such modes
of knowledge were a lapse from the proper use of our mental faculties. Yet
since all languages of the mind are rooted in natural biological processes,
the situation seems somewhat analagous to a society in which it is agreed
that legs are for walking and one might mention apologetically that one
has "only" run or jumped.

The Social Destruction of Reality

From the perspective of spontaneous personal knowledge, the
difference between the various "languages of the mind" is irrelevant.
Whatever is given as self-evident to awareness, regardless of its content or
formal properties, is endowed with a biological sense of realness. It is only
in reflection or through the application of socially-shared standards of
reality that we affix such labels as facts, illusion, fantasies, or dreams to
different modes of knowing and to the different products of our mental
activities.

The social construction of reality may thus be seen as a labelling process
by which spontaneous personal knowledge is sorted into the appropriate
categories of social validation. The dog that barks under my window is
real; the dog that barked in my dreams is not. The image on the TV screen
is real; the figure of Christ as it appears before me is a hallucination. Yet, in
a sense, the social construction of reality is also a destruction of the reality
of the dream dog and of the Christ figure as I have experienced them on the
level of spontaneous personal knowledge.

Given the complexity of the biological substratum of our mental
activities, the contingencies of rational action, and the requirements of
social life, the social destruction of spontaneous personal knowledge is, to

!-Spielberg, Steven, 1977. Close Encounters Of The Third Kind. New York. DelL

33

some extent, inevitable. Yet we must keep in mind that the social
construction of reality, which is in the agent of that destruction, is not like
the conquest of a new frontier or seed spread over a barren field. It is more
like a slum clearance project in an urban neighborhood. What we defin as
real collectively may become a bulldozer that relentlessly levels what we
have experienced as real in spontaneous personal knowledge.

The process of levelling is facilitated by certain linguistic practices. For
example, as the psychologist, Paul Barkan^^ has pointed out, theutterances
of a schizophrenic would sound perfectly normal if they were presented as
memories of a dream. Similarly, in his Philosophical Investigations,
Wittgenstein^-* defines dreams as accounts of past events which are
prefixed by the phrase "I dreamt"; a prefix which in our own society is
meant to indicate that the events about to be related did not really happen.
In a different culture, of course, the same prefix might indicate the
opposite, that is, the socially validated conviction that such accounts
represent a higher order of truth or reality that what is evident in everyday
life.

Linguistic formulas such as "I dreamt that," "I imagine that" and the
like, point to an aspect of communicative competence which has received
little attention by sociologists: the ability of the speaker to indicate the
status of a given communication with respect to its socially validated
"accent of reality." Concerning this basic feature of any speech situation,
Jurgen Habermas observes:^'

Every speech implies the claim of inducing concensus on that
which really is (as) distinguished from that which subjectively
only appears to be the propositional content. This presupposes
a differentiation between a public world or intersubjectively
acknowledged interpretations and a private world of sole
feelings and impressons.

In terms of the conditions outlined by Habermas, madness may be seen
as a failure in communicative competence, that is, a failure to distinguish
between intersubjectively acknowledged interpretations (as they derive
from the social construction of reality) and spontaneous personal
knowledge which may be in conflict with these interpretations. Yet if every
speech implies the claim of concensus on what shall or shall not be defined
as real, must we conclude that certain types of spontaneous personal
knowledge are "unspeakable" or that they can be introduced only with the
proper disclaimers such as the prefix "I dreamt that" or "I imagined that"?

-'Bakan, Paul, 1976. "The Right Brain Is The Dreamer", Psychology Today. November, pp. 66-68.
-"Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 1953. Philosophical Investigations. New York, Macmillan pp. 148a.
-"^Habermas, Jurgen. 1970. "TowardsaTheory of Communicative Competence", in Hans Peter Dreitzel,
ed; Recent Sociology tt2. New York, Macmillan, pp. 105-148.

34

The problem with Habermas' observations is not that he is wrong but
that he is right. Although from the point of view of spontaneous personal
knowledge all realties are equally real, the rules of "communicative
competence" are the ever-present representatives of the social construction
of reality which assign second class status to spontaneous personal
knowledge in every speech situation. They may or may not be internalized
to the point where they can annul convictions derived from spontaneous
personal knowledge. In the majority of cases, however, there will be a
tendency to devaluate what is clearly devaluated by our linguistic
practices. Even so, spontaneous personal knowledge remains the other
side of homo duplex who, though living in society, in never fully of that
society and destined, in the end, to die alone.

"Complementary" Realities

The social destruction of spontaneous personal knowledge derives from
the fact that Western man tends to think dichotomies. Either something is
real or it is not. Yet Eastern thought is more open to the ultimate unity of
all human modes of knowing. Chuang Tzu, who taught the doctrines of
Taoism around the third century B.C., notes^^.

Everything can be "that"; everything can be "this"... Therefore
it is said, "that" comes from "this" and "this" gave birth to
"that" which means "that" and "this" give birth to one
another... Thus, the sage does not bother with these
distinctions but seeks enlightenment from heaven. So he sees
"this" but "this" is also "that" and "that" is also "this". . . When
there is no more separation between "this" and "that", it is
called the still-point of Tao.

While Eastern philosophy cannot be transplanted into contemporary
Western society, modern physics suggests another approach to the
problem of multiple realities which comes closer to the realization that
"this" can also be "that". Different experiences of reality as they are rooted
in different physiological states might be conceptualized as
complementary manifestations of the same phenomenon, similar to the
concept of complementarity developed by Niels Bohr. Although one might
argue that such an analogy is largely metaphorical, certain similarities
between Deikman's description of the two "languages of the mind", which
we cited earlier, and the wave-particle phenomenon in physics are notable.
Deikman's analysis indicates that the cognitive style of the "active" and the
"receptive" mode of awareness respectively are indeed complementary in
the sense that there is no overlap between them; they cannot be
experienced simultaneously; and they show us the same phenomena in a
radically different form. Hence, just as the physicist argues that both the

^Chuang, Tzu, 1974. Inner Chapters. New York, Vintage Books, pp. 2a.

3S

wave and the particle phenomenon together are essential for our
understanding of the nature of light (even though they cannot be observed
simultaneously) so we would argue that all experiences of reality taken
together are vital for our understanding of the human phenomenon, even
so they cannot be experienced simultaneously.

The concept of complementary realities challenges our taken-for-
granted notions concerning the dominance of the reality of everyday life.
We would point out, however, that such a challenge has already come from
a different direction. The concepts of time and space as developed in the
theory of relativity, for example, are of a totally different order than those
to which we are accustomed in our everyday affairs; yet we accept both
versions as real within their respective dominions. In fact, the farther
science probes into phenomena which are of an infinitely larger or
infinitely smaller magnitude than those with which we deal in the ordinary
course of events, the more likely we will be to find that our paradigms of
reality are relative to the nature of the phenomena under consideration.
The astronomer Sir Bernard Lovell notes^^.

Although the laws of motion and gravitation inherent in
Newton's concept govern our daily life, they are incomplete
and unsatisfactory when we try to explain the dynamic
conditions of the universe.

We would similarly suggest that paradigms of reality which are
applicable to society as a whole may be "incomplete and unsatisfactory"
when applied to the subjective experience of the individual. Just as we do
not denigrate the physicists' concept of space-time because it does not fit
the timetable of our local railroad, so there is no reason to denigrate
spontaneous personal knowledge because it does not fit into the
coordinates of the world at work. Rather, what seems to be called for is a
reconsideration of our paradigms of reality.

The field of sociology could make an important contribution towards
such a reconsideration by exploring what we have termed here in the social
destruction of reality and the ways in which the complementary nature of
different realities could be articulated more constructively. On the
theoretical level, this would imply a broadening of the conceptual base of
the sociology of knowledge to develop a more balanced picture of the
dialectic of nature and society and of the interplay between the biological
substratum of mental activity and the social construction of reality. The
work of such European scholars as Max Scheler, Maurice Merleau-Ponty,
and Jean Piaget comes readily to mind for this purpose. Yet the empirical

"Lovell. Sir Bernard, 1975. "Whence: We Are What We Know About Where We Came From", New
York Times Magazine. November 16, pp. 271 1.

36

exploration of the issues indicated in this paper need not wait for such a
reconceptuaUzation.

Ethnomethodology is that branch of sociology which studies how
members make settings of organized everyday activity "accountable". We
suggest, that it could also address itself to the ways in which spontaneous
personal knowledge is made "unaccountable" in such settings or
denigrated by our accounting practices. In a sense, such a topic would
constitute the "anti-matter" of ethnomethodology as it is currently
perceived. Yet if ethnomethodologists have developed the skill to make
practical activities observable, could they not also develop the skill of
making reportable what cannot be reported adequately under the rules of
communicative competence to which we referred earlier? Most
importantly, however, what seems required here is an understanding of
how the ways in which we make settings accountable collectively, relates to
the ways in which individuals "account" to themselves for those aspects of
spontaneous personal knowledge which are defined as "not real" by
society.

Like everything in life, the social construction of reality has its price. Yet
sociologists have never explored what that price is; how we learn to take it
for granted; and whether there is a point at which this price becomes too
high for the individual and/ or for society at large. It may be the answer to
questions such as these which will challenge (more effectively than any
philosophical or theoretical formulation) the usefulness and legitimacy of
our present paradigms of reality.

37

COINS AS AN INVESTMENT MEDUIM

by Carole E. Scott*

One of the tangibles people have been rushing to swap money for in
recent years is commodity money. Coins are the only way people of limited
means can speculate in precious metals, and the rapid appreciation of gold
and silver a couple of years ago lured many people into such speculation.
Coins made of precious metals appeal to the more conservative investor if
they have numismatic worth because this offers some downside protection
if the price of bullion plummets as it has recently. Bullion speculation may
take place either via coins with numismatic value or coins like the
Krugerrand or Maple Leaf, which have no numismatic value. Some people
buy coins made of precious metals, not to speculate, but because today's
high rate of inflation has convinced them we are on the verge of an
economic collapse which will make money with no intrinsic value
worthies. Others are attracted by the high rates of return they hear one can
earn via appreciation for numismatic reasons.

The following advertisement by the New England Rare Coin Galleries
which appeared in Barron's explains what has attracted some to coin
collecting: "How many of today's investments :iave averaged better than
20%) compound return rate over the past 20 years? 2(% over the past 5? How
many will perform well in bull and bear markets? More and more
frequently, financial experts are recommending portfolios that include
investment-quality rare coins one of the safest high performers. Rare
coins can easily be placed in Keoghs and IRAs, and find ready liquidity in
an eager world market."'

Until recently coin collecting was largely a hobby, but some have long
claimed that coin collecting can be quite profitable. For example,
Solomon Brothers estimates that in the 1968 to 1978 decade rare coins
appreciated at a compound annual rate of thirteen percent well above the
inflation rate at the time. David Bowers of Bowers and Ruddy, one of the
largest and most prestigious rare coin dealers, claims that rare coins' prices
are rising at an average rate of fifteen percent a year. Business Week
reported that during the 1969 to 1979 decade government issue, collector-
quality coins appreciated from 200 to 400 percent, that is, from twelve to
seventeen percent annually. ^

Coins are clearly inferior to stocks and bonds in several respects. A
return is earned only via appreciation. Coins are less liquid than are

^Barron's, August 14, 1978.

^Business Week, "Liquidating Your Investment in Collectibles," June 1 1, 1979.

38

securities. Banks do not generally advance money for the purchase of coins
and alternative lenders are scarce. When a loan can be obtained, it is
normally relatively expensive. ^ The coin collector has storage and
insurance costs the investor in securities does not have.

Two of the main attractions coins as an investment have that securities
don't are that the supply of all coins other than those being minted this year
will never rise and that, due to the large number of hobbyists, declines in
demand are limited. Some will consider the ease with which profits from an
investment in coins are hidden from the Internal Revenue Service to be a
significant advantage.

Not too long ago coin collecting could be engaged in by watching the
change passing through one's hands. Today it is extremely unlikely that
coins worth more than their face value can be found in circulation.
Gresham's Law is alive and working. Therefore, collectors must either buy
from each other or from dealers. Collectors meet each other through coin
clubs and shows. There are a number of coin magazines and newsletters in
which they can advertise the coins they wish to buy and sell. Larger cities
have a number of coin dealers who will buy or auction coins collectors wish
to sell. Auction houses charge a fifteen to twenty percent commission on
sales. Dealers frequently buy and sell through the mail. Dealers, too,
advertise in the coin magazines and newsletters. After gold and silver
prices exploded, dealers began advertising in the general press.

Very few American dealers specialize in foreign or ancient coins; thus,
the bulk of the coins sold by dealers in the United States are U.S. coins,
mainly those minted by the government.

Coins are minted both by governments and private mints. In early
America privately-minted coins circulated. Coins minted in recent years by
private mints are not money and seldom have any numismatic value. Their
value is dependent on the worth of the metal they are made of.

Grades and Pricing

The price a dealer or a collector will pay for a coin will vary with the
condition of the coin and the condition of, respectively, his stock or
collection, assuming the coin's numismatic value exceeds its melt-down
value. For many years coins were divided into far fewer and less exacting
defined grades than is the case today. Today the official American
Numismatic Association (ANA) grading system has sixteen grades
ranging from about good to perfect proof. (Good means that the coin is
very well worn.) There are three grades of proof, three grades of
uncirculated, and ten grades of circulated. (A proof coin has a mirror-like
surface and is not intended to be circulated. If not treated carefully, its
value will decline.)

^New York Times, "Credit Woes Plague Collectibles Fans," December 10, 1978.

39

Each grade has a numerical value. While in-between grades are possible,
it is difficult to get agreement even among experts aboun whether a coin is,
say, a 62 or a 63. Agreement is much more likely for the various grades,
which are more than one unit apart. A coin's grade is based on its poorest
side. Different opinions about a coin's grade are not unusual, as a good
deal of subjectivity is involved, and, of course, a buyer will benefit from
under evaluating a coin. Many sellers guard against this by offering their
coins to several buyers.

During the trial of Georgia banker Bert Lance a bank officer testified
that a coin collection used as collateral for a loan was appraised by a
leading Atlanta dealer at $21,228. However, when bids were taken on the
collection, this dealer bid $36,000, which was the highest bid. Thus, it is
plain that two persons with identical collections could experience quite
different rates of return. A short while after the collection was sold for
$36,000, the price of gold rose substantially, and it was estimated that the
collection could have then brought around $216,000. Clearly, timing of a
sale can have a tremendous impact on the rate of return earned. The
possible rate of return which can be earned is quite high.

A coin's numismatic value is determined by demand and supply.
Demand is affected by a variety of factors. How much appreciation do
collectors anticipate? What coins are catching the hobbyist's eye? How
many collector's are there? How many are engaged in the different types of
collecting?

There are two ways for hobbyists to collect coin: by type or series. Type
collecting involves collecting one coin from each type issued. Series
collecting involves collecting sets of coins of different denomination.^

While mint records tell how many of each type and date were minted,
only in the case of the extremely rare old coin can one estimate very closely
how many remain in existence. A very high price indicates a coin is thought
to be in short supply. Over a number of years the very high price can be
expected to bring out all coins still in existence. Since to get the best price, a
coin must be offered to several buyers, word gets around as to how man>
coins there are in existence. Of course, additional coins could be dug up
later or brought up from the ocean bottom.

Because the Philadelphia mint issues the most coins, numismatics claim
a given coin is more valuable if it was minted in a branch mint like Denver
or, especially, San Francisco. Coins with struck-over dates or any other
rare imperfections or features, such as the designer's initials, have a greater
value than coins which lack these features. Beauty is also said to play a role.
For example, the Saint-Gaudens double eagle is said to draw a premium
because it is the most beautiful coin ever minted by the United States
Government. (This is a twenty-dollar gold coin minted from 1907 to 1933.)

40

The availability of coins differs somewhat regionally and differences in
availability from region to region can cause some price differentials. Local
demand may also vary. There is greater local interest in commemorative or
other coins with local significances, and this, too, can cause price
differentials. Thus, sometimes a quick profit can be made by buying in one
place and selling in another.

Numismatics claim coins which are most likely to be high priced and
experiencing the greatest appreciation are those coins which are relatively
scarce. These coins called key coins are fewer in number than are the
other coins in the various possible sets of coins. Numismatics also advise
investors to go for quality.

Price Guides

The American Numismatic Association, which will authenticate coins,
publishes the Blackbook Price Guide of the United States Coins. The
Blackbook Price Guide reports average retail prices for several grades and
an average buying price for good and higher grade circulated coins.

The most relied upon price guide is R. S. Yeoman's Guide Book of
United States Coins. Yeoman also publishes a Handbook of United States
Coins. The red-covered Guide, or Red Book, provides retail prices, while
the blue-covered Handbook, or Blue Book, provides wholesale or dealers'
prices. Data for these publications is gathered several months before
publication, which is usually in July of the year appearing on the cover.
Uncirculated coins' prices are not reported.

Dealers will tell you that coin prices are very volatile; thus, one cannot
expect to buy or sell at guide book prices. (Coin prices are volatile; yet,
when the price of silver plummeted in March 1980, coin prices did not.
Dealers said silver's price must stay there for weeks before there would be a
response. Gold coin prices also did not plummet when the price of gold did
early in 1980. (What dealers would pay for gold and silver coins did,
however.) If a dealer has purchased gold or silver coins when the price of
gold and silver is high, he resists very strongly lowering the coins' prices
even though the metals' prices have declined.

The Blackbook provides tables showing the melt value of silver and gold
coins at various prices. Dealers discount these values by from fifteen to
twenty percent. Blackbook prices for silver dollars are in line with the
range in which silver was selling when this book was published.

Which Coins Are The Best Investment?

Proof coins are collectors' coins. They are struck for the benefit of
collectors. For many coins there exist no proof specimens. No proofs were
struck of some types or in some years. Proof coins dated prior to 1855 are
very rare. They are the most expensive coins to invest in. If made of gold or
silver, after a few years the investor can rest assured their value will not fall.

41

Proof coins not made of gold or silver are unlikely to prove superior to
money market instruments in terms of rate of return, and obviously, they
are less liquid. If made of gold or silver, however, appreciation can be
expected to exceed money market instruments by a substantial margin.
Most proof coins appear to have, at retail, appreciated at a ten to sixteen
percent annual rate. If sold for 80 percent of retail value, few would net less
than a ten percent annual rate of return. Very few appreciate at retail at
twenty percent or more. There is less variation in the rates of return on
proof coins than on other grades. As a whole, proof coins are both more
profitable and less risky than other grades.

The prices in the Red Book do not support the widely-held belief that the
best coins to invest in are the higher-priced or key coins. The claim that
they are was tested be selecting from the 1965 Red Book the highest- and
lowest-priced coins of each denomination minted by the federal
government, excluding commemorative coins. Quality could not be held
constant, as all grades are not reported for each coin, and the grades
reported on are not consistent. Most of the coins were very fine quality. All
the others were extremely fine. Frequently several dates shared the lowest
price. When this happened, the coin with the highest mintage was selected.
The 1965 prices were compared with 1980 prices.

The highest rate of return was 9.08 percent for the lowest-priced gold
coins! The next highest rate was 7.62 percent for the lowest-priced silver,
nickel, and copper coins. The lowest rate of return, 6.45 percent, was for
the most-expensive gold coins. Since these are rather expensive coins,
many people may be kept out of this market by price considerations. A
paucity of buyers could account for the low rate of appreciation of the high
priced coins. While purchasing the lowest-priced gold coins required an
outlay of only $35 1 .50, the highest-priced gold coins required an outlay of
$19,000.

Assuming that a person sold the coins for 80 percent of their Red Book
prices, the 9.08 percent return would decline to 7.47; the 6.45 percent to
4.87. He would not be likely to get this much from a dealer. For example,
for extremely fine, gold Indian Head half eagles ($5) minted from 1908 to
1919, the Blue Book value for all those minted is 70.73 percent of the Red
SooA: value in 1980. If this was the percent of the Red Book \a\\XQ2. person
received for the lowest-priced gold coins, the rate of return would drop
from 9.08 percent to 6.59 percent.

The lower rate of return on the most expensive or key coins has an
obvious possible explanation. Each coin is part of a set. Each coin in a set is
a complementary good relative to every other coin in the set. Therefore,
changes in the demand for a set will have an identical effect on the demand
for each coin in the set. The prices of these coins will vary because their
supply differs. The higher-priced coins will be relatively less affected by
any given increase in demand.

42

The most expensive coin one can invest in is not a coin minted by the
federal government. The highest amount ever paid for a coin was the
$725,000 paid for a Brasher doubloon in November 1979. These gold coins
were minted in New York in 1787 by a private individual. Only six are
known to exist today. 1 have not been able to find an earlier sale price on
this particular specimen. In July 1979 a lesser quality doubloon sold for
$430,000."* The most ever paid for a silver coin was the $400,000 paid for an
1804 U. S. silver dollar in March 1980. I do not know what price it sold for
earlier, but there were sales of this type coin in 1960 and 1961 for,
respectively, $28,000 and $29,000. If the one sold for $29,000 sold for
$400,000 in 1980, the annual rate of appreciation was 14.81 percent. If the
seller received 80 percent of the $400,000, the yield would drop to 13.47
percent per year. Thus, extremely rare coins appear to perform like proof
coins.

To test the claim that the lower grades are inferior investments, the
annual rate of return an investor would have earned if he had purchased
either good or uncirculated Buffalo or Indian Head nickels minted during
the 1919 to 1934 period was determined. The prices of fifty-four coins were
considered. Fifty-five were minted during the period. The one left out cost
far more than all the rest put together, and, so was considered separately.
At 1965 prices a person could have bought the good grade nickels for
$161.15. In the 1980 Red Book they sold for $206.15. Thus, the annual
average rate of appreciation was only 1.66 percent. The 1980 Blue Book
valued these coins at only $106.45. Thus, if sold at wholesale, the seller
would have experienced a thirty-three percent loss on the fifteen-year
investment. The excluded coin experienced a 4.93 annual rate of return at
retail.

Based on the data considered for this paper, one can only conclude that
the higher grade coins are superior investm.ents to those of lower quality.
Investing in coins not made of precious metals is not very profitable. Both
nickels and cents were relatively unprofitable over the 1965 to 1980 period.
It was not rare for the price of nickel or a cent to decline over the period.
Silver and gold coins appreciated far more and did not fall in value. Only
by investing in them would one have much chance of doing better than in
stocks, bonds, or time deposits. (Their superior performance was not
produced by a rise of their melt value above their numismatic value.)

It was possible to earn better rates of return than have been mentioned
so far. For example, the 191 1 Barber or Liberty Head half dollar was listed
for $27.50 in 1965 and $500 in 1980; thus, it appreciated at a 21.33 percent
annual rate! It is interesting to note that in the 1975 edition of Fell's U. S.

'Smithsonian. "Coins Go Up, Up as Fabled Collection Is Sold at Auction," March 1980.

43

Coin Book, the 1912s Liberty Head half dollar was identified as a key coin
likely to appreciate more than most coins. Yet, it sold for $32.50 more than
did the 191 1 in 1965 and sold for only $10 more in 1980!

Conclusions

The findings of this study of Yeoman's prices from 1965 to 1980 are in
close agreement with those of Solomon Brothers, which made the low
estimate quoted in this paper. It is possible that the higher estimates were
based on retail prices, though this would be misleading, as one is unlikely
to sell at retail.

If coins are bought at retail and sold at wholesale, which will have to be
done if random, low-quality coins are involved, coins are a poor
investment. Only coins made of silver or gold are a good investment, and
then only if they are of better than fine quality are the odds in the investor's
favor of making a better return than in securities. It is best to invest in the
lower-priced coins of a given quality. Rate of return averages higher and
more diversification is possible. Downside protection is great for proof of
uncirculated quality coins. Extremely fine quality coins are also likely to
return more than do securities and provide much more downside
protection than stocks do once held long enough to cover an auction
house's commission.

44

THE POET AS EXISTENTIAL SURGEON

by Steven L. Tanner*

What can be said about the significance of the poet? Heidegger was
concerned with this and entitled an essay, "What are Poets for?" The poet
obviously is many things to many people. However, the poet that I am
concerned with is the one who is singularly possessed with transforming
the given language into a universal corpus. The intention is one of
revealing that which may lie hidden. For my purposes the poet is part
surgeon, one who performs aesthetic surgery, one who performs a manual
art, as well as one who is part soothsayer. In the words of Rimbaud:

The poet becomes a seer by a long, immense, and thoughtout
disordered state of all tne senses (deregiement de tous les sens).
All forms of love, suffering, madness, he looks for himself, he
exhausts within himself all poisons in order to keep only the
quintessences. Ineffable torture wherein he needs all faith, all
superhuman strength, wherein he becomes above all others the
sick one, the criminal one, the accursed one-and the supremely
learned one!-for he arrives at the unknowable . . . Thus the poet
is truly the thief of fire,
(my emphasis)

The process of the poet as artist, as the one who excercises intuitive
skills, is one of understanding. The poet's skill comes with a particular
awareness of the world. In this process of understanding, the poet truly
senses the dichotomy of man posed over against all else. For Heidegger,
the poet exists while "the evening of the world's age has been declining
toward its night." There is in his essay, the very real sense that the gods
have defaulted and left man to undertake his own path to the holy. It is the
poet's task to lead on this path. Throughout the essay, Heidegger quotes
the poet Holderlin at length, as in the following:

. . .The heavenly powers Cannot do all things. It is the
mortals Who reach sooner into the abyss. So the turn is With
these. Long is The time, but the true comes into Its own.

Heidegger concludes from these lines of Holderlin, that the poet is, "He
among mortals who must sooner than other mortals and other wise than
they, reach into the abyss. " It becomes clear from this that it is certainly the
poet's mission to "reach into the abyss" and reveal that which is hidden.

Graduate student in Sociology, West Georgia College

'Heidegger, Martin, 1971. "What are Poets For?", Poetry. Language, Thought. New York, Harper and
Row, Publishers.

-Breton, Andre, 1969. Manifestoes of Surrealism. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press.

45

For Heidegger that is a recurring theme.

1 have used the metaphor, the poet as existential surgeon, for the
authentic poet is he/ she who takes the given language and repairs the body
of hved experience. Andre Breton declares that "The most effective means
he had of doing this is poetic intuition." in this sense it is possible for the
poet to cut through that which is presented in the mundane world, that
which Heidegger called the inauthentic, excising the afflicted parts or
reconnecting disjointed parts in order that there be a continuance of the
whole. What happens during the process, the creation, the surgery as it
were, quite obviously has to do with the use of language, whether it is used
as metaphor, allegory, or as Terrence Des Pres ^ says in his article
"Emblems of Adversity," as "political poetry." Des Pres states that in
"political poetry", "What we recover ... is nothing less than ourselves, our
humanity gone forfeit and then returned." Robert Bly corroborates this
expression in saying that

A true political poem is a quarrel with ourselves, and the
rhetoric is as harmful in that sort of poem as in the personal
poem. The true political poem does not order us either to take
any specific acts: like the personal poem, it moves to deepen
awareness. *

Inasmuch as the poet uses the language as intuitive revealing, it is a
dialectic, a phenomenology of body/ world, being-in-the-world, and a
returning from the 'abyss'. Patrick Burman states that

Much of modern poetry strives, through the media of words,
pauses, beats, sounds shapes on the page, etc. to plumb to the
depths of awareness and experience but despite its diving
down to primordiality, it continues to bob up to the surface of
language. To press the analogy just a little further, language is
the life-giving oxygen that at one and the same time keeps the
poet from the mysterious depths and yet allows him to descend.
Language frees and constrains. Language, for the creative poet,
is a source of presuppositions that are creative springboards to
the apprehension of hidden words and levels of experience and,
most importantly, of their connectedness.

In speaking of Heidegger's interpretation of the Heraclitean Logos,
Gerald Bruns,^ says that Heidegger's metaphor, "Language is the house of
being", relates to the central idea that "Man is preeminitely a being-in-the-
world for whom existence takes on meaning and reality only as he opens

'Des I'rcss lerrence, 1981. "Emblems of Adversity". Harper's (March 19X1)
^Bly. Robert. 1980. "Leaping Up Into Political Poetry". National Forum (Fall 1980).
^Bruns. Gerald 1.. 1974. Modern Poetry and the Idea of Language. New Haven ans London Yale
Univeristy Press.

46

himself up to the being of his finite situation." Futhering this notion, Bruns
says that "This metaphor belongs to Heidegger's interpretation of the
Heraclitean Logos, according to which word and being are said to enjoy a
luminescent communion made possible by man's entry into the world."
Here, in this light, the poet takes on not only the creation of language in
poetic form but cuts open the body of lived experience so that in Brun's
words,

Language here appears to have been returned to a mythic
universe in which the word supports, by virtue of its own
reality, the world of things. For it is Heidegger's argument that
the relationship in which man and world confront one another
is both essentially and historically linguistic in character, which
is to say that it is authentic human speech which opens up a
world before man and, at the same time, opens man to the
world and to the being of the world. What is important to
notice, however, is that it is the speech of the poet (and the poet-
thinker) that constitutes authentic speech. Indeed, if, as we
walk through the world, we find ourselves as though in a
colloquy of words and things, it is because our world is a field
disclosed by the poet a field, that is, which the poet has
established in being.

The revealing through language of the poet's experience of self-
reflection takes on a critical perspective. The poet's creation, if it is
authentic, becomes a radical act. The poet reaches down into the body of
lived experience and conjoins the levels of awareness, i.e., body and mind.
Thus the poet connects the world to self and thereby establishes, as Husserl
would have it, the ground for being. In his "Ode to Walt Whitman", Lorca
so aptly writes.

And you, beautiful Walt Whitman, sleep on Hudson's banks,

with your beard toward the Pole and your hands open.

Bland clay or snow, your tongue is calling for comrades

that keep watch on your gazelle without a body.

Sleep; nothing remains.

A dance of walls agitates the meadows

and America drowns itself in machines and lament.

I want the strong air of the most profound night

to remove flowers and words from the arch where you sleep,

and a black boy to announce to the gold-minded whites

the arrival of the reign of the ear of corn.^

'Lorca. Federico Garcia, 1955. "Ode to Walt Whitman "The Selected Poems of Federico Garcia Lorca.
New York, New Directions.

47

We might ask, upon reading poetry, where does the stuff of poetry come
from? I would say that for the most part, it comes from the poet's sense of
immediacy and often times a profound sense of alienation and solitude. It
is an ever coming to grips with reality. Robert Nugent has written an
eloquent and sensitive literary interpretation of the French poet, Paul
Eluard. Nugent says of the poet that

His aloneness becomes most apparent when he is faced by
another person, who also lives a present situation of solitude. It
is this experience that frees him, not so much from solitude
itself, as from the anguish of solitude . . . Life is an immediacy,
especially an immediacy of solitude, most evident in the
experience of love. And. paradoxically because of love, this
solitude beings men together.^

I would like to use two verses from one of my own poems in order that I
might make a personal poetic statement about the poet's awareness.

There is no name for what I sense

to be true, I reside in it,

speak to it but cannot say its name

it is not spirit, not sacred

not absolute, nor rendered unto heaven.

Yet, there it is

I embrace the day and night of it

like an lingering odor

I am caught by it

for the moment.

It is an image seared into memory

returned to bring me a thought

to hold me close.

Burman writes in his concluding remarks on the poet and on how he/ she
comes to write poetry, that it is, "In poetry especially, replying as it does on
inspiration, a chance image, a memory, an emotion evoked, poems are
born out of a receptivity to inner and outer worlds and how they mesh. The
poet, in his waiting-for-poems-to-come, is endlessly attentive to how the
outer world of apparent objectivity can be taken into the inner realm of his
highly subjective creative talent to issue forth as a once-again objective
phenomenon, a poem."

The creative and the committed poet, I would say, is usually someone set
apart, someone who cannot effectively disavow or turn away from the
"calling". Most often the poet lives a somewhat estranged existence,
appearing as an eccentric to the public. There are notable exceptions such
as Wallace Stevens, who was an insurance man. But for the others, poetry

'Nugent, Robert, 1974. Paul Eluard. New York: Twayne Publishers. Inc.

48

is more fully a way of life. Evan Watkins, in speaking of W.S. Merwin's
poetry, says that in the making of the poem, "escape itself is already a
memory, unpunctuated by the fleeting, present awareness which shapes
the poem at the awesome edge of hearing what is felt cannot be written and
yet cannot be escaped." Following this same thought, Robin Skelton
discusses the importance of the Muse in a poet's life in this way:

The concept of the Muse presents difficulties to many people.
The word has archaic associations, and may even suggest a
deliberately fanciful obscurantism on the part of the poet who
uses the term. For many people it is simply a shorthand
expression for the creative impulse, or for inspiration. For a
large number of poets, however, the word has real meaning and
almost awesome power. The Muse is the commanding force in
the poet's life and requires continual attention, service, and
honour.

Such a statement will strike some readers as an absurd inflation
of reality. Some poets, even, may wince at it. and object to its
romantic crudity, its melodramatic assertiveness. Nevertheless,
that which some poets label as 'the muse experience' is central
to poetic creation, and it is this experience which forces the poet
to discipline his life in ways which non-poets may think
peculiar.*

At this point I would like to return to the poet/ surgeon image. There is, I
believe, a guiding image for both the true and creative poet as well as for
the physician-surgeon. The image is one of vision, of seeing beyond, a
penetration of the concealed. There is inherent in this vision, a certain skill
which comes from a unity of body and mind. The symbol of Aesculapius,
the Roman god of medicine, would fit this enduring image. For the poet
the image would be that of Hippocrene, the'Tountainof the horse."Thisis
the fountain in Greece which is used to refer to poetic inspiration. For both
poet and surgeon there is a discipline, as well as an intuitive grasp of what
needs to be done.

In the sense that poetry and surgery are radical "projects" they are
joined. That they are often at the critical essence of the world, i.e., life and
death, whether real or metaphorical, furthers the analogy. That they are
finally alone in their act, that is, each one performs an incredibly dehcate
act of restoration, and in the actual doing are singularly possessed in that
moment of actuality this then is their connectedness.

"Skelton. Robin, 1975. "The Poei's Catling. London; Heinemann. New York: Barbes and Noble.
'Watkins, Evan, 1978, The Crilical Act. New Haven and London; Yale University Press

49

A STUDY OF COMPOSITION TEACHING METHODS
FOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS

by Patricia W. Stokes* and Jimmy C. Stokes**

In an era when the public sector lashes attack after attack on the
American education system's apparent lack in teaching Johnny to write, it
is comforting to know that research shows that we are accomplishing much
of what we say we aspire to achieve: we take students where we find them in
grade eight and help them to advance throughout their high school career.
Not only do they advance, but they do so to a statistically significant
degree.

A recent study, (Stokes, 19 78)' was undertaken in the Carrollton City
Schools to determine whether or not interactions exist among three factors
of student composition: judged quality of writing, organizational skills,
and average number of words per T-Unit. This study revealed the steady
growth of the students; writing abilities through the high school
experience. One hundred and twenty students, heterogeneously grouped
and evenly divided into eighth, tenth, and twelfth graders, wrote four
compositions in class as part of classwork for their English course.

The coded, but unsigned, papers were submitted to three qualified
judges of secondary student composition. The General Impression
Marking System (Cooper, 1977)^ was used by the judges to evaluate the
student papers. The judges used a scale of 1 (low) to 4 (high) in rating the
papers for quality; and, on a later examination after a second random
distribution, for organizational skills. The reliability of the judges' ratings
was found to be 0.759, well within an acceptable range.

The researchers calculated the average number of T-Units in each paper
according to the method developed by Kellogg Hunt and developed by
Mellon^ and O'Hare''. A T-Unit can be defined as a main clause and any
clausal or less-than-clausal structure attached to it.

Director of Instruction and Personnel, Carrollton City Schools
Associate Professor of Chemistry, West Georgia College

'Stokes, Patricia W. The quality of student composition as predicted by average number of words per T-
Unit and organization skills. (Doctoral dissertation, Georgia State University, 19 78).

^Cooper, Charles R., and O'Dell, Lee. Evaluating writing: Describing, measuring. Judging. Urbana.
Illinois: NCTE, 1977.

^Mellon, John C. Transformational sentence-combining: A method for enhancing the development of
syntactic fluency in English composition. NCTE Research Reports. 1969. 10 (Stock No. 16306).

*0'Hare, Frank. Sentence combining: Improving student vk-riting without formal grammar instruction.
NCTE Research Reports. 1973, 15 (Stock No. 15959).

50

The data was then submitted to a Duncan's Multiple Range test. 1 he
results, as shown in Table 1, indicate that significant growth in quality
results from eighth to tenth grade and from tenth to twelfth grade. Similar
significant growth in organizational skills was demonstrated. Though
growth in sentence maturity as measured by average number of words per
T-Unit exists between eighth and tenth grades, it is not statiscally
significant. There is, however, significant statistical growth from tenth to
twelfth grades.

Therefore, our seniors are writing papers of significantly better quality
than when they were in grade eight; they have significantly better
organizational tools and have significantly increased the complexity of
their sentence structure.

Table 1
Main Effects by Level

Level

Mean

SD Minimum Maximum

Quality (n= 120)

8

5.0 7*

10

6.65*

12

8.53*

Organization (n:

:120)

8

6.31*

10

8.00*

12

9.0 7*

1.69
1.68
1.54

1.83
1.89
1.56

10
11
12

10
12
12

Average Number of Words Per T-Unit (n=120)

8 11.00 3.24 6

10 11.49 3.02 3

12 12.41* 2. 78 4

22
23
20

* at .05 level of significance, using Duncan's Multiple Range Test.

51

The next matter of concern is whether or not we have taught them the
kind of writing they need for everyday tasks such as writing job reports,
letters of appUcation, and memos to employees. Or, have we turned them
into some English teachers' dreams of budding short story authors or
poets?

To answer these concerns each of the four compositions was written in a
different mode: one was a narrative, one an argumentative (persuasive),
one an expository (explanatory), and one a descriptive piece. When the
ratings assigned by the judges for quality of writing and organizational
skills were analyzed by mode and by grade level, the results showed that in
all but one instance (twelfth grade argumentative writing) there was steady
improvement from grade eight through grade ten to grade twelve.

As far as quality of writing goes, Table 2 shows that the only instance in
which there was a significantly higher rating in one mode over the others
was in grade eight. These students could write significantly better quality
papers in the story-telling mode, narrative. However in both the tenth and
twelfth grades, these ratings have equalized well, while steadily increasing.

It should be noted here, too, that the mean ratings on the twelfth grade
level are remarkably close to the maximum raing of twelve. At the same
time the mean of the eighth grade is close to the minimum rating of three.
(These minimum and maximum scores are obtained by adding the lowest
possible score, 1, and highest possible score, 4, of all three judges.)

Table 2
Quality of Writing by Mode by Grade Level

Mode

Mean

SD Minimum Maximum

Grades (n=120)

Descriptive 4.70

Argumentative 4.97

Expository 4.77

Narrative 5.83*

Grade 10 (n=30)
Descriptive 6.10

Argumentative 6.87
Expository 6.30

Narrative 7.33

1.80

3

10

1.45

3

7

1.76

3

8

1.56

3

8

1.47

3

9

1.94

3

11

1.51

3

9

1.54

4

10

52

1.58

6

12

1.41

6

11

1.49

6

11

1.58

6

12

Grade 12 (n=30)
Descriptive 8.83

Argumentative 7.93
Expository 8.67

Narrative 8.67

*at .05 level of significance, using Duncan's Multiple Range Test.

When organizational skills are examined, however, an unusual finding
occurs, as demonstrated in Table 3. Eighth graders organize significantly
better papers, statistically speaking, when writing in the narrative mode.
But the tenth grade papers show no statistical difference in narrative and
argumentative or expository writing. Descriptive papers, however, show
statistically significant low ratings for organization in grade ten. The same
kind of pattern holds for twelfth grade papers with the interesting swing to
low organizational skills in argumentative writing. Nonetheless,
organizational skills increase in each mode from grade level to grade level
with that one exception of argumentative papers in the twelfth grade.

Table 3
Organizational Skills by Mode of Grade Level

Mode Mean SD Minimum Maximum

Grade 8 (n=30)

Descriptive 5.67

Argumentative 6.00

Expository 6.33

Narrative 7.27*

Grade 10 (n=30)

Descriptive 6.53*

Argumentative 8.33

Expository 8.03

Narrative 9.10

1.77

3

9

1.62

4

10

1.84

3

10

1.76

5

10

1.56

3

9

1.95

4

12

1.63

5

11

1.47

6

11

53

1.52

6

12

1.57

5

11

1.16

7

12

1.61

6

11

Grade 12 (n=30)
Descriptive 9.20

Argumentative 8.13*
Expository 9.40

Narrative 9.53

*at .05 level of significance, using Duncan's Multiple Range Test

Table 4
Average Works Per T-Unit by Mode by Grade Level

Mode Mean SD Minimum Maximum

Grade 8 (n=30)

Descriptive 10.03

Argumentative 12.70

Expository 11.73

Narrative 9.53

Grade 10 (n=30)
Descriptive 1 1 .77

Argumentative 13.07
Expository 10.93

Narrative 10.20

Grade 12 (n=30)
Descriptive 12.03

Argumentative 13.67*
Expository 12.13

Narrative 11.80

*at .05 level of significance, using Duncan's Multiple Tange Test

54

2.54

6

19

3.91

7

22

3.30

7

21

1.94

7

15

2.79

6

20

3.34

3

23

2.80

7

18

2.46

7

19

2.36

8

18

3.11

7

20

2.60

4

18

2.75

6

18

The data in Table 4 shows that the complexity and length of sentence
structure, as measured by average number of words per T-Unit, shows a
gain in words-perT-Unit for all modes from grade level to grade level, with
one exception. Average number of words per T-Unit decreases from grade
eight to grade ten, but rises dramatically to grade twelve. At none of the
levels does this fluctuation acquire a statiscally significant point, either
high or low, when compared to the length and complexity of the sentences
in the other modes. Only argumentative writing on the twelfth grade level
has a statiscally significant higher number of words-per-T-Unit. Oddly
enough, this is the same mode which showed a statiscally significant lower
rating as to organizational skills. It would be easy to assume that lack of
organizational skills fostered a need, a need covered with wordiness rather
than clarity of thought and purpose. An evaluative look at the papers
indicates that the writers had many ideas to express when writing in the
argumentative mode. So many, perhaps, that they endeavored to hurry
and get all the ideas on paper without pausing to examine the ideas and
logically organize them for presentation. This would explain the
significantly lower rating in the organization of argumentative pieces by
twelfth grade writers. It would also explain the significantly higher number
of words per T-Unit as the students tried to "cram" it all into a few
sentences with entangled ideas. Nevertheless, this research was not
designed to measure such explanations for the phenomena.

Much research has been done in the field of improving composition
through sentence-combining exercises. It has been proven in recent work
of such researchers as Warren Combs of the University of Georgia that
such exercises can improve the sentence structure of writers, making the
sentences more complex and longer. It was out of the strain of research of
which Dr. Combs is the most recent major contributor that this research
was fostered. It seemed illogical that longer and more complex was
necessarily better when looking at the whole of the written work. Perhaps
as the sentence-combining research continues, some effort should be made
to investigate further the evidence presented in this paper that as
composition quality goes down, average number of words per T-Unit goes
up.

What the research represented in this paper can conclude is that no one
form of writing is being stressed in high school at the expense of other
forms. Johnny is learning to write better and better papers in a variety of
modes while he is in school, and he is writing papers judged to be closer and
closer to the ideal rating.

It should be noted that the research was conducted with all students of
all abilities, ambitions, and backgrounds. All high school graduates are
not writing at the top of the scale, nor are all of them getting the lower
ratings. They are, however, as a group, learning to do a better and better
job with their tasks as they progress through high school.

55

ABSTRACTS OF MASTER'S THESES AND
SPECIALIST IN EDUCATION PROJECTS

Bailey, Robert T., (EdS, Secondary Education, August 1980)

A STUDY OF THE EFFECT OF POPULAR MUSIC ON

ACHIEVEMENT IN AND ATTITUDE TOWARD

CONTEMPORARY UNITED STATES HISTORY

Using two classes of 19 and 21 students each, this study attempted to
discover if the use of popular music in teaching contemporary United
States history would result in a significant gain in achievement and attitude
as compared with the use of the traditional textbook-lecture method. Null
hypotheses were used.

The two classes were given the Henmon-Nelson Test of Mental Ability,

and the mean scores for the control group and the experimental group
were computed. The t-test for the difference between the means
determined that there was a significant difference in the two groups in
regard to mental ability at the beginning of the study.

Remmers' Any School Subject Survey was given as an attitude pre-test.
Text booklet A, from Harper and Row's A People and A Nation, was
given as a pre-test for measuring achievement in contemporary United
States history.

A five-week experimental period followed with the control group being
taught by the traditional textbook-lecture method. The experimental
group was taught with popular music as the central focus of instruction.

At the end of the experimental period Remmers' Any School Subject

Survey and A People and A Nation's test for contemporary United States
history were administered as post-test. Mean gains in attitude, as
demonstrated by scores on the pre-test and post-test, were calculated. The
t-test found that there was no significant difference in attitude gained at the
.05 level of significance.

Because of the significant difference in mental ability of the two groups,
an analysis of covariance test on the gains in the pre-test and post-test
scores of the achievement test was conducted using mental ability as the co-
variant. There was no significant difference in achievement of the control
and experimental groups at the .05 level of significance.

The hypotheses were accepted. It was concluded that teaching
contemporary United States history with popular music does not produce
a significant gain in attitude or achievement.

56

Beavers, Sharon Seago, (EdS, Secondary Education, August,
1980)

A COMPARISON OF OPEN SPACE AND

CLOSED SPACE CLASSROOMS IN

SOCIAL STUDIES INSTRUCTION

This study attempted to determine if there would be a statistically
significant difference between the mean gain score in attitude and in
subject matter knowledge between two eleventh grade United States
history classes. One class, the experimental group, was taught in a closed
space classroom, and the other class, the control group, was taught in an
open space classroom. Null hypotheses were used.

The standardized midterm test for chapters one through nineteen of The
Rise of The American Nation was administered to both groups as a pretest
and a posttest. "A Scale to Measure Attitude Toward Any School
Subject," developed by H. H. Remmers, was administered to both groups
as a pretest and a posttest. The experimental process lasted for a twelve-
week period. Identical materials and teaching methods were employed.
The only difference in treatment between the experimental and control
groups was that of open space and closed space physical environment. At
the end of the treatment mean scores for pretest and posttest subject
knowledge and mean scores for pretest and posttest attitude were
computed for both groups.

An analysis of covariance procedure was used to test for difference in
mean gains in students' knowledge of United States history and to test for
differences in mean gains in students' attitude toward social studies. Both
null hypotheses were accepted.

Therefore, it was concluded in this study that it made no significant
difference in attitude or knowledge gained in United States history
whether two groups of social studies students wer taught in a closed space
or open space physical environment.

Brown, Kay G. (Ed.S., Elementary Education, March 1980)

A COMPARISON OF ACHIEVEMENT OF MIDDLE

GRADE SCIENCE STUDENTS IN PROCESS-INQUIRY

VERSUS TRADITIONAL-TEXTBOOK

ORIENTED CLASSROOMS

This study was designed to analyze what effects the inquiry approach to
teaching science has on science achievement. There were 54 six grade
students in the study, all of whom attended the Alabama Street School in
Carrollton, Georgia.

57

The Analysis of Covariance was the statistical test used to test the raw
data. The dependent variables were achievement and retention. The two
teaching methods used to teach the science unit were the independent
variables. The Intelligent Quotient (I.Q.) scores were used as the covariate.
Two null hypotheses were tested, one was not rejected and the other
hypothesis was rejected.

The reuslts of the study showed that children taught science in a process-
inquiry approach scored significantly higher at the .05 level of significance
in achievement as compared to children taught bu the traditional-textbook
method. The results also showed no significant difference on the delayed
posttest between the two groups.

Bussler, Ron A., (EdS. Secondary Education, August, 1980)

A STUDY OF CAREER EDUCATION IN THE

TEACHING OF SOCIAL STUDIES

This study sought to determine if a planned program of career education
made any significant difference in test scores of two different eighth grade
classes each of which had taken the career development section of the
Georgia Criterion Reference Test. The 1978 control group had received no
formal career instruction before taking the test, whereas the 1979
experimental group had received such instruction. A second problem of
the study was to determine if there were differences in relationship of sex in
reference to the test scores on the career development section of the
Georgia Criterion Reference Test.

Both the 1978 and the 1979 Georgia Criterion Reference Test in career
development consisted of the same twenty objective items. Each student of
each group, however, was required to answer only ten of the objectives.
The objective questions differed from student to student.

In addition to the above mentioned test, both groups were given the
Iowa Test of Basic Skills to determine mental ability. The t-test statistic
was computed to determine if there was a difference between the means of
the two groups. The mean score of the experimental group was
significantly higher than that of the control group;

For each of the twenty items of the test, chi-squares were computed to
determine if there were differences in the way each group (males and
females and the experimental group and the control group) answered each
item. These chi-squares showed that on one of the twenty items girls
answered the item significantly higher than the boys. Also, on one of the
twenty items the experimental group answered the item significantly
higher than did the control group. In both instances, on the other criterion
items, there were no significant differences.

58

Chambers, William Vernon, (MA, Psychology, August,
1980)

PERSONAL CONSTRUCT PSYCHOLOGY AND

CREATIVITY

Personal constructs are described by the author as sentences that
function descriptively, prescriptively, postcriptively, and as experiences in-
themselves. A parallel is made between construct theory and music theory.
Grid techniques are presented that reflect the history and the rationality of
the modulations of constructs.

Compton, Bobby W., Jr., (EdS, Secondary Education, June,
1980)

BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION AS A REHABILITATIVE
APPROACH TO JUVENILE DELINQUENCY

The purpose of this study was to make a comparative ananalysis of the
recidivism rate for juveniles at the Rome Regional Youth Development
Center prior to and after the implementation of a behavior modification
program. Null hypotheses wer used.

Students were divided into three groups. The control group consisted of
those students who were admitted to the institution from 1968 through
1971. This group did not receive the treatment of behavior modification
techniques. The experimental or treatment group consisted of those
delinquent students who were admitted from 1972 through 1975. This
group did not receive the treatment of behavior modification techniques.
The third group consisted of all those students who were admitted during
the period of 1968 through 1971 and who also returned during 1972 or
later. This group was admitted prior to the implementation of the behavior
modification program, but was also subsequently admitted when the
behavior modification program was in effect. This third group was labelled
the control-treatment group.

The analysis of variance was conducted with group, sex and race as
independent variables and the rate of recidivism as the dependent variable.
A total of eight hundred seventy-four cases were processed covering a span
of eight years. Regarding the means of the rateof recidivism of the groups,
it was found that there was a significant difference at the .05 level with the
highest rate associated with the group that received the behavior
modification treatment. Regarding the rate of recidivism means of the
sexes, it was found that there was also a significant difference at the .05
level with males having the higher rate. There were no significant
interaction among the independent variables. It was concluded that the
behavior modification techniques may tend to increase the recidivism rate
for delinquent youth.

59

Copley, Gary L., (EdS, Secondary Education, August 1980)
A STUDY TO COMPARE VIEWS OF

STUDENTS, PARENTS, AND SCHOOL PERSONNEL

WITH RESPECT TO THE GOALS OF

SECONDARY SOCIAL STUDIES

The purpose of this study was to compare views of students, parents,
teachers, and school administrators of Gordon County concerning the
objectives for the secondary social studies program. Students and parents
of students enrolled at the two senior high schools in Gordon County,
Fairmount High School and Red Bud High School, were used as the
student and parent population from which the sample was selected. From
these groups, the sample was randomly selected. All social studies teachers
in grades five through twelve in Gordon County were asked to participate.
All principals and assistant principals in Gordon County were used as
subjects. The administrators in the Gordon County Board of Education
office, who have input into the development of the social studies
curriculum, were asked to participate. The four groups rated the
importance of fifteen objectives of the secondary social studies program
which had been extracted from the writing of leading social studies
educators. In order to determine if statistically significant differences
occurred for each of the fifteen objectives, chi squares were computed
between the six groups: students-parents, students-teachers, students-
administrators, administrators-teachers, administrators-parents, and
teacher-parents. The results revealed that a significant difference occurred
on ten objectives between students and parents, on one objective between
students and administrators, on three objectives between students and
teachers, and on two objectives between parents and administrators. It was
concluded that significant differences did exist among t .e four groups
compared concerning the objectives of the secondarj social studies
program. A second chi square was computed between the ale and female
student groups to see if there was significant statistical di ference among
the rating distributions of male and female students. A significant
statistical difference was found on one objective. There was little d. (Terence
overall found in the way male students and female students rated the
objectives.

Cousins. Barbara, (EdS, Elementary Education, August, 1980)

A COMPARISON OF DIRECTIVE AND

NO-DIRECTIVE APPROACHES TO ENHANCE

POSITIVE ATTITUDES TOWARD READING WITH

THIRD GRADE REMEDIAL READING STUDENTS

The purpose of this study was to determine if directive strategies for

enhancing positive attitudes toward reading does influence attitudes

60

toward reading and reading achievement. The study was designed to
determine if subjects in the experimental group who received the
instructional approach for fostering positive attitudes toward reading and
would score significantly higher on positive attitudes toward reading and
reading achievement compared to the subjects in the control group who
did not receive this approach.

The subjects in the study were thirty third grade students who were
enrolled in the Title I Remedial Reading Program at the Cartersville
Elementary School, Cartersville, Georgia.

Six hypotheses were tested. Four of the hypotheses concerned within
group gains of attitudes toward reading and reading achievement. Two of
the hypotheses concerned a comparison between the experimental and
control groups of change in attitudes toward reading and reading
achievement gains.

To determine change in attitude toward reading the following three
measures were used on pretests and posttests: the Thomas H. Estes
Reading Attitude Scale which obtained a measure of attitude from
responses made by students on the attitude scale; the Rowell Attitude
Scale that obtained measure of attitude according to responses made by
the students' classroom teachers from observation of students' reading
behaviors; the third measure was obtained by computation of the
combined scores of the Thomas H. Estes and the Rowell Attitude scales.

Reading achievement gains were determined by pretest and posttest
scores made on the Stanford Diagnostic Reading Test.

The hypotheses were tested by using the correlateu t-tert for statistical
analysis of within group gains. For comparing differences between groups
the analysis of covariance was used. The pretest score was the covariate
and the posttest score the dependent variable. The group was the
independent variable. The level of significance for rejecting the null
hypotheses was established as .05.

Results of the analyses indicated a significant difference of positive
attitudes toward reading in favor of the experimental group which received
the directive approach for enhancing positive attitudes toward reading.

Dulaney, Rhonda Matthews, (EdS, Elementary Education,
August, 1980)

A STUDY OF THE ATTITUDES OF STUDENTS,

PARENTS, AND TEACHERS TOWARD HOMEWORK

AND IMPLICATIONS FOR THE

IMPROVEMENT OF HOMEWORK

This study proposed to ascertain the attitudes of students, parents and
teachers toward homework. Student, parent and teacher homework

61

questionnaires were administered to gather information for the study.
After the data were tabulated, the results were used to establish
recommendations/guidelines to foster healthy student attitudes toward
homework and to improve homework's value.

The following areas were investigated:

1. An analysis of the responses of students to items on the student
homework questionnaire.

2. An analysis and comparison of the responses of boys and girls to
items on the student homework questionnaire.

3. An analysis of the responses of parents to items on the parent
homework questionnaire.

4. An analysis of the responses of teachers to items on the teacher
homework questionnaire.

5. An analysis and comparison of the responses of teachers, students
and parents to selected items on the homework questionnaire.

The subjects for the study were 1 37 sixth year students, 87 parents and 24
teachers at a middle school in metropolitan Atlanta, Georgia. The school
has approximately 720 students in grades six through eight in a suburban,
upper-middle income community.

The data presented are a tabulation and analysis of the student, parent
and teacher questionnaires.

It appears that students, parents and teachers hold, in general, healthy
attitudes toward homework and consider homework to be beneficial and
important.

Duncan, Ruth Debord, (EdS, Early Childhood Education,
August 1980)

A STUDY OF THE CHILDREN WHO ATTEND THE
MORNING KINDERGARTEN SESSION AND

THE AFTERNOON KINDERGARTEN SESSION AND
THEIR RELATIONSHIP OF SCORES ON THE
METROPOLITAN READINESS TEST IN TWO

SUBURBAN ATLANTA AREA ELEMENTARY

SCHOOLS

A study was conducted to investigate the effects of teaching
kindergarten children and to determine if there is a significant difference in
the scores on the Metropolitan Readiness Test of the children who attend
the morning session with the children who attend the afternoon session of
two suburban Atlanta area elementary schools, during the 1979-80
academic year.

62

This study provided a basis to support or reject the null hypothesis that
children who attend the afternoon session of kindergarten will make
similar scores on the Metropolitan Readiness Test as the children who
attend the morning session of kindergarten. The Metropolitan Readiness
Test was given to the children during the last week of April. The children
had been in school for a period of eight months. The t test and the mean test
were used to compare the scores of the two groups of children. Results
showed no significant difference on five of the readiness subtests and the
two math subtests. The morning class scored a higher score on the test for
visual matching, test number three. The t test showed a significant
difference on test number three with the difference being 035. On the
composite scores for reading and math readiness, there were no significant
differences.

A recommendation was made for further studies using an entire county
for the comparison of children attending the morning and afternoon
sessions of kindergarten. It was also recommended that a breakfast
program be established at all schools since nutrition plays such an
important part in a child's learning. It was also advised that the children
should have a pre-test and a post-test.

Flowers, Sharon Bookout, (EdS, Secondary Education,
August 1980)

A STUDY TO MEASURE THE EFFECT OF AN

INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL STUDIES COURSE

AT THE NINTH GRADE LEVEL UPON

STUDENT INTERESTS TOWARD

THE SOCIAL STUDIES

The purpose of this study was to determine whether because of a ninth
grade level introduction to social studies course in Whitfield County, there
was an increase in student interest in social studies.

The students used in the study were 56 high school students from
Southeast Whitfield High School in Dalton, Georgia. Thirty-two of the
students had completed four years of high school and, in the beginning of
their ninth grade, they had taken the introduction to social studies course.
A control group consisting of 24 students who, when they entered the ninth
grade, did not take the introduction to social studies course. Both groups
were given the H. H. Remmer's "A Scale to Measure Attitude Toward Any
School Subject," Form A., to determine their initial interests in the social
studies. The test was administered two times to both groups: (l)upon
entering the ninth grade and (2) at the end of the first quarter of the ninth
grade. The experimental group was tested a third time. This was four years
later at the end of high school.

63

At the end of the first quarter of the ninth grade year, a comparison was
made for both the experimental group and the control group. This
comparison was made of the gain scores in interest in the social studies
from the beginning of the ninth grade to the end of the first quarter of that
year. Another comparison was made between the mean gain scores for this
time period of the experimental group and the control group. Also, a
comparison of gains in interest in social studies was made for the
experimental group between the beginning of the ninth grade and the end
of four years of high school. Comparison was also made between the males
and females in relationship to their interest in social studies.

The experimental group, when compared with the control group, did
not show any significant difference in interest in the social studies at the
end of the first quarter of the ninth grade. Neither the experimental group
nor the control group showed any significant gains in interest in the social
studies between the beginning and end of the introduction course. At the
.05 level, there was a significant increase in interest in the social studies
made by the experimental group by the end of four years of high school.
There was no significant difference in interest in the social studies between
male and female students.

Fountain, Anita M., (EdS, Elementary Education, August,
1980)

THE LONGITUDINAL EFFECTS OF

PROJECT SUCCESS ENVIRONMENT ON DISCIPLINE

IN A RURAL ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

The purpose of this educational study was to assess the effects of the
contingency management system, Project Success Environment, on the
rate of discipline administered by an elementary school principal. Data on
behavioral incidences over a six-year period were compiled and examined
to determine the longitudinal effects of the positive reinforcement system
used in a northwest Georgia rural school.

The sets of records for the control year and for the five experimental
years were compared utilizing the chi square method at a selected .05
significance level. Six discipline areas were also examined for each of the
years. They were: student conferences and warnings, parent conferences,
suspensions, paddlings, written assignments, and other disciplinary
actions.

The results of the study exhibited a significant level of effectiveness on
maintaining student discipline over the five-year period. The calculations
for each experimental year's totals revealed a significant reduction and
also revealed a trend toward a continuing decrease in student discipline
cases handled by the principal. An examination of the areas of discipline

64

showed a significant reduction in each category with the exception of
parent conferences.

The overall reduction in the discipline cases over the five-year period
demonstrated the positive effects of Project Success Environment upon
student behavior. It is therefore recommended that in order to preserve the
effectiveness of the program, the techniques should be continued, with
more emphasis on academic behaviors. Systematic record-keeping
procedures should be maintained, for the effects of the program may have
further implications in the future for those who have participated and for
other schools that wish to improve the social and academic behaviors of
students.

Hague, Nancy, (EdS, Early Childhood Education, March
1980)

A STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF

THE EARLY CHILDHOOD GRADUATE

EDUCATION PROGRAM AT

WEST GEORGIA COLLEGE ON GRADUATES

AFTER RE-ENTERING THE TEACHING PROFESSION

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of the early
childhood graduate education program at West Georgia College on the
teaching processes of its graduates from June, 1979, to June, 1980, who
had earned a masters degree and had returned to teaching. Evaluative
questionnaires developed by the early childhood education department
were completed by graduates and their supervisors to determine the skills,
characteristics, and behaviors in the teaching processes. The positive
results are shown by raw score, percentages, mean scores, and the
percentage relationships of matched pairs of supervisors and teachers. The
conclusion from the study is that the early childhood graduate education
program has positive effects upon the teaching processes of the graduates.

Moore, Suzanne, (EdS, Elementary Education, August,

1980)

THE ROLES AND PROBLEMS OF

VOLUNTEER CHRISTIAN EDUCATORS,

THEIR ASSESSED INSERVICE NEEDS AND

ATTITUDES TOWARDS CHRISTIAN EDUCATION

This project was designed to study the role of the volunteer teacher and
his problems, to determine his inservice needs, and identify his attitudes
towards Christian education. The subjects were the volunteer teachers of
the Cathedral of Saint Philip in Atlanta, Georgia. The length of the study
was seven months.

65

Questionnaires to assess the volunteer teachers on inservicc u^^
attitudes toward Christian education, and general information were used.
The results were tallied to form group profiles, using raw scores and
weighted scores.

The conclusions made as a result of this study indicate:

1. A majority of volunteer teachers have attended the Cathedral of
Saint Philip over eleven years.

2. There were dominant topics which volunteer teachers want covered
in future inservice training.

3. Inexperienced teachers have different inservice needs than
experienced teachers.

4. There was no one approach to Christian education that most
volunteers adhered to..

5. Participants who chose the same approach to Christian education
have common inservice needs.

James, Robert Louis, (EdS, Secondary Education, March,
1980)

A TEACHER'S RESOURCE GUIDE FOR TEACHING
THE LOCAL HISTORY OF POLK COUNTY, GEORGIA

The purpose of this study was to provide a resource guide for teaching
the history of Polk County, Georgia. At the present time, there is no
resource guide for this purpose.

The heart of this resource guide is a compilation of sources of local
history in Polk County. There are biographical sketches on people whose
knowledge and experiences equip them to discuss selected areas of Polk
County history. These individuals reside in Polk County and are available
and seem willing to share their particular knowledge.

Also included are depositories of information. These depositories
include courthouses, city halls, newspapers, libraries, city directories, and
historical societies.

Other sources of local history included are historic sites. These include
churches, cemeteries, historic markers, and historic homes.

Finally, there are five taped interviews with four people who collectively
cover a wide range of topics in Polk County history.

The emphasis in the study was that of finding and annotating
depositories of information and interviewing selected individuals who
have special knowledge of some aspect of Polk County history.

66

Johnson, Forrest Clark, III, (MA, History, August, 1980)

A HISTORY OF LAGRANGE, GEORGIA

1828-1900

The purpose of this work is to examine the development of LaGrange,
Georgia in the Nineteenth Century from a small, frontier county seat in
1828 to an important, modern Georgia city in 1900. In tracing LaGrange 's
history, the paper accentuates social, economic, cultural, and
governmental growth within the urban pattern. The value of studying this
single town is to learn more about Southern urbanization since relatively
little research has been devoted to the growth of smaller Southern cities.
We gain greater understanding of the larger scheme by closely examining a
tiny part of it. We see patterns in LaGrange which reflect those of the
town's region the Georgia cotton belt and which are universally typical
of urbanization. Additionally, we gain a perspective of the variances which
made LaGrange exceptional by seeing how its people handled the urban
process. State history is enhanced through this study because
consideration is seldom given to the western section of Georgia in general
works.

There were many encumbrances in compiling this chronicle, particularly
concerning primary documentation. City records and local newspapers
prior to 1874 have been lost or destroyed. There were a few issues of the
LaGrange Reporter extant for the the years 1868-1870. Fortunately, the
available newspapers frequently gave information concerning matters
predating the papers themselves. The balance of primary information
came from living people and their family papers, census records,
courthouse records, and papers in the state archives. Poring through,
extracting, and compiling these records was laborious. Many hours of
searching would often produce but a single, usable fact. Secondary sources
were valuable, but few and hard to locate. The one county history, written
by a non-native in 1933, was full of important data but not cohesively
arranged. The book was habitually misleading and often vague or shallow
in areas beyond the author's personal experiences or recollection. State
histories, especially those written in this century, seldom discuss or
incorporate specific information or data concerning West Georgia or
LaGrange and therefore their conclusions did not fit my topic.

The people who helped me, and to whom I hereby acknowledge my
appreciation and great debt, were numerous. Many contributed to the
accumulation of my knowledge on the subject but I must limit mention of
all but the principal ones, who are: Col. James W. Boddie; Mrs. Enoch
Callaway, Jr.; Mr. Fuller E. Callaway, Jr.; Mrs. Mary Jane Hill Crayton;
Misses Katherine and Pearl Dozier; Mrs. Edgar H. Dunson; Mrs. John D.
Faver; Mrs. Reuben Garland; Mr. and Mrs. Curtis Glass; Mrs. Cato
Green; Dr. Waights G. Henry, Jr.; Mrs. Ethel Dallis Hill; Mrs. Talmadge

67

Alfred Hogg; Mrs. F. C. Johnson, Sr.; Mrs. Pierce T. Lee; Mrs. Arthur E.
Mallory, Sr.; Mrs. Raymond W. Martin; Miss Tommie C. Martin; Mr.
Kenrick W. Mattox, Sr.; Dr. and Mrs. Emory R. Park; Mrs. Raleigh Park;
Mrs. Edward E. Strain, Jr.; Miss Theodora Thomas; Mrs. Arthur
Thompson; Mrs. Forrest Truitt, Sr.; and Mrs. John D. Westervelt. These
people and others shared their family papers, oral traditions,
remembrances, and knowledge with me and gave me many interesting
insights into LaGrange history.

I owe a great debt to Mayor Gardner Newman, and the LaGrange city
council for making city records available to me after hours and to Mr.
Christopher Boner and the staff of Coleman Library, particularly Mrs.
Mary Lou Dabs, for invaluable assistance. Much of my research would not
have been possible without the facilities which the Fuller E. Callaway
Foundation and the Callaway Educational Association provide; I thank
them. Also, I wish to thank the staff of LaGrange Memorial Library, Mrs.
Donald R. Curry of Troup High School, and the people at the Georgia
Department of Archives and History in Atlanta, with special thanks to the
Surveyor General's office. I am indebted also to Mrs. Elizabeth W.
Traylor, Clerk of Court, Troup County, and her staff, as well as Judge Ely
W. Hanson, Probate Judge of Troup County, and his assistant, Mrs.
Virginia B. Coker, for their immense aid.

I wish to give special thanks to Miss Paula A. Smith of LaGrange and
Mrs. Richard A. Folk of Carrollton for their help with editing, to Mrs.
Susan F. Johnson of LaGrange for the typing, to Miss Vicky Myers of
Carrollton for the map work, and to my faithful cousin Mary Martin
Davis Bowen, whose agony throughout this project has nearly equalled my
own.

Last, though far from least, I extend my gratitude to the faculty of West
Georgia College, specifically to my committee. Professor Theodore Fitz-
Simons, Dr. J. David Griffin, Dr. Robert R. Myers, and Dr. Richard R.
Folk. Without these four men this study would have lacked depth and
meaning; they would not let me be satisfied with second-rate work.
Professor Fitz-Simons and Dr. Griffin were extremely helpful suggesting
additional sources and interpretations and Dr. Myers contributed greatly
by suggesting alternative insights and approaches. I owe Dr. Folk, in
particular, a great and unpayable debt for his years of work, faith, and
encouragement. Dr. Folk has been for me as Virgil was to Danta a guide
through Hedes.

6S

King, Kay Brown, (EdS, Elementary Education, March,
1980)

A STUDY OF THE EFFECT OF TELEVISION VIEWING

ON READING ACHIEVEMENT OF BOYS AND GIRLS

AT MAIN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

IN ROME, GEORGIA

1979-1980

The following study was conducted in order to determine the effect of
television viewing on reading achievement and to determine the existence
of a relationship between viewing hours from grade to grade. Students
from the Main Elementary School were involved in the study.

A questionnaire requiring information on the student's weekly number
of television viewing hours was issued to all students in grades one through
six to be completed by the student's parents and returned to the teacher on
a voluntary basis. In relating television viewing to reading achievement,
only those students who had taken the Georgia Criterion Referenced Test
during the 1979-1980 school term and who had returned the questionnaire
were used. This included students from second, third, fourth, and sixth
grades. Special education students were not used. Scores from the reading
section of the Georgia Criterion Referenced Test were obtained from the
school's composite record of the test results and recorded on the students'
questionnaires.

The Pearson Correlation Coefficient test was used to compare television
viewing hours and reading achievement scores. Findings indicated a
nonsignificant positive correlation between these two variables. A
Crosstabulation and Chi-square test also yielded a nonsignificant
correlation.

In determining the relationship between viewing times of each grade, all
students from grades one through six who returned the questionnaire were
used. This included special education students. The mean viewing time
from each grade was computed and compared. No consistent increase or
decrease in viewing time was found from grade to grade such as existed in
similar research studies. However, in agreement with other studies, the
peak viewing time was found to occur in the sixth grade.

69

McKibben, William Park, (EdS, Administration and

Supervision, August, 1980)

CONTRACTURAL MAINTENANCE SERVICES AS

RELATED TO THE COUNTY MAINTENANCE

DEPARTMENT OF THE

CARROLL COUNTY SCHOOLS

As is the case with many school systems in the State of Georgia, the
Carroll County School System is faced with the situation of having many
varied needs in the area of maintenance services but only limited service
from the existing maintenance department.

The many facilities owned and operated by the Carroll County School
System are all cared for and repaired by the county maintenance
department. These facilities are very diversified in nature, including
classroom buildings, lunchroom facilities, gymnasiums, county offices,
and numerous outbuildings and storage units.

The maintenance department of the Carroll County School System
makes every efort to adequately service the above mentioned bacilities
with its equipment and personnel. The mamtenance personnel do a good
job with minor school repairs, yard care, and maintenance and
landscaping services.

However, the Carroll County Schools are faced with problems that
could possibly be remedied through some different maintenance
procedures. Through this study the school system maintenance operation
has been surveyed, showing the present maintenance department, the cost
of personnel salaries and benefits, general department operation,
equipment operation, and costs relevant to the department in general.

A comparison of the costs of present maintenance department
operations and outside contractual services was established. A system of
partial county maintenance and limited outside contractual services was
also surveyed.

It has been shown how the individual schools can better train their
existing custodial personnel to do a more adequate job in the various
facilities. This was done in terms of cost and efficiency.

There were some hmitations to this project in the beginning. Some
contractors were hesitant to estimate costs for contractual services that
they might be called upon to perform, but a system to overcome this
problem was derived and explained in the research project.

The emphasis of the project was to compare contractual maintenance
services with the present system of county maintenance to determine the
most cost effective usage of personnel and funds.

70

Data was collected from county records, cost surveys, personal
interviews, and relevant research in similar areas. Any costs and pricing
rates cited in this project were current only during the 1979-1980 school
year. Each system must survey costs as they relate to their particular needs.

McMillen, Patrick Bertram, (EdS, Special Education, March
1980)

IMPLEMENTATION OF A PLAN OF

MAINSTREAMING OF HEARING IMPAIRED

CHILDREN INTO THE REGULAR SCHOOL

PROGRAM OF CATOOSA COUNTY, GEORGIA

In the late fall of 1978, the decision was made by the Catoosa County
Board of Education to move the hearing impaired children of the county
from a regional center for exceptional children into the mainstream of the
regular school program.

The purpose of this study was to describe how a plan was developed and
implemented to accomplish this.

Seven hearing impaired children, ranging from five to sixteen years of
age, were involved in a mainstreaming plan developed at Battlefield
Elementary School, a school having 400 students and serving kindergarten
through the sixth grades with twelve regular and two special education
teachers.

A review of the current literature and research was conducted which
helped form the base for the implementation plan at Battlefield. A step by
step description of the plan was outlined in the study.

The conclusions reached were that a gradual evolutionary approach
with a four-phase program of mainstreaming hearing impaired children
into the regular classroom appeared to be the most successful in the
Catoosa County situation. Secondly, the degree and extent that a hearing
impaired child was mainstreamed largely depended on the individual
readiness of the child, as determined by the educational team working with
the child. Thirdly, the primary goal of the program was the preparation of
hearing impaired children to be able to participate in the hearing world.
Fourthly, an intensive program of orientation and training with the
regular and special education staff, the students, the parents, and the
community facilitated the chances for success. Lastly, a strong
commitment to the concept of mainstreaming and the development of
strategies to accomplish that end also contributed to the success of the
Catoosa County program.

The study was limited due to its locahzed nature and small numbers of
children involved. The strategies, plans and conclusions found in this study
may not be suited for every school system, and therefore should noi be

71

generalized. On the other hand, it is feU that due to the recent trends in the
education of the handicapped the study has significance because it is a
practical application of current theories. It is possible that the Catoosa
County experience would be helpful to others who might wish to
mainstream their hearing impaired children.

Murphy, H. Lynn, (EdS, Elementary Education, March,
1980)

A COMPARISON OF READING READINESS OF

STUDENTS WHO HAVE A BACKGROUND OF

MOVEMENT EDUCATION WITH

THOSE WHO HAVE NOT

An experimental research study was conducted to decide if the
implementation of movement education activities would result in an
increased level of reading readiness at the end of the kindergarten
experience. Group One was given the usual kindergarten experience with
the added treatment of selected movement education activities. Group
Two received the usual kindergarten experience only. Group One and Two
were considered to be equivalent because their assignment to classes was a
result of random selection. Both groups were taught by the same teacher.

A four area reading readiness test was administered as a posttest-onlv
control group design. The t test was selected as the analysis to compare the
gains of the two groups. While the experimental group appeared to have a
greater gain than the control group, the gains were not great enough to be
considered significant. The result of the statistical comparison revealed
that the implementation of movement education activities in the
kindergarten does not necessarily result in increased levels of reading
readiness.

Murray, Barry W., (EdS, Secondary Education, August,
1980)

A STUDY TO COMPARE LEVELS OF

ECONOMIC UNDERSTANDING BETWEEN

BUSINESS EDUCATION TEACHERS AND

SOCIAL STUDIES TEACHERS

The main problem of this study was to determine whether or not a
difference in the level ofeconomic understanding existed between business
education teachers and social studies teachers. Secondary problems of the
study were to determine whether or not a difference in the level of
economic understanding existed between elementary school teachers and
social studies teachers, elementary school teachers and business education
teachers, and between male and female teachers.

72

The population of this study was composed of two hundred and four
experienced teachers from the metropohtan Atlanta area who participated
in workshops on economic education held from 1966 to 1977 at Georgia
State University. Of these, fifty-six were males and one hundred and forty-
eight were females. The sample consisted of one hundred and five social
studies teachers, forty-four business education teachers, and fifty-five
elementary school teachers.

The data were collected from records of economic education workshops
at the Center for Business and Economic Education, Georgia State
University, Atlanta, Georgia. The Test of Economic Understanding, Form
A, developed by the Joint Council on Economic Education, was used to
measure the level of understanding of economic concepts. The statistical
technique used to test for differences between the groups was the t-test for
independent means.

The findings indicated no significant difference at the .01 level in
economic understanding between business education teachers and social
studies teachers. Elementary school teachers' level of economic
understanding was significant!)' lower than that of social studies teachers
and business education teachers. Female social studies and business
education teachers were less knowledgeable about economics than were
their male conterparts.

Owens, Vera Y., (EdS, Elementary Education, March, 1980)

A COMPARISON BETWEEN THE EFFECTS OF

ORAL AND TOTAL COMMUNICATION ON

READING VOCABULARY TEST SCORES AMONG

FIFTH YEAR DEAF STUDENTS AT

GEORGIA SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF

The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of Oral
Communication and Total Communication on vocabulary development
based on test results from the Vocabulary Sub-test of the Stanford
Achievement Test.

The subjects for this study were randomly selected from the composition
of Fifth Year classes 1971-72 and 1977-78. These time periods represented
the children taught orally and the children taught utilizing Total
Communication during their first five years of schooling.

For comparison the subjects tested in the spring of 1 972 were assigned to
the Oral Group while those tested in the spring of 1 978 were assigned to the
Total Communication Group. Twenty-four test scores were assigned to
each group.

The mean , standard deviation and difference in the mean were
computed. The significance of the difference in the mean was arrived at

73

through appHcation of the t-test. The difference proved to be significant
beyond the .01 level of confidence. It was concluded that utilizing Total
Communication with the deaf will very likely result in higher vocabulary
development than will Oral Communication alone.

Sanders, C. Wayne, (EdS, Elementary Education, August
1980)

THE EFFECTS OF THE READING/ENGLISH

ROTATION PROJECT ON THE

READING ACHIEVEMENT OF SIXTH GRADE

STUDENTS WHO ARE TWO OR MORE YEARS

BEHIND IN READING ACHIEVEMENT

The Reading/ English Rotation Project was designed to improve
reading skills of students two or more years behind in reading
achievement. Forty-six sixth grade students fro Rockmart Middle School
in Rockmart, Georgia qualified for the thirty minute classes daily of
Reading, English, and Title 1 Skills Lab. All three classes worked together
to teach needed reading skills. Three teachers and aides coordinated
instruction as much as possible in order to reinforce these skills.

Pre-assessment and post-assessment scores from the California
Achievement Test were used in the analyses. Two sets of scores were used,
and both came from the reading section of the test. The grade level score
was used to determine the average reading growth of the subjects prior to
the sixth grade by dividing the pre-assessment grade level by the number of
years the student had been in school. This was contrasted with the growth
made by the student during the sixth grade. A t-test analysis on the
difference between the two sets of scores was made. The second set of
scores was taken from the obtained scale scores. These scores allow for
comparison of all levels of the California Achievement Test. An Analysis
of Covariance with IQ as the covariate and the difference in scores as the
dependent variable was applied to determine any significant difference in
gains among the three groups. The level of significance was established at
.05.

Results from the analyses showed that all three groups improved in
reading achievement, but only two were significant at the .05 level. The
growth was significant for the total sample of students involved in the
study. There was no significant differences in gains among the three
groups. These statistics indicate that the Reading/ English Rotation
Project was successful in helping most of the low achievers improve their
reading skills significantly over prior growth.

74

Schumacher, Joseph ., (MA, Psychology, August, 1980)
THE AUTHENTICITY OF SUIDICE

Since the dawn of man and the emergence of intellectual consciousness,
the phenomenon of suicide has initiated not only a paradoxical confusion
in those who attempt to understand, but also continues to elicit a spiritual
significance in those who attempt to indulge.

To the early Greeks, those who "died before their time" were called
"biaiothanatoi," and considered magical. The teachings of Doogen, the
founder of the Soto Zen Sect, state "that realization of the fullest meaning
of life comes only through self-sacrifice and through the negation of
intellectual apprehension" (Tsunoda, 1958). Suicide has always been an
accepted means of protest in Japan. Those who consider suicide a plausible
alternative have been found to prefer literary geniuses like Arthur
Schopenhauer, Albert Camus, Ryuunosuke Akutagaua, and Osamu
Dazai who are highly suggestive and extremely accepting of suicide
(Dazai, 1 969, p. 284). They are also found to possess a lack of concern with
social welfare and tend to view life in its absurdity.

Suicides are numerous in Shakespearean plays, and consequently color
the entire realm of romantic theatre. An audience or literary critic find no
fault with that, undoubtedly because suicide is a convenient manner of
ending to which authors have long habituated us. Nevertheless, whenever a
suicide is impinged upon our awareness we are astonished anew. For in this
manner of taking leave of one's fellow man, there seems to be a
disconcerting mixture of free choice and of inevitability, of resolvement
and of passivity, of lucidity and of bewilderment.

Suicide holds a significant position in history, ethics, literature, and art.
We cannot doubt its influence on our lives. Philosophers and theologians
have been concerned with its moral character, while physicians, lawyers,
and scientists continue the battle to ground its ambiguous and spiritual
nature. The phenomenon of suicide has undoubtedly produced realms of
literature and hoards of statistical studies that only help to confuse the
issue and heighten the curiosity in those for whom suicide is a possibility.

Viewed from death certificates, insurance reports, and statistical
surveys, suicide is the simple and logical consequence of ill mental health,
discouragement, humiliation, rejection, revenge, or frustration.
Amazingly, it is not that these explanations are continually ofered. but that
they are so readily and unquestionably accepted in a world where science
and everyday experience alike confirm the untrustworthiness of the
obvious.

A current discernible trend that may well be a reflection of a growing
psychology concern in our culture to investigate such an activity in an
empirical fashion, is to seek to understand the motivations underlying

75

behavior within the milieu in which they occur. The following three works
that appreciate the statistical and cultural perspective are a necessity to the
eclectic suicidologrst. They are: Suicide: A Sociological and Statistical
Study (1963) by Louis I. Dumblin; Suicide in Different Cultures (1975),
edited by Norman L. Farberow; and Status Integration and Suicide {\96A)
by Jack P. Gibbs and Walter T. Martin.

Since suicide has been documented as one ofthe first ten causes of death
in the United States, this country and, in fact, the whole civilized world, is
challenged to prevent this wastage of life and the suffering and loss
associated with it. The curative powers of religious faith and ecstacy,
sympathetic counseHng, and psychiatric psychotherapy have been
faithfully available to those who seek it. Current authors (e.g., Louis
DubUn, .1963; Edwin S. Shneidman, 1957; and Norman L. Farberow,
1961) feel that it is essential that the general public, the clergy, social
workers, and doctors learn to recognize the symptons of depression,
despair, isolation that may assist in the prevention of a suicide.

Be aware of the fact that the author adopts a more permissive view of
death and accepts the possibiUty of suicide as a plausible alternative for
particular individuals; but do not assume that the act of self-destruction is
advocated or even encouraged. The author's view may indeed be a radical
one, but deserves the right to be acknowledged in light of human rights.
Because the author believes that anyone contemplating the notion of
suicide is attempting to enlighten his awareness, which is in any case a
frightening one, those individuals deserve the right to be supported.
Anyone interested in creating a crisis program is urged to read Suicide and
Crisis Intervention (1973) by Sheila A. Fisher, Ph.D. Anyone compelled to
contemplate a suicidal act and desire emotional support, see Appendix A
for a Hsting of crisis centers around the United States.

The first chapter, A Collective Morality, is an attempt to outline our
collective relationship with suicide in regard to its morality. Philosophical,
theological, legal, and medical viewpoints were considered as the most
influential systems of thought in our time. The assumption that these
systems dogmatically constitute their particular viewpoint toward suicide
without regard to individual situations, existential choice, or
condonement of an acceptable view of death was verified. In light of strict
moral standards, inconsistencies within each particular system were
revealed and a new way of viewing suicide was considered.

The second chapter. An Attempt to Understand, reviewed the scientific
investigation of suicide. Emile Durkheim, Sigmund Freud, and Karl
Menninger were considered to be the experts in the field. A critique of
traditionally accepted explanations regarding the understanding of the
suicidal processes, focused on apriori assumptions, generalizable
diagnosis, prediction, and prevention. It was concluded that any particular

76

system attempting to explain human behavior must rely upon certain
theoretical foundations that form the basis to make their assumptions. The
notion of intentional suicide holds no place within these systems of
thought and thus threaten the foundation they rest upon.

The final chapter, A Portrait of a Suicidal Style, expresses the author's
own personal conceptualization of how suicidal behavior should be
investigated. As such, a view of death must be incorporated before any
attempt at understanding is begun. Secondly, the individual must be
respected as unique, situated within a unique set of circumstances, before
any generalizations or assumptions can be made. The phenomenology of
suicide rests in the description of disposition. Despair, insecurity, and
engulfment were elaborated upon as being basic to the suicidal's rationale.
These are by no means exhaustive. Finally, suicide as an escape from
freedom and the notion of rebirth and authenticity were touched upon,
only to initiate thought and huristic questioning.

The intention of this thesis is to call forth the dogmatism that exists
within our most respected systems of thought and present an interesting
alternative. The phenomenon of suicide exists as a logical alternative to
those who are blind to any other way of being-in-the-world. Suicide may
be understood as an authentic act in reference to individuality, self-
directed decision making, and creativity. In place of the restrictiveness of
prevention I propose a more flexible program; one that accepts a view of
death, respects individual rights, and sincerely believes in the spirituality of
life and death. This is considered to be more influential and empathetically
supportive to the frustrated suicidal individual.

Shot well, William Edward, (EdS, Administration and
Supervision, August, 1980)

STUDENT CONCEPTS OF SCHOOL ENVIRONMENTS
IN INTEGRATED AND NON-INTEGRATED SCHOOLS

This study was an effort to compare student concepts of their school's
environment in an integrated and non-integrated school. The integrated
school was Henderson Junior High School, Georgia. The non-integrated
school was Dawson County High School, Georgia.

Three hundred and nine students in the eighth grade classes at both
schools responded to a questionnaire which reflected their attitudes about
certain school situations. Fourteen subscales of the Learning Environment
Inventory (LEI) were used to identify desirable and undesirable
characteristics in the respective schools. Henderson Junior High had the
larger eighth grade class with its 221 students.

There was a statistically significant difference in eight of the fourteen
subscales compared. The F-ratio test was used to determine the level of

77

significance at the .05 level.

In this study integration had no adverse effects on school environment.
In fact the integrated school had many more desirable characteristics than
did the non-integrated school. This study possibly indicates that the
organizational structure, quality and quantity of curriculum offerings, and
the student's involvement have more effect on school environment than
does integration.

Sims, Lee R., (EdS, Administration and Supervision, June,
1980)

A SURVEY OF NORTH GEORGIA ADMINISTRATORS

IN RELATION TO:

PLANNED EDUCATIONAL CHANGE

THE BOMBSHELL OF THE 80's AND BEYOND!

Change is essential for the productive growth of an education system.
This study was needed to determine what methods were being used by
North Georgia Administrators to bring about change in their schools and
to determine if the changes were effective.

A one-page, ten-question questionnaire was developed and mailed to
138 principals in the North Georgia area. The questions on the
questionnaire dealt with the incidence of change in the past and the
prediction of incidence of change in the future, the amount of planning
that was done and will be needed to bring about change in the future, the
type of change method used by principals, the amount of success principals
have had in bringing about the desired change and the effectiveness of
these changes.

Questionnaires were returned by 115 principals. The problem solving
method of bringing about educational change was the method most used
by North Georgia principals.

North Georgia principals indicated that a great deal of planning has
been done in the past five years. Principals indicated that they had success
in producing the desired effects through change.

A variety of responses to the frequency of change in the past and in the
1980's was given. Principals indicated that Changes would occur a little
more frequently in the I980's.

The overall conclusions of ranking change sources in the past were the
same s the overall ranking of change sources in the I980's.

Desire of the school was first; mandates from the state were second;
mandates from the local level were third; mandates from the federal level
were fourth; and community pressure was fifth.

78

Principals overwhelmingly indicated that more planning would be
necessary in the future to bring about educational change.

Slate. Donald Lee, (EdS, Elementary Education, March
1980)

A COMPARISON OF STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT

USING A BASAL READER CENTERED

LANGUAGE ARTS PROGRAM AS OPPOSED TO

THE TRADITIONAL PROGRAM

The purpose of this research project was to compare the achievement of
students whose language arts instruction was centered around their basal
reading program with that of students being taught in a traditional
language arts program using the reader, language book, and speller in
separate sequences.

One hundred and one third grade students at Lithia Springs Elementary
School were given the Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills (reading and
language subtests) on September 25, 1978, and at the end of the year on
May 14, 1979. Complete data was obtained from 43 students in the control
group and 46 students in the experimental group.

The students in both groups were taught their language arts program foo
two hours each day for 140 days. The control group followed the
traditional method of instruction using separate reading, language and
spelling books. In the experimental group, the basal was the central
textbook for teaching reading, language and spelling skills.

The hypothesis tested in the study was that there would be no significant
difference in reading or in language achievement between students taught
using a basal-centered language arts program and students taught in a
traditional program.

The data obtained concerning reading and language achievement were
analyzed by using the analysis of covariance. Significance was measured at
the .05 level using a two-tailed F test. The difference in scores between the
groups was not significant on either the reading or language tests;
therefore, the hypothesis was not rejected. The results indicated no
difference in the effectiveness of basal-centered versus traditional language
arts instruction.

79

Smallwood, William Earl, (EdS, Elementary Education,
August, 1980)

A COMPARISON STUDY UTILIZING

DMP MATERIALS AND METHODS IN THE

TEACHING OF GEOMETRY IN THE

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

This study was an attempt to compare the achievement of students who
were taught geometry by three different methods.

During the eight weeks period from March 17, 1980 through May 30,
1980, three sixth grade groups at Ringgold Intermediate School,
Ringgold, Georgia were matched for ability and aptitude. This matching
was accomplished by noting mean IQ and aptitude scores. Then, within
each of three possible pairings of the three groups, individuals were
matched pairwise on the basis of their ability and aptitude. The three
teachers involved in the study taught their group for five fifty minute
periods each week over an eight weeks period.

One group of fifteen subjects became the experimental group which was
taught using only the Developing Mathematical Processes (DMP)
program. The control group, consisting of fifteen subjects, was taught
using the text Mathematics for Mastery published by Silver Burdett
Company. The comparison group, consisting of fifteen subjects, was
taught using both the text and the DMP program.

A pretest over circles and angles was administered to each group at the
same time by their teacher. A posttest similar in form, though more
extensive, was administered to each group simultaneously at the end of the
study by their teacher. An analysis of co-variance was the statistical
method used in the study. IQ was the covariate. Gain was the dependent
variable.

It was concluded that the comparison group using both the textbook
and the DMP methods scored higher than did either the experimental
groups using only the DMP methods or the control group using only the
textbook methods. The difference was significant at the .05 level of
significance.

80

Souza, Katherine McLeod, (EdS, Secondary Education,
March, 1980)

THE EFFECTS OF A SKILLS-BASED
READING PROGRAM ON EIGHTH-GRADE

READING SCORES ON THE
GEORGIA CRITERION-REFERENCED TEST

This study was conducted to determine what effect, if any, the use of a
skills-based reading program, published by Houghton Mifflin, had on
achievement on the reading section of the Eighth-Grade Georgia
Criterion-Referenced Test. The chi-square technique was used to test for
significant difference on each test objective between the comparison
group, the eighth-grade class of 1977 which had no separate reading
instruction in seventh or eighth grade, the Experimental Group A, the
eighth-grade only. It was also used to test for significant difference between
the comparison group and Experimental Group B, the eighth-grade class
of 1979 which had reading in the seventh and eighth grades. The test data
reported to the school by the Georgia Department of Education were
evaluated for three successive classes at a middle school in Cobb County,
Georgia. The study concluded that the use of the Houghton Mifflin
Reading Program did not have a significant effect on reading scores on the
Eighth-Grade Criterion-Referenced Test.

Swann, James Rocky, (EdS, Secondary Education, August,
1980)

A TEACHER'S GUIDE FOR TEACHING
TAYLOR COUNTY HISTORY

The purpose of this study is to make available to Taylor County social
studies teachers a resource guide which can be used in the preparation of a
unit or a course on Taylor County history. Since there has not been very
much interest in the past in local history, it is hoped that Taylor County
social studies teachers will use this guide when gathering and writing local
history to build an interest in local history among the young people. At
present there is only one history of Taylor County available. Hopefully this
guide will be beneficial in preparing new histories of Taylor County and in
providing students with new insights into their own past.

81

Sweatman, Carol C, (EdS, Administration and Supervision,
March, 1980)

A STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF A STAFF

DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM ON THE CHANGE IN

COMPETENCIES OF BEGINNING TEACHERS

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of staff
development on the improvement of teacher competencies as measured by
the Teacher Performance Assessment Instruments.

The null hypotheses stated in Chapter I were rejected by the results
shown in Tables I and II. The staff development offered by Griffin CESA
had a positive effect on the scores of teacher competencies as measured by
the Teacher Performance Assessment Instrument. This was shown by the
improvement measured by the total scores of the treatment group (Table
I), by the improvement of the scores in specific areas in which staff
development was taken by the treatment group (Table I), and by the
percentage of teachers who improved their scores after participating in
staff development (Table II).

Vickery, Edward R., (EdS, Administration and Supervision,
June, 1980)

WHAT CITIZENS IN CATOOSA COUNTY
SAY ABOUT THEIR SCHOOLS

Schools cannot exist apart from the communities in which they serve.
Decisions made by the schools concerning the education of children affects
the community in many ways, and it is important that citizens be informed
about the school's programs and that their input is sought when decisions
are to be made.

The purpose of this study was to determine the attitudes of citizens in
Catoosa County about their schools. Questionnaires were mailed to a
random sample of 30 1 persons on the Catoosa County voters' registration
list. A total of ninety-five questionnaires was returned; and responses from
these were analyzed and tabulated on the basis of age, sex, educational
level, school district, time of residence, and the number of children in
Catoosa County public schools.

Questions used on the survey instrument were patterned after those used
en a national survey by George Gallup in order to allow a comparison of
local attitudes with those nation-wide.

Results of the study indicate that local citizens rate their schools and
teachers about the same as the national group, assigning them a grade of
*'C." Catoosa County citizens indicated that schools today are not
providing students with an education equal to that of earlier schools.

82

Citizens rated discipline problems in the schools and the use of drugs
and alcohol as the two biggest problems facing our schools today. They
expressed by a larger margin that schools do not provide students with
adequate moral and ethical training.

Respondents were equally divided on whether the schools should
continue to offer a wide variety of courses or whether they should offer a
few, more basic courses. They were basically in agreement that extra-
curricular activities were important and felt that adequate attention was
being devoted to these activities. They were in agreement that vocational
education should be a part of the high school curriculum and also that a
college education was important. However, they did not express
satisfaction with the schools' college preparatory program.

A great majority of respondents indicated that the schools did not
provide them with enough information about the schools. Most of the
information they do receive was reported to come from friends and
students which indicates a clear need for an organized systematic program
of public information.

On the basis of the findings of this study, recommendations made to the
school system were ( 1 ) that there is a need for the school system to develop
a method for continuously determining the attitudes and opinions of
citizens about specific issues in our schools; and (2) that a systematwide
public relations program should be implemented to better inform the
public about their schools.

Wingo, W. Bruce, (EdS, Secondary Education, August, 1980)

THE WRITING OF

GEORGIA IN AMERICAN SOCIETY

This paper is an explanation of the reasoning behind and the process of
writing a new textbook dealing with the study of Georgia. It considers the
problems facing junior high school teachers who are forced to teach a
subject without the proper text. The paper then details the steps and
rationale behind the actual writing of a textbook designed for junior high
school students. Finally, the paper offers advice to teachers who decide to
write material for the classroom.

83

ANNUAL FACULTY BIBLIOGRAPHY
Claxton, Robert H.

Series editor. West Georgia College Studies in the Social Sciences.

Associate Editor, Annals of the South Eastern Council on Latin American
Studies (1980-1981).

"Climate and History: An Introduction," Environmental Review
Bibliographic Supplement III (1979-1980), pp. 89-103

"Drought in Nineteenth Century Venezuela," paper presented October 1 1,
1980, Pacific Coast Council on Latin American Studies, Laguna Beach.

"Notable Late-Season Guatemalan Rain Storms in Historic Perspective,"
paper presented November 24, 1980, South Eastern Division, Association
of American Geographers, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg.

Powell, Bobby

"Simulating Solar Eclipses" with George Bagwell, The Science Teacher 46
(April, 1979), 42.

"Combinations of Third-order Elastic Constants of Lead," with M.J.
Skove, Journal of Applied Physics 57 (June, 1980), 3433.

"Finite Deformations in Lead Filamentary Crystals," with M.J. Skove,
Bulletin of the American Physical Society 25 (February, 1980), 129
(abstract)

"A New Observatory" with Don Ethridge and Dennis Holt, Georgia
Journal of Science 38, (April, 1980), III. (abstract)

84

\o

/, /y

WEST GEORGIA COLLEGE

REV^W

Publis)

WEST GEORGIA COM^WGE

A Unit of the University System of Georgia
CARROLLTON, GEORGIA

WEST GEORGIA COLLECi

Volume XIV

May, 1982

WEST GEORGIA COLLEGE

REVIEW

Volume XIV May, 1982

TABU

OF/ ''':^^/^'&

Readability of Introductory Accounting Textbooks
G.A. Swanson and Al Hartgraves

India's Struggle To Eliminate Poverty

Lee Jan Jan 6

Tonal Contrasts in the Imagery of Robert Frost

Charles L. Daniel 12

Charisma in Literature: An Examination of Fictional Charismatic

Leadership Daniel Brantley 16

Abstracts of Master's Theses and Specialist in

Education Projects 25

Annual Bibliography of West Georgia College Faculty

as of January 1, 1981 71

Copyright c 1982, West Georgia College
Printed in U.S. A.

Published by
WEST GEORGIA COLLEGE

Maurice K. Townsend, President
John T. Lewis, III, Vice President and Dean of Faculties

Learning Resources Committee
Daniel Juengst, Chairman

Charles Beard Paul Masters

Spencer Hamada Elizabeth Phillips

Lynn Holmes Constance Poster

Wayne Kirk J.B. Smith

Benjamin Kennedy Lloyd Southern

Thomas Lightsey Burdette Wantland

Jimmy C. Stokes, Editor
Martha A. Saunders, Associate Editor
Mark J. LaFountain, Assistant Editor

The purpose of this publication is to provide encouragement for faculty
research and to make available results of such activity. The Review,
Published annually, accepts original scholarly work and creative writing.
West Georgia College assumes no responsibility for contributors' views.
The style guide is Kate L. Turabian's, A Manualfor Writers. Although tne
Review is primarily a medium for the faculty of West Georgia College,
other sources are invited.

An annual bibliography includes doctoral dissertations, major recitals
and major art exhibits. Theses and articles in progress or accepted are not
listed. A faculty member's initial listing is comprehensive and appears in
the issue of the year of his employment. The abstracts of all master's theses
and educational specialist's projects written at West Georgia College are
included as they are awarded.

READABILITY OF
INTRODUCTORY ACCOUNTING TEXTBOOKS

by G. A. Swanson* and Al Hartgraves**

A problem confronting accounting educators is the disproportionately
large number of student failures in introductory accounting courses.
(Similar problems are faced by educators in several other disciplines.)
Many reasons are offered to explain this problem: inexperienced and ill-
prepared graduate students often teach the course; better qualified
teachers are not challenged by this course; non-accounting majors do not
see the relevance of debits and credits to their planned careers; the
textbooks are difficult to understand, etc. Any scientific examination of
the introductory accounting course failure problem will invariably lead to
investigation of the three main components of the classroom learning
situation: the students, the teachers, and the instructional materials. All of
the elements which make up the accounting education scenario can be
empirically analyzed; however, this research is aimed only at examining
certain critical aspects of the textbooks used in teaching introductory
accounting.

If accounting is, in fact, the language of business as we accounting
educators like to declare to our beginning accounting students then our
instructional materials should be written to reflect this fact. At most
colleges and universities the introductory accounting course is taught at
the sophomore level and is usually the first experience the student has in
the study of business topics. Concepts and terms introduced in this course
are essential to the understanding of other business disciplines. If the
introductory accounting course is to be successful in its mission, first, the
textbooks used in the course must be written on a level compatible with the
reading level of the students and, secondly, must be written to teach the
language most often used in the world of business and industry.

Purpose

The purpose of this research was to evaluate selected textbooks used in
introductory accounting courses for compatibility with student reading
levels and for compatibility of word usage with vocabulary used in the
practical application of business administration.

No attempt was made to establish the actual reading levels of the sample
texts. Instead, we felt that it would be more meaningful for our purposes to
use the scores from selected readability tests to compare the relative
difficulty of the materials.

To evaluate the degree to which selected entry level texts use the
language that the students will face in the job market, we compared the

'Assistant Professor of Accounting, West Georgia College.
** Assistant Professor of Accounting, Emory University.

word usage in the texts to the business use word frequency list developed
by Devern Perry.

We are indebted to Professors Don Reese and Ray Smith of the
University of Tennessee for the use of their copyrighted "Analysis of Text
Material" computer program. Dr. Reese provided us with expert
consultation on the analysis of the textual material.

Background on Readability Studies

Readability measurement has been investigated and applied in
educational research for many years, using many different techniques.
Probably the most popular technique used in recent years is the Flesch
Reading Ease Score which measures written material based on average
sentence length and difficulty of the words used as measured by the
number of syllables.' Using a formula, a score is assigned to the reading
material which can be translated into the education level required to read
the material with ease. Numerous validation studies of the Flesch
readability formula have been conducted which slow high correlations
between readability as measured by the formula, and readership, readng
speed, comprehension, and retention.

The major weakness in the Flesch technique is its failure to consider the
appropriateness of the words used. Theoretically, a given passage could
score very highly using the Flesch technique, but in fact be totally
incomprehensible by the reader.

The Dale readability technique evaluates readability based on average
sentence length and whether or not the words used in the reading material
are on a list of the 3,000 most often used words.^,^ Like the Flesch score.
The Dale score is interpreted by comparing it to an education level scale. In
validation studies the developer found that his formula predictions
correlated .92 with judgments of readability experts, and .90 with the
reading grades of children and adults. A major weakness of the Dale
technique in evaluating reading material in business literature is that it is
based on a vocabulary of three thousand words used in general
conversation and communication.

As a part of a study at the University of North Dakota, Devern Perry
developed a list of 12,109 different words used in business letters,'* ranking
the words according to frequency of use. It is not intended to be a list of

'Flesch, Rudolph. How to Test Readabiliiy. New York: Harper* Brothers, 1951.

-Dale, Edgar and Chall, Jeanne S. "A Formula for Predicting Readability," Educational Research
Bulletin, January 21, 1948, pp. 1 1-20, 28.

'Dale, Edgar and Chall, Jeanne S. "A Formula for Predicting Readability: Instructions," f^/ufor/ow
Research Bulletin, February 18, 1948, pp. 37-46.

<Perry, Davern Jay. "An Analytical Comparison of the Relative Work Combination Frequencies of
Business Correspondence with Phrase Frequencies of Selected Shorthand Testbooks." Unpublished
dissertation. The University of North Dakota, 19

technical words, but includes such words as "the" and "your" which are
used with frequency in business correspondence. A break-down of the list
into the most frequently used 200 words, 500 words, 1,000 words, and
5,000 words gives the researcher greater precision in evaluating the
vocabulary of the reading material. The study included 2,061 business
letters with a total of 317,396 running words.

Methodology

The three tests of readability and word selection, previously discussed,
were applied to a total of twenty one-hundred-word textual samples from
six leading introductory textbooks. Three samples were selected from each
of the six textbooks, three of which were two-semester textbooks and three
of which were one-semester financial accounting textbooks.

The following section presents the results of the three readability and
word selection tests: the Perry Test, which evaluates only word selection;
the Flesch Test, which evaluates readability based on number of syllables
per word and number of words per sentence; and finally the Dale Test,
which evaluates readability based on word familiarity, number of syllables
per word and the number of words per sentence.

Perry Test

The Perry Test results are presented in Exhibit I which shows the percent
of the words in each sample which are included in Perry's first 200 words,
500 words, 1,000 words, and 5,000 words. Sample I of the Niwonger and
Fess text in Exhibit I would be interpreted as follows: 57% of the words
included in the sample are found in Perry's list of 200 most frequently used
words, 69% of the sample are found in the list of 500 most frequently used
words, etc. One of the difficulties in using the Perry list is the lack of
definitive standards for evaluating test results. The best available standard
is Perry's original list in which he found that the 10 most used words
comprised about 25% of the total words, the 100 most used words
comprised about 50% of the total words, and the 1,000 most used words
comprised about 75% of the total words. Applying Perry's original list to
the accounting textbook sample tests (Exhibit 1), it was observed that
about 50% of the sample words were included in the Perry 200 word list.
This finding suggests that, when compared with the Perry 100 word list, the
textbooks samples compare unfavorably with the 50% standard. However,
when compared with the Perry 1,000 word list, the textbook samples
compared favorably to the standard of 75%. Two-semester textbook
samples overall reflected somewhat higher percents than did the one-
semester texts, thus indicating better word selection by the two-semester
textbook authors.

Flesch Test

The Flesch Test results are presents in Exhibit II, along with a
presentation of the Flesch Formula. Note in the formula that the variable
values for the number of syllables per 100 words and the number of words

per sentence are subtracted from the constant 206.835. Therefore, the
greater number of syullables and the longer the sentences, the lower the
Flesch score. Accordingly, the lower the Flesch score (the reading ease
score), the more difficult the reading material.

Unlike the Perry tests, which seemed to favor two-semester books on the
basis of word selection, the Flesch tests indicated slightly greater reading
ease for the one-semester text overall, but the difference is too slight to be
conclusive. The overall difference is caused primarily by the substantial
spread between the Flesch scores for Niswonger/ Fess and Hobbs/ Moore.
The other texts scored quite closely to their sister publication (i.e.,
Meigs/Meigs with Meigs/Johnson and Welsch/ Anthony with
Pyle/ White Larson).

Dale Tests

Exhibit III presents the Dale Tests of the text samples. The Dale Test
evaluates readability against a standard vocabulary and on the basis of
sentence length. Notice in the Dale Formula on Exhibit III that the
variable values are added to the constant of 3.635; thus, unlike the Flesch
Score, the higher the Dale score, the more difficult the reading material.
The Dale tests indicated a higher level of readability (lower score) for the
two-semester texts than for the one-semester texts. More important is the
finding that under the Dale test every sample tested resulted in either a
"difficult" or "fairly difficult" rating. These would be comparable to " 11 -1 2
years" and "13-15 years" of reading achievement, respectively.

General Remarks

The most striking finding of this research is that the readability tests
conducted reflect generally a level of reading difficulty that is beyond the
reading skills of a large portion of the students taking introductory
courses. Conclusive data are not available concerning the reading level of
college students; however, every source examined on this issue indicated
that a substantial percentage of all college students possess a sub-college
reading level. The research presented in this paper suggests that most
students would be incapable of reading many accounting textbooks.

For purpose of evaluating the relative readability of alternative
textbooks, this research also suggests that caution should be exercised in
the use and interpretation of readability models. As evidenced here, the
various accepted models do not always produce similar results.
Consequently, we would suggest that in selecting and utilizing a model,
one should be certain that the measurement objectives and the readability
model used are compatible.

Another caveat should be mentioned. Undue reliance should not be
placed on any readability test; there are many important learning features
of textbooks which none of the accepted readability measures takes into
consideration. Moreover, there are many non-textbook factors (such as
supplementary materials) which may have an important impact on
learning.

Several observations and recommendations are appropriate in view of
the findings of this study. First, it should never be assumed that textbooks
are readable by the average student. On the contrary, evidence indicates
that many textbooks are too difficult for the intended student audience.
Consequently, it is important for college faculty and administrators to
exercise care in selecting textbooks to ensure that the difficulty level of the
text material matches the reading competency of the students.

Textbook authors play the critical role in determining the readability
level of textbooks. 5 Authors, therefore, should be particularly sensitive to
the reading competency of their intended audience and should adjust their
textual compositions accordingly. Textbook publishers also have an
important role in providing readable textbook materials. Although most
publishers often use readability tests to evaluate proposed new textbooks,
there is no evidence to suggest that publishers place high priority on
ensuring that textbooks are written at the appropriate readability level.
Most publishers base their acceptance of textbooks on the reviews and
recommendations of other faculty who are usually not qualified to
evaluate the readability of the material. We would recommend that
publishers take a more formalized approach to the evaluation of textbook
readability and that the reading level of new textbooks be determined by
the publisher and published in textbook promotion materials.

The readability problem obviously is not limited to specific courses or
disciplines; faculty and administrators in all disciplines should be aware of
the potential problem of incompatibility of text material and student
reading skills. Two of the tests illustrated in this article (the Flesch and
Dale Tests) can be used to evaluate readability in all disciplines. The Perry
Test, however, would be most appropriate only for business related
disciplines. With the aid of computer programs, evaluation of readability
is significantly simplified, making it practical for colleges and universities
to adopt readability level evaluation requirements for all new textbook
adoptions.

'Osborne, Donald L. and Barnes, Michael. "Reading Levels of Freshman and Sophomore students and
the Readability of Their Textbooks," Reading Improvement, Summer 1979, pp. 158-162.

INDIA'S STRUGGLE TO ELIMINATE POVERTY

by Lee Jan Jan*

When people who come from developed countries look at India, their
immediate impression is one of vast poverty. They see the majority of the
people suffering from hunger, ill health, and misery. They see the whole
country as technologically backward, people as uneducated or ignorant,
the government as disorganized and incompetent, religions and
philosophies as outmoded, impractical, and unable to adjust to the
survival of the contemporary world, and thus as a hindrance to progress.

The reactions to the above impression depend on the individual. Some
see great opportunity for business exploitation; the situation may provide
a market for low quality products, dated machinery or technology, while it
provides cheap labor and natural resources. Some worry that vast poverty
may be a good breeding ground for communism. The lack of technology to
defend the country may eventually lead it to become an incorporated part
of the communist block, which will present a great loss to the free world
because of its massive land and population. Some feel the living conditions
of the people are intolerable and inhumane. Some drastic improvements
need to be made, whether they come from the western industrial,
capitalistic model, or a bloody revolution along the Chinese communist
model.

With a group of fifteen college teachers the author participated in a
summer program titled "Social and Economic Development through
Science and Technology" in India. The program was sponsored by the

U.S. Educational Foundation in India, and the U.S. Department of
Education, and was managed by the Fulbnght House in India. As a group
we travelled through India for six weeks, visiting factories in the cities,
farm and cottage industries in rural areas and holding seminars with
academic and research institution faculties. We also visited different
governmental agencies and their projects.

Indeed, the author saw the kind of poverty that is well known: for
example, people living in the streets in Calcutta with only a faucet on the
sidewalk providing water for their drinking, cooking, and other
necessities. It rained the night we arrived in Calcutta. Those people had tc
roll up their belongings and stand under the eaves. The author also saw
families living under upside down boats on the beach in Bombay, against a
background of skyscrapers. There were also families living for years in the
lobbies and on the platforms of railroad stations in Bombay and Delhi
with no hope of finding a place to stay. In the rural areas most people were
living in straw huts, with mud walls and floors, a few pots and pans for
carrying water and cooking, and a bed roll to sleep on.

Assistant Professor of Sociology, West Georgia College

6

According to Professor Nilakantha Rath, joint director of the Gokhale
Institute of Politics and Economics (GIPE) at Pune, 40% of India's
population live under a condition of subsistence, which means they can
only survive and do not have adequate nutrition. Fish and meat are beyond
the means of the majority of the people. The annual per capita income was
about $146 in 1975-1976.

The problem of poverty as seen by Professor Rath exists because 70% of
India's population depend on agriculture for a living and land resources
are limited, with no virgin land to be developed. The alternative, to
increase per acre unit production, is not very successful because of the lack
of technology and irrigation. The agricuUural growth rate has been 2.6%
for the past thirty-year period. Unemployment is very high. Professor
Rath considers the current estimation of unemployment inadequate and
grossly underestimated. According to the Statistical Outline of India there
are 12.7 million currently registered job seekers. Professor K. Dandekar,
also of GIPE, thinks the problem of poverty and unemployment is
certainly aggravated by an ever growing population, from 641 million in
1978-1979, to 654 million in 1979-1980, an increase of 13 million in one
year's time, while food grains production was down from 131.4 million
tons in 1978-1979 to 122 million tons in 1979-1980. To alleviate the
problem, Professor Dandekar indicated that population control through
family planning is the most urgent measure. Family planning had not been
very successful until the 1975 Emergency was declared; when
administrative efficiency was tightened and coercive measures were used,
the effectiveness of family planning improved appreciably. Overall, before
the Emergency, the percentage of couples protected from pregnancy by
sterilization was 12.4% and by all methods together was 15.7% while
during the Emergency, the percentage of couples protected by sterilization
was 20.4% and by all methods was 23.5%. After the Emergency the
percentage decreased: 19.8% of the couples were protected by sterilization
and 21.6% by all methods. However, this and other policies of the
government caused Mrs. Gandhi and the ruling Congress Party to lose the
1977 election. Professor Dandekar felt force, as used in the Emergency,
could work only to a certain degree, and once relaxed, old habits tend to
return. She also hoped that all political parties could come together at least
on certain programs such as family planning, and let elections not be fought
on issues of such importance to the country. Also needed is a commitment
by political parties that certain freedoms of the individual will not be
tampered with; people can be helped in desired directions with constant,
gradual educative processes. Meanwhile the infant mortality rate has to be
reduced; female literacy and the status of women in the household and
society have to be raised.

Professor Patvardhan and Professor Rath of GIPE discussed the
possibiity of increasing production by using science and technology. The
problem here was that the proper science and technology have to be
developed and transmitted to the people who use them. The expedient way

7

is by importing the science and technology that suit the needs of the
country to begin with; later through imitation, assimilation, adaptation,
the way may eventually lead to indigenous science and technology.
However, there are many pitfalls in this approach. Imported technologies
are primarily designed to suit the domestic demand and conditions in
developed countries, in particular the life styles and capital-rich labor-
scarce situation. When transferred to developing countries these
technologies tend to restrict the employment that is generated by
investments in industrialization; this increasing unemployment,
particularly in rural areas, aggravates inequalities and poverty.

Developed countries have met the minimum needs of the majority of
their population. They are now focused on increasing levels of affluence,
concentrating on luxury products, which are ever changing in appearance
and form, but similar in function and content. As a result of this type of
consumption, unnecessary resource depletion becomes inevitable. The
experience of developing countries with this type of technology shows that
when foreign technologies take root, they can succeed only in creating
small pockets of developed-county-like environments amidst vast areas of
deprivation. The benefits of the imported technology tend to be restricted
to small sections of the population without trickling down to the poor
majority.

Another problem is that reliance on pure growth in terms of gross
national product, without consideration of the specific nature of the goods
and services that are produced and of the sections of society that enjoy
these products, has often meant increasing disparities between the rich and
poor, and between urban and rural areas. One should not neglect the social
(distributive) justice which is a necessary element that accompanies
growth.

Developing countries seeking political independence and self-reliance
have to keep in mind the following when they are importing technology: ( 1 )
the tendency of the technology suppliers to use it as a tool to influence or
control the recipients in all other aspects of their activities; and (2) the
tendency of the technology supplier to exploit and restrict the growth of
indigenous technology, when collaboration is under the restrictive
conditions.

There are also debates on what type of science and technology should
have priority. Faculty members and researchers we talked to held different
views. Some felt that the kind of technology that would directly benefit the
people in general should have the higher priority. For example, researchers
in the Indian Institute of Management in Ahmedabad stress bio-gas
technology, which enables multiple and efficient use of waste material, like
cowdung. Because it is indigenous, simple and useful, it can benefit the
people in general, especially the people living in rural areas, who are the
majority. It can also cut down the reliance on imported oil. Some more
extreme researchers working with this technology view the highly technical

8

sophisticated space program and some fundamental research as irrelevant.
But scientists and faculty members working at the Indian Space Research
Organization and Space Application Center in Ahmesdabad, Tata Institute
of Fundamental Research, BhaBha Atomic Research Center in Bombay,
amd Jadavpur University in Calcutta, defend their position by arguing
that India needs to keep pace with the world's scientific development. India
also needs to retain and develop its scientists by providing them with a
congenial working and learning environment. Otherwise India will suffer
as even more severe brain drain than currently exists. Besides, scientific
and technological independence can be achieved only by developing sound
indigenous fundamental science, and national security is tightly tied to
space programs.

In the process of making science take root and flourish in a country and
benefit the population, not only does a scientific or technological elite
group have to be established, the general public also has to be made aware
of the issues in order to provide support. The public also has to be educated
to be able to utilize the technology. Education becomes again a
prerequisite to the success of development of science and technology.

In education the first problem encountered in India is the diversity of
languages and low literacy rate. According to Pundalik, Professor of
Sociology at the University of Poona, there are sixteen linguistic states in
India, with sixteen major languages and 2,000 dialects. There are six
official written languages, not including English which is also an official
language. The literacy rate is about 40%, which means individuals who
know any one of the above mentioned official written language would be
considered literate. Two percent of the population know English. Many of
the elementary schools we visited first teach pupils in their particular local
language, and beginning in fourth grade, introduce English.

The diversity of language makes unitorm education and evaluation of
achievement more difficult and costly. In addition, the low literacy rate
makes knowledge and technological information diffusion and
transmission through mass communication media difficult. India also
faces the same problem as developed countries the uneven distribution of
qualified teachers leaves the rural areas underserved. Currently 80% of
school age children enter primary school; 10% of them enter high school;
and 70% of the high school graduates enter college. Formal education is
one of the most important routes for the advancement of social status.
Because of India's liberal arts tradition in higher education, there is a
surplus of intellectual elites, but a shortage of technical personnel.

A single unified language certainly has advantages, but due to political
and other technical factors it is not possible in the foreseeable future. It
also may have undesirable effects. Language is the main vehicle in carrying
on the culture. Therefore the elimination of other languages may also
eliminate some of those distinct cultures, resulting in a significant loss of
the richness of Indian culture.

Besides all the practical considerations in the development of science
and technology to solve the problem of poverty, there are also
philosophical considerations. India basically has a non-materialistic
culture, as exemplified by the late Mahatma Gandhi. He believed the
economic progress in industrial civilation clashed with real progress. Real
progress is spiritual and moral growth, and this is the path that leads to
happiness, because happiness is largely a mental condition. The modern
industrial civilization can only increase material comforts, which are not
conducive to moral growth, because they lead to an ever expanding pursuit
of material desire and a system of life-corroding competition and
propagation of immorality.

The legacy of this cultural tradition can be seen among the people we
met on the streets and the people we visited in their homes. The
conversations usually centered around some religious or philosophical
issue, sometimes politics, but rarely concerning material things. Some of
the homes we visited belong to very rich families. They were owners of
factories and big hotels, but the home and furnishings were very simple.
Those people certainly have the money to live more extravagantly. The
reason for not doing so was not that they do not know differently; they do,
as they have travelled to the U.S. and some other parts of the world and
have seen luxurious things. They chose not to, because of their
philosophical and religious beliefs. They believed in minimizing material
gains and keeping life simple. This general attitude is not compatible with
technological development.

India's frame of reference about time is a very expansive one. They feel
change, if it ever happens, should be gentle and gradual. It probably takes
generations. They do not believe in drastic changes. The peace-loving
Hindu religion and Gandhi's doctrine of non-violence certainly prohibit
violent or bloody change.

Even though India has a tradition of empire and a caste system, the
empire was never strongly united. The people in different states and local
villages have their own autonomous organizations, governing their own
business. The caste system now actually serves the function of helping
lower caste people gain upward mobility by block voting and social
reform. However, the caste system is gradually breaking down, due to
social mobility (horizontal and vertical) and governmental regulations,
such as the Untouchability Offences Act of 1955, which prohibits any kind
of social, occupational, or business discrimination.

India is working on its problems. Our group saw governmental projects
in revitalizing the slum areas in Calcutta. We saw community organization
work in the villages near Bangalore. We saw different irrigation and
agricultural projects. We saw bio-gas, crop improvement, and nuclear and
space research in different institutions. The most impressive aspect is the
enthusiasm and pride the people take in what they are doing.

In visiting the industries, we talked to the employers and emplo>es.

10

There appears to be more harmony than conflict between them. Employers
seem to have a genuine concern for the employee, and therefore more
devotion from the employees. In visiting schools, we saw bi-lingual
instruction and children proud that they have the ability to speak more
than one language.

These are very encouraging signs. India will find its way, at its own pace.
There is no need for people from the so-called developed countries to come
in to make hasty suggestions about what India should do, while ignoring
their own social problems such as poverty, discrimination, environmental
pollution, and energy depletion at home. India is not going to be an
aggressor, as it has never been one. India is also too big to be conquered.
India is not going to become a communist country either, because India's
culture is not compatible with violence and dictatorship.

11

Tonal Contrast in the Imagery of Robert Frost

by Charles L. Daniel*

That Robert Frost was skilled at creating imagery is apparent to even the
casual reader of his work. Good imagery was so important to him that
often he constructed a poem around a central image, and he used imagery
as a vehicle to carry meaning. An examination of his imagery shows several
aspects to be important, but none is more important than the visual. His
imagery leads the reader to see clearly and realistically. Further
examination of this aspect reveals an interesting use of some qualities of
color to produce the impressions he sought.

Basically, Frost's visual imagery relies on tone more than on hue. That
is to say he relies more on light and dark or white and black to create his
imagery than on other colors in the spectrum. He was fond of the black and
white drawings of his friend, J. J. Lankes, and seemed to prefer pictures
which emphasize line more than color. Kathleen Morrison says that Frost
was color blind.' An inability to distinguish colors or an insensitivity to
hues might have influenced his reliance on tone. Whatever Frost's physical
visual condition, however, he used tonal contrast in an artistic and creative
way which provides initial delight to the reader and establishes an avenue
into experience from which wisdom later emerges.

All of this is not to say that the reader never finds a reference to hue in
Frost's imagery, but such references do not aid the poet in conveying the
nuances of human experience in nearly as important a capacity as does
tone. When Frost deals with hue, it is often in a stereotyped way as with the
"universal blue" and "local green" of "The Middleness oftheRoad,"2orin
a matter-of-fact way as in the phrase "a paste of pigment in our eyes" used
to describe a rainbow in "Iris by Night." He sometimes ascribes color to
ephemeral objects such as flowers or butterflies, and at least once he shows
color to be only an illusion, when in "Blueberries" he demonstrates that the
berries are not blue, but black. ^ "Fragmentary Blue" perhaps reveals most
clearly his attitude toward hue. In this poem he discusses the color blue
(and perhaps by implication also other vivid hues). He says that blue
belongs to heaven, not earth, and that in flower or bird or butterbly our
desire is whetted for more."* Hue, however, comes to man only in minuscule
ways, lying really beyond his ability to understand or experience
significantly in this life, and Frost does not delve very deeply into any

Associate Professor of English, Valdosta State College.

'Kathleen Morrison, Robert Frost: A Pictorial Chronicle (New York: Holt, 1974), p. 34.

'Robert Frosl, Complete Poems of Robert Frost (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1964, p. 547.

Mbid., p. 78

Mbid., p. 267.

12

other. Hue, then, might help to mark the boundaries of man's sensations,
but it does not enter into his experience in an integral way as does his
awareness of tonal variations.

For Frost, tonal extremes denote ultimates in man's experience. He
sometimes uses tonal contrasts to portray permanent or constantly
recurring elements. Dark and light or black and white and gradations of
these tones are always with us. A sunset may or may not be brilliant red.
but shades of gray are always there. Night and light are constants. Summer
or winter human experience finds that tones remain and hues disappear.
Night, is, of course, a recurring reality. For one living in New England, so
also is snow. Frost often creates vivid tonal contrast by picturing night and
snow together. In "The Onset" the contrast is underlined when "gathered
snow lets down as white/ As may be in dark woods. "^ It should be noted
that this contrast occurs always "on a fated night." The snowfall, then, is a
predetermined fact in man's existence.

"Desert Places" begins with the same two elements, "Snow ailing and
night falling fast, oh, fast."^ Here, however, another consideration of tone,
especially of tonal contrast, is important. Frost uses the extremes of tone,
dark and white, in an almost contradictory way to signify the whole of
man's experience. That is, he uses opposites to create unity. If one goes as
far as his experience will allow in one direction and then the same in the
opposite direction, he finds himself at the same point. Man's life is lived in
the fluctuation between the extremes or in a consideration of them both at
once as in the poem above. Here both night and snow represent loneliness:
"And lonely as it is that lonliness/ Will be more lonely ere it will be less/ A
blanker whiteness of benighted snow/ With no expression, nothing to
express."'' A blank whiteness is relatively the same as a blank darkness. It
should be noted too that this is "benighted snow "( italics mine) and that the
night and the snow both fall on man as if they emanated from a common
place. In "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening," these two elements
appear again. Here, however, man's mood is somewhat different. Here
"The woods are lovely, dark, and deep."^ The snow that is filling up the
woods adds to their loveliness, and by contrast points up their darkness,
but still the two elements unite to create their impression of loveliness, and
an aesthetic unity pervades the scene.

Light and dark function in a most interesting way to create a sense of
unity also in two other Frost poems "Come In" and "Take Something
Like a Star." In the former poem, categories of light and dark are sharply

'Ibid., p. 278.
"Ibid., p. 386.
'Ibid., p. 386.
Mbid., p. 275.

13

drawn in the image of an open starry sky on the one side and the dark
woods on the other. The thrush's song from deep within the woods
beckons to the poet to "come in/ To the dark and lament, "^ but he chooses
the Hght of the stars instead. Here, then, the opposite symbolic natures of
light and dark seem to be emphasized along with their counterparts in the
moods of man. It appears that unity is lacking. Darkness symbolizes man's
lamentation; light, his joy. But just as this dichotomy of symbolism seems
to have worked itself out, an artistic ambiguity is noticed which destroys
the simplicity of the apparent categories. The third stanza of the poem
reads "The last of the light of the sun/ That had died in the west/ Still lived
for one song more/ In a thrush's breast. "'<' The light of the sun, then, is j
transmuted in the bird's breast to a song which "shines" out of the i
darkness. It is light in the darkness of the woods just as the stars are light in
the darkness of the night sky outside a true unity since the parts of the
dichotomy which seemed opposite are now found to be the same. Further
ambiguity of the symbolism occurs also. If we consider the darkness to
symbolize lamentation and light to symbolize joy, the "light" of the bird's
song puzzles us because it is an invitation not to joy but to enter the dark
and be sad. Light and dark are both important parts of man's sensation,
but they are so melded in his experience that he cannot separate them so as
to choose one and not the other. He chooses light only to find that he has
also chosen darkness and that the darkness he has rejected contains light.
A similar relationship occurs in "Take something Like A Star" in which
Frost says to the star, "We grant your loftiness the right/ To some
obscurity of cloud /It will not do to say of night/ Since dark is what
brings out your light."' ' Here the poet openly states the paradox: opposites
do not cancel out each other, but each makes it possible for the other to
exist a converging of opposites into a unified experience.

Besides the representation of permanence and unity, however,
references to tonal extremes convey a sense of the supernatural. Such
references are always vague in Frost. They lie, however, within the scope of
man's experience and thoughts, if not within reach of his understanding.
Images of this sort occur in three poems: "For Once, Then, Something,"
"A Loose Mountain" and "Design." In "For Once, Then, Something" an
observer looking down a well sees a white substance beneath the water. He
is puzzled as to whether it is truth, a pebble of quartz, or something else. He
cannot discern its nature, and the reader is left with an impression that it
lies beyond the observer's understanding. In "A Loose Mountain," the
poet speasks of light coming from a night sky in the form of the star

'Ibid., p. 446.
'"Ibid., p. 575.
"Ibid., p. 487.

shower, Leonid. He interprets these "Hghts" as ammunition used by some
mysterious, heartless and enormous power which he calls "Outer Black"'^
who holds sovereignty over night. This power pelts the lights at mankind
because man has used artificial light to combat the darkness. The character
of the "Outer Black," however, is never developed beyond vagueness. Thus
white in one poem and black in the other symbolize the supernatural. In
addition to these references one of Frost's most interesting images, comes
in the poem "Design." Frost uses white in this image as a symbol of death in
a way reminiscent of the use Melville made of white in "The Whiteness of
the Whale" in Moby Dick. The reader is told explicitly that part of the
white in this image is an abnormal white in that the "blue and innocent
heal-all"'^ plant has turned white for some unknown reason. The scene is
made up of three components the heal-all, a snow-drop spider, and a
white moth. The spider is on the heal-all holding the moth. Frost calls them
all "characters of death and blight. "He then asks what brought them
together, suggestmg that it was a "design of darkness." Again, however,
this reference to a malevolent supernatural force is left vague. Although it
functions at the center of man's experience and man observes it, he does
not understand it.

It is apparent, then, that although Frost emphasizes hue occasionally in
his imagery, it suggests elements which are ephemeral, illusory, or
unimportant to man's experience; and hue is often presented in a
stereotyped or matter-of-fact way. On the other hand. Frost relies on tone
and especially tonal contrast as material from which to create imagery
which captures the reader's attention and leads him ultimately to the
meaning of the poem. The image delights the reader with its realism and
accuracy. He loses himself in the vision and gives attention totally to the
elements of the image. These elements symbolize important qualities in
man's experience. They remind him of factors which are permanent or
which recur regularly to him; they give him a satisfying insight into an
underlying unity in opposites; or they lead him through these real elements
in his experience to the limits of his understanding, forcing him to leave his
mind open to the existence to the limits of forces both within and beyond
his experience. His delight in the image, then, leads him to the wisdom of
the poem; and Frost relies largely on the tonal qualities of black and white
to create that imagery.

i^lbid., p, 396.

15

CHARISMA IN LITERATURE:

AN EXAMINATION OF

FICTIONAL CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP

by Daniel Brantley*

"Charisma in Literature" is intended to present, within the brief space of
an article, a concrete analysis of two novels, The Brothers Karamazov and
1984. The significance of these works is that they provide insights
regarding charisma. However, prior to the consideration of the two novels'
portrayal of charismatic leadership, a brief general statement about the
charismatic individual in literature is in order.

The phenomenon of charisma is mentioned in many works of fiction,
although the term "charisma" and "charismatic" are rarely applied to the
characters and their relations with and among each other.

In the Bible there is the charismatic leadership of the prophets, judges,
God-anointed-kings, messiahs, and apostles. Ancient sources for
charismatic tales are the recorded deeds of great heroes. There are, for
instance, the epics of Homer (the Illiad and Odyssey), Vergil's Aeneid,
Germanic sagas, Celtic tales, and poems by unknown poets such as
Beowulf and Song of Roland.

In the early history of charismatic literature, the most frequently
repeated story is of a hero, usually a warrior, who is extraordinarily brave.
Hercules is a prototype of this figure. A charismatic legend, as any legend
or myth, relies little on authenticity for its effectiveness. The meaning of a
legend is related to the core of a community's self-perception. It is the
community's truth, a truth which at times is sacrilegious or fatal to
question. The heroes one admires give forth myths spontaneously:
Plutarch notes in his Noble Lives that without Achilles and the Illiad,
Alexander the Great would not have undertaken the conquest of the East.
Youth has always recognized the charismatic quality of certain fictional
characters and some youths have adopted them as their models, and
sometimes in maturity (for example, Alexander the Great and Napoleon
Bonaparte) have had the inspiration to realize their dream of becoming
heroes themselves.

When myths particularly of the hero variant become spent and lose
their efficacy, they often are written down and become literature. The
process involves the collection of myths and legends and their
classification as mythology. Poets shape mythology into sagas or epics,
and priests incorporate its substance into holy books to nourish a religion.
Where they are part of an oral tradition, they become the tales told by the
elders, who introduce them into the realm of folklore.

Assistant Professor of Political Science, West Georgia College

16

Here, the concern is with two fictional treatments of charisma. In the
case of Dostoyevsky's Grand Inquisitor and Christ Jesus, the conflict is
between revolutionary and institutionalized charisma. On the other hand,
Orwell's Big Brother raises the issue of whether or not charisma can be
artificially created.

In The Brothers Karamazov, Fyodor Dostoyevsky presents the reader
with two views of charisma in the prisoner and the Inquisitor,
respectively, the revolutionary charisma of the extraordinarily endowed
individual with a mission and the individual who holds a charismatic
office. '

"The Grand Inquisitor" is a story within a story. It is a parable told by
Ivan Karamazov, the protagonist, who is an intellectual and atheist. Ivan is
concerned with the answers to two questions: does humanity still need a
savior? Can mankind still signify to it that which primarily makes a savior
(charismatic leader) of him? Ivan beUeves the answers to both questions
are no. And, he tells the tale of "The Grand Inquisitor" to his borther
Alyosha, a priest, in order to convince him of the impossibility of
revolutionary religious leadership in today's world.

In Ivan Karamazov's vision of the resurrected Christ, the charismatic
founder of Christianity is not allowed to speak, because the Inquisitor has
told "Him He hasn't the right to add anything to what He has said of old. "^
Moreover, the Inquisitor, as the representative of established authority
(political as well as religious), rejects Christ because Christ constitutes a
threat to the status quo. Christ is told that he is no longer needed by
humanity. Christ gave an example to mankind; this is what the church too
has done. The difference between the two examples is that the church's
example (its teaching about salvation) is more easily obtainable than
Christ's. Therefore, the church by setting a new lower standard has made it
possible for men and women to believe that they are able to obtain
salvation if they would conform to its dogma. Thus, according to the
Inquisitor, a majority of people are happy for the first time because the
church places salvation within the reach of most people. This was not the
case when Christ originally shared his inspiration. That inspiration, an
ideal, succeeded in frustrating people. The Inquisitor makes clear to Christ
that the church will not permit him to undo the good that it has achieved.
Christ's insistance on salvation on the old terms would only disappoint and
make unhappy a majority of humanity, and he will not find followers as
readily as before.

There is, of course, reason to challenge the judgment of the Inquisitor
with respect to Christ's chances of generating a new charismatic leader-

' Fyodor Dostoyevsky. The Brothers Karamazov , translated by Constance Garnett (New York: Random
House, 1933).

^Ibid., p. 260.

17

follower authority relationship. The charismatic criterion was established
by Max Weber, a major figure in modern sociological literature. Weber
judged authority relationships by their source, that is, the power wielded
by a charismatic leader is derived from a source of different from that of a
traditional ruler, be he a tyrant or a king, and equally different from the
power of a leader selected by means of leagal/ rational procedures. ^ Weber
in his work recognizes that charismatic authority is a type of rulership
resting on popular enthusiasm and acceptance of its existence. As such, it is
fundamentally different from the other two types of authority deah with by
Weber, namely, traditional and rational-legal. There are passages in "The
Grand Inquisitor" which clearly point to the fact that people of the
Inquisitor's time believe that they still need a savior or charismatic leader.
Ivan's resurrected Christ, who comes softly and unobserved, is recognized
as a charismatic figure. According to Ivan, the crowd's response is both
charismatic and spontaneous: the people are irresistibly drawn to him,
they welcome him with cries of hosanah, and they expect him to perform
miracles, and he performs the miracle of raising a child from the dead.'* The
charismatic response of the crowd is witnessed by the Inquisitor, who, in
Ivan's own words, "sees everything. "^

Yet the inquisitor is not impressed with what he has seen. Indeed, he
orders the arrest and imprisonment of the man who only moments before
had awed the crowd, who has in a very short time (a matter of hours)
turned a mob, which had gathered to watch the burning of heretics, into a
charismatic following. Because of Christ's own silence the reader will never
know why Christ allowed himself to be taken and made a prisoner.
Perhaps this question is not important, at least not as important as the
question which deals with why the crowd allowed its charismatic leader to
be taken away from it. The answer to this question is suggested by the
Inquisitor, "man was," according to the Inquisitor, "created a rebel; and
how can rebels be happy?"* The Inquisitor believes he has the answer. He
says:

There are three powers, three powers alone able to conquer and hold
captive for ever the conscience of these impotent rebels for their
happiness these forces are miracles, mystery and authority. Thou
[addressing Christ] has rejected all three and hast set the example for
doing so.^

And he points out to his prisoner that the church controls and uses all
three. This is the reason the Inquisitor was able to take Christ, the crowd's

'The theoretical framework for charisma is derived from Weber's general analysis of domination
discussed in his book. The Theory of Social and Economic Organization, translator not named (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1947).

^Dostoyevsky, The Brothers Karamazov, pp. 258-259.

'Ibid.

Ibid., p. 260.

^bid., p. 264.

18

leader, without it rebelling, because to do so would involve an act of
disobedience to authority. Authority is one of three forces represented by
the Inquisitor as a spokesman of the church and state.

There are several meanings of "The Grand Inquisitor." Two of these
meanings are offered below: these are the psychological and conflict
explanations.

In psychological terms, James Downtown attempts an explanation of
the story. Downton states:

A charismatic relationship can develop when a leader exchanges
affection, encouragement, and security for deference and affection.
Here the charismatic leader is the 'comforter.' For example,
Dostoyevsky's 'grand inquisitor' is a literary sketch of this type of
charismatic leader. In such a relationship the leader reduces the
distance between the follower's ego and ego-ideal by supporting his
ego.*

What is implied here is that the Inquisitor's charisma is related to his office.
His mission, and that of the church, is to spread the charismatic inspiration
of Christ. Jesus Christ, who is identified as the "ego-ideal," established too
high an ideal for many (individual "egos") to obtain. As a consequence the
church eliminated the frustration experienced by those who seek salvation
by changing the teaching, emphasizing dogma and conformity to the
church as "keys" to salvation. In the process of easing this frustration, the
church's officials, like the Inquisitor, are seen as "comforters."

As indicated by Downton's analysis, "The Grand Inquisitor" is a
complex tale, which requires probing to arrive at the insights it has to offer
to the concept of charisma and charismatic authority. Still another view is
that the story is nothing more or less than a conflict between personal and
institutional manifestations of charisma. The conflict perspective is the
one preferred by the article's author.

Like the psychological dimension described by Downton, the conflict of
opposing types of charisma is not on the surface: one has to look for it. The
story is a monologue. As previously stated, only one of the two characters
speaks, and he is the Inquisitor. However, once the reader accepts tne
prisoner and his jailer as representatives of two different kinds of charisma
{viz., personal and institutionalized charisma), support for the conflict
thesis is easy to find. A conflict exists by virtue of Christ's presence back on
earth. His return means the end of both the church's spiritual mission and
secular power. The Inquiaitor informs Christ that the church is not
prepared to give up either, mission or power. This being the case, it might
be argued that the InquisitOF is not motivated alone by the desire to see the
church continue its role as "comforter." He wishes also to protect the status

'James Downton, Jr., Rebel Leadership: Commitment and Charisma in the Revolutionary Process
(New York: The Free Preu, 1973), p. 78.

If

Christ has returned. Simply put, the point is that a conflice exists because
the two types of charisma cannot peacefully co-exist, since they claim the
same following.

Having dealt with the presence of conflicting charismatic types in
literature, the discussion now turns to a consideration of how a "staged
personality" may be fostered on a people as a "charismatic" one. In
Georgie Orwell's 1984, a charismatic leader. Big Brother, is described. Big
Brother adds a new dimension to charisma in literature.' Big Brother's so-
called charismatic qualities seem to be wholly artificial. A theme of the
novel is that a leader's charisma may be the end-product of a manipulation
of the psyches of the nation-state so subtle as to render the people
programmed: a programmed population is analogous to the "continued"
protagonist in 1984, who at the book's conclusion uncontrollably shrieks
"long live Big Brother" even as he despises him.

However, before one describes the "charisma" of Big Brother and the
implication this has for Weber's charisma theory, a brief discussion of the
novel is in order. The novel 1984 is a work of science fiction, although some
critics have said it is not science fiction because of the lack of fictional
extrapolation into the immediate future. For them the political and
economic picture of 1984 resembles ideologies and conditions as they are.
Yet every one who has read it would say that the novel has given to the year
1984 a crucial significance it would not otherwise have. In commenting on
this book, Orwell has stated:

My novel 1984 is not intended as an attack on socialism, or on
the British Labor Party, but as a show-up of the perversions to
which a centralized economy is liable ... I do not believe that
the kind of society I describe necessarily will arrive, but I
believe . . . that something resembling it could arrive.'"

According to the information the reader is given in the novel, the
oligarchic system prevailing at the time of the story began as a popular
movement, but developed into an oligarchy as a result of ideology and
interests. There is no mention made of the role charisma may have had in
the movement and the revolution that overthrew the English
parliamentary system. The reader is told that a popular movement,
INSOGOC or the English Socialist party, turned into an elitist hierarchical
structure after it came to power. Because the party turned into a rigid
bureaucracy, the evolution which occured in government itself occured in
other social institutions. The political theory is asserted that effective

'George Orwell, 1984 (New York: Signet Classic, 1961).

'"Quoted in Samuel Hynes, ed.. Twentieth Century Interpretation of 1984: A Collection of Critical
Esifl^-j (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hill, Inc., 1971), p. 45.

20

power will always be in the hands of the few. This means that the leaders
are an oligarchy, separated from the average citizen, and possess total
political control. According to social policy in 1984, one of the Party's
most important functions is perpetuating a hierarchical society in which
less than two per cent of the population belong to the Inner party, thirteen
per cent of the Outer Party, eighty-five per cent to the Proletariat. The
story deals with the relationship between Smith, the protagonist and Outer
Party member, and O'Brien, a high ranking Inner Party member. O'Brien
is more clever and more cultures than Smith, and he is committed to the
pursuit of power. In O'Brien's words, "Power is not a means, it is an end."' '

O'Brien and Smith's relationship resembles that between the Inquisitor
and his prisoner in Dostoyevsky's "The Grand Inquisitor." In both stories
the authority figure has imprisoned an mdividual whose "individualism"
signifies threat to the status quo. The status quo itself is legitimated on the
basis of charisma, and the powers-that-be value conformity above
individual responsibility and action. In 1984 political conformism is
objectified in the "conversion" of Smith in room 101 where he received
electric shock treatment and in the philosophical and political
conversations between Smith and O'Brien. In the end Smith is converted,
that is, he loves Big Brother. The futility of human efforts is the theme of
the "Grand Inquisitor" and 1984. In Dostoyevsky's tale the futility of
human efforts explains the need for the routinization of charisma and why
a charismatically inspires dogma might oppose a new manifestation of
charisma. Orwell's view of the authoritarian state which has a charismatic
symbol suggests that individual efforts Smith's attempt to revolt against
Big Brother appear to deny man's hope of meaningful political
participation.

Big Brother, a fictional figure, symbolizes the society of Oceanic in 1984.
In appearance he is a man of about forty-five, with a heavy black mustache
and ruggedly handsome features. His face is posted everywhere in Oceania:
an enormous face a meter wide. His position is party leader. His image is
shown at the conclusion of the daily Two Minute Hate, a propaganda
movie which changes from day to day. The face of Big Brother, the symbol
of authority and goodness, is juxtaposed with Emmanuel Goldstein, the
enemy of the people. Orwell describes a typical follower's perception of
and reaction to Big Brother's image during the showing of a Two Minute
Hate:

Big Brother seemed to tower up, an invincible, fearless
protector, standing like a rock against the hordes of Asia . . .

The face of Big Brother . . . full of power and mysterious
claim . . . (his) words of encouragement . . . resorting confidence
by the fact of being spoken. '^

nQrwell, 1984, p. 217.
'2|bid., pp. 16-17.

21

In the novel, there is evidence of charismatic response, such as, a woman
calHng Big Brother, "My savior." The hero worship of Big Brother is
evident by his image on coins, on stamps, on covers of books, on banners,
on posters, and on the wrappings of cigarette packages in short,
everywhere. '3

The above is evidence of charisma and the charismatic leadership of a
state. Orwell writes that "Oceanic society rests uUimately on the belief that
Big Brother is omnipotent and that the Party is infalliable. But since in
reality Big Brother is not omnipotent and the Party is not infaUible, there is
need for . . . moment-to-moment flexibility in the treatment of facts."'''

There can be little doubt that the Party, the ruling elite, carefully
manipulates the image of a charismatic leader in order to elicit maximum
support from the citizenry for its political goals. But, the questions
remains, is Big Brother a charismatic figure? There can, of course, be no
conclusive answer to this question, since Max Weber did not divide
charisma into two categories, false and real. Yet, obviously, the reader
cannot call Big Brother's charisma a case of false charisma, because there is
no such concept. But still, the reader must deal with the fact that Big
Brother is not a real person. Rather, he is an image.

This exchange between O'Brien and Smith makes the point that Big
Brother does not exist, except as the projected image of the Party:

Smith: "Does Big Brother exist?"

O'Brien: "Of course he exists. The Party exists. Big Brother is the
embodiment of the Party."

Smith: "Does he exist in the same way as I exist?"
O'Brien: "He exists."
Smith: ''Will Big Brother ever die?"
0'Brien:"Of course not. How could he die?"'^

Clearly, Big Brother can be no more than an image, since he can never die.
That is, to the populace as a whole. Big Brother is a remote figure whose
presence is experienced only in its symbolic-ideological dimension. Weber
failed, this article contends, to foresee charisma-by-publicity. For Weber,
charisma is defined as "an extraordinary quality of a person, "and it is clear
from his definition that he had in mind a real person, not a symbol for a
group. '^

'^Ibid., p. 26.

"Ibid., p. 175.

"Mbid., p. 214.

'*Weber, Theory of Social and Economic Organization, p. 358.

22

The writer suggests the following resolution of the issue of Big Brother's
charismatic status. Big Brother is not charismatic because he is not a real
person. To recognize him as charismatic would be an explicit rejection of a
Weberian charisma criteria, which is to say, charisma as understood by
Weber is a property of a real person. Big Brother is a product of the "cult of
the personality" phenomenon. The "personality cult" is leadership that
seeks expressions of its legitimacy from the citizenry based on their belief
in qualities such as charisma, which in reality the leader does not possess.
In effect, the Party, in the novel 1984, like modern totalitarian
government, in Reinhart Bendix's words:

. . . simulate (s) publicly all aspects of charismatic leadership
the manifestations of the leader's extraordinary gifts, the
unconditional devotion of his disciples, and the awed
veneration of his large following saturating all channels of
communication so that no one could escape the message.'^

In literature as in real political life, personality cult is often hard to
distinguish from charisma because of the phenomenon charisma-by-
publicity. Given the proper public climate, a faith in charisma can be
derived from the operation of the "great lie" and the "will to believe. "'^
However, Bendix assures the reader that there are limitations to the
psychological manipulation of a population, which creates a personality
cult via charisma-by-publicity. He believes that the limitations are built-in,
in the sense that people will invariably in time grow weary of having to
listen to stories glorifying extraordinary feats of their leaders. In a
democracy the people may turn off their television sets and radios. Yet, this
may not in contemporary society (totalitarian and democratic) militate
against the type of psychological manipulation Orwell describes in his
novel, since news and information are, for a large part of any population,
compatible withcredibility. That is, contemporary man is almost totally
dependent on the news media for his information about politics. His
political attitude and behavior are shaped largely by the information which
comes from his government. The news media is increasingly controlled and
manipulated by government for political goals. One such goal is always the
fostering of the notion that prevelant political leaderhip is bold, heroic,
and irreplaceable.

This being the case, it can be argued that "Big Brotherism" is far more
omnipresent and universal than has been read into Orwell's novel.
Consider, could any leader, even in the United States, get along without
some people to worship him? Mao recognized this phenomenon the all

"Quoted in Use Dronberger, The Political Thought of Max Weber: In Quest of Statesmanship (New
York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1977), p. 307.

1 81 bid.

23

too human need to worship and to be worshipped. " A leader risks much by
not having a cult, Mao explained, to one observer. He concluded that,
"Probably Khrushchev fell because he had no cult of personality at all."2o

Summary

The two novels, discussed in this paper, can enrich both a lay person's
and a social scientist's understandmg of charisma. Several insights are
suggested by a reading and an analysis of these two examples of charisma
in literature. First, there is the insight that charisma may be divided into
personal and institutional charisma. The former refers to the concrete
individual who is reputed to possess an extraordinary quality. This type of
charisma is revolutionary, since it undermines the lovalties the masses have
for the state and/ or estabHshed institutions. Loyalty is removed from
either a political regime or institutional structure (for instande, organized
religion, bureaucracy, political party, pressure group) and given to an
individual claiming charismatic legitimacy. However, charisma, in the
sense of the aura of a hero, is unstable over time. The routinization of this
charisma gives rise to institutionalized charisma. The charismatic
inspiration of the personal charisma type is tied to political systems and
institutional structures. Fron the "Grand Inquisitor" the reader gains an
appreciation of the tension between "pure" (personal) charisma and
charisma in its institutionalized form. A second insight is found in 1984.
The parallelism between charismatic and personality cult types and the
notion of charisma-by-publicity are introduced in Orwell's novel.

*Edgar Snow, The Long Revolution (New York: Atheneum Publisher, 1971), p. 170.
Ibid., p. 205.

24

ABSTRACTS OF MASTER'S THESES AND
SPECIALIST IN EDUCATION PROJECTS

A COMPARISON BETWEEN THE EFFECTS

OF INTERCLASS GROUPING AND

INTRACLASS GROUPING ON READING

ACHIEVEMENT IN FIFTH THROUGH

SEVENTH GRADE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

CHILDREN

Grayce Sullivan Andersen (EdS, Middle Grades Education
and Reading, August 1980)

The purpose of this study was to determine if the number of reading
groups a teacher teaches in a single self-contained classroom is a factor in
the decline of reading achievement as measured by national standarized
tests.

Twenty-one female and twenty-five male subjects in grades five through
seven whose entire school experience had been in a self-contained
classroom with intra -grouping practices were selected. Their average
monthly gain in vocabulary, comprehension and total reading was
computed. The subjects' actual grade placement was disregarded as they
were divided among grades five through seven (inter-class grouping)
according to their reading achievement levels in such a way that no teacher
was responsible for more than two instructional groups in reading. At the
end of a five month period their average monthly gain/ loss was again
computed.

The data obtained from each subject was their achievement in total
reading, vocabulary, reading comprehension, Intelligence Quotient, and
their expected levels of achievement.

Statistical analysis of the data revealed there was a significant
correlation between expected achievement and actual achievement in both
inter-class and intra-class grouping; although, higher gains resulted from
the inter-class grouping pattern.

When the subjects were analyzed as a group there was a positive
significant difference in total reading, vocabulary, and comprehension but
when the subjects were analyzed on the basis of sex alone a positive
significant difference was shown only in the area of total reading.

This study concluded that reducing the number of reading groups in the
classroom does make a significant difference in reading achievement; that

25

fewer instructional groups attain higher levels of achievement. The
amount of time the teacher spends in instruction appeared to be the
determining factor. This study further concluded that no significant sex
differences existed among the learners at the upper elementary level as far
as reading achievement is concerned; that both sexes profit equally from
the inter-class grouping experience.

A STUDY OF THE SOCIAL AND

INTELLECTUAL FORCES CONTRIBUTING

TO THE PERSONALITY FORMATION OF

MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR.

Ernst M. Bierkerot (MA, Psychology, August, 1980)

The thesis investigates the many different factors tha contributed to the
personality development of the "slain civil rights leader, martin Luther
King, Jr. In Chapter I his family background, and early experiences of
racial discrimination are investigated. Chapter II covers his time at
Morehouse College where his studies introduced him to the teaching of
Thoreau. After finishing his undergraduate work he went to Crozer
Theological Seminary for his ministerial training. When at Crozer he
studied such diverse topics as the Social Gospel, Karl Marx and
Communism, Nietzche and Gandhi, the American pacifist A.J. Musteand
the theologian Reinhold Niebuhr. Chapter IV deals with his doctoral
studies at Boston University where especically the study of Personalist
philosophy and theology contributed to the formation of his personal life
philosophy. While in Boston King also studied the philosophy of Hegel,
and did the research for his doctoral dissertation on Tillich and Wieman.

A STUDY OF PUPILS' MOBILITY IN RELATIONSHIP

TO ACHIEVEMENT IN AN

URBAN AREA

Frederick Raymond Blackwell (EdS, Counseling and
Educational Psychology, December, 1981)

This study investigates the effects of school mobility and number of
parental figures within a residence in Reading, English, Science and
Mathematics as measured on the California Test of Mental Maturity and
the Metropolitan Achievement Tests. (Data was secured from the
Cummulative Folders of 345 eighth grade students.) An analysis of the
data obtained through use of the Chi square formula was made and, using
the .05 level of significance, no appreciable differences appeared between
achievement of students who moved more often and students who
remained more stable.

U

DIVORCE GROUP COUNSELING:
A HANDBOOK FOR DIVORCE SUPPORT GROUPS

Edward L. Boye (MA, Psychology, June, 1981)

This booklet is a companion manual to the video tape "Divorce Group
Counseling".

The booklet is for a person or persons who wish to have a basic
understanding of the problems and needs of someone going through
separation and divorce. It will also help in establishing a divorce support
group in a church or community organization.

The tape is very useful in showing the need for such groups. It can also be
used as a tool to begin discussion of the issues and problems of divorced
persons. I would also suggest its use for couples groups, i.e., those
considering marriage and those already married. It can be instrumental in
opening couples up to issues they may be struggling with in their
relationship.

The video tape can be obtained from the West Georgia Learning
Resource Center on the Campus of West Georgia College in CarroUton,
Georgia. Also, contact Reverend Edward L. Boye through the United
Methodist Church of the North Georgia Conference, 159 Ralph McGill
Boulevard, Atlanta, Georgia.

Statement of Purpose

"Single Again" is a divorce support group. It is established to help
develop an extended family for sharing and mutual support in the crisis of
separation and divorce. We are a group seeking the most creative means of
growing and discovering as individuals and as a group. Reality is dealt with
head on. Pain and loneliness is recognized as well as celebrative moments,
but we do seek to avoid wallowing in those feelings and attitudes that
hinder new life. We recognize that human beings are a community creature
and that the sharing of a community formed as a result of broken
relationships gives the strength and courage to grow and become.

A PROPOSED METHOD OF DETERMINING

ACTUAL COST PER COURSE SECTION FOR

SECONDARY EDUCATION IN COWETA COUNTY

SCHOOLS

Richard C. Brooks and Paul S. Grim
(Eds, Educational Administration, August, 1980)

The problem was to formulate an accurate, effective procedure for
computing the yearly cost of one educational unit or course. A ninth grade
language arts class at Central High School m the Cqweta County, Georgia
System was used as a model.

27

A short review of related studies revealed a need for such a procedure
since it had never been done in education but had proven effective in
business and governmental sectors.

Information was gathered from cost records for the 1978-79 school year.
After the limitations of the study were set, all costs used in the
computations were arranged into five cost categories. Each cost was
labeled as per student, per program, or per unit. The actual costs were then
totaled in each cost category to yield a total per program cost and total per
unit cost for each of the five categories. Each of the five per program totals
was then added together for a cumulative program cost for the ninth grade
language arts program at Central High for 1978-79. The same procedure
yielded a cumulative unit cost for a ninth grade arts class. This final figure
was the objective of the study.

The model herein illustrates the method for using cost data, the various
operations necessary in arranging it, and the procedures for thus
computing unit cost. The model can be considered an effective one for use
in other systems for any program and unit cost estimation.

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF MORNING AND

AFTERNOON KINDERGARTEN

CHILDREN'S PERFORMANCE ON

PIAGETIAN CONSERVATION TASKS

Barbara Holmes Brown
(Eds, Early Childhood Education, August, 1981)

This study was conducted to find out whether there were significant
differences on the performances on selected Piagetian tasks of
conservation by kindergarten children who attended morning and
afternoon kindergarten sessions at Hood Avenue School, Fayetteville,
Georgia. This information will be made available for parents,
administrators, and teachers who are involved in the scheduling of classes
for kindergarten children in Fayette County, particularly Hood Avenue
School, Fayetteville, Georgia. Forty-eight names were randomly selected
from the six kindergarten classes; eight from each of the three morning
classes and eight from each of the three afternoon classes. The interview
technique was used for the five selected Piagetian conservation tasks which
included: conservation of liquid, conservation of distance, and
conservation of area-respresentational. The results were charted on
frequency graphs and a total chart which showed mean, standard
deviation, and the Fisher t test with level of significance set at .05. There
was no significance difference on the performance on the selected
Piagetian conservation tasks of the students interviewed representing the
morning and afternoon kindergarten sessions. However, the students
representing the afternoon session showed positive scores on all four of the
selected Piagetian conservation tasks that were charted. The interview for
conservation of substance was used as a relaxer and was not charted.

28

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE NATIONAL

TEACHER EXAMINATION
IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION SCORES WITH
THE EARLY CHILDHOOD
EDUCATION DEPARTMENT'S CRITERION-
REFERENCED TEST SCORES FOR

UNDERGRADUATES AT

WEST GEORGIA COLLEGE FROM

NOVEMBER, 1978 THROUGH MARCH, 1980

Carol Caldwell (EdS, Early Childhood Education, August,

1980)

The purpose of this study was to compare the scores of undergraduates
at West Georgia College on two instruments, the National Teacher
Examination in Early Childhood Education and the Early Childhood
Education Department's criterion-referenced test in Early Childhood
Education.

The hypothesis tested stated that there would be no correlation between
the students' scores on the two examinations. The hypothesis was tested by
employing the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient. Results
showed that there was a significant correlation between the
undergraduates' scores on the two instruments.

A recommendation was made that more comparative studies, using
other variables, be conducted. It was suggested that a comparison of
students' scores on the criterion-referenced instrument with their scores on
the National Teacher Common Examinations would be worthwhile. It was
further suggested that a comparison of students' scores on the criterion-
referenced test with their grade point averages would also be valuable.

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE PRESCRIBED

ROLE AND THE ACTUAL ROLE OF THE

ELEMENTARY PRINCIPAL

IN COBB COUNTY PUBLIC SCHOOLS

MARIETTA, GEORGIA

Grace Ollis Calhoun

(Eds, Educational Administration, August, 1980)

Is the actual role of elementary principals in Cobb County Schools in
Marietta, Georgia congruent with the school system's prescribed roles? To
determine this, a 10-item questionnaire of prescribed areas of
responsibility, taken from the school systems position specifications

29

manual, was distributed to the Cobb County School's forty-five
elementary principals during the 1979-80 school year. The principals were
asked to rank order from one to ten with one being the highest, each of the
ten areas of responsibility according to importance within the role of the
elementary principal. Then principals were also asked to rank the ten areas
from one to ten with one representing the most time spent in the actual
role. The questionnaire return rate was 78 ^percent. The usable returns
represented 62 percent of the Cobb County Elementary principals. The
study revealed that the roles were congruent or nearly congruent in most
areas except in the area of improvement of instruction, the area of
communication with students, teachers, central office, and parents, and
the area of knowledge of elementary education. The review of the literature
revealed that most elementary principals across the nation also felt that the
most important role area for the elementary principal was that of
instructional leader. The study prompted the recommendation of
additional administrative and clerical assistance for the elementary
principals of Cobb County Schools, the addition of .elementary
counselors, and staff development programs for elementary principals in
identified areas.

NORTHWEST GEORGIA CESA NEEDS

ASSESSMENT: AN INDICATOR FOR

IMPROVED SERVICES AS

PERCEIVED BY TEACHERS

Giles M. Chapman, Jr.
(Eds, Educational Administration, August, 1980)

The purpose of this study was to determine the service and program
areas that the Northwest Georgia Cooperative Educational Service
Agency (CESA) needed to improve.

The study reports on 250 questionnaires submitted to 250 randomly
selected, certificated personnel from systems served by CESA in a ten
county, 14 school system area.

Findings revealed that CESA should provide improved services in the
areas of special education, general information about CESA, language
arts, and community relations.

The study concludes with fecommendations for each area and a time line
to initiate or accomplish the recommendations needed to improve services.

30

PSI: A MODEL FOR PSYCHOTHERAPY

Barbara Ryan Church (MA, Psychology, March, 1981)

Psi phenomena include telepathy, clairvoyance, precognition, and a
related category, PK. A study of attitudes in the scientific community,
especially the attitudes of behavioral scientists, toward these phenomena
was conducted. The current status of psi research was examined. A review
of the literature revealed a wide discrepancy in attitudes toward psi. It was
discovered that parapsychologists, as a group, evidence the strongest belief
in the existence of psi, and psychologists, as a group, the least belief in the
existence of psi. Psi research exists in an atmosphere of controversy in the
scientific community. Major criticisms of psi research methodology are
examined. In an effort to draw similarities with hard science and thus gain
acceptance for the existence of psi, many proponents of the paranormal
turn to physics to find theories which appear to them to share common
rules and conditions. Theoretical aspects of psi in relation to quantum
mechanics, including Bohr's Principle of Complementarity and
Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle are surveyed. In order to study the
effect of the therapist's attitude toward psi on the willingness and/ or
ability of the client to disclose psi experience, an experiment studied the
effects of accepting and open experimenter attitudes versus a rejecting
experimenter attitude toward psi phenomena on the number of
paranormal experiences subjects report. Thirty undergraduate
psychology students were randomly assigned to either a positive
experimenter attitude group, a negative experimenter attitude group, or an
open (neutral) control condition. All subjects were first asked to complete
a standard Rorschach test, revealing aspects of their personality to the
investigator. Results of these tests were not evaluated. The Rorschach was
used to simulate therapy conditions. Following completion of the
Rorschach, the positive attitude group was instructed to complete a
questionnaire reporting frequency of psi experience after hearing taped
instructions demonstrating an accepting attitude toward paranormal
experience. The negative attitude group was asked to complete this
questionnaire after hearing taped instructions demonstrating a closed,
rejecting attitude toward psi. The control group did not recieve taped
instructions. This group was not exposed to positive or negative attitudes,
creating a neutral, open environment. Group means for reported psi
experience were calculated, and data analyzed using a t test. The
hypothesis that subjects in the rejecting climate would report significantly
fewer psi experiences than subjects in an open climate was supported, t ( 1 8)
= 2.16, p <^ .05. In order to examine psi phenomena in a theoretical
framework, LeShan's (1969, 1976) theory of alternate individual realities is
presented, examining methods of obtaining information through the
senses (the S-IR), and without sensory data, in the clairvoyant mode (the
C-IR). Implications for psychotherapy are discussed, focusing on
Jourard's (1971) emphasis on the importance of self -disclosure to mental
health.

31

A STUDY TO DETERMINE THE EXTENT OF

FUNDS RAISED TO SUPPLEMENT

MAINTENANCE AND OPERATION

FUNDS WITHIN THE CATOOSA COUNTY

SCHOOLS

Richard E. Clark
Eds, Educational Administration, March, 1981)

The experience while serving as a building principal dictated the
necessity of raising monies to supplement state and county maintenance
and operation funds created a desire on the part of the writer to determine
the extent of such activities within the twelve schools comprising the
Catoosa County System.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the fund raising activities of
each of the schools within the Catoosa County System to determine the
extent of such activities, the types of fund raising activities, the amounts
raised and the purpose for which the funds were expended.

A review of current literature and research was conducted to determine
the legal status of fund raising activities and practices in other geographic
areas.

The conclusions reached were that a substantial sum of money was being
raised at each school site to supplement the expense of maintenance and
operation operations and that the principals were in favor of abolishing all
fund raising activities provided the Board would increase the millage rate
to supply the schools with the funds that are currently raised by each
school. It was found that an additional levy of one and one-eighth mills
(1.125) would make this possible.

Although this study was limited to one relatively small school system
and may not be relevant for other systems, a more thorough study should
be conducted on a regional or state level to determine whether this problem
is unique to Catoosa County or a concern of principals over a wider
geographic area.

THE USE OF THE TYPEWRITER TO
FACILITATE SPELLING SKILLS IN
LEARNING DISABLED CHILDREN

Susan Baker Coker (EdS, Special Education, August, 1981)

The purpose of this study was to determine if a significant difference
existed between handwritten and typewritten spelling performance in
learning disabled children.

32

students at Oak Grove Elementary School. During the initial five weeks of
the study, students used handwriting to complete spelling exercises and
weekly spelling tests from he Spell Correctly textbook. Typewriting was
used as the means of complet: cihng exercises and tests during the

subsequent five week period.

The t-test for related measures was used to statistically analyze
differences between spelling test scores resulting from handwritten efforts
and those resulting from the typewritten method. Analysis of data
indicated no significant difference in the spelling performance of the
learning disabled children whether responses were handwritten or
typewritten.

LUCID DREAMS: VARIETIES,
EVOLUTIONAL ORIGINS AND
TECHNIQUES OF INDUCTION

Kenneth W. Danis (MA, Psychology, March, 1981)

The experience of lucid dreaming (realizing one is dreaming while within
the dream) is examined. A review of the Hterature, an exploration of the
varieties of lucid dreams, speculations as to possible evolutionary origins
of lucid dreams, and techniques of lucid dream induction are explored.

RICHARD II: AN ATTEMPT TO

ESTABLISH ABSOLUTE MONARCHY

IN MEDIEVAL ENGLAND

Jacquelyn Dodson Davis
(MA, History, December, 1981)

The experiences of Richard II's early years and the weakened condition
of the monarchy left to him by his grandfather, Edward III, and his own
minority generated in him a deep concern. His introduction to affairs of
state came dramatically with the Peasants Revolt of 1381. Richard, at
fourteen, witnessed the paralysis of a government without authorized
leadership.

Richard's own complex personality has encouraged much psychological
speculation. His father and grandfather before him were great military
heros. This fact was pointed out to him time and again. They had
maintained magnificent courts which could have overawed a sensitive,
imaginative child. His half-brothers, the Hollands, were also men of
action, glorified by chroniclers of chivalry. The fundamental obligation of
the medieval king was to lead his army on the field of battle. Richard liked
none of these traditional trappings of Knighthood. His tasts were more

33

aesthetic than athletic. There is no proof that he ever failed to carry out his
traditional role to the best of his ability.

Historians have developed from this the picture of a young man with an
acute inferiority complex which was appeased only by elaborate
exhibitions of his power and in extravagant declarations of the "King's
Majesty." These tendacies were accented by the humiliation he was forced
to endure at the hands of his counselors. The results of these views is a king
neurotically fascinated by absolutism and all it symbolized.

This is an interesting analysis and presents a comprehensive explanation
for everything Richard said or did. It appears, however, to be a
simplification of the truth. Shakespeare's characterization in his play,
Richard II, has done nothing to dispel this view.

There is still no satisfactory history of the reign of Richard II. Most
secondary works are colored by the traditional view of Richard as
'madman' or by the drama of William Shakespeare. This thesis attempts a
brief review of the abundant primary sources available from the late
fourteenth century. From these a rational policy of royal absolutism can be
developed.

AN ANALYTICAL SURVEY OF

PROFESSIONAL AND GENERAL

INTEREST READING HABITS OF

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHERS

AND PRINCIPALS

Louise C. Davis (EdS, Middle Grades Education and
Reading, August, 1981)

This study proposed to ascertain whether reading habits related to
certain general interest reading material and to 20 specific professional
publications were related to the position, sex, age, and certification level of
respondents. The purpose wastodiscoverand tabulate the degree to which
these materials were utilized. Previous studies had indicated little reading
by teachers and principals, particularly of professional materials. To see if
this generalization concerning reading habits held true, the differences
among the specific publications and each of the four independent
variables, position, sex, age, and certification level were investigated.

On the basis of information gathered from respondents in selected areas
of Georgia, the posited null hypotheses was rejected. The first hypothesis
was rejected as there was a significant difference in the reading practices
reported by elementary school teachers and the reading practices reported

34

by elementary school principals. The second hypothesis was rejected as
there was a significant difference in the reading practices reported by males
and the reading practices reported by females. The third hypothesis was
rejected as there was significant difference in reading practices reported
among the different age groupings. The fourth hypothesis was rejected as
there was a significant difference in reading practices reported among the
different certification levels.

From the research conducted, it appears that the position of an educator
is the major influence in the choice of reading materials followed by
certification level, age, and sex.

A STUDY OF THE BASAL READING APPROACH

VERSUS AN ECLECTIC

APPROACH ON THE READING

ACHIEVEMENT OF FOURTH GRADE

STUDENTS AT ARBOR STATION

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL IN

DOUGLAS COUNTY

Kathryn M. Echols (EdS, Middle Grades Education and

Reading, August, 1981)

Since reading is such a fundamental component of the school
curriculum, it has been the focus of many studies, projects, and fads.
Teachers always want to determine the best methods for teaching the skills
for all subject areas, but this is especially true in the area of reading due to
its impact on all subject areas.

The number of students who have problems with reading has always
been a source of frustration for teachers. There are many students who
graduate from high school with only minimal reading abilities. It is for this
reason that the search for the best method of teaching reading continues.

The purpose of this study was to determine if an electic approach of
teaching reading would be as effective, or perhaps more effective, than the
basal reading approach.

The subjects for this study were some fourth grade students at Arbor
Station Elementary School in Douglas County. The subjects were
members of one of the fourth grade classes and, according to their school
records, were considered to be the high achievers. Therefore, it was
assumed to be a rather homogenous group with regard to reading abilities.
The class was divided into two groups of sixteen.

35

adopted basal reading series, with the teacher's manual as a guide for
instruction. The experimental group received instruction through a variety
of methods and materials, an eclectic approach. The study lasted three
months.

A pretest and posttest was given to acquire the data for a comparison of
gains. The tests were divided into two sections, vocabulary and
comprehension. The scores from each section and the total scores were
compared, with the t-test as the instrument for comparison.

The gain from the pretest to the posttest in the area of vocabulary was
significant at the .05 level in favor of the experimental group. However, the
gain in the area of comprehension or on the total test was not significant
enough to support the hypothesis.

It is recommended that this study be replicated with larger groups and
also a different grade levels.

A LOOK AT THE EDUCATIONAL,

EXPERIENCE AND COACHING

BACKGROUNDS OF GEORGIA HIGH

SCHOOL PRINCIPALS

Jim Forester (EdS, Educational Administration, June, 1981)

The purpose of this study was to find commonality or lack of
commonality in the educational, experience and coaching backgrounds of
Georgia high school principals. The survey was sent to all Georgia high
school principals with a 95% rate of response.

Bachelor of Science, Master of Education and Educational Specialist
were the dominant degrees held by these principals. A negative correlation
was found between coaching at a school and becoming a principal there.
Slightly over 50% of the principals had coached at all. Georgia high school
principals are a mobile group with almost all having worked in more than
one school system. Most did not decide to become principals until they
entered teaching. Their average age at their first high school principalship
was 35.

36

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF GRADE
POINT AVERAGES, NATIONAL TEACHER

EXAMINATIONS SCORES, GEORGIA
TEACHER CERTIFICATION TEST SCORE
AND EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT'S CRITERION-
REFERENCED TEST SCORES FOR
UNDERGRADUATES AT WEST GEORGIA
COLLEGE FROM MARCH, 1978 THROUGH
SUMMER, 1980
Danelle Hughes Freeman (EdS, Early Childhood Education,

June, 1981)

The purpose of this study was to compare the grade point averages and
the scores of undergraduates at West Georgia College on four instruments;
the National Teacher Common Examination, the National Teacher
Examination in Early Childhood Education, the Georgia Criterion-
Referenced Test for Teacher Certification and the Early Childhood
Education Department's criterion-referenced test in Early Childhood
Education.

The hypothesis tested stated that there would be no correlation between
the students' grade point averages and their scores on the four
examinations. The hypothesis was tested by employing a five variable
coefficient analysis statistical formula to show correlations. Results
showed that there was a significant correlation between the
undergraduates' grade point average and their scores on the four
instruments.

A recomendation was made that more comparative studies, using other
variables, be conducted. It was suggested that a comparison of students'
grade point averages and their scores on the National Teacher
Examinations, the Georgia Criterion-Referenced Test for Teacher
Certification, the Early Childhood Education Department's criterion-
referenced test in Early Childhood Education and the Georgia Teacher
Performance Assessment Instruments would be worthwhile.

THE USE OF MYTH IN SIX
FAULKNER NOVELS

Marion L. Foreman (MA, English, March, 1981)

William Faulkner often illuminated basic human truths in his work
through the use of myths. This thesis presents six Faulkner novels, written
at various points in his long career, and attempts to delineate some of the
myths found in each one. The myths are divided into three categories

37

myth and nature, myth and heroic adventure, and myth and the American
adventure.

In The Hamlet, the Demeter-Persephone myth provides the basis for a
modern story of greed and despair in which an evil villain overcomes the
inhabitants of a rural area. In Sanctuary, an ancient fertility rite is the focal
point for a contemporary gangster story. The elements of the rite, however,
have been twisted by Faulkner in order to illustrate the way in which
modern life has become perverted.

The heroic adventure myth is used as a pattern in Go Down, Moses, but
Faulkner changes the ending of his tale from that of the normal mythic
adventure. The modern hero refuses to accept his task in the world and
relinquishes his duty in order to obtain peace of mind and tranquility for
himself. The heroic myth pattern is used again in The Reivers to trace a
young boy's journey from childhood to adulthood even though the
youngster's adventures are far different from those of Aeneas and Jason in
the ancient myths.

Modern myths reflecting the peculiar essence of the American adventure
are explored in Absalom, Absalom! and The Sound and the Fury. In these
novels, Faulkner follows the puritan and cavaUer philosophies of the new
world through many of his characters, and he also depicts the new
American hero, who worships science and wealth while demonstrating
little love for his fellow man.

Faulkner uses myth in his stories in order to remind us that we are a part
of the total mass of humanity which has existed for eons, and he invites is
to note how much modern man is changing from his ancestors and to
examine these changes to decide whether or not our new ideals are
sufficient replacements for the old.

A MORE EFFECTIVE PROGRAM OF
CUSTODIAL SERVICES FOR ROSWELL HIGH

SCHOOL

Larry W. Garmon (EdS, Educational Administration,
August, 1980)

The purpose of this study was to find ways to improve the overall
cleanliness of the Roswell High School building, to help the custodians feel
better about their jobs and themselves, and to raise the salaries of the
custodial workers. It was hoped that the accomplishment of these goals
would also lead to a decrease in absenteeism and employee turnover
among custodial personnel. A lesser element of the study was a contrast
between the use of traditional, full-time custodial employees and evening
only, contract custodial labor. The study was conducted by the use of the
following methods: a personal and private interview with the 10 custodians
at Roswell High School, an analysis of the results of a questionnaire sent to

38

42 high school custodial workers in north Fulton County, and an interview
with the Supervisor of Custodial Services in north Fulton County. A
summary of the results showed a general displeasure with salaries among
workers, poor employee morale, an excessive number of days absent,
especially among the Roswell workers, few employees with more than one
to two years' service, few employees who would recommend the job to a
friend, and few who planned to work until retirement. On the positive side,
workers generally felt good about their benefits and about themselves.
Their jobs did not appear to have a negative effect on their self-esteem as
had been hypothesized. While contract labor has generally been found to
be more economical, the sources of information contacted by this writer
did not find it to be satisfactory in terms of the overall school program.
Recommendations were made to increase custodial salaries by cutting
personnel back to the State allocation. Only three workers would be used
on the day shift a male worker, a female worker, and a grounds man.
Most of the cleaning would be done after school hours. Many of the
advantages of contracting would be present without most of the
disadvantages. Workers would also be paid for one-half their unused sick
and personal days at the end of the year to discourage absenteeism. A
recommendation for an extensive training program is also suggested.

THE DEPRESSION IN CARROLL COUNTY:
AN ORAL HISTORY COLLECTION

Rita Pruitt Gentry (EdS, Secondary Education, June, 1981)

This study was undertaken to collect accurate historical data of the
Depression in Carroll County, Georgia. It could also be used as a guide for
the procedure of collecting oral history and should be of value to other
teachers and students.

The objectives were achieved by conducting an oral history project as an
example of the methodology and procedures used in such projects.
Research was limited to thirteen taped interviews of persons who lived in
Carroll County, Georgia, during the Depression. Two of the interviews
were transcribed, and the remaining eleven tapes were summarized.

The literature examined stated the advantages and faults of oral history.
Also, the reviewed literature gave the procedures and methods of
collecting and producing an oral history project.

This study supports the contention that oral history is a valuable tool for
collecting accurate historical data and will serve as a guide for other
students and teachers.

39

THE "EDDY" WARS OF
THE GREAT PACIFIC WAR 1941-1945

Sylvia Swords Graham
(Eds, Secondary Education, March, 1981)

This paper is a study of the nationalistic armies of Southeast Asia during
the Second World War. Emphasis has been placed on the three most
significant Japanese-sponsored nationalistic armies and on the
Hukbalahap army of the Philippines. The "eddy" wars were the small
conflagrations in which these armies were engaged throughout the
duration of the larger conflict of the Pacific War. Without a doubt, the
Italian, Burmese and Indonesian National Armies hastened the process of
independence for their individual countries. The Indonesians were the only
group forced into actual combat with the returning colonial powers. The
Hukbalahap were instrumental in bringing about many desperately
needed reforms for the peasants in the Phillipines.

The knowledge of these nationalistic armies has been mostly confied to
the Pacific Area. It has become vital in today's world that the future leaders
of the United States comprehend the hopes and dreams of these new
nations that have been born since 1945. This study has endeavored to
present the salient points a teacher, regardless of background, would need
to prepare a teaching unit on the nationalistic armies. Suggestions on
points to be stressed have been included.

The countries of the West and the countries of Southeast Asia have need
of each other. Therefore, the United States must make every effort to
understand the complex problems, cultures, peoples and tensions that lie
immediately under the surface of Southeast Asia. This paper has
attempted to make a small step on that road to full understanding.

DEVELOPMENT OF A POSITIVE SELF-CONCEPT

FOR TMR ADOLESCENTS THROUGH

DISTANCE RUNNING

Phillip L. Gunter (EdS, Special Education, August, 1981)

This study was undertaken to determine if the development of a positive
self-concept in trainable mentally retarded adolescents could be
heightened by participation in a jogging program.

Ten students were selected from a class of twenty intermediate TMR's at
the Whitfield County Special Education Center in Varnell, Georgia. The
only criterion for selection was a signed physical indicating that the
student's medical condition was such that jogging would be beneficial. The
students were randomly divided into two groups, one treatment and one
control. Both groups were administered a Harvard Step Test and Primary
Self-Concept Inventory.

40

The treatment group completed a structured ten-week running program
culminating in competition in races of 4.5, 5, and 6.2 miles. The control
group continued in their regularly scheduled activities.

The data presented were a tabulation and comparison of the physical
fitness gain scores and the self-concept gain scores.

The null hypothesis for increased self-concept of the treatment group
was accepted at the .05 level of confidence. Even though there was a
substantial increase in self-concept of the treatment group, it was not
statistically significant at this level.

The second null hypothesis was also accepted at the .05 level of
confidence. There was no statistically significant gain of the treatment
group in one self-concept domain over another. These domains were,
personal-self, social-self, and intellectual self.

Recommendations for further study were included because larger
groups over a longer period of time may have produced different results.

EFFECTS OF RETENTION ON ACHIEVEMENT OF
STUDENTS AT BARNESVILLE PRIMARY SCHOOL

Amy Claire Hall (EdS, Middle Grades Education and
Reading, August, 1981)

This study was designed to determine if there was a significant gain in
reading and mathematic scores during the retained year and to compare
reading and mathematic gain scores between a retained group and a
promoted group.

Students used in this study were fifty-two students in grades one through
four. A group of twenty-six retained students composed of experimental
group. The control group was composed of twenty-six promoted students.
The subjects of both groups were similar in age, grade in school, and
reading scores on the Iowa Test of Basic Skills.

The pretest and posttest used for this study was the Iowa Test of Basic
Skills. The pretest was administered in April, 1979, and the posttest was
given April, 1980.

The t test was used to analyze the data and the null hypotheses were
rejected at the .05 level of significance with the exception of hypothesis 4
which was not rejected.

Results from the analyses showed that the experimental group showed a
significant gain in reading and mathematics score during the retained year.
The results favored the control group in reading, but there was no
significant difference in gain scores in mathematics. These statistics imply
that further research should be conducted with both the experimental and
control groups to determine if the subjects' achievements gain was valid.

41

A COMPARISON OF THE TRADITIONAL APPROACH '
VERSUS AN INCIDENTAL APPROACH IN TEACHING
SPELLING AT THE SEVENTH-GRADE LEVEL

Joe Ann A. Hanson (EdS, Secondary Education,
August, 1980)

This study was designed to determine if an incidental approach to the
teaching of spelHng had an equally positive effect on spelling achievement
as did the traditional approach.

Subjects used in this study were four sections of seventh-grade students
at Evans Junior High School, Newnan, Georgia. Two sections were
considered basic in terms of ability and achievement, and two sections
were considered advanced in terms of ability and achievement. During the
twelve-week period between September 10, 1979 and December 12, 1979,
the control groups of both basic and advanced students were taught
spelling using the traditional approach. The experimental groups of both
basic and advanced students were taught spelling incidentally as needed in
writing. Subjects completing the experiment numbered 17 in the basic
control group, 26 in the advanced control group, 22 in the basic
experimental group, and 28 in the advanced experimental group giving a
total of 93 participants completing the experiment.

A pretest was designed and administered by the investigator. A posttest
was designed and administered by the investigator at the end of the study.
A delayed posttest was designed and administered by the investigator four
weeks after the completion of the study.

Analysis of covariance was used to analyze the data. The null hypotheses
were tested using the .05 level of significance. Results indicated no
significant difference in achievement on the posttest nor on the delayed
posttest. This would indicate that spelling instruction using the traditional
approach had no more significant effect on spelling achievement than did
the incidental method of teaching spelling.

It is recommended that further studies be made in this area.

SELF-CONCEPTS OF LEARNING DISABLED
AND REGULAR CLASS ADOLESCENTS

Diane Hightower (EdS, Special Education, August, 1981)

The purpose of this study was to determine if a significant difference in
self-concept existed between learning disabled and regular class
adolescents.

The subjects were learning disabled and regular class students at Cass
High School. A total of 47 students were involved in the study. Twenty-
two learning disabled and 25 randomly selected regular class students took

42

part. Self-concept was measured using the Piers-Harris Childeren's Self-
Concept Scale.

Analysis of data obtained showed a significant difference in self-concept
between learning disabled and regular class students.

A STUDY COMPARING THE EFFECTS OF

TRADITIONAL APPROACH VERSUS

APPROACH IN TEACHING MULTIPLICATION AT

THE THIRD GRADE LEVEL AT KENNESAW
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL, KENNESAW, GEORGIA

Linda D. Hull (EdS, Middle Grades Education and
Reading, December, 1981)

In recent years educators have become increasingly aware of the
importance of attitude on the part of the learner. Many times children
learn or fail to learn, because of their attitude toward a subject. This has
been particularly true of mathematics because mathematics has always
been an abstract subject that elementary age children have difficulty
understanding. Research has been done in mathematics in an effort to
make the abstractness of mathematics more concrete for young learners.
Concrete manipulatives have become an increasingly valued tool in
primary age mathematics programs.

This study was done with the purpose of determining the concrete
manipulatives and a manipulative activity approach would make a
significant positive difference in achievement in multiplication facts in
comparison with a traditional approach. Two groups of children were
chosen, at random, to participate in the study. One group experienced a
manipulative activity approach to the teaching of multiplication, and one
group experienced a traditional approach to the teaching of
multiplication. Achievement was determined by compating raw scores
achieved on a multiplication facts test designed by Cleveland Myers. This
same test was used for a pretest, posttest and a delayed posttest. The pretest
was administered before formal instruction began. The posttest was
administered after six weeks of formal instruction, and the delayed
posttest was administered three weeks after formal instruction ceased. A
statistically significant difference was determined to be the .05 level. An
analysis of variance treatment showed the differences in achievement were
not significantly positive. The statistical difference between the groups on
the posttest was .950. The statistical difference between the groups on the
delayed posttest was .646.

43

better using a manipulative activity approach, it did not prove that
manipulatives had any adverse effect on the students. The students
achieved regardless of the method employed. Therefore, manipulatives do
have a place in the curriculum. They should be employed for use with any
particular child that is operating on a concrete operational level to help
him see mathematics in a more concrete and less abstract way.

A STUDY OF THE EFFECT OF THE LECTURE

METHOD VERSUS THE CONTRACT METHOD ON

ATTITUDE TOWARD AND ACHIEVEMENT IN

UNITED STATES HISTORY

Belva Jean Ingle (EdS, Secondary Education, December,

1981)

This study sought to determine if two selected methods of instruction
(the lecture method and the contract method) made any significant
difference in attitude toward and achievement in United States history of
two classes of eleventh grade history students who attended Trion High
School in Trion, Georgia.

The two classes were given an attitude and achievement pretest. For a
measure of attitude toward history, Remmers' A Scale to Measure
Attitude Toward Any School Subject was administered at the beginning of
the study. It was followed by Harper & Row's .4 People and A Nation Test
Booklet A which was used to measure achievement in United States
history. An experimental period of five weeks followed.

The control group was taught by the traditional lecture-oriented
approach. A contract was designed and given to students in the
experimental group. Each student in the experimental group was
permitted to select options resulting in earning points for the grade of his
choice.

At the conclusion of the experimental period Remmer's Any School
Subject Survey and the Harper and Row test were given as a posttest.
Statistical analysis of the data revealed that there was no significant
difference between the two groups in relation to attitude and /or
achievement gain at the .05 level of significance.

44

A STUDY TO DETERMINE THE CORRELATION

BETWEEN THE SCHOOL READINESS SURVEY AND

THE METROPOLITAN READINESS TEST SCORES

AND THE READING ACHIEVEMENT SCORES OF

GIFTED KINDERGARTEN CHILDREN

M. W. Irwin (EdS, Early Childhood Education,

December, 1981)

The purpose of this study was to investigate and determine the
correlation between the School Readiness Survey, the Metropolitan
Readiness Test Scores and IQ scores of gifted kindergarten children and
their reading achievement scores on the Addison-Wesley End-of-Level
Test.

The study involved twenty identified gifted kindergarten children from
the Euharlee Early Childhood Center in the Polk School District. The
children received eight months of formal reading instruction using the
Addison-Wesley Meet The Superkids. The School Readiness Survey, the
Slosson Intelligence Test, the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test and the
Metropolitan Readiness Test were all administered before formal reading
instruction began. At the end of the school year, the Addison-Wesley End-
of-Level Test was administered.

An analysis was made of these scores to determine if there were any
significant correlation between readiness scores and reading achievement
of the gifted kindergarten children and the IQ scores and the reading
achievement of the gifted children. A correlation technique using the .05
level of significance was used to determine the relationship of the variables.

A STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF THE EARLY

CHILDHOOD SPECIALIST IN EDUCATION

PROGRAM AT WEST GEORGIA COLLEGE

ON GRADUATES AFTER RE-ENTERING THE

TEACHING PROFESSION

Dianne F. Isaacs (EdS, Early Childhood Education,

December, 1981)

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of the Early
childhood Specialist in Education program at West Georgia College on
fourteen graduates after they re-entered the teaching profession.

The hypothesis stated in Chapter I was supported by the results shown in
Tables 1 and II. There were positive evaluations reflected in the
questionnaire responses concerning the effect of the Early Childhood

45

Specialist in Education program at West Georgia College on graduates
after re-entering the teaching profession. These responses were validated
by the responses of graduates' supervisors. Comparative studies of the raw
scores and the percentages both supported the hypothesis. Comparative
studies of the means also indicated positive support of the hypothesis.

A STUDY TO DETERMINE THE ATTITUDES OF

SELECTED CARROLL COUNTY ELEMENTARY

TEACHERS ABOUT HANDWRITING IN THE

CLASSROOM AS PREPARATION FOR THE

ADULT LEVEL

Nancy Jordan (EdS, Elementary Education, March, 1981)

Today's computerized society demands that we PLEASE PRINT. The
purpose of this study was to determine if the elementary teachers in Carroll
County favored cursive over manuscript writing in the classroom and as
the preferred method of written communication at the adult level.

A questionnaire was developed to determine the attitudes of selected
teachers about cursive and manuscript writing, and to obtain current
information about classroom handwriting practices. Seventy-eight
questionnaires were tabulated. The results showed that teachers preferred
the cursive handwriting style in the elementary classroom, and the
majority also believed cursive more important than manuscript at the
adult level.

A recommendation was made that teachers be amde aware of the
importance of manuscript writing at the adult level.

THE IN VITRO FORMATION OF THE CHICK

NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION IN A CHEMICALLY

DEFINED SERUM-FREE CULTURE MEDIUM

James Richard Kerr (MS, Biology, August, 1980)

Primary cultures of 5 day chick embryo spinal cord and 1 1 day chick
embryo skeletal muscle were cultured in a newly developed chemically
defined serum-free medium. The optimal serum-free medium consisted of
Dulbecco's Modified, Eagle/ Ham's F-12, insulin, putrescine, and
transferrin. The spinal cord cells grew and were maintained for 4-6 weeks.
Interneuronal synapses frequently formed. The muscle cells differentiated,
fused, and formed contractile "myo-strands" after approximately 10-12
hours in culture and remained viable to the 4th day. Neuromuscular
junction formation was studied by overlaying the monolayer muscle
cultures with a dissociated neuronal cell suspension. Observations using

46

light and scanning electron microscopy illustrate neuromuscular junctions
forming soon after nerve-muscle interaction. The present in vitro study
shows initial junctional motoneuron terminals in contact with muscle. All
cultures were grown in a total serum-free environment without exposure to
serum. Early events of the chick neuromuscular junction were also
observed.

STRESS, ILLNESS AND WELL-BEING

Ronald O. Kirk (MA, Psychology, August, 1980)

This thesis proceeds in four distinct phases. In the first section we
elucidate Hans Selye's definition of stress. We explore Selye's general
adaptation syndrome and corroborate his findings with the fight or flight
response brought to light by W. B. Cannon. We delineate the effects of
Cortisol and the adrenalines upon the physiological mechanisms of the
human body. In conclusion we look at signs and symptons of excessive
stress and describe endogenous stress.

In the second section of this thesis we explore the relationship between
stress and numerous disease syndromes. We delineate the manners in
which stress may predispose individuals to hypertension, arteriosclerosis,
heart disease, cancer, arthritis. After exploring ways in which stress
disrupts immune mechanisms, we view Rahe's documentation of the
relationship between stressful events and illness.

In the third section of this thesis, we explore ways in which meditation,
autosuggestion, visualization, placebo and positive motivation are being
used to disrupt stress mechanisms. We survey Benson's westernized
version of Transcendental Meditation and delineate central themes in
meditative processes from the East and West. We examine O. Carl
Simonton's program for rehabilitation of terminally-ill cancer patients,
concentrating on his visualization techniques. In conclusion we review the
dramatic recovery of Norman Cousins from progressive paralysis through
laughter therapy.

In the final section of this thesis, we explore Simonton's mind/ body
model of recovery. We elucidate data relative to the means by which
brainstem nuclei may be involved in controlling autonomic functions
during meditation. We delve into the relationship between meditation,
suggestion, placebo and the endorphin-mediated inhibition of painful
stimuli. We bring to light the correlation between the effects of endogenous
opiates and the observed physiological effects of meditation. In
conclusion, we offer a model for describing the physiological effects of
placebo in recovery from illness.

47

A STUDY OF ACHIEVEMENT AND BEHAVIOR OF

STUDENTS WHO ARE ON A DIET CONTAINING

SUGAR, BLEACHED FLOUR, AND FOOD ADDITIVES

AS COMPARED TO STUDENTS WHO ARE ON A DIET

FREE FROM SUGAR, BLEACHED

FLOUR, AND FOOD ADDITIVES

Arefeh Langkilde (EdS, Middle Grades Education and

Reading, August, 1981)

This study was conducted to compare the achievement and the behavior
of students who were on a diet containing sugar, bleached flour, and food
additives to that of students who were on a diet free from sugar, bleached
flour, and food additives.

The subjects of this study were 29 students, grade two, four, and five,
from the schools in the Atlanta metropolitan area. The subjects were
divided into two groups, the experimental group and the control group, on
the basis of their answers to the diet questionnaire. The experimental
group had a diet free from sugar, bleached flour, and food additives. The
control group had a diet containing sugar, bleached flour, and food
additives. The subjects on the experimental group were on their special diet
for at least six months before the administration of tests.

The Wide Range Achievement Test was administered to both groups to
determine their achievement level. All the subjects in both groups were on
rated on the Burk's Behavior Rating Scales by their classroom teacher yp
ptovide a basis for the comparison of their behavior. The data obtained
from this study was treated by the analysis of variance procedure.

Results indicated that there was a significant difference, in the areas of
mathematics and reading, in favor of the experimental group. The
comparison of the spelling achievement scores showed a mean difference
of 4.82 in favor of the experimental group, but this difference was not
statiscally significant. The comparison of the behavior scores indicated no
significant difference between the experimental and the control group.

A COMPARISON OF A PRINT AND NON-PRINT
APPROACH FOR TEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES

Ann Laster (EdS, Middle Grades Education and Reading,

August, 1981)

The purpose of this study was to determine if emphasis given the print or
non-print approach would made a significant difference in teaching social
studies. The unit on westward expansion was taught to the control and
experimental groups. The control group used the textbook, workbook,
and other print materials. The experimental group used media and
concrete manipulatives.

48

The subjects were from fifth year students at Argyle Elementary School
in Cobb County, Georgia. There were 59 subjects who completed the
study.

The students were given 75 items on teacher made pretest and posttest.
The statistical analysis used was the Analysis of Covariance. The pretest
was the covariate and the posttest was the dependent variable. The level of
significance was established as .05. \

This study provided for the support or rejection of the following null
hypothesis:

There will be no significance difference on the posttest scores between
groups of students exposed to either print or non-print content
information.

The null hypothesis was not rejected in this study because the level of
significance was above .05. Recommendations suggest further studies need
to be conducted.

TEACHER SELECTION CRITERIA USED BY THE
PRINCIPALS OF COBB COUNTY GEORGIA

John David Lenihan
(EdS, Educational Administration, August, 1980)

This study was conducted to identify those criteria which the principals
of Cobb County Georgia view as being the most important in the teacher
selection process. With an adequate supply of teachers available coupled
with the passage of the Fair Dismissal Law by the 1973 Georgia
Legislature, the need for improvements in the teacher selection process is
obvious.

A review of the literature related to the teacher selection process was
conducted. The questionnaire used by May and Doerge in Louisiana
(1972) served as a model for this study. The modified questionnaire was
administered to all principals within the Cobb County School System and
to central office personnel from the level of director to superintendent. The
mean for each item on the questionnaire was calculated and the means
were ranked from highest to lowest for each group of principals.

An analysis of the data collected indicated the principals surveyed
considered seven criteria to be essential to the teacher selection process.
They are: (1) cooperative attitude, (2) classroom discipline, (3) compatible
instructional methods in position applied for, (4) health, (5) pleasant
personality, (6) verbal ability, and (7) expressed educational philosophy.

The following recommendations were then made. The recruitment
program must continue and possibly be expanded. An updated
application form should be completed and sent to the system office. The
application form would be reviewed and reference verifications conducted.

49

An administrator from the Personnel Department would then conduct the
first interview. All information collected, which is related to the most
important criteria, should be recorded on a rating system. The next step
would be for the principal to interview applicants, as vacancies occur. A
third interview may be conducted by the teachers with whom the candidate
would be working. The principal should then make a recommendation to
hire or not to hire the candidate.

A STUDY OF APPLICATIONS FOR

EMPLOYMENT WITH MARIETTA CITY

SCHOOLS: 1977-1979

Jerry Locke (EdS, Educational Administration, August,

1980)

This study was conducted during 1980 at Marietta, Georgia.
Applications for employment with Marietta City Schools were examined
for the years 1977, 1978, and 1979. Applicants were divided into two
groups for the study. One group was composed of those who were not
employed by the school system, and the other group was composed of
those who were employed by the Marietta City Schools. The purpose of
the study was to identify factors which were different between the two
groups and which may have been significant in eventual employment with
Marietta City Schools.

Considered in the Study was the importance of such factors as subject
area, certification. National Teacher Examination scores, race, sex,
residence, geographic distribution, college degrees, number of years of
prior experience, age, marital status, college placement files, and college
honors. Data was collected for each of the factors that were thought to be
important to employment. Analysis of the data indicated whether the
factor had been decisive in the employment process.

It was found that some factors did relate to employment with the school
system. Residents of the Atlanta area were most often hired. Teachers who
had a minimum of one to three years of prior experience were favored over
those without experience. Successful teacher candidates tended to be
somewhat older than the unsuccessful candidates though there was not a
great number of years of difference. Those applicants who were married
were employed more often than single applicants, but the marital factor
was possibly a coincidental factor related to age. In summary, some
different characteristics were found for the two sets of teacher candidates.

50

AN APPROACH TO A DEFENSIBLE

NONDISCRIMINATORY

IDENTIFICATION MODEL FOR THE GIFTED

Robert R. Long (EdS, Special Education, August, 1980)

The purpose of this study was to develop an approach to a defensible,
nondiscriminatory identification model for the gifted program of Rome
City Schools.

A self study of the gifted program of Rome Cit_, Schools revealed a
disproportionately small number of minority and disadvantaged students
in the gifted program; and a need for a more equitable method of
identifying those minority and disadvantaged students who are gifted.

Most gifted programs rely very heavily on group intelligence and group
achievement test scores as part of their identification procedures. As a
result, many disadvantaged children that are truly gifted, remain
unidentified because they cannot be adequately measured.

Group tests that are presently in use have been validated on white,
middle class, suburban subjects. Because group tests stress verbal ability,
certain disadvantaged groups are penalized.

Researchers agree that an individual intelligence test is the most effective
means of identification of the gifted. However, very few school systems
have the resources with which to employ enough psychologists and
psychometrists to administer and to interpret the results of individual tests
in order to identify gifted students.

Because of the lack of resources, group tests must be used by school
systems as part of their identification procedures. It is the contention of
this study, that group intelligence and achievement tests can be used
effectively tests can be used effectively and fairly to identify the gifted if
local norms aredeveloped for various groups.

This study divided the school population of Rome City Schools into
four groups: White Advantaged, White Disadvantaged, Black
Advantaged, and Black Disadvantaged. Advantaged is defined by this
study, as referring to those children who are not eligible to receive free of
reduced school lunches according to the guidelines set by the U.S.D.A.
Disadvantaged refers to those children who are eligible to receive free or
reduced school lunches according the the U.S.D.A. guidelines.

The study develops the criteria to be used in the identification model and
develops a rationale supporting the use of each criteria. Mean IQ scores on
the Otil-Lennon Mental Ability test for fourth, fifth, and tenth grade
students, were compared for each group using the analysis of variance
procedure. A significant difference in the mean IQ score for each group
was found to exist, thus lending support to the rationale for establishing
and using local norms.

SI

A similar comparison was made for sixth, seventh, and tenth grade
students: using the mean reading and math scores on the Iowa Test of Basic
Skills. A significant difference in the mean reading and mean math scores
was also found to exist between the four groups, lending additional
support to the rationale for developing local norms to minimize the verbal
bias of group intelligence and achievement tests.

The study proposes an identification model consisting of six assessment
items to be used in conjunction with the Baldwin Identification Matrix.
The BIM pulls together all the assessment techniques used into a total
score that can rank order students and allow selection according to the
rank of the student.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF A RELIABLE INSTRUMENT

TO MEASURE BASIC

SKILLS COMPETENCY OF FIFTH GRADE

STUDENTS OF BOWDON ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

Susan Saxon Lovvorn
(Eds, Middle Grades Education, June, 1981)

A study was conducted to develop a reliable measure of English
competency at the fifth-grade level. A teacher-made test was administered
to 133 fifth-grade students from Bowdon Elementary School. The Basic
English Competency Test - Level 5 was administered as a pretest and again
as the posttest. The Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient was
used to determine the correlation between pretest and posttest scores. The
correlation coefficient of .90 indicated the reliability of the instrument.

A SURVEY OF PRIVATE ENTERPRISE/

ECONOMICS/PERSONAL FINANCE

EDUCATION IN THE PUBLIC

SECONDARY SCHOOLS

Faye C. McBrayer (EdS, Secondary Education, August,

1980)
Problem

The purpose of this study was to identify those states requiring high
school students to complete a private enterprise course in order to
graduate and to determine commonalities among the mandates.
Subproblems

Subproblems taken from the problem and introduced in the study were:
1. To identify those states requiring high school students to complete a

course in private enterprise/ economics/ personal finance prior to

graduation.

S2

2. To determine if a year of implementation was established.

3. To determine what titles had been given to the mandated course (s).

4. To find where in the curriculum the course (s) was placed.

5. To determine at what grade level (s) the course (s) was offered.

6. To determine commonalities among the courses offered.

Procedures

Information necessary to the solution of the problem regarding the
status of private enterprise/ economics/ personal finance in the public
secondary schools was solicited through the use of a transmittal letter and
an eight-question survey instrument mailed to the persons serving as State
Supervisors of Business Education in the fifty United States in August,
1979.

A follow-up letter, along with an additional copy of the original
questionnaire, was mailed to each of the thirteen supervisors who had not
responded by October 5, 1979.

The completed questionnaires were tabulated and analyzed with regard
to specific subproblems and the results were reported through use of
tables.

Data needed to solve the subproblem dealing with course commonalities
were state-developed course guides for the required economics course (s).
The guides were reviewed and analyzed for areas of similarity. Those
commonalities deemed significantly to the study were pointed out in an
attempt to obtain a more comprehensive view of economics education in
the public secondary schools of the United States.

Conclusions

Seventeen states reportedly do require an economics course as a
prerequisite to graduation. Two of the seventeen states require a unit of
study rather than a full course.

Sixteen states reported years a mandate was passed and sixteen states
reported established years for implementation of the mandate.

The title "Free Enterprise" was the title used must often and
"Economics" was second in use.

Two states reported that the mandated course(s) must be placed in the
Business curriculum. Four states placed the economics course in the Social
Science curriculum. The remaining eleven states reported no specific area
but a combination of two or more curriculums.

Grade level placement varied among the seventeen states requiring an
economics course prior to graduation. The majority left placement to local
option or specified grades nine through twelve inclusively.

53

Course guides were received from eight states. Included in the
commonalities found were the areas of: economic concepts, broad
objectives or goals, specific student objectives, course content,
bibliography, glossary, evaluation techniques, suplementary materials,
and developers of the course guides.

ADOLESCENT EGOCENTRISM IN THE
CHARACTERS OF M. E. KERR

Roxana Marie Matter
(Eds, Secondary Education, March, 1981)

Psychologists have looked at adolescene, the period of transition from
childhood to adulthood, from different perspectives. Piaget's perspective
demonstrates that adolescence corresponds with the onset of the final and
most mature stage of cognitive development, that of formal thought.
Elkind, expnading upon Piaget's perspective, notes new mental structures
that appear at this time and contends that new capacities for combinatorial
thought, introspection, and construction help to account for many
characteristics typical of this stage. According to Elkind, prominent
among these characteristics related to adolescent cognitive development is
that of adloscent egocentrism. Specific manifestations of adolescent
egocentrism can lead to problems both for the adolescent and for others in
his life. Such problems, in turn, provide recurrent themes in the "new
realism" of the adolescent novel.

The primary purpose of this study is to determine the extent to which the
unique and typical behaviors of adolescent egocentrism are manifested by
the major adolescent characters in the seven adolescent novels of M. E.
Kerr. Two secondary purposes are to determine the extent to which these
characters provide a realistic view of adolescent concerns in terms of
Elkind's theory and to confront the question of their probable usefulness in
seeking satisfactory solutions to real life problems.

Seven adolescent novels are analysed in terms of the four specific
characteristics of adolescent egocentrism-imaginary audience, personal
fable, pseudostupidity, apparent hypocrisy and additional indicators
related to the development of adolescent egocentrism observed within the
particular character.

Because adolescent egocentrism consists only of typical behaviors, it is
sometimes difficult to detail clearly. Nonetheless, of the fourteen
characters analysed, none manifest imaginery audience constructs, seven
demonstrate personal fables, one manifests imaginary audience hypocrisy,
and none show pseudostupidity. Eight of these characters present
additional indicators demonstrating that they have progresssed to the
formal operational stage of cognitive development. Additional indicators
are most frequently related to the ability to think about one's own thoughts
and those of others as separate entities.

54

Kerr's characters reveal manifestations of developmental characteristics
and of egocentrism behaviors associated with cognitive progression into
informal operational thought. These characters can provide teachers with
increased insight into adolescent behavior and constitute a kind of
classroom resource that will compel the attention of the learner.

Eight specific suggestions for further study include an extension of the
present study to include two forthcoming Kerr novels for adolescents.

AN ANALYSIS OF ATTITUDES TOWARD THE

GIFTED PROGRAM OF ELEMENTARY GIFTED

STUDENTS IN THE CARROLL COUNTY

ENRICHMENT PROGRAM

Glenda Meeks (EdS, Special Education, August, 1981)

This study was designed to measure attitudes of students toward the
gifted program in the Carroll County, Georgia, Enrichment Program.
Attitudes were analyzed based on the sex, grade level, and school of the
participants.

The subjects of this study were students in grades four through eight in
the Carroll County Enrichment Program in the Spring, 1981. Two
hundred twenty-two students participated in the study.

An attitude survey developed by the Ferguson-Florissant, Missouri,
School District's Gifted/ Talented Program was completed by the
students. The survey measures these four factors: Factor 1 Attitudes
Toward the Gifted Program, Factor 2 Student Perceptions of Peer
Attitudes Toward the Gifted Program, Factor 3 Improved Self-
Awareness, and Factor 4 Variety of Activities Available to Students.
Each response was indicated on a scale of 1-5. A mean score was computed
for each of the four factors and for the total score for each hypothesis.

An analysis of variance was computed by the West Georgia computer
center for each hypothesis on all four factors and the total scores of the
attitude responses. A Duncan's Multiple Range Test was computed to
locate the source of any factors showing a significant difference.

Hypothesis one stated that there would be no significant difference
between attitudes of males and females toward the gifted program. This
hypothesis was accepted for Factor 2 (student perceptions of peer attitudes
toward the gifted program), Factor 3 (improved self-awareness), and
Factor 4 (variety of activities available to students.) Factor I (student
attitudes toward the gifted program) revealed a significant difference (p=
.046). The attitude scores of females was again higher than those of males.

Hypothesis two stated that there would be no significant difference in
the measured attitudes of different school populations. This hypothesis

55

was accepted for Factor 1 (attitude toward the gifted program), Factor 3
(improved self-awareness), Factor 4 (variety of activities available to
students), and the total score. The Factor 2 (student perceptions of peer
attitudes toward the gifted program) ratio was significant at a level of .002.
A Duncan's Multiple Range Test revealed that school 7, Whitesburg, was
significantly lower than the other schools.

Hypothesis three stated that there would be no significant differences on
attitude scores by grade in school. Factor 1 (attitude toward the gifted
program) was rejected (p = .0018). Grade 8 was significantly higher than
the other grades. Factor 3 (improved self-awareness) revealed that grade 8
was again significantly different from and lower than the other grades (p -
.0088). The hypothesis was accepted for factor 4 (variety of activities
available to students) and the total score.

It appears that attitudes toward the gifted program were affected by sex
and grade level of the students. The only factor affected by the different
schools in the population was student perceptions of peer attitudes toward
the gifted program. The grade level of the students caused a significant
difference in the area of improved self-awareness, with grade 8 having a
lower score. The total score of attitude by sex also revealed a significant
difference in the attitudes of males and females toward the gifted program.

LISTENING ACCURACY: AN EVALUATION OF ONE

ASPECT OF TRAINING IN INTERVIEW

SKILLS

Phillip L. Mengel (EdS, Counseling and Educational
Psychology, March, 1981)

The purpose of this study was to assess increased listening accuracy as a
result of training in an interviewing skills workshop for the State of
Georgia, Division of Family and Children Services eligibility interviewers.

Forms A and B of the Jones-Mohr Listening Test were used in that order
to pretest and posttest participants before and after training in listening
accuracy.

A chi square analysis of the frequency distribution of scores revealed
that no significant change occured in listening accuracy at the .05 level.
However, a t test comparison of experimental group pretest and posttest
means indicated significant change occured at the .0001 level, while a
control group showed no change.

56

EARLY CHILDHOOD SPECIAL EDUCATION
PROGRAMS IN THE UNITED STATES

Clara Kay Nielsen
(Eds, Early Childhood Education, June, 1981)

This study was conducted to review programs for the preschool
handicapped that would serve as models for use in the State of Georgia. It
was the intent of the study to look at programs that could demonstrate
success through follow-up in later years.

A visitation was made to the Frank Porter Graham Child Development
Center at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. The purpose of
the visit was to observe longitudinal programs in operation. An
observation was also made of the preschool handicapped class operated in
conjunction with the Chapel Hill Public School System. The current status
of programs was discussed with researchers in the field.

The study concluded that handicapped children enrolled in preschool
programs demonstrate better social, emotional, and educational
adjustment in later years than children wh do not attend preschool.

Implementation of programming was discussed looking at
identification and assessment, curriculum models, and parent
involvement.

The conclusions reached were that early intervention results in
improvement in achievement and IQ scores, reduction in special education
placement, reduction in grade retention, and better adjustment to home
and community.

The study was limited due to the fact that many of the programs in
progress have not been going on long enough for the research to validate
sufficient progress. The strategies, models, and plans may not be suitable
for every school system or demonstration center, and therefore should not
be generalized. However, it is felt that due to the recent trends in the
education of the handicapped, the study has significance in presenting
models that might be adopted in implementing programs for the preschool
handicapped.

57

A COMPARISON OF THE READING

ACHIEVEMENT OF STUDENTS USING THE

LANGUAGE EXPERIENCE APPROACH WITH THE

READING ACHIEVEMENT OF STUDENTS USING

A BASAL READER

Jacqueline Owen

(EdS, Middle Grades Education and Reading, August, 1981)

The purpose of this study was twofold; first, to determine if the reading
achievement of students using the language experience approach showed a
significant difference when compared to the reading achievement of
students using a basal reader approach. Secondly, included in this study
was a reading attitude scale to determine if students using the language
experience approach showed a significant difference in reading attitude
when compared to students using a basal reader approach. The purposes
were the bases for the 2 null hypotheses. The experimental group and the
control group were each composed of 20 fifth-grade students housed at
Rosemont Elementary School in Troup County, Georgia. In the absence
of random sampling, it was assumed that the 2 groups were equivalent.

The study consisted of an experiment for 1 1 actual weeks wherein the
experimental group was taught reading skills through the language
experience approach using an interview type learning situation. The
control group was taught reading skills through the use of a basal reader
approach.

A reading achievement test and a reading attitude scale were given at the
beginning and the end of the experiment as a pre-test and as a post-test.
The Analysis of Covariance was used to accept or reject the hypotheses.
The covariant was the pre-test scores of each testing instrument and the
dependent variable was the post-test scores of each testing instrument. The
level at which the hypotheses were accepted or rejected was the .05 level of
probability.

In this class centered action study, the findings indicated that the
language experience approach for teaching reading skills did not result in
any significant differences in either reading achievement or reading
attitude when compared with a basal reader curriculum. However, the
students taught reading skills through the language experience approach
did show improvement by writing longer stories, using longer and more
varied sentences, using better punctuation, and acquiring note-taking and
outlining skills.

Based on the findings, observations, and conclusions of this study, the
researcher submits the following recommendations:

1. This study should be replicated in this present design using
random sampling for the selection of the experimental and control
groups.

58

2. This study should be conducted over a longer period of time.

3. This study should be conducted using samples from other grades
to see if they would benefit from the language experience approach.

4. This study should be conducted again to test for paragraph
construction, organization of material, grammar improvements,
letter writing, speUing and length of stories.

THE EFFECT OF SPIRAL TEACHING IN

MATHEMATICS OF THE ACHIEVEMENT OF

SIXTH GRADE STUDENTS

Cathy L. Pruitt (EdS, Middle Grades Education and
Reading, August, 1981)

This study was designed to determine what effect, if any, spiral teaching
would have on the mathematical achievement of sixth-grade students.

Subjects used in this study were sixth-grade mathematics groups from
two successive school years at Purks Elementary School, Cedartown,
Polk County, Georgia. The two groups were assumed to be equivalent in
regard to race, sex, age, socio-economic background, and previous
mathematics experience and ability. During the 1979-1980 school year,
the 32 students who comprised the control group received instruction for
75 minute class periods for 32 weeks using the traditional approach to
teaching. During the 1980-1981 school year, the 26 students who
comprised the experimental group received instruction for 55 minute
class periods for 32 weeks using the spiral appraoch to teaching.

A pre- and posttest evaluation designed by the Polk County
mathematics curriculum committee was administered to both groups by
the investigator who conducted the experiment.

The analysis of variance of the gains was used to analyze the data. The
null hypotheses were tested using the .05 level of significance. No
significant gains were shown in the areas of fractions, per cent, graphing,
measurement, geometry, and probability and statistics. A significant gain
was shown favoring the control group in the area of ratio and proportion.
Significant gains in the areas of whole numbers, decimals, and composite
test scores were above favoring the experimental group. This would
indicate that spiral teaching in mathematics within the purposes and
limitations of this study does increase selective achievement in
mathematics, specifically in the areas of whole numbers and decimals.

Although results indicated no significant differences in some
comparisons, the mean gains in the areas of fractions, measurement, and
geometry did favor the experimental group. It is recommended that
further studies be made in this area to determine if these same findings
hold true under different circumstances.

59

THE HISTORY OF DUE WEST SCHOOL
AT A TIME OF TRANSITION

Delores Hightower Ruff
(Eds, Elementary Education, March, 1981)

This writer related the history of Due West Elementary School for two
primary reasons. One, because there was not a written record that this
writer was able to find and second, because it will be one of the schools so
dramatically affected by the completion of the 1 20 loop. Just as East Cobb
grew in the 1970's so West Cobb is going to grow in the 1980's.

This writer's plan was to talk to as many long-time residents as possible
and the writer was successful in obtaining a list of over twenty people whb
went to Due West before it moved. Secondly, the plan was to tell what
ocurred at Due West until the present, going all the way back in people's
memory. A description of the old school is available. This description was
made by the lead teacher in 1928, Miss Hansard. 77?^ First One Hundred
Years, by Sarah Gober Temple is the most accurate book that this writer
has seen and Mrs. Temple shows records of the school as far back as
1891. Mrs. Temple does not even imply that that was the school's first
year. When the school first began was in 1841, this writer thinks, but at
that time it was known as Gilgal. In 1864 the name was changed to the
present one.

There are records and long-time residents who are still around who
remember the tornado which did a great deal of damage to the school.
Whether there were two tornadoes or whether people's memories have
failed them could not be determined. However, this writer suspects the
former. Either way, there were two according to information received.

This writer's beliefs were that because the school has been so rural it
would not have some of the problems that other schools have faced.
However, in the past five years, and into the 1980's, this writer believes
that a dramatic change will take place in numbers and kinds of problems.
This writer can only make suppositions about the future, but can certainly
check the years since it reopened on its present site, 1958-1959. Upon
completing the research this writer found that the suppositions are not
true but the concepts do reveal themselves in middle and high school.
Charts and graphs included are attendance, lists of staff and testing.

JOHN GARDNER'S HEROIC UNIVERSE

Gary Edward Simmers (MA, English, August, 1980)

In a literary climate predominated by the cynical and fatalistic viewpoint
that denies the possibility of individual heroic affirmation, John Gardner
emerges as an advocate for heroic literature. Gardner believes that a
writer is obligated to tell a story that produces a positive moral response in

60

the reader, that promotes "the movement of humanity toward
perfection."

In The Resurrection, a dying philosophy professor affirms Ufe by
learning to accept the "buzzing, blooming confusion" of life itself. In
Nickel Mountain, a simple man, changed by love, grows to believe in the
basic goodness of existence, the "holiness of things." The protagonist of
October Light, a man who understands "life's gravity." discovers the
"waste" of a fatalistic life and finally accpets life's "goodness." The
protagonist of The Sunlight Dialogues learns that everything in life offers
something of value and redeems his life by giving a "blessing" to all
mankind. In Grendel, a monster's struggles with the universe change him
from a fatalistic, half-human caricature of man's darker nature to a poet
whose art offers mankind redemption. Finally, the Wreckage of Agathon
offers a character whose very existence is an example of the affirmative
potential inherent in the lives of all.

A STUDY OF PUPIL ACADEMIC
ACHIEVEMENT DURING INTERNSHIP

Janice G. Sims (EdS, Special Education, August, 1981)

This study was devised to monitor the effects of a teacher's internship
on her students' academic achievement. Fifty-three third, fourth, seventh
and eighth grade students attending schools in several north Georgia
counties qualified for the research. The children had been identified as
learning disabled and were receiving services through resource rooms.
They had been taught by the same teacher for at least two years.

Pretest and posttest scores from the Wide Range Achievement Test
were obtained on each subject for the school years 1979-80 and 1980-81.
The grade level scores were used to determine gains in reading, spelling,
and arithmetic for both years. A t-test analysis on the gain scores was
made.

Results from the analysis showed that there had been no significant
increase in gain scores during the year of internship as opposed to the
previous year. The data indicate that a teacher's internship does not made
a difference in the academic achievement gain of the student.

THE EFFECTS OF RISK-TAKING AS VIEWED IN
SELECTED ADOLESCENT NOVELS

Claire Lennard Stewart

(Eds, Secondary Education, March, 1981)

The purpose of this study was to determine whether risk-taking in eight

selected adolescent novels was presented as a positive or a negative value.

Twelve protagonists, ranging in age from twelve years to middle age, were

61

analyzed in order to determine their motivation for risk-taking, the effect I
of the risk-taking on themselves, and their moral maturity levels before ;
and after the risks. The overall effect of the risk-taking was then analyzed
to determine whether risk-taking was presented in a positive or negative
light. Conclusions were drawn concerning patterns that existed among
these novels with respect to risk-taking.

An analysis indicated that there was no similarity of background on
character type among the protagonists, nor was there a consistent initial
moral maturity level. Although there was a difference in the intensity off
risks taken, three patterns which emerged concerning the type of risk
taken by protagonists involved social disapproval, disruption of a family
or social relationship, or life.

The effect of the risk-taking on the protagonists was found to be positive
in every instance when the risk-taking was motivated by concern with the
welfare of another character or, in one case, by a desire for personal
growth. The personal effect of the risk on these protagonists was positive
in that all these characters achieved an inner freedom despite the fact that
the immediate consequences of their risks were not pleasant except in
one instance.

The protagonists whose risks had negative outcomes were motivated
by selfish interests, or they acted without regard for the harmful
consequences to others. For these protagonists the immediate
consequences were either highly undesirable, or they were perceived to
be desirable by the protagonists who lacked awareness of what they had
risked. When the risk-taking was positive, the moral maturity levels of the
protagonists progresses to the highest level or descended to a lower one.

The overall effect of the risk-taking in each novel correlated with its
effect on the protagonist: when results of risk-taking were undesirable for
the protagonists, the entire novel discouraged risk-taking; when positive
outcomes resulted for protagonists, risk-taking as a whole was portrayed
as a positive venture.

Implications for classroom use involve the use of adolescent novels
such as these to develop adolescent perception of risk-taking. By
examining the outcome of responsible, selfless risk-taking as opposed to
selfish or misguided risk-taking, adolescents can clarify their own values.

THERAPY AND THE CREATIVE PROCESS

John H. Stuhrman (MA, Psychology, March, 1981)

Understanding the creative process within oneself is most important in
understanding this thesis. What I have found to be an interesting problem
in my own life, is shared by many others today in attempting to blend the
spiritual and the scientific. The field in science that best meets with the
mystical is of course, psychology. There is still a deep split between

62

scientific and mystical thought, and few personaHties accomplish these
diverse ways of understanding life. We can find within ourselves from one
time to another leanings to either of these ways, and it is the relationship
between these two that can lead to the development of creativity.

I have written this thesis as an exercise to follow rather than having it be
something that has the answers. I would hope for it to evoke more
questions than answers because there is little creativity when we have
only the answers. It will be the affect this thesis has on the reader that I am
concerned with, and to bring this about I have used a blend of language
that is not always easily accepted. This is because I am trying to speak to
two antagonistic parts within ourselves. One part is confined to our
senses in which we weigh and measure our lives, and the other points to
what is beyond what we can sense. To point beyond what we can sense is
represented in such words as infinite, permanent, and perfection. These
words can give an impression to the senses without giving any meaning
beyond this, what they represent however, has much more value to us
than what they merely give as sense impressions. It is the value of
something that has us notice it as having a creative quality.

In the confines of our sensory experience we desire to express all that
we perceive so that it is communicated just as we experience it. Different
ways of seeing and experiencing have led to different ways of expression.
As language evolves new ways of expressing new experiences are sought
out to avoid being bogged down in language that our senses are all too
familiar with, and do not allow us to see any deeper meaning. In spite of
this we must remember that there is an audience we are addressing, and it
would be helpful to them if we spoke their language. This thesis addresses
a relatively new blend of people, those who have mixed psychology and
mysticism in an attempt to give their lives and the lives of others a fuller
meaning.

I see this blending as being fundamental in a creative process in human
relationships both within and externally. There has been very little
success in evolving a language which can deal with this problem
consistently in the English tongue, and I have tried to cope as best with this
problem as I can. In a thesis such as this, mixing the language of the
scientist with the language of the mystic leads to an affect within the reader
that needs further exploration to bring out and evolve the problems of
integration. Yet, I have not written this to explain anything precisely when
I cannot do this, nor to totally leave it as all mystifying when it does not
have to be.

63

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF A SCHOOL

SUPERVISED LUNCH PROGRAM TO AN

IN-SCHOOL CATERED PROGRAM

Christopher Joseph Tully
(EdS, Educational Administration, August, 1980)

This project compared two school system's lunch programs. South
Cobb High School in Cobb County, Georgia utilized the program as
dictated by federal and state guidelines when subsidies and aid are
received, and Benton High School in Benton, Arkansas, whose program is
composed of an outside vendor in combination with a variety of vending
machines. The only state aid permitted and received by the latter system
is the subsidation of the milk program.

Most of the observation and data collection were done in one visit to
Benton High School. The remainder of the data used for Benton was from
information furnished by the principal of Benton High School and the
Chamber of Commerce. Data for the South Cobb High School was
collected in one day; however, observations were made over a period of
eight years. Very Uttle written material was available relating to the Benton
plan and material relating to government subsidized and regulated
programs was limited to government pamphlets, bulletins and research
papers. Reference was made to a research paper on a program similar to
Benton's plan in Clarke County, Nevada. Analytical comparisons were
made on the two schools in areas outside the lunch program, but do affect
the programs.

Benton has practically scrapped the lunch program involving federal
and state aid. It still receives state aid in the milk program. It is felt by all
concerned that the current program is far superior to the former method
of depending wholly on state and federal aid. However, South Cobb is not
faced with the same problem that Benton had when it made its decision to
change from very low participation and a money losing proposition. South
Cobb did make alterations to broaden its accommodations and the trend
has continued toward a program which serves meals similar to those of a
program like Benton's.

Benton's plan should not be scoffed at and ridiculed as contributing to
improper and insufficient diets. It feeds a larger percentage of the students
some food and waste has practically been eliminated. Alterations of the
federal and state regulated lunch program are in order and programs
similar to the one in Benton High School are good ones to observe for
suggestions.

64

THE STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF THE EARLY
CHILDHOOM EDUCATION PROGRAM AT WEST

GEORGIA COLLEGE ON UNDERGRADUATES

AFTER ENTERING THE TEACHING PROFESSION

WITH A VALIDATION FROM THEIR SUPERVISORS

Angle Carolyn White Turner

(Eds, Early Childhood Education, June, 1981)

The purpose of this study was to determine the results of an evaluation

questionnaire concerning the effects of the early childhood education

program at West Georgia College on undergraduates after entering the

teaching profession with a validation from their supervisors.

Seventy-three questionnaire results were tabulated. The results
showed that the early childhood education program at West Georgia
College had a positive effect on undergraduates after entering the
teaching profession with a validation by their supervisors.

A FIRST YEAR EVALUATION OF THE

RAND McNALLY SPELLING PROGRAM FOR

FIFTH GRADE STUDENTS

Anne Johnson Weaver (EdS, Middle Grades Education,

June, 1981)

This study determined any increase in spelling achievement among fifth
grade students at Canton Elementary School that resulted from the
implementation of the Rand McNally Spelling Program.

The subjects of this study were two heterogeneous groups of fifth grade
students at Canton Elementary School in Cherokee County, Canton,
Georgia. The two groups were considered to be of equivalent ability, age,
and sex. They were also considered representative of the total fifth grade
population.

Seventy-three students participated in the study. Thirty-seven were
members of the control group, and thirty-six were members of
the experimental group.

The study was conducted during the first semester of the 1980-1981
school year from August 25, 1980 to January 15, 1981. Each treatment
period was fifteen minutes daily for the experimental group and control
group. Both groups were instructed by the same teacher.

The experimental group was instructed by the teaching manual of the
Rand McNally Spelling Program. The control group was instructed by the
teaching manual of the Silver Burdett Spell Correctly Series which was
formerly used in this school.

The WRAT (Wide Range Achievement Test) Spelling Subtest, Level I
was used as the pretest and posttest. The raw data were analyzed by the
West Georgia College Computer Center in Carrollton, Georgia.

65

and two comparing pretest scores with posttest scores in th^
experimental and control groups. Both null hypotheses were rejected
since both the experimental and control group gained significantly at the
.05 level of significance.

The Analysis of Covariance was used to test hypothesis three which
compared the gain scores of the experimental group and the control
group. I.Q. scores were used as the covariate. The data indicated that
although the mean gain of the experimental group was slightly higher than
the meaii gain of the control group, this gain was not significant at the .05
level of significance. Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected.

DEVELOPMENT OF SCHOOL INTERNALS AND

THEIR

INFLUENCE ON THE CONEPT OF THE

"NEW MAN" IN USSR

Barbara Rose West/all
(EdS, Secondary Education, August, 1980)

This study delves into how the Soviets use education as an
instrument in weaving a tighter Communist society. It points out the
many diversities of cultures within that nation, gives an insight into the
type of educational system that preceded the Revolution of 1917, and
focuses on the specific needs for the development of the school
internat, the Soviet boarding school. In 1956, Premier Khrushchev
instigated a return to educating the masses in internats as the elite had
been educated during the Tsarist regimes. To understand the ultimate
goal designed for these school internats, the framework of the study
involved a documented review of literature in American and Soviet
publications.

Data showed that although the school internat is still in use, the
projected aims of massive internment of the Soviet children has not
been realized. Due to economic reasons and a changing society, the
role of the school internat in Soviet education has diminished. There is
documented evidence that the schools currently in operation do
influence the concept of the "new man" in the USSR.

Since 1961 the emphasis on the school internats has been negated.
Relatively little or no research has involved this program.

Contemporary Soviet education has centered around neighborhood
schools which have extended hours. The underlying rationale for these is
that they are not only lower in cost to operate but achieve the same goals
that were projected for the school internats. Accordingly, these Soviet

66

students develop to their fullest potential while, simultaneously, are
being indoctrinated with the Marxist-Leninist ideology. Furthermore,
these prolonged day schools relieve the parents for productive labor during
the work day.

A STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN THE

LEVEL OF EDUCATION AND RACIAL/SEXUAL

ATTITUDES OF EARLY CHILDHOOD STUDENTS AT

WEST GEORGIA COLLEGE,

CARROLLTON, GEORGIA

Vivian Goodson Westmoreland
(Eds, Early Childhood Education, August, 1981)

A study was conducted to determine how different groups of
students view the faculty and administration in relation to racism and
sexism and to obtain the students' view in relation to racism and
sexism in the Early Childhood Education Department during the
winter quarter of the 1980-81 academic year.

This study provided a basis to support or reject the hypothesis that
the opinionaire responses of the sixth-year students will be keyed
numerically lower than those of the fifth-year graduate students and
the undergraduate students with respect to their:

a. own sexual attitudes

b. own racial attitudes

c. opinions of sexual attitudes of the college faculty and
administration

d. opinions of racial attitudes of the college faculty and
administration

An opinionnaire was provided for each student in the Early
Childhood Education Department to complete, during the winter
quarter, 1980-81. The multifactor ANOVA was used in comparing the
opinions of undergraduates, fifth-year students, and sixth-year
students about sexism and racism with the students' opinions of the
racial and sexual attitudes of the college faculty and administration.
The results showed a significant difference for students on sexism and
racism but none on students' perception of faculty's attitudes. The
correlation coefficient was significantly positive for all students and
how they perceive faculty as feeling about sexism and racism. There
was nothing significant about how undergraduates feel about sexism
and racism and how they perceive faculty feels. There is a significant
difference between opinions of fifth-year and sixth-year students
about sexism and racism and fifth-year and sixth-year students'
opinions of racial and sexual attitudes of the college faculty and

67

administration. Each opinionnaire was scored for a total. The mean for
each group of students showed undergraduates scored lowest; fifth-
year students next; and sixth-year students highest.

The hypothesis stated that the opinionnaire responses of the sixth-
year students will be keyed numerically lower than those of the fifth-
year graduate students and the undergraduate students with respect
to their:

a. own sexual attitudes

b. own racial attitudes

c. opinions of sexual attitudes of the college faculty and
administration

d. opinions of racial attitudes of the college faculty and
administration

This hypothesis was refuted.

A recommendation was made for further studies using a larger
sample.

A TRADITIONAL APPROACH VERSUS A SMALL

GROUP MANIPULATIVE APPRAOCH IN TEACHING

BEGINNING MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION

AT THE THIRD GRADE LEVEL

Wanda Pritchett Williams
(Eds, Early Childhood Education, December, 1981)

This study was an attempt to determine any differences in achievement
between two groups of subjects, who were taught beginning multiplication
and division by two different methods.

The subjects for this study were two third-grade classes at Westside
Elementary School in Rocky Face, Georgia. The subjects were placed in
each classroom without regard to socio-economic background, academic
achievement, or mental ability.

The control group, a class of nineteen students, was taught beginning
multiplication and division using only the traditional method. The
experimental group, a class of nineteen students, was taught
multiplication using the small group manipulative appraoch to teaching
beginning multiplication and division facts. At the beginning of this study
a multiplication and division pretest was administered to both groups. The
instruction period lasted six weeks, at the end of which time a posttest was
administered to both groups. A delayed posttest was given four weeks after
the study had ended.

Since there were only two groups to compare, the t-test was employed on
the data from each of the comparisons: the results at the end of the
treatment perios and the results at the time of the delayed posttest. The
results of the tests at the end of the posttest and the delayed posttest did not

68

reveal a significant difference at .05 level between the experimental and
traditional groups.

It is recommended that similiar studies of a longer duration be
conducted with students from different schools to see if the results are
similar.

IDENTIFICATION AND SUBSEQUENT EDUCATION

OF THE GIFTED STUDENT IN THE SCHOOLROOM

BY THE CLASSROOM TEACHER

(Barbara A. Wood, EdS, Special Education, March, 1981)

Identification of the gifted child is often a neglected task even in the
modern day classroom. A lack of teacher awareness, which can be
attributed to a lack of interest but most probably to a lack of training, is the
major obstacle facing a successful gifted student education program. For
without proper identification, worthwhile education for the gifted cannot
possibly be offered. Therefore, the purpose of this research paper is to
study the ways in which gifted students have been identified and educated
throughout educational history. A study of past and current methods
reveals a degree of success in this worthwhile endeavor, but such a study
also points out the extent of progress yet to be made. Through such a
study, a new instrument can be developed to improve present methods of
identification.

A comprehensive search of literature related to the needs of gifted
children offers, in addition to specific recounts of educational information
concerning the gifted, an overview ot what an educator might learn to
expect of most gifted students. An awareness of common traits provides
basic background material which, if coupled with training, can be valuable
to any educator. The testing procedures used today to specifically identify
students who are suspected to be gifted are quite successful. But the tests
are not given to all students, so the basic problem is to identify those
students who must be tested.

Taking into consideration the personality traits and classroom behavior
generally exhibited by students whom educators know from previous
testing to be gifted, an instrument to be used by the classroom teacher to
identify other such students can be assembled. The instrument presented in
this research paper is the result of the findings of many authors writing on
the subject of giftedness findings which form the basis for the knowledge
currently held by educators concerning the gifted. Personal experience
with gifted students in the classroom lends further background to the
formation of questions for the instrument

69

The obvious conclusion to a valid identification program for the gifted is
a comprehensive program for the gifted students' special learning
requirements. The education systems in the United States must prepare to
provide qualified teachers for the gifted. The teachers, in addition to being
able to identify the gifted students, must be traineed to teach them and
channel their interests into avenues worthy of their gifted talents.

70

ANNUAL FACULTY BIBLIOGRAPHY

Brantley, Daniel
Paper Reading

"Communication Theory and the Georgia Legislature." Paper read at the
Georgia Political Science Association, February 1981.

Seminars

"Community Power Studies," University of Maryland, College Park,
Maryland, November 8-9, 1979 and ,arch 17-18, 1980, sponsored by the
National Science Foundation.

"Parties, Politics, and Government in the United States, 1850 to the
Present," Center for Political Studies at the University of Michigan, Ann
Arbor, Michigan, June 23-August 15, 1980, sponsored by the National
Endowment for the Humanities 1980 Summer Seminar.

"Elections: Presidential and Congressional," University of Georgia,
Athens, Georgia, November 12-14, 1980 and March 18-20, 1981,
sponsored by the National Science Foundation.

Reviews

Review of Marx's Politics: Communists and Citizens by Alan Gilbert.
Perspective, Volume 10, No. 9 (November 1981), 157-158.

Review of Democratic Centralism in Romania: A Study of Local
Communist Politics by Daniel N. Nelson. Perspective, Volume 10, No. 2
(March 1981), 46.

Review of The Other Pareto by Placido Bucolo. Perspective, Volume 10,
No. 1 (January/ February 1981), 3-4.

Dr. Jonathan Goldstein

Publications: Books

Goldstein, Jonathan. Philadelphia and the China Trade, 1682-1846.
Commercial Cultural, and Attitudinal Effects. University Park and
London: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1978.

Goldstein, Jonathan. The China Trade from Philadelphia, 1682-1846: A
Study of Interregional Commerce and Cultural Interaction. Ann Arbor:
University Microfilms, 1974.

Goldstein, Jonathan, ed. Philadelphia's China Trade. Catalogue of Loan
Exhibition, University Hospital antiques Show, Philadelphia, 1972.

Goldstein, Jonathan: Conroy Hilary, et. al. American Images of China:
Then and Now. Santa Barbara and Oxford: American Bibliograpical
Center Clio Press, forthcoming.

71

Other Scholarly Publications

Goldstein, Jonathan. "Early American Image of the Chinese Through
Artifacts and Chinoiserie." Asian Culture Quarterly (Taipei), 9, No. 1
(Spring, 1981), 1-5. Article abstracted in: Society for Historians of
American Foreign Relations Newsletter, 11, No. 4 (December, 1980).
22-23.

Goldstein, Jonathan. "A Romantic Vision of Cathay: JJie Decorative Arts
of the Old China Trade and Their Influence in America up to 1850. "
American Studies (Academia Sinica, Taipei), 10, No. 3 (September, 1980),
1-13. Article abstracted in: Society for Historians of American Foreign
Relations Newsletter, 10, No. 1 (March, 1979), 43-44.

Goldstein, Jonathan. "The Decorative Arts of the Old China Trade and
Their Influence in American up to IS50." Bulletin of the Chinese Historical
Society of America, 14, No. 7 (September, 1979), 2-6.

Goldstein, Jonathan. "Resources on Early Sino-American Relations in
Philadelphia's Stephen Girard Collection and the Historical Society of
Pennsylvania." Committee on East Asian Libraries Bulletin, No. 60
(October, 1979), 16-23; Ch'ing-shih wen-t'i (Journal of the Society for
Ch'ing Dynasty Studies), 4, No. 3 (June, 1980), 114-129. Article abstracted
in: Society for Historians of American Foreign Relations Newsletter, 10,
No. 4 (December, 1979), 23-24.

Goldstein, Jonathan. "The Continuing Romance of Old Cathay and Early
America." New China, 4, No. 4 (Winter, 1979), 20-24.

Goldstein, Jonathan. "Chinese Art Comes to Washington." Korea Focus,
4, No. 1 (March-April, 1975), 60-63.

Goldstein, Jonathan. "The China Trade From Philadelphia." )/55er/fl//o
Abstracts International, 34, No. 12 (June, 1974), 7675.

Goldstein, Jonathan. "The China Trade From Philadelphia," Ch'ing-shih
wen-y'i (Journal of the Society for Ch'ing Dynasty Studies), 2, No. 10
(November, 1973), 60-62.

Pre-publication reviews of: Robert F. Oaks' Merchants and Politics: The
Revolutionary Movement in Philadelphia, 1765-1776; Norman
Pendered's Edward Teach- Master Pirate; and Donald Adams, Jr.'s
Stephen Girard, Banker.

Powell, Bobby

"Combination of Third-Order Elastic constants of Aluminum," with M. J.
Skove, Journal of Applied Physics 53 (January, 1982), 765.

"Was Tecumseh's Arm of Fire" the Comet of 181 1?" Georiga Journal of
Science 39 (April, 1981), 87. (Abstract).

"Combinations of Third-Order Elastic Constants of Al and Bi,"with M.J.
Skove, Bulletin of the American Physical Society 26 ( February, 1 98 1 ), 92.
(Abstract).

72

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Published by

WEST GEORGIA COLLEGE

A Unit of the University System of Georgia
CARROLLTON, GEORGIA

WEST GEORGIA COLLEGE

Volume XV

May, 1983

WEST GEORGIA COLLEGE

REVIEW

Volume XV May, 1983

TABLE

OF

CONTENTS

Christianity and Science Fiction:

An Analysis of the Religious Aspects of The Mote in God's Eye-
William S. Doxey I

New Directions in Rural Community Planning

Dick G. Winchell 6

What is Phenomenological Psychology

Christopher M. Aanstoos 14

Which John Gregory Discovered the First Lode of Gold in Colorado
Carole E. Scott 20

What Kind of Leader was George Washington

Frank R. Hunsicker 29

Abstracts of Master's Theses and Specialist in

Education Projects 37

Annual Bibliography of West Georgia College Faculty

as of January I, 1983 54

Copyright 1983, West Georgia College
Printed in U.S.A.

Published by

WEST GEORGIA COLLEGE

Maurice K. Townsend, President
John T. Lewis, III, Vice President and Dean of Faculties

Learning Resources Committee
Daniel Juengst, Chairman

Charles Beard
Spencer Hamada
Lynn Holmes
Wayne-Kirk
Thomas Lightsey
Paul Masters

Robert Reynolds

Richard Sanders

Carole Scott

J. B. Smith

Burdette Wantland

Jimmy C. Stokes, Editor
Martha A. Saunders, Associate Editor
Mark J. LaFountain, Assistant Editor

The purpose of this publication is to provide encouragement for faculty
research and to make available results of such activity. The Review.
Published annually, accepts original scholarly work and creative writing.
West Georgia College assumes no responsibility for contributors' views.
The style guide is Kate L. Turabian's, A Manualfor Writers. Although the
Review is primarily a medium for the faculty of West Georgia College,
other sources are invited.

An annual Bibliography includes doctoral dissertations, major recitals
and major art exhibits. Theses and articles in progress or accepted are not
listed. A faculty member's initial listing is comprehensive and appears in
the issue of the year of his employment. The abstracts of all master's theses
and educational specialist's projects written at West Georgia College are
included as they are awarded.

CHRISTIANITY AND SCIENCE FICTION: AN ANALYSIS OF THE
RELIGIOUS ASPECTS OF The Mote in God's Eye

by William S. Doxey
The idea for this brief discussion of Chriatianity and science fiction came
in part from a recent investigation of mine regarding several authors' use of
culture as an aspect of style. It seems to me that, consciously or not, writers
employ culture in order to create life-like characters and scenes and also to
develop conflict. For example, for his historical romances Sir Walter Scott
chose moments in history when two cultures were in conflict and the
outcome was in doubt. Scott used languages, social customs, technologies,
religions and so forth for verisimilitude and for plot. Moreover, it
would seem that the values of the books beyond entertainment are
manifested in the things of culture. For instance, one gains some
understanding of both conquerer and conquered as he experiences Scott's
treatment of Norman and Saxon cultures in Ivanhoe.

An anlaysis of Christianity in one science fiction novel is obviously
limited; yet, since religion is an aspect of culture, and since culture is used
by authors to develop character and plot, I think that such an analysis is
profitable for several reasons. First, it may help us to understand the
meaning of the novel better; second, it may, by offering a prediction of a
future form of Christianity, help us to reflect more thoughtfully upon
religion's present state; finally since more and more serious readers are
turning to science fiction, an analysis of a single novel of that type may help
us to identify the values that these readers are interested in having
expressed, especually since most of science fiction deals with future
societies dominated by technologies tending to dehumanize/ depersonalize
life.

That The Mote in God's Eye, by Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle, at
least touches upon religion is suggested by its title, the source of which is
Matthew 7:3, "And why beholdest thou the mote that is in thy brother's
eye, but considerest not the beam that is in thine own eye?" cited at the
beginning of the novel.' Changing "thy brother-s eye" to "God's eye" is
necessary for artistic considerations, as well as religious (which will be
examined later), for the setting of the story is a region of space far from our

* Professor of English. West Georgia College

I Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle, The Mote in God's Eye (New York: Pocket Books, 1974);
references to this source are by page numbers in parentheses.

solar system which is obscured by a dense "nebular mass of dust and gas"
called by Earth astronomers "The Coal Sack"and by the inhabitants of the
Earth colony New Scotland "The Face of God," since from their vantage
the nebular resembles a gigantic "hooded man" whose face is marked by a
great red star known as "God's Eye" and by a dim companion star called
"The Mote" (p. 47).

The existence of a colony so distant from Earth is made plausible by a
prefatory chronology spahhing 1048 years, from Neil Armstrong's moon-
walk of 1969 to first contact with aliens in 3017. We learn that deep space
colonization is possible because, first, in 1990 the U.S. and U.S.S.R.
formed a "CoDominium", and, second, in 2008 the Alderson interstellar
drive system (making instantaneous travel via "tramways" between stars
possible) was perfected, along with the Langston Field (which protected
ships and travelers from stellar heat).

By 2020 the first colonies were established and Earth gradually lessened
in importance to human life. The CoDominium ended in 20 1 3 and, after a
period of strife, was replaced by the "Empire of Man" under the direction
of Leonidas I in 2250. Peace and tranquility lasted until 2603, when
"Secession Wars" began which continued through a period of so-called
"Dark Ages" until 2930, when Leonidas IV established the "Second
Empire of Man" governed by an hereditary ruler and titled nobleman and
supported by an Imperial Church, space traders, and scientists.

The central conflict of The Mote in God's Eye concerns what is to be
done about the alien beings known as "Moties" who inhabit a planet of the
star Mote. Religion, especially Christianity, plays an important part in
both the development and the resolution of this conflict.

Although there is an "official" church associated with the Empire,
everyone seems to be free to worship as he pleases. The four religions
evident in the novel are Islam, The Church of Him, the Motie belief, and
the Imperial Church. Each persuasion is associated with a character or
characters.

That receiving the least attention is Islam, the religion of a single
character. His Excellency Horace Hussein Bury, a somewhat villainous
space trader of enormous wealth who makes frequent mention of the will
of Allah, and whose solution to the Motie problem is to exterminate the
aliens. It would seem that Bury's religion serves more to characterize him
as a shady fellow of the Levantine merchant sort than to develop any
values that are significant to the total novel.

An amazing astronomical event led to the creation of The Church of
Him. When Mote, the dim companion to God's Eye on The Face of God,
suddenly blazed brilliantly, a colonist of New Scotland named Howard

Grote Littlemead proclaimed that God had awakened and divinely
inspired him to form The Church of Him. When the Hght from Mote
abruptly ceased some years later, Littlemead's reaction was to announce
that God had gone back to sleep and to take an overdose of sleeping pills to
be with Him. The Himmist church continued, however, at least partly
because of the presence of thegreat hooded figure in the heavens. While no
Himmist creed is set forth, several characters visit a sanctuary on New
Scotland, and, after the advent of the aliens, the "Grand Deacon" of the
church demands proof that the Moties are "angels", while a Himmist
faction proclaims they are "devils" (p. 458). It is apparent that the Imperial
Church would rather the Church of Him did not exist, for in response to
the Deacon's plea the Cardinal wishes to make public "tapes of Moties life"
to "finish off the Himmists once and for all" (p. 458). Such does not come
to pass, however, and the Himmists are as much in evidence at the
conclusion as in the beginning.

The real significance of the dimming of Mote is discovered a hundred
and fifteen years later, in 3017, when first contact is made with alien life.
The sudden brilliance of the dim star was caused by batteries of laser
cannons on its planet whose beams of coherent light propelled a small
space capsule attached to an immense light sail towards New Scotland
where it is intercepted by a space cruiser. The single Motie passenger is
dead.

At this point it is necessary to reflect that the appearance of an alien life
form would have much to do with the way in which humans might deal
with it. For novelistic purposes, Moties must, therefore, be curiously
different enough from humans to be recognizably alien, yet must not be so
grotesquely strange and loathsome that Earthlings would be fatally
insensitive to them.

Moties are bipedal and bilaterally symmetrical from the waist down;
above the waist they are asymmetrical, having on one side a single large
arm equipped with a powerful hand for gripping objects, and on the other
side two slender arms, attached to two shoulders, fitted with smaller hands
for performing delicate tasks. They have no necks, so must turn at the
waist. Their faces have two eyes, a slit-like nose and lip-less mouth. They
are covered with soft fur. Above all else, they are extremely intelligent,
have an amazing linguistic facility, and are able to mimic human gestures
so skillfully that in a short time humans forget they are aliens.

As the story develops, we learn that the Moties have no religion based
upon belief in a divine being, and that while some believe they have souls,
"some don't" (p. 480). They do, however, worship their children and
believe that through them they live after death. This "offspring worship"
causes them to be extremely dangerous to themselves and to humans.

The fact of the matter is that Moties are born male and change into
females who must breed or die. Since children are sacred to them, and since
death with no hope for after-life is the consequence of not breeding (except
for certain sterile "mules" who serve as counselors for the leaders), the
Motie society periodically becomes so overpopulated that decimating wars
ensue. The culture of Mote is at least a million years old; the population
cycles occur every thousand years; only the existence of technological
"museums" enable the Moties to avoid returning to their own "stone age"
again and again. Since they cannot and will not give up their religion of
offspring worship, the Moties must discover a means of space travel that
will enable them to escape from their planet. As a matter of fact it seems
that some centuries before, one of them stumbled upon a typeof Alderson
drive; however, he did not discover a protective field, so his first space trip
was his last. The imperial scientists believe that it is only a matter of time,
however, before the Moties develop such a system. Then they will populate
the universe and by sheer numbers overwhelm all other forms of life.

Confronting this problem is the Imperial Church as well as the
government and scientists. While the Church, as represented throughout
the novel by Chaplain Hardy of the navy and from time to time by
Archbishop Randolph, its titular head, is willing to consider the Motie
problem from many angles, it is absolutely inflexible on one point: the
Moties must not be exterminated, for they "are neither angels or devils"
but "intelligent beings much like us" who pose no "spiritual threat" to
mankind (p. 466). The Church has not, however, assigned the Moties
"their place" in theology (p. 466).

The Imperial Church seems derived from the Anglican with a mixing of
icon worship of Russian Orthodoxy, a holdover it would seem, from
CoDominium days parralled by vestiges of Russian culture found amongst
colonists from that area of Earth, and ironically mingled with the naming
of a space cruiser after the atheist Lenin. The Book of Common Prayer,
with a few futuristic changes, seems to be the handbook of the Church. On
one occasion Archbishop Randolph blesses the ships by intoning, "Glory
be to the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, "concluding with, "As it was
in the beginning, is now and ever shall be, worlds without end, amen" (p.
93, italics mine).

After some of the crew are killed in the region of Mote, Hardy and
Chaplain George Alexis of the Lenin conduct a funeral service, part of
which reads: "I am the Resurrection and the Life, saith the Lord.
Whosoever believeth in Me, though he were dead, yet shall he live: and
whosoever liveth and believeth in Me, shall never die" (p. 390). This is
followed by: "I heard a voice from Heaven saying unto me, Write. From
henceforth blessed are the dead who die in the Lord . . ."(p. 390). At this
point a recording of the navy choir singing "Dies lrae"is played: "Day of

wrath, and doom impending, David's words with Sybil's blending," with
the futuristic modification "heavens and worlds" for "heaven and earth in
ashes ending" (p. 390).

At last a slightly modified version of the "Burial of the Dead at Sea" is
read over the fallen as they are jettisoned from the cruiser and committed
to "the deeps of space [rather than to the deep] ... in sure and certain hope
of the resurrection unto eternal life, though our Lord Jesus Christ; at
whose coming in glorious majesty to judge the Worlds [in place of world],
the seas [in place of sea] shall yeild their dead" (p. 391).

The above analysis indicates that while the offspring worship of the alien
Moties indeed causes a dangerous problem for mankind, it is the Christian
reverence for all life implicit in the Imperial Church's inflexible opposition
to a "final solution" that elevates The Mote in God's Eye from the realm of
space western to that of serious literature. If the aliens that is: those who
though "other" than us still exist as part of Creation are not to be killed,
what is to be done about them? For one thing, three Motie ambassadors
are to live with the family of commander Blaine, the hero of the novel; they
will interact with him and his wife and especially with their young children,
who, at the conclusion, are beginning to learn the complex Motie
language. Perhaps as they become acculturated they will discover a simple
solution to the seemingly insoluable problem. For one thing, the Imperial
Church is not idle either; Chaplain Hardy has been appointed the "first
apostolic delegate to an alien race" (p. 545). Perhaps the Christianity that
has endured transportation through the deeps of space as well as the rise
and fall of empires will have a beneficial effect upon the alien Moties.

Finally, let us reconsider the title of this novel. In the same chapter of
Matthew which is its source we find Christ teaching us that "whatever you
would have people do for you, do the same for them. "To apply this idea to
an alien race is so astounding that, it seems to me, the thoughtful reader
comes away from The Mote in God's Eye with a feeling that the future,
whether distant or near, might be as much an occasion for hope as for
despair. In view of today's world I find this to be no small accomplishment
on the part of the authors.

NEW DIRECTIONS IN RURAL COMMUNITY PLANNING

Dick G. Winchell*

I. Introduction

Planning in many rural communities has become identified as an
intrusive, negative function of government. Much of the blame can be
placed upon the planning discipline which has applied urban planning
techniques to rural communities. This application has universally taken
the form of standardized zoning regulations which control development
within the built environment, and to a lesser extent comprehensive plan
documents which set general land use policies. Planning is viewed as either
a set of regulations which restrict business and community use of lands or
as generalized reports which do not relate to critical problems. This paper
will examine how this negative perception and application of planning has
developed, will identify the current directions within the planning
discipline, and will suggest a number of alternative directions to make
rural planning an effective, positive function of local government.

II. The Problem with Planning

It is unfortunate that an understanding has evolved of planning as
strictly a set of land use regulations. The origins of the problem lie with the
first conceptualization of planning processes in local government in the
Standard City Planning Enabling Act of 1 928 and other documents of that
era. Although a comprehensive plan is essential to the development of a
zoning code, such plans were not incorporated into planning processes at
the local level. An effective plan must include both comprehensive
concepts of future land uses, the comprehensive plan, and short term
guidelines for development. Part of the problem is that the comprehensive
plan is composed of general concepts of land use, is long range in scope,
and has no legal impact upon land use. As such, comprehensive plans
appear to be luxuries since they do not relate to critical day-to-day
decisions in a specific manner which could be legally binding. Most cities
adopted zoning acts in isolation, with no rationale for zoning districts,
ignoring the need for a comprehensive plan to serve as a basis for zoning.

The landmark decision of Euclid v. Ambler Realty' determined that a
city could create and legally uphold a zoning ordinance. The decision in
1926 influenced the drafters of the Standard City Planning Enabling Act in
1928 and set the fate for planning in the United States.

* Assistant Professor of Geography, West Georgia College

'Village of Euclid v. Ambler Realty Company, 272 U.S. 365. 47 s. Ct. 1 14. 71 L ED. 303
(1926).

With the legaHty of zoning ordinances firmly estabHshed, forty-five
states passed enabhng legislation to permit cities to adopt zoning
ordinances by 1927, and by the end of 1930 zoning ordinance were in effect
in 1 98 1 municipalities affecting 67 percent of the population. ^ Zoning was
based upon existing land use and whatever reasonable, apparent, or
expedient changes could be approved. Black suggests:

As a result of this confusion and the growing interest in zoning,
many communities prepared and adopted zoning ordinances
without ever making the land use plan on which zoning should be
based. This diverted attention from general, long-range policies to
the controversial details which seem to dominate zoning
questions.'

Zoning was king, although the rationale for zoning, which was to be found
in the comprehensive planning document, was generally absent.

Comprehensive land use planning was not readily accepted, lacking the
recognizable utility of zoning. Failures to establish enabling legislation in
many states including Georgia mandated other forms of enactment. One
stimulus for implementing comprehensive planning came through Model
Cities and Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD)
programs requiring at least minimal comprehensive plan documents.
Another stimulus was state legislation requiring comprehensive plans in a
number of states, notably California and Oregon.

The major Federal stimulus to local community efforts at
comprehensive planning came through the HUD 701 Comprehensive
Planning Program which provided federal funding to cities and counties to
complete comprehensive plans. For the most part, products of these
planning efforts did not directly relate to the need of the communities.
Instead they produced voluminous documents of little value to local
officials facing urgent problems.

The history of land use planning in municipal governments has
comprised two distinct aspects, one creating zoning and the other drafting
esoteric comprehensive plans. Zoning has often resulted in community
conflict while comprehensive planning documents have been used
predominantly to hold down the shelves of government offices.

III. Current Planning Efforts

By the 1980s, these problems in planning indicated a bleak future for
planners. First, following an analysis of federal expenditures, funds for

-Z. Charles M. Haar. Land Use Planning: A Casebook on the Use, Misuse, and Re-Use of
Urban Land. Third Edition (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1977). pp. 203-204.

'Alan Balck, "The Comprehensive Plan," Principles and Practice of Urban Planning, ed.
William I. Goodman (Washington, D.C.: The International Managers' Association. 1968).
p. 353.

7

comprehensive planning have been nearly eliminated through
discontinuation of the HUD 701 programs and less emphasis on planning
activities funded under the HUD Community Development Block Grant
Programs. Increased costs which resulted in extensive comprehensive plan
regulations at the state level such as those in California have generally been
modified to be less restrictive.

Second, a critical effort has been made to reduce zoning regulations and
speed up the development process within city governments while
maintaining some semblance of the initial zoning codes, in effect, this is the
worst direction possible, maintaining but weakening zoning documents
which were often ill-conceived in terms of comprehensive planning and
local community values in the first place. These directions in the 80s fail to
recognize the alternatives which exist within the planning discipline, in
spite of zoning and comprehensive planning failures, the processes of
directing future development or protecting public versus private interests
are necessary functions of local government which someone carries out.
Professional planners must explore alternative actions if they will be
leaders in this effort.

IV. Planning Alternatives

Planning in its broadest sense can be defined as a decision-making
process. This process has several steps: the collection of data or inventory
of existing conditions; analysis of data; identification of alternative actions
and recommendations. The process is generally applied to land use issues,
and the results are presented to decision makers in the form of an
evaluation of alternative actions. Such policy planning is a research effort
made by city staff to help elected leaders make the decisions which best
serve the public interest. Two features of this definition are important.

First, as a process, planning is constantly creating and integrating new
information for the analysis of alternative actions to be taken by
government officials. In practice, planning has been seen as a static or one-
time process, such as determining the zoning for a given parcel of land. As
attitudes, economic conditions and political frameworks change, the
assessment of alternative actions also changes. Because planning is a
dynamic rather than static process, planning must begin to relate to some
general values or guidelines which set the framework for community
development, rather than become embroiled in specific issues u ithout any
adequate relationship to the changing community.

The second feature of planning is that it is a policy-oriented process. In
effect, planners should not and do not make ultimate decisions. I o be most
effective, they should study an issue by applying the planning process
which identifies the alternative actions available and exaluales their

8

expected outcomes. The final decisions are left to elected leaders, who are
best able to represent the local community, since they are subject to recall
and re-election based upon their actions.

Perhaps the most creative new direction for planning lies in the area of
policy analysis, where planners together with other social scientists focus
on effective decision-making. Planning within such a decision-making or
policy context does follow a process, rather than present a static
description of issues. More importantly, such a planning effort leads to the
analysis of issues in a context that local leaders can understand. Instead of
the voluminous comprehensive planning documents typically handed
decision-makers, a comprehensive assessmet of a particular issue or
decision is provided. Because policy planning is comprehensive, it lists all
alternatives and gives the decision-makers extensive information on
specific issues. Because policy planning is a process, it provides a decision-
making framework but leaves the ultimate decisions to elected leaders and
the community.

Another feature of policy planning is that it goes beyond the narrow
restrictions of more traditional land use planning. In fact, all aspects of
government and public sector development are impacted by planning
processes, so planning needs to consider this wider range of municipal
activities. Policy planning expands the roleof planners, while making their
contributions more relevant to elected leaders, businessmen, and the
public at large.

V. Rural Community Development and Planning

Perhaps at no other level are the problems of planning so great as in
rural communities. For the most part, such communities have been
dependent upon state enabling legislation and whatever technical
assistance was available at state and regional levels to meet planning needs.
With these constraints, few communities have progressed beyond the
adoption of a zoning ordinance which may or may not be effective or the
completion of a comprehensive plan which is often little understood by
local community members.

Such problems are finally being exposed by a number of studies which
attempt to indicate new or better directions for planning in rural areas.
Central to most of these studies is the fact that planning in rural areas
is based upon urban planning principles. As a result, only the same
problems which exist with planning in urban areas can be resolved. Urban
planning techniques including standard zoning ordinances and
standardized comprehensive planning reports are inappropriate in many

M icdciii-k Sargent. Rural liinironmi'm Plannini; (MoMpcUcr. Vermont: University of
Vermont. 1976): and Judith Getzels and Charles Thurrow. eds. Rural and Small Town
i'lannin^ (Washingtim. D.C: American Assoc. 1979), for example.

rural communities. New efforts are needed to develop rural planning
techniques which effectively consider rural planning issues. These efforts
must include the full participation and understanding of local elected
officials and citizens to be effective.

Urban planning techniques such as zoning are appropriate for cities of
over 50,000 people, but for smaller cities, rural planning techniques should
also be developed.^ Rural planning techniques should be applied almost
exclusively to communities under 10,000 people, but such rural planning
techniques or processes are not well established.

As noted, however, zoning ordinances and comprehensive plan
documents have been directly applied to rural communities. This rural
application of urban planning techniques has reduced the effectiveness of
planning and may in some cases reduce successful community
development.

The growing body of literature on rural planning has several central
themes. First, all rural planning needs to be completed within the context
of the local resident values and knowledge of planning issues. This means
increasing sensitivity to and participation of local residents in the planning
process. Planning in this sense needs to focus on community education,
helping local citizens become more informed and therefore better able to
make effective decisions on land use and other planning issues.

A number of strategies exist which can bring about effective planning.
New planners in rural areas should first get to know the people and issues
in an area by listening to their concerns and understanding their
problems.^ They should then pick one issue or problem and solve it. Rural
people are project-oriented, they want results from the work, not
'planning.'^ Also, planning education is critical once these first two steps
have been completed. This education should focus on the definitionof
planning as a process within their community and on the importance of
developing policies as part of effective planning.

The urban context for problem solving has dominated issues ranging
from economics to recreation in the United States during the 1960s and
1970s. Few post-secondary institutions have concentrated upon rural
community development and only the recent change in demographic
patterns toward rural areas has renewed interest in small communities.
One effort to link rural colleges and universities with the needs of rural

'Sargent, p. 10.

''Get/els and Ihurrow. pp. 2-17.

'Get?els and Ihurrow, p. 10.

10

communities demonstrates the potential of curriculum and applied
community research which places an emphasis upon rural communities.^
Such efforts will certainly be expanded as the demand for appropriate
planning and development guidelines for rural communities becomes
stronger.

VI. Rural Planning Problems and Opportunities

The problem of rural planning can in part be traced to a dislike of
planning and to the inappropriate application of urban planning
techniques to rural communities and counties. Efforts to decentralize
planning efforts through the establishment of Regional Planning Agencies
to serve rural regions have been only partially successful. For the most part
these agencies remain unable to establish a process of effective rural
community development. At the same time, efforts to reindustrialize many
counties have often been quite successful. Such development has led to
conflicts between local values, the rights of individuals to develop, and
efforts of planners to control everything.

The outcome of land use trends in rural Georgia, for example, has been
termed "a land speculation spiral that is economically ruinous to all but a
few speculators. . ."^ Efforts to increase effective planning and establish
more land use controls are needed, but are highly unlikely. The need for
more planning to serve the public interest opposes the expressed attitudes
of the public, which seem to support the premise that the "best"
government is the "least" government. Although the 1 980s is a critical era
in terms of rural land use and community development, there is clearly no
movement toward "solutions from the top" such as the National Planning
Act proposed during the 1970s or state legislation to expand municipal
powers in planning, zoning and land-use restrictions.

A new local initiative which creates and promotes rural planning for non-
metropolitan regions is needed. One such system has already been
suggested in a proposal for two types of zoning in rural areas: one for
county seats, communities and roadways which would have some zoning
regulations; and a second agricultural zone for the remaining land, with
only minimal development regulations."^ Such an approach would bring

Rural Dcvelo/uiicni ami Hif;lier Eilucatian: The I.inkini; of Comnnmiiv and Methocl
{Baltic Creek. Michigan: I he \V. K. Kellogg Foundation. I9SI).

''Eugene Odum, "Opiimum Population and Environment: A Georgian Microcosm, " in
(ieography and Contemporary Issues: Studies of Relevant Problems, ed. Melvin Albaum
(New York: John Wiley and Sons. 197.^) pp. 454-460.

"'Howard Shrettei. Zoning and Countryside: li hat's Hrong With It and An Alternative
Approach (Athens: Institute ot Community and Area I)e\elopmcni, Dcpt. ol (ieography,
Univ. of Georgia, 1977).

11

"flexibility and workability to the control of rural land use without
sacrificing the purposes of integrity of the planning processes.""

Another alternative is to adopt a policy planning review process. Instead
of developing extensive regulations or comprehensive planning
documents, such a process would apply a comprehensive policy planning
or issue-analysis study for each proposed development. This would
provide a comprehensive examination of the issues and impacts of
proposals, while supplying direct results in the form of technical input to
decision-makers.

Policy planning could establish local staff members with experti.se to
study a wide range of issues using scientific techniques, presenting this
information in a framework addressing specific issues or problems faced
by local government. Policy planners could help elected leaders make
more informed decisions while serving as a data collection center for
information about the city.

In addition to this public sector role, policy planners could also expand
their role in private sector development within rural areas. Most city
governments already support the local Chamber of Commerce
organizations and provide information which is used to promote
development. Government administrators often fail to involve planners
in these processes even though policy planners may be well trained in
economic development, in many federal programs, including HUD's
Community Development Block Grant programs and Economic
Development Administration programs, planners not only collect base
data and conduct feasibility studies for business proposals, but actually
package such proposals for lenders, in many rural areas small
businessmen lack the skill, time, and financing to examine thoroughly
business feasibility and potential. Policy planners could assist in
identifying regions within rural communities in which development can be
promoted, and in assisting private enterprise to create more effective
development within the private sector.

VII. Conclusions

Rural regions of the country face critical development porblems in the
future. Zoning regulations and comprehensive planning reports have
provided little useful service to stimulate the local economy and enhance
community development. There is a need for new techniques which
enhance local values and which can directly and appropriately deal with
local issues. Planning can be an effective tool to promote the positive
relationship between local government and private development only by
redefining its role within rural communities. New approaches to rural

"Shretter. p. 31.

12

zoning and implementing a policy planning process are two ways to en-
hance local values in the day-to-day issues which face local governments.

Planning in rural areas can no longer simply establish more land use
regulations or meaningless reports. New efforts are needed by planners,
businessmen, elected officials and local residents to form a partnership for
community development. Planning within this context must be broad-
based yet practical, assembling data in a comprehensive manner which
directly relates to local problems. Community values and planning
education must be emphasized. If its role in rural communities is changed,
rural planning can contribute valuable techniques to aid local
goxcrnmcnts. Whether an effective partnership will form between
planning and rural communities is a critical challenge for the future which
u ill determine the success of rural planning and the positive development
o\ rural communities.

/ would like to thank Dr. C. Gerald Sanders and Dr. James R. O 'Malley
for their review and comments on an earlier version of this paper.

13

WHAT IS PHENOMENOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY?

by Christopher M. Aanstoos, Ph.D*

A paradigmatic change is now occurring at the forward edge of
psychology. This change involves the incorporation of phenomenology
into the foundations of psychological theory and praxis. The wider
academic community is only beginning to understand the significance of
this shift.' The relative recency of these changes partially accounts for this
unfamiliarity. However, it is also the essence of "state of the art"changes in
any discipline to be some distance from that discipline's traditional
mainstream. Such a gap is not a deficiency; it simply reveals the need for an
overview perspective. The purpose of this article is to fill that need by
introducing phenomenological psychology to those not well versed in it.

The place of phenomenological psychology

Perhaps the most succinct introduction possible is the maxim
formulated by Husserl,^ the founder of phenomenology: "To the things
themselves!" This expression indicates phenomenology's aim to describe
and understand phenomena on their own terms rather than to seek ex-
planation by going "behind" phenomena through the use of hypothetical
constructs about them. Applied to psychology, such a project proposes to
understand psychological experience as it is actually lived by the person. In
other words, phenomenology aims to grasp the meaning of the experience
in order to understand human presence as it is lived.

At first glance, this goal seems so obvious it is surprising to find it at the
forefront of contemporary psychology. Hasn't psychology always wanted
to understand the meaningfulness of human experience? Implicity it has,
but explicitly it founded itself within a conceptual and methodological
approach that precluded it from doing so. Psychology forfeited the
possibility of studying human meaning as the price of its commitment to
imitate the model of the physical, or natural, sciences. Upon self-
consciously separating from philosophy in the nineteenth century,
psychology chose the conceptual foundations of the sciences of nature. It
sought to establish itself as a "physics of the mind" or a "mental
chemistry," without realizing that the uniqueness of the human, or
social, sciences required their own original foundation.

The history of psychology credits Wundt's experimental laboratory of

Assistant Professor of Psychology. West Georgia College

'The four Psychology Departments most notable for their work in this area include Duquesne
University. Seattle University, the University of Dallas and West Georgia College. All four
have Master's programs. At this time only Duquesne and Dallas have doctoral programs.
^Husserl, Edmund. Ideas: General Introduction to pure Phenomenology, translated by W. R.
B. Gibson (London: Collier, 1962. Originally published. 1913).

14

1879 as having spawned psychology's institutionalization of experimental,
natural science methodology. A deeper historical analysis, however,
demonstrates that this approach was not the only alternative available to
psychology. Comtemporaneously with Wundt, Brentano"* argued that
psychology could better approach its own subject matter if it was a
descriptive, rather than experimental, science. Shortly afterwards,
Dilthey* distinguished the human sciences (those whose focus is the human
world) from the natural sciences (those whose focus is the world of nature).
This distinction was not meant to indicate that there are two worlds.
Rather, it distinguished the study of the world as it is lived from the study
of the world conceived independently of human presence. Dilthey pointed
out a fundamental difference between the experienced world and the world
conceived as an object independent of experience. The former, precisely
because it is lived, presents itself as a constellation, or network, of
meaning that is, as a structure to be understood and described as such.
Ihc latter, on the other hand, does not. Lacking such an intrinsic nexus of
significance, this objectified world can be comprehended only by
establishing extrinsic, causal relations among its parts. This establishment
of such extrinsic relations is thus the proper task of the natural sciences,
but not of psychology as a human science.

But psNchology in the late nineteenth century did not follow the lead
proposed by Brentano and Dilthey. It chose to ignore their essential
distinction and instead conceptualized its subject matter naturalistically,
in order to proceed as an experimentally based positivistic science. H uman
behavior was taken to be just as mechanistic and causally determined as
the actions of molecules or machines, and those aspects of it that did not
conform to this model were ruled "out of bounds" and ignored as not
scientific, or worse, as not real. Such an approach is not unlike that of King
Procrustes in Greek mythology, who fit his guests to his bed by cutting off
their feet if they were too long or by stretching them if they were too short.
Psychology made the same mistake by forcing its subject matter to
conform to a pre-existing methodology rather than inventing methods
adequate to its subject matter. In that way, psychology thwarted itself and
so excluded the very possibility of being able to fulfill its own originary
purpose.

The current change in psychology is the re-awakening of this unfulfilled
purpose, and a re-dedication to its achievement. Its precursors were
phenomenlogy and existentialism in postwar Europe and humanistic

'Brcntaiio. Fran/. Psychology J ram an empirical Stamipoint . translated by A. C Kancurello,
1). B. Icrrcll & 1.. 1.. McAlistcr (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. 1973. Originally
piiblisli.-d. IS74).

^Dilthcv. Wilhclni. Descriptive Psychology and historical Understanding, translated by R.
M. /ancr& K. !.. Heiges ( the Hague: Nijhoff. 1977. Originally published, 1894).

15

psychology in the United States. In this country, the first reformist wave
was more a protest than a program. In their dispute with traditional
psychology, humanistic psychologists took one or the other of two paths.
Some sought to add meaning back into psychology's agenda by bringing
the same research methods to bear on neglected topics in psychology (such
as love). Others rejected a scientific framework altogether and sought to re-
establish psychology apart from science. While these early efforts were j,
important in provoking later developments, they could not by themselves '
solve the root of psychology's problem. Those who took the first path
failed to grasp the earlier stated point of the power of an inappropriate
method to dictate to the phenomenon, thereby limiting the way it can be
disclosed. For example, researchers who accumulate statistical
correlations of operationally defined variables about love remain just as
blind to the meaning of the experience as did those who used the same
methods to study rote learning. Psychology's problem is more basic than a
simple neglect of certain content areas. Rather, the approach itself is
problematic. However, those psychologists who reject science altogether
are no better off. The anti-intellectualism of the "touchy-feely" branch of
humanistic psychology also fails to achieve a rigorously sound
understanding of the human world. Although this understanding cannot
be attained on the basis of the natural science foundation, it also cannot be
achieved by completely abandoning science. Then one's results would so
lack rigor that they could be nothing more than conjecture and dogmatic
assertion.

As humanistic psychology has matured, it has increasingly begun to turn
to phenomenology for a solution to this dilemma. Thus, in the last two
decades, an authentically phenomenological psychology has emerged. In
addition to a journal begun in 1970 (Journal of Phenomenological
Psychology) and a professional organization begun in 1982 (Human
Science Research Association), a wide variety of texts on
phenomenological psychology are now available. These include
introductory books, ^ programmatic works, ^ collections of research,' and
histories.*

'Two examples are: Valle, Ron & King, Mark. Existeniial-phenomenological Alternatives

for Psychology (New York: Oxford. 1978); and Kruger. Dreyer. An Introduction to

Phenomenological Psychology (Pittsburgh: Duquesne University Press, 1979).

''Two examples are: Van Kaam, Adrian. Existential Foundations of Psychology (New York:

Doubleday, 1 966): and Giorgi, Amedeo. Psychology as a Human Science (New York: Harper

& Row, 1970).

'An example is the series entitled Duquesne Studies in Phenomenological Psychology, a

volume of which has been published every four years beginning in 1971.

"An example is: Misiak, Henryk & Sexton, Virginia S. Phenomenological. Existential and

Humanistic Psychologies: A historical Survey (New York: Grune & Stratton, 1973).

16

In the remaining section of this article, only the barest outline can be
presented. It will focus on two important issues: the articulation of
psychological reality, and methodological procedures for empirical
research.

The task of phenomenological psychology

For phenomenological psychology, the fundamental psychological
reality is human being-in-the-world, a term indicative of an essential
relation of person and world. "Comportment," "experience,"
"expression," "action," "behavior," "consciousness" these are all
different names for this relation. Likewise, all the usual processes that
psychology studies perception, memory, learning, thinking, emotion,
motivation are specific modes by which people relate to the world.
Phenomenology 's most basic discovery is that this relation is lived as an
intentional unity, a correlation of experiencer-experienced. Thus,
psychologically speaking, a person is always "in relation to" or "directed
toward" or "intending" something. Furthermore, by virtue of this
intentional unity, that toward which the person is directed coheres, that is,
it presents itself to experience as always already meaningful in some way.

Methodologically, then, the research task of the phenomenological
psychologist is to study that meaningful coherence of experience as it is
lived. To do so, it must be attended to on its own terms (which was
precisely the sense of Husserl's maxim "to the things themselves"). As has
already been said, psychology traditionally conceived of its subject matter
naturalistically. Along those lines, it viewed the subject's world as a randon
heap of extrinsic, impinging stimuli, to which sense was subsequently
somehow added by the person. But these are terms borrowed from the
physical sciences; they are not the terms by which the world is ordinarily
lived by people in their everyday experience. Psychologists can view the
world in that way, but when such a theoretically derived viewpoint is
posited as that lived by the subject, then a "category error" has been
committed. The researcher's conception of the world has been put in the
place of the subject's living of it. The world is not lived as something
foreign to the person, but as a situation carved out by one's involvements.
Perhaps a specific example would help clarify this point. Cognitive
psychology has now constructed computer models of thought and has
applied these models to areas that require thinking such as chess. The
program of such a computer chess player is then taken as a simulation of
human thought. The computer proceeds by applying pre-determined
heuristic search and evaluation rules. ^ But to mistake this conception of

^For a more complete critique of this model and the results of phenomenological research in
this area, see: Aanstoos, Christopher M. A Phenomenological Study of Thinking as It Is
Exemplified during Chess Playing (Ann Arbor: University Microfilms, 1983).

17

how chess can be played for an understanding of how people actually do
think in chess is to commit the aforementioned category error, substituting {
the researcher's knowledge for the subject's experience.'^

And how does phenomenology avoid this error? First by respecting the ;
contextualized, or situated, character of experience. Phenomenological
studies generally aim to discover the significance of any psychological
phenomenon by studying its occurrence in actual, everyday experience.
For example, if one's research interest was perceptual thematization, then
it would be more illuminating to study it in the context of the subject's
picking out groceries in a supermarket'" than it would be to have the
subject detect randomly generated dots on an electronic screen in a
laboratory. Meaning inheres in situations; stripping away the context is
like throwing out the baby with the bath water. Second, phenomenological
research remains faithful to experience by proceeding descriptively. It
begins by obtaining naive descriptions from subjects. The data-generating
questions are open-ended, designed to allow subjects to "tell their story"
about specific situations in which they actually experienced the topic in
question.

Nor is this descriptive emphasis compromised by the imposition of
hypothetical constructs at a later step. Rather, the researcher's aim is to
reflectively determine and explicate the essential structure of the
experience. That is achieved by making explicit the meaningful coherence
that may have been lived only prethematically, and hence described only
implicitly by the subject. In that way, phenomenological research is not
caught by the same dilemmas that plagued introspectionism. It does not
require that subjects grasp the essential structure of their experience, only
that they describe their experience as they lived it. It is properly the task of
the researcher to make this structure explicit. There are already well
established procedures for teasing out that which is essentially invariant in
subjects' descriptions." What is sought are not merely invariant facts, but
instead the invariant structure within which the individual
contingencies cohere. By analogy, one may picture the grasp of this

'"Wert/, Frederick .1. A Dialog with the Sew Look: A historical Critique and a descriptive
Approach to everyday perceptual Process (Ann Arbor: University Microfilms. 1982).
"Articles and books specifying methodological procedures include the following; Colai//i,
Paul F. Reflection and Research in Psycholo)^y (Dubuque. Kendall Hunt. 197.^); Giorgi.
Amedeo. "Toward phenomenologically based Research in Psychology." Journal of
Phenomenological Psychology. Fall 1970. pp. 75-98; Giorgi. Amedeo. "An Application of
phenomenological Method in Psychology" in Duquesne Studies of Phenomenological
Psychology Vol. II. edited by Amedeo Giorgi, Constance Fischer & Edward Murray
(Pit'sburgh: Duquesne University Press. 1975); Wert/, Frederick. "From everyday to
psychological Description; An Analysis of the Elements of a qualitative Data Analysis."
Journal of Phenomenological Psychology. Fall 1983, in press.

18

structural invariance to be similar to the way that a theme in music is
grasped as that which is common to all its variations. The final step is to
provide a structural description of the essential psychological significance
of the experience. And therein lies the true value of phenomenological
psychology. It returns, as its gift back to the lived world, an explicit
understanding of that which lies closest to human being: the meaningful
coherence of experience.

19

WHO WAS JOHN H. GREGORY?

by Carole E. Scott*

There was a time when saying a person was from Auraria, Georgia, was
like saying today he has a degree from the Colorado School of Mines.
Because Georgia was the site of the nation's first gold rush, our first gold
mining experts were Georgians. Thus, early gold seekers in the West
looked to Georgians for expertise and leadership.

Georgians generally followed one of two major routes to the gold
country of the West. If headed for California, they usually made their way
to New Orleans, from where they sailed to the isthmus of Panama, crossed
this jungle hell, and set sail again. Colorado and other mining areas in the
eastern Rockies were reached by trekking across the hostile Indian-
infested Great Plains. Many of these miners were unwilling to give up their
homes in Georgia, so they spent only the mining season the warmer
months in the West. Others, who were Cherokee Indians, were forced to
give up their homes in Georgia.

Georgians found both the first placer or drift and lode gold in Colorado.
(Placer gold is gold found in streams which has been washed out of lodes in
the mountains.) Both Denver, Colorado, and Helena, Montana, trace
their beginnings to settlements started by Georgians. Traces of these early
Georgia miners can be found today on detailed maps of the Rockies. Over
a hundred years ago, however, the imprint of Georgia on Colorado was far
greater.

Named after John Hamilton Gregory, a Georgia miner, were a point, a
gulch, a street, a district, a hill, a creek, a canon, a hotel, three lodes, a
diggings, and two mining companies. Gregory was king of the little
kingdom of Gilpin, home of Central City the richest square mile on
Earth.' Today, due to the passage of time, the Civil War, and Gregory's
dropping from sight at the height of his power, John H . Gregory has been
almost forgotten.

His memory lingers on, however, because he discovered the first lode
gold found in the Pike's Peak Country and set off the Colorado gold rush.
During the winter of 1859, Gregory prospected the icy, forbidding
Rockies. He paid dearly for his decision to prospect during this season for

Professor of Economics, West Georgia College

I Margaret Inman Meaders, "The Perplexing Case of John H. Gregory," Georgia Hisiurical
Quarterly, Vol. XI, June 1956, p. 112.

20

he almost lost his life in a snow storm.^ But the gamble paid off, for on May
6, 1 859, Gregory discovered the gold lode he had tentatively located during
the winter.

Earlier, another Georgian, William Greenberry (Green) Russell, had
discovered the first placer gold in Colorado. Green went home for the
winter of 1859, leaving his brother. Dr. Levi J. Russell, a physician known
as the founder of Denver, in the raw and rough town they had founded:
Auraria, Colorado. (Auraria was later absorbed by upstart Denver.)

A good bit is known about Green Russell and his brothers, Levi and
Oliver, who mined with him, first in California and then in Colorado. The
son of a man who left Pennsylvania to seek gold in South Carolina and
then in Georgia, Green was just old enough to witness the gold rush in
Georgia. As a youth, he helped his father mine gold in Georgia. He
dreamed of growing up and making a fortune as a miner.

As a teenager. Green was one of the soldiers who rounded up the
Cherokees for eviction from Georgia. This experience made him
sympathetic to Indians. Later he was to marry a woman who was part
Cherokee and, on the basis of Cherokee reports of gold in the Rockies, was
to travel with a group partly made up of Cherokees and half-breeds to
Colorado to search for gold.

Green was one of the first Georgians to head for California. He made
several successful trips, taking some of his brothers with him. He invested
his earnings in a Georgia plantation and farm land in Kansas. Their travels
aren't the only thing that makes the Russells interesting. They also differed
from the bulk of their peers by belonging to the Universalist Church in
Dawson. The Russell men were known as free thinkers who did not
subscribe to the conventional, dogmatic teachings of most of the local
sects. They did not accept the fire-and-brimstone hell threatened by most
frontier preachers of the day. In Texas, where he moved after the Civil
War, Levi, out on a fake call, was beaten up for being a free thinker.^

Unlike Green Russell, John H. Gregory is a man of mystery. There is no
known photograph of Gregory and only sketchy descriptions of him by
some of those who met him. According to one Georgian who tried to track
him down, as far as his history prior to his years in Colorado or his later life
is concerned, "he might very well have ridden into the Territory on the tail
of Donati's comet in 1 858 and ridden out again on the caboose of the Great
Comet of 1864, for these years more than cover the certified record of the

-Carl Ubbelohde, Maxine Benson, Duane A. Smith, A Colorado //k/o/'j' (Boulder, Col.:
Pruett Publishing Co., 1972), p. 64.

'Elma Dill Russell Spencer, Green Russell and CoW (Austin: The University of Texas,
1966).

21

man." ^ What he did before he went to Colorado (except begin a Georgia
miner) and where he went to after he left is a mystery.

His record in Colorado indicated that experience and shrewdness,
rather than luck, mainly accounted for his success. Decriptions of his as
"white trash" seem a bit prejudiced. * In Gregory's day the Rocky
Mountain News reported that he was from Gordon County, Georgia.*"
Some claim he was born in Alabama, while others say it was in Georgia.^
He was literate, something many people in his day were not. On October 2,
I860, he signed an agreement selling his interest in the Bates lode. A
Colorado historian says his signature "is a large, dashing hand with the tail
of the 'y' extending over two and a half inches."'* The editor of the Rocky
Mountain News is said to have been impressed with a business-like
statement Gregory wrote out as a contract with his hired men.**

Although the Omaha Nebraskian reported on October, 17, I860'", that
Gregory has passed through on his way to Georgia, the Rocky Mountain
News reported on April 3, 1861, that "We had the pleasure of again taking
by the hand our old frienc John H. Gregory, the discoverer of the Gregory
mines. He has just returned from his home in Alabama to spend another
season in our mines.""

It has been said that he was forty years old in 1859.'- In Colorado he
feuded with Green Russell, and it has been said that their conflict dated
back to their days in Georgia." Yet, Dr. Levi Russell put Gregory up for
the night before there were any Colorado conflicts between Gregory and
Green Russell.''*

Colorado histories say that all the Russells and Gregory were from
Auraria, Georgia, site of the nation's first gold rush. Yet, while the Russells
did live for awhile in Lumpkin County, the county in which Auraria was
located, they never lived in Auraria.'-^ At the time they discovered gold in
Colorado, Green resided on his plantation in Dawson County, which had

Meeders, Op. Cii.. p. Il.'<.

^Robert L. Perkin, The First Hundred Years. An Informal Histor\ oj Denver and the
Rocky Mountain News (New York: Doubleda> & Company. Inc.. 1959). p. 109.

''Caroline Bancroft, "The Elusive Figure of .lohn H. Gregory. Discoverer ol the KirstCiold
Lode in Colorado," The Colorado Maga/inc. Vol. XX. No. 4. .luly 194.1. p. 125.

'Meaders, Op. Cii.. p. 120.

"Bancroft, Op. Cii.. p. 1.1 1.

"Caroline Bancroft, Gulch of Gold (Dcnwr: Sage Books. dl958). p. .IS.

'"Bancroft, Op. Cit. (The Colorado Magazine), p. 131.

"Ibid.

'-Meaders, Op. Cit.. p. 12.1.

"Bancroft, Op. Cit., (Gulch oJ Gold), p. 124.

'"Spencer, Op. Cii.p. 110.

"Ibid., p. 7 and p. 37.

22

Figure 1

jiiigi u , . laup

Stkovlaj Ui* boonilTlf (ahAdtd) tt \t*

THE ORIGINAL CHEROKEE COUNTY

Figure 2

LAND AND MILITIA DISTRICTS
OF CHEROKEE COUNTY

23

been created partly out of Lumpkin.'^ (See Figure 1.) It was Levi who
suggested Auraria as the name for the first settlement in Colorado. His
other suggestion, Dahlonega, is the name of the Georgia town where the
U.S. Mint was located that, using gold brought it by Green, coined the first
Colorado gold.'^

Presumably, the Russells and, perhaps, Gregory did what many people
do today when they are far from home. They say they are from the nearest
town to where they live that the people they are among are familiar with.
Someone from Gordon County interested in selling his services as a gold
miner would be very tempted to say he was from Auraria. Then, too,
people in Colorado might just assume any miner from Georgia was from
Auraria. They might not know that gold was mined in many north Georgia
counties.

When one examines the 1850 Census of Lumpkin County there is a
strong temptation to conclude that John Gregory was actually from
Auraria, for the Census shows a John ( no middle initial or name) Gregory,
36, and his wife, Martha, 39, living in the Auraria District with their six
children.

This John Gregory is not shown in the 1860 Census of Lumpkin County,
but Martha, 48, is, along with four ofthe six children listed in 1850. A new,
seventh shild, Jesse, is also shown. In the 1 860 Census, Martha's real estate
was valued at $100, not much even then. Thus, there is no sign of the
thousands of dollars John is reported to have sent his wife from
Colorado.'**

The 1870 Census of Auraria District shows Martha, 58, but fails to show
John. Since Colorado's John is said to have shouted when he found his
lode, "By God, now by wife can be a lady! My children can be schooled,"'"^
he doesn't seem like the type to desert his family. Since John would have
been 56 in 1870, it seems unlikely he would have been out prospectingand,
thus, not beenat home when the census taker came by. Even if he had been,
it would appear that he'd still be listed.

The 1 880 Census, which indicates a woman's status, shows that Martha,
68, is a widow. The 1 880 Census includes a man named Jesse Gregory, who
age indicates he is John and Martha's son, living nearby with his wife and
son, James, I . James is probably the James Gregory contacted in 1937 by
the Colorado Historical Society, which thought that his grandfather John
might be Colorado's John.-"

"Ibid., and U.S. Census.

"Ibid., p. 77

'"Bandcroft, Op. Cil. (Gulch of Gold)

"Perkin. Op. Cii.. p. 1 10

-'"Meaders, Op. Cit.. pp. 121-122.

24

Confederate records show that a George W. Gregory, private, Co. H, I st
Regiment, Georgia Volunteer Infantry (Dahlonega Vols), Lumpkin
County, was killed in Winchester, Virginia. The Census of 1 850 shows that
John and Martha Gregory had a son named George old enough to have
served in the Confederate Army. A Gregory family Bible obtained from
James Gregory in 1937 by the Colorado Historical Society records the
death of John's son George in Winchester, Virginia.-' Thus, the John
discovered by the Colorado group must be the John recorded in the
Census.

Three facts about this John Gregory seem to rule him out as the
Colorado John. The Bible records his death on his way home from
California in 1853.-- it also indicates that he would have been 45 in 1859-^
(This is yet another reason for believing he is the John listed in the 1850
Census.) Thus, this John is five years older than the John in Colorado was
thought to be. Letters obtained along with the Bible suggests that this John
could not write, since someone else wrote his letters for him.-"*

The fact that Jesse Gregory, the youngest child of John and Martha, was
born in either 1851 or 1852 is consistent with John having died in 1853.

Despite these conflicts, Margaret Inman Meaders, who grew up in the
gold region of Georgia and researched the John Gregory mystery,
concluded in a 1956 article in the Georgia Historical Quarterly that
Auraria's John was Colorado's. She thought the report of his death might
be wrong. She believed that since the family kept John's letters from
California that they would also keep the one announcing his death, but no
such letter was found. She also reported that a man who remembered Mrs.
Gregory also remembered that his grandmother had told Mrs. Gregory of
her husband's death after 1853. -^

While the name Gregory cannot be called a common name in Goergia in
the 1 800 's, there were a number of people named Gregory in the State, and
several were named John. The mountain region alone had more than one
John, but there wasonly one John H. Gregory listed in the 1850 Census of
Georgia. This John Gregory fits the known facts about Colorado's John
Gregory better than does the Meaders' candidate.

The 1 850 Census of Cherokee County (See Figure 1 .) shows a John H.
Gregory, 29, living with his wife, Christina, 25, and two children: Frances,
I , and Sis, 5 days. He was born in South Carolina; thus, in time and place

-^'Ibid., p. 124.

--Ibid., p. 122.

-'Mbid., p. 123

-^^Ibid., p. 125.

^Mbid., p. 127.

25

he was Green's contemporary, as Green was born there at about the same
time. The value of his property was Hsted as $ 1 ,500. This data was collected
on the lOth of August 1850; thus, this John would have been just one year
short of 40 in 1859. Living nearby was a possible brother, William H.
Gregory, 24, and his wife Emily, 17. Marriage records show that John
married Christina Payne November 1 1, 1844, in Cherokee County. They
show that William married Emily Waddell on January 2, 1848, in that
county. An older man, Griffin Gregory is also shown in Cherokee County
in 1850.

Neither John H. nor his wife appear in the 1860 Census of either
Cherokee or Gordon County. The same is true of William H. Since there is
no index of the 1860 Census, it is not possible to determine if these people
lived somewhere else in Georgia or Alabama in 1860.

A Robert Gregory, 70, and his wife, Cynthia, 67, both born in North
Carolina, appear in the Resaca District of Gordon County in 1 860. ( Many
people their age living in Georgia at that time had emigrated from North
Carolina, often via South Carolina.) Could these be the parents of the
John H. in the Wildcat District of Cherokee County ten years earlier?

Could John H. Gregory be related to the Lewis Gregory who obtained
land in the Cherokee Land Lottery of 1832 which was located in what was
to become Gordon County?-^

As can be seen in Figure 1, Dawson, Gordon, and Lumpkin counties
were all carved out of the original Cherokee County. Lumpkin was one of
the original counties carved out of Cherokee. Dawson and Gordon were
not. Since Gordon County was not created until February 13, 1850, the
best John H. could have done was to have been born in what became
Gordon County. However, this is highly unlikely, as the northwestern part
of Georgia was not settled until 1835, and he was born in 1820 or 1821.
People his age born in Georgia were a real rarity in this part of Georgia in
1850. Most were born in South or North Carolina.

Figure 2 shows Cherokee County in 1932. Although its boundaries
encompassed more territory in 1850, the 15th land district that John H.
lived in had not changed. (Wildcat is the name of a militia district.)

It appears that at least one adult member of the Russell clan can be
placed in Cherokee County in 1860. Elma Dill Russell Spencer,
granddaughter of Joseph Oliver Russell, reports that Oliver married Jane
Robertson, who was born in 1838. Their first child, Harriet, was born in
1856, and the second, her father, Richard, was born in 1858.^^ A Jane

^''Burton J. Bell (editor), 1976 Bicentennial History of Gordon County Georgia (Calhoun,
Georgia: The Gordon Co. Historical Society. Inc., 1976), p. 40.
"Spencer, Op. Cit.. Appendix.

26

Russell, 21, and her two children, Hariett (sic), 3, and Richard, 2, are
shown in the 1860 Census of Cherokee County in the Ball Ground District.
(See Figure 2.) Mrs. Spencer implies, however, that in 1860 Jane and her
children lived on Green Russell's Plantation in the Savannah District,
Dawson County. She seems to be mistaken in this view.

This section of Georgia was thinly populated in John's day. Gordon
County, for example, had only 5,984 people (828 Black) in 1850 and 10, 146
in 1 860.2 Cherokee County had 1 2,800 in 1 850 and 1 1 ,29 1 in 1 860.^9 Thus,
it does not appear too unlikely that John's path could have crossed a
Russell's in Georgia.

Because John is reported to have drafted many agreements himself, it
seems likely that he had previous experience with legal documents. Thus
somewhere in Georgia today there may be a document signed by the
elusive John H. Gregory.

Perhaps the most conclusive evidence that the John H. Gregory living in
Cherokee County in 1850 was Colorado's Gregory lies in the person of
Robert Reese, who lived nearby in Cherokee County in 1850. A Robert
Reese married Emily Gregory December 19, 1844, in Cherokee County. E
is the initial of the wife of the Robert Reese living near John H. Gregory.
Colorado's John had a partner in a quartz mill on North Clear Creek
named R. T. Reese. ^^

Some seekers of Gregory find his sudden and unexpected disappearance
from Colorado mysterious. A Colorado historian considers his debts a
possible motive, but she also notes that he left substantial assets and an
unsettled suit against Green Russell.^' A more likely answer is that he was a
Southerner in a Unionist territory during the, as he would have called it,
War Between the States, and he was afraid to stay.

As the Colorado historian Bancroft observes, "The Georgia miners,
whose prestige had always been the highest because of their knowledge of
gold, were shunned more and more, and Gregory and Russell were no
longer venerated. Southerners, fearing attack, remained close to their
claims and worked quietly or began to slip away from the mountatin
towns, unannounced."^^

-'"Bell, Op. Cit.. p. 73.

-''Lloyd G. Marlin, The History of Cherokee County (Allania: Walter E. Brown Publishing
Co.. 1932). p. 181.

^"Bancroft. Op. Cit. (Gulch of Gold), p. 55 and Meaders, Op. Cit., p. 125 (Meaders says it
was R. T. or R. J).

"Bancroft, Ibid., pp. 136-138.

"Ibid., p. 120 '

27

Spencer says that "Southerners were persecuted and taunted.
Frequently their property was threatened with damage. . . . Several times

the Russells found that their water flumes had been cut at night "^^ They

decided to get away in the "guise of prospectors, heading toward the
mountains for Georgia Bar, where some recent gold activity had been
going on. "3"* They didn't make it. Union soldiers captured them on the
Canadian River. ^' Ultimately they were released because they agreed to
take an oath of allegiance to the United States. ^^ Green and Oliver,
however, didn't let this stop them from forming a company of Confederate
troops when they finally got back home.^'' Ironically, one of the problems
they faced when they got home was that northwest Georgia was a center of j
Unionist sentiment!

After the War, the three Russell brothers and a fourth brother, John,
who had gone to California, but not to Colorado, moved west, as did many
other Southerners discouraged by post war conditions. Only Green
returned to Colorado. He died in Indian Territory, having moved there to
live with his brother John.^**

Did John H. Gregory, as some have suggested, go to Montana, or did
he, like the Russells, return to Georgia? Culd he be the John Gregory who
enlisted on September 18, 1863, at Dahlonega, Georgia, in a calvary unit
organized for local defense? We may never know, as the tides of time have
washed away most traces of that "slight, wiry red-haired and full-
whiskered Georgian."^'

"Spencer, iOp. Cit.. p. 158.

'"Ibid., p. 159.

"Ibid., p. 169.

^Mbid., p. 175.

^'Ibid., p. 182.

'"Ibid., pp. 199-206.

^'Henry Villard, quoted in Bancroft. Op. Cil. (The Colorado Magazine), p. 122.

28

WHAT KIND OF LEADER WAS GEORGE WASHINGTON?

by Frank R. Hunsicker*

Introduction

If we measure the success of a leader by his accompUshments, the
leadership success of George Washington is obvious to all but the more
cynical. It is time we began to analyze leaders that history suggests as being
successful and try to identify the factors which contributed to their success.

For this inaugural effort, George Washington was selected because of
his reputation. It is an initial effort to analyze the leadership ability of
Washington in a rigorous fashion. It is a developmental attempt to
identify techniques that will help analyze other successful leaders. This
could be classified as an attempt to formalize histro-leadership analysis.
Obviously, people have tried to analyze George Washington from many
perspectives. No less an authority than Leonard White analyzed his
administrative ability. ' Most efforts, although quite perceptive, did not use
current concepts of leadership as a basis for analysis. Most studies are
more descriptive than analytical. This study is hopefully an analytical
approach to the leadership of George Washington.

Methodology

It is quite difficult to analyze the abilities of a person who has been
deceased for over 180 years. We cannot administer tests to him, his peers,
or his subordinates. Therefore, more abstract processes must be used.
Opinions need to be sifted and balanced to ascertain characteristics.
George Washington, himself, is of very little help, since his diaries are
rather sterile statements of fact- and Martha destroyed most of their
personal correspondence.' We have little of his own thoughts; therefore we
must rely on opinions of others. This problem is compounded by some
fantasized stories about "cherry trees" and "silver dollars," which mask
the real George Washington."

*Prolcssor of Business Administration, West Georgia College

'White. Leonard D. The Federalists: A Study of Administrative History, New York:
MacMillan (1965). pp. 97-115.

-.lackson. Donald (Editor). 77?^ Diaries of George Washington. University of Virginia, Vol.
I-VI (1978-1979).

'Fit/patrick, John C. The Writings of George Washington, Vo]. 1, Washington, D.C. ( 1931),
p. .XIX as reported in Flexner. .1.7. George Washington: The Forge of Experience. Little-
Brown: Boston. Mass (1965), p. 230.

Boorstin. J. "The Mythologizing of George Washington," The Americas: The National
Experience. Random House, Inc. (1965).

^Stogdill, Ralph M. Handbook of Leadership. MacMillan Publishing Co. (1974), p. 426.

29

The model by Ralph Stogdill was used as a basic structure for this
analysis. 5 Leader, follower, group variables, and criterion measures are
suggested as components of this model. The structure of the model tends to
emphasize internal variables which might affect the leader's success and
ignore external factors. Although the framework is crude and the variables
must be limited for this initial effort, the possibility for future applications
is intriguing.

The analysis focused on George Washington's development through the
Revolution to about 1 783. This excluded the latter period when he played a
role in the Presidency. His abilities as a leader were primarily developed
during the period researched. As stipulated in the opening sentences of this
paper, it is assumed that he was successful as a leader because of results. In
ihis effort, focus will be to analyze primarily (1) the characteristics of
George Washington (GW), the individual, (2) briefly address
characteristics of his followers, primarily military, and (3) group
characteristics.

Findings

Characteristics of George Washington

Several leader characteristic areas were analyzed in the quest for
understanding the development of George Washington's leadership
ability. They are discussed separately.

Background. George Washington was born into a rather austere
environment in the tidelands of Virginia, to the descendents of English
immigrants. His mother was a rather domineering individual throughout
much of his life. His education was limited, in comparison, to that of his
peers. If one assumes three social and economic classifications in Virginia,
he was born into the lower middle class and rose by his own achievements
in surveying, military, and business, to the upper class. His brother,
Lawrence, and the Fairfax family were his mentors.^ There is general
agreement among leadership analysts that he had a high achievement and
power orientation.

Identifying Characteristics. His most identifiable characteristic was his
size. In a time when people were averaging close to five feet, five inches, he
stood out at over six feet, and probably close to six feet, four inches tall. He
was athletic and quite strong. On one occasion, a soldier recalled, nearly
one thousand of his troops were fighting among themselves when George
walked into the eye of the fight and grabbed the two instigators by the
necks, picked them up and shook them, while lecturing them on their

"Flexner, James Thomas. George Washington: The Forge of Experience. Little-Brown & Co
(1965).

30

behavior.^ He often suffered, as did many in that period, from such
illnesses as smallpox, dysentery, and lung-related sicknesses. As a result,
he was often forced to lead from a sickbed. There is little to suggest an
extremely high level of intellectual interest, but there is evidence that he
was quite intelligent with a pragmatic sense of balance and a very high level
of tenacity.** The tenacity factor demonstrated by the above instances
recurred numerous times in his career.

Status. His status derived from his accomplishments. His family status,
important in Virginia, was relatively low by comparison to families such as
Lee, Carter, Randolph, and Fairfax. His accomplishments as a surveyor
and in the Virginia military built his status. So, one might say that his
status was self-made and earned.^

Personality. It is difficult to establish a realistic picture of his
personality. He appears to have been quite personable and well-liked. He
quickly earned the respect of such people as Governor Dinwiddie and
General Braddock. From a leadership perspective, the repeated opinion
that he was socially distant is a key factor. He appears to have had a few
close relationships except with the Fairfax family."' He also appears to
have kept his emotions under control, although he did have angry
outbursts."

Values. This is a most critical area in this analysis. Gurth and Taguiri's
work, using Spranger's classifications and definitions of theoretical,
economic, religious, political, aesthetic, and social values, was most
helpful.'- George Washington's value system and supporting evidence is
profiled below in order of importance.

( 1 ) Political There is a slight difference in weight attached to economic
and political values. George Washington placed a high value on power.
This is cited by numerous biographers. In his younger days, he openly
sought power. He actively sought a coveted commission in the regular
English Army until he was 28. He was characterized as being "on the

'Dann. John C. (Editor). 77if Revolution Remembers. Chicago, III.: University of Chicago
Press (1980). p. 409.

"Woodward W.E. George Washington: The Image and the Man. New York: Liveright
Publishing Co. (1926). p. 295.
'>lhid. pp. 59-206

i"hay. Bernard. George Washington. Republican Aristocrat. New York: Houghton-MilTlin
Co, (I9.'?2). p. II. I.t9.

iiFlexner, Op. cit.. p. 26-.V^.

i-Gurth. William and Taguiri. Renato. "Personal Values and Corporate Strategy." Harvard

Business Review. Vol. 43. 45. (Sept. -Oct. 1965). pp. 123-132.

I'Cunliffe. Marcus. George Wa.shington: Manand Monument. London: James Place (1959)
p. 52.

31

make."''' Others suggest that "he was vain, fond of adulation and power."'*
He was the only member of the Second Continental Convention to appear
in uniform.""' This was the convention that chose him as Commander of
the Continental Army. Numerous other examples in the literature
substantiate the findings that this was his most dominant value. Power
dominated economic value. Given the choice on several occasions to stay
or return to Mt. Vernon, his economic base, Washington opted for the
positions of power.

(2) Economic This value appeared to dominate some of his earlier
activities. Washington was born and raised in austere economic
circumstances. His first major efforts as a surveyor provided a good source
of income and opportunity to buy land, vital to economic success. His
early efforts in the military were primarily due to economic concerns for
land development by the Ohio Company. This absorbed much of his
interest from the age of 16 to 22.'^ One suggested that he was "economic
and moralistic," while Thomas Jefferson was "intellectual and spiritual.""
It appears this value affected decisions less as he achieved higher levels of
tangible wealth. Most biographers agree that he faced most decisions by
'ieeking practical and useful alternatives. That approach characterizes
what management theory classifies as the economic value of orientation.

(3) Theoretical There is a significant gap between the first two values
and this one. According to most of the researchers, Washington was not an
idealist or intellectual.-" He was much less educated than his peers, having i
completed his education without attending American or European
institutions of higher learning. Most would agree that he was intelligent,
but not equal to such giants as Thomas Paine, Thomas Jefferson, or
Benjamin Franklin. Duringalongtenure in the Virginia Houseof Burgesses,
he was not active in political debate and primarily handled local affairs.
Yet, George Washington was quite observant, rational and logical.-'

(4) Social Again, there is a gap between the theoretical and social
values, but it is not as extensive as the previous gap. As mentioned earlier,
Washington was socially distant.-- One researcher characterized him by

^^Ihkl.. p. 5.1

''^Woodward, op. cit.. p. 454.

'"Ihiil. p. 25H.

I'h'nxnian. Doiii^las Soiiihall. Gcoit^c Washington: \olume One. Youn^ H'a.shingion. New
York: .Sciibncr's Sons ( I94X). pp. 224-41 I.

"Woodward, op. cil.. p. 2 IS.

<Vhic/.. p. 2X6.

-"Cunliltc. p. 150-152.

-'/hiJ.. p. 150.

--/hic/.. p. 15.1.

32

suggesting, "the inner significance of people and events was beyond his
range. "2^ Comments by soldiers suggest that he was humane and fatherly. ^^
Placing social value this low in the value system seems to contradict much
of our learning about Washington. This may be due to two factors. First,
early biographers often came close to mythologizing him with stories
about cherry trees and silver dollars. Second, his vital role in American
history is almost larger than life, and it is difficult to separate him from the
"American Way."

(5) Religious The church had an important role in early American
society, serving religious and governance roles. Washington attended
church about 25% of the time and wasa vestryman and warden in his home
church. -5 Researchers comment on the lack of religious references in his
correspondence or speeches. Authors typically suggest a low religious
value, although one researcher suggests that he was a deist with strong
religious values evidenced by his concern for religious freedom. ^^ Religion
had an insignificant role in his decisions.

(6) Aesthetic The lowest value appears to be his view of form,
harmony and art. There is little evidence of any concern for art, literature,
and other aesthetics. He enjoyed plays, which were a major form of
entertainment. His background as a surveyor and his concern for the
design of Mt. Vernon suggests, at least, some interest in the aesthetics.
Probably the strongest support for this low weight is lack of historical
evidence for a higher level.

Table I summarizes his value system with that of Gurth's and Taguiri's

research on modern corporate managers' value system.

Table 1
Gurth and Taguiri-^ George Washington

Economic Political

Theoretical Economic

Political Theoretical

Religious Social

Aesthetic Religious

Social Aesthetic

Follower Characteristics

The second major group of characteristics in the leadership model is the
follower. What kind of background education and motivation did the

-'Woodward, op. cit.. p. 455.

-Dann. op. cit.. p. 62.

-'Woodward, op. cit.. p. 228.

-'Boiler, Paul F. George M^fl.v/j/n^/o/;fl/it//?f//jf/ow. Dallas. Texas: Southern Methodist Press

(1963).

-"Ciurth, op. cit., p. 126.

33

-"Freeman, op. cit.. p. 429.

-''Palmer, Dave. The Way of the Fox. Wcstport, Conn.: Greenwood Press ( 1975) pp V-^O
^ybid., p. 18
^'/bid., pp. 11-12.
"Flexner, op. cit., pp. 193-196.
"Ibid., pp. XIII-XV.

^^Sears, Robert. Piciorial History of the American Revolution. New York: Robert Sears
(1848).

34

leaders have? This study of Washington, which is Hmited to the period up
to 1783, will focus on followers in his military activities. His plantations
were primarily operated by tenants and slaves, and would be worthy of
study, but Washington spent the major portion of his time from age 18 to
43 in military-related endeavors. It is difficult to comprehend the
magnitude of his challenges in getting followers to follow. He commented
at one point in his early experiences that in the 1750s, with the Virginia ;
Regiment, "he doubted that more than ten of his 150 men would follow if ,
orders came to march. "^^ !

In studying his followers, we shall also focus on the soldiers and leave the 1
complexities of the officer corps for another effort. Several key factors j
appear to characterize the American soldiers of 1750 to 1783. |

(1) They were typically English-speaking with little education and very
few economic resources.-^ i

(2) They were unfamiliar with, nor interested in, military discipline
which was a constant problem to Washington. Physical discipline was a
major motivational tool.^"

(3) In constrast to their European counterparts, they were quite familiar
with weapons and required little or no training in basic skills.^'

(4) They were pressured to serve in some form at the state
or continental level. ^-

(5) Patriotism was not as much a motivating factor as were grievances
against England. Infringement on freedom was an issue in early years of
the war, while mistreatment of people was a factor later. '^

(6) Bounties were used as economic motivation. Soldiers were recruited
by paying from a $20 bounty up to 100 acres of land.-*-*

It would be fair to describe the followers as un,skilled; poorly trained;
mildly interested in the outcome of the conflict; concerned for their own
lives; worried about their crops and homes; impressed with some of the
bounties offered; poorly fed, clothed and armed. This brief discussion
regarding Washington's followers emphasizes one point complexity. It
would be untenable to suggest that the Continental Army would have
survived without leadership of a relatively high order.

Group Characteristics

Analysis of the group characteristics facing Washington, the leader, is
primarily a deductive process since the literature seldom focuses on this
perspective in a macro-sense. Even with comments in the literature about
various status groups in the colonies, the status differences were much less
apparent than in Europe." This may be due in part to the sparse
population of the colonies. Very few cities exceeded ten thousand in
population. English law and language were common. Dissatisfaction with
treatment by England, for various reasons, was common. The Puritan
ethic of community had an impact in the colonies.

These facts suggest positive and negative group characteristics. First,
there is an element of homogenity which encourages cohesion. This
resulted from common laws, language and grievances. Second, the
relatively small size of the groups encouraged cohesion. Third, the lack of a
fixed status system provided an opportunity for military status systems
based on merit rather than birth. Fourth, sense of community provided a
basis for cohesion, particularly in militia units representing specific areas.
Fifth, a common enemy, which individuals held in varying degrees of
animosity, provided a major reason for cohesion. England's behavior
helped enhance this cohesive variable. ^^ The evidence, although slim,
suggests that group characteristics may have been vitally important in
Washington's success.

Other Factors

Our analysis has stayed fairly close to the model suggested in the
beginning of the paper. However, in carrying out the research, several
factors did not completely fit the model and deserve specific attention.

George Washington gained a significant level of experience preparing
for his role in the Revolution. Experience is of limited value if it does not
affect behavior. Freeman suggests that Washington learned the "ABC's of
Leadership. "^^ He cites ten principle lessons learned in Washington's
experiences with the Virginia Regiment and continuing deficiencies that
would haunt him later. ^* Evidence reinforces the contention that
Washington learned from his experiences and seldom repeated mistakes.

Another factor which often appears in discussions of successful leaders
is the theory that external factors explain failure or success of particular

"Palmer, op. cit.. pp. 29-30.
'"Ihiil.. pp. 34-50.
'Freeman, op. cit., p. 369.
'"//j/c/., p. 368-37.

35

individuals.^'^ Some suggest that lack of competent leaders and adequate!
resources from England resulted in Washington's success. Sufficient!
evidence is lacking to present a convincing argument for this position.

Summary i

This research suggests seven characteristics which contributed most toj
George Washington's success. It is not practical to rank order these
characteristics, although there may be intuitive feelings for one over!
another. I

(1) Tenacity George Washington exhibited a strong, positive tenacity i
that shows up continuously throughout his career. j

(2) Power The evidence is almost undeniable that he sought positions
of power.

(3) Personality He appeared to be able to establish trusting!
relationships with followers and superiors, while also remaining socially
distant from them.

(4) Experience Washington was one of few who had experience and I
learned from it.

(5) Status He gained status among his peers which evolved into a
charisma, eventually affecting followers in all the colonies and in other
nations.

(6) Practical Intelligence George Washington knew his strengths and
limitations and those of his forces, and made decisions accordingly.

(7) Unity of Purpose His followers felt, at least, some unity of purpose
which helped create a basis for cohesion in groups.

It would be inappropriate to suggest this is a definitive analysis of
George Washington, the leader. As suggested in the beginning of this
paper, it is an initial effort. However, it is an effort which we who study
leadership should expand and continue until we develop a reasonably
rigorous set of tools to analyze successful leaders. The obvious difficulty in
this kind of research is the reliance on the opinions of others in arriving at
findings and conclusions. Again, this should not deter us; rather, it should
encourage us to sharpen our analysis.

"Dorfman, Peter W. and Howell. Jon P. "Substitutes tor leadership: Test ol a Construct.
Academy of Management Journal. Vol. 24, No. 4. ([)ec. 1981), pp. 714-728.

36

ABSTRACTS OF MASTER'S THESES AND
SPECIALIST IN EDUCATION PROJECTS

A STUDY CONCERNING THE EFFECTS OF SAME AGE PEER
TUTORING IN SEVENTH GRADE SOCIAL STUDIES

Jimmy L. Agan (EdS, Middle Grades Education. December, 1982)

This study was designed to compare two methods of instruction, peer
tutoring versus no peer tutoring. This study attempted to determine if there
would be a statistically significant difference between the mean gain score
in subject matter knowledge between two heterogeneous seventh grade
social studies classes. The experimental group used same-age peer tutors
while the control group did not use peer tutors. The null hypothesis was
tested.

A teacher-made diagnostic test was used in the study as both the pretest
and the posttest. The pretest was given to both groups during the first week
of the 1981-1982 academic school year. In addition to the Slosson Oral
Reading Test was administered to each subject in both the experimental
and the control groups. The experimental process lasted for the entire
I98I-I982 academic year. During the last week of the academic year the
posttest was given. At the end of the experiment, mean scores for the
pretest and the posttest were computed for both groups.

An analysis of covariance procedure was used to test for difference in
mean gain scores between the experimental and control groups in subject
matter knowledge. The null hypothesis was accepted.

It was concluded in this study that the use of same-age peer tutoring made
no significant difference in the gain of knowledge of subject matter as
measured by test scores.

ULTRASTRUCTURAL DEMONSTRATION OF CARBONIC

ANHYDRASE IN THE CHLOROPLAST OF CHLORELLA

VULGARIS: NEW EVIDENCE FOR PHYSIOLOGICAL ROLE

Donald George Aiken (MS, Biology, March, 1983)

Cytochemical procedures were used to determine the precise
intrachloroplastic location of carbonic anhydrase (CA) in Chlorella
vulgaris. Enzyme activity was localized by a cobalt capture reaction,
visualized either by amplification of cobaltous ferricyanise with 3,3'-
diamino-sulfide. Complete inhibition of staining was achieved in control
reactions run either in the presence of 4M acetazolamide or with heat-

37

treated cells. Inclusion of 3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)- 1,1 -dimethyl urea
(DCMU) in the ferricyanide solutions did not prevent staining. The
reaction localized CA activity within the thylakoid space, contary to the
stromal a-ssociation inferred from biochemical studies of this enzyme in C- ;
3 plants. Considering the suggested role for the enzyme of concentrating
molecular carbon dioxide at the site of ribulose-1, 5-bisphosphate '
carboxylase (RuBP Case) and the suspecyed close association of CA with
RuBO Case, this direct localization suggests that at least the first reaction
of the Calvin cycle takes place within the thylakoid space of the
chloroplast in Chlorella vulgaris.

A COMPARISON OF GIRLS' AND BOYS' CAREER AWARENESS

AS DETERMINED BY THE

GEORGIA CRITERION-REFERENCED TEST

Ronald D. Bailey (EdS, Middle Grades Education, August, 1982)

The purpose of this study was to determine whether there were any
significant differenced between males and females in relationship to their
scores on the Career Development area of the Georgia Criterion-
Referenced Test.

Test scores on the Career Development area of the Georgia Criterion-
Referenced Test of 735 eighth grade students attending the four middle
schools of Douglas County, Georgia, were gathered. Chi-squares were
computed for the scores of each of the twenty objectives of the test to
determine whether there were any differences between males and females.
The analysis of variance was computed to determine whether there were
sex differences in each of the four categories of the test: Self-
understanding, Education, Work and Occupation and Decision-making.

On the following four objections of the test, the chi-square analysis
revealed that there were significant differences:

Objective 2: Recognizes how the ability to get along with people
affects getting, keeping, and advancing on a job.

Objective 7: Understands that one is responsible for one's own actions
and decisions.

Objective 19: Recognizes how a person's friends can influence one's
personal decisions.

Objective 20: Can identify important decisions and choices people
must face when they plan their careers.

In all four instances, girls had a higher knowledge on the objective than did
boys.

38

On two of the categories Self-understanding and Decision-making
significant differences were found. These differences indicated that girls
had a greater knowledge of these two categories than did boys.

THE EFFECTS OF VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL APPROVAL

UPON THE PERFORMANCE OF FIVE-YEAR OLD BOYS AND

GIRLS ON THE PEABODY PICTURE VOCABULARY TEST

Judy Guy Baker (EdS, Guidance and Counseling, August, 1982)

This study was an attempt to determine the effects of two modes of test
administration upon the performance of five-year old boys and girls on the
Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test. The sixteen subjects used in this study
were grouped into two equivalent samples with regard to age and sex.
These groups were referred to as Group I and Group II. Each group was
assigned to an examiner. Within each group two subgroups were identified
in pairs by age and sex as Group A (Approval group) and Groub N
(Neutral group). This enabled both examiners to administer the same
treatments. Each examiner administered the test to both of her groups.
The A Groups were given verbal and non-verbal approval. The N groups
were given only neutral treatment.

The treatments were given on the same day but the subgroups were
alternated so that neither treatment would be limited to a certain time of
day.

The raw data from the test administration was analyzed by the West
Georgia Computer Center using a two-way analysis of variance. The level
of significance was set at .05.

The results showed a significant difference at the .032 level between the
mean numbers of correct responses of a group of five-year old boys and
girls who received approval and a group that received neutral treatment on
the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test. There was no significant difference
between the mean number of correct responses of a group of five-year old
boys and girls who were tested by Examiner I and those who were tested by
Examiner 11 on the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test. No significant
difference was found between the mean number of completed items of a
group of five-year old boys and girls who receive approval and a group that
received neutral treatment on the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test. There
was also no significant difference found between the mean number of
completed items of a group of five-year old boys and girls who were tested
by Examiner 1 and those who were tested by Examiner II on the Peabody
Picture Vocabulary Test. The difference between the mean IQ scores of a
group of five-year old boys and girls who received approval and those who
received neutral treatment on the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test was

39

significant at the .004 level of significance. There was no significant
difference found between the mean IQ scores of a group of five-year old
boys and girls who were tested by Examiner I and those who were tested by
Examiner II on the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test.

It is recommended that similar studies with larger samples and different
ages be conducted to reinforce or refute the findings of this study. It is
further recommended that similar studies using children from different
child-rearing patterns and different social-cultural milieus be conducted.

THE EFFECTS OF THE ONE PARENT HOME AND THE

OCCUPATION OF THE HEAD OF HOUSEHOLD ON

ON READING ACHIEVEMENT

Evelyn Joyce Boat right (EdS, Early Childhood Education, June, 1982)

This study was designed to determine what, if any, effects home status,
sex, and the occupation of the head of household have on reading
achievement.

Seven schools were randomly sampled from a total of forty-three
elementary schools in a large metropolitan county. Data were collected on
all third grade students in these seven schools.

A Multifactor Analysis of Variance was the statistical technique used.
The .05 level of significance was used. Five null hypotheses were tested.
Determination was made that home status, the interaction of home status
and sex, and the interaction of home status and occupation of the head of
household did not make a significant difference in the discrepancy between
reading achievement and reading expectancy at the .05 level of
significance. The results also showed that sex and occupation of the head
of household both are significant effects on the discrepancy between
reading achievement and reading expectancy at the .05 level of
significance.

A CORRELATION STUDY OF NATIONAL TEACHER

EXAMINATION SCORES: SCORES IN THE COMMON AREA OF

EDUCATION VS. SCORES IN THE SPECIALIZATION AREA OF

EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

Susanne Corley (EdS, Early Childhood Education, August, 1982)

The purpose of this study was to determine the correlation between the
scores of the undergraduates at West Georgia College on the National
Teacher Examination in two areas: the common area of education and the
specialization area of Early Childhood Education.

40

The two hypotheses which were tested were:

1. A significant and high correlation beyond .75 (.85) exists between the
National Teacher Examination common scores and the Early
Childhood Educaton area scores of West Georgia College under-
graduates from November, 1973 through November, 1980.

2. There will be a positive increase in the scores of the undergraduates
from November, 1973 through November, 1980.

Results of this study showed there was a high and significant correlation
between the undergraduates' scores on the two instruments indicating
acceptance of the first hypothesis.

Further results of this study showed there was not a positive increase in
the scores of the undergraduates on the two instruments from November,
1973 through November, 1980. Therefore the second hypotheses is
rejected.

JOB-RELATED STRESS FACTORS AS PERCEIVED BY

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHERS IN

WHITFIELD COUNTY, GEORGIA

Lelia Christie Ewton (EdS, Early Childhood Education, August, 1982)

This study was designed to isolate the job-related stress factors that
elementary teachers in Whitfield County, Georgia, perceive as most
detrimental to their professional and personal welfare. All regular
classroom teachers in kindergarten through fifth grade were asked to fill
out the Elementary School Teachers Stress Questionnaire, which was
developed for this project.

Seventy job-related stressors were assigned a value of one to five by each
respondent, with one indicating the lowest amount of stress the factor has
caused the teacher and five indicating the highest amount. A mean for each
item was calculated after the questionnaires were tallied. Each item
receiving a value of 3.00 or over was considered a high-stress factor.

Each high-stress factor was further analyzed by tables showing the
means in relation to professional factors such as the grade level taught,
years of teaching experience, levels of certification, and pupil-teacher
ratios. In addition, tables were shown which compared the means in
relation to personal factors such as the teacher's age, sex, marital status,
and whether or not he or she had dependent children at home.

The Pearson Correlation Coefficient test was employed on the data,
with the level at which each hypothesis was accepted or rejected being the
.05 level of significance or below.

41

No significant differences were found in the means of the high-stress
factors when they were compared by grade level, years of teaching
experience, levels of certification, pupil-teacher ration, marital status, and
whether or not the teacher has dependent children at home.

Significant differences were found in the means when the ratings of male
and female teachers were compared. However, these differences were
regarded as suspect because the small number of male respondents may
have skewed the data.

Significant differences were found in the ratings of the high-stress I
factors by teachers of different ages. Teachers aged 2! to 30 perceived less
stress from job-related factors on the questionaire than any age group.
Teachers in the 31 to 40 age bracket perceived the most stress from the
factors. Teachers aged 41 to 50 perceived less stress that those over 51.

SEX DIFFERENCES IN PERFORMANCE OF HIGH SCHOOL

SOPHOMORES ON THREE TYPES OF TEST QUESTIONS IN A

COLLEGE PREPARATORY BIOLOGY COURSE

Paul E. Greene (EdS, Secondary Education, March, 1983)

The question addressed in this study was whether male students
performed differently from female students on recognition questions,
association questions, and performance questions contained in subject
matter tests in a college preparatory highs school biology course. The
subjects of the study were 87 sophomores at Lithia Springs Comprehensive
High School in Douglas County, Georgia. The 39 male and 48 female
subjects were randomly assigned by computer scheduling into three
Cellular Biology 4221 classes taught during the fall quarter of the 1982-83
school year. These three classes were taught by the same male teacher, used
the same textbooks, and received comparable laboratory activities.

Each of the six content tests administered to the subjects during the time
of the study contained, in addition to other questions, 5 recognition
questions, 5 association questions, and 5 performance questions (Collette,
1973). Student performance was measured by determining the number of
correct responses on these three types of questions for each male and
female subject. The Douglas County Cellular Biology 4221 pre-test was
administered to each subject prior to the beginning of formal instruction.
The pre-test scores were used to adjust the scores on the content tests for
pre-knowledge of subject matter.

The female subjects outperformed the male subjects on all three types of
test questions with levels of significance of .007 on recognition questions,
.026 on association questions, and .001 on performance questions. Both

42

groups performed best on the test on Cell Reproduction and worst on the
test on Modern Genetics. The levels of significance in each instance
exceeded the .05 level established for the rejecting of three null hypotheses:

1 . There is no significant difference in the level of performance of male and
female students on recognition questions.

2. There is no significant difference in level of performance of male and
female students on association questions.

3. There is no significant difference in the level of performance of male and
female students on performance questions.

All three hypotheses were, therefore, rejected.

A CURRICULUM GUIDE FOR TEACHING BLACK HISTORY
TO KINDERGARTEN AND FIRST GRADE STUDENTS

Diana Hixon (EdS, Early Childhood Education. August, 1982)

This historical research was designed in two parts. One part is an indepth
research paper on black historical information on the subject ofr teacher's
utilization. The other part refers to a curriculum approach including
student activities under the program of studies. The research segment was
constructed in such a manner that elementary teachers could teach Black
History to their students with confidence and have a resource guide
convenient for them to retrieve information as they find it necessary.

WRITING ON READING SELECTIONS VS. WRITING ON

EXTEMPORANEOUS TOPICS: A STUDY OF PARAGRAPH

WRITING OF SIXTH GRADERS

Jerry Wayne Mollis (EdS, Middle Grades Education, June, 1982)

The purpose of this study was to determine if 40 students in two sixth
grade language arts classes at Hiram Elementary School wrote more
developed paragraphs when writing was based on standard materials read,
studied, and discussed in class rather than when writing was based on
extemporaneous topics assigned by the teacher without previous study or
discussion.

The students involved in this study wrote three paragraphs based on
reading selections read, studied, and discussed in class before the actual
writing. They also wrote three paragraphs based on extemporaneous
topics assigned by the teacher without any previous discussion before the
actual writing.

The paragraphs were scored by the teacher and two independent judges,
both teachers of language arts or English. Five dependent variables

43

(organization, grammar, spelling, capitalization, and punctuation)
contributed to the total score which served as the sixth dependent variable.
Then, six t-tests were computed on the dependent variables and total
scores for the guided paragraphs and the dependent variables and total
scores for the extemporaneous paragraphs. The purpose of the t-tests was
to determine whether there were or were not significant differences
between the sub-scores (awarded for each dependent variable) and total
scores for each of the two types of paragraphs.

The results showed that there are significant differences between each
dependent variable and the total scores for the guided paragraphs and each
dependent variable and the total scores for the extemporaneous
paragraphs. According to the results of this study, students in this study
wrote more developed paragraphs when they wrote on standard material
read, studied, and discussed in class before the actual writing.

Based on the .05 level of significance, each hypothesis tested in this study
was rejected. The hypotheses for the organization and grammar subscores
and the total scores were significantly higher on the guided paragraphs
than they were on the extemporaneous paragraphs. On the other hand, the
hypotheses for spelling, capitalization, and punctuation subscores were
significantly higher on the extemporaneous paragraphs than they were on
the guided paragraphs. Recommendations suggest the need for further
studies in this area.

AN EXAMINATION OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

PERSONALITY TRAITS AND THE ELECTION OF

HIGH SCHOOL CHEMISTRY

Patricia Cole Jennings, (EdS, Secondary Education, December, 1982)

The purpose of this study was to determine whether differences exist in
personality traits as measured by the Sixteen Personality Factor
Questionnaire between ( 1 ) girls who elect high school chemistry and those
girls of a similar academic background who do not elect high school
chemistry and (2) girls who elect high school chemistry and boys who elect
high school chemistry. The project was conducted at Carrollton High
School, Carrollton, Georgia, during the fall of 1982. College bound
eleventh grade students who elected chemistry as a school subject
comprised the experimental group and a randomly sampled group of
college bound eleventh grade girls who did not elect chemistry were used as
the control group.

The Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire and a biographical
questionnaire were administered to each student either in the chemistry
classroom in large groups or during free school time in small groups.

44

Percentages were calculated for the biographical information response
items and means for each of the personality factors were computed. This
information was inspected for apparent differences. The data were
subjected to one-way analysis of variance at the West Georgia College
Computer Center.

The final analysis supported two conclusions. The eleventh grade
academic girls who elected high school chemistry were more self-assured
that the eleventh grade academic girls who did not elect chemistry. The
eleventh grade academic boys who elected chemistry were more tough-
minded and assertive than the eleventh grade academic girls who elected
chemistry. The data indicated that students whose fathers had college or
advanced degrees were more outgoing, more emotionally stable, more
bold, and more relaxed than students whose fathers' education did not
extend beyond high school. Students whose mothers had college or
advanced degrees were more outgoing and more bold than students whose
mothers' education did not extend beyond high school. Students who
declared an expected college major of science were found to be more
assertive than the group who declared other areas as expected college
majors.

READING READINESS AS A FACTOR IN READING

ACHIEVEMENT OF FIRST GRADE STUDENTS AT SOPE CREEK

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL IN MARIETTA, GOERGIA IN THE

1981-1982 SCHOOL YEAR

Beity Park Lanford (EdS, Early Childhood Education, August, 1982)

The purpose of this study was to compare the scores made on the
Metropolitan Reading Readiness Test given to students at the beginning of
the 1981-1982 school year to the scores made on the Cobb County
Criterion Reference Test (Language Arts, Level Six) given to students at
the end of the 198 1-1982 school year. Students enrolled in the first grade
classes at the Sope Creek Elementary School in Marietta, Georgia during
the 1981-1982 school term were used in the study.

The hypothesis stated that there would be no significant correlation
between the scores made on the reading portion of the Metropolitan
Reading Readiness Test and the scores made on the Cobb County
Critertion Reference Test (Language Arts, Level Six) at the .05 level.
Results showed a positive correlation between the two tests at the .001
level.

A recommendation was made that more comparative studies between
Reading Readiness Tests and Reading Achievement Tests be conducted. It

45

was further recommended that more research be conducted to determine
what factors determine a child's reading achievement.

A COMPARISON STUDY OF MAP AND GLOBE SKfLLS AS
LEARNED FROM A CONCENTRATED UNIT (TEN
CONSECUTIVE DAYS/ONE HOUR PER DAY) OF MAP SKILLS
COMPARED WITH A GROUP USING AN INTERMITTENT UNITf
(TWO DAYS PER WEEK/ONE HOUR PER DAY/FIVE WEEKS)

OF MAP SKILLS

Bonnie Ann Lempke (EdS, Secondary Education, June, 1982)

This research study was designed to report and compare the findings of a
research study which was to investigate scientifically what differences, if
any, would be found between an experimental group who were taught a
concentrated ten hour map and globe skills unit, and a comparison group
who were taught the same unit of map and globe skills in an intermittent
basis.

Subjects used in the study were students oftwo sixth grade classes at Red
Bud Junior High School with an IQ range of 61 to 118. The experimental
group contained thirty-two students, while the comparison group
contained twenty-three students. The subjects involved in the study were
from two separate Social Studies classes at the same school which is
located in a rural area. The subjects of both the experimental and
comparison groups were similar in age, sex, and economic status.

The Iowa Tests of Basic Skills, Forms 5 and 6, were used in the study as
the pretest, posttest, and delayed posttest. A total test score of forty was
possible with each correct response recieving one point. The same form of
the test was used for the pretest and delayed posttest, while a different form
was used for the posttest.

The pretest ITBS, Form 60 over map and globe skills was given to all
students involved in this study on March 19, 1982. A posttest (ITBS. Form
5) was given to the experimental group on april 5, 1982 when they had
completed the concentrated unit of map and globe skills. The comparison
group was given the posttest (ITBS, Form 5) on April 30, 1982 when they
had completed the intermittent unit of map and globe skills. Both groups
were given the delayed posttest (ITBS, Form 6) on May 19. 1982.

Two null hypothesis were tested by Analysis of Convariance
(ANOCOVA). The two null hypotheses were not rejected at the .05 level of
significance. Therefore, the amount of time spent on both the concentrated
unit and the intermittent unit in this study was not a factor.

46

Two conclusions were reached as a result of this study; (1) Immediate
recall of map and globe skills did not appear to be affected by the method
of instruction; and (2) Delayed recall of map and globe skills did not
appear to be affected by the method of instruction.

THE PERCEPTIONS OF ADMINISTRATORS AND TEACHERS

REGARDING THE IN-SCHOOL SUSPENSION PROGRAM

IN THE COBB COUNTY SCHOOLS

Thomas N. Mathis, Jr. (EdS, Educational Administration, June, 1982)

The purpose of this study was to determine administrators'and teachers'
perceptions of the in-school suspension program used in the Cobb County
Schools. A questionnaire, developed by the researcher, was sent to high
school administrators and teachers in Cobb county. Specific data was
analyzed by percentage comparisons using the responses of the
administrators compared to the responses of the teachers. The study
showed that there was a difference in the perceptions of administrators
compared to teachers regarding in-school suspension.

A CURRICULUM GUIDE FOR FOUR-YEAR-OLD CHILDREN

ENROLLED IN THE FIRST BAPTIST CHURCH KINDERGARTEN

NEWNAN, GEORGIA

Jan Gadd Mitchell (EdS. Early Childhood Education, August, 1982)

The purpose of this study was to develop a total curriculum for four-year-
old children enrolled in the First Baptist Church Kindergarten in Newnan,
Georgia. The program was designed to meet the child's physical, social,
and intellectual needs.

A review of literature on child development and curriculum planning
and implementation was conducted. An investigation into the needs of
First Baptist Church Kindergarten was carried out with interviews being
conducted with teachers, kindergarten administrators, and parents of
children enrolled.

A curriculum guide entitled A Big Book on Teaching Little People was
initiated. It included an introduction to the teacher, developmental
characteristics of the four-year-old child, a daily schedule, unit plans
integrated with the Bridge-To- Reading program by Polly Greenberg, and
an end-of-t he-year evaluation checklist.

At the end of the year, teachers, kindergarten administrators, and
parents will evaluate the program and if deemed worthwhile, a similar
program will be instituted for three-year-old children.

47

A COMPARISON OF ATTITUDES OF VOCATIONAL

EDUCATORS WITH RELATED VOCATIONAL INSTRUCTION

AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATORS WITHOUT RELATED

VOCATIONAL INSTRUCTION TOWARD SPECIAL NEEDS

STUDENTS IN SELECTED AREAS OF GEORGIA

Berti Lu Reimers Nations (EdS, Special Education, August, J 982)

This study compared the attitudes of vocational educators with Related
Vocational Instruction Program support (RVIP) and vocational
educators without Related Vocational Instruction Program support
toward special needs students in the Griffin and West Georgia Cooperativei
Educational Service Agency (CESA) Areas in Georgia. Data was collected
over a four month period. One hundred forty-eight regular vocational
teachers in twenty-two high schools were given the "Mainstreaming
Attitude Scale" (MAS). One hundred and twelve vocational teachers
responded for a return rate of seventy-five and six-tenths percent. Seventy-
seven of these vocational teachers had RVIP support and thirty-five did
not. A total score for each respondent was obtained from the "MAS. "At-
test for independent variables was used to determine that the vocational
teachers with RVIP support had a significantly higher mean score (P=
.001) than the vocational teachers without RVIP support. The stud>
concluded that there was a significant difference in the attitudes toward
special needs students held by vocational educators that receive RVIP
support as compared to the attitudes of vocational educators that do not
receive RVIP support.

A COMPARATIVE STUDY IN TWO METHODS OF TEACHING
MATHEMATICS PROBLEM SOLVING TO SIXTH GRADE

STUDENTS

Carolyn B. Nichols (EdS, Middle Grades Education, August, 1982)

The purpose of this study was to determine if mathematics problem-
solving achievement with sixth-grade students using a four-step method
showed a significant difference when compared to the mathematics
problem-solving achievement of sixth-grade students using a traditional
textbook approach. The experimental group and the control group were
each composed of 16 sixth-grade students at Western Elementary School
in Coweta County, Georgia. The randomly selected groups were assumed
to be equivalent in regard to race, sex, age, socio-economic background,
and initial mathematics achievement.

The study consisted of an experiment for eight actual weeks wherein the
experimental group was taught mathematics problem solving through the
four-step method outlined as follows: ( 1 ) Getting to know the problem, (2)

48

Choosing a plan of attack, (3) Carrying out the plan, and (4) Examining
the solution. The control group was taught mathematics problem solving
through the use of a traditional textbook approach. Both groups were
taught by the researcher during the 1981-82 school year.

Two standarized mathematics achievement tests were used in the
pretest/ posttest arrangement. The analysis of variance of the gains was
used to test the null hypotheses using the .05 level of significance. The
findings indicated that the four-step method of teaching mathematics
problem solving did not result in a significant difference when compared to
a traditional textbook approach. However, there was a significant
difference at the .05 level favoring the experimental group in the area of
getting to know the problem. In addition, the mean gains on all of the
pretest/ posttest comparisons were higher for the experimental group,
suggesting that the four-step method may have a positive effect on
mathematics problem-solving achievement even though the data in this
study did not indicate statistical significance.

Based on the findings, observations, and conclusions of this study, the
researcher recommends that further studies be made in this area to
determine if these same findings hold true under different circumstances.

A DEVELOPMENTAL PROGRAM IN CREATIVE WRITING
FOR USE BY STUDENTS OF EASTSIDE SCHOOL (K-4)

Pauline Hodges Peek (EdS, Early Childhood Education, August, 1982)

This study was concerned with the development of a creative writing
model for students of Eastside School in Calhoun, Georgia. To accomplish
this end, recent related literature was reviewed to provide a background of
understanding ans to establish a rationale for the development of the
model. The values attained through creative expression were noted in the
research of the related literature.

The developed model provided guidelines and suggested activities for
use in each of the grades beginning with kindergarten and progressing
through grade four. The model recognized the value of creative oral and
written expression, applied in many areas of learning, as a means of growth
in self-concept and the skills of writing.

49

A STUDY OF TEACHER STRESS AND BURNOUT REPORTED BY

KINDERGARTEN THROUGH EIGHTH GRADE PERSONNEL

FROM THE COWETA COUNTY SCHOOL DISTRICT TEACHINC

IN THE CITY OF NEWNAN

Mary Walton Sandlin (EdS, Educational Administration, August, 1982^

This study was an attempt to determine if any differences existed in tht
responses of stress factors among teachers in relation to sex, age, years ol
experience, and grade level taught.

The subjects for this study were 154 teachers employed by the Coweta
County Board of Education. These subjects were from eight public schools
in Newnan, Georgia, grades K-8. There were 21 males and 133 female
teachers serving the 3,345 students. Eighty-five teachers returned the
questionnaire, representing 55 percent of those surveyed. This study
excluded the rural schools in the county.

A questionnaire was sent to each regular classroom teacher in the eight
public schools, grades K-8, in the City of Newnan via the school system's
courier. A letter of explanation was included with each questionnaire. The
respondents were instructed to complete the questionnaire within two
weeks. A self-addressed envelope was included to ensure swift return.

The respondents were to complete the questionnaire by ranking selected
events in teaching by the categories (1) Non-Stressful, (2) Minimally
Stressful, (3) Moderately Stressful, and (4) Highly Stressful. These events
were categorized as Environmental Stressors, Interpersonal Stressors, and
Intrapersonal Stressors. The nine stress-relating questions on the
questionnaire were used to assess the percentage of teachers who fall into
the categories of High Stress, Moderate Stress, and Low Stress.

An analysis of variance was employed on the data to determine if
significant differences existed among teachers' responses in relation to age,
sex, grade levels, and years of experience. The results did not reveal a
significant difference in the responses of stress factors among teachers in
relation to these variables. Scores from the nine stress-related questions
revealed the following: low stress category - 31%; moderate stress - 50%;
high stress category - 19%. However, respondents in this study ranked the
following events as highly stressful:

1 . overcrowded classrooms 56.6%

2. too much paper work 53.0%

3. apathetic and disinterested students 41.2%

4. inadequate salary 38.8%

50

The events measured as low stressors were as follows:

1. physical abuse 64.7%

2. poor self-concept 57.6%

3. locked into same grade 54.1%

4. feelings of isolation 51.7%

A STUDY TO DETERMINE THE ATTITUDES OF

CARROLL COUNTY ELEMENTARY EDUCATORS

CONCERNING THE USE OF VOLUNTEERS IN THEIR SCHOOLS

Paula Wilson Steed (EdS, Early Childhood Education, June. 1982)

Schools are often criticized for not meeting the individual needs of
students. With the removal of funds in education for teacher aids and other
special teachers, classroom teachers find it difficult to meet the needs of
students due to a lack of manpower. The purpose of this study was to
determine if the elementary educators in Carroll County favor using
volunteers and would support an organized volunteer program.

A questionnaire was developed to determine the attitudes of the
elementary educators in Carroll County concerning the use of volunteers
in their schools. Three hundred and thirteen survey forms were distributed;
two hundred nineteen survey forms were completed and returned. The
results showed that educators favor using volunteers and would support an
organized volunteer program for their school.

A recommendation was made that the Carroll County Board of
Education be made aware of the value of using volunteers and of the
attitudes of the elementary educators in Carroll County, in hopes that
some general policies would be developed for each school's use. It was
further recommended that administrators and teachers form a committee
in each school to organize such a program.

A COMPARISON OF IMAGE CLARITY AND
IQ SCORES DURING ADOLESCENCE

Sherry S. Warren (EdS, Guidance and Counseling, August. 1982)

This study was designed to determine what, if any, relationship exists
between a person's image clarity and his IQ, sex, or race. The null
hypotheses stated that there would be no significant difference in image
clarity and each of the three factors: IQ, sex, and race.

The subjects of this study were students in grades eight through 10
enrolled in the Coweta County Summer School Program in the Summer of
1982. Sixty students participated in the study: 29 were girls, and 31 were
boys; 25 were black, and 35 were white; 16 were sixteen-years-old, 13 were

51

1

fifteen-years-old, 15 were fourteen-years-old, and 16 were thirteen-years
old.

The subjects were given the Otis-Lennon Mental Ability Test t(
determine their IQ scores. The IQ scores of the 60 subjects ranged from 5:
to 138. Eighteen students scored in the low (below 90) group, 28 student .i e
scored in the average (90-1 10) group, and 14 scored in the high (above 110
group.

To determine the clarity of each subject's imagery, they were given ar
experimental test similar to Welsh's Differential Imagery Questionnaire
The experimental test consisted of slides of five objects made using varying
degrees of focus so that their clarity would correspond to the following
scale: (a) not recognizable, (b) barely recognizable, (c) recognizable, and
(d) clear and vivid. During the experimental test, subjects were shown an
object and asked to form a "mental picture" of that object. They were then
to select the slide from the series that was most like their "mental picture'
in clarity and to circle the letter of that slide on their answer sheet.

The data were then recorded on data processing coding forms and
submitted to the computer center at West Georgia College to compute the
Analysis of Variance. The level of significance at which the null hypotheses
would be rejected was established at .05.

None of the three factors tested attained the .05 level of significance. For
this samp's, the perception of visual mental images is not directly related to
the factors of IQ, sex, or race. Although none of the factors attained the
established level of significance, the sex factor came close at .06.

Based on the findings, observations, and conclusions of this study, the
researcher submits the following recommendations:

1 . This study should be replicated using a spacial test for imagery in place
of the experimental test to see if there is a significant difference between
males and females.

2. The experimental test used in this study should be correlated with
known tests of visual imagery to assure that it does measure the clarity
of one's images.

3. This study should be replicated using a younger sample to determine
whether clarity of imagers is related to age.

AN EVALUATION OF THE RAND MCNALLV SCIENCE
CURRICULUM IMPROVEMENT STUDY SCIENCE PROGRAM

Cheryl Jones Winston (EdS, Middle Grades Education, August 1982)

The purpose of this study was to determine if the Rand McNally Science
Curriculum Improvement Study (SCI IS) Science Program has a

52

significant effect on student achievement in science when compared with a

basic textbook-oriented science program. Specifically, the study sought to

'Idetermine differences between experimental and comparison groups on

5 science achievement test scores after basic or alternative curriculum

I jexperiences. The purpose was the basis for the three null hypotheses. The

experimental groups and the comparison groups were each composed of

50 sixth-grade students who attended Midway Elementary and Pepperell

Middle School in Floyd County, Geogia. With the presence of random

sampling, matched I.Q. and age, it was assumed that the four groups were

equivalent.

The study consisted of an evaluation that spanned four years (1978-
198 1), wherein the experimental groups were taught science by use of the
I Rand McNally SCIIS program. The comparison groups were taught
science by use of the basic textbook approach.

A science achievement test, which was a subtest of the Comprehensive
Tests of Basic Skills, was given at the end of each year (1978-1981). The
Analysis of Variance was used to test the hypotheses. The level at which the
hypotheses were rejected was .05 level of probability.

In this evaluative study the findings indicated that the Rand McNally
Science Curriculum Improvement Study (SCIIS) Science Program
resulted in significant differences in science achievement when compared
tothe basic textbook approach. The conclusion can be reached that the
Rand McNally SCIIS science approach for teaching science has proven to
be significantly superior to the basic textbook approach in increased
science achievement as tested by the Comprehensive Tests of Basic Skills.

Based upon the findings, observations, and conclusions of this study, the
researcher submits the following recommendations:

1. This study should be replicated in this present design using samples for
the experimental and comparison groups, who have been in the
respecti\e curriculums for a period of six consecutive years.

2. 1 his study should be replicated using a larger sampling selection for the
experimental and comparison groups.

3. This study should be conducted again to test for correlation between
increased science achievement and other subject areas.

4. 7 his study should be conducted again using samples from other ends of
the intellegence scale to see if they would benefit from the Rand
McNally SCIIS science approach.

53

ANNUAL FACULTY BIBLIOGRAPHY

Aanstoos, Christopher M. I

Publications {

"A Phenomenological Study of Thinking." Duquesne Studies ii
Phenomenological Psychology: Volume IV hy Amedeo Giorgi, Anthon;
Barton, and Charles Maes, co-editors. Pittsburgh: Duquesne Universit;
Press, 1983.

"The Think Aloud Method in Descriptive Research." Journal o
Phenomenological Psychology. Volume 14, No. 2 (Fall, 1983), in press

A Phenomenological Study of Thinking as It Is Exemplified during Ches.
Playing (doctoral dissertation, Duquesne University, 1982). Ann Arbor
University Microfilms, 1983. (abstracted in: Dissertation Abstract:
International, Volume 43, No. 8, 1983)

"Review of Thought and Choice in Chess by Adrian de Grooi."" Journal oj
Phenomenological Psychology, Volume 12, No. 1 (Spring 1981), 131-139

Technical Reports

"On the Definition of Psychology: A Proposal for Revision of the
Statute." Testimony read at the Georgia State Board of Examiners ol
Psychologists. Public Hearing on the Definition of Psychology. State
Capitol, Atlanta, April 1, 1983.

(with Constance Fischer, Pam Olsen, and Barbara Hanusa). Evaluation oj
Psychological Services to Pittsburgh Non-public Schools. Funded
research technical report to the Pittsburgh-Mt. Oliver School District,
October, 1979.

54

^C9/ <ji^